There is an error in the 18th author's name; the middle initial is missing. The correct name is Jody D. Berry. This author's affiliation is also incorrect.The correct affiliation is: Cangene Corp, now a subsidiary of Emergent Biosolutions. Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada.This author's current address is: Proteos, Inc., Kalamazoo, MI


L. donovani in India and East Africa have not occurred. For most of the countries, there are sections on the distribution, clinical aspects, the causative agent, the reservoirs and the vectors. Serological surveys and research into therapy are also covered. Recent studies on VL in Uzbekistan covered the application of serological, biochemical and molecular biological methods to diagnose human and canine VL, to identify the leishmanial parasites causing them in Uzbekistan and neighbouring Tajikistan and the epidemiology of VL in the Namangan Region of the Pap District, Eastern Uzbekistan. More recently, two studies were carried out in Georgia investigating the prevalence of human and canine VL, and the species composition of phlebotomine sand flies and their rates of infection with what was probably L. infantum in Tbilisi, eastern Georgia and Kutaisi, a new focus, in western Georgia. Though published in English, summaries of this information have been included where relevant to update the parts on VL in Uzbekistan and Georgia.There is an extensive body of medical and scientific research literature on visceral leishmaniasis (VL) in the Caucasus, Central Asia, the Crimean Peninsula and the southern part of The Russian Federation that is written in Russian, making it inaccessible to the majority of people who are interested in the leishmaniases in general and VL in particular. This review and summary in English of VL in what was Imperial Russia, which then became the Soviet Union and later a number of different independent states intends to give access to that majority. There are numerous publications in Russian on VL and, mostly, those published in books and the main scientific journals have been included here. The vast geographical area encompassed has been subdivided into four main parts: the southern Caucasus, covering Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia; Central Asia, covering Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan; the Crimean Peninsula and the northern Caucasus, which is part of The Russian Federation. Only rare cases of VL have been recorded in the northern Caucasus and Crimean Peninsula. In the other countries mentioned, human VL has been more intense but epidemics like those associated with  FolLiterature pertaining to this subject is very extensive and only those publications that are searchable for the readers have been included here. Most of them are in Russian and this review makes the information presented in them available to readers unfamiliar with Russian. Recent studies on different aspects of VL in Uzbekistan and Georgia were published in English and are also reviewed here for completeness. They covered the sand fly fauna , 5, the et al. [Generally, significant numbers of cases of VL were recorded in the southern Caucasus and Central Asia and single ones from the Crimean Peninsula and the northern Caucasus in The Russian Federation over the period covered by this review. The WHO held a meeting in Istanbul in 2009 called the “Consultative Inter-Country Meeting on Leishmaniasis in the WHO European Region”, in which representatives of all the countries mentioned below in this review participated. The numbers of human cases of VL and cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) recorded for the five years from 2004 to 2008 for the countries represented at the meeting have been listed in the report by Alvar The foci from which cases of VL came were of two types: urban foci where domestic dogs served as the reservoir of the leishmanial parasites and natural foci where wild canids, jackals and foxes, were the putative reservoir hosts , 10–12. Leishmania isolated from people, dogs and a badger were characterized and identified as Leishmania infantum, using isoenzyme electrophoretic analysis [Phlebotomus belonging to the subgenera Adlerius and Larroussius were suspected of being the vectors. The vector status of two of these species, P. (A.) longiductus and P. (L.) smirnovi, was confirmed by a xenodiagnostic method and by comprehensive studies of their ecologies [Identification of causative agents was achieved by several studies carried out for different foci at different times. About 20 stocks of analysis –20. Sevecologies –23.Leishmania in Uzbekistan, and in neighbouring Tajikistan [P. kandelakii and P. balcanicus to be vectors of human and canine VL caused by L. infantum in Tbilisi [L. infantum in Tbilisi, eastern Georgia, and in Kutaisi, a new focus, in western Georgia [In 2007 and 2008, a consortium of researchers from research institutes in Samarqand, Moscow, Berlin and Jerusalem studied the epidemiology of canine VL in relation to human VL in the Namangan Region of the Pap District in Eastern Uzbekistan. Some of their results have been published, which covered surveying domestic dogs and infant and young children for VL, using clinical signs and symptoms and the application of serological  and molecular biological  methods to diagnose human and canine cases, and biochemical  methods to identify the parasites causing them as being leishmanial parasites and to determine the species of jikistan , 7. Two  Tbilisi ; the othL. infantum. The review moves from country to country within the two main geographical regions   revealedThe first case of VL in Azerbaijan was reported in 1913. Between 1913 and 1950, a total of 213 cases of VL were recorded  and betwL. infantum in the Geokchai Region of Azerbaijan was reported with 68 cases being recorded simultaneously in five villages and always with three to five cases in a single family. Twenty (44.4 %) sera of the 45 taken from cases of CL proved positive for anti-leishmanial antibodies, using antigen produced from the Indian strain L. donovani, MHOM/IN/1980/DD8. The other 25 (55.6 %) were negative. Serological testing of 62 healthy individuals living in close proximity to the cases of CL revealed that nine (14.5 %) were sero-positive. The highest number of cases was recorded in autumn and winter [In 1987 and 1988, an outbreak of CL caused by d winter .Cases of VL are mainly children under seven years of age and the young age of cases is a typical feature of VL in the Jalilabad Region. Most cases have been newly born infants between five and nine months old. Morbidity decreased sharply among children older than a year and a half. IFATs were negative in children younger than one year old, who had recovered from VL. Only a few of the children between one and a half and seven years of age who had recovered from VL gave positive IFAT result and then with only extremely low levels of antibodies . Cases bL. infantum in the Geokchai Region of Azerbaijan, the ages of the cases ranged, more or less, uniformly, from under one to 50 years old. The cutaneous lesions were localized at the site of the bite of the vector, circumscribed and mainly on the face but sometimes the neck or upper and lower limbs. Many amastigotes were seen in the stained smears made of skin tissue from the margins of lesions. The lesions healed spontaneously and without the need of treatment within one and a half to two years, supposedly, inducing immunity to re-infection with L. infantum. While L.infantum is generally considered to be one of the causative agents of VL, it has also been shown to cause cutaneous lesions without obvious signs of VL in several countries within the geographical range of the species, e.g., the Pyrenees in France [In the outbreak of CL caused by n France , 35, then France  and in Gn France .L. infantum, MCAN/TN/78/LEM78 [L. infantum, i. e., strain MHOM/AZ/1987/Geok-2 , albeit representing a new zymodeme, on comparing its enzyme profile to those of different Old World reference strains isolated from cases of VL and CL [MLEE of eight leishmanial strains isolated from human cases of VL from the Ordubad Region employing a 12-enzyme system indicated they were completely identical among themselves and to a reference strain of 78/LEM78 . Twelve L and CL , 20.Dogs with VL were found in all the human settlements surveyed. In the Geokchai Region, 470 dogs from six settlements were examined, giving infection rates of 1.4 to 7.1 % . Dogs haA total of 2388 wild animals were examined: cats, wolves, foxes, jackals, porcupines, badgers, hares and different species of rodent and birds , 40. LeiVector. P. kandelakii, P. balcanicus, P. tobbi, P. brevis and P. transcausasicus are considered to transmit VL in Azerbaijan [P. transcaucasicus is most abundant in the Jalilabad Region, it is thought to be the principal vector there [erbaijan , 41. Howor there .P = 0.0019). Tbilisi is an active focus of VL and its prevalence is very high in humans and dogs (see below). It is not high in Kutaisi, but it seems to be a newly evolving focus [The first case of VL was recorded in Georgia in 1913. From 1928 to 1999, 1355 local and 15 imported cases of VL were listed in the records of The Virsaladze Institute of Medical Parasitology and Tropical Medicine, Tbilisi. These came from six towns and 164 villages in 19 Georgian administrative sectors, most of which were in the Shida Kartly and Kakheti Regions in eastern Georgia , and a nCases of VL are usually children under five years old and, rarely, older children and adults . GeorgiaMeles meles, was characterized and identified as L. infantum by MLEE [P. kandelakii and one of which was isolated from a female P. balcanicus were characterized by sequence alignment of the 70 kDa heat-shock protein gene and identified as L. infantum [L. major by MLEE done at The Martsinovsky Institute of Medical Parasitology and Tropical Medicine in Moscow . This was confirmed by excreted factor (EF) serotyping [L. major existing in Georgia and L. major has never been recorded as having caused VL in humans; except for the case of a young girl who developed a generalized infection of leishmaniasis, i, e., CL and VL, caused by L. major after she had received a blood transfusion donated by a person with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), after which she too contracted AIDS and her generalized leishmaniasis [L. major existing in Georgia and, also, of VL being caused by L. major or they constitute a laboratory error. Hence, this information should be treated with caution, until there is further evidence of L. major existing in Georgia and of its causing VL in humans.Leishmanial strains isolated from humans and dogs were antigenically identical by serotyping and were equally very virulent after injection into Syrian hamsters . A strai by MLEE , 17. Howinfantum . Eight lrotyping  done at maniasis . The eiget al. [Stray and domestic dogs were shown to be part of the natural transmission cycle of VL in different Georgian foci . Recentlet al.  examinedet al. . In 1980et al. .P. kandelakii and 'P. chinensis' were thought to be the vectors of the parasitic agents causing VL. However, according to current taxonomy and nomenclature, P. chinensis is a species restricted to China and what was the Caucasian ' P. chinensis ' constitutes three separate species: P. balcanicus, P. halepensis and P. brevis, of which the former two are found in Georgia [P. neglectus, P. tobbi and P. transcaucasicus might also be involved in the transmission of VL. In Georgia, the upper limit for the distribution for P. kandelakii is 1240 m above sea level [In Georgia, the sand fly season begins in early June, peaks in July and August, and declines to none early in September. The sand fly fauna is most diverse in the east of the country, the Tbilisi Region and even further east, where 11 different species of sand fly have been identified . P. kand Georgia , 29. In ea level .et al. [P. kandelakii; 2/40 (5.0 %) P. balcanicus. The three strains of L. infantum that were isolated from female P. kandelakii (2) and P. balcanicus (1) were genetically very similar (99.8–99.9 %) to strains of L. infantum isolated from human and canine cases of VL from the same focus, showing female sand flies of the species P. kandelakii and P. balcanicus to be vectors of VL caused by L. infantum in the vicinity of Tbilisi. For female P. kandelakii, blood meal analysis indicated they prefer feeding on dogs (76 %) but also feed on people, endorsing their role as a vector.From 2006 to 2008, Giorgobiani et al.  collecteL. infantum, and the putative vectors