Apodemuspeninsulae, Apodemusagrarius, Tscherskiatriton, and Clethrionomysrufocanus) and the seeds of seven plant species  to investigate the differentiation in niches and patterns of resource utilization of sympatric rodents. The results showed that all the rodents had consumed many seeds of Pi.koraiensis, Co.mandshurica, and Q.mongolica but differed significantly in how they selected the different seeds. The rate of utilization (iR) of Pi.koraiensis, Co.mandshurica, and Q.mongolica exhibited the highest values. The iE values indicated that the rodents tested exhibited differences in their priorities used to select the seeds from different plant species. All four species of rodents exhibited obvious preferences for certain seeds. Korean field mice preferentially consumed the seeds of Q.mongolica, Co.mandshurica, and Pi.koraiensis. Striped field mice favor the seeds of Co.mandshurica, Q.mongolica, P.koraiensis, and Nanking cherry. Greater long-tailed hamsters prefer to consume the seeds of Pi.koraiensis, Co.mandshurica, Q.mongolica, Pr.salicina, and Ce.tomentosa. Clethrionomysrufocanus likes to eat the seeds of Pi.koraiensis, Q.mongolica, Co.mandshurica, and Ce.tomentosa. The results supported our hypothesis that sympatric rodents overlap in food selection. However, each rodent species has a marked preference for food selection, and different rodent species differ in their food preferences. This reflects the role of distinct food niche differentiation in their coexistence.Rodents are well known as both seed predators and dispersers of various plant species in forest ecosystems, and they play an important role in the regeneration of vegetation. Thus, the research on seed selection and vegetation regeneration by sympatric rodents is an interesting topic. To understand the characteristics of preferences of rodents for different seeds, a semi-natural enclosure experiment was performed with four rodent species ( The coexistence of species and the maintenance of biodiversity are important topics of ecological study. Food is an essential resource for survival, so there are obvious effects of differences in food selection and feeding behavior among animal species on their coexistence. Furthermore, the food choices of animals directly affect their survival and reproduction. However, the factors that affect the selection of food by animals in forest ecosystems are very complicated, and the choices of different rodent species of the seeds from different plant species depend on many factors. The characteristics of the seeds of different plant species vary by size ; the conThe selective foraging of all animals is a key factor that affects their survival and reproduction. Animals in nature generally exhibit food preference or selective foraging , and no Large seeds produced by many plant species are a valuable food source for rodents, which often prefer certain seeds from various plant species within their habitats and are capable of accurately distinguishing the seeds with different characteristics . Their iOFT; Seed characteristics, including size and weight ; seed coThe time that seeds are handled is another important factor that influences animal behavior and decision making, and it significantly affects the foraging strategy of rodents . BecauseStudies of animal food choice are significant to understand the co-evolution of animal and plant systems, as well as niche differentiation among sympatric animals . Since rCurrently, the differential selection of seeds of a given plant species by sympatric rodent species has not been well researched. In this study, we used four sympatric rodent species and the seeds of seven plant species distributed in northern temperate forests to investigate the differences in seed choice related to the species under semi-natural enclosure conditions, as well as the effect of seed characteristics on the strategic differentiation in food choice by rodents to gain insight into the niche partitioning of sympatric rodents and its effect on the fate of the seeds of specific plants and vegetation renewal. We hypothesized that sympatric rodents feed on largely similar food items but differ significantly in their preferred choices.44°47'N, 129°07'E) located in Heilongjiang Province, northeast China. The research area is located north of the Changbai Mountain. The climate at the site is dominated by the northern temperate zonal continental monsoon climate, with four distinct seasons and a short frost-free period of approximately 90–115 days. The annual average air temperature is 4.3 °C, with a maximum of 34.4 °C and a minimum of -39 °C. The average annual precipitation is approximately 670 mm. The representative vegetation in the study area primarily includes secondary broad-leaf forest and coniferous broad-leaf forest. At the study site, four rodent species, Apodemuspeninsulae , Apodemusagrarius , Tscherskiatriton , and Clethrionomysrufocanus , rely on seeds as important food sources. Seven sympatric seeds, including Pinuskoraiensis , Corylusmandshurica , Quercusmongolica , Juglansmandshurica , Armeniacasibirica , Prunussalicina , and Cerasustomentosa (Thunberg) Masamune and S. Suzuki 1936), were used in the experiment. Fresh seeds were collected during the fruiting season and then dried naturally at field temperatures until use.This study was conducted from April to June in 2019 in the Zhang Guangcai Mountains in Mudanjiang  seeds (for food) and carrots  (for water) were placed as bait, and cotton rolls were provided as denning material. The cages were placed along two transects in the sample plot at 20 m spaces with one cage per 20 m × 5 m. On the second day after the cages were placed, the captures were examined, and pregnant females and juveniles were immediately released. Captured adult rodents were transferred to terraria (65 cm × 35 cm × 25 cm) covered with wire mesh and supplied with drinking water and a suitable amount of litter, and the terraria were placed in the natural environment.Live rodent samples were caught through cage trapping. In each trap (30 cm × 25 cm × 20 cm), fried pumpkin (A.peninsulae (n = 16), A.agrarius (n = 10), T.triton (n = 10), and Cl.rufocanus (n = 9), and a total of 135 seeds from seven plant species was used in the experiment.The captured rodents were allowed one day of acclimation to the new environment and the seeds. Plump seeds were randomly selected from each of seven plant species, and one seed from each species was placed on the feeding plate in a terrarium occupied by one rodent. The order in which the rodent took the seeds was monitored using a video camera. Each rodent was tested for more than three hours, during which all the seeds were consumed, or the rodent no longer selected the seeds. The seeds for experiments were replaced, and the experimental process was repeated. After the experiment had been repeated three times for each rodent, the terrarium was cleaned, and the experimental animal was replaced with another individual. Four sympatric rodent species, i.e., Four semi-natural enclosures (1 m × 1 m × 1 m) were constructed on relatively flat terrain in the study area. At one corner of each enclosure, a den was made that contained some cotton rolls to keep the rodent warm, and a small water container was set up and replenished regularly to allow the rodent to drink freely. A feeding plate was placed in the center of the enclosure, which was where the seeds were supplied for the experimental rodent.J.mandshurica seed and two seeds of the remaining plant species were supplied in tests that involved A.peninsulae, A.agrarius, and Cl.rufocanus, and those that involved T.triton. Three seeds from each plant species were supplied to eliminate the effect of consumption capacity and body size of the species of rodent. The rationale was to supply an appropriate amount of food to avoid the situation in which the rodent took all the seeds owing to insufficient food supply or the situation in which it only consumed its most favorite seeds from one or two plant species but not the seeds from other plants. The data from the individuals that died during the experiment were excluded, so 26 A.peninsulae, 17 A.agrarius, 10 T.triton, and 14 Cl.rufocanus were tested using 432 seeds from each of six plant species, i.e., Pi.koraiensis, Co.mandshurica, Q.mongolica, A.sibirica, Pr.salicina, Ce.tomentosa, and 261 seeds from J.mandshurica.Based on the body size of the rodents and their food consumption observed in the previous experiment, one iE) (iE = (iR – iP) / (iR + iP) in which the seed utilization rate iR =  × 100%; and the rate of seed availability iP =  × 100%. The iE ranges from -1 to 1> if iE > 0, the rodent positively selects for the seeds from the species. If iE < 0, the rodent negatively selects. If iE = 0, the rodent exhibits no preference for the seeds, and if iE = -1, the rodent makes no choice at all. Based on the iE value, the preference of rodents for the seeds was categorized into four levels: strongly preferred (iE ≥ 0.5), preferred (iE > 0), barely ate (iE > -0.5), and avoided (iE ≥ -1).The Ivlev electivity index (Ei)  was usedData processing and statistical analyses were performed with Microsoft Excel 2007  and SPSS 21.0 . The data were subjected to the Kolmogorov-Smirnov normality and Homogeneity-of-variance tests before processing, and in the case that the data did not comply with parametric assumptions, nonparametric tests were conducted. The Kruskal-Wallis H test was used to compare the differences in the choice of seeds from different plant species by the same species of rodent, and the Mann-Whitney U test was used to perform pair-wise comparisons of the differences in food choice between different species of rodents. Descriptive statistics were expressed as the mean ± SD. The level of statistical significance was set to α = 0.05, and high statistical significance was set to α = 0.01.T.triton was 16.57 ± 2.47 (n = 30), which was significantly higher than those of A.peninsulae , Cl.rufocanus , and A.agrarius . Apodemuspeninsulae consumed significantly more seeds than A.agrarius. The species also showed differences in the amounts of each type of seed consumed at each feeding.The consumption of food differed significantly among the four species of rodents. The amount of all the seeds taken each time by ir) on different seeds, but they all had a higher total rate of consumption on the seeds of Pi.koraiensis, Co.mandshurica, and Q.mongolica. Among them, A.peninsulae consumed 85.90% of the Q.mongolica seeds, 67.95% of the Co.mandshurica seeds, and 64.10% of the Pi.koraiensis seeds. Apodemusagrarius consumed 61.76% of the Co.mandshurica seeds, 57.84% of the Q.mongolica seeds, and 54.90% of the Pi.koraiensis seeds. Tscherskiatriton consumed 100% of the seeds of Pi.koraiensis, Co.mandshurica, and Q.mongolica, and in addition to the J.mandshurica seeds, T.triton consumed more of the seeds of other plant species than the other species of rodents . Cl.rufocanus consumed 65.31% of the Pi.koraiensis seeds, 54.08% of the Q.mongolica seeds, and 47.96% of the Co.mandshurica seeds . The seeds of A.sibirica, Pr.salicina, and Ce.tomentosa accounted for 45.47% of the food spectrum of T.triton  of Q.mongolica, Co.mandshurica, and Pi.koraiensis . It rarely ate the seeds of A.sibirica or J.mandshurica  and avoided those of Pr.salicina and Ce.tomentosa . The favored seeds were consumed at significantly higher levels than the others (P < 0.001). The species consumed more seeds of Q.mongolica than those of Pi.koraiensis or Co.mandshurica , and it favored the seeds of A.sibirica over those of J.mandshurica or Pr.salicina . It did not show a preference between the seeds of