Spartina alterniflora invasion on macrobenthos have long been of concern; however, there is currently no unified conclusion regarding these effects. Most studies on crabs focus on one species or limited habitat types, and assessments of the community-level effects of S. alterniflora invasion considering multiple species and habitat types have rarely been conducted. In this study, we sampled crabs along a habitat gradient from the shoreline to inland areas on the Yellow Sea coast, including the mudflat, S. alterniflora marsh, Suaeda salsa marsh and Phragmites australis marsh. A total of 10 crab species were found among all habitats, with five species in the mudflat, six species in S. alterniflora marsh, seven species in S. salsa marsh and four species in P. australis marsh. The Shannon index values for the crab communities were similar between S. alterniflora marsh and S. salsa marsh, and these values were significantly higher than those for the mudflat and P. australis marsh. However, the total biomass of crabs was highest in the mudflat, and Metaplax longipes, Philyra pisum and Macrophthalmus dilatatus exclusively preferred the mudflat. The analysis of principal components and similarities showed that the crab community structure in S. alterniflora marsh was most similar to that in S. salsa marsh, while the crab community structure in the mudflat was most different from that in the other habitat types. Our results demonstrate that the distribution of crabs varies across a habitat gradient after S. alterniflora invasion and that the crab community in S. alterniflora marsh is slightly different from that associated with the local vegetation but shows a large difference from that in the mudflat. This study indicates that some crab species may have adapted to habitat containing alien S. alterniflora, while other crab species reject this new marsh type. The effects of the distribution of crabs after S. alterniflora invasion on the regional ecosystem need further study in the future.The effects of  Spartina alterniflora (Poaceae), which is native to the Atlantic and Gulf coasts of North America, is one of the most notable plant invaders, with strong fecundity and ecological adaptability  to identify the differences in crab community structure in different habitats after S. alterniflora invasion and (2) to identify the temporal and spatial trends shown by crabs according to habitat type. This study may provide more detailed information for future research on the effect of S. alterniflora invasion on macrobenthos.In this study, we selected one area of Field work was conducted in the core area of Yancheng National Nature Reserve  in Jiangsu Province, China, from April to September in 2017. The reserve is a typical intertidal wetland located along the Yellow Sea coast in eastern China (two to four m above sea level); it has high biodiversity and serves as an important stopover for a variety of migratory shorebirds . The ann2 quadrats (1 × 1 m) in each of three habitat types , and the distance between each quadrat was not less than 20 m. Within each quadrat, the number of culms was recorded, and 10 culms were randomly selected to measure the height using measuring tape. The number of culms per unit area represented the plant density.A satellite image of the study site was first obtained from Google Earth Pro , followed by a landscape-scale analysis of the vegetation types . Then, sS. alterniflora, S. salsa, P. australis). In our study area, the mean high tide level was approximately 4.68 m, and the mean low tide level was approximately 1.09 m. The sampled mudflat was approximately 1.5–2 m above sea level and bare at low tide; the other three sampled habitats were approximately three to four m above sea level and flooded at high tide. From April to September 2017, pitfall traps were used to catch crabs once a month according to methods described in other recent studies  was performed to reduce the dimensions of the crab data to graphically analyze the patterns of the crab community structure according to habitat type. Each community was plotted as a point in space created by the first two PCA axes. Then, we tested for differences among habitats using one-way analysis of similarities (ANOSIM)  and usedP. australis marsh had the greatest plant height , and S. alterniflora marsh had the greatest population density . The plant height and density in S. salsa marsh were significantly lower than those in the other two habitats.In the different habitat types, there were significant differences in the plant height and stem density . P. austS. alterniflora marsh, seven species in S. salsa marsh and four species in P. australis marsh. Most species belonged to the phytophagous group, while the carnivorous group was represented by one species, and the omnivorous group contained two