of human VL were different on each side of the River Mtkvari, which flows through Tbilisi. This was recently corroborated by Babuadze et al. [P. sergenti, none of which were infected, and 45 % were P. kandelakii, of which 5.5 % were infected. P. balcanicus (53.5 %) and P. halepensis (45.8 %), which were the two least prevalent species in Tbilisi, were most abundant in Kutaisi, and flagellates, supposedly leishmanial parasites, were detected in one female of each species.In 1961, Maruashvili  reportede et al. . The latIn Kazakhstan, VL is endemic to the regions of Kzylorda (now Kyzyl-Orda), Jambul (now Taraz), and Chimkent (now Shymkent). In the latter two regions, most of the human cases of VL have occurred in the cities. In the Kzylorda Region, human cases have been more prevalent among inhabitants of small rural settlements. The Village of Karmakchi at 45°35’ north latitude in the Kzylorda Region marks the northernmost border of the distribution of VL in the Eastern hemisphere. Most cases occurred in January, February and March . From 19Most cases have been young children. In the Kzylorda Region, 96 % of the cases are children under three years of age, of which 63 % are less than one year old , 59. Of L. infantum by MLEE [The strain MHOM/KZ/1975/Dzha*,  isolated in the City of Jambul from a patient with VL, was identified as  by MLEE , 17. ThiInfected dogs were found in the Kzylorda Region as mentioned above in the section on distribution where leishmanial parasites were detected in 5 (5 %) out of the 100 asymptomatic dogs investigated . In totaVectors. P. longiductus and P. smirnovi are the proven vectors of VL in Kazakhstan [P. smirnovi is primarily exophilic but is attracted into houses by light [P. longiductus is endophilic [zakhstan . This wazakhstan , 62 and zakhstan , 63. Botby light , 65. P. dophilic .Information on human VL in Kyrgyzstan is very limited. Between 1939 and 1950, 191 cases of VL were recorded mainly from the south of the country in the town of Osh and its environs. Infantile cases of VL were also recorded in the City of Frunze (now Bishkek) and its vicinity . From 19No information available.The parasite causing VL in Kyrgyzstan has not been isolated and, therefore, not characterized and identified.One dog with clinical signs of canine VL was found in the town of Osh .P. longiductus, , and P. caucasicus were incriminated as the putative vectors of human VL in Kyrgyzstan [P. caucasicus as a vector of VL.In the 1960s, rgyzstan , 69. HowHuman VL was reported in the cities of Dushanbe, Leninabad (now Khujand) and Ura Tube. From 1929 to 1935, six cases were recorded from the vicinity of Ura Tube. From 1933 to 1934, more than 30 adult and infantile cases were recorded from the settlement of Vakhshstroy . From 19The very limited information indicates that most cases are young children. A six-month old feeble male patient, with pale skin, little appetite, anaemia, hepato-splenomegaly, a blood count with decreased numbers of eosinophils and leucocytes, and an accelerated erythrocyte sedimentation rate (SER) was treated at the Isaev Institute of Medical Parasitology, Samarkand, with 2 ml of Glucantime per day for 12 days after the case of VL had been microscopically confirmed and then discharged from the hospital in a satisfactory condition (unpublished data), showing the same situation seen in classical cases of VL described for the Mediterranean Region.et al. [L. infantum and very similar to those that had caused cases of VL in Uzbekistan. This was done by extracting and amplifying DNA by PCR and applying PCR-sequencing of the ribosomal ITS1 region [L. donovani complex' [Alam et al.  recently1 region , and alscomplex' , 74. In Infected dogs were shown to be the source of human cases of VL during the period from 1946 to1949 , 75 and P. major and P. chinensis, two species that might serve as vectors of VL, to the sand fly fauna of Tajikistan. However, according to the more recent taxonomic revision of the subgenus Phlebotomus (Adlerius) by Artemiev [P. major exists only in India and P. chinensis only in China. In 1995, Volkova [Adlerius: P. longiductus, P. turanicus, and P. angustus, all previously considered to be P. chinensis, and two species of the subgenus Laroussius: P. kandelakii and P. keshishiani, both previously considered to be P. major.Petrishcheva (1936)  and PerfArtemiev , P. majo Volkova  studied At the beginning of the 20th century, VL was not an obvious and widespread disease in Turkmenistan. One human case of VL was reported from Chardjou (now Turkmenabat) in 1911 , a secon-specifically compromised immune status before the onset of the disease.The disease mainly affects children up to three years old. The clinical manifestations of the disease are like those seen in Mediterranean infantile VL , 82. Adu-epidemiological surveying [L. infantum and, to a lesser extent, to that of the reference strain, MHOM/IN/1980/DD8, of the species L.donovani. The strains from the human cases represented a quite homogenous group. They encompassed two different zymodemes that showed a different electrophoretic mobility for only their GPI. Interestingly, the five strains isolated from human cases of VL from the south-eastern part of the Karakum Desert belonged to one of these zymodemes, which was distinct from the zymodeme to which the two strains isolated from human cases of VL from the western Kopet Dag region belonged. Three of the canine strains, of which two were isolated from dogs from the Kopet Dag region and one from a dog from south-eastern part of the Karakum Desert, were characterized by MLEE and differed from the strains from human cases of VL in the electrophoretic mobilities of two of the eight enzymes checked, MDH and ASAT, but the mobility of their GPI was the same as that of the human strains from Kopet Dag and the reference strains of the species L. infantum and L. donovani. The dog from which the fourth leishmanial strain, MCAN/TM/1990/IOL-5, was isolated came from the south-eastern part of the Karakum Desert. Its leishmanial strain differed from those from the people and the other three dogs, respectively, and also from the reference strain, MCAN/TN/1978/Lem-78, of the species L. infantum in its enzyme profile [L. infantum that had caused human and canine VL in Turkmenistan were genetically highly similar, but not completely identical [Sygmadon hispidus) but failed in three wolves, one fox, nine great gerbils (Rhombomys opimus), eight Libyan jirds (Meriones libycus), 82 white mice, 12 white rats, 28 Natal multimammate mice  and three Nile rats (Arvicanthus niloticus) [In 1963, three strains were isolated from human cases of VL and grown on NNN rabbit blood-agar slopes. Culture was successful only when parasites were isolated during the early stages of the disease and not later than two months. The isolated parasites grew slowly within the first 15 days but later grew normally. In tissue cultures promastigotes transformed into amastigotes after 24–48 hours. Attempts were made to infect 20 white mice, 16 Syrian hamsters, four hedgehogs, eight cats, three puppies, six foxes and one jackal but succeeded in only one puppy. Three months after being infected, the puppy became feeble, lost its appetite and presented partial alopecia. No leishmanial amastigotes were detected in stained liver and spleen smears however promastigotes were successfully grown from isolated liver tissue incubated in NNN rabbit blood-agar medium . One of urveying , 87. Tweurveying , 88. By  profile . Thus, tdentical , 88. Theloticus) .Hystrix indica) from a place between Kala-Kala and Kyzyl-Atrek (now Etrek) [Yakimov  was the w Etrek) . No furtw Etrek)  because P. chinensis, P. mongolensis and P. caucasicus were considered to be the vectors of the leishmanial parasites causing VL in Turkmenistan [P. turanicus, previously classified as 'P. chinensis', is endemic to the Turanian zoo-geographical region [P. turanicus is found in rodent burrows, wild animal dens and lairs and places of human habitation on the loess-piedmont plains in the valleys and the piedmont plains of the inhospitable Karakum Desert. Female sand flies of the species P. turanicus feed on, both, dogs and people. Significant variations have been seen in the abundance of the species. Human cases were recorded during years when the index of abundance of P. turanicus exceeded one sand fly per one standard sheet of paper in oil traps [In previous publications, menistan . In Turkl region  and now l region . P. turail traps .Knowledge of the existence of VL in Uzbekistan dates back to the early part of the 20th century when 30 human cases were recorded from five Uzbek cities: Tashkent, Andijan, Bukhara, Samarkand (now Samarqand), and Termez . During Retrospective screening of the population was carried out in the Provinces of Samarkand, Navoi, Bukhara, and the Kashkadarya Regions, and the Autonomous Republic of Karakalpakiya, which were formerly very active foci of VL. From 1985 to 1988, 8652 people were tested in a sero-epidemiological survey, using an IFAT. Sero-positivity was low on average at 0.38 %, indicating the success of the control measures undertaken . Now theAge composition analysis of human cases of VL showed two out of three were children under the age of three and the incubation period was one to six months but mostly two to three months . Mirzoyaet al. ['L. donovani complex' [L. infantum. These Uzbek strains of L. infantum were very similar to strains that had caused two human cases of VL in 2006 in the neighbouring Penjikent Region of Tajikistan, showing them also to be strains of L. infantum [Many of the earlier studies addressed the question of VL in humans and dogs being caused by the same agent. Yakimov  succeedeet al. , who ampet al.  and MLMTcomplex' , 74 to tLeishmania, Laboratoire de Parasitologie-Mycologie, CHU de Montpellier, Montpellier, France. All thirteen stocks were identified as strains of L. infantum belonging to zymodeme MON-1, the most ubiquitous zymodeme of this species. That the causative agent of human and canine VL in Uzbekistan is L, infantum was corroborated by sequencing the ITS1 amplification products of the ten strains from the dogs and the three from human cases of VL mentioned above. Microsatellite profiles were generated through MLMT for eight of the ten strains from dogs. They had the same genotype by MLMT and, in this, were identical to some and very similar other strains of L. infantum that had caused human cases of VL from the study area and the Jizzakh Region [Ten stocks of parasites were isolated from lymph node and spleen aspirates taken from dogs and three were isolated from bone marrow aspirates taken from human cases of VL from the area encompassing the villages of Chodak, Oltinkan, Gulistan and Chorkesar in the Namangan Region of the Pap District, Eastern Uzbekistan, during the survey done in 2007 and 2008 , 7. Theyh Region , 7. MLMTInfected dogs are the main animal reservoir and source of VL in the human population. Based on detecting leishmanial amastigotes in smears of splenic aspirates stained with Giemsa’s stain, 116  of the dogs examined in Tashkent were found to be infected, as were 20  of the dogs in Samarkand and 27  of the dogs in Old Bukhara . Most ofL. infantum were isolated. Forty-two dogs (25.9 %) had clinical signs suggestive of canine VL and 51 (31.5 %) were sero-positive for anti-leishmanial antibodies. Of 119 asymptomatic dogs, 24 (20.2 %) were sero-positive. No association was found between the degrees of sero-positivity and either the age or gender of dogs or the particular village of their domicile but a significant one was found between sero-positivity and the presence of suspect clinical signs and symptoms of VL (p < 0.001). ITS1-PCR-sequencing was done on blood and tissue samples from 135 dogs, 40 (29.6 %) of which proved positive for leishmanial infections. Four foxes caught in the general area that were examined and screened similarly to the dogs, were not found to be infected.In 2007 and 2008, a study on canine VL was carried out in the villages of Chodak, Oltinkan, Gulistan and Chorkesar and their environs, which are situated in the Namangan Region of the Pap District . Owned dVectors. P. longiductus and P. smirnovi are the putative vectors of human and canine VL in Uzbekistan, the former being widely dispersed in areas of human settlement and the natural biotopes of the Fergana Valley [P. sergenti, 18.8 % P. papatasi, 15.5 % P. longiductus, 10.3 % P. alexandri and 9.6 % were other species. During an epidemiological survey of human infantile and canine VL carried out in the same region in 2007 