J.mandshurica and Pr.salicina .Apodemusagrarius noticeably preferred certain seeds , those of Co.mandshurica, Q.mongolica, Pi.koraiensis, and Ce.tomentosa . It rarely ate the seeds of Pr.salicina (iE : -0.417), and it avoided those of A.sibirica and J.mandshurica with a significantly higher consumption of the favored seeds over the others (P < 0.05). The species consumed more seeds of Co.mandshurica or Q.mongolica than those of Ce.tomentosa , and it favored the seeds of Pr.salicina over those of A.sibirica .Tscherskiatriton exhibited obvious preferences for certain seeds , consuming the seeds of Pi.koraiensis, Co.mandshurica, Q.mongolica, P.salicina, and Ce.tomentosa  and rarely ate those of A.sibirica (iE:-0.007). This rodent entirely avoided those of J.mandshurica (iE: -0.972). The species consumed more seeds of Pi.koraiensis, Co.mandshurica, and Q.mongolica than those of Pr.salicina  or Ce.tomentosa , but it showed no preference among the seeds of Pi.koraiensis, Co.mandshurica, and Q.mongolica or among those of P.salicina, Ce.tomentosa, and A.sibirica . However, the seeds of J.mandshurica (P < 0.001) were the least preferred.Clethrionomysrufocanus exhibited obvious preferences for certain seeds  and preferentially consumed the seeds of Pi.koraiensis, Q.mongolica, Co.mandshurica, and Ce.tomentosa , while it rarely ate those of Pr.salicina (iE: -0.416). It avoided those of A.sibirica and J.mandshurica . Among its favored seeds, the species consumed more seeds of Pi.koraiensis than of Co.mandshurica  and more seeds of Pi.koraiensis and Q.mongolica than those of Ce.tomentosa . It exhibited no significant difference in selecting the seeds of Q.mongolica, Pi.koraiensis, and Co.mandshurica  while it showed no preference between the seeds of Co.mandshurica and Ce.tomentosa .iE: df = 3, P < 0.05; Table The four rodent species exhibited differences in the choice of seeds from the same plant species . They were higher than those of A.peninsulae  or T.triton .Co.mandshurica, the preference by A.agrarius was the greatest, similar to that of Cl.rufocanus  and higher than that of A.peninsulae  or T.triton .For the seeds of Q.mongolica, A.peninsulae liked them the most and had levels of preference similar to that of A.agrarius  and Cl.rufocanus , while that of T.triton was significantly lower than that of each of the remaining three species  .For the seeds of A.peninsulae for J.mandshurica seeds was significantly greater than that of each of the other rodent species .The preference of A.sibirica, T.triton most strongly preferred these seeds, and it significantly preferred them than each of the other rodent species ; that of A.peninsulae was also higher than that of A.agrarius  or Cl.rufocanus .For the seeds of Pr.Salicina, the preference by T.triton was the greatest and significantly higher than that of each of the other rodent species , among which there was no difference in preference .For the seeds of Ce.tomentosa, three rodent species, A.agrarius, T.triton, and Cl.rufocanus exhibited no differences in preferences; A.peninsulae exhibited no choice at all .For the seeds of iE demonstrated that the four rodent species in this study all favored or preferred the seeds of Pi.koraiensis, Co.mandshurica, and Q.mongolica. These seeds are large and commonly found in boreal forests that have high numbers of J.mandshurica of the appropriate sizes, easily handled, and containing abundant resources. Thus, they have become a favored food for most species of small rodents during the long natural process of evolution. Furthermore, the long history of competition has led to food niche differentiation in sympatric rodents, whose preference for the seeds of certain plant species has largely been demonstrated in this work. Among the three plant species most favored, A.peninsulae preferred the seeds of Q.mongolica; A.agrarius preferred the seeds of Co.mandshurica, and Cl.rufocanus preferred the seeds of Pi.koraiensis. Tscherskiatriton exhibited no preference. The preferences of the four rodent species for the seeds of different plant species reflect a mutually beneficial symbiotic relationship that has evolved over a long time. As food resources, the seeds of these plants provide the necessary nutrients for the survival and reproduction of these rodents and thus, affect animal behavior and population dynamics  of these seeds. This resulted in an iR that only accounted for 4.08% of its total food consumption. This result is related to the seed-handling ability of the rodents. Although the seeds of J.mandshurica are rich in nutrients and can provide more benefit in a single seed, they are large and have a hard seed coat, which pose substantial challenges to small rodents during both transport and consumption, making it difficult for them to substantially benefit from the seeds (J.mandshurica. The preferences of the four rodent species in this study for the seeds of A.sibirica, Pr.salicina, and Ce.tomentosa, three sparsely distributed plant species, varied markedly, and the consumption of Ce.tomentosa seeds by A.agrarius and Cl.rufocanus was greater than that of A.sibirica or Pr.salicina, likely owing to differences in the seed-handling abilities of the different species. Apodemusagrarius and Cl.rufocanus are the smallest rodents and therefore, must invest tremendous effort to handle the seeds of A.sibirica and Pr.salicina with their thick, hard seed coats, whereas it is easier for them to handle the smaller seeds of Ce.tomentosa. However, we found that A.peninsulae did not feed on the seeds of Ce.tomentosa, which could be because these seeds are too small to provide sufficient food resources.According to the Optimal Foraging Theory, natural selection has enabled animals to maximize their net benefits during foraging, and the most efficient foraging strategy ensures survival and reproductive success . Many smhe seeds . This isApodemuspeninsulae is the dominant species in the broad-leaved coniferous and broad-leaved mixed forests in the north. Apodemusagrarius is primarily distributed in the purlieus of forests. Tscherskiatriton occupies various habitats but dominates in grassland, farmland, and hilly areas, while Cl.rufocanus is primarily distributed in coniferous forest habitats. Moreover, feeding niche differentiation does not necessarily indicate the absence of competition, which is related to the amount of food resources. Abundant food resources enable greater interspecies niche overlap, whereas scarce food resources lead to competition (According to the principle of competitive exclusion, competitors for the same limiting resource cannot coexist, but it is very difficult to directly observe competition in nature, particularly in the cases of interspecific and intraspecific competition in rodents. The food selection results of this study indicate that the four sympatric rodent species compete with each other for food and could have a high degree of niche overlap for the same food resources. However, this study did not account for factors such as differences in the levels of resource availability and competition, which are the outcome of long-term adaptation of the animals to their natural environment, and thus reflect their potential patterns of food resource niche differentiation. Niche differentiation avoids competition and enables sympatric species to coexist despite limited resources, thus enriching biodiversity and being necessary to sustain the coexistence of species . Such nipetition .Pi.koraiensis, Co.mandshurica, and Q.mongolica in a temperate forest in northeast China. Therefore, there are different degrees of overlap in food selection among the sympatric species of rodents because of different degrees of shared food preferences. In order to avoid excessive sympatric competition, rodents adjust their food preference strategies to differentiate feeding niches and thus achieve coexistence.The characteristics of seeds and the intrinsic factors of the rodents exert important effects on the food selection. Rodents can identify different seed properties of the sympatric distribution and form specific feeding preferences. The four rodents all favored the seeds of


Sphareothecum destruens, also known as the rosette agent, represents a major risk to global aquatic biodiversity and aquaculture, and has caused severe declines in wild fish populations in Europe and large losses in salmon farms in the USA. It is a species that has been associated with a healthy carrier for millions of years, but in recent decades, the host has managed to invade parts of Southeast Asia, Central Asia, Europe, and North Africa. In order to better understand the emergence of this new disease, for the first time, we have synthesized current knowledge on the distribution, detection, and prevalence of S. destruens, as well as the associated mortality curves, and the potential economic impact in countries where the healthy carrier has been introduced. Finally, we propose solutions and perspectives to manage and mitigate the emergence of this fungus in countries where it has been introduced.The emergence of pathogenic fungi is a major and rapidly growing problem (7% increase) that affects human and animal health, ecosystems, food security, and the economy worldwide. The Dermocystida group in particular has emerged relatively recently and includes species that affect both humans and animals. Within this group, one species in particular,  Emerging fungal pathogens pose a growing threat to global health, ecosystems, food security, and the world economy . BetweenBatrachochytrium dendrobatidis, co-introduced with American bullfrogs (Lithobates catesbeianus), was responsible for the extinction of at least 500 amphibian species in 54 countries [B. dendrobatidis has caused a loss of more than 40% of amphibian species [B. dendrobatidis) has led to the decline of nearly half of all amphibian species [Aspergillus sydowii) and tilapia fish (epizootic ulcerative syndrome caused by Aphanomyces invadans) [Aphanomyces astaci has caused a dramatic decline in freshwater brown crayfish populations worldwide, through a disease called crayfish plague [Aphanomyces, Branchiomyces, Lagenidium, Saprolegnia sp., Sirolipidium, Phoma, Aphanomyces invaderis, Leptolegnia, and Dictyuchus, and infect a wide variety of farmed fish such as rainbow trout, yellowtail, mackerel, herring, flounder, cod, salmonids, tilapia, carps, etc. [Although fungi have been known for a long time to pose a widespread threat to plants, the impact of fungal infections on animal health has been underestimated until recently, with major declines seen in wildlife due to fungal emergences . Indeed,ountries ,3. In th species . Importanvadans) . Similarh plague . Despiteh plague , i.e., th plague , and thuh plague . The maips, etc. . These oPseudorasbora parva. A healthy carrier of a newly described fungus, the rosette agent Sphaerothecum destruens, in reference to the sphere containing spore-like structures (Sphaerothecum), destruens meaning destructive, once established in the host fish, the infection causes widespread destruction of various tissues [S. destruens is a unicellular eukaryotic fish parasite and an obligate intracellular parasite known as the “rosette agent”. This parasite was originally assigned to the category “Dermocystidium-like” because it shared similar morphological features with other enigmatic parasites of fish and crustaceans [S. destruens and showed that it shared its most recent common ancestor with the choanoflagellates, a group of sister protists of multicellular animals. Further phylogenetic analyses of the 18S rRNA gene of two Dermocystidium spp., S. destruens, Ichthyophonus hoferi, and