species . However, the Shannon diversity index value was lowest for the mudflat, and S. salsa marsh had the highest biodiversity   .S. alterniflora marsh included E. sinensis, Chiromantes haematochir, Chiromantes dehaani, H. tientsinensis, Sesarma plicata and Uca arcuata , and the biomass of H. tientsinensis in S. alterniflora marsh was significantly higher than that in the mudflat but lower than that in S. salsa marsh . C. haematochir and C. dehaani were found in all habitat types except the mudflat, and the biomass of these two species in S. alterniflora marsh was not significantly different from that in the other habitat types . S. plicata and U. arcuata were only found in S. alterniflora marsh and S. salsa marsh, the biomass of S. plicata in S. alterniflora marsh was lower than that in S. salsa marsh , while the biomass of U. arcuata in S. alterniflora marsh was greater than that in S. salsa marsh  (The crabs in  arcuata . With th< 0.001) .S. salsa marsh were the most widely scattered and covered the largest area across the coordinate axis, while the points representing those in the mudflat were the most concentrated and covered the least area on the coordinate axis. The area containing the points representing S. alterniflora marsh had the largest overlap with that of S. salsa marsh but had the lowest overlap with that of the mudflat  . The difference between S. alterniflora marsh and S. salsa marsh was the smallest, but it also reached a significant level    . There w< 0.001) .S. alterniflora marsh and S. salsa marsh was the lowest (30.8%) . The species that were responsible for the high dissimilarity (79.91%) between S. alterniflora marsh and the mudflat were P. pisum, M. dilatatus and U. arcuata . The species responsible for the dissimilarity (79.91%) between S. alterniflora marsh and P. australis marsh were U. arcuata, E. sinensis and C. dehaani   . The spectively) .E. sinensis represented the most biomass in May and July, and the biomass in P. australis marsh was always significantly higher than that in the three other habitats in all months (C. haematochir represented the most biomass in July, and the biomass in S. alterniflora marsh was the highest in July and September but was lower than that in other habitats in April, May and June (C. dehaani represented the most biomass in July, and the biomass in S. alterniflora marsh was the highest among all habitats in June and July (H. tientsinensis represented the most biomass in June and July, and the biomass in S. alterniflora marsh was the highest in June, while the biomass in S. salsa marsh was the highest in July among all habitats (S. plicata represented the most biomass in July, and the biomass in S. alterniflora marsh was always significantly lower than that in S. salsa marsh in all months (U. arcuata represented the most biomass in July, and the biomass in S. alterniflora marsh was always significantly higher than that in S. salsa marsh in all months (M. longipes represented the most biomass in May and July, while P. pisum and M. dilatatus represented the most biomass in June and July (C. dilatatum was only found in S. salsa marsh and represented the most biomass in September (The multiple bar charts showed that the compositions of the crab communities in each habitat type did not change in different sampling months, but the biomass of individual species changed over time . The biol months . C. haemand June . C. dehaand July . H. tienhabitats . S. plicl months . U. arcul months . Of the and July . C. dilaeptember .S. alterniflora invasion has resulted in local biodiversity loss and ecosystem degradation (S. alterniflora invasion on macrofaunal species has not been reached (S. alterniflora invasion can facilitate some taxa, such as fishes and crabs (S. alterniflora can supply palatable food for C. dehaani and S. plicata (U. arcuata is positively correlated with S. alterniflora cover (S. alterniflora marsh was lower than that in S. salsa marsh but greater than that in the mudflat and P. australis marsh. The total biomass of crabs in S. alterniflora marsh was lower than that in the mudflat but higher than that in P. australis marsh and S. salsa marsh. The Shannon diversity index value of crabs in S. alterniflora marsh was higher than that for the mudflat and P. australis marsh and lower than that for S. salsa marsh. Therefore, we think that exotic S. alterniflora can offer suitable habitat for some crab species, especially those in the phytophagous group. For example, C. haematochir, C. dehaani and U. arcuata were more abundant in S. alterniflora marsh than in the other habitat types.Although many studies have suggested that radation , a unifi reached . Recent nd crabs . Some st plicata  and thatra cover . AccordiS. alterniflora can create suitable environmental conditions that are consistent with the