Lactuca serriola L. (wild lettuce) is a highly invasive C3 weed in many countries, including Australia, Canada, and the USA. This weed is a severe threat to agricultural systems, especially in crops grown with reduced or no-tillage approaches, which commonly include wheat, cereals and pulses. Owing to the vertical orientation of its leaves in the north-south plane and its root architecture, L. serriola can maintain high water use efficiency under drought conditions, giving it the ability to expand its range under a drying climate. Each plant can produce up to 100,000 seeds which have no primary dormancy and form a short-term seedbank lasting up to three years. Most seedlings emerge in autumn and overwinter as a rosette, with a small flush of emergence in spring depicting staggered germination. Research into control methods for this weed has been performed, and these methods include chemical herbicides applied alone and in combination, the establishment of plant competition, tillage, mowing and bioherbicide. Herbicides can provide effective control when applied in the seedling or rosette stage; however, spring germination is difficult to control, as it skips the rosette stage. Some biotypes are now resistant to ALS inhibitor and synthetic auxins, causing concern regarding using herbicides. A dedicated integrated management plan for 3–4 years is recommended for the control of this troublesome species. This review will explore the biology, ecology, distribution, current control techniques and previous research on this weed, allowing us to make recommendations for its future research and management. Lactuca originated in the Mediterranean Basin, with Lactuca serriola L. being the most common and widely distributed species of this genus [Lactuca, incorporates the Latin word “lac” for milk, referring to the milky sap produced by the plant. L. serriola is commonly known as prickly lettuce, wild lettuce or compass plant, and belongs to the family Asteraceae. It featured in an assessment of the top 20 national residual weeds in Australian agriculture, affecting the yield and revenue return of canola, pulses and winter cereals crops [The genus is genus ,2. The gls crops . It is sls crops . In addils crops ,4.Lactuca serriola, a C3 species, is also a significant agricultural and environmental weed in many countries other than Australia. It is mostly distributed on roadsides, grassy ditches, dust-heaps and ruderal areas, and is also found as weed communities in agricultural crops and native pastures [L. serriola can reach a height of 2 m and, owing to its deep tap root system, is a tough competitor for growing crops or pastures [L. serriola causes yield losses of up to 10% at low densities of 0.2–1.2 plants m−2 and up to 80% at concentrations greater than 50 plants m−2 [pastures . L. serrpastures . By compants m−2 .L. serriola flowers during the grain harvesting season in Australia, and as the flower buds are of the same size as the wheat grain, it is difficult to remove them from the harvested grain, thus heavily reducing the value of the yield due to the presence of these foreign materials [In addition to yield loss, this weed species is also known to reduce grain quality and harvesting efficiency. During harvesting, the milky sap produced by the plant, which contains latex and rubber, mixes with the grains, increasing the grain moisture content and contaminating the yield. It also causes significant problems with harvesting machinery ,9. L. seaterials ,10.Lactuca serriola has the ability to withstand environmental stress, especially that of limited water acquisition, due to its root architecture [L. serriola to maintain high water use efficiency under drought conditions makes it an effective coloniser, allowing it to complete its life cycle and to produce a high number of viable seeds even under drought conditions [L. serriola makes it a probable source of agriculturally important genes to optimise resource acquisition by cultivated lettuce, which would lead to a reduction in the currently necessary commercial water and fertiliser inputs.itecture . The abinditions . Its abiL. serriola, (ii) the biology of the species (in order to understand its strengths and weaknesses), (iii) its life cycle, as this can identify when the most effective time is to undertake control activities in order to limit its reproduction and further spread, (iv) its seed ecology, this aspect being vital to its management (because the species spreads only via seeds), and (v) current control strategies and their associated problems.This global literature review focuses on (i) the geographical distribution of Lactuca serriola is a Western Eurasian meridional-temperate species, having a synanthropic worldwide distribution whose exact boundary of original distribution area has not been determined [L. serriola is summarised in termined . This spL. serriola is limited by cold extreme temperatures. This species is found from lowland to mountain regions, extending up to 1560 m in Switzerland, 1750 m in Turkey, 3100 m in Afghanistan, 3600 m in the Northern Himalayas and 2358 m in the United States of America [From a climatic viewpoint, the northern boundary in the Northern hemisphere of  America , whilst  America .L. serriola has rapidly become invasive since 1960 in the western parts of the country, and by 2006 was seen to occupy at least 60% of the area [L. serriola populations were found growing in wet habitats, such as wet ground, ditches, and drains, during a study of the eco geographical distribution in Slovenia [L. serriola populations in Sweden, where they were usually found on gravel or amid stones in dry, sunny areas [L. serriola.In the Netherlands, the area . ApproxiSlovenia . This isny areas , demonstLactuca serriola was first brought to Ontario in the late 1890s, and it has since spread over most of Southern Canada via seeds along roadsides, railways, and watercourses. Until the development of reduced tillage practices, which allowed L. serriola to thrive in crops, it remained a weed of roadsides and waste ground. Except for Newfoundland, L. serriola is now found in most of Canada’s provinces; however, it is rare in Prince Edward Island, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick [runswick . It is prunswick .L. serriola was found in all of the states visited (16 states) in a research study undertaken in the United States of America [L. serriola was more commonly found in disturbed habitats, such as the edges of roads and pavements, parking lots and near gas stations, road ditches, and ruderal locations with fertile soil, which is consistent with its position as a weed in North America [L. serriola widely [Except for New York,  visited 6 states  America . This sha widely ,13,21.Lactuca serriola was first recorded in the Upper Hunter region of New South Wales, in 1899 [ in 1899 , and is  in 1899 . It is cL. serriola is commonly a weed in agricultural areas and habitat areas, it is also regarded as an environmental weed in Western Australia, Victoria and the Northern Territory.In Southern New South Wales, this weed has increasingly become a problem in cereal and lucerne pastures, but is also of concern in fallows, gardens, orchards, roadsides and waste lands . While LLactuca serriola is found growing along with wheat, cereals and pulses in Victoria and South Australia [L. serriola in dryland crops, such as wheat and chickpeas, was reported in the Wimmera region in Victoria [−2 shortly after emergence, but then reduced to seven plants m2 in fallow and two plants m2 in a wheat crop. L. serriola plants are more susceptible to dying before stem elongation and had higher mortality when they had competition from a crop compared with no competition. L. serriola has spread throughout the Wimmera region, as the production of seeds is mainly after crop harvest, when the only control is by using grazing sheep [ustralia . An incrVictoria . The emeVictoria . The weeng sheep .Weeds are highly adaptable to new environments due to their variable traits and considerable genetic diversity, which are the key factors in their widespread success and distribution. Invasive species have an advantage over the native flora, as weeds can adapt to a new environment in as little as 20 generations, whilst it may have taken the native flora hundreds or even thousands of years to adapt ,24. In tL. serriola achenes from four different countries—the Czech Republic, Germany, the United Kingdom, and the Netherlands. They found that the largest achenes with the longest beaks were found on sandy substrata, whereas the achenes from sandy loam habitats were thinner and had a higher number of ribs. They found that the achene morphology was significantly correlated with the three eco-geographic features of longitude, latitude and the soil texture of the habitats [L. serriola [L. serriola grows in a wide range across several continents, they are expected to have spatial variations due to different types of soil, moisture level and the prevailing weather conditions. However, there is little research to suggest that there are any notable phenotypic variations between overseas populations of L. serriola. Furthermore, there has been no genetic analysis to identify the differences in a population’s gene pool, which is unfortunate, because identifying any phenotypic or genotypic differences in regional and international populations could assist with more effective weed management.Novotná et al.  examinedhabitats . Signifiserriola . As L. sL. serriola, highlighted in The global distribution of Lactuca serriola is distinguished by its leaves, which have spiny toothed margins and a row of spines on the underside of the leaf and along the midrib, as shown in Lactuca serriola is an annual plant which reproduces exclusively by seeds and dies after flowering [lowering . It is alowering ,19. The lowering ,9. The rlowering . Flowerilowering . The lealowering .L. serriola is sometimes known as a “compass plant.” This pattern of non-random leaf orientation may be seen in both the lobed and unlobed varieties of L. serriola [L. serriola discovered that fresh leaves twisted at the base due to asymmetric growth and epinastic movement [Since its stem leaves are held vertically on a north-south plane, serriola . Studiesmovement . They prmovement . Furthermovement . The caumovement .L. serriola occur: forma serriola with deeply lobed cauline leaves and forma integrifolia with unlobed leaves [Based on the lobes of the leaves, two forms of d leaves ,31, and d leaves . Some phd leaves . Both thd leaves , and it d leaves ,33.L. serriola is largely controlled by temperature and the quality of light [L. serriola make different contributions to the population as a whole [The germination of of light , and it of light ,27,34. A a whole . It is sRegardless of the germination date, the highest levels of mortality occurred soon after germination, which reduced drastically after the beginning of stem extension . This peL. serriola exists over the winter as a seed or rosette and the stem elongation starts in spring, which is the period of the most vegetative growth [L. serriola in Australia.e growth . The seee growth . Table 1L. Serriola [The time of seedling emergence had a marked effect on the reproductive output of Serriola . It is iSerriola . SeedlinSerriola ,35.L. serriola which had been grown with no competition had 15 lateral branches arising from lower parts of the stem, while most of the plants, when grown in competition with the wheat crop in the Wimmera region of Victoria, Australia, only had a single stem [L. serriola reached a height of about 712 mm and had a density of 1.1 plants m−2 when growing with wheat crops, whilst the density of L. serriola was 7.6 plants m−2 on unsown fallow, with the density staying constant throughout the year [It