Anopheles funestus and Anopheles gambiae are vectors known only from the mainland. Understanding vector bionomics in the district is necessary for planning and targeting effective vector control. This study aimed to provide information on abundance, seasonality, and Plasmodium falciparum sporozoite infectivity of malaria vectors in Nchelenge, including islands.Over a decade of vector control by indoor residual spraying (IRS) and long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLINs) distribution on the mainland, and only LLINs on islands had a minimal impact on disease burden in Nchelenge district, northern Zambia. P. falciparum circumsporoites by ELISA were performed. Mosquito counts and relative abundances from the islands and mainland were compared, and household factors associated with vector counts were determined.Mosquitoes were collected in 192 CDC indoor light traps set in 56 households between January 2015 and January 2016. Morphological and molecular species identifications and Anopheles funestus sensu lato (s.l.) and 248 female An. gambiae s.l. The highest proportion of An. funestus (n = 4090) was from Chisenga Island and An. gambiae (n = 174) was from Kilwa Island. The highest estimated counts per trap for An. funestus s.l. were from Chisenga island,  and from the dry season . For An. gambiae the highest counts per trap were from Kilwa island  and the rainy season . The highest estimated annual entomological inoculation rate was from Chisenga Island with 91.62 ib/p/y followed by Kilwa Island with 29.77 ib/p/yr, and then Mainland with 19.97 ib/p/yr.A total of 5888 anophelines were collected during the study. Of these, 5,704 were female There was varied species abundance and malaria transmission risk across sites and seasons. The risk of malaria transmission was perennial and higher on the islands. The minimal impact of vector control efforts on the mainland was evident, but limited overall. Vector control intervention coverage with effective tools needs to be extended to the islands to effectively control malaria transmission in Nchelenge district. Anopheles funestus sensu stricto (s.s.) and An. gambiae s.s. These studies have established that An. funestus is widely distributed and has a population peak during the dry season, while counts of An. gambiae remain relatively and consistently low throughout the year and are more abundant near Lake Mweru on the western border of the district [An. funestus s.s. and only S-form An. gambiae, with populations exhibiting varied insecticide susceptibility to carbamates, pyrethroids, and DDT [The use of long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLINs), indoor residual spraying (IRS), artemisinin-based combination therapy (ACT), and intermittent preventive therapy in pregnancy (IPTp) in the last decade has led to successes against malaria in sub-Saharan Africa –5. Sadlydistrict –12. The  and DDT –15. It iDuring the study period, cases of malaria reported between January and December 2015 for all age groups from Chisenga and Kilwa Islands rural health centres were 4, 282 and 8, 439, respectively (Nchelenge DHIS). These represented cases per 1000 people of 375 and 746 for Chisenga and Kilwa islands, respectively. Nchelenge Health Centre on the mainland reported 9360 cases with an incidence rate of 476/1000 (Nchelenge DHIS). For each health facility, almost half of the cases  were in children 0–5 years old.An. funestus s.s. complete mitogenome [Plasmodium falciparum sporozoite infection rates, and how these data may impact current and future malaria control strategies in the district. The study period was January 2015 to January 2016 as part of the Southern and Central Africa International Centres of Excellence for Malaria Research (ICEMR), a research collaboration set up to study malaria transmission and the impact of control interventions in Zambia, Zimbabwe, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC).Given the enormity of malaria incidence in Nchelenge District, critical data is needed to better understand the underlying factors leading to the lack of success of malaria control in Nchelenge, especially in the context of malaria elimination . Data ontogenome , which iNchelenge District is located in northern Zambia in Luapula Province Fig.  at the mNchelenge is largely a rural district with an estimated human population at the time of the survey of 147,927 . The maiIndoor residual spraying and bed net distribution form the main vector control interventions conducted in Nchelenge by the national programme. The IRS programme is normally conducted between September and December of each year. During the study period, IRS with pirimiphos-methyl (Actellic® 300CS) was conducted in 2014 and 2015, and a mass campaign for LLIN (Olyset®) distribution took place in October 2014.2 grids [Satellite imagery of the three islands from Google Maps and an ARCGIS image of mainland Nchelenge District were overlaid with 1 km2 grids . Grids wThe collection of mosquitoes was conducted using CDC light traps hung indoors approximately 150 cm above the floor at the foot end of the sleeping space. A total of 192 traps were set indoors during the entire study period. A total of five rounds of collection were conducted, as follows: First rainy season: 32 households (HH) in January 2015 and 36 HH in March 2015. During the dry season, 37 HH were recorded in July 2015 and 42 HH in October 2015. Finally, the second rainy season 44 HH in January 2016 Each of the selected households was sampled a minimum of one and a maximum of five times (Table An. funestus sensu lato (s.l.) and An. gambiae s.l. were processed for polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and circumsporozoite ELISA.All anopheline mosquitoes collected were morphologically identified by standard identification keys to species groups upon collection in the field , 21. TheAn. gambiae s.s. were completed by PCR, as previously described [Mosquitoes were dissected at the thoracic and abdominal joints into the head, thorax, and abdomen. DNA was extracted from either a leg or abdomen and processed by PCR for species identification , 23. Theescribed .An. funestus clades. The P. falciparum sporozoite infections were determined by the circumsporozoite ELISA assay pf-210 [P. falciparum sporozoite rate was calculated as the number of mosquitoes detected with P. falciparum sporozoites out of the total tested by circumsporozoite ELISA [TaqMan PCR, as previously described , identify pf-210 , 27. To y pf-210 , and thete ELISA . The bitThe mosquito counts were entered in Excel sheets and exported to R and STATA 15  for analysis. Morphological data were used for the analyses of species abundance and distribution. Only data from households sampled at least three times were included in the analyses of the seasonal and spatial abundance of vector species. The species PCR data were used to compare vector species infection rates and their spatial and seasonal occurrence.P. falciparum sporozoite infection rates in Anopheles species were seasonally and spatially compared and predicted by logistic regression analysis. QGIS version 3.10.2 was used to create maps and plot proportions of mosquito counts as well as P. falciparum infection rates.Variations in total female anophelines collected from each site were evaluated separately for each of the two vector species by multilevel mixed-effects negative binomial regression with household as a random covariate. The covariates of fixed effects were season and site of collection. Marginal effects and means of vector counts were predicted for the season and site of collection. The Anopheles funestus s.l. = 5323, An. gambiae s.l. = 249, Anopheles coustani s.l. = 4, and unidentified = 3.A total of 5888 Anopheles mosquitoes were collected indoors from 56 households in 14 villages Fig. A totalAn. funestus s.l. collections and 97 traps recording zero An. gambiae s.l. collections. The maximum count of An. funestus s.l. in a single light trap was 497 from Chisenga Island, and the maximum for An. gambiae s.l. was 30 from Kilwa Island  were dominant over An. gambiae s.l. (n = 238) across all study sites (Table An. funestus s.l. (n = 4090), and Kilwa Island had the highest proportion of An. gambiae s.l. (n = 174).unt n = 540 were dAn. funestus s.l. and 0.499 to 3.083 for An. gambiae s.l. , and those of An. gambiae were so with Kilwa Island . There was a significant reduction in the estimated An. funestus count during rainy seasons 1 and 2, IRR = 0.189, p < 0.001, and IRR = 0.069, p < 0.001, respectively , but the count increased during rainy season 2   successfully amplified 978 (88%) of the specimens processed. DNA from 131 specimens did not amplify.An. funestus s.s. (n = 773) and Anopheles leesoni (n = 10) as members of the An. funestus group. Further mitochondrial DNA analysis of An. funestus s.s. revealed the existence of Clade I (n = 736) and Clade II (n = 37), as previously reported [An. gambiae s.l. PCR analysis of specimens revealed only An. gambiae s.s. (n = 195). Further processing by TaqMan hydrolysis PCR to determine the M-form (Anopheles coluzzii) and S-forms revealed the S-form of An. gambiae s.s. as the only member of the complex collected.Identification of species by PCR showed reported . The An.P. falciparum sporozoite ELISA result on the first run. When the homogenates were heated to remove false positives, 25 still came out positive. The P. falciparum circumsporozoite ELISA showed positive results in An. funestus s.s. Clade I, 18 (n = 736), and An. gambiae, 7 (n = 195). No sporozoites were detected in An. funestus s.s. Clade II (n = 37) or An. leesoni (n = 10).A total of 30 specimens gave a positive P. falciparum infections were found in both primary vectors, An. funestus s.s. and An. gambiae s.s., from Kilwa Island and the mainland. For Isokwe Island and Chisenga Island, only An. funestus s.s. was found infected with P. falciparum. Using the foraging rates based on the count of mosquitoes and household occupants the annual entomological inoculation rates (EIR) were estimated for each collection site. The EIR for Chisenga Island was 91.62 infectious bites per person per year (ib/p/yr), all of which came from An. funestus s.s. Kilwa Island's EIR was 29.77 ib/p/yr, with species contributions of 21.21 ib/p/yr and 8.57 ib/p/yr from An. funestus s.s. and An. gambiae s.s., respectively. Mainland EIR was estimated to be 19.97 ib/p/yr, with An. funestus s.s. contributing 18.12 ib/p/yr and An. gambiae s.s. giving 1.85 ib/p/yr.In the study sites, P. falciparum sporozoites-infected vectors were detected in both dry and rainy seasons . The odds of infection with P. falciparum in vectors were lower on Chisenga Island compared to the mainland . The odds of infection in vectors were higher on Isokwe Island compared to the mainland , and higher on Kilwa Island compared to the mainland .Seasonal and spatial comparisons in on Table  in the tAn. funestus s.s. Clade I infection with P. falciparum sporozoites during the study was 0.042 . The estimated probability of infection in An. gambiae s.s. was 0.020 . Seasonal predicted probabilities of infection with P. falciparum in vectors were: dry season 0.021 , rainy season 1, 0.015 , and rainy season 2, 0.073 .The estimated probability of P. falciparum sporozoites in the two primary vectors of malaria, An. funestus s.s. and An. gambiae s.s., in Nchelenge was determined. There were significant differences in the abundance of An. funestus s.l. on Chisenga Island and of An. gambiae s.l. on Kilwa Island compared to the mainland. The An. funestus s.l. was more abundant during the dry season, and the An. gambiae was abundant during the rainy season. Predicted probabilities for P. falciparum infection were significant for both An. gambiae s.s. and An. funestus s.s., with An. funestus s.s. showing a slight edge over An. gambiae s.s. When the two vectors were considered together, the predicted probability of a