Spartina alterniora Loisel was introduced to the eastern coast of China in the 1970s and 1980s for the purposes of land reclamation and the prevention of soil erosion. The resulting interspecific competition had an important influence on the distribution of native vegetation, which makes studying the patterns and mechanisms of the interactions between Spartina alterniora Loisel and the native species Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin ex Steud in this region very important. There have been some researches on the interspecific interactions between P. australis and S. alterniora in the Dongtan wetland of Chongming, east China, most of which has focused on the comparison of their physiological characteristics. In this paper, we conducted a neighbor removal experiment along a tidal gradient to evaluate the relative competitive abilities of the two species by calculating their relative neighbor effect (RNE) index. We also looked at the influence of environmental stress and disturbance on the competitive abilities of the two species by comparing interaction strength (I) among different tidal zones both for P. australis and S. alterniora. Finally, we measured physiological characteristics of the two species to assess the physiological mechanisms behind their different competitive abilities. Both negative and positive interactions were found between P. australis and S. alterniora along the environmental gradient. When the direction of the competitive intensity index for P. australis and S. alterniora was consistent, the competitive or facilitative effect of S. alterniora on P. australis was stronger than that of P. australis on S. alterniora. The interspecific interactions of P. australis and S. alterniora varied with environmental conditions, as well as with the method used, to measure interspecific interactions.The invasive species  One of the major goals of ecology is to understand the forces that generate patterns in natural communities Invasive plants are one of the most serious threats to native species assemblages and have been responsible for the degradation of natural habitats worldwide Salt marshes are ideal for examining plant interspecific interactions along gradients of stress and disturbance Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. ex Steud. (common reed) and Spartina alterniflora Loisel (smooth cordgrass) are two well-known invasive salt marsh species Phragmites australis, a salt marsh species native to the east coast of China, is aggressively invading salt marshes along the Atlantic coast of North America Spartina alterniflora, a grass native to the tidal salt marshes of the southeastern USA, has invaded extensive areas along the Chinese and European coasts and has increased dramatically in distribution and abundance Phragmites australis, and an alien species, Spartina alterniflora. Spartina alterniflora was introduced to the eastern coast of China for the purposes of land reclamation and the prevention of soil erosion in the 1970s and 1980s Scirpus mariqueter, a native species that previously occupied the low tidal zone P. australis within the study area has declined annually. The reduction of P. australis can be attributed to multiple causes including land reclamation and the introduction of alien species. Our aim in studying the interactions between P. australis and S. alterniflora and the implications of these interactions for community structure is to shed light on the extent to which S. alterniflora is responsible for the decline of P. australis.Our study site is a typical tidal marsh in the Chongming Dongtan wetland in the Yangtze River estuary in east China. The marsh plant community at the site is presently dominated by two clonal perennial species: an indigenous species, There are dozens of indices with which to measure competition intensity P. australis and S. alterniflora in different zones. However, we found that the distributions of the two species formed a mosaic pattern across almost the entire intertidal zone. This pattern clearly suggests that eco-physiological tolerances alone might be insufficient to explain the pronounced zonation of the two species across the tidal gradient, and the interactions between the two species might be different in different intertidal habitats. Findings from the natural soil salinity gradient suggest that as salt stress increases, plant distributions in coastal marshes will be less influenced by competition and increasingly influenced by facilitation S. alterniflora and native species P. australis will change with the environmental gradient and species identity P. australis and S. alterniflora in different intertidal habitats? In other words, how does the interspecific relationship vary along the tidal gradient? Which physiological characteristics may contribute to the competitive abilities of the two species?At the Buyugang protection station in the Dongtan wetland within the Yangtze River estuary in Chongming, Shanghai, eastern China, there is an environmental gradient from the seaward edge of the wetland to dike number 98 . Soil saThe field investigation conducted in this study was approved by the Chongming Dongtan Wetland Nature Reserve. Migratory birds are protected in the study area, and we did our best to avoid the bird migration season in the process of the experiment. No protected species were sampled or disturbed.Spartina alterniflora is a perennial rhizomatous C4 grass Spartina alterniflora spreads through both clonal propagation by rhizome and sexual reproduction by seed Spartina alterniflora also has the ability to reproduce sexually and can produce as many as 600 seeds per inflorescence Phragmites australis, which is native to the Dongtan wetland, is a perennial rhizomatous C3 grass P. australis is able to reproduce sexually, it relies primarily on vegetative growth for recruitment. The rhizome systems of P. australis are perennial, tough, rich in fiber, and can spread extensively 2. It increases in size by approximately 500 ha annually through the deposition of sand, silt, and mud by the Yangtze River. The Dongtan wetland is now a natural reserve in China. Tides in this area are semi-diurnal. As a tidal marsh, the Dongtan wetland is very productive and affected by the periodic tides. Due to the repeated flooding, the Dongtan wetland has developed distinct intertidal zones, including a coastal shallow-water zone below the mean low-water line Spartina-dominated community, Spartina and Phragmites mixture, Phragmites-dominated community. In the Buyugang area, located in the northeast of the Dongtan wetland, Phragmites australis and Spartina alterniflora typically co-occur as dominant species. The Phragmites australis and Spartina alterniflora mixture covers approximately three-fourths of the total area distributed across all three tidal zones , which is located at the east end of Chongming Island in the Yangtze River estuary. The Yangtze River is ranked third, fourth, and fifth among the world’s rivers with regard to its length, annual sediment flux, and water discharge to the sea, respectively. Chongming Island is the world’s largest alluvial island, covering 1200 kmal zones .th, 2010, we first measured the elevation of each tidal zone relative to the Wusong Tidal Height datum using an optical level gauge. Next, thirty 10 cm×10 cm×10 cm soil quadrats were placed 100 m apart along line transects within each tidal zone, and soil samples were collected by shovel from each quadrat. On August 10th, 2010, fifty 1×1 m2 plots were established randomly within the study area. The abundance of ramets for P. australis and S. alterniflora was recorded, as well as the height of each ramet in each plot. We considered each ramet as an “individual” of the species in our measurements. In clonal plants, a ramet can be treated as a relatively and potentially independent “individual” r+Hr)/2, where Cr is the relative coverage of the species and Hr is the relative height of the species. These characteristics of P. australis and S. alterniflora were compared using an analysis of variance.On April 10P. australis and S. alterniflora were also collected. We established three 1×1 m2S. alterniflora plots and three 1×1 m2P. australis plots within each tidal zone. Then, the aboveground biomass of P. australis and S. alterniflora was removed using scissors and separated into leaves and stems. Additionally, 100 cm×100 cm×30 cm soil samples were carefully removed with a shovel, and the roots of the two species were separated from the soil using a flushing method. All samples were taken to the laboratory as soon as possible and stored under refrigeration.Samples from the leaves, stems, and roots of P. australis and S. alterniflora . Significant differences in soil salinity, total N, and total P among the different tidal zones were tested via an analysis of variance. NSC, the N and P contents, and the N:P ratio of all three organs of P. australis and S. alterniflora were compared among different tidal zones. Significant differences were tested using an analysis of variance.In the laboratory of the East China Normal University, soil salinity (DDS-11A conductivity meter) and soil total nitrogen (N) and total phosphorus (P)  were measured, as were the non-structural carbohydrates (NSC) (Anthrone colorimetry), N and P contents, and the N:P ratio  of different parts of P. australis and S. alterniflora is slow, and their population densities and culm heights are low. From July to October, the growth of P. australis and S. alterniflora becomes rapid, and their competitive intensity usually reaches its peak at this time. After October, the growth of P. australis and S. alterniflora slows once again and the culms wither gradually. On July 10th, 2011, neighbor removal experiments were conducted in mixed Spartina-Phragmites plots within every tidal zone. The physical conditions of each plot in the same tidal zone were nearly identical. Three treatments were conducted: a control treatment, a Spartina removal treatment in which all of the aboveground parts of S. alterniflora were cut, and a Phragmites removal treatment in which all of the aboveground parts of P. australis were cut. Every month, we used scissors to remove the aboveground biomass of P. australis or S. alterniflora. The belowground parts of the two species intertwined and were difficult to separate relatively intact, so only the aboveground biomass of the neighbors was removed. To avoid the influence of intraspecific competition on interspecific competition as much as possible, 20 1×1 m2 plots in which S. alterniflora was dominant and 20 1×1 m2 plots in which P. australis was dominant were subjectively chosen at each site. In S. alterniflora-dominated plots, 10 plots were chosen randomly as controls, and the remaining 10 plots underwent the S. alterniflora removal treatment. The same approach was used for 20 P. australis-dominated plots. In October, the center of each quadrat (10×10 cm2) was harvested; tillers were sorted to the species level, counted, and measured (height). The aboveground biomass of each species was oven-dried and weighed.From April to June, the growth of P. australis and S. alterniflora. The RNE was calculated as follows:-N is the performance of the target species in the absence of neighbors and T+N is the performance of the target species in the presence of neighbors First, we used the relative neighbor effect index (RNE) 2 is the shoot mass at the end of the experiment, M1 is the shoot mass at the beginning of the experiment, and t2–t1 is the number of days of the experiment.In our experiment, the performance of the target species was defined as the relative growth rate per day (RGR) and the number of newly produced tillers (TNT). The RGR 2 is tiller density at the end of the experiment, D1 