Psorospermium haeckeli confirmed their relationship and divergence from the animal–fungal dichotomy [Amoebidium, Anurofeca, Dermocystidium, Ichthyophonus, Pseudoperkinsus, Psorospermium, Rhinosporidium, Sphaeroforma, and Ichthyophonida sp. [Dermocystida includes Dermocystidium spp., Rhinosporidium seeberi, and S. destruens, which share the ability to cause infections in animals. For example, more than 20 species of Dermocystidium spp. cause infections in carp, goldfish, salmonids, eels, newts, and frogs [S. destruens with animals, fungi, and choanoflagellates in the super-group Opisthokonta [In 2005, a global risk of disease emergence for freshwater fish biodiversity was identified in Europe and directly linked to the accidental introduction in the early 1960s of the highly invasive Asian gudgeon, also named topmouth gudgeon  tissues . Since t tissues . S. deststaceans . Kerk etstaceans  were theichotomy . Based oichotomy  assignedichotomy . Subsequichotomy ,17, previchotomy . The cland frogs . HoweverP. parva [S. destruens is considered to be a generalist parasite with a wide host range [P. parva. Our objective was to synthesize the latest knowledge on the distribution, detection, and prevalence of S. destruens in invasive and native fish host populations, as well as to review the biology and pathology of S. destruens and the economic impact of this disease in wild and farmed aquatic animals.Published data indicate ancient host–parasite coevolution with multiple introduction events occurring across Europe from admixed host population sources of P. parva ,21. Furtst range ,22 and hS. destruens first emerged in salmonids in the USA and was first described in 1984 [Oncorhyncus tshawytscha brood stock, reared in seawater net-pens in Puget Sound, Washington, DC, USA. These mortalities could not be attributed to previously known pathogens. The diseased fish were anemic with marked lymphocytosis and had enlarged kidneys and spleens. Light and electron microscopic examinations of the spleen and kidney tissues revealed the presence of numerous intracellular spherical organisms of 3–7 µm in size with chemical and structural characteristics similar to marine algae or fungi. The infectious agent responsible has been described as a systemic protist and has been termed a “rosette” or “chinook rosette agent” because of the clustered organization of organisms observed in the stained tissues of infected fish [S. destruens was amplified on the CHSE-214 cell line developed from Chinook salmon embryos and held in the American Type Culture Collection  [Salmo salar received as eyed eggs from Finland and reared in spring water on a private farm in northern California, USA, were reported [S. destruens RA-2 was deposited at the ATCC (Accession Number #50644) [O. tshawytscha broodstock from Sacramento River maintained at the Bodega Marine Laboratory  in collaboration with the Coleman National Fish Hatchery  and several state and federal agencies [S. destruens was first detected in a few 1991 brood year salmon (14–16 months old) that had never been transferred to seawater since their arrival from the original freshwater hatchery (CNFH). Subsequently, the parasite was detected in wild adult late-fall-run O. tshawytscha returning to freshwater to spawn in the upper Sacramento River. Since 1994, surveillance by the California–Nevada Fish Health Center has demonstrated the presence of S. destruens in up to 32% of late-fall-run adult O. tshawytscha returning to Battle Creek on the Upper Sacramento River, suggesting the persistence of the disease in the BML and a potential risk of disease emergence. A third isolate, named RA-3 or BML strain, was isolated from O. tshawytscha-infected kidneys, amplified in fish cell lines, and also deposited at ATCC (Accession number #50615).The disease caused by  in 1984 . Betweented fish . This fi #50643) . A few yreported . Althougreported , it was  #50644) . Finallyagencies . Among tS. destruens was only reported in salmonids reared on the northwest coast of the USA . However, in 2005, Gozlan et al. [S. destruens disease in invasive populations of Pseudorasbora parva in Europe, but also in the non-native cyprinid Leucaspius delineatus (sunbleak) in England [L. delineatus in Europe coincided with the initial introduction of P. parva into Romanian ponds in 1960 near the Danube, followed by its rapid spread throughout Europe, they hypothesized that Asian populations of P. parva might represent the asymptomatic carrier of S. destruens. Their results not only provided the first occurrence of the disease outside North America, but also showed for the first time that several species of cyprinids were also susceptible to S. destruens and could develop the disease, thus extending the potential host range of this parasite [P. parva populations could represent asymptomatic carriers of S. destruens. Importantly, their work pioneered the use of targeted molecular tools to detect S. destruens in infected fish [S. destruens, also named UK-Cefas1, was extracted from tissues (kidney and liver) of wild-infected L. delineatus following cohabitation experiments with P. parva [S. destruens infections in L. delineatus and salmonids were noted, RA-4 isolate showed genetic variability compared with the three American isolates  [For several years, the disease caused by n et al.  were the England ,28. As tparasite ,28. Furtted fish . The RA-P. parva . Althoug2, RA-3) ,28.P. parva populations in freshwater ecosystems  were also found to be infected with S. destruens [Oxynoemacheilus sp. (Nemacheilidae), Petroleuciscus smyrnaeus, Squalius fellowesii, and the non-native Lepomis gibbosus (Percidae) as well as farmed seabass Dicentrarchus labrax (Moronidae) cohabiting with invasive wild populations of P. parva were found to be infected by S. destruens. Kidney, liver, spleen, and gonad tissues were all tested for the presence of the parasite using PCR assays and histological examinations, confirming its wide host range as well as its broad cellular tropism [P. parva were first reported in 1980 [S. destruens in 12 individuals of P. parva caught in a small tributary stream of the Adour River near Dax, France [S. trutta) and rainbow trout (O. mykiss) at an experimental facility, followed in 2016 by a second unusual episode of fish mortalities at a rainbow trout farm, both located in southwest France. In both outbreaks, kidneys, livers, and spleens were collected for histological and molecular examination and revealed the presence of foreign cells 2–4 µm in diameter with eosinophilic inclusions and were observed to be single or arranged in rosettes (spores aggregates) consistent with S. destruens. Sequencing of PCR products revealed a disease prevalence of 80% and 100% in O. mykiss and S. trutta, respectively [P. parva and other native species were collected and screened by PCR for the presence and prevalence of S. destruens [S. destruens in freshwater sites in France with at least five out of 10 of the sampling sites, such as Ain , Indre , Gironde (south-western France), Bouches-du-Rhône, and Corsica island (south-eastern France), where S. destruens DNA was detected in five native fish species and one P. parva population [S. destruens can tolerate. Other invasive populations of P. parva have been found to be infected and carrying S. destruens in the UK and Spain with a prevalence of 5% in both populations [Invasive estruens ,31. In T tropism . In Fran in 1980  and a su in 1980 . In 2016 in 1980  showed t, France . Just on, France  reportedectively . In Franestruens . The respulation . Furtherulations .S. destruens has been reported to date is among native P. parva populations in China [P. parva populations in its native and invasive range to detect the presence of the parasite by PCR assays targeting the 18S rRNA gene. In the native range, among 10 Chinese populations collected in different locations [S. destruens in nine populations with a prevalence ranging from 0 to 10% depending on the population tested and an overall prevalence of 6%. By analyzing the ITS-1 region of geographically distinct S. destruens isolates, [S. destruens isolates clustered together, Turkish isolates were distinct, although more closely related to British and Chinese isolates, and American isolates formed another clade.Finally, the third region of the world where in China , and morin China  used Gozocations , they wesolates,  showed aS. destruens is mainly linked to the presence and introduction of the healthy carrier P. parva. It is therefore logical to assume that where P. parva was introduced, S. destruens has also been introduced, although not all local populations have been formally tested yet. Previous studies have suggested coevolution between P. parva and S. destruens lineages [P. parva populations, which would have contaminated their American counterparts during their migratory movement in the North Pacific. Indeed, Arkush et al. [S. destruens. Therefore, it is expected that the American strains will be closely related to Japanese strains when the latter are tested.Taken together, these results show that the presence of lineages ,37, indilineages . Finallylineages  suggest h et al.  reportedSphaerothecum destruens causes low-level mortalities, which makes it difficult to identify in wild fish populations. In many cases, whether in a pond, lake, or watershed setting, few will be aware of the mortalities that follow the arrival of the healthy P. parva carrier [Leucaspius delineatus populations, which have disappeared from the whole of Europe with a few residual pockets that would merit a targeted and rapid conservation plan [S. destruens was observed in aquaculture systems [P. parva is introduced into an aquatic ecosystem where susceptible species are present, there will be an initial release of spores, probably in the feces or during reproduction. These spores in contact with fresh water will produce zoospores which will then contaminate other fish. Contamination by predation may also occur. In the first few weeks after introduction into a pond, no mortality will be observed and then, with time, the susceptible species will be less and less abundant without any mortality being observed from the edge of the pond. This can lead to complete extinction. In small aquaculture ponds, it is easier to observe mortalities, as was the case in the USA with salmonids.The parasite  carrier ,38. Firs carrier ,38,39. Tion plan ,40. Loca systems ,26, wher systems . When P.S. destruens in the different species tested, whether in aquariums, ponds, or at the level of a catchment area, shows a very similar mortality curve for susceptible species with the majority of mortalities occurring in the first two months and then spreading out over time towards a spiral of extinction [S. destruens. Andreou et al. had shown the impact of temperature on the production and longevity of rosette agent zoospores, with zoospore production being more spread out at low temperatures  and faster at high temperatures . However, the number of zoospores produced remains the same overall, regardless of temperature. Additionally, in the natural environment, the physiological state of the hosts and their level of stress, which has an indirect impact on the efficiency of the immune system, can also explain these differences in the mortality curves . This indicates the crucial indirect role played by P. parva on S. destruens-related mortalities.The emergence of tinction ,32,39. Htinction ,39,41, Fy curves . Indeed,l basins , in reseestruens , or evenS. destruens and its mechanisms of entry into cells, replication, and transmission still remain poorly documented. S. destruens is an obligate intracellular (intracytoplasmic) eukaryotic parasite. Its life cycle consists of (i) a spherical spore stage observed both in in vitro cell cultures and infected fish tissues, ranging in size from 2–4 µm in diameter for undivided stages and 4–6 µm in diameter for dividing stages [Rhinosporidecae member Dermocystidium salmonis [S. destruens spores significantly increased at 20 °C. Later, Andreou et al. [The life cycle of g stages ,26 and , PAS-positive (Periodic Acid Schiff), argyrophilic (Warthin–Starry and Grocott’s), and basophilic (Giemsa staining), but not acid-fast (Ziehl–Neelsen) [S. destruens spores are composed of a well delineated trilaminar cell wall which is coated by a dense fibrogranular layer that forms the partitions between dividing daughter cells [S. destruens cell wall is separated from the host cell cytoplasm by an intermediate amorphous region and an electron-dense layer with another membrane originating from the host cell [S. destruens enters the host cell by endocytosis or phagocytosis. Spores contain ribosome-laden cytoplasm with scattered segments of rough endoplasmic reticulum, numerous vesicular mitochondria, and a single nucleus  . S. dester cells . The S. ost cell , potenti nucleus . NumerouS. salar , winter-awytscha ,24,26, alineatus .S. destruens infection. Although Harrell et al. [S. destruens disease in O. tshawytscha, Elston et al. [S. destruens (using CHSE-214 cell line) from infected fish and validated the realization of Koch’s postulates. At that time, they were able to describe the intracellular localization of S. destruens in macrophages and endothelial cells and confirmed the intracellular nature of the parasite by electron microscopy. They also observed focal areas of S. destruens proliferation in the spleen and kidney with necrosis of adjacent tissues [S. destruens ultimately leads to host cell death [S. salar revealed widely disseminated nodules in the kidney, spleen, liver, and gonads, with splenic and hepatic lesions characterized by granulomas surrounded by multiple layers of fibroblastic cells and macrophages containing numerous parasites [S. destruens spores were mainly observed within macrophages (and to a lesser extent within host cells), cell-free S. destruens spores have also been reported [Histopathology is associated with l et al.  were then et al.  were the tissues , suggestll death . Internaarasites . Althougreported . Signs oreported .O. tshawytscha [S. salar [S. destruens spores were often seen in the central areas and in or between the macrophages of the granulomas. This nodular form, characteristic of fish with an immune response and therefore able to contain infections, was mainly observed in visceral organs such as the liver, kidney, and spleen, but also in the heart, the mesentery surrounding the intestinal tract, and between the pyloric cecae [S. destruens spores in various organs and cells, including kidney, liver, spleen, heart, gills, brain, ovary, testes, and hindgut, as well as hematopoietic, epithelial, and mesenchymal cells [S. destruens with the absence or low expression of host cell immune responses [S. destruens spores were observed both in intra- and extracellular locations in tissues and as single rosettes or as aggregates of 4–5 rosettes. Disseminated infections included enlargement and pallor of the liver, kidney, and spleen and showed little macrophages or fibroblast proliferation around the lesions, while areas of oedema and focal necrosis were present in close proximity to S. destruens spore proliferation [S. destruens disease, kidney tissues were characterized by necrosis, loss of tubules, membranous glomerulonephritis, and necrotizing intestinal nephritis. Single or rosette structures of S. destruens spores were observed in the cytoplasm of the biliary epithelium and renal tubules and in the lumen of bile ducts, suggesting that bile and urine might be routes of S. destruens excretion. Necrosis of the renal tubular epithelium and multifocal hepatocellular necrosis were also reported. Spleen tissues contained numerous S. destruens spores, single or in aggregates, in the pulp spaces of the spleen and in the cytoplasm of sinusoidal macrophages and reticuloendothelial cells. Rosettes of S. destruens were found in the lumina and tunicae media of splenic arterioles where they were accompanied by segmental necrotizing vasculitis. In early infections (subadult fish), S. destruens was sometimes observed in the gill vessels, while in advanced infections (adult fish), it was often found in subserosal aggregates in the swimbladder, mainly in macrophages, regardless of the type of lesions. It has sometimes been reported that S. destruens was found in the epidermis, urine, seminal and ovarian fluids, and in the mucosa of the intestine, suggesting that the gut epithelium, skin, and gills could represent a second route of S. destruens excretion  a al cells ,46. Thisesponses ,26. S. dL. delineatus (Cyprinidae) in the UK (Stoneham Lakes) were similar to those reported in O. tshawytscha from the USA, although some authors found slight differences, such as the presence of S. destruens spores in giant cells and the observation of only the smallest (2–4 µm) spore morphology [L. delineatus (80% of infected fish) [S. destruens infection induced hepatocellular necrosis [S. destruens spores have been found in macrophages and giant cell formation has been reported. Various stages of granulomas have been described, ranging from enlarged macrophage aggregates surrounded by a single-cell layer of connective tissues to well demarcated lesions surrounded by a thick fibroblast layer [The disease and pathology observed in wild populations of infected rphology ,45,46. Ted fish) ,45. Numenecrosis  and an iDermocystidium develop numerous spores 5–8 µm in diameter contained in cysts (a sac-like pocket) that average 0.5–1.1 mm in size and are localized between the epithelial (extracellular) tissues of the fish host without the expression of a host inflammatory response [Dermocystidium salmonis, once the spores mature, they differentiate into multiple flagellated zoospores that are about 1 µm in diameter, which are released from the cyst and are then able to reinfect the gill epithelium of a new fish host [Dermocystidium cyprini is also known to have a flagellated zoospore stage in its life cycle [S. destruens has been found to be quite similar to Dermocystidium macrophagi infections in rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss [Dermocystidium sp. described from S. trutta and S. salar cultured in Ireland [Dermocystidium sp. [S. destruens spores infecting winter-run O. tshawytscha [S. salar [Rhinosporidium have a different life cycle to the genus Dermocystidium and S. destruens in that they have mature spherical sporangia  between 40 and 400 µm in diameter that release infective spores through a pore. The released spores then increase in size until they become mature sporangia containing hundreds of spores and the cycle begins again. Members of the genus Rhinosporidium cause disease in humans, dogs, cattle, horses, and swans that is characterized by the formation of polyps, usually on the mucous membranes of the nose or nostrils, eyes, and mouth, with a chronic granulomatous inflammatory response consisting of mononuclear cells, polymorphic nuclear cells, and, in some cases, giant cells [S. destruens differs from that of members of Dermocystidium and Rhinosporidium since the spore stages are found as intracellular parasites of host cells, infecting and replicating mainly in visceral organs where they cause a chronic granulomatous disease and only produce zoospores when released into freshwater [Although members of the order Dermocystida share the ability to cause infections in animals, their phenotypic characteristics and the diseases they cause are very different . Their lresponse . In Dermish host . Dermocyfe cycle . The exis mykiss  and Derm Ireland , althougdium sp.  has not awytscha  or S. saS. salar . Membersnt cells . Therefoeshwater .Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis that causes chytridiomycosis in amphibians, the life cycle and mechanisms of the pathogenicity of S. destruens appear to be very different, although they exhibit intracellular parasitism. Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis compromises epidermal tissues of bullfrogs by colonizing keratin-containing cells [S. destruens and the mechanisms of pathogenicity in infected fish hosts are specific to this parasite and also highlight the need for further study of its mechanisms of entry into cells, its modes of replication in infected cells, and the direct infectivity of zoospores.When compared with more phylogenetically distant fungal pathogens, such as the well known ng cells . Patholong cells . Death ong cells . The aseng cells . The zoong cells . AlthougS. destruens in populations of different susceptible host species, there is a large variability between species. Prevalence is measured here by the number of PCR-positive individuals with the rosette agent in all the fish tested within a population. We therefore observe prevalences that fluctuate from 100% to 2% depending on the species tested in the cyprinidae family, and from 98% to 3% in salmonids , the authors found a trend towards host specificity, with O. tshawytsch being the most susceptible species to S. destruens, followed by coho salmon Oncorhynchus kisutch, rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss, brown trout Salmo trutta, and brook trout Salvelinus fontinalis, the latter showing resistance to infection by S. destruens [P. parva captured from wild pond populations in Hampshire, UK, originally introduced in 1985 from German Danube populations. Their results showed up to 69% mortality of L. delineatus under laboratory conditions and up to 96% mortality of fish in natural ponds. By implementing the first PCR-based DNA detection tool targeting a small fragment of ribosomal DNA (18S rRNA gene) [S. destruens, they were able to estimate the prevalence of the disease to be 67% in L. delineatus and 20% in the fathead minnow P. promelas. Conventional bacteriological, virological, parasitological, and histological examinations were carried out on moribund L. delineatus fish and showed extensive infections of visceral organs by an intracellular parasite with characteristics similar to those of the previously described rosette agent in O. tshawytscha [S. salar [P. parva populations sampled in the Meuse floodplain were infected with a disease prevalence of up to 67% at the Everlose Beek site and 74% and 25% for the Teelebeek site. In addition to the invasive P. parva populations, a disease prevalence of 25% was found in the native Gasterosteus aculeatus (Gasterosteidae). In Turkey, in the Sariçay stream in Mugla, S. destruens was found by PCR in Oxynoemacheilus sp. , P. smyrnaeus , S. fellowesii , D. labrax , and L. gibbosus . Based on these results, Ercan et al. [S. destruens in the extinction events observed in Turkey since 2009 in Oxynoemacheilus sp., P. smyrnaeus, and S. fellowesii. Finally, in France, S. destruens was detected in populations of P. parva , bleak Alburnus alburnus , European bittern Rhodeus amarus , roach Rutilus rutilus , gudgeon Gobio gobio , and minnow Phoxinus phoxinus  [P. parva populations had a low parasite prevalence and did not develop the disease.Using the RA-3 isolate, Arkush et al.  experimeestruens . In addiestruens ,28 conduNA gene)  and thenawytscha ,26 and SS. salar . SpikmanS. salar ,31 foundn et al.  highlighence 2%) . The P. P. parva carrier to take into account the species present in the community. However, one hundred percent of the species tested or