Metarhizium fungus on both terrestrial and aquatic insect larvae and how these interactions have been widely employed will be outlined. The potential uses of Metarhizium anisopliae and Metarhizium acridum biological control agents and molecular approaches to increase their virulence will be discussed. Chemical insecticides have been commonly used to control agricultural pests, termites, and biological vectors such as mosquitoes and ticks. However, the harmful impacts of toxic chemical insecticides on the environment, the development of resistance in pests and vectors towards chemical insecticides, and public concern have driven extensive research for alternatives, especially biological control agents such as fungus and bacteria. In this review, the mode of infection of  Bancroftian filariasis, which are Aedes spp., Anopheles spp., and Culex spp. respectively, have been responsible for hospitalization and death annually [Pests such as locusts, grasshoppers, termites, and cattle ticks have caused huge economic and agricultural losses in many parts of the world such as China, Japan, Australia, Malaysia, Africa, Brazil, and Mexico ,5,6,7,8.annually ,10. To eannually ,12,13,14Metarhizium spp. has been widely studied because of its narrow host range, safety, environmental friendliness, and ease of mass production [Metarhizum genus is distributed globally from the artic to the tropics. It belongs to the class Hyphomycetes, which reproduce by spores known as conidia [M. anisopliae, M. taii, M. pingshaense, and M. guizhouense. However, in 2009, Bischoff, Rehner, and Humber reclassified the Metarhizium genus into nine species, which are M. anisopliae, M. acridum, M. guizhouense, M. pingshaense, M. lepidiotae and M. majus, M. robertsii, M. brunneum, and M. globosum [Entomopathogenic fungus such as oduction ,16,17,18 conidia . The MetM. anisopliae is a generalist and is known to infect insects from more than seven orders, while M. acridum is a specialist as it only infects insects from the Acrididae family [The Metarhizium genus comprises mostly entomopathogenic fungi: some are generalists, while some are specialists . The ente family . M. anisopliae and M. acridum as an active ingredient in the development of mycosecticides and mycoacaricides, respectively, to target pests in their countries [M. anisopliae as an active ingredient to target pests from the Coleoptera species; another example is Green Guard®; a mycoacaricide developed by Becker Underwood Inc.  that contains M. acridum as an active ingredient to target pests from the Orthoptera family.Globally, countries have used ountries . An examMetarhizium spp. on terrestrial arthropods. These studies are crucial in contributing to the understanding of the precise mechanism of infection which allows the identification of the genes responsible for its virulence and pathogenicity, as well as the enzymes and toxins produced. However, few studies have compared the genes responsible for the difference in the host specificity between M. acridum and M. anisopliae and the effects on their virulence and pathogenicity [There are extensive studies on the general mode of infection of genicity ,24.Pests such as termites jeopardise buildings and monuments, and locusts and grasshoppers damage crops, while biological vectors such as mosquitoes and ticks, which caused a worldwide epidemic, have forced governments to spend huge sums of money from approximately USD 400 million to USD 2 billion solely to control these pests and biological vectors ,25,26. HMetarhizum genus, which are M. anisopliae and M. acridum, and their insect hosts, will be evaluated. The potential uses of M. anisopliae to control termites, mosquitoes , and cattle ticks, and the potential use of M. acridum to control locusts and grasshoppers, will be discussed.In this review, the interactions between two fungi from the Metarhizium spp. comprises six stages in the following order: adhesion, germination, appressorium formation, penetration, colonization of haemolymph, and extrusion and sporulation, which can also be found in other entomopathogenic fungi. However, Metarhizium spp. has genes that are specific to each species in their mode of infection, such as the Mad1 and Hog1 kinase genes for the germination stage in M. anisopliae and M. acridum, respectively.The general mode of infection of M. anisopliae, the adhesion stage is the most crucial stage for successfully infecting the host [Metarhizium spp., adhere to the waxy epicuticle of their host through a combination of passive hydrophobic forces, electrostatic forces, and protein interactions between the conidia and the epicuticle. The outer layer of cells on the conidia, also known as rodlets, contains hydrophobins, which are proteins that facilitate the adhesion of conidia to the hydrophobic epicuticle [M. acridum, to date, no research has been published on the enzymes responsible for adhering the fungus to its host or whether the enzymes are similar or different to those of M. anisopliae.For the host . Conidiaicuticle ,29,30. Ticuticle ,31,32. AM. anisopliae is initiated by the presence of exogenous carbon and nitrogen sources, whereby the latter is preferentially used [Mad1 and Mad2, specific to M. anispliae and more firmly attach the fungus onto the cuticle, enabling conidial germination and subsequently, appressorium formation [After the adhesion of conidia to the host cuticle, conidia germination in lly used . Trehalally used ,35. Aftelly used . Hydrophormation ,37.M. anisopliae, M. acridum, which is acridid specific, require simple polar compounds such as fatty acids, glucose, amino acids, fatty acid esters, and peptides present on the surface of the wings of acridids to promote fungus germination. Unlike M. anisopliae, whereby non-polar lipids on the surface of the cuticle could stimulate germination immediately, M. acridum has to use up the polar compounds available before it can utilize non-polar lipids on the cuticle [M. anisopliae and M. acridum in stimulating germination is that mixtures comprising different types of hydrocarbons from insects promote better germination in M. anisopliae compared to M. acridum, which could only germinate better in the presence of a single type of hydrocarbon [MaHog1 gene found only in M. acridum encodes for Hog1 kinase which contributes to conidia germination [Similar to  cuticle ,38. The mination .ODC1 gene and Mpl1 gene specific to M. anisopliae were demonstrated to be responsible in appressorium formation. The ODC1 gene, which encodes for ornithine decarboxylase, was upregulated during conidia germination and germ tube differentiation to form appressorium, while the Mpl1 gene which encodes for MPL1, regulates lipid homeostasis and appressorium differentiation [The ntiation ,41. Besintiation . This tuntiation ,36. A thntiation ,29,32,43M. anisopliae, Fus3/Kss1-type mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), a family of proteins commonly found in other entomopathogenic fungus, was encoded by the gene MaMk1, specific to M. acridum, and was found to be involved in regulating the expression of Mad1 genes which are responsible for adherence and the Mpl gene which regulates lipid metabolism and appressorium formation [MaMk1 also encodes for an extracellular signal-regulated kinase, which is also involved in appressorium formation. Tetraspanins encoded by the MaPls1 gene were also demonstrated to be involved in pathways affecting the turgor pressure of appressorium, that in turn influences appressorium formation and the delayed germination of M. acridum [Similar to ormation . Besides acridum .M. anisopliae involves the secretion of proteins such as subtilisins, trypsins, chymotrypsins, and carboxypeptidases, which digest the protein rich procuticle of arthropods [M. anisopliae are found to be specific for each host, explaining its ability to infect many different hosts. Trypsins are host specific as they were found to be produced only in certain hosts such as cockroaches and beetles [The penetration stage in thropods . The typ beetles . Subtili beetles ,29. Chit beetles ,47. Coll beetles .M. anisopliae, M. acridum also contains genes that encode for cuticle degrading enzymes such as trypsins and subtilisin proteases were also produced. In addition, aspartyl proteases, glycoside hydrolases, and lipases are also present on the host cuticle [MaHog1 gene, which encodes for Hog1 kinase, regulates the penetration and extrusion of M. acridum on its host. The Chi2 gene, which encodes for an endochitinase, was also crucial for the penetration of the host cuticle by reducing the lethal time that is the time required to kill the host [MaPls1 gene encodes for tetraspanins that regulate the turgor pressure of appressorium and the expression of cuticle-degrading enzymes, particularly enzymes responsible for the degradation of protein and chitin. The disruption of this gene resulted in the inability of the hyphae to reach the haemocoel of the host and differentiate to form appressorium. Tetraspanins were also reported to regulate the expression of ApsA and kinesin, which are responsible for the structure and migration of the cytoskeleton. They also contribute to sensing the host-specific environment and respond by commencing germination using nutrients on the cuticle of the host. Furthermore, tetraspanins encoded by MaPls1 also crosstalk with calmodulin-dependent signalling pathways, which are responsible for regulating the growth of fungus in the host environment, appressorium formation, and the activity of GTPases, which in turn regulate cellular activities. Similar to  cuticle . Pr1, wh cuticle . Jin et  cuticle  also fouthe host . Luo et the host  found thM. anisopliae, destruxins, especially destruxins A and E which are more insecticidal, are synthesised to repress the cellular and humoral immune response in the host. This is done by enabling M. anisopliae spores encapsulated by the host haemocytes to escape. Destruxin biosynthesis was proposed to be regulated by the dtxS1 gene cluster commonly found in Metarhizium generalists’ genome such as M. anisopliae, but not in the M. acridum genome [Mcl1 are also produced to allow the fungus to evade the host immune system [In m genome . Evasione system . Mad1 proteins initiate the expression of genes involved in the cell cycle, enabling the rapid multiplication and differentiation of hyphae in the haemolymph of the host. These proteins orientate the cytoskeleton and regulate cytokinesis in the cell cycle [To protect the conidia against reactive oxygen species formed by ultraviolet radiation and heat in the environment, catalase and peroxidases are also present on the conidia surface . Besidesll cycle ,46.M. anisopliae, toxin production is limited in M. acridum. The virulence of M. acridum relies mainly on its proliferation inside the host haemocoel [M. anisopliae, M. acridum utilizes trehalose, which is the major blood sugar present in the haemolymph of an insect. Trehalase encoded by ATM1 in M. acridum was found to reduce fecundity, and impair homeostasis and insect physiology, besides interfering with its locomotive behaviour, particularly its flight movements [Unlike aemocoel . Similarovements ,53. MaAC was found to regulate the stress tolerance of M. acridum to both the environment and the haemolymph of an insect such as hydrogen peroxide, ultraviolet radiation, thermal stress, osmotic stress, and locust fever. MaAC was also involved in cAMP synthesis, which regulates morphogenesis and the cellular processes of the host [MaAC gene, the Hog1 gene encodes for Hog1 kinase, which reduces the sensitivity of the fungus to environmental stress such as high temperature, hyperosmotic stress, and oxidative stress. From the genome of M. acridum, Gao et al. [M. acridum contains cytochrome P504s genes, which also function to degrade phenylacetate, an antimicrobial compound in the host.An adenylate cyclase gene known as the host . Similaro et al.  found thM. anisopliae forms a denser network and green spores on the cadaver of the infected host [During