habitat requirements of some crab species (S. alterniflora is more competitive than native plants, especially in the mudflat and S. salsa marsh, and rapidly replaces these two habitat types (M. longipes, P. pisum and M. dilatatus only preferred the mudflat habitat (S. alterniflora accelerated sediment deposition and increased the elevation in invaded areas (S. salsa marsh (C. dilatatum was only found in S. salsa marsh (S. alterniflora marsh does not provide the preferred food of this species. The loss of suitable habitat may cause the dramatic decline of populations of these crab species. The crab community structure in S. alterniflora marsh was significantly different from that in the mudflat according to the results of the PCA, ANOSIM and SIMPER (S. alterniflora marsh hosts a considerable number of crabs, this habitat containing exotic vegetation may not perform the same ecological function as the mudflat.Despite the fact that  species , invasioat types . Accordiat types ; for exa habitat ; Fig. 4.ed areas . The Shasa marsh , and C. sa marsh ; Fig. 4,d SIMPER ; Table 3S. alterniflora invasion on the distribution of crabs may have a major impact on other related biological groups in the food web (S. alterniflora is not suitable for medium and large shorebirds (S. alterniflora marsh (S. alterniflora marsh is rich in crab resources according to our results, it seems to offer little help to migratory birds. Many plovers and dunlins prefer to forage on the mudflat (S. salsa marsh (Grus japonensis foraging on H. tientsinensis (S. alterniflora invasion may seriously damage the feeding habitat of these waterfowl and cause a decrease in some bird populations because of the inadequate food supply. In contrast, the adverse foraging environment of S. alterniflora marsh may provide crabs with a refuge from birds (Exotic plant invasions may have a cascading effect on higher trophic levels and ultimately impair overall biodiversity . The efffood web . The wetfood web . During food web . Many storebirds , and mosra marsh . Therefo mudflat , and somsa marsh , such assinensis . S. alteom birds , resultiS. alterniflora has seriously encroached on the mudflat and native vegetation. Our results reveal that the crab community in S. alterniflora marsh is slightly different from that associated with the local vegetation but shows a large difference from that in the mudflat. This study indicates that S. alterniflora marsh can offer suitable habitat for some crab species, while some habitat-specific crab species reject this new habitat. The effects of the distribution of crabs after S. alterniflora invasion on the regional ecosystem will need further study in the future.This study examined the distribution of crab communities along a habitat gradient from the shoreline to inland areas on the Yellow Sea coast in China, where the invasion of 10.7717/peerj.6775/supp-1Supplemental Information 1Click here for additional data file.


Panax species, including Panax japonicas (T. Nees) C. A. Meyer and Panax japonicas var. major (Burkill) C. Y. Wu & K. M. Feng distributed in low- and middle-latitude, Panax zingiberensis C. Y. Wu & K. M. Feng and Panax stipuleanatus C. T. Tsai & K. M. Feng in low-latitude regions of China based on seven bioclimatic variables and 600 occurrence points. Results indicate that areas of P. japonicus and P. japonicusvar. major are 266.29 × 105 and 77.5 × 105 km2, respectively, which are mainly distributed in China and America. By contrast, the areas of P. zingiberensis and P. stipuleanatus are 5.09 × 105 and 2.05 × 105 km2, respectively, which are mainly distributed in Brazil and China. P. japonicus has the widest distribution among the four species. The data also indicate that the mean temperature of coldest quarter is the most critical factor. This scientific prediction can be used as reference for resource conservation of endangered plants and as a guide to search for endangered species in previously unknown areas.Global biodiversity is strongly influenced by the decrease in endangered biological species. Predicting the distribution of endangered medicinal plants is necessary for resource conservation. A spatial distribution model—geographic information system for global medicinal plants (GMPGIS)—is used to predict the global potential suitable distribution of four endangered  Panax  species are the important medicinal resources in the world. Panax ginseng and Panax quinquefolium are distributed at high-latitude regions. By contrast, some endangered Panax species such as P. japonicus and P. japonicus var. major found in middle- and low-latitude regions, have been recorded in the Chinese Pharmacopoeia. P. japonicus is known as “the king of herbs” in Chinese folk, and has been included in the Japanese Pharmacopoeia as a traditional Japanese medicine. P. zingiberensis