analyzed for mortalities related to S. destruens were found to be susceptible to this infectious agent. This also applies to percids, such as pumkindseed L. gibbosus, or even marine species, such as sea bass D. labrax, as studies have shown that S. destruens spores survive very well in both salt and freshwater [Dermocystida), it would be useful to test the susceptibility of amphibians and invertebrates, such as certain crayfish, to the rosette agent to see if we are indeed dealing with an infectious agent of fish. Indeed, the pathogenic fungi of this group affect fish as well as amphibians and humans [S. destruens should be tested beyond the simple fish group.It is therefore very important in an infectious risk analysis following the arrival of a healthy eshwater . In viewd humans ,17,19 anL. delineatus, R. amarus, or even L. gibbosus that depend on high reproduction to maintain populations will show a more visible decline more quickly. In effect, the emergence and high mortalities of S. destruens in O. tshawytscha stocks have occurred in juvenile or smolting salmons and not in brood stocks [S. destruens was found in 30% of returning salmon, showing that they survived infection , which S. destruens were observed in salmon farms in the USA with losses of up to 98% of juvenile salmon stocks. In such a situation, assessment of the economic cost is fairly straightforward as each fish has an economic value defined by aquaculture production in a specific national context. Where the economic impact is more complicated to assess is in the context of wild populations. In their recent assessments of the economic costs of invasive species, Diagne et al. [S. destruens. However, environmental agencies in general assess that the primary risk of impact from the introduction of P. parva on native fish populations is essentially the infectious risk from the emergence of S. destruens. Based on the data on the emergence of S. destruens in the absence of the healthy carrier P. parva, it is reasonable to assume that the risk posed by S. destruens would no longer be endemic, as has occurred in the USA. In this context, England has been a pioneer in managing this risk with the establishment of a program focused on rapid detection and eradication of populations of P. parva carrying S. destruens [P. parva. The cost of eradicating a population of P. parva averaged €80k over ten years, with 90% of the costs being for the first year of eradication and the remaining 10% being residual costs related to post-eradication monitoring. On this basis, which remains approximate but nonetheless quantitative and specific to the eradication program for populations of the healthy carrier P. parva, it is therefore possible to evaluate the economic cost of controlling S. destruens throughout the European continent based on the number of P. parva populations present in each country. This gives an average cost per country of just over 85M€, with a minimum cost of about 92k€ for Bosnia and Herzegovina and a maximum cost of about 43M€ for Germany. The total cost of eradicating the healthy carrier of S. destruens in Europe would be around 188M€  that deserve greater protection against future introductions. Finally, a very important point to remember is that we do not yet have quantitative data on the diversity of strains present and their virulence. Indeed, it is likely that all the identified strains of S. destruens are different on a genetic level, as previously shown on a global scale by Sana et al. [A first conclusion is that the rosette agent carriers . From whulations . Indeed,a et al. . It woulS. destruens very seriously. All studies carried out to date point to rapid declines in fish populations following the introduction of S. destruens into fish farming communities. The first recommendation is the isolation of P. parva populations by controlling the transfer of fish from infected areas to non-infected areas. S. destruens can be transferred by free spores in freshwater, by transport of infected native fish, and also by transfer of infected P. parva. Of these three modes of contamination, the last is the most serious as it allows, in addition to introduction of the pathogen, the introduction of the healthy carrier which will serve as a reservoir for S. destruens and thus maintain a high level of virulence. These controls must be carried out for any transfer of fish to an area where P. parva is not yet present. There have been studies in England undertaken by the Environment Agency which tested the effectiveness of stocking controls and associated procedures against stocking levels of P. parva contamination ranging from 1, 5, 10, and 20% and the level of expertise of the auditors ranging from expert, intermediate, and novice. They showed that, with contamination rates of 10%, the probability of detection of P. parva by a trained team was above an 80% probability of detection. Such a study could be adapted to the French stocking management system.At this stage of our knowledge, it is important to take the infectious risk linked to P. parva and S. destruens, the more the authorities responsible for environmental protection will have allies in the field who will be involved in this fight. This will be done through communications within fishing federations, letters to fishing license holders, posters in fishing shops, and communications to fish farmers and other professionals in the sector. The use of social networks as a new means of communication is also highly recommended. The more information is shared, the more responsibility there will be on the part of the various actors. It is obvious that this will not be enough, but as many studies have shown, the alternative of not effectively communicating slows down the fight against biological invasions, such as P. parva. This recommendation must be part of a national coordination and implementation of a common strategy for the whole territory.The second recommendation is public risk communication. Indeed, the challenge of this approach is to include the maximum number of actors in the sector in this fight. This includes professional fish farmers, pond owners, and amateur fishermen. The greater the number of people informed of the risks linked to the introduction of Salmonidae, Cyprinidae) would be a simple and inexpensive indicator of virulence.The third recommendation is to analyze the virulence of the strains found. Indeed, it is very likely that the strains found in a country are the result of their introduction history and are therefore not the same from a genetic point of view. More importantly, the virulence of these strains in relation to populations of native species is likely to be highly variable. The cultivation of these different strains would therefore be an important first step in testing their virulence. Their inoculation on different cell lines . We would therefore like to note that S. destruens is not specific to one species, but it always leads to mortality in a whole range of species and families of fish including Cyprinidae, Salmonidae, Percidae, and marine species, such as sea bass. We would also emphasize that it is the presence of the healthy carrier that maintains the high level of virulence.In summary, firstly, there is a priority in the implementation of recommendations and in the isolation of


This paper explores the pre-mating reproductive barriers in a group of leafhopper species living vicariously in the Palaearctic region by producing hybrid zones and compares them with a closely related species of the same genus living in sympatry with some of the species of the investigated group. The results confirm the usefulness of a cheap, though neglected, methodology for recording substrate-borne vibrations and concern the basic clues that separate these species during their mating; i.e., which of the parameters of the substrate-borne vibrations they produce for calling the opposite sex and courting once the two sexes meet are necessary as pre-mating reproductive barriers. The basic behavioural isolation mechanisms are the pulse period of the female call and the main part of the courtship ritual performed by the male. An excursus into the existing literature on leafhopper bioacoustics and reproductive behaviour is undertaken to point out common aspects, propose explanations of biological phenomena—including the formation of hybrid zones, which led, in the past, to the description of several fictitious new species throughout the Palaearctic—and place the grounds for further research on pre-mating and post-mating reproductive barriers.Zyginidia pullula, Z. ribauti, Z. scutellaris, Z. serpentina, Z. sohrab, and Z. biroi were investigated to explain why the first five species hybridize. Z. biroi was used as a control species. All species behaved in the same way and no significant statistical differences were detected with regard to male calls, while female calls and the male courtship song differed in Z. biroi, thus showing that a specific pre-mating isolation mechanism was used by the latter species and the first five ones lacked such a mechanism. In addition, Z. sohrab is missing in Italy, while the other species live allopatrically in Italy, with the only exceptions being Z. serpentina and Z. biroi, which live in Sicily and are often found in sympatry, and Z. scutellaris and Z. biroi, which live in Sardinia. All these species can be distinguished by means of male genital appendages; however, Z. biroi is longer and has a different body colour. The existence of natural hybrids of Z. pullula, Z. ribauti, and Z. scutellaris in the Italian peninsula and their hybridization in the laboratory with Z. serpentina and Z. sohrab require the investigation of possible post-mating reproductive barriers before re-considering their systematic validity.The vibrational communication and mating behaviour of the graminicolous leafhoppers  Acoustic behaviour is considered the main pre-mating isolation mechanism among sympatric Auchenorrhyncha species, and substrate-borne vibrations are known to be the only means of intraspecific communication for Auchenorrhyncha, excluding Cicadidae ,2,3,4,5.Among Auchenorrhyncha, calling signals  are lonThe calling activity is an indicator of reproductive maturity and receptiveness to mating ,37. PairCourtship begins only when the male locates the female. The courtship is meant as behaviour aimed at increasing female acceptance  and, durThe separation of the male and female after copulation usually includes a forward movement of one or both of the individuals  or the fIn contrast to males, mated females stop signalling. Usually, after a period of egg-laying, the females regain their sexual receptivity , whereasZyginidia species have been reported from Italy, all living on wild and cultivated Gramineae [Z. pullula (Boheman) in northern regions, Z. ribauti Dworakowska in central and southern regions, Z. scutellaris (Herrich-Schäffer) in the Aosta Valley  and Sardinia, and Z. serpentina (Matsumura) in Sicily [Z. pullula and Z. scutellaris were collected in the central Aosta Valley, where both species come into contact [Z. pullula pointed out that the production of substrate-borne vibrations induced mate recognition in this leafhopper [Zyginidia species—plus Z. sohrab Zachvatkin, collected in Cyprus , and Z. biroi (Dlabola), collected in Sicily —was analysed in order to check if behavioural barriers preventing pair formation and, thus, interbreeding could be detected.Up to now, 11 ramineae ,43. Fourn Sicily . They ca contact ,46. Subs contact , and stuafhopper . Since aafhopper ,25, the Z. pullula, Z. ribauti, Z. scutellaris, Z. serpentina, and Z. sohrab are also described