sporulation, the hyphae extrudes the host cuticle to the outer environment. ted host ,56.M. anisopliae, which forms green spores on the cadaver, red sporulation was observed on the cadaver of locusts and grasshoppers for M. acridum [M. acridum, Hog1 kinase was responsible for the extrusion of hyphae from the cuticle of the infected host [M. acridum was observed to be regulated by the catalytic subunit A of calcineurin, a Ca2+ calmodulin-dependent serine-threonine protein phosphatase [M. acridum. The deletion of this subunit was found to lead to thinner cell walls. β-1,3-glucan synthase encoded by the MaFKS gene was also responsible for mycelium growth and conidia production during the sporulation stage, besides regulating hyperosmotic pressure tolerance which contributes to cell wall integrity [Aba gene, which is crucial for phialides differentiation and functionality [In comparison to  acridum . In M. ated host . The filsphatase . This cantegrity . Calcineionality . Collectively, calcineurine downregulates the protein kinase A, small G protein, cAMP-PKA, and MAPK signalling pathways, which are important in the regulation of growth, conidiation, stress tolerance, and cell wall integrity.M. anisopliae and M. acridum during the six stages of infection is shown in A summary of the proteins produced by M. anisopliae displays a significant efficacy against aquatic hosts such as larvae of Spodoptera litura [Aedes aegypti [M. anisopliae in the aquatic hosts. However, the exact mode of infection of M. anisopliae is still unclear.Studies have discovered that a litura ,61 and A aegypti ,31,62. TPr genes and adhesins by Mad genes is upregulated in the presence of aquatic larvae, signifying the recognition of M. anisopliae by its host [M. anisopliae to penetrate the host cuticle to infect and reproduce. Greenfield et al. [Aedes larvae, are most likely responsible for the failure of the attachment of conidia to aquatic larvae. This indicates that the mode of infection of M. anisopliae is not via the penetration of the host cuticle due to the absence of three long-chain hydrocarbons necessary for the attachment of adhesins produced by Mad genes to infect the host.Similar to a terrestrial host, the expression of proteinases by its host ,32. Howeits host  and Greed et al.  also fouM. anisopliae is through the ingestion of spores by the larvae [M. anisopliae and the presence of conidia in the faecal pellents of mosquito larvae demonstrated that conidia had been ingested. Further researches are needed to determine the precise mode of infection of M. anisopliae in the larvae [The most likely mode of infection of e larvae ,19,29,32e larvae .M. anisopliae did not manage to penetrate the cuticle to infect its host, the larval mortality was still significant. Three hypotheses for the mechanism of infection of M. anisopliae have been proposed. The first hypothesis is that the conidia germinated inside the larvae produce hyphae, the which may block the respiratory siphon, resulting in suffocation and death of larvae [Although f larvae ,62. The f larvae .In response to the first hypothesis, Butt et al.  reportedS. littura treated with M. anisopliae were also found to be different in larvae before and after infection by M. anisopliae [S. littura was indicated via the increased levels of protein carbonyls and free radicals. Damage of the salivary gland and epithelial cells in the midgut of S. littura was also observed.For the second hypothesis, destruxins were reported to trigger oxidative stress in larvae, leading to larval mortality ,61. An iisopliae . OxidatiPr1 and Pr2) were produced when conidia passed through the mid gut. Butt et al. [However, destruxins were not detected by Butt et al. , leadingt et al.  treated t et al.  showed tM. anisopliae conidia as biopesticides for targeting aquatic insect larvae is the ability to increase the encounter between M. anisopliae and target aquatic insect larvae in still waters, as the property of M. anisopliae being an aerial conidia is that it is only effective when it comes into contact with aquatic hosts. A better understanding of the mode of infection of M. anisopliae is crucial for the development of M. anisopliae as an effective biopesticide.Another challenge in utilizing Metarhizium fungus have been done by either overexpressing genes which are responsible for the pathogenicity of the fungus or through genetic manipulation, by inserting genes from scorpions or spiders which produce insect-specific neurotoxins to increase the virulence of the fungus [The efforts to increase the virulence of e fungus .cat1 gene in M. anisopliae which increases the activity of catalase, contributing to a higher tolerance towards exogenous hydrogen peroxide. Transgenic conidia of M. anisopliae were also found to accelerate conidia germination, contributing to an increased virulence of M. anisopliae.Morales Hernandez et al.  overexprAaIT gene, which encodes for an insect-specific neurotoxin from a buthid scorpion Androctonus australis in M. anisopliae. They reported that the amount of genetically engineered conidia required to provide the same level of mortality with the wild type M. anisopliae was nine-fold lower. The median lethal time of M. anisopliae on A. aegypti was also significantly reduced. A. aegypti infected with this neurotoxin was found to have spasmic legs and affected wing movements.Wang and St. Leger  insertedM. anisopliae to express a salivary gland and midgut peptide (SM1) which attach to the surface of the salivary gland of Anopheles spp., effectively blocking the entry of sporozoites of Plasmodium falciparum which is the causal agent of malaria. A synthetic gene that encodes for the production of an antimicrobial scorpine which expresses eight repeats of the SM1 peptide was also inserted into the genome of M. anisopliae. This scorpine not only attached to the salivary gland of the mosquitoes, but also reduced the sporozoite density in the haemolymph, thus reducing the transmission of malaria. Fang et al.  geneticaM. anisopliae by inserting a gene from Bacillus thuringiensis which encodes for an insect midgut-specific toxin Vip3Aal. The expression of this toxin enables M. anisopliae to acquire the ability to infect Spodoptera litura larvae, which is usually resistant to M. anisopliae, through the ingestion of conidia instead of the usual mode of infection that occurs through penetration of the cuticle.Zhang et al.  geneticaATM1 gene on M. acridum was performed to increase the production of acid trehalase. This increased the activity of acid trehalase, enabling the breakdown of more trehalose in the haemolymph of the host into glucose, thus producing more energy for M. acridum and subsequently decreasing the time taken for fungus to grow and colonise, increasing the efficacy and virulence of M. acridum [The overexpression of the  acridum .M. acridum strains, whereby each strain expressed one insect specific neurotoxin. The genes introduced into the M. acridum strains are genes which encode functions as a blocker of voltage gated sodium, calcium, and calcium activated potassium channels. The last gene encodes for a hybrid toxin which interferes with both calcium and potassium channels in the host. All M. acridum strains have a significantly higher virulence than the natural M. acridum strain, with the M. acridum strain expressing the hybrid toxin with the highest virulence measured in terms of effective conidial doses, median lethal time, and the food consumption of the host.Fang et al.  geneticaLqhIT2 gene, which encodes for a neurotoxin from the venom of the scorpion Leiurus quinquestriatus hebraeus, into the genome of M. acridum was found to increase fungal virulence. M. acridum expressing the LqhIT2 gene grew faster and reduced the median lethal time (LT50) and median lethal dose (LC50) by 30.3% and 22.6-fold, respectively, compared to the wild type. The neurotoxin produced was reported to have no effect on the cuticle penetration and germination stage. Peng et al. [LqhIT2 neurotoxin may have suppressed the host immunity, resulting in the accelerated growth of conidia in the haemolymph of host. The insertion of the g et al.  reportedButhotus judaicus, which encodes for the insect-selective neurotoxin BjαIT to determine whether this gene increased the virulence of M. acridum. The neurotoxin was found to speed up the growth of M. acridum, which decreases the mean lethal time and dose time needed to kill the host, thus increasing its virulence. The engineered M. acridum is environmentally safe as it did not affect non-target insects and its safety can be improved by using a tissue-specific promoter such as the Mcl1 promoter. However, the conidial yield of the engineered M. acridum was reduced, indicating that the residual effect of M. acridum will be lower compared to the wild type.Peng and Xia  insertedMetarhizium spp. could be improved by overexpressing several targeted genes such as the cat1 gene and ATM1 gene in M. anisopliae and M. acridum, respectively. Fang et al. [M. acridum; however, further studies could be conducted investigating how to prevent the decline in conidial production. Future studies should also be conducted on the impacts of transgenic fungus on the environment and non-target organisms.The efforts to increase the virulence of g et al.  and Pengg et al.  have sucM. acridum [M. anisopliae with the thickest conidia and the greatest colony growth with local isolate. In a separate study, Jenkins medium yielded the most M. anisopliae with 100% mortality on the fourth day with 1 × 109 conidia/mL [Studies have demonstrated that a different medium could affect the conidial morphology and conidia germination rate, which could subsequently affect the virulence of  acridum . PikKhen acridum  found thnidia/mL . M. anisopliae is capable of affecting its virulence. A study found that the virulence of the different strains was influenced by different medium cultures [M. anisopliae that are genetically different. In addition, Maldonado-Blanco et al. [Aedes spp. increases with an increasing incubation time with the spores. For the mass production of M. anisopliae, the strain of M. anisopliae used should be taken into consideration as different strains of M. anisopliae have different phenotypic plasticity which may affect the results for the determination of which medium produces the most virulent M. anisopliae [For the conidia production, it was found that the type of culture medium used to produce cultures . This mao et al.  also fouisopliae .M. acridum also affects the characteristics of conidia, such as their virulence [M. acridum produced on potato dextrose agar supplemented with 1 g L−1 yeast extract (PDAY) germinated faster and had a higher UV-B tolerance compared to conidia produced on insect cuticles. Rangel et al. [M. acridum germinated on potato dextrose agar may have accumulated more endogenous nutrients, allowing them to germinate faster. This finding is crucial when mass producing M. acridum for a biological pesticide as it is advantageous to use a culture medium to produce a virulent and high amount of conidia of M. acridum [The type of culture medium used to produce irulence . Rangel irulence  also foul et al.  hypothes acridum .M. anisopliae conidia has been tested and compared for different hosts. Oil formulated conidia caused higher mortality in hosts compared to water formulated conidia [M. anisopliae conidia [The effect of oil formulation, oil-in-water emulsion formulation, and water formulation of  conidia ,76,77,78 conidia . Besides conidia ,76. Furt conidia , which oA. aegypti decreased the tendency to oviposit in breeding sites with a high oil concentration. This could potentially reduce the contact between the fungal propagules and the host. Lobo et al. [Although oil formulated conidia were found to be efficacious under a low humidity and high temperature, Lobo et al.  found tho et al.  proposedM. anisopliae conidia suspended in pure mineral oil provided a greater thermoprotection compared to canola oil formulated