was observed that gle stem . Branchigle stem . It was the year .L. serriola can withstand drought [L. serriola also produces a deeper root system compared to Lactuca sativa (cultivated lettuce) with more laterals near the root tip and 50% of its total root length at the 20 to 80 cm depth. This was confirmed in a greenhouse experiment conducted on L. serriola and cultivated lettuce [L. serriola. This was in sharp contrast to the biomass production, leaf water status and photosynthesis of L. sativa, all of which were significantly reduced.Owing to the leaf orientation and root architecture,  drought . The ver drought . L. serr lettuce ,37. GallLactuca serriola is self-compatible and predominantly self-pollinated [Lactuca seldom occurs, and the species are highly autogamous [llinated . Intersptogamous . Each fltogamous . Each fltogamous . Mejías togamous  studied togamous ,39.Vernalisation of the rosette or the imbibed seeds reduced the time taken from emergence to flowering, and the effect of vernalisation differed with the growth stage . BecauseLactuca serriola is spread by achenes (cypselae) and the number of seeds produced is proportional to the plant height [t height . On avert height ,42. The t height . Over tht height  and Israt height .L. serriola produced 2200 to 67,000 seeds in a soybean crop, whereas the seed production increased to 87,000 seeds per plant in the non-crop areas adjacent to the fields [L. serriola plants without competition in Australia produced an average of 48,000 seeds per plant, whereas the number of seeds decreased as the competition increased [In a study carried out by Prince and Carter  in five e fields . L. serrncreased  reportedL. serriola are distinguished from each other and from achenes of other Lactuca spp. by their morphology [L. serriola f. integrifolia, L. serriola f. serriola achenes are shorter, thinner, shorter beaked and have a lower length/width index ratio [The average seed weight is approximately 0.6 mg, with a range from 0.45 to 0.8 mg ,42,45. Trphology . In compex ratio .Lactuca serriola achenes have a pappus  a relatively high frequency of initial resistance in untreated populations, (ii) the effective control of L. serriola at low rates of sulfonylurea herbicides, and (iii) the persistence of sulfonylureas in the soil due to the alkaline soils in the area [In South Australia, resistance to sulfonylurea was first reported in 1994 in sulfuron . The resthe area .L. serriola has a long tap root system [L. serriola during non-crop periods [L. serriola rosettes are easier to control [L. serriola for large infestations, since sheep and goats can effectively reduce its population. However, young plants appear to be toxic and can cause pulmonary emphysema in cattle feeding on them [L. serriola is not an option for long-term control. Given the mobility of L. serriola seeds, it has been suggested that controlling plants near the boundary of a seeded crop field could help limit the generation and spread of a significant number of seeds into the region [As t system , it is e periods . Because control . Grazing on them . Rosette on them , and thee region ,39.L. serriola and have been found to have potential [Members of the Brassicaceae family contain glucosinolates, a class of secondary plant metabolites which have been tested as a bioherbicide for otential . This suL. serriola are easily managed by competition. In a study conducted by Weaver et al. [L. serriola, with only 25% to 30% of the plants surviving the harvest, and later when flowering, producing less than 4000 seeds in untreated stubble. The administration of non-selective herbicides is possible when winter wheat is rotated with spring crops or summer fallow. Control during planting resulted in the lowest in-crop populations of L. serriola and the lowest crop yield losses [Seedlings and rosettes of r et al.  in a wind losses .L. serriola. According to the literature, the suggested method of management and control is to firstly manually remove small and/or isolated infestations, ensuring the entire plant is removed, especially the taproot. Next, a combination of herbicides should be used during the seedling or rosette stage of L. serriola, as it is a most effective practice. However, research has shown that L. serriola can increase in abundance after effective control the previous year, indicating that a one-off management strategy is insufficient in controlling this weed [L. serriola.It has been widely suggested that to reduce the dependence on the use of herbicides, integrated weed management, which is a holistic weed control approach developed by integrating different weed control methods , should be introduced worldwide for the effective control of his weed . AttentiL. serriola to establish itself in a wide range of environmental conditions in numerous countries is key to its effective establishment and propagation [L. serriola is capable of expanding rapidly into new locations and becoming dense in the existing locations due to its invasive and aggressive traits. This species has the capacity to invade many areas in Australia, as it can germinate in a range of temperatures when sufficient moisture is available. As L. serriola seeds are wind-borne, herbicide resistance can spread rapidly to become more pronounced in the near future, especially as the area of herbicide resistance has increased in South Australia. It is agreed that future research is required to use integrated weed management to control L. serriola and not rely solely on alternative herbicides to control the spread of current herbicide resistance.The ability of pagation ,62. L. sL. serriola’s staggered germination which enables some plants to avoid the effects of herbicides commonly applied to cereal and grain legume crops [L. serriola on crops.Many examples of spread have apparently been assisted by me crops . Future L. serriola recommends that it is highly possible to control this species with a dedicated management program for 3–4 years where no new seed should be added into the soil seedbank. Since more than 90% of surface-placed seeds emerge in the first year after burial, early management is especially important in the first year of infestation. However, weeds along fence lines and along roadsides should be managed carefully, as the light-weight seeds generated by L. serriola plants in nearby non-cropping areas can quickly reinfest clean paddocks.Finally, the short seed bank persistence of


Background and Objectives: Lactobacillus reuteri DSM 17938 (L. reuteri) is a probiotic that can colonize different human body sites, including primarily the gastrointestinal tract, but also the urinary tract, the skin, and breast milk. Literature data showed that the administration of L. reuteri can be beneficial to human health. The aim of this review was to summarize current knowledge on the role of L. reuteri in the management of gastrointestinal symptoms, abdominal pain, diarrhea and constipation, both in adults and children, which are frequent reasons for admission to the emergency department (ED), in order to promote the best selection of probiotic type in the treatment of these uncomfortable and common symptoms. Materials and Methods: We searched articles on PubMed® from January 2011 to January 2021. Results: Numerous clinical studies suggested that L. reuteri may be helpful in modulating gut microbiota, eliminating infections, and attenuating the gastrointestinal symptoms of enteric colitis, antibiotic-associated diarrhea  infection), irritable bowel syndrome, inflammatory bowel disease, and chronic constipation. In both children and in adults, L. reuteri shortens the duration of acute infectious diarrhea and improves abdominal pain in patients with colitis or inflammatory bowel disease. It can ameliorate dyspepsia and symptoms of gastritis in patients with HP infection. Moreover, it improves gut motility and chronic constipation. Conclusion: Currently, probiotics are widely used to prevent and treat numerous gastrointestinal disorders. In our opinion, L. reuteri meets all the requirements to be considered a safe, well-tolerated, and efficacious probiotic that is able to contribute to the beneficial effects on gut-human health, preventing and treating many gastrointestinal symptoms, and speeding up the recovery and discharge of patients accessing the emergency department. Lactobacillus reuteri DSM 17938, recently renamed Limosilactobacillus reuteri (L. reuteri), is a probiotic well-identified for its beneficial effects on some gastrointestinal diseases [L. reuteri DSM 17938, obtained through the removal of antibiotic resistance gene-carrying plasmids from Lactobacillus reuteri ATCC 55730 [Lactobacillus, which includes many other gram-positive oxygen tolerant fermentative bacteria such as L. acidophilus, L. bulgaricus, L. casei and L. rhamnosus [diseases ,3. The mdiseases . This sthamnosus .L. reuteri can colonize different human body sites, including primarily the gastrointestinal tract, but also the vagina [L. reuteri adheres to the intestinal epithelium, producing proteins able to bind with the mucus, making it tough for pathogen microorganisms [L. Reuteri produces antimicrobial molecules and promotes the development and the functionality of regulatory T cells, strengthening the gut barrier, and decreasing the microbial translocation from the intestinal lumen to the tissue, as reported by studies conducted on animal models [L. reuteri has multiple beneficial effects on gastrointestinal symptoms, on gut infections, HP eradication, antibiotic-associated diarrhea, inflammatory bowel syndrome (IBS), inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), and colorectal cancer [L. reuteri in the management of gastrointestinal disorders, namely diarrhea and constipation, which are frequent reasons for admission to the ED, in order to promote the best selection of probiotic type, directly in the emergency setting, for the treatment of these uncomfortable and common symptoms.e vagina . Recentlrganisms  to enterrganisms . Moreovel models , on humal models  and in vl models . Literatl models , using gl cancer ,12,13. Il cancer . It can l cancer , with beL. reuteri in the intestines of healthy individuals, its role in regulating gut microbiota and mucosal homeostasis, in shaping the intestinal host immune system, and in ameliorating intestinal inflammation in pathological conditions, such as acute watery diarrhea [L. reuteri restores the balanced composition of human microbiota communities, and is useful both in the treatment of acute watery diarrhea and in the prevention of new episodes of diarrhea, including after prolonged antibiotic treatments [L. reuteri in acute watery diarrhea in children and in rotavirus gastroenteritis. These authors conducted a randomized controlled clinical trial, enrolling 86 children, between 6 and 36 months of age, who tested positive for rotavirus. They randomized children to receive either 1010 or 107 colony-forming units (CFU) of L. reuteri or a placebo once a day for 5 days. They showed that the use of L. reuteri shortened the duration of the acute watery diarrhea with a dose-related effect. Indeed, the mean duration of acute watery diarrhea was 1.5 days in the group taking a large dosage of L. reuteri, 1.9 days in the group taking a small dosage, and 2.5 days in the group taking the placebo. By the second day of treatment with L. reuteri, the acute watery diarrhea persisted among 48% of those who took the large dosage, 70% of those who took the small dosage, and 80% of those treated with the placebo. Francavilla et al. [L. reuteri group and 34 in the placebo group, reported that supplementation with L. reuteri, at a dosage of 4 × 108 CFU/day for 7 days, reduced the duration of acute watery diarrhea, with the maximum effect on the second and third day, in children