and 2008, about 10,000 sand flies were caught that showed a very similar species composition to that described by Maroli et al. [P. longiductus was considered the most likely to be the vector of L. infantum in this region as it was found transmitting the parasite in other parts of Central Asia [P. smirnovi is possibly the vector where it is found on Tugai trees in the floodplains of the Syrdarya and Amudarya rivers.a Valley . The enti et al. . Of thesral Asia , 23. In Leishmania co-infection was diagnosed in 2009 [Up to 1990, only four confirmed human cases of VL were reported from the Crimean Peninsula. These infections were acquired in the vicinity of Feodosiya and on the coast between Sudak and Alushta –112. FroIn three infant cases of VL, the disease was acute with the typical clinical signs of weight loss, splenomegaly and fever, and proved fatal in two. In contrast, the disease proceeded relatively smoothly in three adult cases but, owing to a late diagnosis, resulted in the death of one. One case was described in detail. The patient, a Lithuanian, acquired his VL in August 1981 during a short tour in East Crimea. In March 1982, after 6-7months, he felt feeble and suffered short bouts of high temperature and sweating. Only in October 1983, did he seek medical advice, was hospitalized and diagnosed with acute chronic bronchitis, and only in January 1984, when his liver, spleen, inguinal and axillary lymph glands became greatly enlarged, was a sternal puncture done and large numbers of leishmanial amastigotes were detected in his bone marrow smears and lymph node aspirates. He was treated with a course of Glucantime and successfully cured .L. infantum [L. donovani, but could not be assigned exactly to a specific sub-group and occupied an intermediate position between L. donovani and L. infantum in phylogenetic trees [L. donovani from India and Kenya that belonged to the zymodeme MON-37 and zymodemes close to zymodeme MON-37 [Tissue from an inguinal lymph node of the Lithuanian patient mentioned above was inoculated into NNN rabbit blood-agar slopes and also injected intra-peritoneally into ten young Syrian hamsters. Culture was successful and the strain MHOM/CR/1984/Krim  was sub-passaged 35 times before being cryo-preserved. However, growth of the promastigotes was always rather moderate . The strinfantum . When anic trees , 114. Bye MON-37 . Howeveret al. [There are no records of studies on possible animal reservoirs of VL in Crimea. Kellina et al.  suggesteP. longiductus, a proven vector of VL in other parts of its range, and P. balcanicus, P. perfiliewi and P. neglectus, which are considered to be putative vectors of VL [The sand fly fauna of the Crimea was studied intensively during the first half of the 20th century owing to the emergence of sand fly fever there at that time. According to current records and nomenclature, several phlebotomine species were found to exist in Crimea that included rs of VL , 116.Larroussius and Adlerius known to transmit the causative agents of VL, supposedly L. infantum, elsewhere, supports such a notion, should the causative agents somehow be introduced. Only two autochthonous human cases of VL have been reported from the Russian Federation: one, an adult who had always lived in and never left Dagestan [e.g., Moscow, Mogilyev, Kazan, Irkutsk, Tomsk, Leningrad (now St. Petersburg), though they were actually infected in places where VL was endemic, e.g., Tashkent, Kokand, Ashkhabad, Chardzhoy and Crimea [Stable foci of VL do not appear to exist in any of the Russian territories. However, opinions differ on whether local transmission of the parasites causing human and canine VL could arise in a region like the Northern Caucasus. On comparing natural and climatic conditions, Malkhazova and Neronov  concludeDagestan ; the othDagestan . The fird Crimea . FourteeNot described.Not isolated.Not investigated. The rare occurrence of human cases led to the conclusion that wild animals, especially jackals and foxes, might serve as a source of human infections. Infections of VL have been detected in jackals and foxes in other regions, including ones bordering Russia. The current extension of the distribution of jackals in the northern part of the Main Caucasus Ridge  suggestsP. neglectus was caught, was found to be the most northerly point of sand fly distribution in the North Caucasus [P. balcanicus and P. perfiliewi, putative vectors of human and canine VL, were also found in the Krasnodar Region [P. balcanicus and P. tobbi were found in the Stavropol Region, and P. kandelakii, P. balcanicus and P. transcaucasicus in Chechniya [P. kandelakii and P. neglectus, two putative vectors of human and canine VL.Owing to the almost non-existence of VL in the North Caucasus, vectors thereof have not been studied and identified; however the sand fly fauna in the North Caucasus was studied extensively during the 1940s and 1950s. The studies were undertaken in regions where cases of sand fly fever had been recorded. Far less information was collected on sand flies during the second half of the 20th century however information and results collected, collated and published previously were put into reviews published between 1989 and 2011 , 51, 116Caucasus . P. balcr Region . P. balchechniya , 122. Inhechniya , which iet al. [et al. [et al. [et al. [et al. [et al. [This review covers a century and more on the surveillance of and research on human and canine VL in Central Asia, the Caucasus and the southern part of the Russian Federation. Much of it is based on the history of VL during the time of Imperial Russia and the Soviet Union. In the 20th century, the majority of the articles were published in Russian and only sporadically in English, which made it very difficult for the experts in other countries to get information from this vast area. Studies and research like those of Maroli et al. , Alam et [et al. , Kovalen [et al. , 100, Ab [et al.  and Zhir [et al.  on VL in [et al.  and Babu [et al.  in GeorgL. infantum in the total area is zoonotic and very similar to that of the Mediterranean and Middle Eastern regions, and, though very worthy of consideration, does not appear to be as serious a problem as the anthroponotic VL caused by L. donovani which results in epidemics in India, Sudan, Ethiopia and Kenya.VL caused by Nevertheless, until the mid-20th century, VL presented a serious public health problem for the countries mentioned in this review because significant numbers of the cases of VL were infants and children, and some form of control was necessary. The national malaria control programme undertaken in the USSR in the 1950s also led to a significant decrease in the sand fly population in addition to the mosquito population. Together with the antimalarial control measures, dogs with VL in areas of human population were eliminated. This reduced human VL to sporadic cases and the disease even ceased to exist for many years in some areas.etc. Also, climate change, for whatever reason, could lead to the extension of the regions of endemicity of VL.However, since 2000, VL has again become a problem for the health authorities in many of the countries mentioned in this review. This is related to the resurgence of locally acquired cases of VL and also to imported cases resulting from increased human migration, travel, i.e., Glucantime, are registered only in Georgia where treatment is financially supported by the government . In all the other countries, these chemotherapeutics are not registered, special permission is required for their importation and, thus, the supply is not continuous. Often the chemotherapeutics, mostly antimonial preparations and, rarely, Amphotericin B, have been made available through personal initiatives, e.g. by the patients’ relatives, and through humanitarian aid by the WHO. As in other countries with few cases of VL, it is very difficult for medical practitioners to obtain the small quantities of medicine needed [Access to chemotherapeutics for the treatment of VL is problematic in almost all of the independent states that arose after the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Antimonial drugs, e needed .L. major, an unexpected result, probably, indicating a laboratory error.Now, further surveillance and research should be done to expose the existing situation regarding VL in all the countries mentioned in this review. This should include the older well-studied foci where the situation might have changed with time and areas that have the potential of developing into new foci of VL. New leishmanial isolates from human cases, dogs, wild animals and sand flies are required to identify causative agents, animal reservoirs and vectors of VL and for comparison with strains from neighbouring territories, especially where isolates have not been identified, e.g., Armenia; Kyrgyzstan; and in Georgia where, many years ago, eight strains isolated from children with VL were identified as L. infantum but not displaying obvious signs and symptoms of VL, and the introduction and implementation of modern serological and molecular biological assays for the routine diagnosis of VL. This together with modern methods of identifying isolates will assist in exposing asymptomatic human cases of VL and also choosing treatment for patent human cases of VL. The research done through international joint projects in Uzbekistan and Georgia shows the great benefit of such collaboration for the implementation of modern diagnostic methods and the development of local expertise in the countries mentioned in this review.The present situation calls for new approaches to research on VL in the vast area that was considered here, and, in fact, also CL owing to the occurrence of cases of CL caused by


Scale-up of the main vector control interventions, residual insecticides sprayed on walls or structures and/or impregnated in bed nets, together with prompt diagnosis and effective treatment, have led to a global reduction in malaria transmission. However, resistance in vectors to almost all classes of insecticides, particularly to the synthetic pyrethroids, is posing a challenge to the recent trend of declining malaria. Ten International Centers of Excellence for Malaria Research (ICEMR) located in the most malaria-endemic regions of the world are currently addressing insecticide resistance in the main vector populations, which not only threaten hope for elimination in malaria-endemic countries but also may lead to reversal where notable reductions in malaria have been documented. This communication illustrates the current status of insecticide resistance with a focus on the countries where activities are ongoing for 9 out of the 10 ICEMRs. Most of the primary malaria vectors in the ICEMR countries exhibit insecticide resistance, albeit of varying magnitude, and spanning all mechanisms of resistance. New alternatives to the insecticides currently available are still to be fully developed for deployment. Integrated vector management principles need to be better understood and encouraged, and viable insecticide resistance management strategies need to be developed and implemented. The fight against malaria between 2000 and 2012 has resulted in global reductions of 42% in mortality and 25% in incidence of malaria.1Anopheles mosquitoes involved in malaria parasite transmission, resulting in the selection of highly resistant vector populations. According to the WHO, insecticide resistance is defined as the ability of an insect to withstand the effects of an insecticide by becoming resistant to its toxic effects by means of natural selection and mutations.kdr, or knock down resistance), reduced penetration, and behavioral avoidance.3A major threat for malaria control programs worldwide is the development and spread of insecticide resistance in vector populations. Unfortunately, the use of insecticides for both public health and agriculture has induced selective pressure(s) on numerous insect populations, including The goal of this communication is to review the current situation regarding insecticide resistance in the regions under study by nine out of the 10 National Institutes of Health (NIH) International Centers for Excellence for Malaria Research (ICEMRs). The ICEMRs have activity on all continents with malaria transmission; Africa has four ICEMRs: west Africa , Uganda (Uganda), southern Africa (Zambia and Zimbabwe), and Mali , from which the former three contributed to this manuscript. Latin America (LA) has two ICEMRs: LA  and Amazonia (Peru and Brazil). Asia has three ICEMRs: India (India), south Asia (India), and