conidia [The type of oil formulation was demonstrated to affect the viability of conidia whereby  conidia . The comM. anisopliae conidia by changing the fatty acid composition on the host cuticle. Future studies could manipulate the pH of the oil formulated conidia and determine whether pH could retain the virulence of the conidia for longer periods of time.Most studies have studied the effect of a single variable, such as heat, on the efficacy of conidia and the effect of the period of exposure on the efficacy of conidia. Future studies could be conducted to find a way to combine the effects of heat and humidity on oil formulated conidia. Paixão et al.  also sugM. acridum, Peng and Xia [M. anisopliae found that oil-formulated conidia could grow on mosquito eggs [M. acridum, dry spore formulation remained virulent for longer periods of time during storage compared to oil formulated conidia [For the formulation of the conidia of  and Xia  reported and Xia  and Sous and Xia . They thito eggs . The oilito eggs . However conidia .Termites are important pests of buildings and historical monuments due to their ability to form colonies in walls and damage wood in the process ,13. The M. anisopliae as an effective biological control of termites has been documented in previous studies. The efficacy of M. anisopliae is affected by three factors: the strain of M. anisopliae used, the dosage of M. anisopliae conidia, and the genera and species of termites which have a different susceptibility to the same strain of M. anisopliae. The mortality of termites is dose dependent, whereby increasing the dosage of conidia of M. anisopliae increases the mortality of termites. Specifically, the highest insecticidal dosage of conidia is approximately 1 × 106 conidia/mL to 1 × 1010 conidia/mL [The potential use of nidia/mL ,85,86. TM. anisopliae and different hosts are used, which do not allow for a consistent comparison for improvement. The non-uniformity stems from the strains of M. anisopliae being localised to their respective regions and the termites that caused the most damage are different in different regions and countries. Besides, the same strain of M. anisopliae could have a different virulence towards different genera of termites [In different studies, different strains of termites . One of termites ,4,68,87.M. anisopliae, which are mainly composed ofparaffins such as N-tetradecane [M. anisopliae was a contradictory issue as Chouvenc et al. [The repellency of termites, which leads to the allogrooming behavior, was demonstrated to be due to the ability of termites to detect the odour of conidia . The morradecane . The allc et al.  and Yanac et al.  hypothesc et al.  hypothesc et al.  proposedTo reduce the repellence displayed by termites, studies have focused on two aspects: the reduction of repellency by termites and the nest embedded sensor in the termite nest. Chouvenc et al.  employedM. anisopliae.Another study by Bulmer et al.  demonstrM. anisopliae cause the mortality of termites or repel the termites such as C. formosanus. This has a significant impact because if M. anisopliae were to only repel termites, M. anisopliae would not be effective in completely eliminating termites, especially in buildings such as temples and historic monuments, and the conidia would have to be consistently reapplied [The drawback in the studies is that in field experiments, it is uncertain whether eapplied .M. anisopliae strains with the ability to form appressorium more quickly are more virulent and able to cause higher mortality. To achieve this, genetic manipulation could be implemented by increasing the expression of genes which are responsible for appressorium formation or conidia formation to increase the virulence of M. anisopliae. It was also found that 90% of the conidia that were ingested by groomers could not germinate in the gut of termites, although conidia were found to attach to the lining [Bacillus thuringiensis, which encodes for the insect midgut-specific toxin Vip3Aal, into M. anisopliae. The genetically modified M. anisopliae was found to successfully infect a host that is usually resistant to M. anisopliae by the ingestion of conidia instead of penetration of the cuticle. Hence, the addition of a specific gene which is toxic in the midgut of termites could be the key to a more virulent M. anisopliae. Further studies should be done on the fungistatic compounds present in the gut microbiota of termites to determine which midgut toxin is resistant to the fungistatic compounds in the termites [Chovenc et al.  reportede lining . Zhang ee lining  insertedtermites .M. anisopliae was able to cause a significantly higher mortality in Anopheles spp. and Aedes spp. compared to moquitoes which are not treated. For Anopheles spp., studies found that more than 90% of Anopheles spp. exposed to M. anisopliae were dead 14 days post-inoculation. This means that Anopheles spp. can be prevented from transmitting malaria since the Plasmodium parasite required approximately 12 to 14 days to develop in the mosquito into infectious sporozoites, at which point the mosquito could transmit malaria [At the adult stage, all previous studies agreed that  malaria . M. anisopliae compared to mosquitoes which did not have a blood meal and mosquitoes which were fed with sucrose. Blood fed mosquitoes were suggested to have more nutrient reserves, resulting in fungus requiring more time to deplete the nutrients in the host before causing mortality of the adult mosquitoes. They also suggested that blood-fed mosquitoes may have a stronger immune system to overcome the infection by M. anisopliae. The reduced susceptibility of Aedes spp. was found to persist for approximately 96 hours to 120 h where the susceptibility was no different from the controls after that period [Paula et al.  and MnyoM. anisopliae.Reyes-Villaneuva et al.  found thAedes aegypti and Aedes albopcitus are responsible for dengue epidemics, dengue haemorraghic fever, chikunguya, and yellow fever. Fifty million people are estimated by the World Health Organization to be infected with dengue fever worldwide every year [A. aegypti in both tropical and subtropical regions in the world [Anopheles spp. are vectors responsible for the transmission of malaria, while Culex quinquefasciatus transmits Bancroftian filariasis which is responsible for causing filariasis in 25 million people in India alone [Mosquitoes such as ery year ,96. Denghe world ,72. Anopia alone ,61,79.Aedes spp. and Anopheles spp., studies have been conducted that investigate the effects of M. anisopliae on the three different developmental stages of mosquitoes which are the egg, larvae, and the adult stage. For all three stages, M. anisopliae was found to have insecticidal activity and is a potential entomopathogenic fungus. There are some factors which need to be taken into consideration when targeting all three developmental stages, but there are also other factors which only apply to a particular developmental stage. For the biological control of vectors of human diseases, especially Anopheles spp. and Culex spp., but not Aedes spp. This is because the primary feeding sites of Anopheles spp. and Culex spp. are on the water surface, but the primary mode of feeding of Aedes spp. is through browsing and not on the water surface [M. anisopliae for 18 to 23 days.At the larval stage, Bukhari et al.  found th surface ,80. Gree surface  found th surface . The “we surface  which wa surface  and Bukh surface  were con surface ,97. For  surface . In addi surface  found thM. anisopliae is the greatest when the mosquito eggs treated with conidia are exposed to 98% relative humidity for at least 10 days [M. anisopliae. Luz et al. [For relative humidity, it was found that the ovicidal activity of  10 days ,72,96. T 10 days ,96. Futuz et al.  also fouM. anisopliae compared to older instar larvae (L4) and adult mosquitoes [Anopheles spp., Culex spp., and Aedes spp. are equally susceptible. The mortality of larvae at different stages was dose-dependent, where increasing the dosage of applied conidia was found to increase the larval mortality. Younger instar larvae (L2) were found to be more vulnerable to squitoes ,19. Howesquitoes  found thM. anisopliae are its slow mode of action, inconsistent results compared to chemical insecticides, and the fact that it only targets the larval population which are present. M. anisopliae has to be reapplied after the site has been reinhabited by larvae [M. anisopliae, which usually takes seven to 14 days to reach >90% mortality, does not fulfil the requirement to be a vector control product by World Health Organization Pesticide Evaluation Scheme (WHOPES) [M. anisopliae on the mosquito eggs and how high humidity reduces larval eclosion should be further studied.However, the challenges of using y larvae ,80,100. (WHOPES) . One of M. anisopliae on non-target organisms and the environment should also be studied in order to determine the safety of the application of M. anisopliae as a biological control agent.Further studies could be conducted on the formulation of conidia which could best protect the conidia from environmental conditions that could inactivate conidia to maintain the virulence and which type of oil could repel mosquitoes. The effects of M. anisopliae in killing the nymphs and adults of many genus and species of ticks has been demonstrated in many studies for Rhipicephalus microplus, Rhipicephalus sanguineus, Haemaphysalis qinghaiensis, Hyalomma excavatum, and Ixodes ricinus [M. anisopliae reduced the percentage of egg production and hatchability, the precise mechanism of how M. anisopliae caused a decline in egg production and hatchability is still unknown [R. miroplus is dose dependent, where mortality increases with an increasing concentration of conidia.The efficacy of  ricinus ,104,105. unknown . Camargo unknown  found thM. anisopliae which are the application of the fungus parasitic stage onto cattle ticks and the non-parasitic stage onto tick larvae in vegetation [M. anisopliae to kill the ticks on the cattle was affected. Leemon et al. [M. anisopliae.There are currently two types of application of getation . Furthern et al.  suggesteM. anisopliae, followed by nymphs and adults [M. anisopliae on the mortality of cattle ticks. Quinelato et al.  also foud adults ,104,105.d adults  and Camad adults  cited frM. acridum on locusts and grasshoppers has been conducted by the LUBILOSA program (Lutte Biologiquw contre les Locustes et les Sauteriaux) in Africa and CSIRO  in Australia over the last 10 years [M. acridum is a specialist, having a narrow host range where it infects only locusts and grasshoppers [Locusts and grasshoppers are major agricultural pests which have caused huge agricultural and economic losses. In Africa, locusts and grasshoppers cause damages on crops such as maize, beans, and sweet potatoes. Approximately USD 400 million was spent to control these agricultural pests, besides providing food and assistance to affected communities . Extensishoppers .M. acridum has an insecticidal effect against locusts and grasshoppers, which are the main agricultural pests. M. acridum is currently used as a biological control agent in Mexico, Africa, and Australia for the control of locusts and grasshoppers [M. acridum as an active ingredient have been developed in both Africa and Australia, known as GreenMuscle® and GreenGuard®, respectively, to act as control agents against locusts and grasshoppers [® has been recommended by FAO and has obtained registration for its usage. However, few people have used GreenMuscle® due to its slow mode of infection, high costs, temperature dependency, and the instability of the formulation developed [Previous studies have found that shoppers ,7,108. CM. acridum are the timing of the application of conidia, the temperature during the infection of M. acridum, the strain of the M. acridum used, the medium that is used to culture M. acridum, and the method of application of the conidia [Factors that affect the