aged between 3 months and 3 years, without reported side effects. Dinleyici et al. [L. reuteri was able to decrease the duration of acute watery diarrhea up to 15 h in children aged between 3 months and 5 years. Moreover, it was able to reduce the length of hospital stay. After two days of treatment with L. reuteri, ~55% of children were diarrhea-free vs. only 15% of children in the control group, with a greater effectiveness of the intervention between 48 and 72 h after using five drops containing 108 CFU L. reuteri, and with a safe, well-tolerated and effective profile in the pediatric outpatient setting [L. reuteri at a dosage ranging from 1 × 108 to 4 × 108 CFU daily for 5–7 days, was surprisingly low. L. reuteri was able to reduce the duration of diarrhea by one day with the maximum beneficial effect at day two. Even if the studies they analyzed were heterogeneous for the duration and the dosage of L. reuteri, the authors confirmed the beneficial effects of this probiotic for the treatment and prevention of acute watery diarrhea. Szymański et al. [L. reuteri, at a dosage of 2 × 108 CFU for 5 days, could help in the management of acute watery diarrhea in children, shortening the duration of hospitalization. They collected data on about 99 children aged <5 years with acute gastroenteritis (liquid stool) lasting no longer than five days, and an increase in the frequency of evacuations (≥3 evacuations/day), demonstrating that the administration of L. reuteri vs. a placebo, in addition to standard rehydration therapy, reduced the duration of hospitalization, but not the duration of diarrhea, which was similar in both groups. Margiotta et al. [Lactobacillus reuteri LRE02-DSM 23878, at a dose of 2 × 108 CFU/daily, and Lactobacillus rhamnosus LR04-DSM 16605, at a dose of 1 × 109 CFU/daily for 15 days, improved stool consistency and the number of evacuations. Patro-Golab et al. [L. reuteri, at different dosages with a placebo or without treatment. Their primary endpoints were the diarrhea duration and the stool volume. Their secondary endpoint was the evaluation of the effects of L. reuteri on the course of diarrhea, on the duration of diarrhea no longer than seven days, and on the duration of hospitalization. They observed that L. reuteri was useful in reducing diarrhea duration by approximately 21 h and hospitalization in children by approximately 13 h, but no significant effects were reported on the number of watery stools. The authors concluded that probiotics and L. reuteri could be a useful and safe, supportive measure for the treatment and prevention of diarrhea, reducing both the diarrhea duration and the intensity of symptoms, with beneficial health effects [Numerous clinical studies have been conducted to explore the function of diarrhea ,17,18,19diarrhea . L. reuteatments ,22. Shoreatments ,24 examii et al.  carried  setting , in theii et al.  concludea et al.  showed tb et al.  performe effects . L. reuteri has many anti-inflammatory proprieties [L. reuteri forms a biofilm rich in probiotic functions, inhibits the production of proinflammatory cytokines, and prevents intestinal overgrowth by other commensals, thereby maintaining a balanced gut-environment [L. reuteri can improve gastrointestinal symptoms and reduce antibiotic side effects, restoring the balance of gut microflora and allowing patients to be more compliant with their antibiotic therapy. Ojetti et al. [L. reuteri was effective in HP eradication and, in particular, in the prevention of gastrointestinal symptoms  associated with the use of antibiotics for the treatment of HP infection. Dore et al. [L. reuteri could improve gastrointestinal symptoms related to HP infection. It prevented the HP colonization of the human gut mucosa by inhibiting HP-binding to the glycolipid receptors [Lactobacillus species to treat HP infection and gastrointestinal symptoms  related to antibiotics administration, as recommended for the treatment of HP infection by current guidelines [L. reuteri promoted the biofilm formation and the colonization of gut mucosa by commensal lactobacilli, establishing a protective niche and preventing both the invasion of opportunistic bacteria and the gastrointestinal side effects related to the use of antibiotics in the treatment of some gastrointestinal diseases. Emara et al. [L. reuteri, through different mechanisms, including the production of reuterin, showed an effective action against HP and improved its eradication rate, the clinical and pathological features, and symptoms related to this infection. Buckley et al. [L. reuteri suppressed HP infection, improving gastrointestinal symptoms in patients affected by this infection, and ameliorating antibiotic-gastrointestinal side effects that are common after HP eradication-treatment with antibiotics. prieties . It prodprieties . Moreoveironment . Furtheri et al.  determine et al.  proved teceptors . Moreoveeceptors ,32 with eceptors  recommenidelines . Jones eidelines  assesseda et al. ,35 concly et al.  demonstrL. reuteri (L. reuteri improved bowel movements in patients (both children and adults) with chronic constipation [L. reuteri administered to children with chronic constipation, twice a day for four weeks, induced changes in the composition of the gut microbiota , enhancing intestinal motility and reducing the transit time of stool, with significant results in the fourth week. L. reuteri improved the stool frequency, but not the stool consistency [L. reuteri had a positive effect on functional constipation in infants, ameliorating the bowel frequency at week 2, week 4, and week 8 of administration. Constipation in infants is often related to the changes in diet  with important changes in gut microbiota composition (reduction of Bifidobacteria and Lactobacilli) that L. reuteri helps to restore. Indrio et al. [L. reuteri reduced constipation during the first 3 months of life. Early life events could alter the balance of gut microbiota, increasing visceral sensitivity and mucosal permeability, which can be restored via the administration of Lactobacilli. Jadresin et al. [L. reuteri in children with constipation. Gomes et al. [L. reuteri modulates gut motility with effects on constipation in children [Chronic constipation is a common gastrointestinal disorder that can affect patients of all ages and severely impact their quality of life . Literat reuteri . The lattipation ,3, but dtipation . Kubota tipation  reportedsistency . Coccorusistency  proved to et al.  underlinn et al.  added ths et al.  studied children ,41.2 and CO2, which can influence the gut smooth muscle motility and microbiota composition [L. reuteri twice a day for four weeks was effective in reducing methane (CH4) production by gut microflora (Methanobrevibacter smithii), with an increase in bowel movements and an improvement in chronic constipation. Riezzo et al. [L. reuteri for defecation and for symptoms of abdominal discomfort, pain, and bloating due to the modulation of the serum levels of serotonin (5-HT) and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) by this probiotic strain. The 5-HT pathways play a pivotal role in the interaction between gut microbiota and the enteric nervous systems, with health benefits (which are not completely fully understood) on gut motility and constipation. The authors included 56 patients with constipation, randomized to receive L. reuteri for 105 days. Dimidi et al. [L. reuteri interacts with the gut-brain axis and modulates the afferent sensory nerves that influence gut motility. Moreover, it involves the enteric nervous system, increasing the excitability of myenteric neurons in rats through action on the 5-HT pathways. The latter is produced by the enteric nervous system and it is a key neurotransmitter with an essential role for the stimulation of the local enteric nervous reflexes and the promotion of gut secretion and propulsive motility, improving constipation and gastrointestinal related disorders. West et al. [L. reuteri to adult mice promoted the reduction of jejunal motility, but increased that in the colon, with beneficial effects on constipation. On the contrary, Wegh et al. [L. Reuteri on intestinal motility, abdominal discomfort, pain, and bloating, and, consequently, on functional constipation, and to recommend it as a “standardized” treatment. The use of probiotics in organic and functional adult gastrointestinal disorders has gained a growing interest. It is known that the gut microbiota influences the intestinal motility through the fermentation of both carbohydrates and protein, and through the production of SCFA, such as butyrate, acetate, and propionate, and gases, such as Hposition . Ojetti position  highligho et al.  showed ti et al. ,44, in tt et al.  showed th et al.  argued t® from January 2011 to January 2021. No ethical approval was necessary to perform this review. The principal words we included were Lactobacillus reuteri DSM 17938 (L. reuteri), L. reuteri ATCC 55730, Limosilactobacillus reuteri, diarrhea, antibiotics related-diarrhea, gastroenteritis, probiotics, colitis, gut microbiota, gastrointestinal symptoms, constipation, gut motility, and Helicobacter pylori (HP). We combined these issues in our research, excluding other strains of probiotics, or other strains of Lactobacillus reuteri. We ruled out the use of this probiotic in other human disorders as well. We focused on the reliable and specific use of L. reuteri in the main gastrointestinal disorders we meet in the ED, namely diarrhea and constipation. We searched articles on PubMedL. reuteri which revealed it to be a helpful probiotic in modulating gut microbiota; it promotes the development and the functionality of regulatory T cells, produces reuterin that inhibits the growth of some harmful gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria, along with yeasts, fungi, and protozoa [L. reuteri supplementation of more than 107 CFU was able to shorten the duration of acute watery diarrhea with a dose-related effect, with the maximum effect on the second and third day, thus reducing the length of hospital stay. No side effects were reported in any studies. It is well known that antibiotics can lead to dysbiosis, alteration of the gut microbiota composition, reduction of the richness and wealth of microflora strains, with subsequent diarrhea and gastrointestinal discomfort. Many studies suggested that supplementation with L. reuteri during antibiotic therapy, for example against HP, was useful in reducing gastrointestinal side effects with an increase in the eradication rate. This specific probiotic prevents the HP colonization of the human gut mucosa and inhibits HP-binding to the glycolipid receptors [L. reuteri in chronic constipation, both in adult and children. Literature supported the evidence that L. reuteri supplementation, even if for a few weeks, improved bowel movements and stool consistency. The possible explanation could be that L. reuteri increased both frequency of colonic myoelectric motility complex and velocity. Another possible explanation could be an enhanced water and electrolyte secretion due to probiotic activity. Some authors [L. reuteri may exert a beneficial effect by reducing the gut methanogenic flora and increasing bowel movements. A high level of gut microflora with a CH4 production is associated with a delayed orocecal transit time and, consequently, constipation. The ability of L. reuteri to inhibit gut microflora with an overexpression of H2 consumption, and a consequent reduction of CH4 methane production, could represent the base for new and more effective therapies.This review suggests that not all types of probiotics have an equal effect on the management of gastrointestinal diseases. In particular, we collected data on protozoa . Moreoveprotozoa . We focueceptors . Moreove authors  hypothesL. reuteri has been identified as part of the normal human gut population and its administration as a “probiotic” has been recommended in gut disorders related to infections with effective results [L reuteri is the most widely studied probiotic in children, with concentrations ranging from 106 CFU/daily up to 108 to 109 CFU/daily [L. reuteri has various mechanisms of action that are not fully understood. It stimulates the mucosal gut barrier function well, produces antimicrobial substances (such as reuterin and lactic acid), and influences the local acquired and innate immune response [E. coli, Salmonella, Clostridium difficile, and Campylobacter jejuni in vitro and in vivo studies [L. reuteri survives gastric and bile juice and restores intestinal epithelial cell morphology after damages caused by pathogens [The use of probiotics in human health and diseases has increased in recent years . Literat results ,16,55. LFU/daily ,56. L. rresponse ,47,57,58 studies ,58,59,60athogens ,16. It aathogens ,32. It iathogens . L. reuteri plays a key role in maintaining a balanced microbiota gut composition. Many clinical trials have proved the safety, efficacy and tolerance of this probiotic in preventing and treating numerous gastrointestinal disorders, ranging from diarrhea to constipation. In our opinion, L. reuteri meets all the requirements to contribute to beneficial effects on human-gut health in the emergency setting. In fact, gastrointestinal disorders, as stated previously, are one of the most common causes of admission to the ED. The use of L. reuteri, directly in the emergency room can speed up the remission of symptoms, reduce the recovery period, and promote the safe discharge of patients.In conclusion,