in this paper as cereal-dwelling species because of their preferred host plants. Z. sohrab was included in this study in consideration of the fact that specimens with intermediate and aberrant aedeagi have been collected in the contact zones of Z. pullula and Z. sohrab in northern Turkey (described as Z. (Z.) artvinicus, Z. (Z.) bafranicus, Z. (Z.) emrea, and Z. (Z.) karadenizicus by Kalkandelen [Zyginidia species revealed hybrid facies in the contact zones of some different species; e.g., Z. pullula and Z. ribauti , thus skandelen . In factkandelen , and a rut, 1947  and Z. lno, 1982 ), Z. riblaris in ), and Z.emita in ). As faremita in , whereasemita in  collecteemita in  and Mazz present .Z. biroi, in contrast, is morphologically distinguishable from the other five Zyginidia species mentioned because of its slightly greater length (3–3.5 mm instead of 2.5–3 mm) and its body colour, being greyish green instead of greyish blue [Z. biroi was kept in spite of the synonymy [Z. lineata (Lindberg) living in the Canary Islands because of the differences in the shape of the aedeagus and in acoustic production . Z. biroi was chosen as a control species owing to its sympatry with Z. serpentina in Sicily and with Z. scutellaris in Sardinia and the fact that no intermediate forms between both species have ever been reported.ish blue . The namsynonymy  establisIn vibration recording experiments prior to 1988, an accelerometer (Bruel and Kjaer 4374) was used in connection with a charge pre-amplifier  and a 200 Hz high-pass filter. The signal entered the line input of a tape recorder  and was recorded at a speed of 9.5 cm/s; then, it entered a high-resolution spectrum analyser (B&K 2033) provided with a graphic recorder (B&K X-Y 2308). In the present research, a different system for the analysis of vibrations produced by leafhoppers was used following instructions given for planthoppers . This maZyginidia species were collected at the following sites: Z. pullula, Pessione di Chieri (province of Turin); Z. ribauti, Strettoia di Pietrasanta (province of Lucca); Z. scutellaris, Toulouse (France); Z. serpentina and Z. biroi, Dattilo di Paceco, Scopello (province of Trapani); Z. sohrab Larnaca (Cyprus). Rearing took place in isolation inside climatized chambers at 23 °C (+0.5) and 80% (+10) R.H. with a 16 h photoperiod, with plexiglas and nylon net cages containing the Zea mays L. plantlets.Young and adult specimens of the six tested For recording purposes, adults of the reared species were divided according to sex into different cages as soon as they emerged. Single individuals, couples, or groups of 3–6 specimens of the same or different sex were introduced into a plexiglas cylinder (20 cm high and 10 cm in diameter) closed on the top with a nylon net and containing a small vase with a maize plantlet at the second leaf stage and the equipment for vibration recording. The cylinder and vase were placed onto a thick layer of foam rubber and synthetic sponge in order to isolate them from floor vibrations. Males of different ages, collected directly in the field or obtained via mass rearing, were also tested. Acoustic emissions were recorded on tapes (BASF LGR 40), visualized, and successively analysed with a spectrum analyser. Later, the tape recordings were digitized and analysed statistically.The behaviour of the tested leafhoppers was continuously noted and a detailed account accompanied each tape recording. Acoustic investigations were undertaken at room temperature (23 °C (+1)).Z. biroi was treated as a control species in the comparisons of the five cereal-dwelling species performed.The length and the peak frequency of the pulses in female calls and different parts of male calls were measured by means of a high-resolution spectrum analyser. One way analyses of variance (ANOVAs) and Tukey’s tests were performed using Minitab 18.1 to compare the behavioural and acoustic parameters of the males and females of all possible paired species. Description of the behaviour and calls of females: As soon as females became sexually active, besides spending their time feeding and moving on the plant, they started calling spontaneously. Females always remained on the spot while calling. The pulse period  and the peak frequencies are given in Z. biroi.Z. biroi.Six- to seven-day-old virgin females emitted a single call or short trains of calls followed by long periods of silence if no male answered, whereas older virgin females called uninterruptedly for days until they eventually mated. The calls were regularly spaced from each other: on average, 1.5 to 1.9 s for the cereal-dwelling species and 0.6 to 1.1 s for Description of the behaviour and calls of males: When males became sexually mature, usually a few days after the final moult, besides feeding and moving on the plant, they called erratically with a succession of pulses like very short popping sounds, especially when jumping onto a new leaf. Males were very mobile and jumped frequently off the plant. Their calls were formed of irregular sequences of pulses and intervals, as analysed in Localizing the female: Males responded to calling females by popping repetitively while tracking them; they occasionally stopped and emitted a single pop or a few intense pops. They then continued the search, repeatedly producing the lower-intensity pops until they reached the female. The low-intensity pops were formed of an irregular sequence of pulses and intervals, as shown in Courtship: The first part of the courtship performed by the male was composed of about four to five irregular sequences of vibrations similar to a frog’s croaking sound. The pulse period and frequency are analysed in Z. biroi was an alternation of a pop and a croak, as shown in Z. biroi: a buzzing sound produced by a wing vibration by the male  continued courting and sometimes attempted copulation with the couple, which usually moved away. No disturbance vibrations were produced by either sex, even in crowded conditions, but crowding caused more movements and several times the individuals jumped off the plant.Comparisons: One-way analyses of variance (ANOVAs) and Tukey’s tests revealed non-significant differences in the comparisons of the female calls’ pulse periods and peak frequencies among all possible pairs of the cereal-dwelling species: Z. pullula, Z. serpentina, Z. ribauti, Z. scutellaris, and Z. sohrab. In contrast, they were significantly different compared to Z. biroi (Z. biroi) did not show significant differences  acoustically and behaviourally distinct phases that are rigorously performed by the male before mating. The species-specific aspects of these signals appear to reside particularly in the second part of the courtship, which differs considerably for the five cereal-dwelling species and Z. biroi. The third part of the courtship may have some additional importance for Z. biroi; however, that could not be determined here. Buzzing produced by wing vibration during courtship has also been recorded for Dalbulus [Amrasca [Zyginidia species when the duet is performed to enable conspecific males and females to meet [Courtship appears to be the most complex part of the repertoire, as it is made of two  [Dalbulus spp. [Empoasca spp. [Considering the acoustic behaviour of leafhopper species, major affinities with Distant) , followelus spp.  and Emposca spp. . Other gsca spp. ,66,67,68Zyginidia species in the adult stage overwinter, and when they approach the winter season, they mate several times and do not lay eggs anymore. Evidence of this was given in [Some biological remarks may help in understanding some aspects of the reproductive behaviour of the species studied. In Italy, only females of these given in  considergiven in , does noDalbulus [Zyginidia, the collection of hybrids in the field has been reported in the literature in the hybrid zones of the following combinations: Z. pullula × Z. scutellaris . Moreover, further hybrid zones are envisaged for Z. pullula and Z. sohrab in northern Turkey and probably in other contact zones for these two species in Asia. Nothing is known about northern Africa, where Z. sohrab is present in the east [Z. scutellaris is present in the west [Z. biroi has been used for crossings in the laboratory too but did not show any positive results with any of the cereal-dwelling species. Its sympatry with Z. scutellaris in Sardinia [Z. serpentina in Sicily [Concerning hybrids and the studies on their acoustic behaviour in the literature, a similar but more complex case has been reported for Dalbulus . For Zyga Valley ); Z. pulpennines ,69); Z. the east  and Z. sthe west ,72. In tthe west . Z. biroSardinia ,74, soutSardinia , and norSardinia ,72, and n Sicily ,73,75, cZyginidia species do not show any pre-mating isolation mechanisms, and their host plants are also the same. A more thorough behavioural analysis of the mating behaviour and choice tests are needed. The fact that Z. pullula, Z. ribauti, and Z. scutellaris produce hybrids in the field when they come into contact requires an investigation of the post-mating reproductive barriers among all five cereal-dwelling species before their systematic validity can be considered. We do not know how many distinct biological species of Zyginidia exist in Italy and, in any case, preliminary enzyme system investigations have pointed out that phosphoglucomutase (PGM) and phosphoglucose isomerase (PGI) are useful tools to discriminate between species and hybrids, yielding a finer resolution for the species complex [Z. lineata from the Canary Islands in order to distinguish it from Z. biroi and of Z. servadeii Vidano, sympatric in Sicily with Z. biroi and Z. serpentina, to identify what pre-mating isolation mechanism exists for them.On the grounds of their acoustic behaviour, the five cereal-dwelling  complex . Further


Candida auris is an emerging pathogen predominantly isolated from immunocompromised patients, hospitalized for a long time. It inhabits the skin surfaces of patients causing ear,wound, and systemic infections; if not treated properly, it could lead to severe mortality. Apart from being a skin pathogen, C. auris colonizes the surfacesof medical devices. Medical devices are hospital tools and components often utilized for the diagnosis and treatment of diseases associated with human skin.The mechanism of survival and persistence of C. auris on medical devices has remained unclear and is a serious concern for clinicians.The persistence of C. auris on medical devices has deterred its effective elimination, hindered the treatment of infections, and increased its antifungal resistance.Evidence has shown that a few surface molecules on the cell wall of C. auris and the extracellular matrix of the biofilm are responsible for its persistence and exist as enablers.Due to the increased cases of ear, skin, and systemic infections as well as death resulting from the spread of C. auris in hospitals,there is a need to study these enablers. This review focused on the identification of the enablers and aimed to evaluate them in relation to their ability toinduce persistence in C. auris. In order to reduce the spread of or completely eliminate C. auris and its enablers in hospitals, the efficacy of disinfection and sterilization methods were compared. Candida auris, an emerging pathogen has been reported to cause life-threatening infections in hospitalized patients with severe death output due tothe development of resistance to most antifungal drugs [ C. auris in Japan, the pathogen has spread to other countries within and outside Asia [ C. auris in Iran, four Clades  had been identified in South Asia, East Asia,South Africa and South