Simulum damnosum Theobald sensu lato (s.l.) is the vector of the parasitic filarial worm Onchocerca volvulus Leuckart which causes onchocerciasis. In order to understand the vector population dynamics, a preliminary 12 months entomological evaluation was carried out at Abeokuta, the Southwest Zone of Nigeria, an onchocerciasis endemic area, where vector control has not been previously initiated. S.damnosum s.l. flies were caught on human attractants between 700 to1800 hours each day, for 4 days each month, from August 2007 to July 2008. The flies caught were classified as either forest-dwelling or savanna-dwelling groups based on the colour of certain morphological characters. Climatic data such as rainfall, humidity and temperature were also collected monthly during the period of survey.S. damnosum s.l. The highest percentage of forest-dwelling group was caught in the month of August 2007 (78.06%) and the least percentage of forest-dwelling groups was caught in November 2007 (8.14%). The highest percentage of savannah-dwelling group was caught in the month of November 2007 (91.86%) and the least percentage of savannah-dwelling group was caught in August 2007 (21.94%). There was no significant difference between the population of forest and savannah-dwelling groups of the fly when the means of the fly population were compared (P = 0.830). Spearman correlation analysis showed a significant relationship between monthly fly population with monthly average rainfall , but no significant relationship with monthly average temperature . There was also a significant relationship between monthly fly population and monthly average relative humidity . There was no significant correlation between the population of forest-dwelling group of S. damnosum s.l. and monthly average rainfall  and monthly average temperature  but there was significant correlation with monthly average relative humidity . There was significant correlation between savannah-dwelling group and monthly average rainfall , and monthly average relative humidity  but there was no significant correlation with monthly average temperature A total of 1,139 flies were caught, 596 (52.33%) were forest-dwelling group while 543 (47.67%) were savanna-dwelling group of S. damnosum s.l. were caught biting in the study area. This could have implications on the transmission and epidemiology of human onchocerciasis if not monitored.The results from this study showed that both the forest and the savannah dwelling groups of  Simulium damnosum Theobald complex are the only vectors of Onchocerca volvulus Leuckart, filarial parasite causing the human onchocerciasis in West Africa [S. damnosum sensu lato (s.l.) [S. damnosum s.l. and that these were related to savannah and forest environment [S. damnosum s.l that transmit the forest and savannah strains of Onchocerca volvulus has being considered very essential in the study of transmission and epidemiology of human onchocerciasis [®) drug, a microfilaricide, as there is no vector control. Therefore, the present work is aimed at identifying S. damnosum s.l sibling species biting at Iwofin River in order to provide data on the vector in Abeokuta southwestern zone of Nigeria, which can be useful for vector control of this disease in the future.The t Africa . Onchocet Africa . The preo (s.l.) . Early fironment -6. Severironment ,8. Thereerciasis . In addierciasis -12. In AP = 0.830). Table S. damnosum s.l. population with average temperature, relative humidity and average rainfall during the period of study. The populations of the forest-dwelling group were higher than those of the savannah-dwelling group of S. damnosum s.l. from August 2007 to September 2007, but from October 2007 till June 2008, population of the savanna strains was higher than that of the forest flies. In July 2008, population of forest-dwelling group increased beyond that of the savannah-dwelling group. The highest percentage of forest-dwelling group of S. damnosum s.l flies was caught in the month of August 2007 (78.06%) and the least percentage of forest-dwelling groups of S. damnosum s.l. flies was caught in November 2007 (8.14%). The highest percentage of savannah-dwelling group of S. damnosum s.l. flies was caught in the month of November 2007 (91.86%) and the least percentage of savannah-dwelling groups of S. damnosum s.l. flies was caught in August 2007 (21.94%). Figure S. damnosum in the study area.Out of 1,139 flies caught at Iwofin River, 596 (52.33%) were identified as forest-dwelling group while 543 (47.67%) were identified as savannah-dwelling group. There was no significant difference between the population of the forest and savannah groups caught when there means was compared  and average relative humidity and fly population  but no significant relationship between average temperature and fly population . Also there was no significant relationship between forest-dwelling group of S. damnosum s.l. with average rainfall  and average temperature  but there was significant relationship with relative humidity. However, there was significant relationship between savannah-dwelling group and monthly average rainfall , and monthly average relative humidity  but there was no significant correlation with monthly average temperature .The relationship between monthly average rainfall, average temperature, average relative humidity and fly population using spearman non parametric correlation analysis showed that there were significant relationship between average rainfall and fly population  than in the dry season (November 2007 to February 2008). This may have resulted from the stimulus of increased oxygen content of the water during rainy season which causes fly to emerge from pupae coupled with increased amounts of nutrients and availability of pre-imaginal sites, all of which enhance pre-imaginal development of y season . The raiy season . This phelopment . Howeverood meal . The strhumidity ,27.S. damnosum s.l. were caught biting in the study area. There is therefore a need for systematic monitoring of the population of S. damnosum s.l. in order to establish a possible invasion and breeding of savannah-dwelling group of S. damnosum s.l.in this area. Early warning of changes in species composition of S. damnosum s.l. is very important in the detection of any trend of change in transmission and epidemiology of onchocerciasis.The finding from this study shows that, both the forest and savannah dwelling groups of S. damnosum s.l in Abeokuta North Local Government Area of Ogun State located in the southwest zone of Nigeria. The region lies between altitudes 59 m - 62 m. The area is situated in the forest zone of Nigeria. However, the vegetation is that of a derived savannah, consisting of many grasses and few trees due to local deforestation such as land cultivation, pastoral farming and logging.The study was carried out at Iwofin River . Iwofin River is a fast flowing river that begins at Iwofin and empties into Oyan River. It is a breeding site of S. damnosum s.l. flies were caught on human attractants. Two human attractants were stationed alternatively for one hour from 0700 and 1800 hour at a location few meters from the breeding site of S. damnosum s.l. on Iwofin River. The Human attractants sat on a bench with their legs exposed. Any fly perching on the exposed parts was caught before it fed by inverting a small glass tube over it. The caps of the tube were then immediately replaced. All tubes containing flies were labeled to indicate time of capture. Each fly was caught with a separate tube. Collections were made on two consecutive days at every fortnight making a total of four days of collection every month from July 2007 to August 2008.Adult female of S. damnosum s.l. flies caught were identified immediately on the field with the aid of field microscope using taxonomic keys [th abdominal segment setae and scutella setae. The flies were classified as a member of either the forest-dwelling group or savannah-dwelling group. A S. damnosum s.l. with a pale colour for all the morphological characters mentioned above is classified as a member of the savannah-dwelling group while a fly with a dark colour for any or all of the morphological characters is classified as a forest fly [Adult females of mic keys  that focrest fly . Flies tS. damnosum s.l. The data were collected every month from the Hydrology department of the Ogun-Osun River Basin Development Authority, Abeokuta.Monthly average temperature, monthly average rainfall and monthly average relative humidity of the study area were collected to determine its influence on population dynamics of The authors declare that they have no competing interests.EUF and OAS initiated the study, EUF and OAS designed the study. OAS collected the data and EUF, MCF, ACO and IOA supervised the data collection. OAS and EUF did the data analysis and interpretation; OAS and EUF wrote the manuscript. OAS, EUF, MCF, IOA and ACO reviewed the manuscript.S. damnosum s.l. bite and were treated with ivermectin before and after the study.Approval for the study was obtained from the Ogun State Ministry of health and individuals used as human attractant were informed of the consequences of


Correction to: British Journal of Cancer (2008) 98, 1594. doi: 10.1038/sj.bjc.660433998, issue 9, have requested a corrigendum to show the complete author list for the letter. This is now shown above.The authors of the above Reply to Letter to the Editor, originally published in volume no.


Dr. Stanley J. Ball was not included in the author byline. He should be listed as the seventh author and affiliated with School of Life Sciences, Kingston University, Kingston upon Thames, Surrey, United Kingdom. The contributions of this author are as follows: Contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools.


Soon, I realized that editor of ‘Lung India’- the hallmark research journal, is a seat with more responsibility and challenges than laurels. To follow the benchmark set by the vanguard editors like Late Prof. C. V. Ramakrishnan, Prof. C. N. Deivanayagan, Prof. V. K. Vijayan, Prof. S. R. Kamat, Prof. P. S. Shankar, Prof. P. Ravindran and Prof. S. K. Jindal, who are luminaries and the vow to make the journal more useful to readers, is a tough challenge. But it can be accomplished with the combined vision and humble efforts of the editorial board.We have thought to introduce the concept of section editor in the journal to harness the potential of entire board. It is very encouraging that we are receiving a number of innovative suggestions. Let us dedicate our wisdom and efforts, in a collective pack, to take ‘Lung India’ to new heights.We have also planned to include color pictures to improve visibility of the articles from now onwards. This will be on shared basis. Fifty percent (INR 1000 for a colored page) of charges will be borne by the willing author.Abstracts of Lung India articles published after 2004 are available on PubMed. We are trying to upload on PubMed, all the articles published in the Lung India since its inception. For this purpose hard copies of all previous issues of Lung India were provided with generous help from Prof. S. R. Kamat.I solicit your thoughtful suggestions and the research articles which I am confident, would, for sure, help making the journal more purposeful.


Correction to Escalada F, Marco E, Duarte E, Muniesa JM, Boza R, Tejero M, Cáceres E. Assessment of angle velocity in girls with adolescent idiopathic scoliosis. Scoliosis 2009; 4:20. After publication of this work , we noteThe authors declare that they have no competing interests.FE conceived and designed the study, performed analysis and interpretation of data, carried the assessments and gave final approval of the version to be published. EM contributed to acquisition, analysis and interpretation of data and was involved in drafting the manuscript. RBe contributed to design, analysis and interpretation of data and reviewed the article critically for important intellectual content. ED and JMM revised critically for important intellectual contents. RBo and MT contributed to acquisition of data and analysis. EC participated in its design, revised critically for intellectual contents and gave final approval of the version to be published. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.