Trichophyton, Microsporum, and Epidermophyton has been expanded to nine and the species in each genus were modified. Dermatophytes are among the most prevalent causes of human and animal mycoses. Their epidemiology is influenced by various factors. These factors may be evolutive such as the predilected environment of the fungus, namely, humans (anthropophilic), animals (zoophilic), or environment (geophilic), is evolutionary and thus may require centuries to develop. Many other factors, however, result from a variety of causes, affecting the epidemiology of dermatophytoses within a shorter time frame.Dermatophytes are a group of molds characterized by the ability to produce keratinases, thereby carving out for themselves specific ecological niches. Their traditional division into three genera, This review aims at summarizing the factors that have modified the epidemiology of dermatophytoses during the last decades.Trichophyton tonsurans, which spread from Latin America to the United States and subsequently becoming a frequent etiological agent of tinea capitis in Africa, Middle East, and other areas.Geographic and climatic conditions, demography such as age and gender, migration, socio-economic conditions, lifestyle, and the environment have had an impact on changes in the epidemiology of dermatophytoses, as have changes in the pattern of human interaction with animals, including pets, farm, and wild animals. A typical example of such changes is the increased prevalence of The comprehension of the epidemiology of dermatophytoses has a major bearing on their prevention and treatment. Since it is undergoing continuous changes, periodic assessments of the most recent developments of this topic are required. This article aims at providing such an overview. Onycogenales, family Arthrodermataceae and were until recently divided into three genera, namely, Trichophyton, Microsporum, and Epidermophyton. Recently, the taxonomy and nomenclature of the dermatophytes was extensively revised  a fungus that causes dermatophytoses more frequently than other geophilic dermatophytes. The clinical manifestations of dermatophyte infections are generally termed “tinea” with the indication of the anatomical area involved. Thus, infections of hair on the scalp or beard are termed “tinea capitis” and “tinea barbae”, respectively, those of nails “tinea unguium” and those of glabrous skin “tinea corporis” or “tinea pedis” and “tinea manuum,” in case of foot or hand involvement, respectively  are among the most frequent human infections . The curThe following review article, will focus on the epidemiology of human and zoonotic dermatophyte infections. The article will include exploration of the aspects of variation in incidence of dermatophytoses in different geographic or climatic areas, dermatophyte species distribution and relationships between gender and age to prevalence. Correlation between incidences of the various clinical entities: the skin, nail, and hair tineas and other factors, such as professional occupation, will be reviewed. In addition, aspects of the effect of migration, climate change and socio-economic conditions on epidemiology of dermatophytoses, will be explored as well. Moreover, the epidemiology of human infection with zoophilic and selected geophilic dermatophytes will be addressed.In the last decade, a number of publications from different geographic areas focusing on dermatophytes’ species epidemiology reported data from Eastern Europe  and the The data reported in the different publications shows variability and are difficult to compare, since distribution of species may also depend on the human site screened, e.g., tinea capitis or tinea corporis that may reveal different species distribution.Thus, the reader has to keep in mind all these limiting considerations regarding the presented comparisons.Trichophyton rubrum complex was the most common species (66.9%) followed by Trichophyton mentagrophytes  and Trichophyton tonsurans in skin infections, while in Africa , a study of the author’s group  in a speThese data from three geographical/climatic different regions: Middle East, South East Asia, and Africa, which show similar trends in dermatophyte species distribution, may indicate no specific correlation between geographic/climatic conditions and dermatophyte species distribution. Another study in Israel of the author’s group  on onychT. rubrum complex (74.4%), followed by T. mentagrophytes  (21.4%). Contrary to these findings, a study from Serbia  can be caused by various molds and by ed nails . This waed nails . Here toIn this context, an interesting observation was made by Candida spp. was higher than in men. Differences according to gender regarding dermatophytoses were also noted by a number of other investigators , there was an increase in cases caused by T. tonsurans, vs. those caused by T. soudanense or M. audouinii, particularly among African immigrants vs. immigrants from the Caribbean Islands.In this context, it is of interest to mention the study by T. tonsurans is a major cause of pediatric tinea capitis (95% of cases). In addition, this report also indicates that two other dermatophytes: T. violaceum and T. soudanense are also significant causes of tinea capitis in children in association with migration, specifically in African immigrants.A recent report from the US  also conT. violaceum and M. audouinii were the major causative agents.A tinea capitis outbreak was also reported in children of African immigrants in Israel in 2016 . During T. rubrum complex  indication as to their reclassified taxonomy may be the animal with which they were associated: T. benhamiae from rodents and lagomorphs and T. vanbreuseghemii from other animals. Thus, for example, when owners of guinea pigs were infected by “T. mentagrophytes”  from three cats, and N. gypsea from one cat. Somewhat different, but comparable, prevalence ratios were found in other surveys such as those conducted in Barcelona, Spain  in the surveyed areas. The fungus was, however, more prevalent (21.5%) in cats in animal raising establishments. Owners were infected by the fungus in 18.7% of the affected households. The authors note that prevalence rates vary significantly in time, possibly indicating the spread of M. canis from some reservoir, subsequently declining.In a survey of a few hundred cats and dogs from households, shelters, pet shops, or stray, conducted by M. canis in dogs and cats in Iran was high  is the most prevalent fungus involved, with adult animals usually asymptomatic carriers, posing a significant contagion risk for the personnel , respectively (T. mentagrophytes was isolated from free ranging red foxes in the United States (Several surveys of keratinophilic fungi in wild animals and their environment resulted in the isolation of a large variety of such microorganisms . Mantovain Italy . T. mentpanthers , a non-sn Brazil  and N. gin Kenya . In two ectively , b. T. md States  and fromd States . ConversT. erinacei infection in humans (M. canis, T. mentagrophytes, P. cookei, N. gypsea, T. ajelloi, and T. terrestre.In some cases, wild animals are raised as pets: keeping hedgehogs as pets is popular in Japan and a source of n humans . AnotherN. persicolor has been reported most frequently from European countries (N. persicolor infects skin and not hair, a fact that possibly limits its environmental dispersal (N. persicolor is a zoophilic dermatophyte carried primarily by sylvatic rodents (ountries  but was ountries  as well.ispersal . N. pers rodents  such as  rodents . The fun rodents , includi rodents . Several rodents . In one  rodents .T. benhamiae, including dogs (In addition to rodents and lagomorphs, other animal species may be carriers or infected with ing dogs , porcupiing dogs , or hedging dogs  and infeing dogs .Trichophyton vanbreuseghemii has a very wide gamut of hosts, including pets, farm, laboratory, and wild animals (T. vanbreuseghemii is contracted from rodents or soil ( animals . Dogs, c animals , and hor animals  have bee or soil .Trichophyton erinacei is the most common causative agent of ringworm in wild hedgehogs (T. erinacei, T. mentagrophytes, and N. gypsea were isolated from European hedgehogs. More than one-third of the animals were asymptomatic T. erinacei carriers, posing a latent risk of human infection (edgehogs . In a Frnfection . Molina-M. canis was isolated (T. mentagrophytes that caused several human infections (Several cases of animals in captivity infected with dermatophytes have been reported. Among these were siamang monkeys with cutaneous lesions from which isolated  and a Snfections .Trichophyton simii was once considered endemic in Indian subcontinent, where it was isolated from human cases (T. simii was isolated from two hens and a pup owned by one of the families. The fungus’ endemicity is, however, in doubt since it has been reported from several countries worldwide, including Brazil, the United States, France, Belgium, Iran, and Saudi Arabia (an cases , from doan cases , ruminanan cases , poultryan cases , and soian cases . Kamalami Arabia . Outsidei Arabia  and Japai Arabia .This review article elaborates the complex relationships of dermatophyte infections with several epidemiological parameters. The latter include prevalence of the different dermatophyte species in different geographic regions and different climatic conditions, associations of age and gender with specific dermatophytes and specific clinical entities, or the frequency of exposure to contaminated environment and interaction with animals. Associations with lifestyle and effects of migration or socio-economic status are discussed, as well.Taken all together, the review increases the relevance of dermatophyte infections in human health and well-being and suggests the need of continuing follow-up of the changes in epidemiological aspects of this group of fungi.Both authors listed have made a substantial, direct and intellectual contribution to the work and approved it for publication.The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.