efficacy of  conidia ,83,108.10 spores mL−1 caused higher mortality for 3rd nymphal instars compared to 5th nymphal instars 15 days post-inoculation in 2005, but not in 2006 [For the timing factor, it was found that younger nymphal instar of locusts are more susceptible than older nymphal instars. It was observed that 10 in 2006 . Klass e in 2006  also sugM. acridum was from 28 to 33 °C with 28 °C, which demonstrated the highest germination rate of conidia, longest mycelium, and the highest conidia production. This perhaps signifies that the virulence of M. acridum is the highest at 28 °C since the virulence of M. acridum increases with higher conidia germination, enabling a higher growth of mycelium [M. acridum. The act of basking under the sun elevates their body temperature to around 35 °C and the temperature can rise up to 37 to 40 °C during summer. Temperatures above 35 °C could inactivate the conidia of M. acridum, inhibiting their development and subsequently reducing the mortality of the host [Studies have found that the suitable temperature range for the germination of the conidia of mycelium . Many stthe host ,110.M. acridum contribute to the difference in their virulence and may be due to the differences in their genetic composition, resulting in the differences in their virulence and pathogenicity [M. acridum as locusts could elevate their body temperature for longer periods, while regions with longer and cooler nights require a lower dosage of conidia to result in a higher mortality of locusts [Different strains of genicity . This ma locusts .M. acridum. The number of M. acridum conidia on the soil was reported to be negatively correlated with relative humidity and positively correlated with wind velocity. Further studies should be done on the best application method and the minimum dosage of conidia needed to be applied to a particular area for highest mortality [Guerrero-Guerra et al.  found thortality .M. acridum. The inactivation of the conidia of M. acridum could reduce the efficacy of M. acridum, leading to a decreased mortality of locusts. Genes that are heat tolerant could be genetically engineered into M. acridum to overcome this challenge. The second challenge is to identify the best formulation and application method of conidia in the field to ensure the viability and persistence of conidia due to environmental conditions such as rain, humidity, and solar radiation. The timing of application is also vital to target early nymphal instars to reduce the number of adult locusts which could reproduce, thus expanding the population of locusts. The third challenge is finding a suitable strain of M. acridum for a particular geographical location due to different environmental conditions in different regions which can influence the thermoregulatory behaviour of locusts, subsequently affecting the efficacy of the conidia of M. acridum. The fourth challenge is maintaining the residual effect of M. acridum. To maintain the residual effect, the exact mode of locusts being infected in the field has to be first understood. Atheimine et al. [M. acridum, secondary pick up of conidia from treated vegetation, and horizontal transmission from cadaver infected with conidia. [One of the main challenges is to overcome the behavioural fever of locusts, which could inactivate the conidia of e et al.  suggesteconidia. Metarhizium fungus can be categorised into adhesion, germination, appressorium formation, penetration, extrusion, and sporulation [The general mode of infection of rulation ,56,111.M. anisopliae, which is a generalist, is a potential biocontrol agent of termites, mosquitoes, and cattle ticks, while M. acridum is a potential biocontrol agent of locusts and grasshoppers. However, many challenges, such as the slow mode of action and unpredictable results of the application of these fungi, have to be overcome to maximise the efficacy of both M. anisopliae and M. acridum. Studies have been conducted to speed up the mode of action by genetically engineering both M. anisopliae and M. acridum. However, the efficacy of these genetically engineered fungi in the field has not been published. The effects of these fungi on the effects of non-target organisms and the environment should also be considered before using them in the field.


Malaria vectors control interventions are designed to cause immediate killing or shorten mosquito lives, therefore does not allow enough time for the development of the parasites to infective stage. The wall lining is new malaria vectors control intervention in Tanzania where its impact on age structure is not well known. Therefore this study aimed at determining the impact of non-pyrethroid durable wall lining on the age structure of malaria vectors.An. gambiae sensu lato  and An. funestus  were collected in the control clusters. Unexpectedly, significantly higher proportion of parous An. gambiae s. l. were collected in the intervention clusters . The wall lining intervention has demonstrated low impact on age structure of An. gambiae s. l., this call for further studies on the efficacy of the intervention.Higher proportions of  An. gambiae s. s. and An. funestus, which are the malaria vectors, naturally prefer to feed and rests indoors [An. arabiensis [Mosquito biting behaviour changes have been reported to be induced by vector control interventions, particularly when excito-repellent insecticides are used . Sprayin indoors –5. This abiensis , 7. Neveabiensis . Such shabiensis , 7, 8. Oabiensis –11.Age grading technique is applied for establishing the parous rate of mosquito populations in order to estimate longevity . Normall2, lying between 5°S latitude and 39°E longitude. The climate is tropical, with dense rainforest over the Usambara mountain ranges and has an annual rainfall of 1000–2000 mm. Muheza district is mainly inhabited by subsistence farmers. Administratively, Muheza district is divided into six divisions comprised of 35 wards with 175 villages [An. gambiae s. l. and An. funestus are the main vectors of these diseases [An. gambiae s. l. in this area has also been documented to be resistant to pyrethroid insecticides [This cross-sectional study was conducted for the duration of 7 months from November, 2015 to May, 2016 in 18 clusters in Muheza district, North-eastern coast of Tanzania. In recent years, there have been fluctuations in the rainfall patterns with long drought periods in the study area. During implementation of this study, there were long dry seasons which accompanied with dryness of the mosquito breeding sites . The disdiseases , 22. An.cticides , 24.A total of 18 clusters were selected; nine in control clusters and nine in intervention clusters from clusters in a randomized field trial  in orderP value of < 0.05 was considered statistically significant.Data were entered in excel database and transferred to Stata version 13 statistical software where a Two-sample test for proportions (z) was performed. The outcomes of interest were the proportions of parous and nulliparous among the malaria vector species and intervention arms. In all analysis a Anopheles, Culicines [Aedes mosquitoes [An. gambiae s. l. and An. funestus were dissected to observe ovarian dilations [Adult mosquitoes were identified morphologically using identification keys  for Anopulicines  and Zootsquitoes . All Culilations , 13. Basilations .An. gambiae s. l. was identified to sibling species by real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) as described by Bass et al. [An. funestus sibling species were identified by PCR based on species-specific primers. Electrophoresis was performed there after and amplicons were then visualized under uv-light for scoring DNA band lengths in relation to positive controls as described by Koekemoer et al. [s et al. . An. funr et al. .An. gambiae s. l. and An. funestus was done by using enzyme linked-immunosorbent assay (ELISA) technique according to Witz et al. [Malaria sporozoites determination in z et al.  whereby Cx. quinquefasciatus followed by An. gambiae s. l. and An. funestus. Malaria vectors (An. gambiae s. l. and An. funestus) accounted for 28.5% (n = 501). Majority of An. gambiae s. l.  were collected in the control clusters than in the intervention clusters and the different was statistically significant . Similarly to An. gambiae s. l., majority of An. funestus  were collected in the control clusters, and the different was statistically significant  . On the other hand, the proportions of nulliparous An. gambiae s. l. was higher in the control clusters although not statistically significant   and An. funestus group were 40% (n = 121). PCR results has shown that, An. gambiae s. l. consisted of An. gambiae s. s.  and An. arabiensis . Within the An. funestus group, four sibling species were identified; these included; An. funestus s. s. , An. leesoni , An. rivulorum  and An. parensis . The circumsporozoite (CSP) ELISA results revealed that, sporozoite positive among An. gambiae s. s. was 5.6% while that of An. funestus s. s. was 2.0% with two individuals from each of the species. The overall CSP positive among An. gambiae s. s and An. funestus s. s. was 2.9%.A total of 302 An. funestus and An. gambiae s. l. are the main vectors for malaria transmission [An. gambiae s. s and An. funestus s. s. was 2.9 but the number of positive mosquitoes was too low to make any meaningful comparison between intervention and control clusters. This was in contrary to the previous study which was conducted in northern Orissa, India where presence of zerofly plastic sheeting interventions reduced malaria transmission and parous rate when compared to pre-intervention phase [An. gambiae s. l., the main sibling species were An. gambiae s. s. and An. arabiensis, similarly to a previous study [An. funestus, four sibling species identified included; An. funestus s. s., An. leesoni, An. rivulorum and An. parensis with An. funestus s. s. which accounted for 95%, similarly to a study by Derua et al. [Muheza is one of the malaria endemic district in Tanzania where both smission , 31. Deson phase . This stus study . Within a et al. .An. gambiae s. l. and An. funestus in the control clusters implies that, the intervention plays a role in preventing the malaria vectors from entering the houses. Our findings concur with a study conducted in the experimental huts which found that, the presence of both LLINs and non-pyrethroid ITWL have led to a significant increase the proportions of An. gambiae s. l. exiting the huts [High proportions of the huts . This sithe huts .An. gambiae s. l. under field condition as old mosquitoes were collected in the intervention clusters and young ones in the control clusters. Our findings are consistence with a previous study conducted in the same area which showed that, both pyrethroid LLINs and the non-pyrethroid ITWL in experimental huts induced exiting among An. gambiae s. l. [An. gambiae s. l. as demonstrated by the present study. This could be the reason why they were able to live long enough to lay eggs in intervention clusters; a situation has implication in malaria transmission.It was surprising to find that, statistically significantly higher proportions of parous in the intervention clusters. These findings indicate that, the new non-pyrethroid ITWL intervention has low impact on age structure of ae s. l. . ITWL inAn. funestus was higher in the control clusters. The present study findings concur with a previous study conducted in India, whereby the impact of vector control intervention on reduction in parity rate and house entry of An. culicifacies were observed in the village with olyset net compared to untreated net or no nets [An. funestus exited through the exit trap due to the presence of pyrethroid LLINs compared to non-pyrethroid ITWL [The proportion of parous  no nets . Similaroid ITWL . ITWL inoid ITWL . Basing The study was conducted in a period of extremely dry season where the number of mosquito collected was low and this could have impact on interpretations of findings.