is the tiller density at the beginning of the experiment, and t2–t1 is the number of days of the experiment. The RNE was calculated for RGR:Similarly, we defined TNT as follows:+N is the abundance of neighbors surrounding the target plant, T-N is the performance of a target plant grown without neighbors and T+N is the performance of a target plant grown with neighbors 2) was harvested at the start of the experiment. Tillers were sorted to the species level, counted, and measured (height). The aboveground biomass of each species was oven-dried and weighed.To calculate the mean RGR of the target plants, we needed to determine their biomass before the treatments. To estimate this, we established an additional 40 plots that were similar to the other experimental plots. The center of each quadrat  , and the mean density and biomass per plot of S. alterniflora were significantly higher than those of P. australis (P<0.01)  . The mea(P<0.01) .A notable environmental gradient existed in the study site. The relative elevation of the middle tidal zone was higher than both the high and low tidal zones (p<0.01). Soil salinity increased and the N content decreased along the tidal gradient from the high tidal zone to the low tidal zone (p<0.01), but the P content did not change notably between the three intertidal zones (p>0.05) .S. alterniflora were positive in both the control and neighbor removal treatments. The mean RGR of S. alterniflora was significantly (P<0.05) greater in plots with neighbors removed than in plots with neighbors left intact in all three tidal zones. The mean TNT of S. alterniflora was only significantly (P<0.05) greater in plots with neighbors removed than in plots with neighbors left intact in the low tidal zone.In all three tidal zones, the mean RGR and mean TNT of P. australis were negative or positive with different treatments. The mean RGR was significantly (P<0.05) higher in plots with neighbors removed than in plots with neighbors left intact in the low tidal zone and significantly (P<0.05) lower in plots with neighbors removed than in plots with neighbors left intact in the high tidal zone. The mean TNT of P. australis was significantly (P<0.05) lower in plots with neighbors removed than in plots with neighbors left intact in all three tidal zones   .TNT was negative for both P. australis and S. alterniflora in the high and middle tidal zones. The effect of S. alterniflora was stronger than that of P. australis (p<0.01) in the high tidal zone, but the competitive effects of the two species were not significantly different in the middle tidal zone (p>0.01). In the low tidal zone, the RNETNT of P. australis was positive and the RNETNT of S. alterniflora was negative , were compared along the tidal gradient for both RGR of P. australis was positive and that of S. alterniflora was negative in both the high and middle tidal zones. The IRGR was positive for both P. australis and S. alterniflora in the low tidal zone, and the IRGR of S. alterniflora on the target plants was stronger than that of P. australis. The IRGR of P. australis on S. alterniflora decreased over the tidal gradient from the high tidal zone to the low tidal zone. The IRGR of S. alterniflora on P. australis increased over the same tidal gradient , and a significant negative correlation was found between the IRGR of S. alterniflora and the N content . In contrast, a significant negative correlation was found between the IRGR of P. australis and the soil salinity , and a significant positive correlation was found between the IRGR of P. australis and the N content  (The Igradient . A signi p<0.05) .TNT of P. australis was positive and that of S. alterniflora was negative in the low tidal zone. The ITNT of both P. australis and S. alterniflora was negative in the high and middle tidal zones, and the ITNT of S. alterniflora on the target plants was stronger than that of P. australis. The ITNT of P. australis on S. alterniflora was close to zero in all three tidal zones, and the competitive effect of S. alterniflora on P. australis was strongest in the low tidal zone and weakest in the middle tidal zone  and S. alterniflora   .S. alterniflora was significantly higher than that in P. australis (p<0.05) in all three tidal zones. The N and P contents in the leaves and roots of P. australis were significantly higher than those of S. alterniflora (p<0.05), and the P content in the stems of P. australis was significantly lower than that of S. alterniflora in all three tidal zones (p<0.05). The N:P ratios in the leaves and roots of P. australis and S. alterniflora differed among tidal zones, and the N:P ratio in the stems of P. australis was significantly higher than that of S. alterniflora stems in all three tidal zones. Along the tidal gradient (from high to low), both the NSC content in different organs  and the N:P ratio of P. australis and S. alterniflora increased, and the N and P contents in the different organs of the two species decreased. The NSC content and N:P ratio increased more quickly in S. alterniflora than in P. australis, and the N:P ratios of the two species were less than 15, which indicates that N was the limiting element for both species The NSC content in all organs  of Phragmites australis is spreading into North American coastal marshes and has become a dominant species in marsh tidal wetlands of North America Spartina alterniflora is spreading quickly and appears to have a competitive advantage compared to native species in these areas S. alterniflora was significantly greater than that of P. australisS. alterniflora over P. australis in some habitats S. alterniflora and P. australis was a function of different conditions S. alterniflora facilitated the spread of P. australisP. australis and S. alterniflora in the saltmarsh can vary from competitive to facilitative along the tidal gradient. The competitive abilities of P. australis and S. alterniflora changed between tidal zones. A variety of interspecific interactions between P. australis and S. alterniflora in different stress and disturbance conditions can support these conclusions.In the previous studies P. australis on S. alterniflora decreased along the gradient from the high tidal zone to the low tidal zone, whereas the effect of S. alterniflora on P. australis shifted from facilitative to competitive along the same tidal gradient. Moreover, one of the findings of this study is that most interactions between the two species were facilitative for asexual production (tiller production) but competitive or neutral for biomass. This may occur, e.g., if one species can protect the other from wave action to facilitate ramet production but the two species compete for resources  for biomass accumulation. This result was similar to earlier research by Franks, who found that the interactions between Uniola paniculata and Iva imbricata in dunes were facilitative for survival but competitive or neutral for biomass Carex nudata competed with associated species by reducing their biomass but facilitated neighbors by protecting them from mortality during winter disturbances Although some studies have concluded that facilitative interspecific interactions increase with increasing stress and disturbance along an environmental gradient S. alterniflora compared with P. australis might be due to the ability of the former species to use Na+ and NSC for osmotic adjustment in shoots S. alterniflora was greater than that of P. australis in all three tidal zones and increased more quickly than that of P. australis along the tidal gradient from a high tidal zone to a low tidal zone. Because P. australis has a competitive ability to use dissolved organic nitrogen (DON), the increased soil N content enhanced the overall competitive ability of P. australisP. australis produced more shoots per gram of rhizome tissue than S. alterniflora did S. alterniflora and P. australis with soil N and P along the tidal gradient. In our study, the N:P ratio of S. alterniflora increased more quickly than that of P. australis along the tidal gradient from the high tidal zone to the low tidal zone. N limitation for S. alterniflora was weaker than that for P. australis in the low tidal zone. This reduced N limitation serves as an additional competitive advantage for S. alterniflora in this zone.The greater salt tolerance of S. alterniflora and P. australis have been studied widely in their respective invasive areas P. australis by increasing flooding depth, salinity and/or sulfide concentrations has been considered S. alternifloraThe problem of invasive species and their control is one of the most pressing applied issues in ecology today P. australis is high, and it has a competitive dominance over S. alterniflora because grazing disturbance has increased the soil N content in this zone, which is advantageous to the growth and spread of P. australisP. australis in North America showing that shoreline development reduces soil salinities and increases nitrogen availability, both of which promote the invasion of P. australisS. alterniflora replaced P. australis in the relatively low-lying and higher salinity plots in high tidal zones and constructed creekbank levees that may be colonized by P. australisS. alterniflora facilitates the invasion of P. australis into the central marsh. This indicates that S. alterniflora does not have a competitive advantage as an invasive species and does not require control in the high tidal zone. In the middle tidal zone, the competition between P. australis and S. alterniflora was especially intense, and they formed a mosaic of patches. The competitive abilities of P. australis and S. alterniflora were similar in this zone, and dominance depended on the development of the salt marsh. P. australis might have a genetic competitive advantage over S. alterniflora because of its strong I. Therefore, over the long term, P. australis could be more successful if there were no other disturbances. To promote the spread of P. australis in the mixed community and to control the invader S. alterniflora, some artificial measures should be taken to accelerate the natural process. For example, S. alterniflora can be manually removed, and favorable conditions for the growth of P. australis can be created. In the low tidal zone, flood stress and disturbance is generally severe and soil salinity is relatively high, so the competitive ability of S. alterniflora was higher and it dominated in this tidal zone P. australis on S. alterniflora reached its lowest point. Thus, it is difficult to replace S. alterniflora with P. australis in this zone, and managers should focus their attention on the middle tidal zone to control the further spread of S. alterniflora. Presently, S. alterniflora is nearly the only species that can occupy the otherwise bare shoreline habitats of the Dongtan wetland and contributes to siltation and the protection of shoreline areas. In other words, S. alterniflora plays unique and positive roles in these special areas. If S. alterniflora can be kept in these places sustainably and its invasion into middle and high tidal zones can be prevented, we believe that S. alterniflora need not to be thoroughly eradicated from the Dongtan wetland.In the high tidal zone, the competitive ability of Phragmites australis is spreading into North American coastal marshes that are experiencing reduced salinities at the same time that Spartina alterniflora is spreading into northern European brackish marshes that are experiencing increased salinities as land use patterns change on the two continents P. australisP. australis in natural conditions. Thus, the invasion of S. alterniflora has been indirectly influenced by human activity P. australis, S. alterniflora can become rampant. However, according to our results, P. australis has greater competitive ability  and may invade the S. alterniflora zone under natural conditions. Moreover, the Dongtan wetland of Chongming is rapidly growing through the deposition of sand, silt and mud carried by river runoff. With the continuous sedimentation and the increase in elevation P. australis and S. alterniflora will change, especially with the rising elevation of the present low and middle tidal zones. The habitat conditions of the present middle tidal zone will become more similar to the present high tidal zone, which would be advantageous to the spread of P. australis. S. alterniflora would gradually retreat from the presently occupied zones under such a scenario due to the rising elevation of these zones but would still remain a dominant species in the habitats near the shoreline. If S. alterniflora can be sustainably maintained in these originally bare shoreline areas where it can play a protective role, it need not be completely removed from this area. However, its invasion into the middle and high tidal zones needs to be prevented. Established populations there should be removed.In conclusion,