Atractylodes lancea is significantly restricted by low survival rates and reduced yields. Intercropping can reasonably coordinate interspecific interactions, effectively utilize environmental resources, and increase survival and yield. We conducted a field experiment from 2014 to 2016 to analyze the advantages and effects of intercropping on A. lancea survival, growth traits, individual volatile oil content, and total volatile oil content. In addition to A. lancea monoculture (AL), five intercropping combinations were planted: Zea mays L. (ZM) + A. lancea, Tagetes erecta L. (TE) + A. lancea, Calendula officinalis L. (CO) + A. lancea, Glycine max (Linn.) Merr. (GM) + A. lancea, and Polygonum hydropiper L. (PH) + A. lancea. The survival and average rhizome weight of A. lancea was higher in the ZM, CO, and TE treatments than in the monoculture treatment, and the average plant height was higher in all intercropping treatments than in the monoculture. The volatile oil content of A. lancea from the ZM and CO treatments was significantly improved relative to that of monoculture plants. The volatile oil harvest was higher in the ZM, CO, and TE treatments than in the monoculture. We conclude that intercropping is an effective way to increase the survival and yield of A. lancea. Furthermore, intercropping with ZM, CO, and TE increases the harvest of four volatile oils from A. lancea.Commercial cultivation of the medicinal plant  Atractylodes lancea (Thunb.) DC. (Chinese: Cangzhu) are commonly used in traditional Chinese medicine as a remedy for rheumatic diseases, digestive disorders, night blindness, and influenza  to compare important growth indicators in different intercropping systems; (ii) to compare plant yield and the accumulation of secondary metabolites in different intercropping systems; and (iii) to investigate the different accumulation patterns of major active components under five intercropping systems.In this study, we carried out two years of field experimentation to determine the effects of intercropping on Field experiments were conducted on newly developed terraces in Huadun village, Laibang Town, Yuexi County, Anhui Province  in 2015 and 2016. This site is located in the north subtropical humid monsoon climate area, and its frost-free period is 220 days. The mean annual temperature is 17°C, the mean annual ground temperature is 17°C, the average annual precipitation is 2434.6 mm, and the average sunshine duration is 2070.5 h. Meteorological data from 2015 and 2016 were collected by automatic weather stations near the test site.Zea mays L. (ZM) can activate soil microbial flora  can be used for pest control, and the calendula oil contained therein can be used as a repellent to prevent egg laying by flies (Tagetes erecta L. (TE), leaves, and roots are toxic to the nematode that is closely associated with root rot (Glycine max (Linn.) Merr. (GM) root system harbors nitrogen-fixing rhizobia and has the effect of enhancing soil fertility. Finally, Polygonum hydropiper L. (PH) is the natural companion species of A. lancea.In this study, intercropping partners were selected on the basis of their functions. Selected species are all common native and agricultural species. The gramineous roots of al flora , and itsdiseases . It has by flies . Extractroot rot . The GlyA. lancea were derived from A. lancea rhizomes growing in Huoshan, Anhui Province, and seedlings of similar size were used for the experiment. Seeds of maize, soybean, marigold, calendula, and P. hydropiper were those of commercial cultivars.Seedlings of A. lancea monoculture treatment were used in the experiment: A. lancea alone, A. lancea + Zea mays L. (ZM), A. lancea + Glycine max (Linn.) Merr. (GM), A. lancea + Tagetes erecta L. (TE), A. lancea + Calendula officinalis L. (CO), and A. lancea + Polygonum hydropiper L. (PH). The row spacing between A. lancea and A. lancea is 20 × 30 cm, and the row spacing between A. lancea and partner plants is 20 × 30 cm, and the spacing between partner plants and partner plants is also 20 × 30 cm. The experiment used a randomized complete block design with four replications, and each experimental plot was 10 m2 (2 m × 5 m). Therefore, there are 187 A. lancea in AL treatment and 99 A. lancea in intercropping treatment.Five intercropping treatments and an A. lancea was only planted in December 2014 and has been grown in the field for two years. And the partner plants were planted for the first time in April 2015 and the second planted in April 2016. A. lancea was planted by rhizome propagation after sterilization (soaking for 30 min at room temperature in 50% carbendazim diluted 800–1000 times), and rhizomes were buried 1–2 cm underground. Intercropping plants were grown from seed sown 1–2 cm deep. The plantings were weeded in March, June, and November of each year, and no pesticides or fertilizers were used throughout the experimental period.All plants were planted by hand. A. lancea were selected from each experimental plot for biomass and yield analysis, including both their above- and belowground parts. Measurements included plant height, number of branches, number of apical and lateral buds on the rhizome, and rhizome fresh weight.At the end of November 2015 and 2016, ten Atractylodes lancea rhizomes were collected and dried in a 40°C oven for one week to constant weight, then crushed to <0.3 mm. A 500-mg sample of the resulting powder was placed into a 50-ml centrifuge tube, 25 ml of n-hexane was added, and the mixture was first shaken  and then centrifuged at 3000 rpm for 10 min. The supernatant was removed for subsequent use, 20 ml of n-hexane was added, and the above process was repeated. Both supernatants were combined in a volumetric flask, 1.0 ml of the internal standard solution was added, the sample was diluted to 50 ml, and a 1-ml sample was injected into the gas chromatograph/mass spectrometer (GC/MS) (Trace 1310 gas chromatograph and TSQ 8000 mass spectrometer).The contents of four volatile active ingredients, atractylon, hinesol, β-camphor (β-eudesmol), and atractylodin, were measured using the method of A. lancea growth and biochemical indices under different intercropping treatments. Statistics and correlation analysis were performed using SPSS v16.0  and Microsoft Excel 2003.Tukey’s HSD test was used to test for differences among intercropping treatments. Pearson’s correlation coefficient was used to analyze the correlations among A. lancea from different treatments was investigated two years after planting  than in the monoculture (26 ± 1.6 cm) . LikewisA. lancea were analyzed in 2015 and 2016 (A. lancea rhizome. In 2015, the atractylon concentration of A. lancea was lowest in the GM treatment, the hinesol concentration of A. lancea was lowest in the TE treatment, and the atractylodin concentration of A. lancea was lowest in the CO treatment and the monoculture. In 2016, the hinesol and β-eudesmol concentrations of A. lancea were significantly lower in the TE treatment than in any other treatment. There were no other significant differences in concentrations of the four volatile oils among the treatments in 2015 and 2016.The concentrations of the four main volatile oils in and 2016 . The conA. lancea in the monoculture, the β-eudesmol concentration of A. lancea in the CO and PH treatments, and the atractylodin concentration of A. lancea in the CO treatment all increased significantly from 2015 to 2016. However, the hinesol concentration of A. lancea decreased from 2015 to 2016 in the GM treatment.The concentrations of the four volatile oils increased significantly from 2015 to 2016 in a few treatments. The hinesol concentration of A. lancea. Based on the analysis of the average rhizome weight and the concentrations of the four main volatile oils in A. lancea, the content of the four volatile oils was calculated for individual plants. In 2015, the atractylon content of A. lancea was significantly higher in the CO treatment than in the GM, TE, and PH treatments. The hinesol content of A. lancea was significantly higher in the ZM and GM treatments than in other treatments. The β-eudesmol content was significantly higher in the ZM treatment than in the TE and PH treatments, and the atractylodin content was significantly higher in the ZM treatment than in the other treatments. In 2016, the atractylon content was significantly higher in the TE, ZM, and CO treatments than in the other treatments. The hinesol content was significantly higher in the CO treatment than in the monoculture, and the hinesol content was significantly lower in the GM and TE treatments than in the monoculture. The β-eudesmol content was significantly higher in the ZM and CO treatments than in the monoculture, and the β-eudesmol content was significantly lower in the GM and PH treatments than in the monoculture. The atractylodin content was significantly higher in the CO, ZM, and TE treatments than in the monoculture.The content indicates the quality of volatile oil from The contents of individual volatile oils increased significantly from 2015 to 2016 in most of the intercropping systems . The atrThe proportion of different volatile oils is an important characteristic of Daodi herbs . The proAs biomass increased through time, the total volatile oil content increased in all treatments  and incrBased on plant survival, rhizome weight, and the number of plants per hectare, we calculated the total harvest of the four volatile oils in 2016 . The totA. lancea. In the ZM treatment, A. lancea has a shallow root system, whereas ZM has a deep root system. In addition, the phenological phases of ZM, TE, and CO differ from those of A. lancea, thereby potentially providing suitable environmental conditions compared with the monoculture.Complementary patterns of root distribution and plant phenology are important mechanisms by which intercropping improves yield . IntercrTagetes erecta L. has a similar inhibitory effect on root-knot nematodes (Root exudates play an important role in plant health . In the ematodes  and can ematodes .A. lancea in the short term (A. lancea. Maize was the tallest plant in this study, and the first year’s results showed that the atractylodin content was significantly higher in the ZM treatment than in the monoculture. Likewise, in 2016, the total volatile oil harvest of A. lancea was significantly higher in the ZM treatment than in the monoculture and was the second highest among all the treatments.The accumulation of secondary metabolites is an important index for the evaluation of medicinal materials . Secondaort term . We specA. lancea, and the growth traits, survival, and volatile oil production of A. lancea were analyzed to evaluate each intercropping combination. Compared with the monoculture, intercropping with ZM, CO, and TE significantly increased the survival and rhizome weight of A. lancea. Two years after planting, A. lancea intercropped with ZM, TE, and CO showed a great advantage in total volatile oil harvest. The underlying mechanisms of plant interaction in these systems remain to be explored in the future.Five plant species were chosen as intercropping partners for The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding authors.ZP: writing – original draft and data curation. YZ: investigation, methodology, project administration, and funding acquisition. BY, YX, XG, ZZ, XlC, XpC, and XW: data curation. TW, SW, and CK: data curation and methodology. LH: conceptualization and supervision. LG: investigation, conceptualization, supervision, project administration, and funding acquisition. KS: sample collection, conceptualization, methodology, data curation, and writing – review and editing. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.