malaria vector for infection with P. falciparum during both the dry and rainy seasons was significant. The estimated annual entomological inoculation rate, which is a measure of human exposure to the risk of malaria transmission, was highest on Chisenga Island with 91.62 ib/p/yr, followed by Kilwa Island with 29.77 ib/p/y, and lastly Mainland with 19.97 ib/p/yr.This study determined the spatial and seasonal abundances of the two primary vectors of malaria in Nchelenge, including islands. The infection with Anopheles funestus s.l. dominated and was more abundant during the dry season, in agreement with previous findings [An. funestus s.l. compared to either Kilwa Island or the mainland. The highest counts of An. gambiae s.l. were recorded from Kilwa Island. These findings seem to reflect local differences in the ecologies of these different study sites, which may be important for targeting control interventions [These results show a dynamic entomological picture driving malaria transmission in the district. The results obtained here both confirmed what was already known about Nchelenge and provided new insights about the malaria vectors on the islands. At the time of this study, the only form of vector control for the islands was net distribution. findings , 12. Thiventions , 31.The findings of this study are in support of prior studies that assessed household risk factors for mosquito abundance on the mainland , 12. MosP. falciparum sporozoites. Anopheles funestus s.s. contributed to transmission at all study sites during the dry season and on Chisenga Island during the rainy season. In contrast, An. gambiae appeared to drive transmissions during the rainy season on Kilwa Island and the mainland. The mainland and Kilwa Island were the only sites where both vector species were found infected with P. falciparum. Despite their relatively low numbers, An. gambiae had comparable rates of P. falciparum sporozoite infections with the more abundant An. funestus s.s. on both Kilwa Island and the mainland. This demonstrated that An. gambiae made substantial contribution to malaria transmission in Nchelenge, a fact that needs to be considered when designing and implementing vector control interventions. This study found no P. falciparum-infected Clade II An. funestus s.s. This was in contrast with the prior study by Choi et al. [The parasite sporozoite rates observed suggested variations in spatial intensity but a sustained, perennial risk of vectors infected with i et al.  on the mAn. funestus s.s. and An. gambiae s.s. The EIR is an important indicator of the intensity of malaria transmission in an area. A reduction in EIR is one of the indices used to measure the impact of vector control activity [Two previous studies, one intensive and another extensive, both conducted in 2012 and 2013, made comparable estimates of the EIRs for the Nchelenge mainland with different calculations of the human biting rate , 12. Theactivity , 37. Thiactivity , 39. TheTwelve months of concomitant malaria incidence data were obtained from health centres (HCs) servicing the three individual collection study sites. According to these data, malaria incidence was highest on Kilwa Island HC, then on the mainland Nchelenge HC, and lowest on Chisenga Island HC. In contrast, Chisenga Island had the highest estimated EIR, followed by Kilwa Island, and then the mainland. In an area with high vector counts, the discrepancy between estimated EIR and reported malaria cases may be due to the unreported cases that get treated at home within communities. No prevalence studies were conducted in the present study, nor had they been conducted before on the islands. For the islands in Nchelenge, local factors including ecology, demographics, malaria control use, and mosquito bionomics would need to be considered in the estimation and interpretation of the EIR. Monitoring how EIRs would be affected would be important in the evaluation of the scale-up of the malaria control package on the islands of Nchelenge.An. funestus s.s., and a relatively low abundance of An. gambiae, including island sites for the first time. In sites and periods where both vector species were involved in malaria transmission, sporozoite infection rates were comparable, thereby adding to a higher risk for malaria transmission. The combination of IRS and LLINs on the mainland might have a very minimal impact on malaria transmission. Sustained vector control at all the sites should be emphasised with expanded coverage of intervention on the islands. Non-chemical mosquito bite control and prevention options should be considered for Nchelenge. Continued research on the vectors, the parasites, and the human host at different sites is required to fully understand the burden and effectively target control in different areas of Nchelenge.Consistent with prior studies in Nchelenge District, this study reports a high abundance of the primary vector,


Xylella fastidiosa , the grapevine Pierce’s disease agent, is an American native bacterium, considered among the more dangerous invasive pathogens for grape, olive and stone fruit trees in Europe and Asia. Xylella fastidiosa is vectorized by sapfeeding insects, such as the native Eurasian spittlebugs Philaenus spumarius and Neophilaenus campestris. Knowledge of the distribution and habitat preferences of X. fastidiosa vectors and other potential vectors is an essential element of contingency plans against future X. fastidiosa invasions. Our work presents the results of extensive sampling of P. spumarius, N. campestris, N. lienatus and Lepyronia coleoptrata in the Autonomous Community of Murcia (SE Spain) in 2020. We performed habitat suitability models of these species using bioclimatic, landscape and topographical variables. Distributions of P. spumarius, N. campestris and N. lineatus in the Murcia region are mainly driven by bioclimatic and landscape composition variables. The more suitable habitats are in the coldest and wettest areas with a high proportion of forests, possibly related to the summer migratory movements. Instead, all three species are absent from large areas of the region, including the southern third, where models predict no suitability. The results could be a useful tool for contingency planning against a possible X. fastidiosa invasion. Philaenus spumarius and Neophilaenus campestris are the main vectors of the invasive bacteria Xylella fastidiosa and key threats to European plant health. Previous studies of the potential distribution of P. spumarius reveal that climatic factors are the main drivers of its distribution on the Mediterranean Basin scale. Other local studies reveal that the landscape could also have a role in the distribution of both species of P. spumarius and N. campestris. Our work is aimed at understanding the role and importance of bioclimatic and landscape environmental factors in the distributions of the vector and potential vector species P. spumarius, N. campestris, N. lineatus and L. coleoptrata on a regional scale across the Autonomous Community of Murcia (SE Spain), a region with relevant environmental gradients of thermality and crop intensity. We used sweeping nets for sampling 100 points during eight months in 2020. Using bioclimatic landscape composition and topographical variables, we carried out habitat suitability models for each species using the maximum entropy algorithm (MaxEnt). Distribution results for P. spumarius, N. campestris and N. lineatus indicate a gradient in habitat suitability, with the optimum in the coldest and wettest areas in landscapes with a high proportion of forest. All three species are absent from the southern third of the study region, the hottest, driest and most intensively cultivated area. These results are useful and should be considered in contingency plans against possible invasions of X. fastidiosa in Mediterranean regions. Xylella fastidiosa (Wells), puts representatives of this suborder in a category of important crop pests worldwide. Three species of Aphrophoridae are recognized vectors of X. fastidiosa in Europe: Philaenus spumarius  [Neophilaenus campestris  and P. italosignus  [Neophilaenus species, Lepyronia coleoptrata  or Cicadella viridis , have been confirmed as vectors in Europe [The spittlebug includes a group of sapfeeding species of the suborder Auchenorrhyncha (Hemiptera), composed of five families: Aphrophoridae, Cercopidae, Clastopteridae, Epipygidae and Machaerotidae, whereby in the nymphal stage they produce a protective foam cover, like saliva. Their ability to act as a vector of viruses, phytoplasmas and bacteria, such as the invasive pathogen s, 1758) , Neophile, 2000) . No othen Europe .Xilella fastidiosa is the most important pathogen for olive and stone fruit crops in Europe and Asia [X. fastidiosa has been detected in most parts of all of the Balearic Islands (except Formentera), infesting more than 30 vegetal species. In 2017, almond trees infected with the bacterium were detected in mainland Spain, in Alicante province (Eastern Iberian Peninsula). This outbreak currently covers an area of 4.611 ha, infecting 21 vegetal species [and Asia . The bacand Asia , Spain : from abiotic (pluviometry and temperature) to biotic factors (abundance of the host plant Cistus monspeliensis). The way that the climatic drivers determine the distribution of d et al. , predictd et al.  and Lagod et al.  indicatea et al.  concludeo et al.  reporteds et al.  concludeP. spumarius and N. campestris, and other putative vectors such as N. lineatus and L. coleoptrata, on a regional scale. Our results could be a useful tool for focusing regional management strategy against the future invasion of X. fastidiosa in southeastern Spain areas with a high vector presence, instead of areas where they are absent.Our work is aimed at understanding which environmental factors on the regional scale, mainly among bioclimatic and landscape factors, drive the habitat suitability and distribution of the vector species 2 of the Autonomous Community of Murcia. This area is located in a dry Mediterranean climate in the southeastern Iberian Peninsula  to select 100 random points located in the natural–tree crop interface along the study area. The random procedure for the selection of the points was performed using the vectorial basic functions of QGIS [To survey the complete study area and cover the whole flight period of the species, we designed a network of 100 random sampling points. We used vector layers of tree crops and natural or semi-natural vegetation of the Murcia region . The procedure was modified after Morente et al. . We applWe used Raster, maptools and ggplot2 ,19,20 inhttps://www.worldclim.org/, accessed on 1 November 2022). Other bioclimatic datasets such as Chelsa  were previously tried and the preliminary results seemed redundant with the WorlClim results; consequently, only the WorldClim dataset was used in this work. Raw vector layers of crops, vegetal formations and geoseries were obtained from https://www.miteco.gob.es/ (accessed on 1 November 2022) and processed using QGIS to obtain raster maps of densities of different environmental units. A digital terrain model (DTM) was downloaded from http://centrodedescargas.cnig.es/, accessed on 1 November 2022, for the calculation of slope and ruggedness index using QGIS. All raster maps were calculated to a detail of ~1 km2 (30 arc s). We used three kinds of spatial data: bioclimatic, landscape and topographical, proportion surfaces of tree crops and natural or semi-natural vegetation, presence vegetation geoseries and topography . BioclimCollinearity between variables was avoided using cluster analysis included in the Raster package  in R 2121. Highldismo and ENMeval packages in R [Distribution models of species were created using the ges in R ,23, whicges in R ,27,28,29ges in R ,25). We ges in R ,26) to sges in R . Five reges in R .Additionally, all of the models were post-evaluated