and P. stipuleanatus distributed in low-latitude regions are also used widely as traditional ethnic medicines. Panax species are popular due to their potential medicinal properties  by computing the following:Step 1: Linear normalization is performed on the original data. Suppose that (2)Di to represent that cluster. Conceptually, the critical of a cluster is its marginal value di. The range can be defined in various ways, such as by the polyhedron assigned to the cluster. The difference between an object p ∊ Di and di, the representative of the cluster, is measured by dist , where dist  is the Euclidean distance between two points, x and y. The quality of cluster Di can be measured by the within-cluster variation, which is the sum of the squared error between all points in Di and the range di, defined as follows:E is the sum of the squared error for all points in the data set, p is the point in space representing a given object, and di is the range of cluster Di . Anewmin is the minimum value after standardizing the layer; Anewmax is the maximum value after standardizing the layer.In our study, an improved k-means was adopted to evaluate the ecological suitability models. A range-based partitioning technique uses the critical size of a cluster (3)dMin, dMax], the grid was classified, and the most similar ecological area was discovered.According to the results of the distance calculation [(4)The suitable soil layer and climatic factors in the Euclidean distance layer were intersected.The GMPGIS aim to predict the distribution of medicinal plants. Firstly, to eliminate the influence of a different method, the processing of ecological factors must be standardized. Secondly, to improve the k-means, a range-based technique is adopted to evaluate the ecological suitability models and to make them more adaptable to potential distribution prediction. Thirdly, the clustering layer is reclassified, and the potential distribution of areas is discovered. Fourthly, the suitable soil layer are intersected with the climatic factors in a Euclidean distance layer. The main steps of the model by ArcGis 10.2 are as follows:The data of sampling points and environment variables were imported into the MaxEnt software. Parameter settings were as follows: the training set is 75% of the sampling point data, the test set is the remaining 25% used to examine the predictive ability of the model, and the jackknife was used to test the weight. The threshold-independent receiver operating characteristic and area under the receiver operating characteristic curve values were calculated by MaxEnt. The results were analyzed by ArcGIS 10.2, and the maps of ecologically suitable regions for endangered plants were obtained based on the main ecological factors.Panax species. Hidden information can be revealed by the suitability analysis of producing areas from the geographic information system for Chinese traditional medicines. This study greatly improves the management level and application value of the resource information for traditional Chinese medicines, and provides a reference for resource conservation, introduction, and cultivation of endangered Panax species. This study is just for protection of the species, and the scientific research, it is not open to other harmful behavior.The growth of endangered medicinal plants requires appropriate ecological conditions. Their quality are closely related to ecological factors such as climate and soil. The suitability distribution analysis of medicinal plants has been based on the traditional experience, single ecological factor, and single origin studies. Therefore, traditional analysis shows low efficiency and poor accuracy. GMPGIS can combine the attributed and graphic data with powerful spatial data management, analysis and mapping ability. The prediction of potential suitable distributions is conducive to the conservation of biological diversity. The results of the present analysis include output maps, charts, and other forms, which reduce the statistical and mapping work, and achieve the visualization of regionalization for these


Phil-Ok Koh was not included as an author in the published article. The corrected Author Contributions Statement appears below. The authors apologize for this error and state that this does not change the scientific conclusions of the article in any way. The original article has been updated.FA and GL managed the experimental work. FA and GL performed surgery, western blot, morphological experiments; performed data analysis. AZ, P-OK, MA, LA, FL, TL, XY, YJ and SL supported the study, designed study, and wrote the manuscript. YJ and SL are the corresponding authors, reviewed and approved the manuscript and held all the responsibilities related to this manuscript. All authors reviewed and approved the manuscript.