To the Editor:Coxiella burnetii, the agent of Q fever, is a bacterium and a potential agent of bioterrorism. The most frequent signs of infection in domestic animals are abortion and reduced fertility  are possible mechanical vectors of C. burnetii because this organism survived 32 days in house flies and viable bacteria were shed by flies for 15 days , a garbage bin of elephant feces , and a barn at a ranch . We sequenced 1,100 bp of the 16S rRNA gene from select DNA extracts, which were 99% identical with that of C. burnetii strain NC 002971.Five of 363 flies were positive for etii DNA . These fC. burnetii in flies from a zoo, a ranch, and carrion in a forest. Laboratory data on house flies, which shed live C. burnetii for 15 days after exposure, suggest that related flies  might also harbor viable C. burnetii. On the basis of our field data, S. calcitrans and Lucilia spp. should be studied as mechanical vectors of C. burnetii. Unlike many enteric bacteria, which require large inocula to cause disease, C. burnetii can be infectious at the level of 1 bacterium  in maintenance or transmission of C. burnetii is unknown. This fly is an obligate ectoparasite of sheep. It feeds on sheep blood, and feces from sheep keds can accumulate in the wool of sheep. Testing of sheep keds from infected sheep would help understand whether keds play a role in the epidemiology of C. burnetii.The role of the sheep ked (


Miniopterus schreibersii, found in Europe, northern Africa, and Asia Minor, could also form such a complex. Populations of M. schreibersii decline in most of the European countries and the species is currently listed as Near Threatened in the IUCN Red List. Finding that M. schreibersii is not a single species, but a species complex, would have a considerable impact on its conservation strategies, as the abundance of each component taxon would be much smaller than the one estimated for the nominal species.Two or more species are cryptic, if they are morphologically similar, biologically distinct, and misclassified as a single species. Cryptic species complexes were recently discovered within many bat species and we suspect that the bent-wing bat, Miniopterus schreibersii in Asia Minor consists of two genetically diverged lineages, which are reciprocally monophyletic on three mitochondrial DNA markers, have a diagnostic set of multilocus allele frequencies, and show a marked difference in their population structures. The lineages differ slightly in their size, wing shape, and echolocation call parameters. Although these differences are sufficient to discriminate between the lineages, they are not fully diagnostic in reference to individuals. We suggest that the lineages endured the major Northern Hemisphere glaciations in different glacial refugia and colonized Asia Minor after the last glacial maximum. The lineages are allopatric, which is neither delineated by the presence of geographical barriers nor associated with the specific climatic conditions, and which we link to competitive exclusion.M. schreibersii in Asia Minor is represented by two cryptic species. Our results imply that the distributional range of the nominal species is almost exclusively limited to Europe and the coastal zones of Asia Minor. As populations of M. schreibersii seem to be much smaller than currently assumed, conservation strategies regarding this taxon need to be revised. The exact distributional range and the vulnerability of the suggested sister species to M. schreibersii is yet to be assessed.The distinctions between the lineages comply with most of the criteria required for species delineation imposed by various species concepts. Accordingly, we conclude that  Cytb) . Our data were analyzed together with 39 sequences reported previously  or FST/[1- FST]) against the logarithm of geographical distance , two sequences from Iran [GenBank: FJ028638 and FJ028640], and two sequences from Nagorno-Karabakh [GenBank: FJ028634 and FJ028635], which represent samples collected near the type localities of M. s. schreibersii and M. s. pallidus . The mitochondrial differentiation between the M. schreibersii lineages is particularly striking in the light of the similarity observed within each of them; there is only a shallow differentiation in the control region and almost no differentiation in Cytb between colonies of M. s. schreibersii sampled in Anatolia, Iberia, or Maghreb [M. s. pallidus [Cryptic species complexes, in which the component taxa have not diverged morphologically too much, are very difficult to identify and their discovery is frequently a matter of chance. In a recent study investigating the contribution of the 28 Iberian bat species to the cryptic diversity in Europe, almost 20% of the Iberian bats showed considerable mitochondrial discontinuities either within the Iberian or between Iberian and other European samples . One of  Maghreb ,9,45. A M. s. schreibersii and M. s. pallidus in Anatolia show visible differences in their population genetic structure. The colonies of M. s. schreibersii reveal the moderate differentiation in the control region sequences accompanied by the very strong correlation between the genetic and geographic distances. At the microsatellite level, the differentiation is weak but the association between the genetic and geographic distances is still strong. The results are in concordance with the ones reported for M. s. schreibersii from Portugal, which were linked to female philopatry and a mainly male-mediated gene flow [M. s. pallidus show only a weak differentiation in the control region sequences and no significant correlation between the genetic differentiation and geographic distance. The latter outcome, however, should be taken with a caution as the small number of colonies could profoundly affect the significance of the correlation. At the microsatellite level, the colonies of M. s. pallidus do not reveal any indications of population structuring. Both the differentiation between the colonies and the association between the genetic and geographic distances are virtually zero, suggesting no constrains imposed on gene flow.The extant colonies of ene flow . On the M. s. schreibersii in Karanlık and M. s. pallidus in Asarini and Delikli deserve a special attention  and has narrower and more elongated wings (higher tip and aspect ratio indices). There are also significant differences in echolocation call parameters between the lineages. Although, in principle, higher aspect ratio and tip indices are associated with swifter flight [M. s. schreibersii and M. s. pallidus are relatively small and the ranges are overlapping. Indeed, even though wing morphology and echolocation call parameters are sufficient to discriminate between the lineages, they are not fully diagnostic in reference to a single individual. In consequence, the observed dissimilarities can probably only minutely affect the foraging performance of bats, resulting in a considerable overlap in their ecological niches and leaving them prone to an intensive inter-lineage competition. A similar situation is found in European Plecotus species: echolocation signals of P. macrobullaris are more similar to allopatrically occurring P. austriacus than to co-occurring P. auritus, although P. macrobullaris is genetically closer related to P. auritus [M. schreibersii complex [Morphologically, r flight  and varir flight , the dif auritus ,50. In f complex  and may Cytb and ND2 data, M. s. schreibersii and M. s. pallidus diverged after the onset of the major Northern Hemisphere glaciations in the Lower or Middle Pleistocene [M. s. schreibersii survived the major glaciations in a single glacial refugium in the north-western Anatolia/Balkans and rapidly colonized Europe ca. 15 kyr BP [M. s. schreibersii and a few colonies might have survived the last glacial maximum in one of the south Anatolian refugia, located along the Mediterranean Sea coast. The latter hypothesis is supported by the earlier expansion time estimated here for the south Anatolian population (ca. 21 kyr BP) than for the European expansion. Considerably less can be conjectured about the history M. s. pallidus; it probably survived the major glaciations in refugia located somewhere on the southern coast of the Caspian Sea, the eastern part of the Caucasian refugium. It is unlikely that M. s. pallidus endured the glacial periods in Colchis, a western part of the Caucasian refugium, as this region is presently occupied by M. s. schreibersii and it is dubious that the former replaced the latter. Miniopterus s. pallidus possibly expanded to Anatolia after the climatic change that followed the end of the last glacial maximum, ca. 13 kyr BP. The late colonization of the Central Anatolian Plateau may be a result of the high altitude of the region (and more severe climatic conditions) and the scarcity of suitable underground habitats. The lineages came to contact in the Central Anatolia. Probably, when they met, M. s. schreibersii had already established colonies on the Central Anatolian Plateau and along the Mediterranean Sea coast.According to the estimates based on the istocene . The lin5 kyr BP . Asia MiM. s. schreibersii and M. s. pallidus is neither delineated by the presence of geographical barriers nor associated with the specific climatic conditions. Although most of the known colonies of M. s. schreibersii are found in coastal, low altitude locations with the wet Mediterranean or Black Sea climate [M. s. pallidus mainly occupies semiarid regions of higher altitude, the colonies in Asarini and Delikli are located near, or on, the Mediterranean Sea coast exhibiting the wet Mediterranean climate, on the altitudes of ca. 1600 m and 200 m. Therefore, it is plausible to conclude that both lineages are fully capable of utilizing both inland and coastal habitats, and have similar ecological niches.Spatial separation of  climate ,12, the M. s. pallidus possibly replaced some colonies of M. s. schreibersii. The replacement rather than a sympatric coexistence of the lineages could be caused by the morphological similarities between the lineages and resulting competitive exclusion [M. s. schreibersii and M. s. pallidus are the result of the historical and ongoing expansion events, and interlineage competition rather than the outcome of climatic preferences as suggested by Bilgin et al. [We suggest that in its southwards expansion, xclusion . Accordin et al. .M. s. schreibersii and M. s. pallidus form two separately evolving lineages, making them potentially different species [In the light of available evidence,  species . The lin species ,12, have species ,55. The  species ,57. Furt species ,59.M. s. pallidus and M. s. schreibersii seem to be sufficient to recognize M. schreibersii in Asia Minor as a cryptic species complex and to grant M. s. pallidus a full species status, a sister taxon to M. schreibersii. Still, we do not know about the mechanism of reproductive isolation between M. s. schreibersii and M. s. pallidus, which probably includes a difference in mating calls, and we know very little about their ecological divergence. Further and more extensive studies are needed to clarify these points.The distinctions between M. schreibersii. The distributional range of the nominal species, M. s. schreibersii, is mainly limited to Europe and the coastal zones of Asia Minor; an area much smaller than currently recognized by the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species [M. schreibersii, including stable populations in the Balkans and Turkey, is estimated to be approaching 30% [M. s. pallidus, the decline rate of M. s. schreibersii might already be much higher than estimated by the IUCN Red List. Accordingly, a thoughtful revision of all conservation strategies regarding M. s. schreibersii might be crucial to preserve this taxon. The presence of M. s. pallidus in Asia Minor requires a protection program, which would estimate abundance of its current populations, identify possible threats, and assess its conservation status.The results of this study are particularly important for the conservation of the  Species . The rathing 30% . HoweverM. schreibersii may be indicative for other bat species, which persisted through the major glaciations in the Anatolian refugia. Here, potential candidates are Rhinolophus euryale and R. ferrumequinum. Both species consist of considerably diverged matrilineal lineages [Finally, the case of lineages ,61 and eAF designed the study, carried out the field work, performed statistical analyses of molecular data, and drafted the manuscript. TP carried out the field work and analyzed morphological and echolocation data. TÖ carried out the field and molecular laboratory work. EÇ participated in the design of the study, carried out the field work and helped in drafting the manuscript. All authors read and approved the manuscript.List of haplotypes analyzed in this study.Click here for file