southeast (SE) Asia . These investigations of malaria transmission and control in the ICEMR network provide an ideal opportunity to broadly examine global trends in insecticide resistance in the context of viable strategies for malaria elimination.Anopheles mosquitoes have been proposed and standardized by the WHO, using papers impregnated with the diagnostic dosage and exposure time for each insecticide,Anopheles species.The methods for evaluation of the status of susceptibility in A review of tests carried out in each of the ICEMR countries was compiled. Each ICEMR provided its own data, with a few records previously published. The data have been compiled and are presented by geographical region, with the proportion of mosquito mortality/susceptibility illustrated by country and vector species.Anopheles gambiae s.s. and Anopheles funestus s.s., two of the most important malaria vectors in sub-Saharan Africa and therefore globally, have been subjected to closely monitored evaluations for changes in susceptibility to all insecticides of public health use, given the devastating potential consequences of insecticide resistance in these species. Resistance to pyrethroids (PY), the main insecticide group currently used for malaria control, is now widespread in African vectors.6The vast majority (80%) of malaria cases and deaths (90%) from the entire world occur in the African region every year.An. gambiae s.s. is still completely susceptible to OP  and the organochlorines (OC) (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane [DDT] and dieldrin) , but showing resistance to PYs  and the carbamates (C) (bendiocarb and propoxur)Anopheles arabiensis, currently present at only one of the ICEMR sites in southern Zambia, has been reported as fully susceptible to all classes of insecticides at this site.8The third major African malaria vector, An. gambiae s.s. and An. funestus s.s. have previously been found to be potentially resistant to PY and DDT.kdr mutation in An. gambiae s.s. was observed when examined before and after the introduction of LLINs.An. gambiae s.s. has shown resistance to DDT and PY insecticides , with mortality rates ranging from 46% to 63%, but it remains completely susceptible to fenitrothion (OP) and bendiocarb (C).15In west Africa, the two major malaria vectors An. gambiae s.s. and An. arabiensis, but susceptibility to bendiocarb (C) and pirimiphos-methyl (OP)  and Senegal (Thies region) showed high resistance levels to DDT in both hyl (OP) . Any carAn. gambiae s.s. and An. arabiensis have been found to occur in sympatry at all the three sites, namely Jinja, Tororo, and Kanungu, with the highest levels of An. arabiensis species composition  found in Jinja.An. gambiae s.s. in Jinja,An. arabiensis from Jinja or Tororo (there is a very low abundance of An. arabiensis in Kanungu). However, resistance to deltamethrin and permethrin has been observed in An. arabiensis from both Jinga and Tororo. There is new evidence of incipient bendiocarb (C) resistance in two of the Uganda ICEMR sites, namely Kanungu and Tororo. This is of particular concern and a major challenge to the IRS campaign and further exacerbates the challenge of pyrethroid resistance at these sites.In the Uganda ICEMR, Anopheles darlingi, the main malaria vector in LA, and particularly responsible for malaria transmission in the Amazon region, is generally susceptible to all insecticides throughout its distribution. However, a population in western Colombia (Choco) exhibited DDT resistance in the 1990s,Anopheles albimanus has also been subjected to insecticide resistance surveillance throughout its range in the Americas. In Central America, resistance to a variety of insecticides was reported in 1970 and associated mainly with insecticide use in agriculture.An. albimanus in Peru overlaps with rice cultivation areas where insecticides are used frequently, and it is likely that this pressure has influenced the selection of resistance in vector populations.Anopheles nuneztovari s.l. is one of the main vectors of malaria in Colombia and Venezuela. This species has been described as endophagic but exophilic, with a tendency to avoid contact with walls sprayed with insecticides. In a series of evaluations conducted in Colombia, this species exhibited insecticide resistance in a population on the border between Colombia and Venezuela to PYs, OPs, and DDTAnopheles benarrochi and Anopheles pseudopunctipennis are considered of importance as vectors in Peru.Anopheles benarrochi is susceptible to PY, except for a population from Ucayali (on the border with Brazil) that demonstrated resistance to permethrin, whereas An. pseudopunctipennis from Cajamarca, in the northwest of the country has shown less than 95% mortality for all insecticides tested  (lathion) .An. darlingi, has shown susceptibility through most of its distribution, except for one population in Colombia.In general, resistance in vectors in LA is focal, probably due to insecticide pressure from agriculture use. Most importantly, at this time, the primary vector in LA, Given the local availability of supplies for the CDC bioassay, this methodology is performed in Colombia every year at sentinel sites selected by the insecticide resistance surveillance network (IRSN).4To directly compare these methods, WHO and CDC tests were conducted simultaneously on the same mosquito populations from 64 localities in ColombiaAnopheles farauti s.l. populations composed of An. farauti, Anopheles punctulatus, and Anopheles hinesorum from five study sites in the Madang, Manus, and east Sepik provinces in Papua New Guinea were tested for susceptibility to the PYs deltamethrin and lambda-cyhalothrin and the presence of the kdr allele.An. farauti s.s. in Manus and two sites in Madang, An. punctulatus in east Sepik and anophelines composed of both An. hinesorum and An. punctulatus) were 100% susceptible  collected from seven different PNG provinces did not detect kdr allele in any of the An. punctulatus species.31An. farauti s.s. from the western Province , Temotu, Central, Choiseul, and Malaita . However, in 2013, moderate resistance to lambda-cyhalothrin was found in Malaita and Central provinces, to permethrin in Central and Guadalcanal provinces, and to deltamethrin in Guadalcanal .Similar results with the WHO paper test were found in 2014 in the Solomon Islands where 100% susceptibility to deltamethrin was shown in An. farauti s.l. following exposure to DDT used in IRS in both Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands.34The absence of high levels of resistance recorded in many geographic areas is not surprising given the well-documented development of behavioral resistance in Anopheles culicifacies, Anopheles stephensi, Anopheles fluviatilis, Anopheles minimus, Anopheles dirus (Anopheles baimai), and Anopheles sundaicus. The first three species have been subjects for determination of insecticide susceptibility and are responsible for most of the malaria transmission in the region. There are two ICEMRs in India. The first is Malaria Evolution in South Asia with operational sites in Goa, Wardha (Maharashtra), Ranchi (Jharkhand), and Dibrugarh (Assam) where An. stephensi, An. culicifacies, An. minimus, and An. dirus (An. baimai) are the main vectors. The second ICEMR is Center for the Studies of Complex Malaria in India with an urban site, Chennai, with the urban malaria vector An. stephensi, and two rural sites in Gujarat and Odisha states where An. culicifacies and An. fluviatilis are the main vectors.India has six primary vectors of malaria; Anopheles culicifacies is resistant to DDT and malathion in most districts of Odisha and in other states, and highly resistant to deltamethrin although a few regions retain sensitive populations.An. culicifacies is acute in Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, and Chhattisgarh  and cyfluthrin (0.15%) was compared with the strains from Subbareddipalayam, an adjoining area located in the northern outskirts of Chennai city. Another study in Rameswaram Island in Tamil Nadu, has also reported reduced susceptibility to deltamethrin in An. culicifacies.An. culicifacies.An. fluviatilis S is also a dominant vector in Odisha. So far, An. fluviatilis remains completely susceptible to all insecticides including pyrethroids and DDT used for vector control and OPs used for agricultural purposes.36An. stephensi, has been reported to be resistant to malathion in Goa,Anopheles stephensi was highly susceptible to deltamethrin in Rajasthan and Gujarat, and lambda-cyhalothrin in Karnataka state.An. stephensi was found to be highly susceptible to DDT, illustrating the heterogeneity in these resistance patterns  and malathion (OP) resistance was reported from Rajasthan and GujaratAn. fluviatilis, an important malaria vector in the hills and foothills in IndiaIn An. minimus s.l. and An. dirus s.l. are the main vectors, whereas in more temperate regions (above 33°N latitude), Anopheles sinensis is the major malaria vector.Anopheles anthropophagus and Anopheles liangshanensis are important regional malaria vectors. In Thailand, in addition to An. dirus and An. minimus, Anopheles maculatus and Anopheles aconitus are considered to be primary human malaria vectors.46In SE Asia, malaria vectors are highly diverse in species composition, population dynamics, ecological niche requirement, host feeding preference, and vector competence.Reducing vector-human contact by the use of LLINs has been shown to be effective in reducing malaria prevalence in SE Asia.48An. dirus s.l. and An. minimus s.l., and permethrin resistance was also found in a population of An. minimus s.l. from northern Thailand.An. minimus populations were found, and An. minimus also showed resistance to DDT (OC) and pyrethroids in some sites in Cambodia and Laos.Anopheles dirus s.s., the main vector in forested malaria foci, was permethrin susceptible throughout the Mekong region, but in central Vietnam it showed possible resistance to pyrethroids.An. sinensis in China.An. sinensis , however, show remarkable susceptibility to most insecticides, as depicted here 57Anopheles populations in semiarid environments in EritreaAnopheles larvae , led to an important reduction in the mosquito vector populations.Few contemporary successful initiatives using alternative approaches as complementary control measures have been documented. Intensive environmental interventions to reduce Resistance management strategies include rotation of insecticides with different modes of action and resistance mechanisms, or mosaic applications. However, it is becoming more common to find populations that have been exposed to different groups of insecticides from use in public health and/or agriculture, and the emergence of multiple resistance, or populations in which a resistance mechanism is causing cross-resistance to multiple compounds, especially if those compounds are in different classes of insecticides.Usually, when results of the susceptibility bioassays indicate emerging or emergent resistance, malaria control program authorities make decisions regarding the necessary change of insecticides in that particular area. However, these bioassays do not provide any information on the strength of this resistance, and, because the correlation between results of diagnostic dose assays and control effectiveness remains undefined, simple detection of resistance in a mosquito population is often not sufficient evidence to implement a change in insecticide policy. Recently, an intensity test has been proposed to quantify the strength of resistance,An. farauti in Papua New GuineaAn. gambiae s.s., to the more exophilic and outdoor-adapted vector, An. arabiensis.An. gambiae s.s. populations with high susceptibility to P. falciparum.Besides physiological and genetic insecticide resistance, another challenge is behavioral resistance where vectors feed and rest outdoors as is seen with the main malaria vectors in LA and other regions.As evident in the 10 ICEMR programs distributed throughout the malarious regions of the world, insecticide resistance is a growing and alarming problem for malaria control programs. Novel insecticides and alternative strategies are desperately needed for vector control, and would be better coupled with IVM and IRM programs. The hope is that future malaria control programs will have the tools to better integrate vector control with complementary antimalarials or vaccines that reduce or prevent parasite loads in hosts. Realistically, in the next 15 or more years, vector control will remain an essential component of malaria control programs.