using the dataset “Pres-Abs-Spain1” , a binarP. spumarius (7.76%), 338 N. campestris (3.93%), 530 N. lineatus (6.17%) and 216 L. coleoptrata (2.51%) (P. spumarius (in 29 points), 0.44% to 48.3% for N. campestris (in 35 points), 0.3% to 66.7% for N. lineatus (in 19 points) and 0.64% to 31.9% for L. coleoptrata (in 4 points).We collected 8581 specimens of Fulguromorpha and Cicadomorpha, and of which, 20.37% corresponds to vector or potential vector species, that is, 666 specimens of  (2.51%) . ConsideX. fastidiosa vectors, P. spumarius and N. campestris were collected during almost the entire sampling time, from spring to late autumn. It is remarkable to see the lack of captures of both species around mid-summer. The populations of P. spumarius show that a clear peak of collections was recorded in mid-June. These capture levels decline from the mid–end of October to mid-December. Instead, N. campestris shows two clear peaks of captures, with the first in late spring and the second in mid–late autumn, while during summer and early fall, their populations remain, with a few individuals in the sampled areas.The temporal evolution of catches of these species are shown in N. lineatus and L. coleoptrata show different capture patterns. Unlike the vector species, N. lineatus was collected in greater numbers from mid-summer to early autumn, with a clear peak in late August. For the rest of the sample period, it was collected in a low number of specimens but somewhat in a greater quantity than its congeneric N. campestris. However, L. coleoptrata was captured in smaller numbers, mainly from mid-June to mid-July and in mid-September. Null or very few insects were collected from this period.However, the potential vectors L. coleoptrata, which was exclusively restricted to the northwestern area. The vector species P. spumarius and N. campestris show similar distributions, although with some differences  provides the main contribution (12%). The response curve obtained for this variable indicates that S. spumarius is rare in landscapes without a forest and more common when the forest proportion increases , explains the 99.5%  less than 15 °C, mean diurnal range of temperatures more than 13 °C, null presence of irrigated stone fruit crops and high density of forests.The best model for he 99.5% . The resN. lineatus is explained by a model incorporating only five variables  to very scarce in the marginal distribution sites . These values are lower for P. spumarius but higher for N. campestris than those reported by Bodino et al. [P. spumarius and 20.6% of N. campestris for populations in Apulia  and 73.8% and 14.7% for both species, respectively, in Liguria .All four species are relatively common in northern and northwestern areas and turn rare to absent toward the southern study area. Considering all of the capture data from all of the samples, the number of individuals of these four species is close to a quarter of the total number of captures. The abundance of the vectors o et al. . These aP. spumarius specimens in California vineyards , with a sampling effort of 75 sweeps/plot, i.e., 0.228 insects per sweep. This value is close to our maximum mean yield of 0.247 P. spumarius/sweeps per plot (49.5 specimens/200 sweeps per plot). Considering that P. spumarius is invasive in North America [P. spumarius in California vineyards as in southeastern Spain cannot be denied.The progressive rarefication of these species toward southeastern areas could be because this geographical zone constitutes the end of the distribution of the four species. Beal et al.  reported America , possibl America ,34, it iP. spumarius, N. campestris and L. coleoptrata in late spring and autumn, with a shortage in summer. Tsagkarakis et al. [P. spumarius in Greece. Morente et al. [All of the species considered in our work are univoltine, although the results of our captures seem to be the opposite due to the two adult capture peaks in s et al.  and Dross et al.  obtainede et al.  do not fe et al. ,37. Our Neophilaenus campestris has the same pattern of summer migration behavior as P. spumarius, as Bodino et al. [N. lineatus, which shows a clear peak in mid-summer, evidencing that the species remains in the agro–natural interface during the summer dryness. Unlike congeneric species, this behavior may be related to life strategies to reduce interspecific competition, an issue that must be resolved in further work.o et al.  reportedo et al.  corroborP. spumarius and N. campestris overlap, and both species are absent from the southern third of the study area. The occurrence pattern of N. lineatus seems to be more restricted. Both species were captured in two separate areas, in the northwestern and northeastern parts of the studied region. The most restricted distribution corresponds to L. coleoptrata, captured only in four points located in the northwestern end of the region. So, it is very plausible that the distribution limits of these four species cross the southeastern region of the Iberian Peninsula.The hypothesis of distribution limit is also sustained by the results of the spatial distribution of captures, showing wide areas where the four species are absent. The main parts of the distributions of P. spumarius, N. campestris and N. lineatus are explained by the MaxEnt models, but for L. coleoptrata, any model explains its distribution because of the low number of occurrence points. The distribution of P. spumarius is driven mainly by bioclimatic and landscape composition variables. Thus, the maximal habitat suitability is located in the coldest sites, the wettest sites in summer and landscapes with a high proportion of forest areas. So, the model explains the null suitability of this species in the warmest and driest areas, landscapes without a forest and areas with a relatively high proportion of citric crops. The model explains the absence of P. spumarius in wide areas of the studied territory, i.e., in transformed landscapes due to intensive crops. Physiological limitations of P. spumarius related to temperature were revised by Cornara et al. [P. spumarius. Nevertheless, the authors remark that additional factors such as landscape structure, intensive crops and human disturbances must be important in their distribution. Our results indicate that the species are absent in the warmest and driest areas without forests, where intensive crops are established. Nevertheless, islands of favorable conditions  allow for the presence of this species. Following our data, in landscapes with traditional or non-intensive crops, in a forest mosaic matrix, where the summer dryness permits the maintenance of vegetal resource diversity, P. spumarius finds its maximal habitat suitability. The relation between ecosystem diversity and summer migrations of this species should be investigated in further research.The regional distributions of a et al. , reportia et al. . Obviousa et al.  refer toN. campestris incorporates 11 variables, although it is mainly explained by a single climatic variable: precipitation variability. The other ten variables only contribute residually to the explanation. Neophilaenus campestris has narrow preferences for areas with low precipitation variability in the study area. Then, N. campestris evidences low specialization for its habitat, only requiring landscapes with enough precipitation stability, possibly related to the maintenance of vegetation refuges for assuring migration during the summer.The distribution model of N. lineatus describes preferences for landscapes in the cold mesomediterranean domain, with relatively high precipitations in summer, in a mosaic with a high proportion of bushes, and with relatively low variation in annual precipitations. However, this description of the landscape is not different from that of the previous species (P. spumarius and N. campestris) and could not be used to explain why N. lineatus does not migrate outside of the cropland field borders during the summer, as our data show. On the other hand, unlike both former species, the model of N. lineatus does not show rapid changes, possibly evidencing a greater eurioic strategy. This species has usually been captured near small permanently wet environments, such as irrigation ditch losses or small phreatic waterlogging, that maintain small patches of permanent vegetation. Possibly, the fine distribution of this species is not dependent on the regional climate but on the presence of habitats with permanent plant resources, which act on a more detailed scale than that of the landscape.The model of P. spumarius in southeastern Spain. In fact, Godefroid and Duran [P. spumarius and N. campestris presence in southwestern Spain. The mesoscale of landscape variables is possibly more suitable for understanding the distribution on a regional scale. Our models evidence a north–south gradient, mainly driven by the temperature, quantity and stability of precipitation and the proportion of forests, with high to zero habitat suitability, compatible with a distribution limit for P. spumarius, N. campestris and N. lineatus throughout the study area. Thus, approximately, the southern third of the region could be considered to have an absence of three species. These results constitute a useful tool and should be considered in contingency plans, given the possibility of the invasion of X. fastidiosa in southeastern Spain and other semi-arid areas, allowing one to focus on areas where the vector species are present.Incorporating landscape factors improves the accuracy of the previous model proposed by Godefroid et al.  for P. snd Duran  proposed


Ectoparasitic entomoses cause serious economic losses to small-scale farmers. Parasites have both direct and indirect impacts on hosts. Domestic goats are a common target of infestation with ectoparasitic insects. This study aimed to identify the species of ectoparasitic insects in domestic goats in Bulgaria.The study was performed in 34 farms from 29 settlements in 16 regions of Bulgaria. A total of 4599 goats from eight breeds, naturally infested with ectoparasitic insects were included in the study. The goats were inspected with a magnifying glass for the presence of skin changes , eggs and adult ectoparasites. The detected insects were collected individually with tweezers and preserved in containers with 70% ethanol. Over the study period, 5,651 insects were collected; their species, sex, and developmental stage were identified by their morphological features and biometric measurements.Linognathus stenopsis Burmeister, 1838; Linognathus africanus Kellog and Paine, 1911; Bovicola caprae Gurlt, 1843; Pulex irritans Linnaeus, 1758; Hippobosca equina Linnaeus, 1758; and Lipoptena cervi Linnaeus, 1758. Linognathus stenopsis were the most prevalent, followed by B. caprae and P. irritans. In detected lice populations, female insects were more numerous; female: male ratios ranged from 2.2 to 7.2 and imagines prevailed over the nymphs. In fleas, male imagines were more numerous than females (1:0.8).Six species from 5 genera were detected: L. stenopsis, L. africanus, B. caprae, and P. irritans were encountered in more than 40% of surveyed farms, situated in 68.75% of regions in Bulgaria. The most intense infestation was by species from the Linognathus genus (907 insects), whereas the highest extensity of infestation was registered for P. irritans (32.3%). This study detected P. irritans as the only flea species.The study demonstrated that the species  Ectoparasitic entomoses cause serious economic losses to small-scale farmers. Parasites have both direct and indirect impacts on hosts. The direct effects are due to blood loss, skin inflammation and irritation, as well as toxic effects and allergic response, whereas the indirect impact comprises anxiety, disturbed feeding and rest, self-mutilation of pruritic animals . DomestiLinognathus and Bovicola  [Linognathus species Linognathus stenopsis Burmeister, 