Coxiella burnetii. Besides the main transmission route via inhalation of contaminated aerosols, ticks are discussed as vectors since the first isolation of the pathogen from a Dermacentor andersonii tick. The rare detection of C. burnetii in ticks and the difficult differentiation of C. burnetii from Coxiella-like endosymbionts (CLEs) are questioning the relevance of ticks in the epidemiology of Q fever. In this review, literature databases were systematically searched for recent prevalence studies concerning C. burnetii in ticks in Europe and experimental studies evaluating the vector competence of tick species. A total of 72 prevalence studies were included and evaluated regarding DNA detection methods and collection methods, country, and tested tick species. Specimens of more than 25 different tick species were collected in 23 European countries. Overall, an average prevalence of 4.8% was determined. However, in half of the studies, no Coxiella-DNA was detected. In Southern European countries, a significantly higher prevalence was observed, possibly related to the abundance of different tick species here, namely Hyalomma spp. and Rhipicephalus spp. In comparison, a similar proportion of studies used ticks sampled by flagging and dragging or tick collection from animals, under 30% of the total tick samples derived from the latter. There was no significant difference in the various target genes used for the molecular test. In most of the studies, no distinction was made between C. burnetii and CLEs. The application of specific detection methods and the confirmation of positive results are crucial to determine the role of ticks in Q fever transmission. Only two studies were available, which assessed the vector competence of ticks for C. burnetii in the last 20 years, demonstrating the need for further research.The zoonosis Q fever is caused by the obligate intracellular bacterium  Coxiella burnetii as the causative agent of the zoonosis Q fever is distributed worldwide, except New Zealand. This infectious disease may have a significant impact on animal welfare, human health, and economies   , 33. Thiburnetii . Geneticft ticks .Coxiella-like endosymbionts were detected in many different tick species, and for some species, an obligatory mutualism was proven , whereas icd was not amplified in the samples  are obligate blood-feeding ectoparasites with a global distribution. A total of 67 tick species are reported in Europe and Northern Africa . Out of i or CLE , 61. When Europe . Such ve species . Howeverew areas , 65.C. burnetii among other diverse tick-borne pathogens. This allows surveillance of C. burnetii in ticks and benefits the identification of a potential risk of acquiring a Q fever infection by a tick-bite for humans or domestic animals.Recent prevalence studies using molecular methods aim at determining the percentage of ticks carrying Hyalomma spp., which are less likely to be collected by flagging . Only studies using DNA detection methods for Coxiella spp. on hard ticks obtained in Europe were included as prevalence studies. The definition of Europe used in this study refers to a geographical demarcation as von Strahlenberg's, including all countries of which the major part is situated between the Urals and the Bosphorus. Regions were defined according to the United Nations geoscheme for Europe in Southern Europe, Eastern Europe, Northern Europe, and Western Europe  using the formulap < 0.05.Studies were evaluated, and confidence interval was calculated using Excel 2016 . For statistical analysis, the Kruskal–Wallis test and Mann–Whitney U test for data lacking normal distribution were performed using SPSS V.22 , and results were considered significant in the case of n = 272), no hard ticks tested (n = 120), or reviews (n = 44); 66 studies were excluded for other reasons , ticks were collected between the years 2011 and 2013. Studies were performed in 23 of 45 different European countries.Prevalence studies were analyzed by country, the number of tested ticks, tick species, the method used for tick collection, and the method used for detection of burnetii . The ticMost collection areas were rural, single studies collected ticks in recreational areas in urban settings , 73. FurC. burnetii-DNA over all evaluated studies was 4.8%. In half of the studies (n = 38), no C. burnetii-positive tick was identified. The highest prevalence was determined to be 54.2% in a Spanish study , whereas the number of prevalence studies per country was highest for Slovakia (n = 12). A high prevalence was found in studies in Southern Europe, especially in Spain (10.1%) and Portugal (10.6%), but also in Poland, a high proportion of ticks was positive (8.5%). In ticks tested in Northern Europe, no C. burnetii was detected , especially in Western Europe (2.1%) .The highest prevalence within single studies was determined in Spain and Italy. González et al. detected ed ticks . In studetii-DNA –89. The Amblyomma spp., Haemaphysalis inermis, Hyalomma scupense, Hyalomma truncatum, Ixodes festai, and Ixodes hexagonus, no molecular detection of C. burnetii-specific DNA was reported. Furthermore, in Haemaphysalis hispanica, Hyalomma aegyptium, Hyalomma lusitanicum, Ixodes ventalloi, Rhipicephalus pusillus, and Rhipicephalus thuranicus, Coxiella-DNA was detected, but the results were not sequenced for confirmation or discriminated from CLE.More than 25 tick species were examined in all studies . In AmblC. burnetii-positive ticks were noticed for the tick genera tested . Of the six species tested, Hyalomma rufipes, Hyalomma marginatum, H. lusitanicum, and H. aegyptium were positive for C. burnetii. The most abundant and most often infected species was H. lusitanicum, in which 17.7% of ticks were PCR positive for C. burnetii. Furthermore, 6.0% of all tested Rhipicephalus spp. were positive for C. burnetii-DNA, whereas Dermacentor spp. harbored Coxiella-DNA in 1.4% of samples. By far, the most tested ticks belonged to the genus of Ixodes spp. (81.4%). Of these ticks, only 0.4% carried C. burnetii-DNA. The second least Coxiella-infested tick species was Haemaphysalis spp. with 1.2% positive samples. Of Amblyomma spp., only 11 negative ticks were flagged or removed from birds, which is not surprising, as this genus is not endemic in Europe  or from the vegetation by dragging or flagging a piece of cotton . Overall, in the evaluated studies, 72.4% of all tested ticks were derived from vegetation. In 19.4%  of the examined studies, a combination of sampling from animals or humans and flagging was performed. Data in this review were not divided into the different collection methods used. Two studies examined the occurrence of pathogens in ticks exclusively collected from humans  or the genes com1 , icd , sodB , and htpAB . Single studies used more than one target gene for identification (sodB as the target gene for C. burnetii, an average prevalence of 7.3% was reported (com1 fragment, the mean prevalence was 0.8%. The most frequently used target IS1111 resulted in an average prevalence of 5.7%. Of all ticks tested with IS1111, 3.0% were positive, which is the highest percentage (I. ricinus, was collected in a study in Switzerland. No C. burnetii-positive tick was detected by using ompA as the target gene in this study (Coxiella spp. in eight studies; one of them detected C. burnetii-positive ticks (Conventional PCR and real-time PCR were applied as a detection method in most of the studies. The predominant target genes for PCR detection were fragments of the insertion sequence IS1111 (fication , 127. Ofreported . Of the rcentage . The laris study . Also, 1ve ticks .Coxiella spp. and morphologically similar agents in the hemolymph (C. burnetii was detected by PCR in four hemocyte-positive ticks, but also in two hemocyte-negative ticks.Before PCR detection, some studies used the hemocyte test for visual detection of emolymph , 104. InSpiroplasma spp. but not C. burnetii (Furthermore, studies used non-molecular methods in addition to PCR, such as cultivation in cells or embryonated eggs, resulting in the isolation of burnetii .Coxiella was only identified on genus level (Some authors considered CLE and searched specifically for these endosymbionts or detected CLE by sequencing positive PCR products. Furthermore, sequencing of 16S rRNA was used to evaluate the tick microbiome , 103. Inus level , 122. NiC. burnetii from a tick, experimental transmission studies were conducted on various tick species. However, only two recent investigations on the vector competence of ticks under laboratory conditions were found in the literature.In the decades after the first isolation of H. aegyptium was proven, including the transstadial transmission over all life stages (In one study, the vector competence of the tick e stages . Larvae I. ricinus, a transstadial transmission from nymphs to adults was shown using an in vitro feeding system, enabling better differentiation between the transmission via saliva or feces (For or feces . The traC. burnetii in ticks after evaluation of 60 studies conducted worldwide (C. burnetii in various tick species, demonstrating that there is a huge variation between the results of different studies depending on the country, tested species, method of collection, and C. burnetii detection method applied.Duron et al. found an average prevalence of 5% of orldwide . The datHyalomma, Rhipicephalus, and Haemaphysalis are the most abundant vector ticks. Due to climate change associated with global warming, the spread of arthropods is expected (H. marginatum was detected in the last years more often in Central Europe and hibernation of this species was recently observed in Germany (C. burnetii was performed, an inadvertent detection of CLE cannot be excluded. However, this differentiation is extremely important because CLEs seem to have less if at all pathogenic potential than C. burnetii.Evaluating the studies, a gradient from North to South was noticed, resulting in a higher prevalence in the Mediterranean region, followed by Eastern Europe. Most positive samples were obtained in Southern Europe, especially Portugal, Spain, and Greece. Here, species of the genera expected , which c Germany . Since iCoxiella burnetii is rarely found in ticks in most of the regions in Europe. It is presumed that ticks play a minor role in Q fever transmission, also considering that no validated human cases of C. burnetii infection via ticks have been reported. Foci in which ticks may play a role as the natural reservoir for Q fever seem to exist, but these hot spots are hard to detect. Similar patterns of regional foci were described for tick-borne encephalitis virus (C. burnetii-infected ticks in endemic areas is often explained by narrow hot spots (Anaplasma phagocytophilum or B. burgdorferi s.l. Under these circumstances, there is a lack of data in certain countries and regions. The evaluation of European studies shows that occurrence of C. burnetii is highly dependent on the tick species. The most abundant tick species in Europe, I. ricinus, seems to be infected with C. burnetii very rarely. Occasional reports of successful isolation of C. burnetii from field-collected I. ricinus support the theory of less relevance in Q fever transmission (Dermacentor marginatus (C. burnetii with ticks of the genus Hyalomma spp. and Rhipicephalus spp., naturally present in regions with ambient temperatures, e.g., the Mediterranean region. This is also supported by the in vivo experimental study performed with H. aegyptium (Rhipicephalus spp. is highly infected with CLE, positive results should be confirmed by sequencing (is virus , 130. Thot spots . That casmission . In the rginatus . Consideegyptium . As Rhipquencing , 119.C. burnetii in ticks are conducted worldwide, and positive ticks were found on all continents except Antarctica (Coxiella-positive ticks were determined (C. burnetii is reported rarely from ticks in North America (Prevalence studies targeting tarctica –138. Comtarctica . High prtarctica –142. Apatermined , 144. De America , 146.C. burnetii in ticks collected from animals compared with ticks from vegetation argues in favor of such an uptake. The procedure of flagging of questing ticks, therefore, seems to be