Entoloma species is still poorly known as well as their geographical distribution. In Italy, there are no studies on the influence of weather on fungal abundance and richness and our knowledge on the ecology and distribution of Entoloma species needs to be improved. The discovery of two Entoloma species in Sicily , reported in the literature as belonging to the habitat of north European countries, was the basis leading to the assumption that anomalous climatic conditions could stimulate the growth of northern entolomas in the southernmost Mediterranean regions. The results of this study show that the presence of northern Entoloma species in Sicily is not influenced by the Mediterranean type of vegetation, by edaphic or altitudinal factors but by anomalous climatic trends of precipitations and temperatures which stimulate the fructification of basidiomata in correspondence with a thermal shock during autumn.The biology and ecology of many  Entoloma (Fr.) P. Kummer are characterized by different ecological features and requirements and only few species are considered exclusive to the Mediterranean environment.The taxa belonging to the genus Entoloma species, considered by mycologists as infrequent or rare, Entoloma caeruleum (P.D. Orton) Noordel. and E. plebeioides (Schulzer) Noordel., grows in similar ecological environments such as natural grasslands and nonmanured; intensely grazed cultivated grasslands; hayfields, open Juniperus heaths; dune grasslands with Salix spp. [E. plebeioides [In the wide group of lix spp. . Additiobeioides .E. caeruleum) and Sicily (E. plebeioides) [E. plebeioides in Italy, one of the authors (G. Venturella) came to the conclusion that the presence of such northern Entoloma in a dry region such as Sicily was unusual and probably related to a particular climatic condition of that year [E. plebeioides were subsequently available, any other hypothesis was temporarily shelved. Five years later, the finding of E. caeruleum, also never previously reported in Sicily nor in southern Italy, prompted a more in-depth investigation of the possible correlations between the growth of Entoloma species, usually reported from northern European countries, and the climatic trends in dry Mediterranean regions like Sicily.In Italy, the presence of the above-mentioned entolomas is limited to few and scattered localities of northern Italy (eioides) , 3. Aftehat year . Since nE. plebeioides and 1 of E. caeruleum) were cleaned of forest debris (without washing) with a knife, transported to the laboratory in a paper box and kept at 48°C for 24 h prior to sample preparation. The identification was carried out on fresh basidiomata and the morphological characters of each of the collected specimens were evaluated with a Leica MS5 binocular microscope as follows: colours; pileus; characters of the lamellae, stipe; growth habit; type of basidiomata attachment; spore color. According to the protocol reported in Noordeloos [4OH), 10% Potassium Hydroxide (KOH), and saturated salt solution. The samples were attached to a glass microscope slide for observation  and analysis. Image acquisition was done using a digital camera, incorporating a charge-coupled device (CCD) detector mounted in the optical path of the microscope. Spores sizes were based on at least 10 measurements on spores from the lamellae or stipe surface. The very essential characters of Entoloma species were also evaluated such as the length-width ratio of spores (Q), the presence of tetrasporic or bisporus basidia, the presence or absence of a clamp at the base of basidia, the presence of fertile lamella edge, the presence of cystidia, the type of pileipellis, and the trama structure and pigmentation. The scientific binomials of recorded taxa were referred to http://www.indexfungorum.org/Names/Names.asp. The herbarium specimens were kept in the Herbarium Mediterraneum Panormitanum (PAL).In the years 2001 and 2007, the entoloma's basidiomata were collected during field excursions periodically carried out  by the staff of the Laboratory of Mycology . The mushroom samples . The basidiomata were found, at 600 m a.s.l., on January 10th, 2007, in a mixed wood, in the neighborhood of Collesano, a small town included in the park territory. At the site of collection, the pedological type belongs to the association “Rock outcrop-Lithic xerorthents,” evolved on limestone rocks. The soils are characterized by a basic reaction and a low exchange capacity, fully saturated in calcium [Erico-Quercion ilicis Brullo, Di Martino and Marcenò 1977, with a tree layer represented by Quercus suber L., Q. virgiliana (Ten.) Ten., Q. amplifolia Guss., Q. dalechampii Ten., Q. congesta C. Presl, Q. Xbivoniana Guss., Q. ilex L., and Fraxinus ornus L. The shrub layer is mainly represented by Erica arborea L., Arbutus unedo L., and Genista maderensis Raimondo. calcium . The vegE. plebeioides was collected in a reforested area included in the “Parco della Favorita”  which is part of the urban centre of Palermo. The basidiomata were found, at sea level, on December 15th, 2001, in the glades of a mixed reforestation of Pinus halepensis Miller, Cupressus sempervirens L., C. macrocarpa Hartweg and Cedrus deodara (D. Don) G. Don. The pedological type belongs to the Mediterranean Red Soils  evolved on limestone [Cedrus atlantica (Manetti ex Endl.) Carriére, C. deodara (D. Don) G. Don f., Cupressus arizonica Greene, C. macrocarpa Hartw., C. sempervirens L., Pinus halepensis Mill., and P. pinea L.imestone . The soiIt is well known that fungal abundance and richness depends on weather . All funEntoloma species is still poorly known as well as their geographical distribution [The biology and ecology of many ribution .Entoloma species needs to be improved.In Italy, there are no studies on the influence of weather on fungal abundance and richness, and our knowledge on the ecology and distribution of E. plebeioides in Sicily, previously recorded only in northern Europe, one of the authors (G. Venturella) suggested that this collection could be related to the climatic trend registered in the city of Palermo during the year 2001 [E. caeruleum was collected five years later, under the same climatic conditions of the year 2001, in a different locality one hundred kilometres away from Palermo. E. caeruleum, widely recorded in northern Europe, and never previously reported in Sicily, and up until then only collected in two localities of northern Italy [After the first finding of ear 2001 . E. caerrn Italy  subjecteE. caeruleum, the temperatures of the quarter October-November were characterized by a considerable cooling down of the mean monthly of daily minimum temperatures  and the station of Sclafani Bagni (500 m a.s.l.) were compared. In the year 2006 in Sclafani Bagni, the thermopluviometric station closest to the collection site of eratures . The mineratures  exceeded of soil  from Mar station . On the  station . The preEntoloma species in Sicily is not influenced by the Mediterranean type of vegetation, by edaphic, or by altitudinal factors but by anomalous climatic trends of precipitations and temperatures which stimulate the fructification of basidiomata in correspondence with a thermal shock during autumn.According to the thermopluviometric data, a link between climatic trend and the growth of entolomas in the Mediterranean environments can be identified. The results of this study show that the presence of northern


Wuchereria bancrofti are Anopheles mosquitoes, it is feasible to eliminate LF using Mass Drug Administration (MDA) because of the inability of Anopheles species to transmit low-density microfilaraemia. Even though earlier studies have shown Anopheles species can exhibit the process of Facilitation in West Africa, observations point towards the process of Limitation in certain areas, in which case vector control is recommended. Studies on Anopheles species in West Africa have also shown genetic differentiation, cryptic taxa and speciation, insecticide resistance and the existence of molecular and chromosomal forms, all of which could influence the vectorial capacity of the mosquitoes and ultimately the elimination goal. This paper outlines the uniqueness of LF vectors in West Africa and the challenges it poses to the 2020 elimination goal, based on the current MDA strategies.Lymphatic Filariasis (LF) is targeted for elimination by the Global Programme for the Elimination of Lymphatic Filariasis (GPELF). The strategy adopted is based on the density dependent phenomenon of Facilitation, which hypothesizes that in an area where the vector species transmitting  Wuchereria bancrofti, Brugia malayi or Brugia timori and is presently endemic in 72 countries [Anopheles, Culex, Aedes, Mansonia, Coquillettidia and Ochlerotatus genera are carriers of the LF parasites. In West Africa, Anopheles mosquitoes  are the main vectors of LF [Culex mosquitoes have been suggested as vectors of LF [Culex mosquitoes contribute to the transmission of the disease. Current practices in the management of LF have been influenced by the push for integrated control of NTDs amenable to mass drug administration (MDA) [The January 2012 London declaration on neglected tropical diseases (NTDs) [rs of LF ,4. Althors of LF ,6, the don (MDA) . MDA covon (MDA) . During on (MDA)  because on (MDA) . Prior ton (MDA) ,12-14. UThe Global Programme for the Elimination of Lymphatic Filariasis (GPELF) strategy is based on the mass drug administration (MDA) with Albendazole and either DEC or Ivermectin to reduce circulating microfilariae (mfs) below a threshold level, to break transmission by the disease vectors. The rationale supporting this strategy is based on results of research on vector-parasite systems that determine whether vectors will be effective in picking up and transmitting infection at low microfilaraemia levels . These vMansonia sp., recently reported to harbor infective mf in Ghana [Limitation processes are linked with the fact that the number of parasites per mosquito cannot increase indefinitely. The relationship between mf intake and L3 output is linear at the onset and approaches a constant value or might decrease with increasing mf intake, as a result of excess mortality of vectors caused by ingestion of too many mf ,22. Thusin Ghana . Thus inFacilitation processes on the other hand have been observed in anopheline mosquitoes ,19, whicW. bancrofti is transmitted by Anopheles species, including most endemic areas in Africa, was supported by results in Papua New Guinea (PNG), which showed that transmission by An. punctulatus was virtually eliminated after one year of treatment, even though the frequency of