Toxins welcomed applications for the 2016 Toxins Travel Awards for post-doctoral fellows and Ph.D. students. We received nearly 100 completed applications for the awards, and the overall quality of all the applications was outstanding. While this bodes well for the future of toxinology, it certainly made for a challenging task for the editors selecting the two finalists. On behalf of the editors of Toxins, I am pleased to announce the winners of the inaugural Toxins Travel Awards for 2016.With the goal of promoting the development of early career investigators in the field of toxinology, Toxins Travel Awards are granted to Dr. Kartik Sunagar, Marie Skłodowska-Curie Fellow in Dr. Yehu Moran’s laboratory at The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel, and to Dr. Philipp Wiemann, a post-doctoral researcher in Dr. Nancy Keller’s laboratory at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, USA. They will each receive 800 CHF to help support travel to present at scientific conferences in 2016.The Toxins. He has been invited to present at a number of international conferences, including a recent oral presentation at the 18th World Congress of the International Society on Toxinology. Dr. Sunagar will use the Toxins Travel Award to attend the annual conference of the Society for Molecular Biology and Evolution on the Gold Coast in Queensland, Australia, July 3–7, 2016. Dr. Kartik Sunagar received his Ph.D. in Evolutionary Biology from the University of Porto in Portugal in 2013. In 2014, Dr. Sunagar was awarded the Marie Skłodowska-Curie Individual Fellowship, one of the European Union’s most prestigious fellowships for post-doctoral researchers. He joined Dr. Moran‘s laboratory, where he studies animal venoms to understand various aspects in evolutionary biology and ecology, with particular emphasis on molecular evolution, predator–prey interactions, mechanisms of toxic action and the role of environmental and ecological factors in driving the evolution of venom—nature’s most complex biochemical cocktail. In Dr. Moran’s letter of support, he wrote: "During the time Kartik spent in my lab he demonstrated originality, intelligence and research skills that I rarely encountered in a young researcher of a similar career stage." Dr. Sunagar has published 15 peer-reviewed research articles and five reviews or book chapters, including six papers in summa cum laude from Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, Germany in 2010 where he worked in the laboratories of Prof. Hans-Ulrich Humpf and Prof. Bettina Tudzynski. After a brief post-doctoral fellowship in Dr. Tudzynski’s laboratory, Dr. Wiemann joined the laboratory of Dr. Nancy P. Keller at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. In the Keller laboratory, he has been working with Aspergillus species, including the opportunistic human pathogen A. fumigatus, and the aflatoxin producing plant pathogen A. flavus. His research mainly focuses on a specific natural product of A. fumigatus, called hexadehydroastechrome, that, when over-produced, contributes to virulence in mice. In Dr. Keller’s letter of support, she wrote: "Philipp has been a fantastic post-doctoral scientist in my lab, excelling in every aspect of professional life from research to ethical standards and lab citizenship." Dr. Wiemann has co-authored 18 peer-reviewed research publications including a recent paper in Toxins. He is a frequent invited presenter at international meetings on fungal genetics. Dr. Wiemann will use the Toxins Travel Award to attend the Gordon Research Conference on Cellular and Molecular Fungal Biology in Holderness, New Hampshire, USA, June 19–24, 2016.Dr. Philipp Wiemann received his Ph.D. in Food Chemistry Toxins Travel Awards and we are grateful to MDPI for their generous support of the awards this year and in the future. The editors, managing editors, and editorial board members congratulate Drs. Sunagar and Wiemann on winning the 2016


The affiliation for the fifth author is not correct. Christopher H. Willcox is not affiliated with #6 but with #3 School of Psychology, University of Newcastle, Newcastle, NSW, Australia. The publisher apologizes for the error.KHarris@psy.uq.edu.The Corresponding Author email is not correct. The correct email address is:


Dis. Model. Mech.8, 769-782.There was an error published in KRAS gene. The correct figure appears below. There are no changes to the figure legend, which is accurate.In We apologise to the readers and authors for any confusion that this error might have caused.


Tool (Native Windows Application), imaging, DICOM. Upon request the tool may be provided for trial use or under a license agreement.Dr Eye viewer is an open access, flexible and easy to use platform for the intuitive annotation and segmentation of tumor region images Figure . Its cliThis tool is suitable for use by various clinicians such as radiologists or oncologists, and by anyone who needs to view DICOM images, or perform measurements and analysis of their imaging data Figure . It can The platform has been tested with hundreds of MRI datasets to assess and improve usability, extensibility and robustness. Technically it is based on the .NET framework architecture and can be used in any Windows based computer.Version 5.7 released on 1.5.2014, beta version.Oncologists, radiologists and clinicians with interest in handling DICOM images.http://biomodeling.ics.forth.gr and http://biomodeling.ics.forth.gr/?page_id=8


There are errors in the Funding Statement. The correct funding information is as follows: KDT was supported by EPSCoR NSF award #OIA-120892 and by NASA award NNX09AL03G. Fieldwork and data compilation from the Chandler/Colville Rivers was supported by NASA award NNX09AL03G Mapping Changes in Shrub Abundance and Biomass in Arctic Tundra using NASA Earth Observing System Data: A Structural Approach (PI: Mark Chopping). DDG and LGA received support from U.S. Geological Survey’s Changing Arctic Ecosystem Initiative within the Wildlife Program of the Ecosystem Mission Area. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.Additionally, the measured shrub height data from the Chandler/Colville Rivers that KD Tape helped to collect and was used in this study was published and archived online several months earlier, and thus should have been mentioned in the Data Availability Statement.http://dx.doi.org/10.3334/ORNLDAAC/1270. All other relevant data are within the paper and its Supporting Information files.The complete, correct Data Availability Statement is as follows: Data used to create Eq 1 are available in Walker DA. 1985. Vegetation and environmental gradients of the Prudhoe Bay region, Alaska. Hanover, New Hampshire: Cold Regions Research and Engineering Lab. Report no. 85–14. pp. 238. Shrub height data from the Chandler/Colville Rivers are available in Duchesne, RR, MJ Chopping, and KD Tape. 2015. Capability of the CANAPI algorithm to derive shrub structural parameters from satellite imagery in the Alaskan Arctic. Polar Record. pp.1-10, available online at Oak Ridge National Laboratory Distributed Active Archive Center:


A commentary onHandbook of Psychology, 2nd Edn“Exploratory data analysis,” in .by Behrens, J. T., Dicerbo, K. E., Yel, N., and Levy, R. (2013). Vol. 2, eds J. A. Schinka, W. F. Velicer, and I. B. Weiner , 34–70.Despite the importance of exploratory data analysis (EDA) in statistics and science, few people have worked on its philosophical foundations. In psychology, the present author Haig,  have comexplanatory hypotheses. In this sense, it contrasts with the more familiar ideas of inductive and deductive inference. Behrens et al. begin by taking their cue from Charles Peirce, and state that abduction is the form of inference involved in generating new ideas or hypotheses. However, surprisingly, Behrens et al. then elect to follow Josephson and Josephson .Hypothesis H explains D .No other hypothesis explains D as well as H does.Therefore, H is probably correct.hypothesis generation. Instead, it characterizes the abductive form of reasoning known as inference to the best explanation. Inference to the best explanation is used in science to appraise competing theories in terms of their explanatory goodness , and abductive methods as true to their name (they are methods concerned with the construction of explanatory hypotheses and theories).If researchers were to follow Behrens et al. and characterize EDA as fundamentally abductive in nature, they would risk construing descriptive hypotheses as explanatory hypotheses, when they had done no explanatory work at all. Better to put abduction to one side, and follow Tukey's philosophy of EDA.The author declares that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.