Glossina spp.) using stationary targets might fail because smaller, less mobile individuals are unlikely to be killed by the targets. If true, tsetse caught in stationary traps should be larger than those from mobile baits, which require less mobility on the part of the flies.It has been suggested that attempts to eradicate populations of tsetse  and ~10% for females ; for G. pallidipes the figures were ~50% for males  and ~75% for females . As expected, flies of the smaller species  were less likely to be captured using stationary, rather than mobile sampling devices. For flies of a given sex and species the situation was more complex. Multivariable analysis showed that, for females of both species, wing lengths changed with ovarian age and the month, year and method of capture. For G. pallidipes, there were statistically significant interactions between ovarian age and capture month, year and method. For G. m. morsitans, there was only a significant interaction between ovarian age and capture month. The effect of capture method was, however, small in absolute terms: for G. pallidipes and G. m. morsitans flies caught on the mobile vehicle had wings only 0.24 and 0.48% shorter, respectively, than flies caught in stationary traps. In summary, wing length in field samples of tsetse varies with ovarian age, capture month and year and, weakly, with capture method. Suggestions that a target-based operation against G. f. fuscipes in Kenya caused a shift towards a smaller, less mobile population of tsetse, unavailable to the targets, failed to account for factors other than capture method.Sampling tsetse in the Zambezi Valley of Zimbabwe, we found that the number of tsetse caught from stationary traps, as a percent of total numbers from traps plus a mobile vehicle, was ~5% for male G. f. fuscipes populations in Kenya.The results are consistent with the successful use of targets to eradicate populations of tsetse in Zimbabwe. Until further, more nuanced, studies are conducted, it is premature to conclude that targets alone could not, similarly, be used to eradicate The online version of this article (10.1186/s13071-018-3274-x) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users. Glossina spp.) is important in determining the epidemiology of the potentially fatal diseases caused by the blood parasites (Trypanosoma spp.) which male and female tsetse can transmit when feeding on humans and livestock ),G. f. fuscipes, which does not use odour in host location in the manner of G. m. morsitans and, particularly, G. pallidipes. The proportion of the population trapped per target is thus much smaller for G. f. fuscipes. The target density required to achieve a desired rate of population reduction is thus much higher for G. f. fuscipes than for the Zimbabwe species. This implies that G. f. fuscipes need not travel so far as G. pallidipes in order to find a target, so reducing any selection against large and relatively mobile individuals. Various considerations suggest, anyway, that more data need to be produced before one could unequivocally attribute the size changes recorded in the recent study on G. f. fuscipes in Kenya to the use of targets in the control campaign [The situation might be different for campaign . First, campaign . If thatEven if the results are accepted at face value, it appears that the 19-months of suppression due to targets deployed on Big Chamaunga Island reduced the mean size of female tsetse on the island by only about 1% . This verelative sizes of tsetse caught using mobile and stationary baits. Results from our study suggest that such effects are unlikely. Thus, as with most field situations in most environments, there are major, annual, cyclical changes in the weather at Rekomitjie, and these are associated with changes in vegetation and in animal abundance and distribution. During the course of the study there were also major differences between years in the temperatures measured at the station. As indicated by our results . Figure S3. Artificial refuge - photograph and plan. Text S2. Tsetse life-cycle. Text S3. Ovarian dissection: estimation of fly age. Figure S4. Diagrammatic representation of the relative sizes of oocytes of female tsetse (Glossina spp) during successive ovulation cycles. Text S4 Climate profiles at Rekomitjie Research Station. Figure S5. Average monthly maximum and minimum temperatures and rainfall for the period 1 January 1989 to 31 December 1993 at Rekomitjie Research Station. Table S1. Multivariable analysis of the effects of ovarian age, month, year and method of capture, and interactions between age and the three other variables, on the mean wing length of female tsetse captured in the field at Rekomitjie Research Station, 1989–1993. (DOCX 961 kb)


Fracture of the talar body is rare, it reaches articular congruence and determines the ankle's functional prognosis. The authors report a case of a combination of a sagittal talar body fracture with fracture of the medial malleolus in a 52-year-old following a road traffic accident. The association talus body fracture with a medial malleolus fracture is exceptional. Stable internal fixation can yield good functional results. The incidence of talar fractures is lower (0.3%) and talar body fractures are the most frequent  . A combiMKL, 52 year-old man, official, without medical history, was the victim of a traffic accident (motor vehicle accident) driving home blunt trauma of the right ankle with pain and overall functional impairment. The mechanism associated dorsiflexion, inversion and axial compression. Clinical examination revealed a large inflammatory ankle. The medial malleolus was very painful on palpation. There was no open wound, or neurovascular disorders. Radiographic and CT scan showed an ankle fracture oblique to the medial malleolus and a sagittal talar body fracture . A firstet al. [Fractures of the talus are rare , they are often associated with fractures of the neck of the foot, including a broken ankle in 26 % of cases -5. The cet al.  and B acet al. . Vasculaet al. . The preet al. , 6, 13. et al. , 15. It et al. , 16. Poset al. . Surgicaet al. , 15, 18 et al. . The choet al. . The ostet al. , is replFracture of the talus body is rare. The association with a medial malleolus fracture is exceptional, but providential infact it protects vasculature fragments detached and offers for one day an anatomic reconstruction of the talus. A support with rapid restoration of articular congruence and stable internal fixation can yield a good functional outcome.The authors declare no competing interests.