more appropriate for information regarding the prevalence and to discriminate between the role of ticks as a reservoir or as an accidental host (C. burnetii in animal host species could be included. A combination of both origins, vegetation, and animals, might also be of interest, especially in the context of outbreak surveillance. Moreover, only exophilic and questing ticks can be obtained using the dragging method. That excludes, for example, premature life stages of Dermacentor spp. or preferably hunting ticks, e.g., Hyalomma spp. As it is known that C. burnetii genomes found in ticks genetically cluster with samples isolated from wildlife, the inclusion of hunted animals can increase the knowledge of potentially sylvatic cycles (D. marginatus, two carried C. burnetii, whereas Rickettsia slovaca was the most prevalent pathogen (C. burnetii and other tick-borne pathogens were described, but it cannot be excluded that the temporal connection between the infections is random, as Q fever is endemic worldwide, and infection might have been caused by inhalation (Coxiella-positive herds. This is important to prove any association between infected animals or humans and the local arthropods. Furthermore, identification of tick life stage is important to analyze the possibility of transovarial transmission. Coxiella burnetii is considered one of the most relevant pathogens and should be prioritized in the examination of wildlife (Different collection methods were used in the studies, but the most common is removing from animals or flagging. Simple detection of the DNA of a pathogen does not prove the vector competence of a certain tick species , 147. Tital host . Additioc cycles . The samc cycles . The intc cycles . Examinapathogen . Simultahalation . To detewildlife .C. burnetii within the tick population. The majority of studies detecting commonly used target genes for the detection of C. burnetii did not confirm the results with sequencing. Particularly, the IS1111 fragment is a common target for C. burnetii detection in ticks, which is known to be less specific but highly sensitive for the pathogen (C. burnetii in tick samples is limited in all commonly used target genes; thus, the use of single targets is not recommended (C. burnetii and CLE, which might also be applicable for higher sample sizes and poor DNA yield.There was no significant difference noticed between the various target genes used in the evaluated studies. The determined prevalence depends, among other things, on the sensitivity of the used target gene. Some assays, especially when using IS1111, detect lower amounts of DNA and thus are more sensitive than others. This relation can be described more precisely by the use of standardized controls such as plasmids. Because of the close genetic relationship to CLE, the high specificity of molecular methods is required. Because frequently used PCR target gene sequences, e.g., IS1111, were also detected in endosymbionts, there is a need for specific methods to distinguish between these species. This would rule out an overestimation of the dissemination of pathogen . The speommended , 58. Posommended , 153. DuC. burnetii and endosymbionts. Several Amblyomma spp. and Rhipicephalus spp. were shown to be CLE carriers in up to 100% of analyzed tick samples (Coxiella-like endosymbionts seem to be associated with some genera, for example, Rhipicephalus spp. or Ornithodoros spp., in which CLEs were detected with a high prevalence, whereas only a few positive samples originated from Ixodes spp. Binetruy et al. found CLE to be present in 11 of 24 species of the genus Amblyomma (Rhipicephalus spp. and their CLE (via the egg, but also horizontal transfer, possibly via co-feeding, was proven (C. burnetii was reported to have its phylogenetic origin in CLE (In seven studies, CLEs were detected in tick samples, mainly using sequencing of 16s rRNA. These endosymbionts are distributed in several hard and soft tick species and represent a large proportion of the microbiome of some species , 154. Th samples . In anot samples . Coxiellmblyomma . Recent heir CLE . The mais proven , 157. Res proven . Hence, n in CLE .C. burnetii is closely linked to endosymbionts, the possibility of other Coxiella spp. being pathogenic should not be neglected, considering that bird infections or human skin infections were reported (C. burnetii.Novel tick-borne pathogens are emerging, and as the evolution of reported , 158. InR. haemaphysaloides with CLE correlated with a lower rate of transstadial transmission of Babesia microti. Candidatus Midichloria mitochondrii, another tick endosymbiont, is known to influence the occurrence and ability to detect tick-borne pathogens in I. ricinus (Little is known about the impact CLE might have on pathogen transmission. A reduced infection rate of  ricinus , 160.C. burnetii (H. aegyptium ticks (I. ricinus (H. lusitanicum (C. burnetii-infected hosts, which are necessary to estimate the actual vector capacity under laboratory conditions. As a mainly airborne pathogen, the potential infection routes may be via inhalation of feces besides the injection of saliva during the tick bite (Trypanosoma cruzi by bed bugs or Rickettsia prowazekii and lice (In the past, seven tick species were shown to be competent vectors for burnetii . There ium ticks  and tran ricinus . Recentlitanicum . There iitanicum . Furtherick bite , 108. Inand lice , 164.C. burnetii in ticks, the risk of acquiring Q fever by a tick bite cannot finally be determined. In different studies, the correlation between coxiellosis and the abundance of ticks as a risk factor was examined. Predominantly, no significant correlation was found (Besides the need for information regarding the prevalence of as found –167, wheas found , 169.Most tick species in Europe are spreading, and the increased risk of tick-borne diseases accompanies this. For this reason, extensive and focused monitoring of ticks and their microbial burden is crucial, as well as further research on possibly tick-borne diseases and the pathogenic potential of already known bacteria.Coxiella spp. in ticks in Mediterranean countries. This is likely to be driven by the abundance of different tick species in these countries, i.e., Hyalomma spp. and Rhipicephalus spp. In the context of global warming, the geographical distribution of these tick species changes and thus the epidemiology of Q fever in currently temperate Europe. Based on the large number of studies, which failed to detect C. burnetii DNA in tick samples, ticks carrying C. burnetii seem to be restricted to certain regions. Positive results have to be interpreted carefully because no distinction between C. burnetii and CLE was made in most of these studies. Planning of a prevalence study on ticks should, therefore, in particular, focus on the choice of detection methods for specific results. Methods should aim to differentiate C. burnetii and CLE using sequencing or at least to use different target genes in positive samples.The evaluation of European studies shows a significantly higher prevalence of To address the questions on the role ticks play as a reservoir in Q fever transmission, vector competence studies using different and relevant tick species should be performed.The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/SK and KM-S designed the study, SK conducted the literature search, SK, GM, SU, MP, and KM-S performed the data extraction, and SK analyzed the data and drafted the manuscript. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.


The use of metal nanoparticles is considered a good alternative to control phytopathogenic fungi in agriculture. To date, numerous metal nanoparticles  have been synthesized and used as potential antifungal agents. Therefore, this proposal presents a critical and detailed review of the use of these nanoparticles to control phytopathogenic fungi. Ag nanoparticles have been the most investigated nanoparticles due to their good antifungal activities, followed by Cu nanoparticles. It was also found that other metal nanoparticles have been investigated as antifungal agents, such as Se, Ni, Mg, Pd, and Fe, showing prominent results. Different synthesis methods have been used to produce these nanoparticles with different shapes and sizes, which have shown outstanding antifungal activities. This review shows the success of the use of metal nanoparticles to control phytopathogenic fungi in agriculture. Since the beginning of agriculture, the biggest challenge has been pests and diseases produced by insects, bacteria, fungi, and other pathogens present in the environment ,2,3. ThiToday, phytopathogenic fungi have mostly been controlled with chemical products, which are cheap and easy to obtain on the market ,10. HoweCurrently, friendly and efficient alternatives for the environment are being used to control phytopathogen fungi, such as biological control ,16, planOtherwise, another recently explored and applied route in agriculture is the use of nanomaterials, which have been successfully applied in other fields such as energy, medicine, and electronics ,25,26,27Different nanomaterials have shown excellent antifungal activities; therefore, they are considered a good alternative to control phytopathogenic fungi ,36,37,38Therefore, this review presents a comprehensive and detailed analysis of the current progress on the application of metal nanoparticles for controlling phytopathogenic fungi in agriculture. In the first instance, the possible mechanisms of action of nanoparticles on phytopathogenic fungi are reviewed. Afterwards, the progress on the use of metal nanoparticles as potential antifungal agents is reviewed in detail. Finally, conclusions and future directions are presented.The use of nanoparticles is a novel route to control phytopathogenic fungi in agriculture because they have shown high antifungal activity across a wide diversity of phytopathogenic fungi ,51. SeveAs mentioned before, several factors influence the antifungal activity of the nanoparticles. Therefore, it is necessary to know the interaction and action mechanism between the metal nanoparticles and the phytopathogenic fungi. At present, various possible antifungal action mechanisms of these nanoparticles have been proposed see .Metal nanoparticles have been successfully applied to control different pathogens ,64,65. IAg nanoparticles have been extensively investigated in different scientific fields due to their antioxidant, antimicrobial, and anticancer properties as well as their characteristics of biocompatibility, easy production, relatively low cost, and non-toxicity, among others ,70,71,72For biological systems, many extracts of plants and fungi have been used in the synthesis of Ag nanoparticles ,120,121.As aforementioned, the characteristics of Ag nanoparticles such as shape, structure, and size play an important role in antifungal activity. According to M. charantia and P. guajava extracts showed good antifungal capacity in concentrations of 20 ppm, inhibiting the growth of mycelium in fungi such as A. niger, A. flavus, and F. oxysporum [T. viride extracts, which completely inhibited the growth of A. solani at low concentrations of 25 ppm [A. flavus and A. parasiticus. The best results were obtained with doses of 100 ppm. Ag nanoparticles entered into the cell membrane, seriously affecting the respiratory chain, resulting in cell death [On the other hand, it has been reported that the concentration of nanoparticles can play an important role in antifungal activity . Therefoxysporum . A similf 25 ppm . In addill death . A peculll death ,99,107. ll death ,144. Ag ll death ,144. TheThe first study of Cu nanoparticles against fungi was reported by Giannousi et al. . Since tThe studies carried out on Cu nanoparticles produced by the different synthesis methods have shown excellent antifungal activity in different species of phytopathogenic fungi. However, as in the case of Ag nanoparticles, there is a great diversity of sizes, which makes it difficult to analyze the size effect of Cu nanoparticles on antifungal activity see . In geneF. solani, Neofusicoccum sp., and F. oxysporum  promoted hard oxidative stress in the mycelium, the highest concentration (0.5 ppm) showed