1838 and Linognathus africanus Kellog and Paine, 1911 are specific for domestic goats. Three Bovicola species are also species-specific: Bovicola caprae in goats, Ballota limbata, and B. crassipest in Angora goats. Touleshkov [L. stenopsis and B. caprae. The following fleas from order Siphonaptera were reported to infest goats: Ctenocephalides canis Curtis, 1826 [Pulex irritans Linnaeus, 1758 [Ctenocephalides felis Bouche, 1835 [Hippobosca equina Linnaeus, 1758, Lipoptena cervi Linnaeus, 1758 and Melophagus ovinus Linnaeus, 1857.Phthirapterosis in goats is mainly caused by species from the genera malinia) . The Linuleshkov  reportedis, 1826 , Pulex ihe, 1835 , specieset al. [B. caprae and L. africanus was similar with respect to male to female insect ratio . The analysis of age structure of fleas is difficult due to the free living stages , and deposition of eggs not only on the host but in the environment as well [Data about the population structure of lice-infesting goats are scarce. According to Santos et al. , the sex as well .B. caprae, 3 – only with L. stenopsis, and mixed infestation with both species was detected in 22 farms.The extensity of infestation (EI) measured in percentage gives information on the spread of the parasite amongst the examined population of animals, indicating the proportion of infested animals of all investigated subjects. The high EI of Phthiraptera and Siphonaptera infestation suggests that they are a serious concern for goat farms , 14. In et al. [Damalinia limbata of 295 in one-week-old goat kids that increased to 3,392 a month later. The same authors reported II with L. africanus exceeding 12,000 insects in one-month-old goat kids. According to Fomicheva [B. caprae ranged from 189 to 296. The extreme motility of fleas makes the determination of II very difficult, which is probably the cause of the lack of literature data. According to Christodoulopoulos and Theodoropoulos [et al. [P. irritans in domestic goats and goat kids in Greece was 7–10 insects in adult goats and 10–15 insects in goat kids.The intensity of infestation (II) is the number of parasitic individuals of a certain species (determined directly or indirectly) found on a sole host . In highet al.  found a omicheva , the mea [et al. , DI withSo far, such a large-scale study in our country has not been conducted. The obtained results will throw light on the seriousness of the problem with ectoparasitic insects in goats and help to build prevention strategies. That would lead to containment of their spread to minimize losses due to reduced productivity and death of the animals.This study aimed to determine the species composition and spread of ectoparasitic insects in domestic goats in Bulgaria and to present detailed information on their population structure, intensity and EI.Ethical approval was not required for this study; however, each animal was examined without any harm to the animals. Verbal consent was obtained from the owners before the study.The study was conducted from January 2018 to December 2019 in 34 farms from 29 settlements in 16 regions of Bulgaria. It included 4,599 domestic goats belonging to eight breeds naturally infested with ectoparasitic insects. The farms were located in regions with various altitude. The prevailing climate in Bulgaria is transitional, between temperate continental and continental Mediterranean. The average annual temperature in the country is between 10°C and 14°C. The average January temperature is −1°C and the average July temperature: 24°C–26°C. The average annual precipitation is 550–600 mm.The visit to the farms was paid after the owners alarmed for strong anxiety and pruritus in goats. Before the examination, the owner (caretaker) of animals was requested to fill in a questionnaire giving information about the housing technology, veterinary services, parasitological problems, and anti-parasitic treatment of the herd. In all herds, the animals were reared in a mixed farming system: From spring until autumn, the goats grazed on pasture and during the winter, they were housed indoor.One-tenth (10%) of the animals in each herd were examined as per the methods described in previous studies , 19. TheThe identification of ectoparasitic species was done according to Price and Graham ; Wall anL. stenopsis was elongated, whereas in L. africanus it had a prominent ocular bulging. The female gonopods of L. africanus were round and lacked the process described in L. stenopsis. In male L. africanus the gonopods had a pair of terminal tubercules with setae. The male gonopods of B. caprae were cone-shaped, densely covered with short bristles. The species had two terminal flaps close to the genital opening [The shape of the head in  opening .P. irritans was round without ctenidia, but had a distinct ocular seta. The genal margin was supplied with a much reduced spine [The head of ed spine .H. equina was based on a pale median patch on the scutellum extending from the prescutum to the mesoscutum as well as the presence of a pale border on the prescutum and apico-lateral corners of the mesoscutum. Pale medium bands were present on the tibia of the mid and hind pair or legs [The species identification of  or legs .et al. [2 and multiplying the sum of all parasites by 100. The type of infestation was determined in the laboratory according to number, species, sex and developmental stage of insects.The II with lice was determined using the method of Brown et al.  by countet al. [The DI with fleas was established by the system of Christodoulopoulos et al. . The aniThe EI for each parasitic species was determined by examination of goats and detection of the number of infested animals in each herd.® SPSS® statistics 26.0 software  [The 95% confidence intervals for numbers and relative proportions of ectoparasitic insect species and for regional distribution of insect species in Bulgaria were calculated by routine methods of descriptive statistics with IBMNY, USA) .L. stenopsis Burmeister, 1838, L. africanus Kellog and Paine, 1911, and B. caprae Gurlt, 1843); Order Siphonaptera with a single species  and Order Diptera with two species .A total of 5651 insects were collected from naturally infested goats and their species, sex, and developmental stage were determined. Six species from three orders were detected: Order Phthiraptera with three species .The number of imagines  exceeded that of nymphal stages, but sex distribution demonstrated that the number of females was greater than that of nymphs, whereas the number of males: Lower than nymphs’ number. Out of the examined 4599 goats from 34 farms, 2608 goats from 29 farms were infested with one of more parasitic insect species.The results about the type of infestation were also interesting. Data from Linognathus species was from 0 to 2930 insects. No infestation was found in 6 regions. The highest mean intensity of infection was recorded in Rousse (2930 insects), Sliven (2460 insects), and Blagoevgrad  is highly indicative for the spread of the parasite; it may be compared to that of the bloodsucking lice from the genus Linognathus (31.7%) (Tables-4 and 6).Data for the infestation with The aim of the present study was to identify the species of ectoparasitic insects on domestic goats and the population structure, intensity and EI with found species. Its results would facilitate the diagnosis, prognosis of future economic losses and implementation of timely measures for control of these entomoses.L. stenopsis, L. africanus, and B. caprae are globally spread [P. irritans in countries with moderate climate [P. irritans as the only representative of all flea species. Its spread, however, was highly variable from a regional point of view. This may be explained by the fact that the temporary parasitism by fleas makes them strongly dependent on abiotic environmental conditions. Hippobosca equina is not a highly host-specific parasite encountered in Europe and Bulgaria [The lice species y spread . Our stu climate . DetaileBulgaria , so its et al. [et al. [B. caprae imagines than that of males. A similar sex ratio was observed for representatives of the family Linognathidae. It was 1:3.5 for L. stenopsis with adult: numph (A: N) ratio of 1:0.45. In sheep from India, Rashmi and Saxena [L. ovillus e 1:2, with A: N ratio of 1:2.3. For L. pedalis, M: F was 1:1.5, and A:N − 1:1.2. These authors affirmed that in this species, female insects were more abundant than males, in agreement with our results. Our survey showed a lower number of nymphs versus imagines, contrary to other published studies. This discrepancy was probably due to the different study seasons. Data on sex-related structure of P. irritans population showed predominance of male insects over females (1:0.8), whereas in goats, Dipeolul and Ayoade [C. felis strongylus was mainly with female insects (52:25). The possible reason for this finding is the temporary parasitism of these insects. Out of the six ectoparasitic species detected on goats in the country, only fleas exhibited a slight predominance of the number of males over that of females, probably because a large part of adult insects are in the environment and not on the host. In all other insects, the females were more numerous.Our results on population structure were confirmed by Kumar et al.  and Sant [et al. , reportid Saxena  found a d Ayoade  reportedLinognathus stenopsis monoinfestation but no B. caprae was detected only at one of the 11 farms. This finding supported an earlier observation of Nedelchev [L. stenopsis and B. caprae infestation in 22 (71.5%) of studied affected herds. This may be explained by the lack of competition among lice-infesting goats, as members of various ecological niches.Data from edelchev , who repLinognathus spp.; 694 B. caprae and 3−6 P. irritans), and from other studies [et al. [D. limbata, and 5 months later, the mean II increased from 13 to 3,994. Kusiluka et al. [C. felis unlike adult goats. Climatic conditions and season are other factors that influence infestation intensity. Nedelchev [B. caprae and L. stenopsis in goats had the highest II in January-February and the lowest – during the summer. Suboptimal rearing conditions during the winter  compromise the immunity of animals and presume a more intensive infestation with parasites, in support of the increased intensity of infection during the winter.The mean II of goats with ectoparasites is a highly variable parameter as seen from both out  was very close . The average EI with fleas was the highest compared to values for the other detected insect species. This may be attributed to the great motility and adaptability of fleas. Their spread is ubiquitous and the absence in 6 of studied regions may be probably due to the small number of examined animals, regular anti-parasitic treatment and manure cleansing, as well as rearing of herds in highland and foothill regions. That is why the greatest EI with fleas was registered in the southernmost from surveyed regions in Bulgaria – Blagoevgrad. Similar values for EI with fleas on goats were reported by Shuvo et al.  and Abou [et al. .Linognathus stenopsis Burmeister, 1838, L. africanus Kellog and Paine, 1911, B. caprae Gurlt, 1843, P. irritans Linnaeus, 1758, H. equina Linnaeus, 1758 and L. cervi Linnaeus, 1758. This study found the species P. irritans as the only representative of all flea species. The species L. stenopsis, L. africanus, B. caprae, and P. irritans were the most prevalent amount domestic goat herds in the country. They were detected in more than 40% of examined farms located in 68.75% of surveyed regions in Bulgaria.The performed survey on species composition and spread of ectoparasitic insects on domestic goats in Bulgaria detected six insect species infesting domestic goats: NSN: Conceived the work, conducted the study, researched the literature, and drafted and revised the manuscript. The author has read, reviewed, and approved the final manuscript.