Afterward, Shen and Cen [r-circulant matrices nth hyperharmonic number of order r.In recent years, there have been several studies on the norms, determinants, and inverses of circulant and equences –27. For equences  found up and Cen  gave thes. Bahşi  studied r-circulant matrices whose entries are the biperiodic Fibonacci and biperiodic Lucas numbers. This study consists of three sections. The first one is the introduction. In the second section, we give some new theorems, corollaries, and some important results. We give a concise conclusion in the last section.Inspired by these studies, in this paper, we compute spectral norms of r-circulant matrix For any given A is defined by A is given by A. Then, the well-known inequality [It is clear that, for equality  is givenFor any matriceswe havewhereis the Hadamard product ofAandB.For any matricesandwe havewhereis the Kronecker product ofAandB.For any matricesandwe havewhereis the Hadamard product, andFor any positive integern, we haveIn this section, we first give the sum of squares of biperiodic Lucas numbers.For any positive integerm, we haveUsing the Binet formula of the biperiodic Lucas numbers, we have Letbe anr-circulant matrix. Then, forwe have: ifthenifthenQ is of the form Q. Let the matrices B and C be Q. Let the matrices D and E be The matrix sing Eq. , we obtaLetbe anr-circulant matrix. Then, forwe have: ifthenifthenL is of the form L. Let the matrices F and H be L. Let the matrices G and K be The matrix Letandber-circulant matrices, where(i)Ifthen(ii)IfthenSince Letandber-circulant matrices, where(i)Ifthenand(ii)IfthenandSince r-circulant matrices Q and L whose entries are the biperiodic Fibonacci and biperiodic Lucas numbers. This study can be reduced to various studies for the specific values of a and b in the literature. For example, if Q and L, our results reduce to the studies [r-circulant matrices.In this paper, we obtain new upper and lower bounds for the spectral norms of the  studies , 18, and studies , respect


Melastoma, which are morphologically similar to a natural hybrid, M. intermedium, by sequencing a chloroplast intergenic spacer, nuclear ribosomal internal transcribed spacer and two low-copy nuclear genes (tpi and cam) in these taxa and their putative parental species. Our sequence analysis provides compelling evidence for the hybrid status of the two semi-creeping taxa: one originating from hybridization between M. dodecandrum and M. malabathricum, and the other between M. dodecandrum and M. normale. The origins of these hybrids are therefore clearly different from M. intermedium, and morphological similarity for the three hybrids is most likely due to their origins from hybridization between the same creeping species M. dodecandrum and a different erect species in each of the three cases. We also observed low rate of introgression from M. normale to M. dodecandrum, and genetic exchange between them may transfer adaptive traits to M. dodecandrum. Rare occurrence of these two hybrids may be due to small range overlaps between parental species in one case, and different flowering periods between parental species in the other.Inferring the origins of hybrid taxa based on morphology alone is difficult because morphologically similar hybrids can arise from hybridization between different populations of the same parental species or be produced by hybridization of different parental species. In this study, we investigated the origins of two semi-creeping taxa in  Natural hybridization is pervasive in flowering plants and it can generate evolutionary novelty through the formation of hybrid lineages or interspecific introgression . When onMelastoma, a shrub genus distributed in tropical Asia and Oceania, has undergone rapid adaptive radiation, with more than 20 species diversified during the last one million years  as M. intermedium, but there are subtle morphological differences between these three semi-creeping taxa: the taxon found in Ruyuan and M. intermedium have very short appressed scales on the young twigs, while the taxon found in Xinyi has spreading bristles on the young twigs. The taxon found in Xinyi and M. intermedium has oblong leaves and strigose upper surfaces, while the taxon found in Ruyuan possesses lanceolate leaves and subglabrous upper surfaces . We sequenced one chloroplast intergenic spacer, nuclear ribosomal internal transcribed spacer (nrITS) and two low-copy nuclear genes (tpi and cam) to investigate the taxonomic status of the two newly found semi-creeping Melastoma taxa. Because introgression is a common consequence of hybridization and can contribute to transfer of adaptation  in Tianjingshan, Ruyuan, Guangdong, China, and one population each of M. dodecandrum, M. normale, and the other unidentified taxon (DN) in Dawuling, Xinyi, Guangdong. All three erect species occur in open habitats, while M. dodecandrum prefers slightly shady habitats. DM occurs along several trailsides near Tianjinshan, Ruyuan, with the elevations of 500–700 m. DN was found along the roadside in the Dawuling Nature Reserve, Xinyi, at an altitude of about 900–1000 m. It seems that both locations have experienced human disturbance due to road or trail constructions. Only four to five samples of the unidentified taxa were collected due to their scarcity in both locations. The sampling details are shown in Table 1. To test whether the two unidentified taxa are M. intermedium or not, we also collected samples of M. candidum from Ziyun Park, Longhai, Fujian, China. Morphological comparisons of these taxa are shown in Figure 1 and Supplementary Figures We sampled one population each of trnL-trnF intergenic spacer and nrITS regions using the universal primers trn-c and trn-f (tpi and cam), which encode triose phosphate isomerase and calmodulin, respectively, were PCR-amplified and sequenced using the primer sequences from KY798014–KY798110.We extracted genomic DNA from dried leaf tissue using the CTAB method . We amplnd trn-f , and ITSnd trn-f , respect1 to resolve the relationships among the haplotypes of each locus.We edited the sequences using SeqMan  and aligned them using Clustal X . The haptrnL-trnF in all samples was 825 bp. We detected four nucleotide substitutions and one insertion/deletion (indel) in these samples, which generated five haplotypes . In each of the two populations (Ruyuan and Xinyi) of M. dodecandrum, we observed the same two haplotypes (T1 and T2), with one mutational step between them. For the three other species, M. malabathricum, M. normale, and M. candidum, only one unique haplotype for each species was detected. Melastoma dodecandrum, M. malabathricum, M. normale, and M. candidum can be distinguished from each other because there were no shared haplotypes between them. There were at least two mutational steps between haplotypes of any two of the putative parental species. As for DM and DN, no private haplotypes were found. Three of the five individuals of DM shared the haplotype with M. malabathricum, and the remaining two individuals shared the haplotypes of M. dodecandrum. All four individuals of DN had the same haplotype as M. normale . No intraspecific variation was found for M. malabathricum, M. normale, and M. candidum, and they shared the same haplotype I3. Except one individual of M. dodecandrum from Xinyi population, which had the I3 haplotype , both populations (Ruyuan and Xinyi) of M. dodecandrum had two haplotypes, I1 and I2. Only one mutational step existed between I1 and I2. There were six mutational steps between haplotype I3 and the haplotypes of M. dodecandrum (I1 and I2). All the sampled individuals of DM and DN were heterozygous at this region, with all four individuals of DM possessing I1 and I2, and all five individuals of DN possessing I1 and I3 .The length of nrITS regions in the six taxa of tpi– The partial tpi gene was 703 bp in length after sequence alignment. A total of 32 variable sites at this gene were detected. There were 11 differentially fixed sites between M. malabathricum and M. dodecandrum from Ruyuan, and on each of these sites, DM showed chromatogram signal additivity . Haplotypes of M. normale formed two highly divergent groups. All the haplotypes detected in DM were shared with M. dodecandrum from Ruyuan and M. malabathricum  between M. normale and M. dodecandrum from Xinyi, and on this site, DN showed chromatogram signal additivity. However, no differentially fixed sites were observed between M. malabathricum and M. dodecandrum from Ruyuan. In the haplotype analysis, M. dodecandrum and M. malabathricum showed more haplotypes than M. normale and M. candidum. Although M. malabathricum, M. normale, and M. candidum did not form their own distinct clusters, no shared haplotypes were observed between any two species. Two haplotypes of M. malabathricum (M8 and M9) were more closely related to those of M. normale, and one haplotype of M. normale (N4) was more closely related to those of M. candidum. All the haplotypes identified in DN were shared with M. dodecandrum from Xinyi and M. normale, while three of eight haplotypes detected in DM were shared with M. dodecandrum from Ruyuan and M. malabathricum. Two and three private haplotypes were closely related to those of M. dodecandrum and M. malabathricum, respectively.Melastoma (DM and DN) sampled in this study resemble another previously identified hybrid M. intermedium in morphology, but we were not certain if they had the same origin or not. In this study, we obtained sequence data from chloroplast DNA and nuclear DNA to clarify their taxonomic status. At the chloroplast locus, the individuals of DM had the same haplotype as either M. malabathricum or M. dodecandrum, and those of DN had identical haplotype with M. normale only. At all three nuclear loci, each individual of DN had two haplotypes, each matching those of M. dodecandrum and M. normale (Table 2). At two of the three nuclear loci, each individual of DM had two haplotypes, each matching those of M. dodecandrum and M. malabathricum. Although DM had several private haplotypes at the cam gene, these private haplotypes were clustered together with those of M. dodecandrum or M. malabathricum. Considering that M. dodecandrum and M. malabathricum had relatively high levels of polymorphism at this gene, unsampled polymorphisms in the parental species are likely to have produced this pattern. Of course, we could not exclude the possibility of new mutations occurring in DM. Therefore, molecular data in our study provided compelling evidence for the hybrid status of the two semi-creeping taxa of Melastoma. The two hybrids originated from hybridization between M. dodecandrum and M. malabathricum (DM), and between M. dodecandrum and M. normale (DN), different from the origins of M. intermedium. Morphological similarity for the three hybrids is due likely to their origins from hybridization between the same creeping species, M. dodecandrum, and a different erect species, in each of the three cases. Because all the individuals of the two hybrids had two divergent haplotypes corresponding to their parental species at each of the three nuclear loci, they were all probably F1 hybrids. It is also possible that they are