carriers in the human population ranged from 10.5% - 52.7% [An. farauti[Aedes polynesiensis, over 50 years of MDA using DEC did not eliminate LF [Anopheles, there is current growing evidence that in certain areas, Anopheles species may be exhibiting the process of Limitation [The assumption that it will be easy to use MDA alone in areas where  - 52.7% . Also, o. farauti,21. In cinate LF . Despitemitation ,27.W. bancrofti LF might differ from species to species. The major Anopheles vectors of LF in West Africa are An. gambiae s.l, and the An. funestus group [Anopheles species are vectors [An. gambiae complex and An. funestus[Anopheles mosquitoes which are damaged by their cibarial teeth, the percentage of mosquitoes ingesting mf and host mf density and the percentage of mosquitoes infected or mf density per mosquito and numbers of mf per ml of host blood. In their paper that examined the epidemiological significance of these processes, Southgate and Bryan reported the presence of Facilitation in An. gambiae/W. bancrofti from The Gambia, Burkina Faso and Tanzania [An. arabiensis/W. bancrofti when data from The Gambia and Tanzania were combined, the results from Tanzania alone did not indicate Facilitation. This difference in results was attributed to the low numbers of mosquitoes studied. Similarly, the observed non-facilitation for An. melas, An. merus and An. funestus was also attributed to low numbers of mosquitoes examined. However, it is possible that the non-Facilitation observed for these Anopheles/W. bancrofti combinations could have been due to variation in transmission efficiency inherent in the vectors and not necessarily to the low numbers of mosquitoes dissected. Webber commented on the possibility of eradicating anopheline-transmitted filariasis but did not discuss the information on An. melas, An. merus and An. funestus as vectors in Africa [An. gambiae M and S molecular forms and An. melas in an area endemic for LF in Ghana, showed significantly less number of cibarial teeth in the An. melas compared to the M and S forms of the An. gambiae s.s [An. melas (Boakye unpublished reports to WHO).There is diversity among the vectors of LF, and therefore, it may not be practical to generalize based on data from PNG and the Solomon Islands. Threshold levels of microfilaraemia needed for the elimination of anopheline transmitted us group . These s vectors ,28,29, a funestus-32. ThesTanzania . In the n Africa . Recent biae s.s . As suchAnopheles vectors of LF in West Africa is well documented from studies of malaria vectors in this region. Five chromosomal forms namely; “Forest”, “Bissau”, “Bamako”, “Mopti” and “Savannah” have been described [An. gambiae s.s, for example, is believed to be more associated with W. bancrofti[An. gambiae s.s due to observed inversions in the micromorphology of the second chromosome for different populations [Anopheles species in West Africa [The diversity in escribed -35. The bancrofti, and is bancrofti,38. Therulations  and thusulations -35. To at Africa ,41, raist Africa ,43.Anopheles gambiae s.s. Recent evidence also suggests the existence of two distinct chromosomal forms within the M form [Two widespread molecular types, termed M and S forms ,44 have e M form . In Malie M form ,46.kdr mutation had been found distributed in the M and S forms of An. gambiae s.s., [An. gambiae s.s. and An. arabiensis, with multiple-resistance mechanisms observed in West Africa [Anopheles species. Studies have suggested that highly elevated esterases involved in insecticide-resistance may inhibit development of mf in Culex[Anopheles[Insecticide resistance has also been reported among the various vectors of LF on the African continent. The pyrethroid resistance mechanism of ae s.s., -49. DDT t Africa -53. Thes in Culex, and simAnopheles,56.Anopheles vectors of LF in West Africa may also be influenced by climate effects, such as temperature and rainfall, which indirectly may influence the transmission of LF [An. gambiae s.s. in Ghana and the effects on disease distribution, de Souza and colleagues noted that temperature was the key factor affecting the distribution of the M and S forms of the An. gambiae s.s and that the M was significantly correlated with LF, and more prevalent in the high LF areas compared to low LF areas [The variability in diversity of on of LF ,57. In aLF areas . West AfLF areas ,57.A single strategy of MDA has been advocated for the elimination of LF in Africa, notwithstanding the diversity in the vectors of the disease. Some evidence ,60 suggeVector control is an important component of the control of vector-borne diseases. Early efforts, before the era of DDT to control pests and disease vectors, took an ecological approach in the form of physical modification of the environment, chemical control and personal protection . After tMansonia spp. being very efficient vectors of LF, in Ghanaian communities [The GPELF is based on a strategy of MDA with Albendazole and DEC or Ivermectin, with the aim of reducing the parasite load in the human host, thereby preventing transmission, and a target of 80% coverage of the population at risk for at least 5 years  has beenmunities , where tAn. gambiae s.s [An. melas , where An. melas is a more efficient vector than the An. gambiae s.s. Based on these findings we propose a model for the interruption of LF transmission in these different vector areas. Thus, areas with the predominant S form may require fewer MDA treatments. With the M form and An. melas exhibiting possible Limitation [An. melas may require longer treatment periods in addition to vector control measures. The implication of this, should it be tested and proven, will be in its economic importance. As such, in areas where there are high proportions of the An. gambiae S form, LF transmission may be interrupted using 3 to 5 rounds of MDA alone. On the other hand, LF transmission may require more than 5 rounds of MDA, and be complemented with vector control measures in areas with high numbers of An. gambiae M form and An. melas. Areas with equal proportions of M and S forms may also require additional vector control measures. This model, however, needs to be tested and evaluated in different vector areas. Countries like Guinea and Liberia that are yet to start MDA may provide the best settings for testing this model.Furthermore, studies have suggested differing LF transmission efficiencies for the M and S molecular forms of the biae s.s ,36, withmitation  areas wiW. bancrofti transmission in co-endemic areas.In the areas where vector control needs to be implemented, an integrated vector management (IVM) strategy targeted at the major vectors may needs to be adhered to and coordinated with MDA to give the best results at least cost . LF fortAnopheles species are the only vectors of LF in West Africa and 2. Anopheles vectors of W. bancrofti exhibit the vector-parasite process of Facilitation, based on which elimination is feasible through MDA alone. However, the recognition of different LF vectors in West Africa [W. bancrofti in different areas would be of particular interest and could be addressed using field or laboratory models. Nonetheless, despite these challenges, LF control efforts in West Africa should be supplemented with vector control, if the GPELF elimination goals of 2020 are to be achieved in West African countries.The use of current MDA alone campaigns, for LF elimination, in West Africa is based on two assumptions; 1. t Africa , with dit Africa ,27 and dt Africa , all rept Africa . Though t Africa , others t Africa ,27. It iWe declare that we have no conflicts of interest.DKD prepared the initial draft of the manuscript, and all other authors added their contributions and comments. All authors read and approved the final version of the MS.


The second author was incorrectly indicated as the Corresponding Author for the article. In addition, the fifth author, Colin A.B. Jahoda, should be indicated as the Corresponding Author for the article. The fifth author's email address is: colin@jahoda@durham.ac.uk.


An. gambiae s.l. in the intervention areas compared to untreated areas used as controls.In many parts of Africa as in Benin, the main strategies of vector control are based on the scaling-up of Long Lasting Insecticide Treated Nets (LLITNs) and indoor residual spraying (IRS). The need to understand the biological implications of IRS in large scale and full coverage of LLITNs is paramount. It is in this context that the present study was conducted. It aims to evaluate the effect of a large scale IRS using a non-pyrethroid insecticide and full coverage of deltamethrin treated nets on the behavior of An. gambiae s.l. before IRS and LLITNs intervention (2007) and after in 2008 and 2010.Mosquitoes were collected using human landing catches, pyrethrum spray catches and window exit traps to assess reduction of entry rate, endophily rate, endophagy rate and overall mortality rate in natural populations of In the IRS arm, endophily rate was 67.13% before intervention and 4.5% after intervention, whereas in the control arm it was stable at 51.67% (P > 0 .05). In the LLITN arm endophily rates also decreased after intervention. After the IRS, no gravid mosquitoes were collected from all treated localities, but LLITN performance was not that spectacular. The proportion of mosquitoes biting indoors in the IRS arm decreased from 67.09% before intervention to 42.85% after intervention, compared to a low but significant decrease (71.31% to 57. 46%) in the LLITN arm.An. gambiae s.l. inside human dwellings.The use of vector control tools and behavior of the host would be the main factors that modify the behavior of taking a human blood meal observed on An. gambiae s.l. observed with the bendiocarb used in IRS was highly effective compared with the free distribution of LLITNs in terms of mortality and the decrease of proportions of indoor feeding. Despite this efficacy, there is a need for complementary tools and research of alternative strategy oriented on effective health education, and the use of powerful tools such as IRS, LLITNs, larviciding and repellents.The impact on the behavior of  Anopheles gambiae s.s is a major concern for the sustainability of malaria prevention in Africa [An. arabiensis over the thatch but with a less pronounced irritant effect [An. flavirostris[et al., have shown that the carbosulfan net gave significantly higher killing of An. gambiae s.l. than all pyrethroid treatments except the impregnated net with deltamethrin [Anopheles. However, bendiocarb is the only product that the National Malaria Control Program (NMCP) has selected for the implementation of IRS in Benin, because the Master Quick ZC formulation is not approved by the World Health Organization Pesticide Evaluation Scheme for use. With regard to Sumithion 40 WP, doubts were raised on its safety in terms of its secondary effects and odor [An. funestus s.l. and An. gambiae s.l. by the IRS, while the high bed net coverage was followed by a much reduced human biting rate and a diminishing role of An. gambiae s.s. in malaria transmission. The monitoring of behavioral responses of mosquitoes to insecticides is critical to the understanding of how chemicals function in the control of disease transmission [An. gambiae s.l. in contact with walls treated with insecticide. In this context, the present study aims to evaluate the effect of a large scale IRS using a non-pyrethroid insecticide and full coverage of deltamethrin treated nets on the behavior of An. gambiae s.l.in the intervention areas compared to untreated areas used as controls.Malaria remains the most important parasitic disease in Benin causing significant mortality and morbidity despite concerted efforts to control it. In many parts of Africa, the main strategies