Oxygen delivery is essential to sustain all vital functions. Vertebrate organisms have, therefore, evolved sophisticated and tightly regulated mechanisms to ensure continuous red cell synthesis. Chronic or acute blood losses trigger multiple feedback mechanisms aimed at increasing erythropoiesis and minimizing the damage associated with profound anemia and hypoxia. Iron is an element of paramount importance for erythropoiesis, being an essential part of the hemoglobin metalloprotein that ensures oxygen absorption, transport, and delivery. Therefore, it is not surprising that iron absorption and transport are closely linked to the demands of erythropoiesis. However, the mechanisms underlying this interconnected relationship have only recently started being understood. The focus of this special issue is on iron metabolism, erythropoiesis, and their close association, with a special emphasis on proteins regulating iron metabolism and how erythropoiesis affects their expression. The mechanistic view will be integrated with the clinical observations in disease such as myelodysplastic syndromes, sickle cell anemia, Diamond-Blackfan anemia, and anemia of inflammation. And finally, in light of these new discoveries, new potential therapies for well-known disorders such as beta-thalassemia will be discussed. In the last decade, new discoveries have fueled the field of iron metabolism. The papers by H. Li and Y. Z. Ginzburg,E. Nemetβ-thalassemia. Improved knowledge on proteins that interconnect iron metabolism and erythropoiesis is opening new prospective to develop new therapies, such as in beta-thalassemia. The review by L. Melchiori et al.  providesThe interdependence of erythropoiesis and iron regulation extends beyond normal metabolism to include several pathological conditions. Diseases that are primarily associated with erythroid defects often lead to iron overload, maldistribution, or deficiency. The reviews by E. Messa et al.  and by MDiamond-Blackfan anemia is a rare congenital pure red-cell aplasia that presents during infancy. D. Chiabrando and E. Tolosano's  review fFinally, the review by E. A. Price and S. L. Schrier  providesWe hope that this special issue will stimulate curiosity, interest, and new research directions in exploring the field of iron and erythropoiesis, with the ultimate goal to develop new drugs and improve the management of disorders associated with altered iron metabolism, abnormal erythropoiesis, and anemia of inflammation. Stefano RivellaElizabeta NemethJeffery Lynn Miller


Bats comprise the second largest order of mammals. However, there are far fewer morphological studies of post-implantation embryonic development than early embryonic development in bats.Miniopterus schreibersii fuliginosus, Hipposideros armiger and H. pratti), representing the two suborders Yangochiroptera and Yinpterochiroptera. Using an established embryonic staging system, we identified the embryonic stages for M. schreibersii fuliginosus, H. armiger and H. pratti and described the morphological changes in each species, including the development of the complex and distinctive nose-leaves in H. armiger and H. pratti. Finally, we compared embryonic and fetal morphology of the three species in the present study with five other species for which information is available.We studied three species of bats (As a whole, the organogenetic sequence of bat embryos is uniform and the embryos appear homoplastic before Stage 16. Morphological differentiation between species occurs mainly after embryonic Stage 16. Our study provides three new bat species for interspecific comparison of post-implantation embryonic development within the order Chiroptera and detailed data on the development of nose-leaves for bats in the superfamily Rhinolophoidea. M. schreibersii fuliginosus, H. armiger and H pratti, which belong to the superfamilies Vespertilionoidea and Rhinolophoidea respectively [The Chiroptera is the second largest order of mammals with over 1100 species . Althougectively , to inveM. schreibersii fuliginosus, Schreibers's long-fingered bat, is widespread from the temperate zone to the tropics in the Old World [ld World ,12. In tld World ,14. Normld World .H. armiger, the great leaf-nosed bat, is widely distributed in subtropical and tropical zones of Asia [ of Asia . At lowe of Asia ,17 and e of Asia .H. pratti, Pratt's leaf-nosed bat, has been found in a few Asian countries and is distributed across the same latitudes as H. armiger [ armiger . Althoug armiger , it has Here we compare morphological changes during embryonic and fetal development for the three bat species, describing the differentiation and development of the face and limbs, and comparing them with information already available for five other bat species. By adding the two hipposiderid species studied in this paper, representatives of another superfamily have been considered Fig. .M. schreibersii fuliginosus, H. armiger and H. pratti possess bicornuate uteri and are monotocous. H. armiger were in torpor on 19 Feb 2009 and 4 March 2008. On other capture dates, the three species of bats had already aroused. We obtained embryos from 24 M. schreibersii fuliginosus in nine stages of development , 26 H. armiger in 11 stages  and 12 H. pratti in nine stages  and three neonates of M. schreibersii fuliginosus. Because they were resected for mRNA extraction, the limbs of a few specimens are missing  and some limb information is lacking. Table M. schreibersii fuliginosus examined, a fetus was present in the right horn of uterus, whereas in all gravid H. armiger and H. pratti it was in the left horn of uterus. The crown rump length (CRL) and uterus diameter (UD) progressively increased during embryonic development .Stage 11 Fig. : the chaH. armiger at Stage 14 (see above results).Stage 14 Fig. : specimeStage 15 Fig. : the bodStage 16 Fig. : a pair H. armiger, H. pratti had a transverse fold and a main nose-leaf in the middle of the face. Beside the main nose-leaf, one fold was seen on each side of the cheek. The primordium of the frontal sac was present in the middle of the forehead. Vibrissal follicles emerged between the main nose-leaf and the mouth. The uropatagium enclosed the whole tail by the end of this stage.Stage 19 Fig. : the eyeStage 20 Fig. : eyelidsStage 22 Fig. : in the Stage 23: the overall appearance of the embryo was similar to the former stages. The shield between the eyes was larger but the genital tubercle was maintained.H. pratti and H. armiger at this stage  developed faster than those captured after arousal. We captured dozens of H. armiger from the same cave and maintained them for another study. When kept cool during January and February, they became torpid even if food was provided. This suggests that these bats hibernated as did populations of the same species at lower latitudes (23°N) [M. schreibersii fuliginosus [For the three species in this study, late embryonic stages and fetal stages were obtained mainly from April to June Table . Embryons (23°N) ,17. Althiginosus .C. perspicillata than in other species. In some instances, for example Stage 15, the common features are listed as lens vesicles and auditory hillocks. Although these terms were not present in the descriptions of all the bat species considered, we listed them for most species in which these features are described.As a whole, the organogenetic sequence of bat embryos is uniform and the embryos appear homoplastic before Stage 16 when the nose-leaf begins to form in some species. There are many common features at the same stage for all the bat species studied, summarized in table H. armiger, H. pratti and C. perspicillata). The earliest differences are evident early in embryonic Stage 14 when nasal pits are identified. In H. armiger and H. pratti these appear as round depressions, whereas in C. perspicillata they are relatively small and in other species are long grooves. More evident differences of the face start from Stage 16 when the nose-leaf primordia are formed in H. armiger, H. pratti and C. perspicillata. Although H. armiger and H. pratti are phylogenetically close, their nose-leaves develop distinct morphologies. There are four main differences of nose-leaves between these two species. First of all, H. armiger develops four folds on each side of the cheek, whereas H. pratti develops two. Secondly, H. pratti develops an evident fold under each eye, whereas H. armiger does not. Thirdly, the transverse bilobed shield between the eyes is much larger in H. pratti than in H. armiger. Finally, the part of the main fold above nostrils is bigger in H. armiger than in H. pratti. In contrast, M. schreibersii fuliginosus and M. natalensis are also phylogenetically close and their embryonic development and adult morphology are similar.However, there are also many specific features for each species. Besides the CRL, UD and somite count, the most profound developmental differences are expected to be in craniofacial development, which is more complex in species possessed of nose-leaves (C. perspicillata and M. rufus) reopen at embryonic Stage 22 and the others never open during prenatal development. The uropatagium does not enclose the whole tail in M. rufus and R. amplexicaudatus, but does so in other species. Many other differences occur mainly in the timing of organogenesis. For example, the foot plate formed one stage later in H. pratti than in other species. The uropatagium encloses the whole tail later in M. schreibersii fuliginosus, M. natalensis and P. abramus than in C. perspicillata because of the longer tails in the former three species.The eyelids of all eight bat species close before Stage 20, but two of them , upper jaw and the lower jaw is formed. Our study provides three new bat species for interspecific comparison of post-implantation embryonic development within the order Chiroptera and detailed data on the development of nose-leaves for bats in the superfamily Rhinolophoidea.An illustration of phylogenic relationships of the eight bat species, which were studied for embryonic staging systems, was represented based on previous publications ,22.M. schreibersii fuliginosus, H. armiger and H.pratti roost in a large cave at Anhui province of China . During an investigation of infectious diseases of bats, a total of 75 female M. schreibersii fuliginosus, H. armiger and H.pratti were captured using hand or mist nets on 4 March 2008, 28 April 2008, 22 May 2008, 19 Feb 2009, 24 April 2009 and 4 June 2009.All procedures involving animals were carried out in accordance with the Policy on the Care and Use of Animals, approved by the Ethical Committee, State Key Laboratory of Reproductive Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences. Several ten thousands of After capture, these bats were kept in a flight room (4 × 4 × 2.5 m) which was covered with wire netting on the wall and roof to allow the bats to hang. The room was kept dark all day and the temperature was maintained between 18 and 24°C. Plastic bowls (12 × 7 × 5 cm) for water and food hung on the wall and were 12 cm from the roof. Water was freely available. A diet of mealworms mixed with powdered multivitamin and calcium tablets was provided in the bowls from 2000 h to 0800 h. In the beginning, some of the bats needed to be fed by hand but after several days, they could find food by themselves, like the others.Bats in the captive colony were euthanized by decapitation. The reproductive tract was then dissected, measured, and further dissected to expose the conceptus. After dissection, specimens were fixed overnight in Bouin's fluid then washed with several changes of 70% ethyl alcohol and stored at room temperature until use. Before being photographed, specimens were cleared in 0.1% ammonium hydroxide in 70% ethyl alcohol. The whole bodies of the specimens were photographed from the lateral view, ventral view and dorsal view. Close-up of the forelimb, hindlimb and face were also photographed.Because the bats were already pregnant when they were caught, it was difficult to determine the exact duration of pregnancy. Thus, bat embryos were staged using the system developed by Cretekos et al  accordinM. schreibersii fuliginosus at Stage 15 and H. armiger at Stage 18 were fixed overnight in Bouin's solution and cartilage stained with Alcian blue. The detailed staining method for the bat embryo is the same as for the mouse embryo [Embryos of e embryo .We summarized features in each stage for the three bat species from this study and used the data of other five species from previous publications -8. If alZW conceived and designed the study, identified the stages of bat embryos, and drafted the manuscript. NH carried out the experiments and fed the bats. PAR participated in the preparation of figures and critically revised the manuscript. BR participated in the preparation of figures. GH helped to draft the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.