The hijab is a head covering worn by millions of Muslim women throughout the world and has been associated with alopecia.Muslim women in this survey study self-reported alopecia related to the hijab.There are ways of mitigating the risks of alopecia or treating it without compromising religious beliefs or values.3 Regarding hijab use and hair loss, 1 study reported that the top 27 YouTube videos on the topic have garnered over 17 million views.4 The scientific literature on hijab-associated alopecia remains sparse, with an absence of studies examining Muslim women’s perspectives on hair loss.The hijab, a religious head covering worn by millions of Muslim women globally, has been the subject of various discussions, including its potential association with hair loss. Studies have explored the occurrence of traction alopecia associated with religious head coverings.n = 60/104), and nearly 90% had been wearing the hijab for 4 or more years  . Approximately 85%  wore an undercap beneath their hijab. Interestingly, nearly two-thirds of the participants were aware of potential alopecia associated with the hijab . Over one-third reported experiencing hair loss that they attributed to the hijab  and of those, 26 (72.2%) identified the frontal hairline as the location of the hair loss, either exclusively or in combination with other scalp areas.In terms of styling practices, over two-thirds of the participants wore the hijab for at least 7 hours daily  reported that hair is integral to their self-identity. Most women expressed willingness to seek medical care for hair loss . However, 29.8% (n = 30/104) identified barriers to seeking medical care, most frequently a perceived lack of cultural competency and knowledge of hijab-related practices among healthcare providers.Significantly, 71.2% of women , or the use of undercaps with ties to allow for size adjustment. If hair under hijab is styled in a knot or ponytail, varying the location in which it is styled is recommended. Medical therapies can be considered when alopecia is present. Such recommendations can help prevent and treat hair loss without compromising a patient’s religious practices or beliefs.Study limitations include a small sample size, self-reported alopecia, and the absence of a comparison to a group of non-hijab-wearing women. Additionally, the data was exclusively collected from women in mosques, potentially biasing the results as these women may be more religious and discussions on hijab-associated alopecia may be a particularly sensitive topic. Finally, this study on a United States-based population may not be generalizable to the global population. Factors such as differences in hair type, pin placement, and hair-cutting practices may influence results. Despite these limitations, this data provides valuable insights into Muslim women’s perceptions of hair loss, enabling healthcare providers to address their needs more effectively. Controlled prospective studies to objectively evaluate this population are necessary.J.S. is a consultant for Aclaris Therapeutics, Incyte, and Replicel Life Sciences. J.S. and K.L.S. have been investigators for Regen Lab and are investigators for Pfizer. K.L.S. is a consultant for Pfizer and Aquis. The other authors have no conflicts of interest to disclose.None.This study was approved by the IRB at New York University Grossman School of Medicine (s23-00087).LA: Participated in research design, performance of the research, data analysis, and writing of the manuscript. FB: Participated in research design, performance of the research, data analysis, and writing of the manuscript. MGB: Participated in research design, performance of the research, and writing of the manuscript. JS: Participated in research design, performance of the research, data analysis, and writing of the manuscript. KLS: Participated in research design, performance of the research, data analysis, and writing of the manuscript.Data is incorporated into the article. Additional data is available on request.


Coal, natural gas steam turbines, nuclear power plants, bioenergy, solar PV, geothermal, concentrated solar power, hydropower reservoir, hydropower river, ocean, and wind power plants all release greenhouse gases at rates of 1022, 587.5, 110.5, 633, 111, 48, 41, 82.5, 7.5, 12.5, and 41.5 gCO2-e/kWh, respectively. This information is useful to compare the environmental effect of various energy sources and help us to choose cleaner, more sustainable options for the production of electricity. The ongoing advancements and future scope of P.T.Cs could potentially make them more economically viable for domestic, commercial, and industrial applications.Parabolic trough collectors (P.T.Cs) are efficient solar energy harvesting devices utilized in various industries, for instance, space heating, solar cooling, solar drying, pasteurization, sterilization, electricity generation, process heat, solar cooking, and many other applications. However, their usage is limited as the high capital and operating costs; according to the International Renewable Energy Agency's 2020 report, the global weighted average levelized cost of electricity (L.C.O.E) for P.T.Cs was 0.185 $/kWh in 2018. This work analyses the economic, technical, and environmental potential of sustainable energy to increase the use of P.T.Cs in different sectors. To study how self-weight, heat loss, and wind velocity affect P.T.C performance, prototype testing, and wind flow analysis were used. Although P.T.Cs outperform in capacity factor, gross-to-net conversion, and annual energy production, improving their overall efficiency is crucial in reducing total energy production costs. Wire coils, discs, and twisted tape-type inserts can enhance their performance by increasing turbulence and heat transfer area. Improving the system's overall efficiency by enhancing the functioning and operation of individual components will also help decrease total energy production costs. The aim is to minimize the L.C.O.E associated with a P.T.C in order to enhance its economic viability for an extended period. When the nanofluid-oriented P.T.C was included in the conventional P.T.C workings, there was a decrease in the L.C.O.E by 1%. Of all the technologies available, ocean, geothermal, and C.S.P parabolic trough plants generate lower amounts of waste and harmful gases, with average emissions of 2.39%, 2.23%, and 2.16%, respectively, throughout their lifespan. For solar-only and non-hybrid thermal energy storage plants, the range of greenhouse gas emissions is between 20 and 34 kgCO Energy in various forms, such as coal, natural gas, oil, nuclear energy, hydropower, and others, is required to meet household and industrial needs. According to the Bureau of Energy Efficiency's 2021 survey, energy consumption has increased over the years and will continue to rise in the coming years. According to the Bureau of Energy Efficiency 2021, oil consumption in developed and developing countries is at an all-time high. Oil consumption in France, Canada, United States, the United Kingdom, China, India, and Japan was 914.3 million tonnes, 96.4 million tonnes, 94.2 million tonnes, 76.8 million tonnes, 275.2 million tonnes, 113.3 million tonnes, and 248.7 million tonnes, respectively [Similarly, coal consumption in France, Canada, United States, the United Kingdom, China, India, and Japan reached an all-time high of 573.9 million tonnes, 31.0 million tonnes, 12.4 million tonnes, 39.1 million tonnes, 799.7 million tonnes, 185.3 million tonnes, and 112.2 million tonnes, respectively [As a result, more renewable energy sources (E.Ss) must be introduced to increase energy production propensities and reduce production costs to meet the diverse energy needs of households and industries. Thus, in the current and future scenarios, renewable  and non-renewable  energy resources together can meet the increasing energy demand for the growing population and industrial needs. In the last two decades, there has been an increase in the use of renewable energy in power generation to meet energy demands and fill the demand gap created by non-renewable energy resources in prominent applications such as industrial desalination and heating, refrigeration, and electrical power generation . AccordiSolar energy (SE) is one of the most significant contributors in terms of renewable E.Ss for producing energy for use in many applications. Solar-based technologies are quickly becoming one of the most successfully engineered technologies, paving the way for future endeavours . Solar p. It encourages using a renewable E.S and reduces costs related to non-renewable resources. Thus, P.T.C is highly economically viable and reduces the power production cost significantly using SE.Different solar collectors have engaged in thermal use, such as flat plate collectors, evacuated tube collectors, P.T.Cs, point focus collectors, and concentration collectors. For the temperature range of 50°C–250°C, the P.T.C is an efficient instrument that extracts SE and utilizes it for different purposes, including electricity generation, process heat, space heating, solar cooling, solar cooking, pasteurization, sterilization, and many more. For example, P.T.C is used in an air heating system to dry marine foodstuff, farm products, and textiles. The solar air heating system is also used in collaboration with heat storage systems such as the thermal energy storage system (T.E.S.S), which stores the energy by changing its phase from solid to liquid. In this process, non-paraffins, hydrated salts, and fatty acids store thermal energy. T.E.S.S helps in reducing electric energy consumption during the peak period by 32% and the off period by 90% . It encoThe collection of SE to convert into a useable medium of energy is performed with the help of developing technology termed Concentrating Solar Power, which involves adjusting the aperture area of the surface responsible for collecting the sun rays. It is then transferred to the area where the heat is transferred to the fluid that helps store the heat in a storage unit and later can be utilized for power generation ,9. P.T.CThe solar collector's performance is the most crucial criterion for power generation plants using SE as their primary source. One of the prominent thoughts works for exploiting SE on a larger scale . VariousC.S.Ps utilize SE in the form of heat energy, designed to minimize the design and implementation expenses while improving the thermal efficiency of solar P.T.Cs . In C.S.P.T.C system is used in desalination projects to obtain low-cost fresh water. The distiller attached to the P.T.C consists of a solar concentrator and absorber cavity that helps absorb solar power in large quantities. The simple thermal insulation and wind protection installed in the cavity absorber help increase freshwater productivity by two folds by efficiently using direction and position during the day. It saves the costs related to non-renewable resources and contributes toward the green and sustainable source of freshwater production .The P.T.C system induced SE for refrigeration and air conditioning by making use of dehumidification properties. The different workings pairs, such as silica gel–water and zeolite–water, carbon–methanol increase the capacity of a solar-driven adsorption system that reduces the temperature and provides a cooling effect without using a heat pipe . P.T.C rP.T.C is also used for industrial purposes such as cooking, sterilization, drying, degreasing, pasteurization, and others to use SE efficiently . The useIonic liquids known as molten salts can also be employed as a heat transfer medium in C.S.P plants. A C.S.P concentrates sunlight through mirrors or lenses onto a receiver containing molten salt, which absorbs the heat and transmits it to a power unit, where it is used to produce electricity. The low-temperature molten salt is again returned to the receiver for further heating . BecauseResearchers have discussed the facts related to the use of P.T.C in existing literature, but more focus should also be given to its economic potential. Therefore, the current review article analyzes the technical, economic, and environmental potential of sustainable energy contribution to reduce the gap in the existing literature. The article also explores the fundamentals of P.T.C, its modeling, and its life cycle assessment (L.C.A) by focusing on its economic aspects and determining its performance and economic potential using different analysis procedures such as optical analysis, heat transfer analysis, and others. The environmental consequences of switching to P.T.C systems are also reviewed.2In early 1983, the P.T.C design was suggested that put forth an ideology that the curved trays as a collector to gain as much energy as possible from the sun's rays. The design of the collector fitted with the reflector surface in a curved shape was inspired by the 1913 model of Frank Schuman's design for irrigation panels in the field . Accordi(φr) is calculated using the aperture (W), and the focal distance (f) is represented with the help of equation The rim angle W) and Length (L) as the total collector aperture (Aa) [Equation ure (Aa) .