AbstractThe Atlantic Forest is a hotspot for biodiversity, an area which houses high species richness and endemism, but with high level of threat. With reference to the herpetofauna, until recently there has been no detailed information regarding diversity of snakes recorded in the Atlantic Forest, the number of endemic species and their distribution ranges. While these basic data were missing, large areas of original forest have continued to be lost to increased urbanization and human population, representing a severe threat to the biodiversity.Dipsadidae was the richest family with 14 species, followed by Colubridae (eight species), Boidae (two species), Viperidae (two species), and Anomalepididae, Elapidae and Typhlopidae (one species each). Most species were forest inhabitants (61%), of which 13 are endemic to the Atlantic Forest. There were no clearly defined species clusters regarding species composition. None of the species recorded in Niterói are listed as threatened in the Brazilian Redlist. However, most of them are strongly associated with forested areas and, perhaps, are not adapted to live in small fragments. Thus, more initiatives should be implemented to evaluate the true conservation status of these species in order to better protect them.We recorded 28 snake species in our study area.  Museum acronyms are taken from Species identification was based on the specimens examined by direct analysis of voucher specimens , followed by Colubridae (eight species), Boidae (two species), Viperidae (two species), Anomalepididae and Typhlopidae (one species each). The most common species found in the collections were Bothropsjararacussu (103 specimens), followed by Bothropsjararaca and Micruruscorallinus . The least common were Chironiusexoletus, Erythrolamprusaesculapii, Leptophisahaetulla, and Liotyphlopswilderi (one specimen each). We also established a first record from Niterói for Cleliaplumbea, though it also seems to be very rare.We recorded 28 snake species from 18 genera and seven families , with a smaller percentage 39%) inhabiting both forested and open areas. All of them are typical of the Altantic Forest Domain. However, none of them exclusively inhabit open areas. The most species rich locality is the Serra do Mar with 60 species, followed by Duque de Caxias with 33 species Fig. . We also9% inhabiLeast ConcernRecorded in forested and open areas of the Atlantic Forest. Municipality of Niterói. State of Rio de Janeiro. BrazilEndemic of the Atlantic Forest Fig. . It is fLeast ConcernRecorded in forested areas of the Atlantic Forest. Municipality of Niterói. State of Rio de Janeiro. Brazil It is fossorial, nocturnal and diurnal, and feeds on arthropods Fig. .Linnaeus, 1758Least ConcernRecorded in forested and open areas of the Atlantic Forest. Municipality of Niterói. State of Rio de Janeiro. BrazilIt is semi-arboreal, diurnal and nocturnal and feeds mostly on vertebrates  Fig. .Least ConcernRecorded in forested areas of the Atlantic Forest. Municipality of Niterói. State of Rio de Janeiro. BrazilIt is arboreal, nocturnal and feeds mostly on vertebrates  Fig. .Least ConcernRecorded in forested areas of the Atlantic Forest. Municipality of Niterói. State of Rio de Janeiro. BrazilEndemic of the Atlantic Forest Fig. . It is sLeast ConcernRecorded in forested areas of the Atlantic Forest. Municipality of Niterói. State of Rio de Janeiro. BrazilIt is semi-arboreal, diurnal and feeds mostly on frogs Fig. .Least ConcernRecorded in forested areas of the Atlantic Forest. Municipality of Niterói. State of Rio de Janeiro. BrazilEndemic of the Atlantic Forest Fig. . It is sLeast ConcernRecorded in forested and open areas of the Atlantic Forest. Municipality of Niterói. State of Rio de Janeiro. BrazilIt is semi-arboreal, diurnal and feeds on vertebrates  Fig. .Least ConcernRecorded in forested and open areas of the Atlantic Forest. Municipality of Niterói. State of Rio de Janeiro. BrazilIt is terrestrial, diurnal and feeds on vertebrates  Fig. .Least ConcernRecorded in forested and open areas of the Atlantic Forest. Municipality of Niterói. State of Rio de Janeiro. BrazilEndemic of the Atlantic Forest Fig. . It is aLeast ConcernRecorded in forested areas of the Atlantic Forest. Municipality of Niterói. State of Rio de Janeiro. BrazilIt is semi-arboreal, diurnal and feeds on vertebrates  Fig. .Least ConcernRecorded in forested and open areas of the Atlantic Forest. Municipality of Niterói. State of Rio de Janeiro. BrazilIt is arboreal, diurnal and feeds on vertebrates (lizards) Fig. .Least ConcernRecorded in forested areas of the Atlantic Forest. Municipality of Niterói. State of Rio de Janeiro. BrazilIt is terrestrial, nocturnal and feeds on vertebrates (snakes and lizards) Fig. .Least ConcernRecorded in forested areas of the Atlantic Forest. Municipality of Niterói. State of Rio de Janeiro. BrazilEndemic of the Atlantic Forest Fig. . It is fLeast ConcernRecorded in forested areas of the Atlantic Forest. Municipality of Niterói. State of Rio de Janeiro. BrazilIt is terrestrial, diurnal and feeds on vertebrates  Fig. Least ConcernRecorded in forested areas of the Atlantic Forest. Municipality of Niterói. State of Rio de Janeiro. BrazilEndemic of the Atlantic Forest Fig. . It is sLeast ConcernRecorded in forested and open areas of the Atlantic Forest. Municipality of Niterói. State of Rio de Janeiro. BrazilEndemic of the Atlantic Forest Fig. . It is sLeast ConcernRecorded in forested and open areas of the Atlantic Forest. Municipality of Niterói. State of Rio de Janeiro. BrazilIt is terrestrial, diurnal and feeds on vertebrates (frogs).Fig. Least ConcernRecorded in forested areas of the Atlantic Forest. Municipality of Niterói. State of Rio de Janeiro. BrazilIt is aquatical, diurnal and feeds on vertebrates (fishes and frogs) Fig. Least ConcernRecorded in forested and open areas of the Atlantic Forest. Municipality of Niterói. State of Rio de Janeiro. BrazilIt is terrestrial, nocturnal and feeds on vertebrates  Fig. Duméril, Bibron & Duméril, 1854Least ConcernRecorded in forested and open areas of the Atlantic Forest. Municipality of Niterói. State of Rio de Janeiro. BrazilEndemic of the Atlantic Forest Fig. . It is tLeast ConcernRecorded in forested and open areas of the Atlantic Forest. Municipality of Niterói. State of Rio de Janeiro. BrazilIt is semi-arboreal, diurnal and feeds on vertebrates  Fig. Least ConcernRecorded in forested and open areas of the Atlantic Forest. Municipality of Niterói. State of Rio de Janeiro. BrazilIt is terrestrial, diurnal and feeds on vertebrates  Fig. Least ConcernRecorded in forested areas of the Atlantic Forest. Municipality of Niterói. State of Rio de Janeiro. BrazilEndemic of the Atlantic Forest Fig. . It is tLeast ConcernRecorded in forested areas of the Atlantic Forest. Municipality of Niterói. State of Rio de Janeiro. BrazilIt is semi-arboreal, nocturnal and feeds on vertebrates (frogs) Fig. . See taxGünther, 1863Least ConcernRecorded in forested and open areas of the Atlantic Forest. Municipality of Niterói. State of Rio de Janeiro. BrazilIt is terrestrial, diurnal and feeds on vertebrates (frogs) Fig. Least ConcernRecorded in forested areas of the Atlantic Forest. Municipality of Niterói. State of Rio de Janeiro. BrazilEndemic of the Atlantic Forest Fig. . It is fLeast ConcernRecorded in forested areas of the Atlantic Forest. Municipality of Niterói. State of Rio de Janeiro. BrazilEndemic of the Atlantic Forest Fig. . It is tLacerda, 1884Least ConcernRecorded in forested areas of the Atlantic Forest. Municipality of Niterói. State of Rio de Janeiro. Brazil It is terrestrial, nocturnal and feeds on vertebrates  Fig. .Bothropsjararaca and Micruruscorallinus in our samples).The species richness found in Niterói represents 34% of the snake species known for the state of Rio de Janeiro  and 7.3%Information about diversity, taxonomy, and geographical distribution of species from scientific collections can be used for a broad range of purposes , includiChironius and Bothrops), and eleven (39%) inhabit both open and forested areas  is widely distributed in the Caatinga and Cerrado, with dubious records in the Atlantic Forest of Rio de Janeiro . This species is morphologically similar to T.hypoconia that also occurs in the Atlantic Forest of Rio de Janeiro. However, it cannot be treated as T.hypoconia because the later has dorsal scales strongly keeled, anterior and posterior region of the vent homogeneous, with longitudinal stripes very conspicuous, and dark gular region , Museu Nacional da Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (MNRJ), and Museu de Zoologia da Universidade Estadual de Campinas (ZUEC).File: oo_58178.docxNathalie Citeli, Breno Hamdan, Thaís Barreto GuedesSupplementary material 2Raw data of occurrence of snakes in areas of the Atlantic Forest, Southeastern BrazilData type: Binary matrix in ExcelBrief description: Binary matrix that was the base to run the cluster analysis with Jaccard’s coefficient and to draw the graphics provided in the results section .File: oo_63307.xlsxNathalie Citeli, Breno Hamdan, Thaís Barreto Guedes


Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato (s.l.) complex recognized to date some are considered to have a limited distribution, while others are worldwide dispersed. Among those are Borrelia burgdorferi sensu stricto (s.s.) and Borrelia bissettii which are distributed both in North America and in Europe. While B. burgdorferi s.s. is recognized as a cause of Lyme borreliosis worldwide, involvement of B. bissettii in human Lyme disease was not so definite yet.Out of 20 spirochete species from Borrelia burgdorferi sensu stricto strains highly similar to those from endemic Lyme borreliosis regions of the northeastern United States, and an unusual strain that differed from any previously described in Europe or North America. Based on phylogenetic analysis of eight chromosomally located housekeeping genes divergent strain clustered between Borrelia bissettii and Borrelia carolinensis, two species from the B.burgdorferi s.l. complex, widely distributed among the multiple hosts and vector ticks in the southeastern United States. The genetic distance analysis showed a close relationship of the diverged strain to B. bissettii.Multilocus sequence typing of spirochete isolates originating from residents of Georgia and Florida, USA, revealed the presence of two B. bissettii. The potential of B. bissettii to cause human disease, even if it is infrequent, is of importance for clinicians due to the extensive range of its geographic distribution.Here, we present the analysis of the first North American human originated live spirochete strain that revealed close relatedness to  Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato (s.l.) complex is a diverse group of bacteria widely distributed in temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere. From the time of the discovery of the causative agent of Lyme borreliosis (LB), a large number of Borrelia isolates has been obtained from various vertebrate species, including humans. To date, five of the genospecies from B. burgdorferi s.l. complex are ensured human pathogenic, including B. burgdorferi sensu stricto, B. afzelii, B. garinii, B. bavariensis, and B. spielmanii. Occasionally, B. lusitaniae and B. kurtenbachii have been detected in patients . The records of naturally occurring infections in multiple species of rodents, birds, and Ixodes ticks indicate that B. bissettii is widely distributed in the United States and is not narrowly confined to particular vertebrate host or tick species. With such well-established population of B. bissettii in its area of distribution, with wide availability of multiple hosts and tick vectors, it is not surprising that residents of the west and east coast are exposed to this species.Strains of the west  and in taffinis) . B. bisslifornia , and fro Georgia , [OliverB. bissettii investigated on murine models was sufficient to induce disease, causing pathology within the heart, femorotibial joint and bladder in vertebrate host [B. bissettii are able to infect humans and suggested they may be potentially human pathogenic [B. bissettii-infections in human-biting host seeking Ixodes vectors [The pathogenic potential of American strains of ate host . At the thogenic , 9 altho vectors –27.B. bissettii-related spirochete (strain M7p) from a resident of North America. The taxonomic status of this strain requires further investigation. Phylogenetic analysis resulted in clustering of M7p strain between two clades formed by B. carolinensis and B. bissettii with rather low node support (41 %). The value of genetic distance was above the species threshold compared with B. carolinensis and B. bissettii, which might mean that strain M7p represents a novel species from B. burgdorferi s. l. complex. The species threshold of 0.017 for the MLSA based on housekeeping genes was determined by comparison to data published by Postic and colleagues earlier [Borrelia. The same strains were used later [B.yangtzensis [B. yangtzensis do exist with genetic distances above the species threshold [Borrelia species and populations are structured.Here, we present analysis of the first recovered live  earlier . These aed later  in the Mgtzensis . Two quihreshold . These tB. bissettii-like spirochetes from a human provides evidence that this species, in addition to B. burgdorferi sensu stricto, may cause human Lyme borreliosis in North America, possibly with clinical manifestations different from those related to B. burgdorferi s.s. infection [Isolation of live nfection .