America respectively [ C. auris became rapid and spanned over 30 countries on six continents [ C. auris cases or death rate, however, on October 25, 2022,World Health Organization included C. auris among the four most dreaded fungal pathogens in its ‘fungal priority pathogens list’ alongside Cryptococcus neoformans, Aspergillus fumigatus, Candida albicans [ C. auris are not different from other Candida species [ C. auris infection [ l drugs  . It is l drugs  , 3. Afde Asia  . South de Asia  . Beforectively  . Among ctively   while Cctively  . Througtinents  . Globallbicans  . In thespecies  . Older fection  , 12 . C. auris [ C. auris are responsible for the colonization of medical devices. Biofilm in C. auris developsthrough several adaptive mechanisms which are dependent on their clades of origin [ C. auris tends to thrive and produce diseases that are perhaps detrimental to humans. Medical devices are equipment specially designed for the diagnosis and treatment of diseases in hospitals and are often associated with human skin.The contamination of medical devices and colonization of human skin promote the easy spread of . auris  . Its ab. auris  , 14. B origin  . Due toC. auris persistence in medical devices is still unclear, this review focused on the identification and examinationof some of the enablers in the cell wall and extracellular matrix of the biofilm that support the adherence and persistence of C. auris.Moreover, the efficacy of sterilization of medical devices was evaluated in the present study.Although the mechanism of C. auris on the skin and medical devices. The keywords used for the search include enablers of Candida auris,persistence of Candida auris, candidemia, medical devices. Other keyword used include virulence factors, epidemiology, risk factors, pathogenesis and treatment of Candida auris.The title and abstract of each article were properly read and downloaded before the screening. Articles written in English and recently published between 2015 and 2023 were used for this study.Original papers not written in English and lacking merit and irrelevant to the study were discarded.The authors searched original articles in PubMed, Science Direct, and Springer. The articles extracted were reviewed and focused on the enablersof the persistence of C. auris is an emerging fungus that colonizes and persists on the human host’s skin, causing ear, wound and bloodstream infections in hospitals.It can be isolated from blood, urine, ear and parts of the skin of infected patients [ C. auris is a problem for clinicians. Except for CHROMagar which produced pink colonies [ Candida species. Even the pink colonies on the CHROMagar plate werenever a confirmatory test for C. auris as C. haemulonii had similar coloured colonies [ C. auris, matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) and internal transcribed spacer (ITS)sequencing is often used which fortunately remains a gold standard [ C. auris, one distinguishing feature is its ability to survive under high salt and temperature conditions.It possesses phospholipase, proteinase, adherence, and biofilm, which are prominent virulence factors responsible for its pathogenicity [ C. albicans, it is haploid [ C. auris infections has been a serious problem as it is resistant to most frontline antifungals such as polyenes, azoles and echinocandins [ C. auris to only echinocandins, a death rate resulting from C. auris infection of about 40% has been recorded [ atients  . It haratients  , over 7atients  . Howeveolonies  , 18, solonies  . To contandard  , 19. Oenicity  , 7. Unhaploid   and doehaploid  . Treatmecorded  .Candida-related diseases in immunocompromised patients and persons making use of catheters of the biofilm,which enhances its attachment and persistence. devices  . This idevices  , metal devices  , or botdevices   even indevices  . As sta et al.   discoveC. auris on medical devices and/or the skin of animals or humans.Some authors believed that the mechanism of such action is unknown [ C. auris on medical devices did not correlate with its adaptation of the environment.Mitchell et al. [ There are different views on the persistence of unknown  , othersunknown   suggestunknown   had a c et al.   and Al- et al.   suggestCandida spp., C. auris is notisolated from the enteric region of the human host, rather, they could be found in the skin or mucosal regions where they cause infections, should the integrity of the skin surface be tampered with [ C. auris and its biofilm the needed environment to thrive [ C. auris gains by attaching to medical devices, as it is considered that the biofilms derivenutrients from the skin surface while surviving the high salinity and temperature associated with it [ In most immunocompromised patients, it is present not as normal flora, but, as a contaminant. Unlike other ed with  . Biofiled with  . Direct thrive  . Theref thrive  , 41. Twith it  , 42. Awith it   makes tC. auris on medical devices and resistance to antifungal treatments are yet to be studied.However, the major contributors of C. auris persistence are surface molecules present on ECM of the biofilm or cell wall.ECM is rich in polysaccharides which the organisms rely on for structure, protection and of course, resistance to most antifungals [ C. auris to adhereand persist not only on medical devices, but also on skin layer.The mechanisms that possibly encourage the long-time persistence of fungals  . From tCandida [ Candida spp. β-1,3-D-glucan forms the motif through which other linkage groups attach.They are synthesized by glucan synthases, enzymes located inside the cell membrane through the encoding of FKS1 and FKS2 genes.Furthermore, glucan-altering enzymes play vital roles in delivering β-1,3-glucan to the extracellular matrix from the cells [ Generally, the cell wall of fungi is composed of chitin, mannans, glucans, proteins or their derivatives  . These Candida  . Glucane cells  . They fe cells  . Hence,C. auris. When these structural motifsare destroyed, C. auris becomes susceptible to antifungals [ Candida species is that the mechanism of immune evasion in C. auris differs from other Candida species [ C. auris in medical devices is yet to be discovered despite several attempts after its emergence in 2009.Some authors indirectly linked the enablers of persistence to biofilm and cell wall [ C. auris persistence.Therefore, glucans, which are among the components of the cell wall, are delineated as one of the enablers of C. auris [ C. auris since they are among the compositionsof extracellular matrix in C. auris biofilm and biofilm is linked to the survival of C. auris in the environment and medical devices and provides resistance to some antifungals [ The cell walls apart from protecting to the yeast cells are also responsible for evading host immunological response, a mechanism that provides resistance to antifungal drugs in fungals   .One cospecies  . The rell wall  . Howeve. auris  . Furthefungals  , 50 .Candida spp. Yeast cells generally use adhesins for effective attachment to their human host and adherence to medical devicesthrough the formation of biofilms  groups; epithelial adhesion protein (EPA) ispresent in C. glabrata while Saccharomyces cerevisiae is known to have flocculins  [ C. auris are not yet clear, some researchers believe that since they share similar phylogeny with C. albicans andother Candida species, their genetic characteristics should differ appreciably [ C. auris possess Als3, a homologue of Als5 in C. albicans. In C. auris, Als3 protein was detected by C. albicans antibodies.Also, adhesin genes such as ALS3 and ALS4, ALS5 as well as IFF4, CSA1, PGA52, PGA7, HYR3 were discovered tobe present in a developed biofilm [ C. auris than in non-aggregate forming types [ Adhesins are a group of receptor proteins present in cell surfaces of microorganisms which promote interaction between a specific pathogen and the host.They are usually present in bacteria, mould and yeasts including biofilms . They ard FLO9)  , 52. Aeciably  . C. aurbiofilm  , 55. Tg types   . C. auris because they are responsible for biofilm development and confer resistance to antifungals [ in vivo study suggested that attachment and persistence of biofilm on catheter was enabled by adhesinproteins of Als3 in C. auris; in the same vein, Kean et al. [ ALS1 and ALS5 adhesin genes were responsible and enable adherence and persistence of biofilm of C. auris on plastics, steel metal, and paper.They induce persistence in fungals  . For infungals  , in an  et al.   in a trNGR1 gene that represses the morphological expression of hyphae in C. albicans either bydeletion of the gene or by overexpression [ Candida species, however, its functions differ. It regulates the ability to switch from yeast to hypha insome Candida species except in C. auris; it also regulates biofilm developmental stages in C. albicans [ C. albicans and C. auris have NGR1 transcripts, a gene responsible for coding Ngr1p.In an experiment to determine the surface proteins of C. auris, performed by [ C. auris and C. albicans have similar Ngr1p protein components and are mainly located on thecell wall surfaces and ECM of the biofilm. Interestingly, Ngr1p was present in all the five clades  of C. auris [ C. auris does not synthesize a true hypha, the function of Ngr1p in that regard is yet to be ascertained [ C. auris on surfacesof skin and medical devices and further promote resistance toantifungals and recalcitrance to disinfection (Ngr1P is a zinc-finger domain molecule encoded by ression  , 63. Nlbicans  . Howevermed by  , it was. auris  , which rtained  . It is rtained   and othrtained  , therefnfection .C. auris persistence in the skin, medical devices and other surfaces [ C. auris include proper use and management of medical devices in hospitals by health workers,total surveillance following the WHO recommended standard, and accurate application of transmission-based safeguards and sanitization of thehospital environment other than only the decontamination of medical devices only [ The use of disinfectants has been reported as an effective agent in eliminating urfaces  , 65. Hurfaces   health es only   . C. auris [ C. auris.Hospital environment as well as medical devices have been implicated as major vehicles for the survival and persistence of . auris  , 61; t. auris  . Moreov. auris  , 57. T. auris  , rather. auris  . ProperCandida auris infections can easily be transmitted by contact with contaminated animate and inanimate surfaces within the hospital environment (C. auris on medical devices. The glucans protect the yeast from environmental stresswhile adhesins and Ngr1P control biofilm development and promote antifungal resistance. C. auris infections spread through skin contact withinfected medical devices. To treat these infections, first we need to deal with the enablers present on the cell walls of C. auris and its biofilm.Going forward, instead of disinfecting medical devices only as often practiced in some hospitals, it will be most effective if total sterilizationof medical surfaces is employed, as this is sustainable and will help reduce the spread of C. auris. ironment .The enaWe thank Abia State University, Uturu We thank Abia State University, Uturu.Conceptualization: K.C.N. Literature search: K.C.N., and C.D.U. Critical review and modification: O.C.U. Manuscript preparation: K.CN., O.C.U., and N.E. Illustrations: N.E., and K.C.N Proof reading: O.C.U and K.C.N. All authors provided critical revisions for important intellectual content and also read and approved the final manuscript.We declare no conflict of interest.This research was not funded with any grant from any agency.