Addendum to:npj Precision Oncology; 10.1038/s41698-017-0008-z; Published online 03 April 2017.npj Precision Oncology is publishing an Editorial Expression of Concern on the manuscript ‘Birinapant sensitizes platinum-resistant carcinomas with high levels of cIAP to carboplatin therapy’ from La et al., because of a letter requesting retraction communicated to our journal by S. Memarzadeh, a corresponding author of this manuscript. Concerns have been raised regarding the identity of the cell lines used for the experimental work in Fig. 1d, and the reporting of the survival of cells presented in Fig. 2a. We understand that this is subject to an ongoing review, and we will continue to monitor the situation and update this statement accordingly. The authors have been informed of this statement. V. La, R. Fujikawa, M. Nunez, L. Bainvoll, L. Hwang, K. Faull and S. Memarzadeh agree with this editorial expression of concern. We were unable to obtain a response from D. M. Janzen and G. Lawson.


Agrilus planipennis (Coleoptera: Buprestidae) is a devastating invasive pest of ash trees. This wood-boring insect is native to Asia and established in European Russia about 20 years ago. It severely damages Fraxinus pennsylvanica plantations and quickly spreads. In 2019 we first detected A. planipennis in Ukraine. More than 20 larvae were collected from under the bark of F. pennsylvanica trees on 5 September 2019 in the Markivka District of the Luhansk Region. The coordinates of the localities of collection were 49.614991 N, 39.559743 E; 49.614160 N, 39.572402 E; and 49.597043 N, 39.561811 E. The photos of the damaged trees with larval galleries, exit holes and larvae are presented. It indicates that A. planipennis is established in the east of Ukraine. This fact is important for development of quarantine protocols to prevent or at least slow the further spread of this invasive pest in Europe. Agrilus planipennis (Coleoptera: Buprestidae), a pest of ash trees (Fraxinus spp.), is native to China, Russian Far East, Japan and Korea [F. pennsylvanica in an ever-expanding outward range [A. planipennis should be carefully monitored, because it poses a serious threat to F. pennsylvanica plantations in Europe [A. planipennis was recorded only in European Russia. In 2018, it was recorded in the very south of the Voronezh Region of Russia, i.e. near the border of the Luhansk Region of Ukraine [A. planipennis into another country is crucial for plant quarantine protocols. Thus, we decided to look for the pest in the Luhansk Region of Ukraine.The emerald ash borer (EAB), nd Korea . Since ind Korea . Similarrd range ,4. The sn Europe . Before  Ukraine . InformaA. planipennis locality in Russia [F. excelsior and F. pennsylvanica) were examined for the characteristic D-shaped exit holes. Three trees of F. pennsylvanica damaged by A. planipennis were detected. These trees were situated at the edge of the forest belts and had a diameter of 7–10 cm. Characteristic D-shaped exit holes were situated at a height of 50–200 cm. The infested trees had dying of upper branches, reduced foliage density  and fewer seeds. This information was included to the paper posted as a preprint to bioRxiv on 2 July 2019 [Between 20 and 22 June 2019 ash trees in the Starokozhiv Forest and the field shelter belt in its vicinity (the Markivka District of the Luhansk Region of Ukraine) were examined by A.N. Drogvalenko. This locality was chosen for the survey because it is just about 25 km from the nearest known n Russia . The steA. planipennis. And since we had no specimens or photos for confirmation, our record of A. planipennis in Ukraine was considered unreliable [Immediately following the appearance of this preprint on the Internet, the National Plant Protection Organization of Ukraine conducted an official survey in the same area and did not detect reliable . A descrA. planipennis, and to collect larvae from under the bark. Larvae were identified by an illustrated guide to distinguish emerald ash borer (A. planipennis) from its congeners in Europe [Between 4 and 6 September 2019 A.N. Drogvalenko visited the Markivka District of the Luhansk Region of Ukraine again and repeated the survey of the ash trees. His aim was to take photos of the exit holes, larval galleries and larvae of F. pennsylvanica trees, heavily infested with A. planipennis, were found in this region (The same three infested trees and more than 40 other s region . More thF. excelsior were detected in spite of this ash species being common in this forest.No infestations of Since the examined trees are heavily infested and some larvae are of the last instar, it is obvious that the infestation is at least two years old. The finding of EAB in Ukraine is not surprising. By 2019 EAB has spread to 14 regions of European Russia: Bryansk, Kaluga, Lipetsk, Moscow, Orel, Ryazan, Smolensk, Tambov, Tula, Tver, Vladimir, Volgograd, Voronezh and Yaroslavl . The disA. planipennis is established in Ukraine. It should be taken into account in plant quarantine protocols of European countries.There is no doubt that