AMA PRA Category 1 Credits™. Physicians should only claim credit commensurate with the extent of their participation in the activity. All other clinicians completing this activity will be issued a certificate of participation. To participate in this journal CME activity: (1) review the learning objectives and author disclosures; (2) study the education content; (3) take the post-test and/or complete the evaluation at http://www.medscape.com/cme/eid; (4) view/print certificate.Medscape, LLC is pleased to provide online continuing medical education (CME) for this journal article, allowing clinicians the opportunity to earn CME credit. Medscape, LLC is accredited by the Accreditation Council for Continuing Medical Education (ACCME) to provide CME for physicians. Medscape, LLC designates this educational activity for a maximum of 1.0 Upon completion of this activity, participants will be able to:Identify the most common baseline human papillomavirus (HPV) status of couplesSpecify the most common mode of transmission of HPV between couplesDescribe the role of anatomic sites in the transmission of HPVIdentify behavioral factors associated with the transmission of HPVD. Peter Drotman, MD, Editor-in-Chief, Emerging Infectious Diseases. Disclosure: D. Peter Drotman, MD, has disclosed no relevant financial relationships.Charles P. Vega, MD, Associate Professor; Residency Director, Department of Family Medicine, University of California, Irvine, California, USA. Disclosure: Charles P. Vega, MD, has disclosed that he has served as an advisor or consultant to Novartis, Inc.Brenda Y. Hernandez, PhD, MPH; Lynne R. Wilkens, DrPH; Xuemei Zhu, MD; Pamela Thompson, MPH; Katharine McDuffie, BS; Yurii B. Shvetsov, PhD; Jeffrey Killeen, MD; Lily Ning, MD; and Marc T. Goodman, PhD, MPH, have disclosed no relevant financial relationships. Lori E. Kamemoto, MD, MPH, has disclosed that she has received grants for clinical research from GlaxoSmithKline, and is on the speakers’ bureau for Merck.Disclosures: http://www.medscape.com/cme/eid. Credit cannot be obtained for tests completed on paper, although you may use the worksheet below to keep a record of your answers. You must be a registered user on Medscape.com. If you are not registered on Medscape.com, please click on the New Users: Free Registration link on the left hand side of the website to register. Only one answer is correct for each question. Once you successfully answer all post-test questions you will be able to view and/or print your certificate. For questions regarding the content of this activity, contact the accredited provider, CME@medscape.net. For technical assistance, contact CME@webmd.net. American Medical Association’s Physician’s Recognition Award (AMA PRA) credits are accepted in the US as evidence of participation in CME activities. For further information on this award, please refer to http://www.ama-assn.org/ama/pub/category/2922.html. The AMA has determined that physicians not licensed in the US who participate in this CME activity are eligible for AMA PRA Category 1 Credits™. Through agreements that the AMA has made with agencies in some countries, AMA PRA credit is acceptable as evidence of participation in CME activities. If you are not licensed in the US and want to obtain an AMA PRA CME credit, please complete the questions online, print the certificate and present it to your national medical association.To obtain credit, you should first read the journal article. After reading the article, you should be able to answer the following, related, multiple-choice questions. To complete the questions and earn continuing medical education (CME) credit, please go to Which of the following was the most common human papillomavirus (HPV) status at baseline in the current study cohort?A. Both partners HPV-negativeB. One partner HPV-negative and one HPV-positiveC. Both partners HPV-positive with the same HPV typeD. Both partners HPV-positive with different HPV typesWhat was the most common means of HPV transmission in the current study?A. Male-to-female transmissionB. Female-to-male transmissionC. Male auto-inoculationD. Female auto-inoculationmost accurate?Which of the following statements about anatomic sites of transmission of HPV in the current study is A. Most women obtained infection from the glans of the penisB. The female anus was not a significant site of transmission to menC. There were no cases of transmission from the women’s hands to the men’s genitalsD. Among men, the rate of auto-inoculation was comparable to the rate of transmission from womenmost significant in the risk for HPV transmission?Which of the following factors from the current study was A. Frequency of condom useB. Length of relationshipC. Any history of anal intercourseD. A history of genital herpes


Erwinia includes plant-associated pathogenic and non-pathogenic Enterobacteria. Important pathogens such as Erwinia amylovora, the causative agent of fire blight and E. pyrifoliae causing bacterial shoot blight of pear in Asia belong to this genus. The species E. tasmaniensis and E. billingiae are epiphytic bacteria and may represent antagonists for biocontrol of fire blight. The presence of genes that are putatively involved in virulence in E. amylovora and E. pyrifoliae is of special interest for these species in consequence.The genus E. pyrifoliae strain Ep1/96 with a size of 4.1 Mb and of the non-pathogenic species E. billingiae strain Eb661 with a size of 5.4 Mb, de novo determined by conventional Sanger sequencing and next generation sequencing techniques. Genome comparison reveals large inversions resulting from homologous recombination events. Furthermore, comparison of deduced proteins highlights a relation of E. billingiae strain Eb661 to E. tasmaniensis strain Et1/99 and a distance to E. pyrifoliae for the overall gene content as well as for the presence of encoded proteins representing virulence factors for the pathogenic species. Pathogenicity of E. pyrifoliae is supposed to have evolved by accumulation of potential virulence factors. E. pyrifoliae carries factors for type III secretion and cell invasion. Other genes described as virulence factors for E. amylovora are involved in the production of exopolysaccharides, the utilization of plant metabolites such as sorbitol and sucrose. Some virulence-associated genes of the pathogenic species are present in E. tasmaniensis but mostly absent in E. billingiae.Here we provide the complete genome sequences of the pathogenic E. pyrifoliae and underlines the epiphytic localization of E. tasmaniensis and E. billingiae as a saprophyte.The data of the genome analyses correspond to the pathogenic lifestyle of  Erwinia comprises essentially plant-associated bacteria. Two species, Erwinia amylovora and Erwinia pyrifoliae, are connected with "pome fruit" diseases, fire blight of apple, pear and some ornamentals and Asian pear blight, respectively  and Hrp-associated enzymes [HAE]), which contain effector proteins and enzymes involved in systemic virulence  of three investigated chromosomes.Click here for fileChromosome maps of the three investigated species highlighting the conserved protein-coding gene content and the individual set. PDFs are of high resolution and allow enlarging regions of interest.Click here for fileE. pyrifoliae, E. billingiae and E. tasmaniensisGenes with potential impact for virulence in pathogenic erwinias encoded in the genomes of .Click here for fileE. pyrifoliae, E. tasmaniensis and E. billingiae or in assembly of the T6SSA scheme for involvement of proteins from .Click here for file


A.D.M.E. Osterhaus wishes to declare, for the avoidance of any misunderstanding on competing interests, that he founded and is chief scientific officer of Viroclinics, a company set up in collaboration with Erasmus University. However, for clarification, no materials or support were received from the company, and no agreements were in place concerning the execution or publication of this work.


In mice, i.v. C. parvum induces intravascular coagulation. This is a prolonged reaction lasting up to 7 days. It results in thrombosis in hepatic vessels with consequent hepatic necrosis, and thrombosis in pulmonary and splenic vessels. This may be important in the assessment of the tumour-inhibitory activity of C. parvum.