Vector borne zoonoses are emerging threats in Europe. Data collection from animals may be useful to evaluate their occurrence and intensity of transmission, and to detect their introduction into previously free geographic areas. Indeed, vertebrates serve as hosts for pathogens and for arthropod vectors, although their ecological role can vary according to the diseases.Rickettsia slovaca  and Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato , in the Apennine mountains, Tuscany , where human cases of tick-borne diseases were reported. Small rodents are preferential hosts for the immature stages of the two tick vectors and are involved in the transmission cycle of both diseases.Data collection on small rodents was used to study the eco-epidemiology of two tick-borne pathogens, Apodemus spp. and Myodes glareolus from 1100 to 1650 m above the sea level (a.s.l.). Rodents were found infested by immature I. ricinus and D. marginatus. The monthly activities of these two tick species on the same hosts were different, reflecting differences in their life cycles. Although few individuals were co-infested, both tick species tended to aggregate on the same Apodemus spp. males. R. slovaca and B. burgdorferi s.l. were detected in rodent ear biopsies and attached ticks up to 1650 m a.s.l. In our study area, rodents might play a role as amplifiers of R. slovaca infection; even in the absence of the host's systemic infection, tick aggregation on the same individuals might favour the transmission of the pathogen through co-feeding. While D. marginatus had been found at the same location in studies carried out in 1994, I.ricinus was very rare or absent. Data collection on small rodents thus highlighted the recent range expansion of I. ricinus and B. burgdorferi s.l. in a previously unoccupied area. Major land use changes, the increased abundance of wildlife populations, as well as a general climate warming in the Mediterranean area, might be interacting factors affecting the altitudinal range expansion of I. ricinus in the Northern Apennines, and in Italy in general.In the summers from 2009 to 2012, we live trapped


Change in climatic and socio-economic situations is paving the way for the spread of malaria in highland areas which were generally known to be malaria free. Despite this, information regarding highland malaria transmission is scarce. Thus, the present study investigated entomological parameters linked to malaria transmission in the highlands of Southern Ethiopia.A longitudinal entomological study was conducted in three localities situated at different altitudes ranging between 1300 and 2650m above sea level in Derashe district, Southern Ethiopia. Larval and adult anopheline mosquitoes were collected between October 2011 and February 2012.An. arabiensis and An. funestus s.l existed at significantly higher densities in the lowland (Wozeka) in contrast to An. christyi and An. Demeilloni, which were more abundant in the highland localities (P < 0.01). Conversely, An. pharoensis and An. cinereus were scarce and only found in the lowland and highlands, respectively. Habitats of larvae of An. arabiensis were characterized as clear, sun-lit, permanent, still water (streams) without vegetation and situated close to human habitations. On the other hand, habitats of An. christyi are shaded, still, turbid and contain natural water (rain pools) with vegetation and mats of algae. The relative abundance of An. Arabiensis, which is the primary malaria vector in Ethiopia is significantly and positively correlated with water temperature, pH and average depth (P < 0.05). An. arabiensis, An. funestus s.l and An. demeilloni showed zoophilic and exophilic tendencies. None of the anophelines tested for P. falciparum and P. vivax sporozoite infections were positive.In conclusion, malaria parasites and vectors existed in the highlands of Derashe District. Therefore, appropriate disease and vector control strategies must be designed and implemented to prevent potential outbreaks. It has been generally known that malaria transmission usually only occurss in areas below 2,000 meters above sea level. However, this trend has now changed and has moved up to 2,500 meters above sea level, mainly due to climate change and land-use changes ,2. MoreoIn most highland areas, communities are non-immune against malarial parasites . Thus, aAn. arabiensis was the species often reported from the highlands [An. christyi, An. demeilloni and An. coustani are also other highland species in the country with no role in malaria transmission documented [Epidemics have frequently been reported in the highlands of Ethiopia  and An. ighlands ,8. An. ccumented ,9.The highland region of Ethiopia with altitudes ranging between 1,500 and 2,500 meters above sea level are known to be prone to malaria epidemics . This isNevertheless, there is limited information on malaria transmission in the highlands of Ethiopia and no report has been documented on the ecology and behaviour of malaria vectors in such regions. Therefore, the current study was aimed to determine the ecology, behaviour, species composition, distribution and other entomological indices of the vectors in the highland and lowland localities of Southern Ethiopia.The study was conducted in three rural localities in the southern part of Ethiopia with altitudes ranging between 1,300 and 2,650m above sea level. Mosquito sampling localities were Wozeka in the lowland (1300 masl), Walyte (2150 masl and 11 kms far from Wozeka) and Gidole town  in the highland , pipettes, and white plastic pans . When moA list of households of the three localities was used as a sampling frame, with an assumption of similar exposure of houses; a total of 33 households  were systematically selected from houses that are found near mosquito breeding sites . The same houses were used throughout the study and when the occupants refused to allow use of their house, the household nearest to it was selected.Space spray method  was perfOutdoor resting mosquitoes were collected from artificial pit shelters  using a sucking tube . Two pitDry cell battery-operated CDC light traps (John W. Hock Company)  were plaSpecies identification of adult anopheline mosquitoes was performed using morphological characteristics of their palps, wings, abdomen and legs . Larvae An. gambiae complex which is comprised of two species, An. arabiensis, and, An. quadriannulatus species B in Ethiopia were distinguished by Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) assay [Sibling species of R) assay .Sandwich Enzyme Linked Immuno-Sorbent Assay (ELISA)  was emplet al. [Fresh fed mosquitoes were tested for the source of blood meal using a direct ELISA procedure described by Bier et al. .Consent was sought from each kebele administration, and informed consent was also sought from head of households from where mosquitoes were collected. The study obtained ethical clearance from the Institutional Review Board of ALIPB.The data obtained from the study was computerized using Epidata version 3.1 data entry format and analyzed by statistical software, STATA version 11. In addition to simple descriptive statistics, chi-square test, t-test, correlational analysis, analysis of variance (ANOVA) and non parametric Kwallis test were applied to determine associations and differences among different variables. All statistical tests and generalizations were done by assuming 95% confidence interval and 5% level of significance.Anopheles species including An. arabiensis, An. christyi, An. demeilloni, An. funestus, An. pharoensis and An. cinereus were identified from larval collections. An. demeilloni was sampled from the three villages but it was more prevalent in Gidole. An. christyi was identified only from larval collection and existed in significantly high density in the highland locality (Gidole) (P < 0.05). Likewise, An. cinereus was found in Walyte and Gidole but it was scarce  in Gidole town. Pools from spring water and a small temporary stream which crosses the town created habitats during the dry months (January and February). Derek Wonz River and an irrigation canal were the two principal larval habitats in Wozeka during the dry months and no positive habitat was identified during the rainy months.An. arabiensis, the commonest species in the lowland was abundant in February while An. christyi existed only in December. The latter was collected more frequently in November and January from the highland. On the other hand, larval density of An. demeilloni and An. cinereus was relatively high in February . An. arabiensis and An. demeilloni were sampled from pools and edges of streams, whereas An. christyi was predominantly collected from rain pools. An. cinereus on the other hand showed preference to water pools created from spring water. In addition, An. christyi and An. arabiensis coexisted in irrigation canals in the lowland area though their density was low (Table Each species of Anopheles species identified both from highland and lowland (P < 0.05). More anopheline larvae were collected from shallow habitats having low pH in Gidole. Nevertheless, An. arabiensis was abundantly found in relatively deeper and warmer water habitats with high pH in Wozeka but its existence in a single habitat in the highland limited further analysis. Average water depth and pH were inversely related with An. christyi in the lowland but only average depth in the highland  and it outnumbered the rest of the mosquitoes. Its presence was confirmed from species specific PCR and it was the only member of An. gambiae found in the locality. Similarly, adults of An. funestus s.l and An. pharoensis were also collected in small numbers from the lowland   shortly after the rainy season. The majority of ) Figure . On the An. arabiensis and An. funestus s.l were collected more frequently outdoors, whereas An. demeilloni was collected abundantly indoors, particularly in the highland locality (Gidole).More than half of the adult anophelines were collected indoors by CDC light traps and space spray with the remainder collected outdoors from artificial pit shelters. An. arabiensis and An. funestus s.l, both being strongly exophilic. On the other hand, An. demeilloni showed mixed resting behaviour i.e. both endophilic and exophilic habit equally in the lowland. However, it became more endophilic as altitude increased (from 1300 masl in Wozeka to 2650 masl in Gidole), while its outdoor resting density significantly declined . Anopheline density decreased from low lying Wozeka to the highland Gidole (P < 0.01). An. arabiensis had relatively high indoor density followed by An. demeilloni and An. Pharoensis, while An. funestus s.l was the species with the lowest indoor density. High indoor density was recorded in January particularly for An. arabiensis and An. Demeilloni, whereas in February the highest recording was for An. funestus s.l. Conversely, An. pharoensis showed inconsistent indoor density , An. Demeilloni, 4(67%) and An. funestus s.l., 9(64%) originated from bovine feeding, showing these species to be more zoophilic. A few samples had mixed blood meals, while the source of some others could not be identified in the highlands of Southern Ethiopia.A total of 61 fresh fed anophelines were tested to detect the source of their blood meals. The majority of the blood meals of An. arabiensis, An. demeilloni, An. christyi, An. funestus s.l, An. pharoensis and An. cinereus in the lowlands and highlands of Southern Ethiopia.This study revealed the occurrence of An. arabiensis. Similarly, the studies in Central and South-Central Ethiopia [An. christyi larvae were found in all kinds of habitats but abundantly in rain pools. Its ability to exist in such type of sites was reported from Central Ethiopia (Akaki) [An. arabiensis, pools along streams serve as main breeding habitats for An. demeilloni.Investigation on characterization of breeding habitats showed that stream pools were the main breeding habitats of Ethiopia ,24 showe (Akaki) . SimilarDespite the presence of a number of streams and lower altitude, fewer numbers of anopheline larvae were collected from Wozeka as compared to Gidole. This