(3)Aa=W·Aro) is represented through equation The outer area of the tube and the absorber area (C) as the ratio of collector aperture (Aa) to absorber area (Aro) [Equation ea (Aro) .(5)C=AaAIdentifying the potential factors responsible for enhancing the performance of the P.T.Cs and evaluating performance efficiency in P.T.C power plants requires meticulous knowledge of the factors affecting the optical performance of solar power plants. The radiant energy from the sun is absorbed by a P.T.C, which then transforms it into useable thermal energy in the heat transfer fluid (H.T.F) that flows through the collector's receiving tube. The energy efficiency of H.T.F can be determined after evaluating the thermophysical properties of the fluid. The operating temperature of P.T.C is about 400°C, and the most used H.T.F is synthetic oil . Parabol3P.T.C system is increasingly used in solar power plants because of their simple design and cost-effective structure. However, the cost of the P.T.C system increases if there is an error (random and non-random) in the solar extraction or heat generation process. Under such conditions, optical analysis, geometrical analysis, CFD analysis, etc., helps identify the errors and eliminate them by estimating the energy ratio between the receiver and incident ray to the collector aperture.3.1The design and development of solar P.T.C are performed based on the requirement and type of application ,35. Henc3.1.1The basic structure of the solar P.T.C is shown in (i)Ratio of geometric concentration(ii)Acceptance angle(iii)Rim angleThe basic design of the P.T.C is shown in The geometric concentration ratio is a prominent parameter among acceptance and rim angle. The concentration ratio constitutes the fraction of the collector aperture region to the area of the receiver. The concentration ratio is defined as shown in equation θs is defined as the half-angle subtended by the sun; θs = 0.27.The geometrical parameters of the solar P.T.C are rim angle, the width of the aperture, focal length, and trough length. Various research has been conducted to optimize the solar P.T.C parameters to make them adaptable for a wide range of applications and different geographical environments. If the rim angle is very less, the aperture area of the P.T.C gets extended, resulting in a higher focal length . This in3.2The optical analysis determines the system's performance by examining the interaction between the charged particles of matter and light. It helps in ascertaining the absorbance and intensity of the solar wavelengths. By conducting an optical analysis of P.T.C, the ratio of energy absorbed by the received against each incident ray collected on the aperture is determined. As a result, the efficiency of the P.T.C system is determined by the errors associated with P.T.C surfaces. For example, random errors occur because of changes in the width of sun rays, slope errors, and wind loading, while non-random errors occur because of misalignment of angle, inappropriate reflector profile, and others. These errors impact the performance and economic viability of P.T.C.ηo and includes the functioning of other elements such as glass envelope (τ), absorber surface (α), and mirror, and H.C.E interaction (γ) is used to obtain the energy incident levels. It is expressed by equation Guven et al.  analyzedThe implications related to incidence angle are determined with the help of the incidence-angle modifier. It also helps to determine the correlation between the modifier and incidence angle so that variations in optical features can be determined. It is expressed through equation Equation According to Guven et al. , the perAs per 3.2.1P.T.C structure gets distorted under heavy wind load, which will decrease the optical efficiency of the overall system. But nowadays, the glass mirrors of the P.T.Cs are designed to withstand the maximum wind load of up to 37 m/s . The hea3.2.22, it reduces the refractive index to 1.37. Optical efficiency is defined as the ratio of the total energy absorbed by the absorber tube to the total energy incident on the aperture surface. So, it all depends upon the collector's geometry and the materials' optical properties [100 = 0.10), and the coating of different materials such as Ni, Ti, Ag, and Cu has a minimum emissivity of around 0.01–0.02 (α = 0.71–0.80). So, much scope for improvement in the emissivity property of the different materials persists [The reflecting surface of the mirror reflector is coated with silver, followed by copper. Some layers of paint are applied to it to increase the durability of the highly polished mirror surface, which has a reflectivity of around 94.5%. The highly reflective aluminium sheets only have a reflectivity of around 88%. Commercially used mirror reflectors of 4 mm thickness are AGC solar mirror, RIOGlass, and for 1 mm, its RONDAGlass . The miroperties . The usepersists .3.3Qu is the useful heat, and Qs is the solar radiation incident on the collector. The Qu can be determined using equation m is the mass flow rate of the fluid, Cp is the specific heat capacity of the fluid, and ΔT is the temperature difference between the inlet and outlet of the collector. The heat absorbed by the H.T.F is estimated by equation Cp is the specific heat capacity of the H.T.F, Tout is the outlet temperature of the H.T.F, and Tin is the inlet temperature of the H.T.F.The thermal efficiency of a P.T.C is a measure of how effectively it converts solar radiation into thermal energy. The thermal efficiency can be calculated using equation The design of the collector, the type and quality of the H.T.F, and the operating conditions/parameters of the system are some additional variables that might impact a P.T.C's thermal efficiency in addition to these calculations. To accurately anticipate the performance of a P.T.C system, a thorough thermal study should consider each of these elements.Jeter et al.  analyzedEquation L. It is a simple analysis technique that helps predict the thermal loss coefficient by analyzing multiple numerical iterations. Duffie et al. [Bendt et al.  examinede et al.  analyzede et al. .(15)ηt=∫Benoit et al.  examinedThe heat flow within the absorber is determined with the help of forced convection in a single or two-phase manner. Amongst both phases, the single-phase is known as a more efficient method as it does not require a change of H.T.F during the operation.Edenburn et al.  examinedOuagued et al.  analyzedEnciso Contreras et al.  analyzedBy assessing the pressure loss and effective thermal input in solar P.T.Cs, which have a temperature of about 5800 K, one can ascertain the exergetic performance of the solar P.T.C. These two effects demonstrate the production ability of P.T.Cs in electric power generation. In our situation, we ignore the pressure loss to streamline our calculations and concentrate on the effective thermal input in solar P.T.Cs, which is the primary element affecting the performance and efficiency of P.T.Cs.The formation of entropy is given by equation The absorber tube's exergy rate is determined by using the Petela model, as shown by equation 3.4A computer-based simulation technique called computational fluid dynamics (CFD) is used to study and resolve issues involving fluid flows, heat transport, and other related processes. It is a potent tool that permits scientists and engineers to research and improve the way fluids behave in a variety of situations, including turbulence, pressure fluctuations, and heat gradients. Numerous industries, including aerospace, automotive, energy, and environmental engineering, heavily rely on CFD .1.Pre-processing: To do this, the geometry must be established, the boundary conditions must be specified, and suitable numerical methods for the simulation must be chosen.2.Solving: The equations describing the behaviour of fluids are numerically solved in this step using a variety of numerical techniques, including finite element analysis, the finite volume method, and the finite difference approach.3.Post-processing: To do this, the simulation results must be analyzed and then visualized using a variety of tools, including graphs, animations, and contour plots.In CFD, mathematical models are employed to represent the behavior of fluids, which are then solved via numerical methods. The basic steps involved in CFD simulations are:According to Al-Ansary et al. , CFD is With the aid of CFD, ANSYS software assists in the analysis of the governing equations about the numerical modeling of P.T.C . When itKumar & Reddy et al.  analyzedMathew et al.  analyzedL. It is a simple analysis technique that helps predict the thermal loss coefficient by analyzing multiple numerical iterations. Thus, by using CFD analysis, the determination of oscillating flow and H.C.E helps enhance the performance of the P.T.C system. Therefore, it can be said that with the help of P.T.C, there is the generation of high energy, a reduction in carbon footprint, efficient use of a renewable source of energy, and a decrease in the use of non-renewable resources, which makes it an economically viable tool.Zhang et al.  analyzed3.5The most recent developments in P.T.C technology are concentrated on enhancing productivity, lowering expenses, and boosting the system's dependability. The technology is projected to see considerable breakthroughs with further research and development in these fields, becoming a more significant part of the renewable energy landscape.3.5.1P.T.C systems that use C.S.P frequently include thermal energy storage (T.E.S). This is so that C.S.P systems, such as parabolic troughs, can produce electricity by turning steam generated by solar heat into electricity through a turbine. However, sunlight is sporadic, and the amount of solar radiation that the parabolic troughs can capture might change depending on things like the time of day and the weather. Therefore, T.E.S is required to guarantee a constant flow of electricity ,87.The P.T.C produces heat during the day. T.E.S devices use this heat to generate electricity during cloudy weather and nighttime. Creating new materials for storage systems and optimizing storage operation procedures are just two recent examples of research aimed at enhancing the effectiveness and affordability of T.E.S .Using novel materials that have a