of vector control are based on the scaling-up of Long Lasting Insecticide Treated Nets (LLITNs) and indoor residual spraying (IRS) ,2. Many n Africa ,5. This n Africa . In Zimbt effect . In anotvirostris. Asidi eamethrin . In Beniamethrin  that incand odor . The choand odor , IRS ledand odor  and the and odor , showed smission . As the smission , the nee2 and an estimated 64,799 households. There are 62,890 children aged <5 years in 174 villages [2. The second environment is the peripheral area represented by a swampy zone on the border of the Oueme River and Lake Nokoue. This peripheral area is made up of marshy land converted to vegetable gardens. Land management in this vegetable growing area creates a perfect breeding site for An. gambiae s.l., the main vector of malaria, which is highly resistant to pyrethroids [The study was conducted in 4 districts of Oueme region in South-East of Benin Figure : Adjohouvillages . From 20villages . The regethroids . In the ethroids . This diethroids . HoweverTwo rounds of IRS of bendiocarb were carried out in the plateau areas (IRS arm) of districts of Adjohoun, Dangbo, Misserete and Seme. The first round was carried out in July 2008 and the second, eight months later, in March 2009. Indeed, in a recent study, this insecticide appeared especially efficient in phase II evaluation against malaria vectors . The twoThe sampling was carried out in 4 villages  per district by using indoor and outdoor human landing catches (HLC) to identify the changes in biting behaviour of mosquitoes induced by the presence of bendiocarb on the walls or deltamethrin in the fiber of PermaNets. The sampling was carried out every month for two consecutive nights per survey (8 person-night per district per survey). Catches were conducted between 21.00 and 05.00 hrs. Teams of collectors were rotated among the collection points on different collection nights to minimize sampling bias. Informed consent from all volunteers was obtained before their participation in the study.Human landing catches were carried out during January 2008–December 2009 and spanned two rounds of IRS. To measure the impact of the intervention on the endophagy rate, we compared the values indicated for the same periods, January–July 2008 before intervention and January–July 2009 after intervention. We excluded August–December 2008 and 2009 from the analysis because these two periods were those of IRS implementation, but there is no available database for these periods for before and after intervention.In addition, to evaluate the impact of interventions on reduction of entry rate, endophily rate and mortality rate induced by the presence of insecticides, 4 bedrooms were selected in each intervention area. Mosquitoes were collected by using window exit traps. The collections of live mosquitoes were carried out using a mouth aspirator and transferred into holding tubes and provided with cotton wool wetted with a 10% honey solution to record delayed mortality after 24 h. Dead mosquitoes collected in the trap and on the floor inside the bedroom were transferred into plastic cups to be identified and used to determine the immediate mortality. Furthermore, in the meantime, morning catches within the same bedrooms were undertaken using pyrethrum spray catches.The sampling of mosquitoes was carried out in the same bedroom and at the same frequency during the intervention periods before and after.An. gambiae s.l.were classified according to the state of their abdomens  [All anophelines were sorted and assigned to species based on morphological characters using standard identification keys . The fem gravid) .An. gambiae s.l. captured after intervention multiplied by 100 and divided by the number caught before intervention in the same bedroom.Reduction of entry rate is the difference of the number of An. gambiae s.l. at rest divided by the total number collected by indoor residual spraying and the window trap.Endophily rate is the percentage of the number of Endophagy rate is the percentage of the number of indoor bites divided by the total number of indoor and outdoor bites.Overall mortality rate is immediate mortality rate + delayed mortality rate recorded after 24 h.Data were analyzed using SPSS version 16.0 . The efficiency of the intervention was evaluated by using the Kruskal-Wallis test to compare parameters  between the periods before and after intervention. The Fisher exact test was used to compare mortality rates between these two periods. The significance level was set at 5%.P. falciparum parasitemia. They were all vaccinated against yellow fever.This study received the approval of the Ministry of Health and the Centre for Entomological Research of Cotonou (CREC). The voluntary mosquito collectors gave their consent before participating in the study. Malaria prevention and curative treatments were provided to all sleepers according to World Health Organization (WHO) recommended regimen on the basis of fever and detectable An.gambiae were collected by exit window traps and PSC, for all localities Adjohoun, Dangbo, Misserete1, Misserete2 and Seme. But after IRS interventions, this number had fallen drastically to 89, representing a reduction of 90.40% over the same period. Despite a lower irritancy of bendiocarb, it induced a strong repellent effect on the behavior of An. gambiae s.l. after IRS. In many localities the reduction of An. gambiae s.l. entry rate, was very significant , whereas in Dangbo and Seme there was an increase of entry rate of mosquitoes in the respective proportions of 21.95% and 14%.Before IRS interventions during May to July 2008 a total of 928 An. gambiae s.l. captured by window exit traps and PSC, 623 were endophilic (67.13%) in the IRS arm. But after IRS interventions, only 4 An. gambiae s.l. were caught in the bedrooms in Dangbo from a total of 89 An. gambiae s.l., whereas in the control the endophily rate was stable at 51.67% (P > 0 .05)  was higher than the decrease due to LLITN (43.95%) in the district of Seme. This has been observed less significantly in Adjohoun and Dangbo.During the period before intervention, from a total of 928 An. gambiae s.l. from a total of 928 (37.5%) were gravid in the IRS arm. Misserete2 and Adjohoun had the highest (41.6%) and lowest (30.16%) rates. After the IRS no gravid mosquitoes had been collected in all localities   of xit rate . Convers0% of xitxit rate . The datxit rate . In addixit rate . It is axit rate . For LLIxit rate .An. gambiae s.l. observed before the IRS and LLITN interventions corroborates previous reports of anopheline behaviour [An. gambiae s.l. could justify this shift. Despite this deterrent effect a low proportion of An. gambiae s.l. enter bedrooms. But once on the walls, they absorb the bendiocarb which kills them and they do not have time to bite and to rest inside to digest their blood meal. Indeed, other studies previously conducted [An. gambiae s.l. resistant to pyrethroids. Furthermore, the present study confirms the absence of An. gambiae s.l. resistance to bendiocarb in southern Benin [An. gambiae s.l. resistance to pyrethroids [The endophily rate of ehaviour ,24. Howeonducted ,25,26 harn Benin ,27. Convethroids ,25,28 waAn. gambiae s.l. populations and reduce the epidemiological importance of indoor-biting mosquitoes. This decrease was also observed in the LLITNs area, but in a lower proportion. This is consistent with others studies showing that IRS [The findings have also demonstrated that large scale IRS can alter that IRS  and ITNsthat IRS  and Tanzthat IRS  can reduAn. gambiae s.l. remained endophagic in the period after intervention, whereas it has been more exophagic in intervention areas. In this context, the human-biting behaviour of vectors in Oueme region appears to be independent of population density for these species [Conversely, in the control area  species . Neverth species  is preseAn. gambiae s.l.. Indeed recent studies [The use of vector control tools and behaviors of the host would be the main factors that modify the behavior of sucking human blood observed on  studies ,34 showe studies .An. gambiae s.l., are necessary to supplement IRS because of the long duration of the action of deltamethrin and the role as a mechanical barrier played by this tool [An. gambiae s.l., other possibilities for outdoor anti-vector interventions need to be explored, in combination with ongoing IRS and LLITN distribution because of the short residual effect mentioned above.Despite the effectiveness of bendiocarb used for IRS, it has the disadvantage of having a short residual effect ,36. In this tool ,22, agaiAn. gambiae s.l. observed with the bendiocarb used in IRS was highly effective compared with the free distribution of LLITNs in terms of mortality and the decrease of proportions of indoor feeding. However, this decrease is not enough to prevent a new infection of Plasmodium falciparum by outdoor biting mosquitoes. In this case it would be advisable for people to go to bed early and to avoid infective bites outdoors. Therefore, the personal protection and collective protection respectively conferred by the IRS and LLITN are not enough to eradicate malaria. There is therefore a need for complementary tools [The impact on the behaviour of ry tools ,38, and The authors declare that they have no competing interests.GGP, GG, VG, RO and MA designed the study. GGP, RA and OO carried out the experiments. GGP and GG analyzed the data. GGP, GG and AY drafted the manuscript. GGP, MA, GG, AY, RA and MS critically revised the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.


Dr. (Mrs.) Dhanalakshmi De Sousa was my senior colleague at K.E.M. Hospital during our post-graduate studies and at L.T.M.G. Hospital during our professional career as a staff member. I had an opportunity to be with her for about 18 years.As a Registrar at K.E.M., she appeared busy with her studies and sincere about her commitments.At L.T.M.G. Hospital, she worked in her initial years at the Child Guidance Clinic and was later promoted to adult psychiatry.She maintained a good relationship with patients and their relatives. She often went out of the way to seek social and economic help for the patients’ welfare.When she became Chief after Dr. Bassa's retirement, she showed her genuine interest in the development of the Department of Psychiatry. She took great pains to get funds for equipments like EEG, ECT machines, and Behaviour Therapy instruments. She wanted to develop other diagnostic and treatment modalities which were not there during Dr. Bassa's tenure as chief. She made efforts to develop good relationship with other departments in the hospitals, and encouraged residents to do the same.Post-graduate teaching, nurses’ education and research projects were the areas where she actively participated.Social activities like picnics and parties, which helped to improve interpersonal relationships, were a frequent feature during her tenure as Head.She contributed generously from her personal income to encourage under-graduates to take interest in Psychiatry. She started the ‘Dr. De Sousa Award’ for a competitive examination in Psychiatry for the under-graduates.We were surprised to find her asking for premature retirement from L.T.MG. Hospital as a staff member at a time when she was most needed. We came to know later it was to bring up her son, Avinash, now a Psychiatrist in his own right. A courageous, and probably wise, decision to take.We had less and less interaction with her after her retirement. But we always remembered her and quoted her during our academic post-graduate sessions in the Department.In her sad demise, we have lost a great soul who worked for the poor and the unfortunate. And a colleague with a great affection and love for people.May her soul rest in eternal peace.