might possibly be due to frequent drainage of the streams by the local people to their farms and directing back when not in use. This could disturb larvae. The absence of rain pools, swamps and springs which normally serve as potential breeding habitats during the rainy and dry months also played its role in this. Rain water usually dries up within a short period of time, which might be associated with the nature of the soil.In spite of larval abundance in the highland Gidole, adults were rarely collected, this might be due to different biological, methodological and environmental factors. One could be the unsuitability of the low local temperature and humidity that hinder the complete development of larva to adult . AnotherRelatively high numbers of adults and larvae were collected in December, January and February. This may imply that these months could be among malaria risk times in the study area and it is a bit later than one of the two malaria transmission seasons in Ethiopia, which occurs from September to December and March to May . The extAn. funestus s.l larvae in the study area might have a connection with its peculiar preference for a large, permanent or semi-permanent body of fresh water with emergent vegetation, such as swamps, large ponds and lake edges [The complete absence of ke edges  which arke edges  proved tAn. arabiensis and An. funestus s.l in the lowland (Wozeka). Although sporozoite infections could not be detected from the former species, no other anopheline could be incriminated as a vector of malaria other than this species. While An. arabiensis plays a primary role as a major malaria vector in Ethiopia, An. funestus and An. pharoensis have been indicated as secondary vectors [et al. (2005) indicated the presence of these three malaria vectors in Sille of Southern Ethiopia, 40 Km from the present study area [The study also showed the existence of  vectors . Similarudy area .An. demeilloni was the principal highland Anopheles species in the study area. This is in agreement with the finding in Western Kenyan highlands where it was the second most abundant next to An. christyi [, An. cinereus also showed highland existence both in its aquatic stage and adult; and its presence in highland areas has been reported previously [It was found that christyi . Despiteeviously . NeverthAn. arabiensis showed zoophilic and an exophilic tendency, which is in harmony with what was documented before [An.arabiensis to feed on cattle and rest outside after feeding in this study strengthens the findings of the study in Chalo of Southern Ethiopia, 65 km away from the current study area [An. funestus, which is known to be endophilic and anthropophilic [An. funestus s.l group contains ten sibling species [An. demeilloni showed entire zoophilic behaviour concordantly with what was reported from Kenya [We found that d before . The preudy area . The expudy area . Howeverpophilic , exhibit species ,33 with om Kenya .An. demeilloni as altitude varied. It was shifted from exophilic in the lowland to endophilic in the highland. It is well known that temperature affects the biology of anophelines [Variation in resting behaviour was noticed in phelines . Therefophelines .Plasmodium sporozoite infection in the entire anophelines tested might be because of low prevalence of the sporozoite in the mosquito population in the study area or due to low numbers of anophelines collected.Absence of A study in Kenya showed that certain areas in the highlands are more prone to malaria epidemics than others while the climate and altitude are similar . This coAnopheles species were identified in the present study. An. arabiensis and An. funestus s.l were found to be important species in the lowland area. Despite lack of sporozoite infected Anopheles species, the former might be the major vector in the area as it is in the country. However, An. Pharoensis, which is a secondary vector in the country was scarce. In spite of the presence of malaria parasite and anophelines in the highlands of Derashe District, no appropriate disease and vector control strategies had been designed and applied before. In addition, the combined effect of the continuous movement of people in the area to lowlands in search of farm lands and job opportunities and the presence of few anophelines as well as low immunity may cause the occurrence of epidemics. Therefore, strategies considering vector resting and feeding behaviour should be designed and promptly employed for the control of both larval and adult mosquitoes.In conclusion, six


Reason for Corrigendum:In the original article, the name of the third author was mistakenly shortened to Elien van Wonterg. The correct name should be Elien Van Wonterghem instead of Elien Van Wonterg. The authors apologize for this miscommunication.This error does not change the scientific conclusions of the article in any way.The original article has been updated.Original Work: SL performed most of the experiments. EW, RV, and CL performed the hydrodynamic gene delivery. SL and MO planned and performed the cloning. KG and RM performed GC-MS measurements. JH did the histological analysis. SK, SL, and AK planned experiments, analyzed data, and wrote the manuscript. AK designed and directed the study. All authors critically revised the work, approved the final version of the manuscript to be published, and agreed to be accountable for all aspects of the work. Corrigendum: SL, SK, and AK wrote the Corrigendum.The project was funded, in part, by the Else Kröner-Fresenius-Stiftung (2012_A250 to AK and SK) and the Graduiertenförderung of Saarland University (to SL).The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.


AbstractHarmoniadunlopi (Crotch), a rare lady beetle species, was originally described from 'India' by H.dunlopi were suspected to be probably misidentifications of H.dimidiata (F.), a species common in northern and northeastern India and also widely distributed in the Oriental region.H.dunlopi. Comparison of this specimen with the collections at the Natural History Museum, London, confirmed that it belonged to Harmoniamanillana (Mulsant), hitherto known from Malaysia, Indonesia and the Philippines. Harmoniamanillana is a highly polymorphic species with many synonyms and based on examination of the type material, the following nomenclatural changes are proposed. Harmoniadunlopi was found to be only a color variant of H.manillana and hence it is reduced to a junior synonym of H.manillana (syn. nov.). Harmoniadecussata  and H.flavomarginataH.decussata (syn. nov.). This is the first record of H.manillana for India and South Asia. The male genitalia of H.manillana are illustrated and compared with those of H.dimidiata, the more common Indian species, to facilitate its recognition.A single male specimen of a species collected in recent surveys from Arunachal Pradesh, India, was suspected to be ecussata  is remov Harmoniadunlopi  in the collections of the Natural History Museum, London. The male genitalia of the Indian specimen were also found to be identical to those of H.manillana illustrated by H.manillana for South Asia.During recent surveys in Arunachal Pradesh, northeastern India, a single male specimen of a species thought to be H.manillana, which were also followed by Harmoniamanillana is externally quite variable and examination of the type material of these species in the Crotch Collections at Cambridge and the Natural History Museum, London, by RGB indicates there is a need to revisit and change some of these synonymies. The following changes and new synonymies are proposed here: HarmoniadecussataH.manillana (stat. rev.) and HarmoniaflavomarginataH.decussata (syn. nov.). Harmoniadunlopi is considered by us as a mere color variant of H.manillana and synonymized with H.manillana here (syn. nov.). A brief diagnostic description is given for H.manillana based on the sole Indian specimen examined and the male genitalia of both H.manillana and H.dimidiata are illustrated to facilitate their identification in the event of any subsequent collection.The specimen examined was part of the collections made in Pasighat and nearby places in the north eastern Indian state of Arunachal Pradesh, in November 2014 and it is deposited in the reference collections of the National Bureau of Agricultural Insect Resources, Bangalore. Photographs of the habitus and the male genitalia were taken using a Leica M205A Stereo microscope. Composite images were generated from image stacks using the software Combine ZP and touched up in Photoshop Elements 11.The following acronyms are used for the repositories mentioned in this paper:BMNH - Natural History Museum, London:MNHUB - Museum für Naturkunde der Humboldt Universität, BerlinUCCC - University of Cambridge Crotch Collections, CambridgeCariamanillanaLeisatrocinctaatrocincta).-NedapaulinaeCariapaulinae).-LeisdunlopiNew Synonym.LeiscerasicolorLeisaterrimaLeispapuensisLeispapuensisvar.suffusaSyn. nov.Type status:Other material. Occurrence: individualCount: 1; sex: Male; lifeStage: Adult; preparations: Male genitalia; Taxon: scientificName: Harmoniamanillana (Mulsant); kingdom: Animalia; phylum: Arthropoda; class: Insecta; order: Coleoptera; family: Coccinellidae; taxonomicStatus: accepted; Location: continent: Asia; country: India; stateProvince: Arunachal Pradesh; municipality: Pasighat; locality: Pasighat College of Horticulture & Forestry; verbatimLocality: College of Horticulture & Forestry; Identification: identifiedBy: J Poorani; Event: samplingProtocol: Yellow pan trap; eventDate: 2014-11-11/17; year: 2014; month: November; Record Level: institutionID: ICAR-NBAIR; institutionCode: NBAIRLength: 6.5 mm. Form Fig. a hemiphe11111Harmoniamanillana is externally highly variable and H.manillana from Malaysia at BMNH, on each elytron the spots are characteristically arranged in a 1-2-2-1/2 pattern and the pronotum has a larger median spot. The male genitalia in H.manillana are diagnostic. The male genitalia of the Indian specimen fully match the illustrations given by Harmoniadunlopi is very similar to H.dimidiata and likely to be confused with it as observed by H.dunlopi as having a 1-2-1-1 elytral pattern and observed that an additional sutural spot was present in some specimens. The lone Indian specimen appears to have this extra spot observed by Crotch. The illustration given by H.dunlopi also shows a tiny extra spot next to suture in the third row, which corresponds to the Indian specimen. The only specimen of H.dunlopi examined by JP in the collections of the Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata, was collected in "Haruhasa Mt. Sambawa" (Indonesia) and identified by A.P. Kapur as Leisdunlopi var. nov. (compared with type) ; Philippines; Malaysia; Indonesia . This is the first record of H.manillana from mainland India and its absence in Indian and international collections is an indication that it is probably a very rare species and it probably needs to be listed as such in Indian faunal lists. It is worth noting that this was the only specimen collected along with several specimens of H.dimidiata from the same locality.Harmoniadecussata  (stat. rev.). This lectotype was examined by RGB in 1989 and found to represent the same species that Harmoniaflavomarginata (syn. nov.). This also appears to be the same species that Harmoniaincognita, but a formal synonymy of the latter must await further study.Two species, ecussata : 161 andLeissuffusa as a variety of L.papuensis (now a synonym of H.manillana) and papuensis in his catalogue. L.suffusa and mentioned that it appeared to be a synonym of H.manillana though it was not formally designated so by L.suffusa with H.manillana here (syn. nov.).H.manillana and H.dunlopi with rather inadequate / poor illustrations. He illustrated the adult and the female genitalia of H.dunlopi and indicated that it could be probably synonymous with H.dimidiata. He also mentioned that the specimen he examined from the Crotch Collection at the University of Cambridge (UCCC) was a holotype. However, Leisdunlopi listed material from India . 1H.dunlopi with H.manillana to be confirmed.Crotch’s original description of