higher heat capacity and can store more heat for longer periods is one way to improve T.E.S capacity. For instance, some researchers have looked into the usage of materials that go through a phase change and absorb and release heat . T.E.S is more effective and affordable, could result from phase-change materials since they have been found to have a larger heat capacity than conventional storage materials like water or molten salt ,90.Optimizing the performance of T.E.S devices involves a different strategy. This may entail adjusting the charging and discharging of the storage system based on the weather and the demand for electricity using sophisticated control systems. For instance, researchers have looked into using machine learning and predictive algorithms to optimize the performance of T.E.S systems based on real-time weather data and electricity demand forecasts . In addiIn general, it is essential to increase the effectiveness and affordability of T.E.S if we want to continue developing and deploying concentrated solar power systems, such as P.T.Cs. It is anticipated that more studies in this field will result in substantial technological breakthroughs, making it a more vital part of the renewable energy landscape.3.5.2Hybrid systems that combine P.T.C with other renewable energy technologies, such as photovoltaics, wind power, or geothermal energy, are being investigated to maximize energy production and boost system reliability. These hybrid energy systems can aid in addressing some of the problems that come with relying solely on renewable E.Ss, such as intermittent nature and unpredictability in power output .Adding photovoltaic (PV) systems to P.T.C is one method of hybridizing them. PV systems, which can be utilized to supplement the electricity generation of P.T.Cs, produce electricity directly from sunlight using semiconducting materials. This strategy may help to boost the system's overall energy output because PV systems can produce power when there is little sunshine, and the P.T.Cs are less efficient .P.T.Cs and wind power systems working together is another strategy. In times of low sunlight, wind power systems can be utilized to enhance P.T.Cs' ability to produce electricity by collecting the kinetic energy of the wind. This strategy could contribute to increasing the system's overall energy output because wind power systems can provide electricity when P.T.Cs are less efficient owing to weather .Some researchers are also investigating the usage of hybrid systems, which pair P.T.Cs with geothermal energy, in addition to these strategies. When there is little sunshine, geothermal energy systems can be utilized to complement P.T.Cs' ability to produce power by drawing on the heat that is stored in the earth's crust. This strategy can assist in increasing the system's overall energy output because geothermal energy systems can produce electricity when P.T.Cs are less effective owing to environmental factors .Overall, hybrid energy systems incorporating P.T.Cs and other renewable energy technologies have the potential to boost energy output, boost system dependability, and minimize the system's overall environmental effect. Continued study in this field is expected to result in large technological breakthroughs, making it a more significant part of the renewable energy landscape.3.5.3Advanced control systems, including the use of machine learning and predictive algorithms, are being developed to optimize the operation of P.T.Cs. These systems will increase performance and decrease downtime. For P.T.Cs, cutting-edge control methods are being created to boost their effectiveness and dependability. These control systems employ various technologies, like machine learning and predictive algorithms, to enhance the collectors' performance and decrease downtime.Using predictive algorithms to estimate solar radiation and change the orientation of the mirrors accordingly is one method of enhancing the performance of the P.T.C. This could enhance the system's effectiveness and maximize the capture of solar radiation. Additionally, predictive algorithms can be utilized to forecast weather conditions and modify the operation of the collectors, accordingly reducing downtime and enhancing system dependability .Another strategy is to optimize the performance of the collectors using machine learning techniques for previous data. Machine learning algorithms can analyze large volumes of operational data to find trends and improve system performance. For instance, using historical weather and electricity demand data, machine learning algorithms can be utilized to optimize the charging and discharging of T.E.S systems .Along with these strategies, several researchers are also looking into the application of cutting-edge control systems to enhance the upkeep and repair of P.T.Cs. These control systems can monitor and diagnose system issues using sensors and other technologies, and they may then automatically start maintenance or repair procedures as necessary .Overall, in the subject of P.T.C, advanced control systems represent a significant area of study. These technologies have the potential to dramatically increase the technology's efficiency and dependability, lowering costs and enhancing the performance of the renewable energy system as a whole. More studies in this field are anticipated to result in substantial technological breakthroughs, making it a more vital part of the renewable energy landscape.3.5.4To increase P.T.C's effectiveness and lower costs, researchers have been looking at the usage of novel materials in recent years. One approach is to use nanostructured materials, which have unique properties that can enhance the absorption and reflection of sunlight . To boosUtilizing selective coatings on the trough surfaces is an alternative strategy. Selective coatings are made to reflect a small amount of solar light while absorbing a large portion of it. Lowering the amount of solar radiation lost as heat, selective absorption, and reflection can improve the collector's efficiency. It has been demonstrated that some selective coatings can improve the effectiveness of P.T.Cs .Utilizing innovative materials can assist in cutting costs in addition to increasing efficiency. For instance, some researchers have considered using less expensive iron-based alloys for the receiver tubes than those used in commercial systems. Other researchers have considered using lightweight components, including carbon fiber, to lighten and make the construction of the supporting structure of the P.T.C cheap .Several issues need to be resolved, even if the introduction of novel materials holds out a lot of potential for increasing effectiveness and lowering the price of P.T.Cs. For instance, compared to the materials now employed in commercial systems, some of these novel materials might be less enduring or heat resistant. Furthermore, the manufacturing procedures for these novel materials can be more difficult or expensive than those used now.Verma et al.  analyzed(ρnf) can be determined by equation On the other hand, the density of nanofluids (Cnf) can be estimated using equation The specific heat capacity of nanofluids μnf) can be determined using equation (nf) represents nanofluids, (p) refers to the nanoparticle, (b) is the base fluid, μ is the viscosity, and φ is the volume fraction of nanoparticles.The viscosity of nanofluids  2020 report, the global weighted average L.C.O.E for P.T.C was 0.185 $/kWh in 2018, which may be greater than the L.C.O.E of some conventional E.Ss like natural gas power plants, the real value of the location and operational circumstances determine the L.C.O.E for P.T.C. The cost of P.T.C technology has, however, significantly decreased because of recent technological breakthroughs and economies of scale .According to Sajed Sadati et al. , the L.CA C.S.P plant's capital expenses were estimated to range from 3000 to 5067 $/kW in 2012. The IEA predicts that the capital cost of a C.S.P plant will be roughly 4200 $/kW in 2014 and 3000 $/kW in 2020. Like this, a 2013 report from the IRENA estimated that installed parabolic trough systems cost between 3400 and 4600 $/kW for load factors of 20%–27% and projected a 30%–50% drop in capital costs by 2020 as a result of technological advancement and economies of scale brought on by the expanding use of C.S.Ps .The IRENA reports that the total installed C.S.P capacity growth worldwide reached about 5.5 GW at the end of 2018 (4.3 times what it was in 2010). Similarly, the 0.5 GW of capacity built in 2018 had a global weighted average L.C.O.E of US$ 0.185/kWh, which is 26% less than in 2017 and 46% less than in 2010. With this decrease in electricity costs (26%) in 2018, C.S.P was placed #1, followed by biofuel (14%), solar PV and onshore wind (13%), hydropower (11%), geothermal energy (1%), and offshore wind (1%) .The L.C.O.E of electricity generated by conventional E.Ss like coal and natural gas is influenced by the plant's location and type. However, according to the International Energy Agency's (IEA) most recent “World Energy Outlook 2021″ report, coal-fired power plants have an average L.C.O.E of around 5 to 7 cents per kWh, and natural gas-fired power plants have an L.C.O.E of roughly 4 to 6 cents per kWh .Therefore, even though the cost of P.T.C technology has been falling in recent years, there is still a potential economic difference between P.T.C and conventional E.Ss. Research and development activities are concentrated on enhancing the effectiveness and dependability of the technology as well as lowering the cost of materials and components to further lower the L.C.O.E of P.T.C.6A life cycle assessment is an approach for determining how a product, process, or service will affect the environment throughout its entire life cycle . In thisIn this direction, using existing literature, a comparative analysis is conducted among various technologies based on various environmental impacts such as greenhouse gas (G.H.G), particulate matter, average primary energy use, and average land use. As shown in According to this analysis, among the various technologies, geothermal, ocean, and C.S.P parabolic trough plants (P.T.C) emit less waste and harmful gases on average of 2.16%, 2.23%, and 2.39%, respectively, over their lifetime. Thus, it demonstrates the P.T.C technique's superiority over other energy generation techniques.2-e/kWh, respectively. This data provides information about the environmental impact of different methods of generating G.H.G. Climate change and global warming are caused by the presence of greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide. The burning of fossil fuels, such as coal and natural gas, releases large amounts of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. Therefore, it is important to know the amount of greenhouse gas emissions associated with different methods of generating electricity so that we can make informed decisions about which sources to use. This information can be used to compare the environmental impact of different E.Ss and help us to choose cleaner, more sustainable options for generating electricity.x), sulphur dioxide (SO2), and particulate matter (PM). The paper points out that solar thermal technologies still have some negative environmental effects, including those related to land use and water use [According to a 2020 IEA report, solar thermal systems like P.T.C generally have fewer life cycle environmental consequences than fossil fuel-based technologies in terms of criterion pollutants, including nitrogen oxides , heat pipes, and reflecting coatings will all increase the performance of P.T.Cs.One of the critical challenges faced by P.T.Cs is the intermittent