Few mitochondrial gene rearrangements are found in vertebrates and large-scale changes in these genomes occur even less frequently. It is difficult, therefore, to propose a mechanism to account for observed changes in mitogenome structure. Mitochondrial gene rearrangements are usually explained by the recombination model or tandem duplication and random loss model.Crossorhombus azureus (blue flounder), Grammatobothus krempfi, Pleuronichthys cornutus, and Platichthys stellatus were determined. A striking finding is that eight genes in the C. azureus mitogenome are located in a novel position, differing from that of available vertebrate mitogenomes. Specifically, the ND6 and seven tRNA genes  encoded by the L-strand have been translocated to a position between tRNA-T and tRNA-F though the original order of the genes is maintained.In this study, the complete mitochondrial genomes of four flatfishes, C. azureus mitogenome rearrangement. First, a dimeric molecule was formed by two monomers linked head-to-tail, then one of the two sets of promoters lost function and the genes controlled by the disabled promoters became pseudogenes, non-coding sequences, and even were lost from the genome. This study provides a new gene-rearrangement model that accounts for the events of gene-rearrangement in a vertebrate mitogenome.These special features are used to suggest a mechanism for  L), and a single control region (CR). The CR is essential for the initiation of transcription and for replication of the heavy strand .The authors declare that they have no competing interests.WS collected datasets, carried out experiments, and drafted the manuscript. XYK directed the whole research work and revised the manuscript. XLD, XGM, and SYW carried out partial experiments. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.The primers used for fragment amplification in four flatfish mitogenomes.Click here for fileInformation of flatfishes used in this study.Click here for fileOrganization of four flatfishes mitochondrial genomes.Click here for fileG. krempfi, P. cornutus and P. stellatus.Gene maps of the mitochondrial genome of Click here for fileComplete CR DNA fragments alignment of 11 Pleauonectoidea fishes.Click here for file


Over the past 15 years, from the inception of hybrid imaging and introduction of PET-CT to the armamentarium of medical diagnostic departments, numerous styles of reporting have been employed. The type of reporting is mostly derived by the organizational structure of the imaging department. Institutions with separate Radiology and Nuclear Medicine departments usually generate two separate reports. The PET portion of the interpretation is made in the light of anatomical landmarks provided by the CT portion of the study. A separate CT report is also generated. In many instances, a third report is created fusing the separate PET and CT reports. The downsides to this system are the inefficiency of interpretation and the potential confusion for referring physicians when the separate PET and CT reports don’t completely match. Needless to say, CT also provides much more information than simple anatomical landmarks, many of which may be crucial to the management of the patient.The more appropriate method of interpretation is for the PET and CT portions of the examination to be interpreted by a dual trained and credentialed imager, creating a single, comprehensive report encompassing both PET and CT findings in the body of the report. In the impression of the report, both sets of findings are correlated and appropriate conclusions and recommendations are made. There are two main downsides to this “perfect” reporting system. Dual trained imagers are not that abundant in the imaging community and healthcare payers may be more likely to decrease the payment to a single reimbursement for the entire examination.The following is the authors’ recommendation of reporting a PET-CT study:1. Patient demographics including name, last name, date of birth, medical record number, inpatient / outpatient status, study-accession number.2. Study related data including date of service, time of service, location of service3. Comparison:Any related comparative studies including prior PET-CT, CT, Ultrasound, MR, etc. Preferably with mention of date and technique  4. Indication:Common indications include initial staging, response to treatment and assessmentfor recurrence. Indications such as detection of the primary focus of cancer of unknown origin haven’t been widely used yet.5. History:Brief relevant history, including the histological subtype of malignancy, if known, any applied treatment  with documentation of time and duration, and any relevant tumor markers. Recently, in California, a new regulation has created some confusion as to what can be legally written in patient’s report as part of history. Based on the new California regulation, any “tissue-histological diagnosis” or laboratory values like hepatitis titer and HIV antibody status may not be written in the radiology report to protect patient privacy in released electronic medical record, i.e. the radiology report. This regulation may not exist in other states yet!6. Technique:a. Any specific patient preparation given to patient like the duration of NPO and if any high-protein diet was usedb. Documentation of blood glucose levelc. The employed CT technique including acquisition parameters and image reconstruction algorithms.d. If any IV or Oral contrast is utilized. On occasion rectal water is given.e. The PET technique, including the administered radioisotope dose, route, site and time of administration, timing of data acquisition with respect to dose administration. In many institutions the name of the individual who administered the dose is also documented on the report .f. Any complication or technical difficulties or limitations, including extravasation, patient motion, contamination, etc7. Radiation dose documentation:a. California law mandates the radiation-dose reporting for every CT study. b. Radiation received from FDG may also be documented.8. Quality of the study:A quick review of cine images may reveal any technical issues including motion, metallic objects or any other sorts of artifact. Unusual muscle activity may also affect the accuracy of your interpretation.9. Findings:a. PET report: (Editor’s method) Cine images are initially reviewed. Then trans-axial images and coronal images are reviewed. A checklist is generated of all of the detected positive PRECIST/RECIST guidelines are used to facilitate communication with oncology colleagues. Proper measurement of SUV, SUVmax and average SUV is imperative. Also review of prior studies is needed so that the measurements are comparable.b. CT report: The CT is reviewed in detail in the same systematic way a radiologist reviews a CT-only study. All relevant and incidental abnormalities are listed.10. Conclusion/Impression:a. The abnormal foci from PET are matched to CT abnormalities and an interpretation is rendered. Example: Although the size of the aortocaval node shows no appreciable morphological change since the prior study, the degree of its metabolic activity is decreased. This may signify favorable response to therapy.b. Several PET findings may be physiological in nature. These findings usually are not included in the impression. The main goal of the report-impression is to be concise and precise.c. Certain PET findings are not directly related to current oncologic condition of the patient but deserve medical attention, including diffuse thyroidal uptake. Therefore an appropriate recommendation should be given.d. CT findings with clinical significance should be explicitly reported in the impression with appropriate recommendations. Example: Abdominal aortic aneurysm, coronary arterial calcification, pleural and pericardial effusion, hernias, renal stones, etc.11. Staging/Re-staging:a. Oncologic PET-CT reports may contain imaging staging of the disease. The editors prefer using TNM staging, unless requested otherwise by the referring oncologists. RECIST guideline modified for PET, so-called PERCIST, is a way to standardize the PET-CT reports and is highly encouraged by the editors. Unifying the staging guidelines of PET and CT is crucial.b. Comparison with prior studies may pose various challenges. Many of the PET-CT findings cannot be precisely correlated with other modalities including MRI and ultrasound. Vice versa, very small lesions, detected by MR and Ultrasound may be too small for PET to detect. In these contexts, the imager needs to use her/his experience and Gestalt impression to make appropriate follow-up/work-up


Phyllanthus consists of more than 1000 species, of which many are used as traditional medicines. The plant extracts have been used since ancient times, for treating hypertension, diabetes, hepatic, urinary, and sexual disorders, and other common ailments. Modern day scientific investigations have now confirmed pharmacognostic properties of Phyllanthus herbs. The phytochemicals attributing these medicinal properties have been identified in many of the Phyllanthus herbs. The morphologically similar herbs of Phyllanthus grow together and admixture of species during collection for manufacture of herbal medicines is quite common. Hence, along with pharmacognostic and phytochemical studies, appropriate protocols for correct identification of species are also important. As the use of these herbs as green medicines is becoming more popular, it is imperative to assess its genetic diversity and phylogenetic relatedness for future conservation strategies. This review is an attempt to present an overview of the existing studies on pharmacognostics, phytochemistry, species identification, and genetic diversity of Phyllanthus herbs and consequently (i) highlight areas where further research is needed and (ii) draw attention towards extending similar studies in underutilized but potentially important herbs such as P. maderaspatensis, P. kozhikodianus, P. rheedii,  P. scabrifolius, and P. rotundifolius.The genus  Phyllanthus (Phyllanthaceae) consists of approximately 1000 species, spread over the American, African, Australian, and Asian continents [Phyllanthus species. Most of the herbs belonging to genus Phyllanthus have been shown to contain different combinations of secondary metabolites which render them with medicinal properties. The major class of bioactive compounds like alkaloids, flavonoids, lignans, phenols, tannins, and terpenes has been isolated from these herbs [The genus ntinents . All thrse herbs , 4.Phyllanthus herbs that are used all over the world as traditional herbal remedies, 12 important herbaceous species are discussed here. The species included are P. ajmerianus Rao and Choudhary, P. amarus Schum and Thonn, P. debilis Klein ex Wild, P. fraternus Webster, P. kozhikodianus Sivadasan and Manilal, P. maderaspatensis L., P. rheedii Wight, P. rotundifolius Klein ex Wild, P. scabrifolius Hook.f., P. tenellus Roxb, P. urinaria L., and P. virgatus G Forst. Of these 12 species, P. ajmerianus is reported only from India [P. ajmerianus, P. rotundifolius, and P. scabrifolius, have been scientifically investigated and proven to be of pharmacological value. The ethnic tribes of India and other Asian countries have used the herbs of Phyllanthus species since ancient times, as traditional home remedies. The decoctions of various parts of the herbs are used for treating hepatic, urinary, and sexually transmitted diseases, diabetes, hypertension, cancer, and wounds. Taking cue from the ethnic medications and potential of herbal treatments, the modern society is now eager to resort to green medicines which are without adverse side effects. Many of the Phyllanthus herbs form an integral part of Ayurveda, an Indian system of medicine. Considering the importance and potential of these herbs, it is natural that most of the studies are directed towards the phytochemical analysis and pharmacognostics  are reviewed with the following objectives: (i) to assess and hence direct efforts towards further studies on phytochemistry and pharmacognostics of the important herbs, (ii) to focus on the need to initiate studies of underresearched but potentially important medicinal herbs, and (iii) to assess the existing studies on identification of species, genetic diversity, and phylogeny, which will have an impact on formulating conservation strategies in future. The detailed assessment of clinical studies pertaining to the Phyllanthus herbs has not been elaborated in the present review.Keeping this present scenario in view, 12 important Phyllanthus herb species, nine species  have been scientifically analyzed whereas the remaining three species  have not been investigated for their medicinal properties. The pharmacognostics of each of the nine herbs is discussed here.Of the 12 This herb finds its use worldwide for treating problems of stomach, genitourinary system, liver, kidney, and spleen. It plays an important role in Ayurveda, an Indian system of medicine, and is used to