later-generation hybrids but more nuclear loci should be analyzed to be certain.The two semi-creeping taxa of Melastoma species , providing temporal opportunity for hybridization to occur. Human disturbance due to road or trail constructions may also facilitate the occurrence of hybridization between them. From our observations at the sampling sites, the two newly-discovered hybrids from Xinyi and Ruyuan, as well as the more common M. intermedium, were growing alongside their parental species, suggesting no niche shifts in the hybrids.Previous studies have also identified natural hybridization in other combinations of  species . Along welastoma . As for Melastoma dodecandrum can hybridize with the three other congeneric species, however, the number of individuals for each hybrid is very small, suggesting strong reproductive isolation between M. dodecandrum and the three other species. Strong reproductive isolation, however, does not completely hinder interspecific introgression. One individual of M. dodecandrum in Xinyi population had the same nrITS haplotype (I3) as the three other species. Haplotype sharing for this individual is due more likely to introgression from the sympatric M. normale rather than to ancestral polymorphism in M. dodecandrum, as reasoned here. First, the nrITS haplotypes of 39 out of 40 M. dodecandrum individuals (I1 and I2) are highly divergent from that of the three other species (I3), with six mutational steps between them. Second, only two haplotypes (I1 and I2) were observed in all 20 individuals of M. dodecandrum from Ruyuan. If the extra haplotype (I3) present in the M. dodecandrum individual had been due to ancestral polymorphism, we would expect the same haplotype to also be observed in the M. dodecandrum population from Ruyuan. We detected introgression to only one individual of M. dodecandrum from M. normale at only the nrITS locus, suggesting a low rate of introgression to M. dodecandrum from M. normale. Interestingly, this individual was also homozygous at the nrITS locus, which can be attributed to concerted evolution after hybridization, rapidly homogenizing the nrITS copies within a genome. Concerted evolution of the nrITS region can be observed in as early as the F2 generation (M. dodecandrum does not have alleles of M. normale at other loci we studied, it must be a later-generation hybrid. Therefore, it is probable that rapid concerted evolution resulted in the homogenization of the M. normale nrITS copy in the individual. Even at a low level of introgression, adaptive alleles and corresponding adaptive traits may be transferred from one species to another, likely contributing to adaptation to various environments (Melastoma can be further explored with genomic scanning in the future.A common outcome of interspecific hybridization is introgression. Although most introgressed loci are neutral, a few loci related to adaptation can be transferred from one species to another and thus lead to rapid adaptation of the recipient species to new environments . Melastoneration . Becauseronments . The extRZ, QF, and YL designed the study. RZ, QF, YL, SD, PZ and ZN collected materials, and experiments were performed by PZ and SW. RZ, QF, YL, SD and ZN guided the experiments. PZ analyzed and interpreted the data and wrote the manuscript with guidance of RZ, WLN, and WW. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.


There was a mistake in one of the papers referenced as published. Originally we cited: Hare, R.D., and Vertommen, H. (2003). The Hare Psychopathy Checklist-Revised. Toronto, ON: Multi-Health Systems.This citation is inaccurate. The reference should appear as:Hare, R. D. (2003). The Hare Psychopathy Checklist-Revised, 2nd Edn. Toronto, ON: Multi-Health Systems.Additionally, the paper is cited in the text multiple times on page 2. The in-text citations should appear as Hare .The authors apologize for the mistake. This error does not change the scientific conclusions of the article in any way.The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.


Toxins editorial team, we are happy to report that the impact factor for Toxins for 2015 is 3.571, 5-year impact factor: 3.942, which places the journal at a ranking of 16th out of 89 journals covering the field of toxicology. Both the number of submissions and the number of articles published . In 2017, a historical perspective and guidelines for Botulinum Neurotoxin subtype nomenclature by Michael W. Peck et al. (http://www.mdpi.com/2072-6651/9/1/38), as well as an interview with Jay Fox and José Maria Gutiérrez on snake venom metalloproteinases (http://www.mdpi.com/2072-6651/9/1/33) have been published. We would welcome additional submissions on clarification of toxin nomenclature. In 2016, we implemented double blind peer-review for all papers submitted to the journal. In this procedure, authors’ names are not known to the reviewers and reviewers’ names are not known to the authors until publication of the paper. We feel this procedure reduces bias in the review process without significantly adding time from receipt of a manuscript to posting the accepted paper on the Toxins as a forum for civil discourse on issues impacting toxinology. The two most accessed papers from 2016 are two original research articles: The Snake with the Scorpion’s Sting: Novel Three-Finger Toxin Sodium Channel Activators from the Venom of the Long-Glanded Blue Coral Snake  by Bryan G. Fry, et al., and Cyanobacterial Neurotoxin BMAA and Mercury in Sharks by Deborah C. Mash, et al.In 2016, we published five comments on previously published papers and welcome further comments, recommending Toxins webpage, and printed versions can be ordered at http://www.mdpi.com/books/library or Applebook and Amazon. We are always open to discuss your proposals for new book topics in 2017. We sponsored six conferences in 2016 and we published reports on presentations from two conferences: the 5th International Symposium on Mycotoxins and Toxigenic Moulds: Challenges and Perspectives (MYTOX) and the Hinxton Retreat on Mechanisms to Reverse the Public Health Neglect of Snakebite Victims. We look forward to continuing to support scientific presentations in 2017 and please keep the journal in mind as a resource for communicating meeting presentations to a broader audience. In 2017, we provided travel award support for three post-doctoral fellows/senior graduate students to present their work at international toxinology conferences, and further details of the winners are announced at http://www.mdpi.com/journal/toxins/awards. We congratulate Dr. Marco Pirazzini, Dr. Natalie Saez and Ms. Rachel A. Miller on winning the 2017 Toxins Travel Awards.In 2016, we also published two books: Enterotoxins: Microbial Proteins and Host Cell Dysregulation, edited by Dr. Teresa Krakauer, and Harmful Algal Blooms (HABs) and Public Health: Progress and Current Challenges, edited by Drs. Lesley V. D’Anglada, Elizabeth D. Hilborn, and Lorraine C. Backer. The e-book versions may be downloaded free of charge from the Toxins. We are also grateful to Dr. Sarah De Saeger and Dr. Vitor Vasconcelos who will replace Dr. Manderville and Dr. Berry as Section Editors-in-Chief for Mycotoxins, and Marine and Freshwater Toxins, respectively (Toxins are indeed fortunate that such prestigious scientists volunteer their time and effort to serve investigators in the toxinology field.We gratefully acknowledge the outstanding service of two out-going Section Editors, Dr. Richard A. Manderville, Section Editor-in-Chief for Mycotoxins, and Dr. John P. Berry, Section Editor-in-Chief for Marine and Freshwater Toxins. The numbers of excellent papers on mycotoxins and marine and freshwater toxins published during the tenure of Dr. Manderville and Dr. Berry attest to their hard work as Section Editors in maintaining high standards for the readers of ectively . Dr. De Toxins webpage design. The site has been redesigned to provide more information on the homepage, including fast access to the latest articles, access to recent articles of high interest, information on upcoming conferences, and quick links to Special Issues, topical collections, conference reports and books. Go to “Journal Browser” and click on Volume 8, where you will see we have begun designing volume covers for each monthly issue. You may find your favorite venomous critter or toxigenic microorganism on the cover! In 2017, we will also start posting research job adverts on the journal homepage. You are welcome to contact us for posting your vacancies.Finally, take a look at the new Toxins. Your support of the journal has been fantastic. It is through your efforts that the journal continues to be a useful resource for investigators, students and the lay public. We are greatly appreciative of your hard work. By all means, do not hesitate to contact us with ideas, criticisms, words of wisdom, etc., on how to better serve the toxinology research community.In closing, it has been a great year at


The affiliation for the last author is incorrect. Liu Wenhua is not affiliated with #2 but with #1 College of Science Shantou University, Shantou, Guangdong, P.R. China.There are errors in the caption for


Diseases caused by mosquito-borne pathogens remain an important source of morbidity and mortality in Bangladesh. To better control the vectors that transmit the agents of disease, and hence the diseases they cause, and to appreciate the diversity of the family Culicidae, it is important to have an up-to-date list of the species present in the country. Original records were collected from a literature review to compile a list of the species recorded in Bangladesh.Anopheles pseudowillmori, Armigeres malayi and Mimomyia luzonensis.Records for 123 species were collected, although some species had only a single record. This is an increase of ten species over the most recent complete list, compiled nearly 30 years ago. Collection records of three additional species are included here: While this work constitutes the most complete list of mosquito species collected in Bangladesh, further work is needed to refine this list and understand the distributions of those species within the country. Improved morphological and molecular methods of identification will allow the refinement of this list in years to come. Several diseases in Bangladesh are caused by mosquito-borne pathogens. Malaria remains an important cause of morbidity and mortality, particularly in the Chittagong Hill tracts and in the border belt areas . LymphatAnopheles mosquitoes of Bangladesh, but no comprehensive list of all species of mosquitoes present in the country has been published for nearly 30 years. Over the decades, deforestation and increased agricultural practices may have altered the diversity and abundance of mosquitoes throughout the country [To this end, previous authors have worked to compile lists of the mosquito species present in Bangladesh, by compiling species records from the country. The mosquitoes of Bangladesh have been recorded in several such lists over the past century. James , Covell  country –16. TherPubMed and the US Armed Forces Pest Management Board Literature Retrieval Service (before it was