and unpredictable nature of solar radiation, which can impact the system's ability to generate electricity continuously. T.E.S is an essential component of C.S.P systems, enabling the storage of solar heat during the day and using it to generate electricity during periods of low sunshine. Researchers are exploring the use of novel materials with higher heat capacity, such as phase-change materials, to improve storage capacity and affordability. They are also developing sophisticated control systems that use machine learning and predictive algorithms to optimize the charging and discharging of T.E.S systems based on real-time weather data and electricity demand forecasts.Hybrid systems that combine P.T.Cs with other renewable energy technologies such as photovoltaics, wind power, or geothermal energy are also being investigated to maximize energy production and boost system reliability. For instance, photovoltaic systems can be used to supplement the electricity generation of P.T.Cs, while wind power systems can be utilized to enhance P.T.Cs' ability to produce electricity by collecting the kinetic energy of the wind. Researchers are also exploring the use of cutting-edge control systems to enhance the upkeep and repair of P.T.Cs, including the monitoring and diagnosing of system issues using sensors and other technologies.Another critical area of research is the use of novel materials to improve the effectiveness and affordability of P.T.Cs. Researchers are exploring the use of nanostructured materials, selective coatings, and iron-based alloys to enhance the absorption and reflection of sunlight and reduce costs. They are also investigating the use of lightweight components to make the construction of the supporting structure of P.T.Cs more affordable. However, there are challenges associated with the introduction of novel materials, such as durability, heat resistance, and manufacturing costs. To better understand the P.T.C's commercial viability and long-term durability, more study is required.7.4Understanding the behaviour of P.T.Cs under various operating situations requires thermal analysis. The thermal efficiency of P.T.Cs, which is a measure of how effectively P.T.Cs convert solar radiation into thermal energy, and the various factors that can impact it. One of the main benefits of P.T.Cs is that they are a proven technology with a long operating history, and their performance and reliability have been well-established. They are also a relatively mature technology with a well-established supply chain for components and systems. Additionally, P.T.Cs are a flexible technology that can be used for both electricity generation and process heat applications, making them suitable for a variety of industrial and commercial applications.The thermal analysis of P.T.Cs helps estimate the temperature at the surface level, determine the efficiency of the solar absorber, and evaluate the thermal loss of the H.C.E. Thermal models are developed to determine the temperature profiles and heat flux in thermal analysis. The accurate thermal performance of H.C.E is determined by equation The thermal efficiency of P.T.Cs is affected by several factors, such as the collector's design, the quality and type of the H.T.F, and the system's operating conditions and parameters. There are various techniques and approaches, such as ray tracing and transient modeling, that can be used to analyze the optical and flow features of P.T.Cs and improve their overall efficiency. Further study is required to determine how external elements like wind and dust affect the thermal behaviour of P.T.Cs.7.5The use of P.T.C for solar power generation has significant potential for generating clean energy. However, there are economic factors that can limit its widespread adoption. One of the main drawbacks is the reduction in the performance of P.T.C owing to heat loss at high operating temperatures, which can result in a decrease in power generation, high consumption of resources, and an increase in cost. Additionally, the cost of establishing a solar power plant with the help of P.T.C includes various costs such as initial costs, system costs, land costs, mainland costs, operation and maintenance costs, and loan interest costs, which can be a substantial obstacle, especially in areas with low energy costs or with few renewable energy subsidies.2/year.To increase the economic potential of P.T.C, various tactics can be employed, such as enhancing the technology's efficiency and lowering its prices through technological advancement and economies of scale. Policies like tax breaks, financial aid, and feed-in tariffs can also contribute to increasing the economic attraction of P.T.C technology for users. Studies have shown that P.T.C technology can be economically viable in locations with high DNI levels, which are areas that have more than 1800 kW h/mSeveral studies have been conducted to estimate the economic potential of P.T.Cs, and recent technological breakthroughs and economies of scale have significantly reduced the cost of P.T.C technology. However, research and development activities are concentrated on enhancing the effectiveness and dependability of the technology as well as lowering the cost of materials and components to further lower the L.C.O.E of P.T.C. Therefore, additional research is required to evaluate P.T.Cs' economic and environmental performance in various scenarios and to contrast it with that of other renewable and conventional E.Ss.7.6L.C.A is a crucial technique for assessing the long-term environmental effects of P.T.Cs. The L.C.A of energy generation technologies is essential for understanding their environmental impacts and informing decisions about which sources of energy to use. The manuscript's section on the L.C.A of P.T.C technology compared to other E.Ss provides valuable insights into the environmental advantages of P.T.C technology. The analysis shows that P.T.C technology emits fewer harmful gases and waste over its lifetime compared to other energy generation technologies, including coal, natural gas, nuclear power plants, biofuels, solar PV, hydropower from reservoirs and rivers, ocean, and wind energy.The environmental impact of P.T.C technology can vary depending on several factors, including the location and size of the plant, the materials and components used, and the disposal method for end-of-life components. The study also highlights the environmental impacts of land use and water consumption associated with P.T.C technology, which should be carefully considered in the L.C.A.2, NOx, and PM. However, P.T.C technology still has negative environmental effects, including those related to land use and water use. To evaluate the environmental impact of P.T.Cs in various circumstances and to determine their sustainability throughout the course of their life cycles, more research is still required.Several studies have investigated the environmental impacts of P.T.C technology, including G.H.G emissions, cumulative energy demand, water consumption, and energy payback time. These studies indicate that P.T.C technology has lower G.H.G emissions compared to fossil fuel-based technologies in terms of criterion pollutants, such as SO8Our review identified several critical hints for future steps in the field of P.T.Cs. These include creating more precise and effective CFD models, examining the viability and durability of performance-enhancing approaches from an economic perspective, and examining the impact of ambient variables on the thermal behaviour of P.T.C.Constructing a superhydrophilic or superhydrophobic coat on the P.T.C may be useful in future research, depending on the specific application and desired outcome. A superhydrophilic coating would be highly wettable and would allow for rapid and complete wetting of the P.T.C surface, which could be beneficial for applications that require rapid heat transfer or efficient energy conversion. For example, in some heating or cooling systems, a superhydrophilic coating could enhance heat transfer by promoting better contact between the P.T.C surface and the working fluid. On the other hand, a superhydrophobic coating would repel water and other liquids, making the P.T.C surface highly non-wetting. This could be useful in applications where it is important to keep the P.T.C surface clean and free from contamination, such as in medical or laboratory equipment. Additionally, a superhydrophobic coating could provide protection against corrosion or damage from moisture.The P.T.C's surface area will expand with either superhydrophilic or superhydrophobic coatings, which will enhance the amount of solar radiation the collector can absorb, which could result in higher temperatures and more energy output. The receiver tube, which is typically placed along the focal line of the parabolic mirror, receives more sunlight when it is concentrated in a larger area.9P.T.C extracts SE for industrial and household purposes, such as pasteurization, drying, etc. It is an efficient method of utilizing SE and converting it into thermal energy to perform different functions such as pressing, degreasing (textile industry), and many more. However, the major issue with the use of the P.T.C is its limited use of SE, which is not a continuous E.S. Therefore, optical and thermal analysis modifications were introduced in the conventional P.T.C to increase its productivity and performance. It was found that the performance of enhancement techniques of P.T.Cs, such as novel designs, passive heat transfer improvement, and nanoparticle-laden fluid flow. It was also analyzed that the thermal insulation and wind protection installed in the cavity absorber helped increase the freshwater productivity levels by two folds by efficiently using direction and position during the day. It saved the costs of non-renewable resources, contributed toward green, and generated a sustainable E.S. Therefore, it can be said that P.T.C is an efficient system that helps in generating heat and power by using simple techniques and affordable equipment, which makes it economically viable.P.T.C is very useful in applications where energy is required in the form of heat. When it comes to electrical generation, it is currently not a financially viable option. Further research is needed to improve the efficiency of the P.T.C by implementing or modifying existing techniques to compete with other sources and make P.T.C an economically competitive option. Aside from P.T.C, improving the performance of the system's components will aid in further improving overall efficiency and environmental performance, lowering energy production costs.2-e/kWh, respectively. This information can be used to compare the environmental impact of different E.Ss and help us to choose cleaner, more sustainable options for generating electricity.A P.T.C's levelized cost of electricity (L.C.O.E) should be as low as possible to increase its long-term economic viability. The L.C.O.E was reduced by 1% when the nanofluid-oriented P.T.C was incorporated into the standard P.T.C workings. The emitted greenhouse gases for coal, natural gas steam turbine, nuclear power plants, bioenergy, solar PV, concentrated solar power, geothermal, hydropower reservoir, hydropower river, ocean, and wind are 1022, 587.5, 110.5, 633, 111, 48, 41, 82.5, 7.5, 12.5, and 41.5 gCOFurthermore, more research is needed to address issues in energy storage technology, as SE does not last all day. The high initial manufacturing cost of solar thermal systems must also be addressed.All authors listed have significantly contributed to the development and the writing of this article.Data will be made available on request.The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.