treat jaundice, gastropathy, diarrhoea, dysentery, fevers, menorrhagia, scabies, genital infections, ulcers, and wounds . DecoctiP. debilis has been shown to possess maximum antioxidant activity compared to P. amarus, P. maderaspatensis, P. urinaria, and P. virgatus [This herb shows antihepatotoxic  and antivirgatus .P. fraternus has been reported by Chanda et al. [Traditionally, in India, the herb was used as a mild laxative, to expel worms and intestinal gas. The plant extracts are used for treating many types of biliary and urinary conditions like gall bladder, kidney stones, and bacterial infections such as cystitis, prostatitis, viral infections, hepatitis, flu, tuberculosis, liver diseases, anemia, veneral diseases, and urinary tract infections . The anta et al. . The aqua et al.  and has a et al. . Also tha et al. . Ethanola et al. . Accordia et al. , the flaThis herb provides protection to liver against chemical induced liver damage . The herEthanolic extract of this herb demonstrated chemoprotective effect in modulating cisplatin-induced nephrotoxicity and genotoxicity, thus proving its antioxidative property . This exThe Muthuvan tribe of Kerala use all parts of this herb as a cure for liver diseases. The plant also shows hepatoprotective, antihyperglycemic, antihyperlipidemic, and antioxidant effects , 93.Extracts of fresh and dried plants have antiviral and antimicrobial activity , 95. TheHelicobacter pylori, which causes peptic ulcers and gastric cancers [H. pylori shows resistance to most antibiotics, this herb may be seriously studied for preparation of medicines against infections caused by this bacteria.This herb has multiple uses with many pharmacognostic properties. Aqueous/methanolic extract of whole plant is used for treating cancer –100. The cancers . Since HIn China, the extract of this herb is fed to children suffering from malnutrition due to worm infestation. This herb is used as an antiseptic and anti-inflammatory agent by the Gond tribe of India . The plaPhyllanthus herbs with potential ethnomedicinal properties that have not been scientifically analyzed are as follows.This herb is found in Ajmer in India, and its identity has been confirmed by Vishwanatha et al. . This plPhyllanthus herbs for hepatoprotective property and it was found that P. urinaria and P. amarus have comparatively higher potential than P. rotundifolius [This species has been analysed along with other difolius . There aThe occurrence of this herb was reported in Karnataka, India . This isP. amarus, P. debilis, P. fraternus, P. maderaspatensis, P. tenellus, P. urinaria, and P. virgatus) have been reported to contain one or more classes of compounds such as lignans, flavonoids, tannins, and alkaloids.The major phytochemicals which have/may have a role in rendering the herbs with medicinal properties are listed in Phyllanthus species. Of all the Phyllanthus herbs, the phytochemistry of P. amarus is well studied [P. amarus, P. maderaspatensis, P. urinaria, and P. virgatus [P. maderaspatensis. Also, Sharma et al. [P. maderaspatensis and P. urinaria. In P. fraternus, phyllanthin is absent, according to the studies of Khatoon et al. [P. amarus and P. fraternus but the concentration of these two lignans varies substantially in the two species. Presence of the lignan, phyltetralin, is common to P. amarus, P. fraternus, P. maderaspatensis, P. virgatus, and P. urinaria  are listed in The phytochemicals with associated pharmacological activities of six P. amarus [P. fraternus, P. maderaspatensis, and P. urinaria do not contain phyllanthin [P. amarus is attributed to amariin and geraniin (which are ellagitannins), whereas phyllanthin and hypophyllanthin have been suggested to be anti-inflammatory and antiapoptotic [The lignan phyllanthin renders hepatoprotective property to . amarus . Howeverllanthin , 108 butllanthin . Therefollanthin  also poillanthin , hepatoppoptotic .P. debilis is shown to possess antihepatotoxic ability [Phyllanthus herbs as antihepatotoxic. Anticancer and/or antitumor properties have been related to the presence of phyllanthin, hypophyllanthin, niranthin, and polyphenols in P. amarus , to the best of our knowledge, there are no studies correlating a phytochemical with its pharmaceutical property. The plant extracts of P. kozhikodianus and P. rheedii have been analysed for pharmacognostic properties and P. kozhikodianus is shown to be hepatoprotective [P. rheedii to have antihyperglycemic, antihyperlipidemic, and antioxidant effects [P. ajmerianus, P. rotundifolius, and P. scabrifolius have not been researched at all for either phytochemicals or pharmacological properties.In the six herbs  have been assessed in P. amarus. Another lignan, niranthin, is shown to have both antitumor and antiviral property. The flavonoids (rutin and quercetin-3-O-glucoside) and ellagitannins  have antioxidant as well as radioprotective property  and ISSR (Intersimple sequence repeats) markers, and an average polymorphism of 68.2% and 69.7%, respectively, was observed [P. amarus collected from different geographical locations in India, showed that the accessions from the southern part of India have high intrapopulation variation [Genetic diversity studies, phylogenetics, identification of species, and characterization of germplasm are very important for appropriate utilization and conservation of plant genetic resources. The total number of genetic diversity studies on herbs of observed . Geneticariation . This vaariation .P. amarus to identify superior genotypes for improving drug quality and for formulating strategies for in situ conservation and sustainable utilization [Phyllanthus sp.Isozymes also have been used to assess the genetic variability in south Indian populations of lization . Ravikanlization  have alsP. amarus, P. fraternus, P. debilis, and P. urinaria are varied but these plant species commonly grow together in the same open habitats and wastelands. In Bangladesh, China, India, Pakistan, and Thailand, P. amarus, P. fraternus, P. debilis, and P. urinaria grow together and lead to confusion in identification of these herbaceous species. Systematic studies on herbaceous Phyllanthus species, using morphological and anatomical parameters, could identify these Phyllanthus herbs [P. amarus, P. fraternus, and P. debilis were grouped under the single species named P. niruri and were later mentioned as species of “niruri complex.” Now, it is clarified that P. niruri is an American species and not at all found in India. Hence, the species identified as P. niruri is actually P. amarus, P. fraternus, and/or P. debilis [The ethnomedicinal uses and pharmacological activities among us herbs . Earlier debilis , 116.Phyllanthus species has proved to be a reliable tool. Species-specific SCAR (sequence characterized amplified regions) markers were developed for identification of Phyllanthus species  used in dry leaf bulk trade [Phyllanthus spp. and concluded that AFLP is a better polymorphic marker. Senapati et al. [Phyllanthus species, using intersimple sequence repeat-polymerase chain reaction (ISSR-PCR). Srirama et al. [Phyllanthus using DNA barcoding tools. They analyzed sequence variations of psbA-trnH region of the chloroplast to identify the Phyllanthus species present in the admixtures. AFLP profile along with morphological study could confirm the identification of P. ajmerianus Chaudhary and Rao in Ajmer, India [P. kozhikodianus and P. rheedii. PCR-RFLP approach of ITS  region has been successful in discriminating P. amarus, P. debilis, and P. urinaria [The use of molecular markers for identification of lk trade , 118. Balk trade  comparedi et al.  identifia et al.  assessedr, India . The stuurinaria .Phyllanthus. The ITS sequences generated phylograms which aided in deducing affinities among P. emblica, P. reticulatus, P. amarus, P. fraternus, and P. urinaria. Phylogenetic relationships of 23 Phyllanthus species of Thailand have been analysed by sequencing ITS regions [Phyllanthus [Bandyopadhyay and Raychaudhuri  sequence regions . RAPD anllanthus .P. ajmerianus, P. rotundifolius, and P. scabrifolius. Considering the medicinal properties of the Phyllanthus herbs, these species should be assessed for pharmacognostics and pharmacological properties. In case of P. maderaspatensis, P. kozhikodianus, and P. rheedii, although pharmacognostic properties are known, the compounds responsible for such properties have not been identified. Therefore these herbs can be experimented for isolation and identification of phytochemicals, based on existing knowledge of compounds observed in other Phyllanthus herbs and subsequently can be used for preparation of herbal medicines. Studies on pharmacognosy and pharmaceutical activity of phytochemicals published under the identity of P. niruri may be reevaluated especially the studies from India, as now it is confirmed that P. niruri is not found in India [P. niruri, actually may be of P. amarus, P. fraternus, or P. debilis. Also, to our knowledge, there are either few or no studies on genetic diversity of most Phyllanthus herb species, some of which are endemic species with a few populations, for example, P. scabrifolius in India. Considering the growing popularity of ethnopharmacological value of Phyllanthus species and its use in herbal medicines, it is imperative to assess the genetic diversity of these species, which will have implications for formulating conservation strategies in future.There are practically no studies on pharmacognostics and identification and/or isolation of pharmaceutically important compounds in in India . The stu


Dr. Murthy J. R. KollurithOctober, 1939 to 25thFebruary, 2011)(From 19The eminent chest physician, Dr. K. J. R. Murthy, was a doyen of respiratory medicine and a pillar of the Indian Chest Society. He has made a huge contribution in the field of tuberculosis.He obtained his MBBS from Gandhi Medical College, Hyderabad, in 1961 and did his Post Graduation in Internal Medicine from Guntur Medical College, Guntur, in 1967. After acquiring the postgraduate degree, he immediately joined as Assistant Professor of Medicine at Osmania Medical College, Hyderabad. After serving there for 12 years, he moved to Bhagwan Mahaveer Hospital and Research Centre, Hyderabad, as a Consultant Chest Physician and subsequently became its Medical Director in 2005. He worked at the same institution as Director, Mahaveer PPM DOTS, till his last days.“Lung India” and was one of the founding members of Indian Chest Society.He distinguished himself as a popular teacher, good administrator and an excellent clinician. He was associated with several operational research studies for the control of tuberculosis. Dr. Murthy was member of A.P.I., A.C.C.P., and TB Association of India. He was in the Editorial Board of He was recipient of several awards including Mahaveer Mahatma Award 2005, and conducted research projects funded by WHO, Overseas Development Agency UK, University of Newcastle UK, and Government of India. He was involved in many community welfare activities.Dr. Murthy has to his credit 126 publications in national and international journals, 115 presentations and many a contributions to books and updates. He was invited as a guest speaker to almost all countries of the world and acted as Panelist and Session Chairman in many world congresses.In view of his tremendous contributions to various organizations and to Indian Chest Society, he was highly respected as an elder statesman and his invaluable advice was sought on various occasions. His knowledge regarding constitutional intricacies was exemplary. May God Almighty give eternal peace to the departed soul!Lung India Editorial Board deeply regrets this irremediable loss and expresses sincere regards to grieving family, relatives and colleagues.We are grateful to Prof. S. R. Kamat, Former Head of Respiratory Medicine at the King Edward Memorial Hospital, Mumbai, for providing material and inspiring us to get this document prepared. The obituary was prepared with courtesy of Prof. U. S. Mathur, Former Head of Division of Allergy and Pulmonary Medicine, SMS Medical College, Jaipur, and Prof. Sundaram Challa, Head of Department of Pathology, Nizams’ Institute of Medical Sciences, Hyderabad.


Pseudomonas aeruginosa. PLoS ONE 8(9): e75389. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0075389.The name of the second author was given incorrectly. The correct name is: John M. Farrow III. The correct citation is: Ellison ML, Farrow JM III, Parrish W, Danell AS, Pesci EC (2013) The Transcriptional Regulator Np20 Is the Zinc Uptake Regulator in In addition, multiple funding organizations and a grant were incorrectly omitted from the Funding Statement. The Funding Statement should read: "This work was supported by a research grant from the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Disease to ECP (grant AI076272) and a new investigator award from the Kentucky Biomedical Research Infrastructure Network and INBRE to MLE . The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript."