terminated), were searched using the terms “mosquito” and “Bangladesh.” Articles found were searched for the descriptions of the original collections of mosquitoes identified to species. Articles only citing another article’s collections (second-hand accounts) were not included. The reference list of collected articles was searched for additional articles. National libraries of Bangladesh were also searched for articles. All articles were entered onto a spreadsheet to facilitate calculation of the number of species and the number of records for each species.Additionally, one of us (HMA) provided records from studies that included the use of light traps , resting collections and BG-Sentinel traps  (publications in preparation). The descriptions of the collection sites are provided in the discussion below.Aedes species follow the classification provided by Wilkerson et al. [International Code of Zoological Nomenclature, the authorship and date of species names enclosed in parentheses indicate that the species was originally described as a member of a genus other than the one in which it is currently placed, e.g. Aedes aegypti  was originally described as Culex aegypti Linnaeus, 1762. The numbers following species names refer to articles where the records were published.Records were found for 123 species of Culicidae reported from Bangladesh. The records ranged in date from 1908 to 2016. These species are listed below, alphabetically by genus, subgenus, and species. n et al. , whereasn et al. . In accoA need for improved knowledge of the mosquito species present in Bangladesh has led to the updated list presented here. In some cases previously known species have been found to be species complexes, while in other cases the names of species have been changed or subspecies elevated to species status. In several cases, new collections have resulted in species representing new country records being added to the list.Anopheles species complexes that are worthy of note here include the Subpictus, Culicifacies, Sundaicus, Annularis, Barbirostris, Fluviatilis, Maculatus, Minimus, and Dirus Complexes. The Subpictus Complex includes four sibling species , which are distinguishable based on morphological, chromosomal, and molecular differences [Anopheles culicifacies is an important malaria vector in the Indian Sub-continent, but its importance in Bangladesh appears to be limited. The Culicifacies Complex is comprised of species A, B, C, D, and E [An. sundaicus, An. epiroticus, An. sundaicus D, and An. sundaicus E [An. epiroticus is most likely the species present in coastal areas of Bangladesh, due to the limited geographic provenance of the other species, this awaits confirmation using molecular methods [Anopheles annularis is a complex of two species, A and B [Anopheles maculatus is comprised of chromosomal forms B and E [An. barbirostris  (s.l.) has been reported from Bangladesh, but it is clear that more work is needed to know which species of the complex are present in the country. The Minimus Complex includes three species: An. harrisoni, An. minimus and An. yaeyamaensis (known only from Japan). Anopheles minimus (s.l.) has been found in Bangladesh [An. harrisoni (previously known as species C) is present in the country [An. baimaii is the species present in Bangladesh [Among the listed mosquitoes, ferences , 130. AsD, and E . Little D, and E , 63, butD, and E . The Sundaicus E . While i methods . Anophel A and B , which c A and B . The Flu A and B , but it  B and E , 137. Ro B and E  stated t B and E , 140. On country . Finallyngladesh , 142.Anopheles gigas var. baileyi was elevated to species status by Harrison et al. [Anopheles baileyi. Similarly, Anopheles maculatus var. willmori (as willmorei) was restored to species status by Rattanarithikul & Green [An. willmori. Anopheles pseudojamesi is the current name (senior synonym) of the formerly accepted An. ramsayi [Culex afridi was synonymized with Cx. infula [Culex quinquefasciatus was listed as “Culex pipiens quinquefasciatus” in the list provided by Ahmed, but Cx. quinquefasciatus is now accepted as a distinct species [Cx. fuscanus and Cx. halifaxii are now included in the genus Lutzia as Lt. fuscana and Lt. halifaxii, respectively [Some of the species included in the most recent previous list published by Ahmed  have undn et al.  and is n & Green  and is n ramsayi . Culex a. infula . Culex q species , 146. Thectively .Ae. gardnerii imitator were collected from a tree hole in a botanical garden in Dhaka during 2004 [Ar. kesseli were taken in resting collections and light traps in Rajshahi Division [Ar. theobaldi were collected in a forested area in Habiganj district (Sylhet Division) [Culex annulus has been collected in Habiganj and Moulavibazar districts in Sylhet Division, as well as on St. Martin’s Island, and in the Sundarbans [Ma. annulata and three of Ur. rampae were collected in light traps in Rajshahi Division [Culex fragilis was collected in resting catches in Patrokhola tea garden, Moulavibazar (Sylhet Division) [Anopheles pseudowillmori were collected in light traps placed in a room with sleeping people (18:00 to 06:00). Nine specimens were collected in Kuhalong and Rajbila unions of Bandarban district between 2009 and 2012. Three Ar. malayi females were collected in BG-Sentinel traps that were placed indoors in Rajshahi and Chapai Nawabganj districts between November 2014 and September 2015. Mimomyia luzonensis was collected using the same method in Dhaka and Chapai Nawabganj districts, and four specimens were collected between September 2014 and September 2015.There are a number of species that have only been reported in Bangladesh since the list of Ahmed . Larvae ing 2004 . Adults Division , and aduivision) . Culex andarbans , 47, 48.Division . Culex fivision) . AdditioAe. pipersalatus with reference to Barraud [Ae. pipersalatus in Bangladesh were found, we have removed this species from the list of species known to occur in the country. We have also removed the separate listing of An. gigas subspecies simlensis [An. gigas in the species list.Two species listed in Ahmed  are excl Barraud . In the  Barraud . There iimlensis , which himlensis , as it iArmigeres obturbans has been listed in several records, but it appears that this species was regularly confused with the common Ar. subalbatus. Furthermore, Thurman [Ar. obturbans is limited to Sulawesi, so it seems likely that the records for Ar. obturbans in Bangladesh refer to Ar. subalbatus. We have therefore removed Ar. obturbans from the species list for Bangladesh. Thurman  noted thAe. thomsoni, Ae. pseudotaeniatus, Ae. reginae, Ae. albolateralis, Ae. imprimens, Ae. vittatus, Ae. iyengari, Ae. desmotes, Ae. gardnerii imitator, An. barbumbrosus, Ar. kesseli, Ar. theobaldi, Ar. annulitarsis, Ar. dentatus, Ar. inchoatus, Ar. omissus, Cx. fragilis, Cx. theileri, Cx. vagans, Cx. pullus, Cx. minutissimus, Hz. covelli, Ml. jacobsoni, Ma. annulata, Tx. bengalensis, Ur. novobscura, and Ur. rampae. While several of these species represent recent records for Bangladesh, others, such as Ae. pseudotaeniatus, Ae. reginae, Ae. albolateralis, Ae. imprimens, Ae. vittatus, Ae. iyengari, Cx. pullus, Hz. covelli, and Ml. jacobsoni, have not been found in Bangladesh in the past 50 years. Further collections, particularly of culicines, would be helpful in improving our knowledge of the species that are present in the country.The inclusion of certain species in previous lists was the result of single records. This was the case for The list provided here is the most complete list compiled since the work of Ahmed , nearly


Phyllodistomum Braun, 1899. The Eurasian ruffe, Gymnocephalus cernuus L., has been recorded as a definitive host for Phyllodistomum folium , P. angulatum Linstow, 1907 and P. megalorchis Nybelin, 1926 and as the type-host for P. pseudofolium Nybelin (1926). A wide range of other host fishes have been recorded for these species as well. All present host records have been based on light microscopy and the life-cycles of P. pseudofolium, P. angulatum and P. megalorchis are unknown. The validity of P. pseudofolium and P. megalorchis require verification. In this study, rDNA sequences generated from adult Phyllodistomum spp., as well as from larval stages developing in Pisidium amnicum Müller, were analysed to establish the real number of Phyllodistomum species utilizing G. cernuus, and to associate larvae with the corresponding adult forms.Host-specificity patterns are not well-defined for trematodes of the genus Phyllodistomum spp. based on ITS2 and partial 28S rDNA data allowed the confirmation of the validity of P. pseudofolium. A macrocercous cercaria, known as Phyllodistomum sp. from P. amnicum is genetically identical to adult P. pseudofolium. Phyllodistomum megalorchis obtained from its type-host, Lota lota L., showed no genetic differences from P. angulatum parasitizing Sander lucioperca L. In our analysis, P. pseudofolium, P. angulatum and P. macrocotyle formed a highly supported clade despite the fact that these species appear to be associated with distinct patterns of first intermediate host identity and cercarial morphology. Some morphological differences between gravid specimens of P. pseudofolium and P. angulatum were observed and their SEM tegumental surface topography is described.Phylogenetic analyses of adult and larval stages of Phyllodistomum is independent of host phylogeny. This study suggests strict host-specificity (oioxeny) for P. pseudofolium using one first intermediate host species (P. amnicum) and one definitive host species (G. cernuus). Phyllodistomum megalorchis is to be regarded as a synonym of P. angulatum. The close phylogenetic relatives, P. pseudofolium and P. angulatum, can be differentiated by morphological traits, the micromorphology and tegumental surface topography of these two species is intended to provide useful data for their identification and support the use of such features as a valuable taxonomic criterion. Molecular data showed that G. cernuus is a definitive host for two species: the oioxenous P. pseudofolium and the euryxenous P. folium.The results lead us to the perception that macroevolutionary host switching in the genus  Host specificity is arguably one of the most important properties of parasitic organisms. Several definitive and intermediate hosts can be involved in helminth life-cycles, thereby complicating the pattern of specificity. Molecular analysis has often shown that species of parasites once thought to be generalists (euryxenic or stenoxenic) were, in reality, complexes of specialist (oioxenic) species generally recognized as cryptic species see , 2). As . As 2]).Phyllodistomum Braun, 1899 (Gorgoderidae) contains around 120 species, which typically inhabit the urinary bladder and/or ureters of both marine and freshwater fishes, more rarely amphibians , but rarely in G. cernuus . Th. ThPhylluus  identified as P. folium, which replaced Olfers’s , which are distinguished by their shape  and partly by their location. In reality, we can assume, based on our SEM observations, that it is possible to identify only two types of papillae, ciliate and aciliate. The shape of ‘other