Anopheles mosquitoes is a prerequisite for effective management of malaria vector control programmes. The most reliable existing means to measure mosquito density is the human landing catch (HLC). However, the HLC technique raises major ethical concerns because of the necessity to expose humans to vectors of malaria and a variety of other pathogens. Furthermore, it is a very arduous undertaking that requires intense supervision, which is severely limiting in terms of affordability and sustainability.Frequent, sensitive and accurate sampling of A community-based, mosquito sampling protocol, using the Ifakara tent trap-B (ITT-B) and standardized resting boxes (SRB), was developed and evaluated in terms of the number and sample composition of mosquitoes caught by each, compared to rigorously controlled HLC. Mosquitoes were collected once and three times every week by the HLC and the alternative methods, respectively, in the same time and location.Anopheles gambiae s.l. as well as 26,315, 13,258 and 4,791 Culex species respectively. The ITT-B was three- and five-times cheaper than the HLC per mosquito caught for An. gambiae and Cx. Species, respectively. Significant correlations between the numbers caught by HLC and ITT-B were observed for both An. gambiae s.l. (P < 0.001) and Cx. species (P = 0.003). Correlation between the catches with HLC and SRB were observed for Cx. species (P < 0.001) but not An. gambiae s.l. (P = 0.195), presumably because of the low density of the latter. Neither ITT-B nor SRB exhibited any obvious density dependence for sampling the two species.Overall, the three traps caught 44,848 mosquitoes. The ITT-B, HLC and SRB caught 168, 143 and 46 SRBs exhibited poor sensitivity for both mosquito taxa and are not recommended in this setting. However, this protocol is affordable and effective for routine use of the ITT-B under programmatic conditions. Nevertheless, it is recommended that the trap and the protocol be evaluated further at full programmatic scales to establish effectiveness under fully representative conditions of routine practice. Monitoring and evaluation of malaria control interventions and their associated impact on malaria burden is essential for understanding progress, successes and challenges in any malaria control effort . In ordeIn urban Dar es Salaam, the Urban Malaria Control Programme (UMCP) relies upon the human landing catch (HLC) for entomological surveys of malaria vectors, transmission intensity and for evaluation of regular larvicide application -6. NonetElsewhere, resting boxes have been used to sample mosquitoes, relying on the widely observed phenomenon that they congregate in diurnal resting places which are dark and cool . Boxes aA new device for outdoor sampling adult mosquitoes called the Ifakara tent trap-B (ITT-B) has been developed and evaluated in both rural and urban Tanzania . This trAn. gambiae complex that predominantly feed out-doors  [An. gambiae s.l. mosquitoes even after aggregation by station-week so no logical comparison could be made and these data were discarded. Since divisions by zero gives infinite values, data for several week-site observations were sorted by the sum of the catches for the traps  and then aggregated by this sum with the mean of each of the two catches as the summary variables. The mean catch of the alternative collection methods divided by the mean catch of the reference method was treated as the dependent variable with a log link function and a gamma distribution for An. gambiae s.l. and a normal distribution for Cx. species. The sum of the alternative and the reference methods was treated as a continuous independent variable in the model.To allow direct comparison with HLC conducted in the same area and in the same week, data was first aggregated by station and week, giving a total of 48 mean catches for matching station-week combinations over a period of 30 weeks. Prior to this analysis step, the numbers in each catch (x) were normalized by transforming to logAn. gambiae s.s. versus An. arabiensis, respectively, as described previously [To test for consistent variations in species composition, sporozoite prevalence and abdominal condition of the mosquitoes sampled by the different traps, binary logistic regression in SPSS was used. Each outcome was treated as a binary variable with trap design as an independent categorical factor in the model. The results of abdominal status and sibling species identity were expressed as binary outcomes: fed  versus non-fed (gravid or unfed) and eviously . Althoug® (artemether-lumefantrine).Informed consent was obtained from all the participants, namely the household owners and the mosquito catchers. Moreover, thick and thin blood smears were taken from all the participants whenever they complained of fever to examine the presence of malaria parasites. When found positive, they were treated with CoartemCx. species, 0.8% An. gambiae s.l., 0.2% Aedes species and 0.1% An. coustani. The ITT-B, HLC and SRB accounted for 59%, 30% and 11% of the total number of mosquitoes caught respectively. Over the entire sampling period, the SRB caught only 46 and 4,791 An. gambiae s.l. and Cx. species, respectively. The total catches of Cx. species and An. gambiae s.l. are outlined in further detail in Table S1  . Analysis using binary logistic regression showed no significant difference in proportion of An. gambiae s.s. versus An. arabiensis sampled by the three traps.Of the 268 female d Table S  to determine density dependence relative sampling efficiency of the ITT-B and the SRB for . Statistical analysis to indicate the sampling efficiency of the ITT-B and the HLC in terms of the vector density.Click here for fileAn. gambiae s.l. and Cx. species and the influence of each trap on the fed mosquitoes determined by binary logistic regressionAbdominal condition scored by the three traps for . The data represent statistical analysis of the abdominal status of the three traps.Click here for fileAn. gambiae complex for the ITT-B, HLC and SRB and the influence of each trap upon the proportion of An. gambiae s.s. sampled, as determined by binary logistic regressionSpecies composition of . The data presented is a summary of statistical analysis of the species composition of the three traps as determined by PCR.Click here for fileAn. gambiae s.l. and Cx. speciesComparative evaluation of cost effectiveness of the ITT-B and the HLC for weekly sampling and sampling a single . A summary of the cost of using the ITT-B and the HLC for sampling An. gambiae s.l. and Cx. species.Click here for file


Plasmodium cynomolgi and P. vivax, we conducted phylogenetic analyses of small subunit ribosomal RNA gene sequences of Plasmodium spp. We found that these orangutans are not hosts of P. cynomolgi and P. vivax. Analysis of >1 genes is needed to identify Plasmodium spp. infecting orangutans.After orangutans in Indonesia were reported as infected with  Plasmodium cause malaria and are usually host specific. For example, humans are natural hosts for P. falciparum, P. vivax, P. malaria, and P. ovale, and orangutans are naturally infected with P. pitheci and P. silvaticum  genes that are developmentally regulated , and is not the macaque malaria parasite, P. cynomolgi, as previously reported (.The VS63 sequence is clearly not Plasmodium spp. isolated from orangutans in Kalimantan, Indonesia, are P. cynomolgi or P. vivax, as previously reported by Reid et al. (. Before any conclusion about the identity of the malaria parasites infecting orangutans and their corresponding SSU rRNA gene sequences can be derived, a second or third gene of malaria parasites from these orangutans needs to be analyzed and the morphology of the corresponding blood stages needs to be described. Our study underscores the importance of using orthologous genes and sequence data from as many species as possible when inferring species within a genus from phylogenetic trees.Phylogenetic analyses of the SSU rRNA genes indicate that none of the