an antifungal capacity against F. oxysporum [Another determining factor in inhibiting the growth of phytopathogenic fungi is the concentration of the Cu nanoparticles. To date, different concentrations  have been evaluated on phytopathogenic fungi. For example, low concentrations of Cu nanoparticles were evaluated against xysporum .F. oxysporum and P. capsici, which were inhibited by increasing the incubation time of the different concentrations. On the third day after their application, the inhibition increased slightly from 49% for 5 ppm to 63% for 20 ppm [In addition, they have antifungal activities at medium concentrations . Cu nanoparticles demonstrated significant antifungal activity against r 20 ppm .R. solani, F. oxysporum, F. redolens, P. cactorum, F. hepática, G. frondosa, M. giganteus, and S. crispa, demonstrating the antifungal capacity of Cu nanoparticles at a concentration of 35 ppm. In such a case, there was neither the growth of mycelium, nor the development of the pathogens studied [Fusarium sp., demonstrating excellent antifungal capacity at the highest dose of 450 ppm [B. cinerea, A. alternata, M. fructicola, C. gloeosporioides, F. solani, F. oxysporum, and V. dahlia. In this study, Cu nanoparticles showed toxic activity at all concentrations and at the highest concentration of 1000 ppm they inhibited all phytopathogens [To cite another example, doses of 5, 15, 25, and 35 ppm were used against  studied . Finally 450 ppm . Anotherathogens . In geneS. graminicola in doses of 0 to 1000 ppm. To synthesize these nanoparticles, six strains of Trichoderma spp.  in the form of culture filtrate, cell lysate, and crude cell wall were used. The best result was found with T. asperellum in culture filtrate, demonstrating the antifungal capacity of Se nanoparticles [T. viride and they were evaluated at different concentrations  against A. solani using the in vitro method. It was demonstrated that Se nanoparticles suppressed the growth of the fungus at 800 ppm [M. phaseolina, S. sclerotiorum, and D. longicolla at different concentrations of 0.1, 0.5, 1, 5, 10, 50, and 100 ppm. The nanoparticles of Se inhibited D. longicolla from 10 ppm and up, and from 50 and 100 ppm for M. phaseolina. However, for S. sclerotiorum, the different concentrations of Se nanoparticles did not show any inhibition, allowing the growth and development of the pathogen [As previously discussed, Ag and Cu nanoparticles are the most studied for the control of the growth of phytopathogenic fungi. However, other metal nanoparticles have been investigated as antifungal agents, such as Se ,129,166, 800 ppm . Lastly,F. oxysporum at concentrations of 50 and 100 ppm. At a concentration of 100 ppm, the Ni nanoparticles significantly inhibited mycelial reproduction and the sporulation activities of the fungal pathogens under in vitro conditions. Meanwhile, under in vivo conditions, Ni nanoparticles at a concentration of 50 ppm reduced the severity of the disease by 58.4% and 57.0% in the cases of lettuce and tomato crops [Another metal that has been investigated for the control of phytopathogenic fungi is Ni. However, as in the case of Se nanoparticles, there are few studies available on the use of Ni nanoparticles aganist phytopathogenic fungi. In the first instance, commercial Ni nanoparticles were evaluated using in vitro and in vivo methods against two species of to crops .A. flavus and A. parasiticus in vitro. The results demonstrated a 43.5% inhibition with green tea extract and a 51.6% inhibition with black tea with doses of 100 ppm [Finally, other nanoparticles investigated for the control of phytopathogenic fungi are Fe nanoparticles, highlighting the application of Fe nanoparticles synthesized by an ecological method using extracts of green and black tea leaves. Various concentrations  were evaluated against the fungi  100 ppm .In this review, a critical and detailed analysis of the current progress on the application of metal-based nanoparticles for controlling phytopathogenic fungi in agriculture was presented. Based on this review, the following conclusions and future directions are proposed.The progress achieved in the use of metal nanoparticles for the control of phytopathogenic fungi is outstanding since the studies developed so far clearly show that these nanoparticles can be an excellent alternative to chemical fungicides for the control of phytopathogenic fungi in agriculture.Among the metallic nanoparticles, Ag nanoparticles have been the most studied as antifungal agents, followed by Cu nanoparticles. These nanoparticles have shown promising activity aganist different species of phytopathogenic fungi. Different synthesis methods have made it possible to produce nanoparticles with different shapes and sizes. However, the nanoparticles have been mainly spherical and polydisperse in size. Therefore, we consider it necessary to synthesize and evaluate nanoparticles of different shapes and size  and homogeneous in, since it is well known that these factors influence on antifungal activity.For the rest of the metallic nanoparticles, such as Ni, Se, Mg, Pd, and Fe, there is little research. Therefore, it can be inferred that their antifungal properties are not well known, although the synthesis methods that have been tested for them have given good results. Hence, it is important to continue researching these metallic nanoparticles since there is a vast number of opportunities for researchers in this field.Nowadays, the nanoparticles evaluated as antifungal agents have been mainly monometallic. Therefore, we consider it important to synthesize and evaluate bimetallic or trimetallic nanoparticles for the control of phytopathogenic fungi, since it has been documented that these nanoparticles have very different properties than monometallic nanoparticles.According to this review, most of the studies were evaluated in vitro. However, it is important to apply the in vivo method to know the behavior of phytopathogens in the field. Applying the nanoparticles directly to the pathogens is preferable since the environments within the laboratory are different from those in the field. The lack of in vivo studies create a significant opportunity for the application of metal nanoparticles in the field of agriculture.


Article no. 1230, 2021; DOI: 10.3892/etm.2021.10664Exp Ther Med 22:Subsequently to the publication of the above article, the authors have realized that, in Experimental and Therapeutic Medicine for allowing them the opportunity to publish this corrigendum, and apologize to the readership for any inconvenience caused.The authors have recaptured the x200- and x400-magnified pathological images through panoramic scanning of the original data. The revised version of


Ixodes species ticks transmit the Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato bacteria species responsible for causing the infection. The diversity of Borrelia species that cause human infection is greater in Europe; the 2 B. burgdorferi s.l. species collectively responsible for most infections in Europe, B. afzelii and B. garinii, are not found in the United States, where most infections are caused by B. burgdorferi sensu stricto. Strain differences seem to explain some of the variation in the clinical manifestations of Lyme disease, which are both minor and substantive, between the United States and Europe. Future studies should attempt to delineate the specific virulence factors of the different species of B. burgdorferi s.l. responsible for these variations in clinical features.Lyme disease, or Lyme borreliosis, is the most common tickborne disease in the United States and Europe. In both locations,  Ixodes scapularis, followed by I. pacificus; in Europe, most cases are transmitted by I. ricinus, followed by I. persulcatus ticks  has been revised into 2 main genera, Borrelia and Borreliella . However, these changes have been challenged  is an infrequent cause of human illness in the Upper Midwest region of the United States .Ixodes tick, an infection is typically established at that site, which causes the characteristic skin lesion, erythema migrans (>80% of patients in both geographic areas (B. burgdorferi s.s. are less likely than patients in Europe with erythema migrans caused by B. afzelii or B. garinii to remember a tick bite at the site of the lesion (25% vs. 60% for B. afzelii or 64% for B. garinii) but more likely to have concomitant systemic symptoms (69% vs. 38% or 37%), multiple erythema migrans skin lesions (13% vs. 5% for both B. afzelii and B. garinii), and regional lymphadenopathy (29% vs. 8% or 3%)  . ErythemAmblyomma americanum, and is not caused by Lyme borrelia. The etiology of STARI has not been determined. A. americanum ticks are most frequently found in the southeastern and south-central United States, but their range is spreading to geographic areas where I. scapularis tick bites are common  is associated with a skin lesion very similar to erythema migrans . STARI, B. afzelii  . Borreli afzelii .B. garinii and B. bavariensis; in adult patients, painful meningoradiculitis is most common   as the initial step. A negative result requires no further testing. A positive or equivocal result is followed by supplemental testing using separate IgM and IgG immunoblots as the second-tier assay. The interpretation of immunoblot results uses standardized criteria (at least 2 of 3 signature bands for a positive IgM immunoblot and 5 of 10 signature bands for a positive IgG immunoblot). Results from the IgM immunoblot are only relevant when the duration of the illness is n Europe . This neI. scapularis tick bite and is recommended for consideration for tick bite prophylaxis in the United States  is recommended for treatment of erythema migrans and borrelial lymphocytoma by some of the guidelines in Europe but is not part of the treatment recommendations in the United States (Ixodes ticks can carry multiple pathogens, and a single tick bite may result in transmission of >2 infectious agents. Pathogens potentially transmitted by I. scapularis ticks to humans include B. burgdorferi s.s., B. mayonii, B. miyamotoi, Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Babesia microti, Ehrlichia muris eauclairensis, and the deer tick virus subtype of Powassan virus (A. phagocytophilum and B. microti are the most frequent co-infections in patients with Lyme disease (B. miyamotoi, a relapsing fever spirochete, are co-infected with B. burgdorferi s.s.; of note, B. miyamotoi infections per se can cause positive results on first-tier tests for Lyme disease, potentially leading to diagnostic confusion. Encephalitis caused by deer tick virus is relatively rare, but cases may be increasing. In Europe, in addition to Lyme borrelia, I. ricinus ticks can transmit tick-borne encephalitis virus, A. phagocytophilum, species of the bacterial genus Rickettsia, B. miyamotoi, and Babesia protozoans. Tick-borne encephalitis virus is well recognized as a cause of co-infection in patients with Lyme disease in Europe (B. burgdorferi s.s. and Lyme neuroborreliosis with B. garinii. Certain cutaneous manifestations of Lyme disease in Europe do not occur at all in the United States. It will be valuable to delineate the specific virulence factors of the different species of Lyme borrelia that contribute to these clinical differences.Lyme disease is common in many areas of the United States and Europe and may have a variety of clinical manifestations. The duration of infection and the species of Lyme borrelia causing the infection can affect the clinical features of Lyme disease. In the United States, patients with erythema migrans more often have concomitant systemic symptoms than do patients in Europe. In Europe, Lyme arthritis is associated with


Following publication of the original article , the autThe original article has been corrected as well.Additional file 1: Table S1. Primers used in this study. Fig. S1. HapE splice site mutation. The intron site is located between the 297th T and the 343rd G of the HapE gene. Originally, the GC-AG site is removed as an intron, but in this case, the terminal G of the intron was mutated to A. If the intron is not removed, the stop codon TAG is generated, and normal protein synthesis is not expected.