HighlightsHenipavirus that has been found in shrews, bats, and rats.Langya virus is a The Langya virus’s origin is still unknown.Henipaviruses do not have any approved therapies.There is currently no evidence that the virus may spread from human to human.Dear Editor,Henipavirus that has been found in shrews, bats, rats, and other small animals. Some studies also reveal that animals such as dogs and goats have natural antibodies to the Langya virusParamyxoviridae, the Langya henipavirus (LayV) has evolutionary ties with Nipah virus and Hendra virusLangya virus is a The New England Journal of Medicine. Thirty-five persons in China’s Shandong and Henan provinces contracted the LayV between December 2018 and May 2021On 4 August, it was initially reported in Contact tracing was performed on nine of the affected persons, and after contacting 15 close contacts of each patient, the researchers found no evidence of LayV infectionScientists investigated different animals for the presence of the Langya virus to determine the origins of the infection. They discovered viral evidence in goats and dogs, but the shrew was the principal source of the Langya virus. The virus was found in 27% of the shrew samplesThe Langya virus’s origin is still unknown. However, it is most likely passed from animal to human. Because the LayV virus RNA has been identified mostly in shrews, they may be its natural hostsThose infected have reported the following symptoms: fever, fatigue, cough, anorexia, myalgia, nausea, headache, and vomiting. Furthermore, 35% of those contaminated had impaired liver function, and 8% of those infected had impaired renal function. According to doctors, the virus might cause a decrease in the number of platelets in the blood, significant damage to the kidneys and liver, and possibly deathSerum seropositivity was found in 2% of goats and 5% of dogs in a sample of domestic animalsHenipaviruses do not have any approved therapies. In animal experiments, experts have only tested a few antiviral alternatives. There is also no particular vaccination for the Langya virus. However, ribavirin may be an effective therapy. Doctors often use this medicine to treat viral infections that have no other therapeutic options. Ribavirin is effective against RNA viruses, including those that cause respiratory problems. Studies demonstrate that ribavirin is effective for both Hendra and Nipah viruses. The malaria medicine chloroquine may also be useful in treating these two conditionsThis unusual virus is poorly understood, and experts predict that the number of verified cases will rise. There is currently no evidence that the virus may spread from human to human. More study is required to determine the virus’s entire scope, its mode of dissemination, and whether it has already reached China and the surrounding region.Not applicable.There are no conflicts of interest.No funding was received.R.A.: conceptualization, data curation, writing – original draft preparation, reviewing, and editing. R.D. and H.C.: data curation, writing – original draft preparation, reviewing, and editing. T.B.E.: writing – reviewing and editing, visualization, and supervision.1. Name of the registry: not applicable.2. Unique identifying number or registration ID: not applicable.3. Hyperlink to your specific registration (must be publicly accessible and will be checked): not applicable.Talha Bin Emran, PhD, Associate Professor, Department of Pharmacy, BGC Trust University Bangladesh, Chittagong 4381, Bangladesh. Tel: +880 303 356 193, fax: +880 312 550 224. https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3188-2272Not commissioned, internally peer-reviewed.The data in this correspondence article is not sensitive in nature and is accessible in the public domain. The data is therefore available and not of a confidential nature.


Food Science & Nutrition, 2022 (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/fsn3.3107). The above article, published online on October 20, 2022 in Wiley Online Library (https://wileyonlinelibrary.com), has been retracted by agreement between the authors, the journal Editor in Chief Y. Martin Lo, and Wiley Periodicals LLC. The retraction has been agreed due to an error in which the incorrect manuscript was sent to the production team and published instead of the manuscript that the journal had reviewed and accepted.Effects of major ingredients  levels on physiochemical, rheological, and sensory attributes of walnut spread,


Dear Editor,Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is ‘an acquired degeneration of the retina due to the modification of the Bruch’s membrane and the retinal pigment epithelium’The current FDA-approved treatment for both nAMD and DME is intravitreal anti-VEGF injections, including Aflibercept, Ranibizumab, Bevacizumab, and Brolucizumab, which inhibit neovascular proliferationet al.A recent study by Khanani Since both the diseases are highly prevalent and major liabilities to healthcare worldwide, it is imperative that we take prompt action to reduce not only the disease burden but also the treatment burden. Bi-specific treatment like Faricimab will result in more efficient treatment with fewer dose requirements, reducing the number of visits and therefore decreasing the overall treatment burden on the patient and provider, both in terms of cost and time. This may promote long-term adherence to the treatment, which might eventually improve the overall visual outcomes for both nAMD and DME. Faricimab may thus be a valuable contribution to the ophthalmological community. Therefore, it is imperative that further studies be promptly conducted, as this would undoubtedly be a positive development.Not applicable as no patient data involved.Written informed consent not applicable as no study participants are involved.There are no sources of funding.O.A.S. and S.A. conceived the idea. G.S. and K.K. performed a literature review and wrote the manuscript. M.S.A. and I.U. reviewed the manuscript and critically revised it to the final form. All authors approved the final version of the manuscript.The authors declare no conflict of interest.Name of the registry: NA.Unique identifying number or registration ID: NA.Hyperlink to your specific registration (must be publicly accessible and will be checked): NA.Muhammad Sohaib Asghar.Not applicable.Externally peer reviewed, not commissioned.


Synanthedon myopaeformis (Borkhausen) (Lepidoptera: Sesiidae), and its parasitoid Liotryphon crassiseta (Thomson) (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae) in yellow Moericke traps. The flight time for both species was correlated and fell in the first half of July. However, the correlation between the occurrences of both species was statistically significant only in 2008, when most specimens were caught. A total of 7960 S. myopaeformis were caught, with a 2:1 male:female sex ratio, and 415 adult L. crassiseta. No correlation between the numbers of S. myopaeformis and L. crassiseta in relation to age, variety of trees, or orchard surface area was noted. Significant differences between the catches of S. myopaeformis and L. crassiseta were reported in particular years. Furthermore, clear differences in the yields of S. myopaeformis and L. crassiseta between traps situated in the orchard and those on its edges were recorded, particularly in the orchard surrounded by cultivated fields. Yellow pan-traps could be used more widely in order to monitor and control the abundance of S. myopaeformis, especially by catching its females.This study was conducted in 2008–2010 in three apple orchards in western Poland and involved a massive catch of the red-belted clearwing moth,  Synanthedon myopaeformis (Borkhausen) (Lepidoptera: Sesiidae), was regarded as a secondary pests of apple trees, weakened by other factors until the 1960s. Since that time, it has become a significant pest, which can be attributed to changes in apple production technology , mainly the apple tree, Malus, but sometimes also Pyrus spp., Crategus spp., Sorbus spp., Prunus spp., Eriobotrya japonica Thunb., and several other closely related plant species such as Hippophae rhamnoides L.  (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae: Pimplinae), reported from this host by Herting , significant catches of both sexes of The research was conducted in 2008–2010 in the following orchards located in the vicinity of Czempiń, Wielkopolska (western Poland):1. Apple orchard I, Głuchowo . Forty-hectare area. Research was conducted in 3-hectare plots with 15-year-old apple trees of the following cultivars: Gala, Ligol, Cortland, Paulared, Red Delicious, and Golden Delicious. The orchard was surrounded by cultivated fields of sweet corn in 2008, oats in 2009, and triticale in 2010.EvonymoPrunetum spinosae and Querco-Ulmetum forest, herb communities, and ruderal plant communities.2. Apple orchard II, Gorzyczki I . Twentyhectare area. Research was conducted in 5hectare plots with 15-year-old apple trees of the following cultivars: Paulared, Red Delicious, Golden Delicious, and Jonagold. The orchard was surrounded by shrubberies, namely thicket phytocenoses of Rhamno-Prunetea class.3. Apple orchard III, Gorzyczki II . Tenhectare area. Research was conducted in 2hectare plots with 20-year-old Golden Delicious apple trees. The orchard bordered a road overgrown with plants typical of the In all the studied orchards, the trees grew 1.4 m apart from each other in rows 3 m apart. Between the trees, fallow land was maintained and the rows of trees were divided by swards. The orchards followed integrated fruit production policy.st to October 31st in each study year. One hundred and sixty-two samples were analyzed in the study of the flight period of S. myopaeformis from May 10th to August 20th . For L. crassiseta, 372 samples were analyzed from April 1st to October 31st. Nonparametric statistics  were used because data exihibited an abnormal distribution that a data transformation could not fix. All the statistical analyses were performed using the Statistica software program . Average monthly temperatures and precipitation data were obtained from the meteorological station in Turwia (western Poland).During the study, adults were caught in Moericke yellow traps . The traS. myopaeformis was observed in the orchards. A total of 7960 specimens of the species were caught with a 2:1 male:female sex ratio. Also, a proportionally high abundance of its parasitoid, L. crassiseta, was recorded, with a total of 415 specimens. All the studied orchards yielded similar abundances of S. myopaeformis . In apple orchard III, where pans were located in the orchard and by the road, no significant differences were found .The biggest differences were noted in apple orchard I, where the orchard was surrounded by fields. Smaller or no differences occurred when the orchards were surrounded by more varied trees, bushes, and herbs. Statistical significance was found for the catches in apple orchard I, where traps were placed in the orchard and in the field . However, Dunn's post hoc test showed that the differences between the catches in 2009 and 2010 were insignificant.Significant statistical differences in the catches in particular years were found for this species: H = 20.81; N = 372; L. crassiseta in the orchard and on its edges were similar to those of S. myopaeformis , while no significant difference was indicated in 2009  or 2010 . The lack of correlation in the last two years might be explained by a low abundance of L. crassiseta.An analysis of correlations between the occurrences of S. myopaeformis occurred from May to August, with a peak in the first twenty days of July in all three years of the study  of S. myopaeformis caught were females. However, the results of the present study yielded a better-founded sex ratio than those that used PEAA as an additional attractant.The most recent research done in Hungary  indicateS. myopaeformis were recorded in 2008, and a significant drop was seen in the following two years. The lower number of specimens in 2009 and 2010 could have resulted from factors such as weather conditions . Male V. polistiformes prefer green and yellow pheromone-baited traps, but do not appear to distinguish between these two colors, which have a similar spectral reflectance , in which males were caught in pheromone-baited traps , as well as earlier results obtained by other researchers  and Cydia pommonela L. (As was confirmed by the research, the peak occurrence of earchers . The pea of July . Thus, t Germany . HoweverGeorgiev . Georgieonela L. .S. myopaeformis in yellow traps shows that yellow traps are an effective and inexpensive method of monitoring and controlling the pest abundance. Furthermore, yellow pans catch both males and females, as opposed to pheromone-baited traps, which catch only males. Yellow pans are also an effective method to study the population structure, time, and spatial distribution of S. myopaeformis and accompanying parasite entomofauna.The present study had the largest recorded catch of Sesiidae in yellow pans. Such an abundant catch of S. myopaeformis. In some cases, a combination of mass trapping and mating disruption would be effective, such as mass trapping of female moths by using kairomones, while using sex pheromones to disrupt male orientation to females (This method could be even more effective when combined with additional atractant, e.g., PEAA, and could be a useful female-targeted lure for  females .