This is a commendable uncommon publication with lot of historical information, covering at depth various aspects of an Indian mental hospital from the perspective of its evolution, development, and administration. Choosing to write about this hospital was relevant for many reasons. Significantly, the hospital ‘is one of the largest in south Asia’, more than 200-years old. The author has rightly chosen and covered the activities of the hospital during 1950s, a turning point in the history of medical treatment of the mentally ill. It should interest intelligent lay persons and psychiatrists, particularly the younger generation, interested in historical aspects of development of a mental hospital services. The shrewdly selected 1950s was a crucial period of ‘chemical revolution’ in psychiatric management, when tranquilizers, antidepressants and anxiolytics were introduced. This had changed the face of mental hospitals, and ‘psychiatry became more humane’ and modern. As the author notes, “a recall of the history of this hospital reflects the evolution in the management of mental diseases in South India during the last two centuries.” – also true for India and many places in the world.The first edition of 2004 had nearly 80 pages, dealing with the developments during 1950s. In the second edition of 2008, 50 more pages are added as part-II, dealing with various developments from 1957–2007. Thus, the book has become an updated publication of contemporary value. A publication on historical aspects is difficult to be flawless. The possible inaccuracies have been minimized by certain approaches.The author worked in the hospital, for two decades, with three superintendents, from 1955–1978 with two gaps of total four years. First, for two years between 1956 and 1958, for postgraduate (PG) training in AIIMH, Bangalore; and the second one, for two years between 1960 and 1962, to UK under the Colombo plan. On his return, he started the speciality clinics, especially child guidance clinic. He is considered as ‘Father of child psychiatry’ in India. As a unique coincidence, the author's illustrious father was the President, Corporation of Madras, 1925 and was official visitor to this hospital.Authenticity is added to the book with original articles of two persons who were associated with the development of the hospital in part-1; and articles of three superintendents in part-2. First article of part-1 is of Dr. N. Subramaniam, first RMO of the hospital, while the second article is of Dr. A. S. Johnson, superintendent from 1949–1957.Part-2 has articles from three ex-superintendents: Dr. Sarada Menon,1961-1978; Dr. Ponnudurai, who has given a resume of the years from 1983–2007; and Dr. S. Nambi has covered comprehensively the role of the hospital in the activities of ‘The Indian Psychiatric Society’, appendix-III. Appendix-I has a list of illustrative deputy superintendents and medical officers of significance, with a note about them. Appendix-II has a useful write-up on Ancips-1957 conducted by the hospital.The part-1 of the book has eleven chapters. Chapter-1, ‘The Beginnings of the Hospital’ is an extract from the book ‘Old Madras’ of Justice W. S. Krishnaswami Naidu, president of the hospital advisory committee, 1977–1981; has a short note on how the institution began. Chapters 2 and 3 have been taken from the souvenir of the hospital centenary celebrated in 1971. Chapter-2 is the article of Dr. N. Subramaniam, first RMO of the hospital, from 1954 for 16 long years. He had contributed a lot to the hospital in the areas of patient care and streamlining the administration. He has depicted a coherent history of the institution from its inception. The article has a detailed in-depth thorough description of the contributions of authorities, including the four superintendents he worked with. Chapter-3, the article of Dr. A. S. Johnson, superintendent 1949–1957, surveys the developments of that period. Chapters 4–11 are contributions of the author himself. Chapter-4 covers admission procedures, services organized, and varieties of treatments offered in 1950s. Chapters 5–10 gives an insight of infrastructural facilities and services provided in various wards and blocks, for different categories of patients like the ‘Back’ wards for chronically ill patients, women, criminal patients, mentally challenged, and mentally ill leprosy and tuberculosis (TB) patients. Chapter-11 describes the roles of the hospital staff – doctors, nurses, warders, etc., and quarters provided for staff.Part-2 relates to 1957–2007, the next 50 years. The book has a thoughtful substantial contribution of 82 photos of the hospital blocks/wards, a ground plan of the hospital, and 29 photos of authorities up to 2007. The photographs are illustrative and educative, graphically reflecting the infrastructures and the activities of the hospital. Laborious effort must have gone into collecting them. Relevant photos of the blocks are suitably published at the end of each chapter. The hospital began functioning during the time of East India company, in 1794, as a modest private unit on a leased 45-acres land for 20 inmates and run by Dr. V. Connolly. Later Dr. Dalton, superintendent, rebuilt it, and had 54 inmates; it was popular as ‘Dalton's Mad Hospital’. In 1867, Government sanctioned a lunatic asylum on 66.5 acres of land. It functioned from 1871, having 145 inmates. In the year 1922, it was designated as ‘Government Mental Hospital’ in tune with the developments in psychiatric speciality; many developments followed thereafter. Dr. H. S. Hens man, superintendent 1924–1936, and Dr. G. R. Parasuram, deputy superintendent, improved the institution. They worked as a ‘dual team’ though had different temperaments. Dr. Hens man was a strict disciplinarian remembered for his morning hospital rounds as a ‘religious ritual’; and Dr. Parasuram builtup excellent tradition of doctor–patient relationship. Dr. Dhairyam, superintendent 1939–49, took a lead role in facilitating ‘voluntary board admissions’ that modified the application of the Indian lunacy act, 1912, encouraging many other psychiatrists and institutions in India to follow it. He introduced convulsive therapy, Insulin Coma therapy, and trials of indigenous medicines. Dr. A. S. Johnson, 1949–57, improved standards of patient care, planned numerous expansions and improvements, and rearranged wards. ‘Open hospital’ system was introduced, removing physical restraints. He introduced decentralization – with 13 medical officers, each one independently in charge of a ward. Psychiatric outpatient clinics were introduced in the two General hospitals of Madras, to promote referrals and reduce overcrowding in the mental hospital. Indian Red Cross Society started a 12-months course in social work at the hospital to improve patient care. Undergraduate (UG) teaching of psychiatry, for two weeks, was also started. Dr. T. George, superintendent 1957–61, provided new drugs, active treatment for all patients, a psychologist, and a separate new TB ward. With starting of AIIMH, Bangalore, Dr. Bushanam and Dr. O. Somasundaram were deputed for PG studies, who then returned in 1958.Part-1: The author was himself a witness and contributor to many developments and could objectively describe the contents of the book in the chapters 4–11. Initially involuntary admissions later became more voluntary. Aggressive patients were isolated in single rooms. There were regularly 20–25 admissions. Treatment methods included pre-phenothiazine days, oral and parenteral barbiturates, paraldehyde, and chloral hydrate; Insulin coma therapy, Insulin histamine therapy for refractory schizophrenics, straight ECT's, injection Largactil;and serological test and LP for CSF examination in case of syphilitic patients. The ‘Back’ wards were for chronic cases. Care was custodial but humane.There was often a need for physical restraints and isolation in single rooms. There were separate blocks for patients with common problems in long-term care. Blocks were named, the ‘Itch’ for scabies, and ‘Diarrhoea’, ‘Vigilance’ for suicidal and homicidal cases. Separate wards were organized for women, mentally abnormal offenders, and psychiatric patients with mental retardation, leprosy, and TB.In the ward for criminal lunatics, impulsive and aggressive patients and cases of psychopathic temperament were also kept. On advice, the author injected two minims of turpentine to produce sterile abscess for the aggressive. The ward had a few cases of GPI, confirmed by serology and CSF with Lange's colloidal curve in the paretic, leutic forms. Penicillin replaced the arsenicals. For the mentally challenged cases, a ‘school’ was established. For Leprosy patients, expert's view was taken to separate the noninfective from infective cases. The author took the initiative and introduced antileprosy treatment – using chaulmoogra and hydnocarpus oils. For hypopigmented patches, intradermal ECCO injections were given, and antimony for lepromatous reactions. For TB cases, ‘sanatoria’ measures and treatment with Streptomycin, PAS, and Isoniacid were effective. Regarding the staff, the ‘superintendent’ had the key role, and was assisted by a deputy superintendent and medical officers. Initially, the attendants were designated as ‘warders’ – disturbed patients often manhandled. Things improved later, nurses were sanctioned and classes in psychiatric nursing introduced. After 1955, doctors and nurses were deputed for training in AIMH, Bangalore. Staff had quarters.Part-2, 1957–2007: Dr. Sarada Menon, superintendent 1961–78. A three-unit system, in the outpatient and inpatient, was a dynamic useful change from the vertical system to horizontal system of shared work, ensuring continuity and better standards of patient care. New introductions were diagnostic procedures, clinical societies, refresher courses for general practitioners, medical library, departments of clinical psychology, EEG, and radiology. More medical and regular staff was sanctioned. Various administrative buildings were added including the outpatient block, and ‘day’ and ‘night’ hospital services started. Temporary discharge system was promoted to send many more inpatients home. By effectively screening admissions and improving care and discharge procedures, she could bring down the number of occupants from 2800 to 1800, the sanctioned strength. Teaching psychiatry to UG medical students was enhanced from two to four weeks, and teaching was offered to social workers from various universities. Teaching was assigned to medical officers and regular staff meetings ensured shared responsibility and interaction.Also, part-2 of the book has an article on contribution of the author to the hospital development, as superintendent 1978–1983, besides his many-sided contributions from 1955–1978. The important events were: the beginnings of NMHP, increase in admission units from three to seven, MCI approval for Ph.D. training and for examinations in DPM and MD in psychiatry, hostel for PG students, two important ‘the Madras Longitudinal Study’ and ‘ICMR sponsored mutlicentric study’, course and outcome of schizophrenia, IPS conference 1982 in Madras, and release of the first Tamil book on psychiatry award winner “Psychiatry and its modern treatment” authored by Prof. O. Somasundaram and Dr. Jeyaramakrishnan.In the chapter on ‘Introduction’, the author takes a stand against Western trend of downsizing mental hospitals and the fashion of ‘no more new mental hospitals’. Rightly, he advocates ‘well managed’ small institutions. He is in favor of Italian model with good backup of community mental health services; and the approach of Japan, which continues to keep ‘the so-called socially hospitalized patients’ for social reasons, and not for clinical reasons. The useful role of general hospital psychiatry units and need for mental hospitals in India for rehabilitation services for the severely mentally ill, unlike in the West, has been well noted. An insightful objection is taken about ‘unprecedented deinstitutionalization without community services’ in West, resulting in patients turned homeless; a case of human right violation. The author hopes that the mental hospitals in India will receive better funding and modernization. Truly, this hospital has a place of distinction in South Asia for high standard of PG training in psychiatry. This commendable and resource book deserves to be should be kept, as a ready reckoner, in all the psychiatric centers in India. Keeping its long-term use in mind, I would like it to be a bound edition.


Behningia baei, new species, is described from larvae taken in Thailand. The new species is differentiated from congeners primarily by its labial palps, labrum, and base of the mid legs. It is the first species of the genus Behningia, and only the second species of the family Behningiidae, to be taken from the Oriental biogeographic region. Larvae previously regarded as B. tshernovae Edmunds and Traver are considered to be assignable to B. lestagei Motas and Bacesco.A new species of primitive tuskless burrowing mayflies ,  Behningia . Other material: six middle instar larvae with same collecting data as holotype; three with same depostion as holotype, and three deposited in the Wilbur Enns Entomology Museum, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri, U.S.A. For comparative purposes we also examined larval material at Purdue of other Behningia species larvae as follows: B. lestagei Motas and Bacesco, Poland, Warta, Ostrowska, 11-VI-1960, 12-VI-1904; and B. sp. A, Poland, Warta, Kuczki, 22-VI-1958.Etymology: The species is named for Professor Jae Bae, our esteemed ephemeropterist colleague from Seoul, Korea.Behningia baei represents the only known species of the genus Behningia outside the Palearctic, and only the second species of Behningiidae known from the Orient, where Protobehningia merga Peters and Gillies is also known from Thailand. The cladistic evidence is compelling that Behningia and the Nearctic genus Dolania are sister genera and represent a clade opposite the more plesiotypic Protobehningia Tshernova   . The forB. baei with other species of Behningia are based on material we have of B. lestagei and a presumably unnamed species very similar or equivalent to B. ulmeri Lestage, which we refer to as B. sp. A, in addition to published data currently associated with Behningia larvae. As further shown below, no essential basis has been found for recognizing the larvae previously associated with B. tshernovae as being different than the larvae of B. lestagei. The type of B. tshernovae is based on adults figured by Tshernova . In B. sp. A, the emargination is somewhat deeper and more narrowly V shaped than in B. ulmeri. In B. lestagei , the emargination is shallow, narrower, and more U shaped than in B. ulmeri. One other feature that may be of some limited use in diagnosing B. baei is the size of the mid trochanter relative to the mid coxa. In B. baei (B. ulmeri (Figure 5b in B. sp. A, the trochanter is considerably longer than the coxa; whereas, in B. lestagei, the trochanter is highly reduced (Fig. 14 in We have also found the labrum to be of some use in distinguishing  B. baei , the lab B. baei , B. ulme