types’ of papillae may depend on the level of surface invaginations in various Phyllodistomum spp., as sensory endings localized within the tegumental syncytial cytoplasm tend to look like surface outgrowths under SEM. The type of sensory papillae can be identified correctly using transmission electron microscopy, since, by using this technique, it is possible to determine the nature of the sensory endings and, hence, their classification. Nevertheless, as in the present SEM study of P. angulatum and P. pseudofolium, only one type of sensory papillae was reported for P. folium by Bakke & Zdarska [The SEM observations of adult to Bakke , 40, the Zdarska .P. angulatum and P. pseudofolium revealed different patterns in the regular arrangement of papillae. Thus, P. angulatum is characterized by 20 papillae around the oral sucker ; the size of the papillae decreases from outer to inner rings with their smaller size within sucker. Yet, in P. pseudofolium, 16 uniformly-sized papillae are associated with the oral sucker . Additionally, 6 secretory pores surround the oral sucker of P. pseudofolium. The ventral sucker is a dynamic structure. The non-retracted ventral sucker of P. angulatum has six large characteristic papillae and four smaller irregular papillae. On the partly retracted ventral sucker of P. pseudofolium, four uniformly-sized papillae were observed, while all these papillae on the ventral sucker are hidden inside the retracted ventral sucker. How many papillae are hidden inside the partly retracted ventral sucker of P. pseudofolium could only be established from SEM of non-retracted ventral suckers. Unfortunately, there were no specimens of P. pseudofolium examined by SEM where the ventral sucker was not in a retracted position, so additional study is needed here. A few papillae are scattered irregularly on the ventral surface of the forebody of P. angulatum; this region of P. pseudofolium is characterized by the presence of four symmetrically longitudinal rows of papillae, two ventro-lateral rows of five large papillae and two lateral rows of eight smallest papillae. Finally, a notch at the posterior extremity of the body in P. angulatum is equally visible in both dorsal and ventral views, while in P. pseudofolium the notch is visible only in dorsal view.The present SEM of the surface topography of S. lucioperca and G. cernuus. On the basis of a comparative analysis of the arrangement of papillae in other species belonging to the genus Phyllodistomum which have been studied using the SEM, i.e. P. umblae [P. folium [P. funduli [P. inecoli [P. cribbi and P. wallacei [P. spinopapillatum [Judging from the present SEM results, the specific arrangement of the papillae found in each of these two species can be used as a basis for the identification of specimens from the urinary system of . umblae –40, P. f. folium , P. fund funduli , P. inec inecoli , P. cribwallacei  and P. spillatum , it is aPhyllodistomum species with complicated taxonomic history and to clarify their life-cycles. However, it is necessary to collect many more samples from different hosts for molecular studies to evaluate host specificity patterns in Phyllodistomum spp. Comparative molecular studies accompanied by morphological analysis of Phyllodistomum spp. enable plausible recognizing and delimitation of species. For now, we can state that European Phyllodistomum spp. differ greatly in their degree of host specificity. Species comprising well-supported clades in molecular phylogeny do not necessarily follow the same life-history patterns. The new data on the validity, host specificity and life-cycles of phyllodistomes, as well as species-specific markers obtained in this study, will be valuable for phylogenetic revision of the genus Phyllodistomum. This study showed that G. cernuus is the definitive host for two Phyllodistomum species: the oioxenous P. pseudofolium and the euryxenous P. folium. All other Phyllodistomum spp. detected in G. cernuus could be the result of incorrect identification by light microscopy and should be revised considering molecular markers.Recent DNA studies provide a new approach to unravel the taxonomic status of nominal


Dioscorea is one such tuber, having maximum use among the local of SBR. However, less documentation and no specific reports are available on the food and medicinal values of the species available in this part of the World. Dioscorea species, popularly known as Yam worldwide and as Ban Aalu in Odisha, India, is a prime staple medicinal-food substitute for the majority of rural and local people of the state of India. Of the 13 Dioscorea species available in SBR, 10 species are known to be bitter in taste and unpalatable when taken raw. Since less documentation is available on the Dioscorea species of SBR and their traditional uses, the present study was focused on the ethnobotany, nutritional and pharmacological values of these species along its nutraceutical importance.A number of wild crops remain unexplored in this world and among them some have excellent medicinal and nutritional properties. India is a harbor of biodiversity in general and phytodiversity in particular. The plant diversity is distributed from the Western Ghats to Eastern Ghats, along with the North-Eastern region and from the Greater Himalayas to the plain of Ganga. Among these distributed floral regions of the country, the Eastern Ghats are important due to their rich floral diversity. The forests of Odisha form a major part of Eastern Ghats in general and the Similipal Biosphere Reserve (SBR) in particular. The SBR is inhabited by many local communities. The food and medicinal habits of these communities are not fully explored even today. They are dependent on the forests of SBR for their food and medicine. Among their collections from forests, root and tuberous plants play a significant role. The local communities of SBR use about 89 types of tuberous plants for various purposes.  Food and health for all are major challenges for the developing countries this century. These challenges need to be addressed robustly. Scientific researchers can find practical solutions by searching for alternate sources of food and medicines. India is rich in phytodiversity, with about 45,000 plant species from the Western Ghats to Eastern Ghats along with the North-Eastern region and from the Greater Himalayas to the plain of Ganga. The forests of Odisha form a major part of the Eastern Ghats  species play a prime role in providing food and medicinal requirements for the local communities , D. pentaphylla L. (Panja Sanga), D. hispida Dennst. , D. alata L. , D. oppositifolia L. , D. pubera Blume (Kukai Sanga) etc. Ten species are known to be bitter in taste or unpalatable when taken raw. The rural and local people who use them as food supplements make them edible by different traditional practices. While investigating traditional food systems and palatability of Dioscorea species available in SBR, it was observed that tubers are mostly soaked overnight in water or left overnight in stream and subjected to successive boiling to remove the bitterness  and buffer zones  composed of 16 forest ranges surrounded by a transitional zone . The average elevation is 559.31 meters , which rises to about 1166 meters above sea level. Durdurchampa (1009 meters) and Chahala (775 meters) are the other important hills of the area  species is Dioscorea species is D. alata L.  distributed throughout the country, and rich in Odisha. In SBR the species is dominating in peripheral areas such as Jashipur, Karanjia, Hatibadi, Manda, and Bisoi  is distributed mainly in areas like the Himalayas, Sikkim, Assam, Northern Bengal, Western Ghats, Jharkhand, Bihar, Upper Gangetic Plain, Kerela, Wayanad, Udupi, and Andhra Pradesh of the country. In SBR, its population is rich in Kasipani, Kolha, Gurguria, and Ghatkumari. It is very frequent in Bangriposi Ghati and Gurguria forest range . It is distributed mainly in the forest patches of Eastern Ghats to the lower Himalayas in the Indian subcontinent. In SBR, It is widely distributed in Bangriposi Ghati, Gurguria, Sanuski, Nawana, Bakua, Kukurbhuka, Kalika Parsad and surrounding areas  is distributed in Deccan, Western Himalayas, Rajasthan, Nasik, and Odisha states of the country. In SBR, it is rich in the hill slopes of Gurguria, Sanuski, Bangriposi, Ghatkumari, Astakumar, Nawana, and Joranda  is distributed throughout the mountainous areas of the country. It is very common in Odisha, Jharkhand, Andhra Pradesh and Telangana states. In SBR, it is distributed in the shady buffer and peripheral areas and along the streams, particularly in Ghatkumari and Padampur  is a characteristic peculiar to the particular sections within the genus Dioscorea. The wings present in some species, such as D. alata L.   Pax and D. hirtiflora Benth. might indeed be potential sources of natural antioxidant and antimicrobial agents in Nigeria as reported by Sonibare and Abegunde  bacteria and three fungal strains. Begum and Anbazhakan (D. esculenta (Lour.) Burkill by in vitro-well diffusion assay against E. coli, K. pneumoniae, P. aeruginosa, S. aureus, and Streptococcus pyogenes. The extracts showed significant antibacterial activity against E. coli, P. aeruginosa, and S. aureus, while no activity was observed by the extracts against K. pneumoniae and S. pyogenes.The silver nano-particles synthesized from Abegunde . ChandraAbegunde  documentbazhakan  describeDioscorea species. Hou et al. (D. batatas Decne.) tubers. Hou et al. (D. batatas Decne.) tuber mucilage. In the year 2004, Dong et al.  had antioxidative effects in hyperhomocysteinemia rats. Similarly, Liu et al.  Burkill have also been reported .In the year 2002, Gao et al.  Pax, D. alata L., D. oppositifolia L., and D. rotundata Poir. Avula et al.  Voigt ex Haines as saponins, alkaloids, flavonoids, tannin, and phenols. Yoon et al.  from this genus should be performed carefully by advanced analytical techniques to validate its quality and for conforming its biological potentials. Further studies are also required to address various issues regarding the composition of the extracts used, explicability of the preclinical experiments and lack of conversion of the preclinical results to clinical effectiveness. Attempt should also be made to conduct serious human trails and to determine the mechanism of action, bioavailability, pharmacokinetics and the physiological pathways for various types of bioactive compounds for their potential applications in drug discovery and for curing various life threatening diseases. Studies should also be carried out to utilize the bioactive compounds present in these tubers for formulation of new drugs to fight against pathogenic multidrug resistant microorganisms and antimicrobial resistance. Research on these crops will open up new vistas in the study of biodiversity management for sustainable development, germplasm conservation, pharmacology and many other maiden fields of research in plant science and pharmaceutics.The most important identified compound from Draft preparation: SK, JP, GD, and HS; Paper writing: SK, GD, JP; Editing: JP, HS. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.