In the author list, the spelling of Stephen H. Kleinstein's first name is incorrect.The correct spelling is Steven H. Kleinstein.This author also has an additional affiliation that is missing from the published article. The affiliation is:Interdepartmental Program in Computational Biology and Bioinformatics, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA.Table S1 in the published article does not include a PDB code. Please download the new version of Table S1, which contains the PDB code, at the following link: Click here for additional data file..The PDB ID is 4NPY.


From the Latin for pustules or pox, possibly derived from varus, for pimple, or varius, for speckled. The earliest documented use of the word variola as a name for smallpox occurs in the 6th century, during the reign of the Byzantine emperor Justinian I. Referred to in the vernacular as simply “the pox” for many centuries, in the 16th century variola became known commonly as smallpox to distinguish the disease from syphilis, the great pox.From the Latin vacca, for cow. English physician Edward Jenner coined the term vaccination in 1796 to describe inserting pus from cowpox lesions into open cuts on human patients to prevent smallpox. The term now refers to any immunizing procedure in which a vaccine is administered.Sources: Hopkins DR. The greatest killer: smallpox in history. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press; 2002; Oldstone MB. Viruses, plagues, and history. New York: Oxford University Press; 1998; Tudor V, Strati I. Smallpox. Cholera. Tunbridge Wells (UK): Abacus Press; 1977.


A sound understanding of malaria transmission patterns in the People’s Republic of China (P.R. China) is crucial for designing effective surveillance-response strategies that can guide the national malaria elimination programme (NMEP). Using an established biology-driven model, it is expected that one may design and refine appropriate surveillance-response strategies for different transmission zones, which, in turn, assist the NMEP in the ongoing implementation period (2010–2020) and, potentially, in the post-elimination stage (2020–2050).Environmental data obtained from 676 locations across P.R. China, such as monthly temperature and yearly relative humidity (YRH), for the period 1961–2000 were prepared. Smoothed surface maps of the number of months suitable for parasite survival derived from monthly mean temperature and YRH were generated. For each decade, the final malaria prediction map was overlaid by two masked maps, one showing the number of months suitable for parasite survival and the other the length of YRH map in excess of 60%.Considering multiple environmental factors simultaneously, the environmental variables suitable for malaria transmission were found to have shifted northwards, which was especially pronounced in northern P.R. China. The unstable suitable regions (transmission periods between five and six months) showed increased transmission intensity due to prolonged suitable periods, especially in the central part of the country.Adequate and effective surveillance-response strategies for NMEP should be designed to achieve the goal of malaria elimination in P.R. China by 2020, especially in the zones predicted to be the most vulnerable for climate change. Plasmodium falciparum has been eliminated in most provinces, except Yunnan and Hainan[P. vivax has become the predominant species. Although this species causes less morbidity and mortality than that of P. falciparum, the persistence of P. vivax through dormant stages , is a major impediment toward complete elimination of malaria in P.R. China[Malaria remains an infectious disease of foremost public health importance in many parts of the world, including the People’s Republic of China (P.R. China). Historid Hainan-6. MeanwR. China-9. MoreoR. China,10,11, dR. China,13, and P. vivax development ceases within the Anopheles spp. mosquito at 14.9°C[Plasmodium sporocysts in the mosquitoes[Plasmodium spp., it exerts an influence on transmission through the activity and life-span of the vector, i.e., the lower the RH, the shorter the life-span of the vector[P. vivax to develop fully within the vector, while only 13 days are required at of 28°C[Malaria transmission is governed by social-ecological systems. Previous studies carried by Yang et al. suggest t 14.9°C,16. Usuasquitoes. Althouge vector. For inse vector,20. Clime vector. MoreoveMathematical models, coupled with geographical information system (GIS), revealed an increase of the population at risk of malaria transmission due to climate change,23. For P. vivax transmission in P.R. China are predicted, using an established biology-driven model. The predicted patterns, in turn, will guide the design and refinement of appropriate surveillance-response strategies for different transmission zones, and thus assist in optimizing the NMEP in the current ongoing implementation period (2010–2020) and, potentially, in the post-elimination stage (2020–2050).Here, the spatial and temporal patterns of The digital map database of P.R. China (DMDC), available at a scale of 1:1,000,000 , was used to delineate administrative boundaries for subsequent disease mapping. With regard to environmental data, the average daily temperature and RH were obtained from 676 locations evenly distributed across P.R. China. These environmental data cover a 40-year time series (1961–2000), and are provided by the Chinese Meteorological Administration (http://www.cma.gov.cn). In order to observe the evolvement over longer periods, the monthly/yearly environmental data for each decade were determined as detailed below.For each decade, the monthly mean temperature and RH were calculated according to equations (1) and (2):Tdaily and RHdaily signify the daily mean temperature and RH, respectively, whereas i denotes the number of days in a month.where P. vivax within the Anopheles vectors is 14.9°C, the number of months suitable for parasite survival over the year (Nmonth) was calculated for each location. There is no region of their monthly average temperature higher than 30°C which is the highest thermal threshold for development of P. vivax.Since the lowest temperature required for the development of P. vivax occurs primarily in regions where the yearly average RH (YRH) exceeds 60%[According to historical records, the vector of eeds 60%. It is iP. vivax malaria, considering temperature and YRH individually, was done using ArcGIS version 9.1 . Ordinary kriging, using the geostatistic module, was employed to generate smoothed surface maps of the monthly mean temperature, YRH, and number of months suitable for parasite survival. In order to study the spatial variation in the same season over different decades, the spatial extents of the suitable transmission regions at each of two time points for both Nmonth and YRH were compared.In the first step, mapping of environmental risk factors for Nmonth and YRH were overlaid to predict the potential risk areas of P. vivax transmission. Historical records indicate that malaria transmission in P.R. China is geographically restricted to areas south of latitude 45°N[Nmonth > 4 and YRH above 60% were the focus areas. The final malaria prediction map for each decade was overlaid by two masked maps, one showing the number of months suitable for parasite survival and the other the length of YRH map in excess of 60%.In a second step, the individual surface maps of the ude 45°N. In all P. vivax malaria risk maps for P.R. China, based on single environmental determinants. FigureP. vivax survival are shifting periodically over the year with respect to the mean temperature, the smallest appropriate areas appearing in January and the largest in July/August. The data suggest that the parasite can survive throughout the year in Hainan and in parts of the Yunnan and Guangdong provinces. South-western plateau areas, such as Tibet and the Qinghai province, are malaria-free throughout the year[Figuresthe year. CompariThe maps based on YRH show a gradual decrease of the RH from coastal areas toward inland. It should be noted that the Tibet plateau has a particular low YRH Figure due to hP. vivax malaria mainly occurs in the south-eastern part of P.R. China with the risk of malaria increasing steadily from north to south. Comparison between different decades shows that there is a high probability that variables suitable for malaria transmission will shift northwards, mainly driven by RH. The areas bordering on the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (DPRK) emerge as regions potentially suitable for P. vivax malaria transmission. The vastness of this region adds to the potential problem.FigureTableIn P.R. China, the transmission and re-emergence of malaria has been restrained through continued efforts, yet malaria remains an important public health problem in the southern and central parts of the country. In 2010P. falciparum and P. vivax, for a long time[P. falciparum malaria was reached, though the transmission of P. vivax was persistent[P. falciparum, mainly due to the importation through mobile population in the southern border areas[P. vivax shows highly unstable patterns[Currently, the malaria transmission in P.R. China can be divided into three major strata in terms of intensity. The firong time,5. Recenrsistent. In Yunner areas. Guangdoer areas. The secpatterns. For inspatterns, and thipatterns. The remP. falciparum have remained restricted to Yunnan and Hainan, P. vivax have reported in Yunnan, Hainan, Guangxi and Guangdong provinces, while high transmission mainly occurs in the bordering region of Yunnan and the hilly-forested south of Hainan[P. falciparum transmission, the passive and active surveillance approaches of the whole population – with particular attention to mobile populations – needs to be strengthened and followed by effective public health response actions when aiming at elimination. Passive surveillance is the routine reporting of the cases via hospital reporting system, while active surveillance is done for finding cases in the community mainly through door-to-door surveys.In order to understand the spatial-temporal transmission patterns of each epidemiological region in face of climate change, the current analysis predicts the regions of malaria transmission risk in P.R. China. Our findings highlight the regions that require most attention and surveillance showing in Figuref Hainan. AlthougP. vivax malaria occurred in the early 1960s and 1970s with an estimated number of 10 million and 21 million cases, respectively, with the corresponding prevalence figures around 1.5% and 3%[P. vivax should focus on the central region, including northern Anhui, eastern Henan, and western Jiangsu. Consequently, NMEP is challenged to develop an appropriate surveillance-response approach that should consist of passive surveillance in the transmission season from April to November and active surveillance concentrated on identified transmission foci.When turning to the possible effect of climate change to the unstable malaria transmission regions in the central part of P.R. China , prolonged transmission periods are found, previously covering the months of May to October but now starting in April. Indeed, two large-scale outbreaks of P. vivax malaria transmission maps indicate that marginal transmission areas have grown, especially since the 1990s. A previous study found that RH is one of the key restriction factors for the distribution of the mosquito vector. No malaria transmission occurs where the yearly average RH is below 60%[P. vivax malaria caused by climate change involving also this country. This observation makes it important for P.R. China to call for intensified surveillance and responses by NMEP in border areas with DPRK in addition to the ongoing efforts at the southern border of Yunnan province.The predictive elow 60%. Here, ielow 60%. It was Anopheles mosquitoes in P.R. China, e.g. Anopheles sinensis, An. anthropophagus, An. minimus, and An. dirus vary in different parts of P.R. China. The former and latter factors, in turn, call for more specific prediction maps based on a number of targeted research-action approaches for the different malaria transmission areas experiencing different levels of control or elimination to reach the basis for integrated surveillance-response strategies within NMEP that will hopefully lead to elimination of malaria in P.R. China, currently aimed for by 2020.In this study, according to model parsimony theory, only thThe authors declare that there are no competing interests.GJY and ZXN conceived the study and analyzed the data. GJY wrote the first version of the manuscript. XNZ, MT, JU, JBM, RB revised the manuscript. All authors read, contributed to, and approved the final version of the manuscript.