Computational biology can be considered a supradisciplinary field of knowledge that merges biology, chemistry, physics, and computer science into a broad-based science that is important to furthering our understanding of the life sciences. Although a relatively new area of research, it is recognized as a crucial field for scientific advancement in developing countries. This Perspective introduces our vision of the role of computational biology in biomedical research and teaching in Cuba. Except where individuals are directly quoted, any opinions expressed herein should be considered those of the authors.  This led to investment in computing resources in the main Cuban universities and research centers, providing Beowulf-like computer clusters for massive data processing, the inauguration of the National Bioinformatics Center (BIOINFO), and a joint effort to increase scientific human resources in a transdisciplinary way.The opportunity to perform good science and to obtain important results that would directly impact Cuban society was a strong motivator. Today this implies identifying scientific problems with the greatest impact on human health, environmental concerns, sustainable production of food, and so on.In addition to the investments made by different Cuban government agencies to create the above-mentioned significant computing facilities in some centers, a policy of establishing links to important foreign centers was promoted with scientific institutions in the United Kingdom, Belgium, The Netherlands, Italy, Germany, Brazil, and Spain. There are also scientific joint programs of co-tutorial doctorate education with Spain in this field. This cooperation encourages not only the exchange of scientific results of mutual benefit, but also graduate and Ph.D. education, mostly involving short-term student exchanges.Based on this framework, Cuban researchers have organized and attended different seminars and international activities focused on computational biology in the last few years. These meetings, summarized in One of them, the Seminars of Advanced Studies on Molecular Design, organized by the laboratory of one of the authors (LAM) at the University of Havana, has been held since 1986. In the beginning, these seminars were mostly dedicated to theoretical chemistry and molecular modeling. Since 2002, they have focused on life science applications. These meetings have provided a great opportunity to join top-level specialists and Ph.D. students for stimulating presentations and discussions. Among the oldest activities are the biotechnology congresses, sponsored by the CIGB, which began to include relevant computational biology topics in the late 1990s.These international activities also led to the organization of national meetings, such as the Colloquium on Systems Biology in Cuba: Challenges and Opportunities, held at the University of Havana in 2004, and the National Seminar on Bioinformatics, held at the Center of Molecular Immunology in 2005. Binational meetings have also been held with specialists from the UK, France, Belgium, and Spain, promoting very fruitful discussions with Cuban science leaders and graduate students.Almost all of the computational biology specialists leading research groups in Cuba hold a Ph.D. degree. Most performed their Ph.D. work only partly in Cuba, with the majority of the work done in Europe and to a lesser extent in Mexico and Brazil. The backgrounds of these scientists cover: sequence and 3-D structure analysis, functional residue prediction, comparative 3-D modelling, molecular dynamics simulations, molecular docking, mathematical model of T cell–mediated suppression, and studies of transcriptional regulation networks, as well as statistical and programming skills.Interestingly, this initial group of computational biology specialists graduated in different fields , rather than in computational and biological disciplines as occurs in other places . In receThe diversity of graduating fields in computational biology explains the wide range of subjects and research topics currently under development in Cuba. These topics include: systems biology, the use of mathematical and statistical approaches to neurobiology, structure-based drug design, proteomics and genomics, mathematical biology, phylogenetic analysis of species unique to the region, protein–protein and protein–membrane interactions, computational genomics, protein design, and parallel processing of large datasets. A list of universities and research institutes developing comprehensive computational biology activities in the country is shown in To develop a new multidisciplinary field of research in a country like Cuba, as elsewhere, requires the promotion and sponsorship of Master's and Ph.D. programs, either in Cuba or in foreign countries where the science is better developed.Following this approach, four institutions—the Virtual Center of Bioinformatics, the Faculty of Biology at the University of Havana, BIOINFO, and the Central University of Las Villas—have created Master's and Ph.D. programs. The Virtual Center of Bioinformatics at the University of Havana also established conditions for national and international cooperative doctorate education. These programs have produced new scientific leaders, fast and relatively costless high-tech research results benefiting not only Cuban but also international cooperating institutions, and long-term cooperative projects.Considering the role of computational biology in biomedical discovery, food production, agricultural research, and education, Cuban scientists view these programs as very important. Additionally, through this program, computational biology teaching at the undergraduate and graduate levels is receiving special attention. The first attempt at undergraduate education was an accelerated course on bioinformatics, organized by the CIGB, the Cuban Neuroscience Center, the University of Havana, and the Institute for Nuclear Sciences and Technology (ISCTN) for outstanding students in their final years of various majors.At present, several career curricula from different Cuban universities include computational biology–related topics. For example, all undergraduate students of chemistry and biochemistry at the University of Havana take computer science, operating systems, elementary programming, and statistical courses as part of their basic training. In the case of the biochemistry major, as explained by Dr. Mayra Tejuca during the Third Symposium on Biochemistry and Molecular Biology held in Havana in October 2006, the new biochemistry study plan will allow students to choose other courses. These courses will include: Introduction to Bioinformatics, Computation, Advanced Statistics, Computational Study of Proteins, Computational Genomics, and Introduction to Systems Biology. Similarly, a computational engineering major at the University of Informatics Sciences (UCI) has an undergraduate curriculum that includes natural sciences. The purpose is to prepare engineers for interacting with basic field scientists to perform research and development on biological systems.At the postgraduate level, an M.Sc. degree course organized by ISCTN in collaboration with the UCI is under development. Furthermore, three international cosponsored programs for a Ph.D. degree have been established. The first one, developed by the Universität Hasselt, Germany, and the University of Havana, Cuba, will provide a Ph.D. degree in Statistical Medicine and Bioinformatics. The second one, sponsored by the University of Valencia, Spain, and the Institute of Technology “José A. Echeverría,” Cuba, will provide a Ph.D. degree on Parallel and Distributed Processing on Computers and Development of GRID Applications for Bioinformatics. Finally, the Autonomous University of Madrid, Spain, and the University of Havana have recently initiated a cosponsored Ph.D. program in Bioinformatics. More recently, a Ph.D. program in Molecular Biosciences with new knowledge fields in Structural Biology, Bioinformatics, and Systems Biology has been initiated at the Faculty of Biology, University of Havana, sponsored by the CIGB and the Center of Molecular Immunology.We believe that these meetings and teaching activities will provide more biologists, physicists, mathematicians, and chemists with both theoretical knowledge and practical skills in bioinformatics, while fewer and fewer jobs are available in these more traditional disciplines. With an increased number of computational biologists with M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees, Cuba will hopefully host future meetings and contribute to scientific progress in computational biology.Computational biology represents a significant opportunity for a country like Cuba, where highly qualified human resources are available but funds to invest in equipment are scarce. In addition, the decentralized and noncompetitive cooperation between scientists and scientific institutions that has been budding recently creates a starting point for a promising national research field whose results will be useful not only scientifically, but for Cuban society as well. In the course of these developments, disciplinary barriers are being overcome, with scientists as educators implementing multidisciplinary programs in higher education. They have been reflected in the newest study plans for the Faculties of Biology, Chemistry, and Physics at the University of Havana that began in 2006. Thus, Cuba appears to be on the way to making a significant contribution to this new field of computational biology. Tirso Pons Hernández is the founder and group leader of the Laboratory of Computational Biology and Protein Design at the Center for Protein Studies, University of Havana. He obtained a B.Sc. degree in Nuclear Physics from the Institute of Nuclear Sciences, Havana, in 1991, and received a Ph.D. in Biology from the University of Havana in 2003. He is also adjunct professor at the University of Havana Biochemistry Department, where he teaches undergraduate and postgraduate courses in Bioinformatics. Dr. Pons was a visiting scientist at Dr. Alfonso Valencia's lab (CNB-CSIC) at the Autonomous University of Madrid, Spain, and at Dr. Gert Vriend's lab at the European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Heidelberg, Germany. He is a member of the Cuban Society of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology and has also received an invitation to become a member of the New York Academy of Sciences. Dr. Pons has received five Biomedical Science awards from the Cuban Academy of Sciences related to his scientific research.Luis Alberto Montero-Cabrera has been Professor of Physical Chemistry at the University of Havana since 1983. He graduated from the University of Havana in 1969 and got his Ph.D. from the Technical University of Dresden, Germany, in 1980, before returning to Cuba and founding the Laboratory of Computational and Theoretical Chemistry at the University of Havana in 1986. Professor Montero teaches computer science for chemists in theoretical and physical chemistry, and has published abundantly in peer-reviewed journals in his fields of research, including science policy. He is chairman of the Scientific Council of the University of Havana 2006–2010 and has taught postgraduate courses in seven countries within Europe and in America, as well as authoring or adapting more than 15 computer programs in theoretical chemistry. Professor Montero has been awarded the honorary degrees “Carlos J. Finlay” for scientific research and “Frank País” for education. Both recognitions are among the highest Cuban national awards.Juan P. Febles Rodríguez has worked as a Computing Professor at the Universidad de Matanzas since 1974. He obtained a B.Sc. degree in Mathematics from the Central University of Las Villas, Santa Clara, in 1974, and received a Ph.D. in Informatics from the Institute of Technology “José Antonio Echevarría,” Havana, in 1986. He took postgraduate courses at the Instituto Superior Politécnico de México (1979–1980) and at the Erevan Institute of Technology in Armenia (1984). In September 1996, he began working as Advisor at the Centro de Cibernética Aplicada a la Medicina, Instituto Superior de Ciencias Médicas, Havana, and was appointed Head of the Center in December 1997. He also teaches M.Sc. and Ph.D. courses in several universities in Cuba, Mexico, Brazil, and Guatemala. In the last five years, he has developed research projects in the areas of artificial intelligence, medical informatics, distance education, bioinformatics, and computer networks. He is currently Head of the National Scientific Program for Information Technology and a member of several national scientific groups. • Centro de Cibernética Aplicada a la Medicinahttp://www.cecam.sld.cu/• Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnologyhttp://bio.cigb.edu.cu/index.htmlhttp://www.biocomp.cigb.edu.cu/• Center of Molecular Immunologyhttp://www.cim.sld.cu/• Centro de Química Farmacéuticahttp://www.cqf.sld.cu/• Cuban Neuroscience Centerhttp://www.cnic.edu.cu/• National Bioinformatics Centerhttp://www.bioinfo.cu/• Centro Nacional de Genética Médicahttp://www.sld.cu/sitios/genetica/• Centro Nacional de Sanidad Agropecuariahttp://www.censa.edu.cu/• Finlay Institutehttp://www.finlay.sld.cu/• Instituto Superior de Tecnologías y Ciencias Aplicadashttp://instec.bioinfo.cu/• Institute of Technology “José Antonio Echeverría”http://www.cujae.edu.cu/• Central University of Las VillasFaculty of Mathematics, Physics, and Computer Scienceshttp://www.mfc.uclv.edu.cu/• University of HavanaFaculty of Chemistryhttp://www.fq.uh.cu/investig/lqct/Faculty of Biologyhttp://fbio.uh.cu/bioinfo/http://fbio.uh.cu/cep/index.html• Universidad de Orientehttp://www.uo.edu.cu/


Babesia caballi and Theileria equi. The disease is responsible for serious economic losses to the equine industry. It principally affects donkeys, horses, mules, and zebra but DNA of the parasites has also been detected in dogs and camels raising doubt about their host specificity. The disease is endemic in tropical and temperate regions of the world where the competent tick vectors are prevalent. Infected equids remain carrier for life with T. equi infection, whilst, infection with B. caballi is cleared within a few years. This review focuses on all aspects of the disease from the historical overview, biology of the parasite, epidemiology of the disease , vector, clinical manifestations, risk factors, immunology, genetic diversity, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention. Equine Piroplasmosis (EP) is a tick-borne disease caused by apicomplexan protozoan parasites,  Babesia and Theileria . T. T23]. Tlication . The firlication   was unable to control parasitaemaia due to T. equi [T. equi. Furthermore, equine peripheral blood lymphocytes have the capacity to proliferate in the presence of T. equi lymphoblastoid transformed stimulator cells [in vitro. In addition, a delayed cutaneous hypersensitivity and inhibition of leukocytic migration was observed in donkeys infected by T. equi [T. equi infection in equines. Furthermore, a direct relationship seems to exist between the antibody titers and parasitemia in horses [T. equi produces antibodies against equine merozoite antigens (EMAs) which are proteins highly expressed on merozoites [Adaptive immunity could be vital for the successful protection against EP mostly by derstood ,38. Expe T. equi . This wa T. equi . It was or cells . Finding T. equi . Observan horses . Horses rozoites . T. equi whereas IgG(T), majorly IgG5 and to a lesser extent IgG3 levels increase during chronic infection when the level of parasitemia is low [Seven unique equine immunoglobulin G have been discovered in the equine genome. Their roles in antibody response during infection and persistence is yet to be elucidated . Immunoga is low . These aa is low . These aB. caballi is lacking as compared to T. equi infected horses. In endemic areas, maternal antibodies in colostrum protect the young foals from infection in their first 1–5 months. In most cases, they can be protected until 9 months of age [B. caballi infection. In experimental B. caballi infection in horses, it was observed that nitric oxide (NO), tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF–α) and other cytokines enhanced protective response when produced in optimal amount that neutralized the parasites [Information on protective immunity against s of age . When ths of age . Finallyarasites .T. equi and B. caballi respectively [Following tick transmission, the incubation period is approximately 15 and 20 days for ectively . In endeectively . Manifesectively . Clinicaectively . Donkeysectively ,44. In aectively . Most equids regardless of the clinical form of infection exhibit some degree of anemia which is the result of hemolysis of infected erythrocytes. At the initial stage, it is normocytic followed by macrocytic as the number of reticulocytes increases in circulation . The eryT. equi infection.Biochemical changes associated with infection with EP have been investigated in several studies involving equids. Fluctuations in these parameters are affected by a whole range of factors such as exercise, nutrition, weather, hydration status, concurrent presence of other infectious or non-infectious agents, and the general state of health of the study subjects most especially under natural conditions. This could be responsible for the various variations reported by different researchers. A significant decrease in the total protein and an increase in bilirubin, aspartate aminotransaminase (AST), gamma-glutamyltransferase (GGT), creatinine kinase and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) was observed in racing horses clinically affected by babesiosis . In anotB. caballi and T. equi) in Spain had higher serum bilirubin, Urea, AST, GGT, and Lactate Dehydrogenase (LDH) concentrations. They attributed the higher increase in the bilirubin concentrations to be an indication of hemolytic anemia which is a characteristic of EP. In another study, increased bilirubin, alteration of serum phosphorus and hypoalbuminemia was observed in equine piroplasmosis [Furthermore, Camacho et al.  reportedlasmosis . Concluslasmosis . Death usually occurs in the peracute form due to multi organ dysfunction which may be unconnected with systemic intravascular coagulation . Other fLesions observed following histopathology includes centrilobular necrosis of the liver and microthrombi within the liver and lungs . In addiB. caballi and T. equi. Conformation alteration in the erythrocyte membrane protein and lipid content lead to reduced microvascular blood flow [T. equi infection. While as in the case of B. caballi infection, microvascular occlusion has been observed due to clumping of parasitized erythrocytes [T. equi and B. caballi infection [Hemolytic anemia is one of the consequences of the infection of the erythrocytes by the blood parasites ood flow . Also, tood flow . Continuhrocytes . Thrombonfection . The patnfection . A schemB. caballi and T. equi) is dependent on the availability of competent tick vectors that are capable of transmitting these pathogens to equines . Various attempts have been made in recent times to list tick species that have been implicated as competent vectors responsible for transmission of EP parasites in the equidae [Hyalomma, Dermacentor, Rhipicephalus are the three well known vectors that have been incriminated as the biological vector for T. equi and B. caballi [Amblyomma, Haemaphysalis and Ixodes are suspected but not confirmed [Ticks play a vital role in the stable maintenance and natural transmission of the piroplasms involved in equine piroplasmosis. The global distribution and spread of EP  and  respectively. In addition, Qablan et al., [B. caballi. Bhoora et al., [T. equi group  in Jordan [T. equi groups  in Switzerland [T. equi in zebra than horses in South Africa. Only recently, Manna et al.,  reported and A, B, and B2  et al.,  in South et al., ,116,118 tzerland . One inttzerland ,114. Furtzerland . These ftzerland ,119 on ttzerland  observedConclusively, genetic diversity plays an important role in influencing disease transmission, pathogenicity and the degree of sensitivity of the diagnostic system . B. caballi and T. equi, which are responsible for EP in equines, were traditionally thought to be highly host-specific [According to Criado-Fornelio et al., , “the unspecific . Recent specific ,123,124.T. equi was amplified in a South American tapir (Tapirus terrestris) [Molecular techniques with sequencing of the PCR products have enabled the detection of these piroplasmids in other animal species outside the traditional equids  such as in dogs ,125,126 restris) . The epiIn vitro cultures of blood from suspected EP parasite infection are also useful if parasitemia is low in the animal [In vitro culture has been employed successfully for the identification of B. caballi and T. equi in blood samples in carrier equids [Microscopy is one of the readily available techniques for the identification of parasites within the erythrocytes if they are present. This can be achieved with the use of a thin blood smear stained with any of the Romanosky’s stains most especially 10% Giemsa solution . It is me animal . In vitrr equids . The onlB. caballi and T. equi piroplasms. Some of these diagnostic assays include the compliment fixation test (CFT), enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), the immunochromatographic test (ICT), Western blot, and indirect immunofluorescence assay [Several serological assays have been developed to increase diagnostic sensitivity in equids chronically infected with ce assay ,132. Eacce assay . Serologce assay . NeverthB. caballi and T. equi infected horses [T. equi and B. caballi) [This technique remains the serologic test of choice for the confirmation of EP. In the recent past, it used to be the officially acceptable test recommended by OIE for the screening of horses before entering EP free nations . This asd horses ,134. Somcaballi) ,135. CFTB. caballi or T. equi, antibody responses occur at about 3–20 days post infection and can still be detected during the chronic period of infection [The IFAT is more sensitive as compared to CFT. It also has high specificity and it is a supplementary test when the results obtained by CFT are inconclusive ,18. The nfection . Test seT. equi infection was developed by Knowles et al [T. equi EMA-1 and monoclonal antibodies that are specific [T. equi. EMA-1 is a protein found on the surface of erythrocytes infected specifically with T. equi and possesses an epitope that is conserved worldwide and is immunodominant [T. equi can be detected with cELISA at day 21 after experimental infection and 5 weeks post tick transmission [B. caballi compared to CFT [B. caballi and T. equi before international transport to non-endemic nations [Antibodies to parasites responsible for EP can be detected using ELISA, although, cross-reactivity is not uncommon . The usees et al  in 1991 specific . It is tdominant . Infectesmission . Productsmission . In an ed to CFT . FinallyThe ICT is based on lateral/capillary flow technique whereby antibodies or antigens are mounted on a paper strip or nitrocellulose membrane . The ICTB. caballi and T. equi infections in equids and tick vectors. It augments diagnostic results and therefore is regarded as a supplement to microscopy and serology. Variations of PCR including conventional PCR, nested PCR, real-time PCR, and reverse line blot hybridization have been employed in various epidemiological investigation of EP [T. equi and B. caballi respectively and further reported that they have superior detection efficiency as compared to in vitro cultures and conventional PCR [Detection of pathogens using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is more sensitive than any other methods and is best for diagnosis of animals in chronic infection with EP. It has been extensively used in research settings for the detection of both on of EP ,113,118.on of EP . Alhassaon of EP  developeonal PCR . The useT. equi are more difficult to treat than B. caballi infections [B. caballi and T. equi infections [T. equi and B. caballi parasites during the chronic stage of infection [B. caballi is 2 mg/kg in two doses at 24 h interval and 4 mg/kg in four doses at 72 h interval for T. equi [in vitro, clotrimazole, ketoconazole, and clodinafop-propargyl [Treatment of equids with EP is a means of reducing the clinical signs and case fatality rate. Infection with fections . A few dfections . Howeverfections  but in nfections . The usenfection . Accordinfection , the rec T. equi . All tre T. equi , and oxy T. equi . Althougropargyl ; artesunropargyl , as wellropargyl ,145.Successful control and prevention of EP is dependent on the proper control of the vectors. This remains a big challenge more especially in tropical and subtropical regions. The use of acaricides has been widely adopted for the control of the vector while prophylactic treatment of horses has also been adopted by the locals in some endemic areas. This method has helped to a great extent in reducing the burden of tick infestation on susceptible animals. In the short term, tick control on horses and donkeys has been achieved using classes of acaricides such as organophosphates, pyrethroids, and amidines . Isolated cases have been reported mostly linked to blood contaminated equipment or due to blood transfusions ,45. TherIt is becoming glaringly obvious that many disease pathogens that affect the health of livestock, human, wildlife and even plants globally are transmitted via specific arthropod vectors. Unarguably, the first arthropods to be recognized as vectors of disease to humans and animals were ticks . Tick-boBabesia caballi and Theileria equi which were thought initially to only specifically affect equines but recently DNA of these piroplasms has been detected in dogs and camels [Recent evidence has proved otherwise from the earlier belief that piroplasms were host specific. d camels ,127. TheAdditionally, the complex interwoven relationship contributing to the increase in arthropod vectors and vector-borne disease patterns is unequivocally linked to climate change. The distribution of ticks is intertwined to climatic factors such as humidity, temperature, vegetation cover, and land use among others. Climate change related to global warming is expected to influence the distribution of vectors and reservoir hosts which will ultimately affect the epidemiology of the vector-borne pathogens . In receFinally, there is an urgent need to search for alternative biomolecules that will assist to overcome the current problems of acaricide resistance due to inappropriate application and use and treatment failures because of the development of pathogen resistance to the available drugs. This has a resultant perpetuation of infection in the ticks for naïve equids to become infected. Furthermore, veterinarians with expertise in equine medicine are few, more especially in resource poor countries where local quacks without the requisite training are involved in the treatment and management of diseases of equines. Effects of global warming and climate change on the distribution of tick vectors will need to be monitored as this might result in further distribution of EP into new territories. With the 4th Industrial revolution on the horizon, developing countries need to step up on the use of modern technology for control of EP, by this era the majority of EP endemic countries should be using a combination of conventional microscopy, molecular diagnostic techniques, geographical information system (GIS), drones, mathematical modelling to mention but a few techniques for the monitoring of control strategies against EP vectors and the disease itself.