These articles have been retracted: On April 10, 2018, based on concerns regarding image duplication across different articles, Oncotarget requested that The Ethics Committee of the Division of Life Sciences of Academia Sinica initiate an investigation into two Oncotarget papers by Ho, et al (https://doi.org/10.18632/oncotarget.2804 and https://doi.org/10.18632/oncotarget.10427). After a series of Committee meetings, preliminary investigative reports, and multiple correspondence emails between the Committee and corresponding authors, the Committee made the following conclusions:https://doi.org/10.18632/oncotarget.10427, and two pairs of panels   in Fig. 6A in https://doi.org/10.18632/oncotarget.2804 appear to be duplicated use of images from the same mice. The Committee finds that these results are falsified and may be misleading.1. Four pairs of panels , ,  and  in Fig. 7A, in 2. The corresponding authors of these papers, Drs. Chi-Ming Liang and Shu-Mei Liang, and the first author Ming-Yi Ho, all agreed that Dr. Ho is responsible for the execution of the experiments and providing the data. The committee concluded that Dr. Ho is thus responsible for research misconduct. Drs. Liang CM and Liang SM are responsible for the failure of proper mentoring/supervision.


AbstractAliaporcellanaspongicolasp. n. from the Philippines and Indonesia is described. The new species has been frequently photographed by divers because of its striking coloration, but has not been described yet. Aliaporcellanaspongicolasp. n. is in fact a widespread commensal of barrel sponges of the genus Xestospongia and other sponges. Morphological characters and ecological information of all described species of Aliaporcellana, and of other porcellanids associated with sponges and soft corals, suggest that all members of the genus are commensals, and that similar morphological adaptations to dwelling on these hosts have evolved independently in different evolutionary lines within Porcellanidae. Aliaporcellana was established by Porcellana Lamarck and to one of three natural groups within Polyonyx Stimpson, designated by P.denticulatus Paul’son 1875, group. A diagnostic character considered by Aliaporcellana is the dactylus of all walking legs bearing two or more distinctively well-developed fixed spines. Aliaporcellana contained nine species until Polyonyxdenticulatus group, which now includes the type A.suluensis (Dana 1852), A.pygmaea (de Man 1902) and A.telestophila ] and in Indonesia by C.H.J.M. Fransen . The holotype is deposited in the National Museum of Natural History, Philippines (NMCR). Color photographs of the holotype and of the live crab in the field were provided by G. Paulay, and were included in the description. Measurements of carapace length and width (in mm) of type individuals follow collection information.We found the new species in material collected in the Philippines by G. Paulay  and on other types of sponges, like the “large, grey foliose sponge”, on which the crabs from Sulawesi included in this study, were found. PageBreakThe porcellanid lies in the sponge’s folds, where it is most protected from predators  refers to the sponge-dwelling habit of the new species.The name Aliaporcellanaspongicola sp. n. is considerably variable in the shape of carapace and the degree of spination on body and extremities. As in other porcellanid species, the spines are more defined in smaller specimens. The new species is distinguished from A.pygmaea and A.kikuchii by the lack of acute spines on the dactylus of the smaller cheliped .cheliped , and by cheliped . Aliapor Figures , 3a, whi Figures  and is aPageBreakAliaporcellanaspongicola sp. n., the genus now comprises six species.With the description of A.telestophila is the only species of the genus reported to live as commensal , instead. Up to now, ommensal . JohnsonA.suluensis collected from sponges in Saudi Arabia, and of all other Aliaporcellana species, led us to conclude that perhaps all species of the genus are commensals. We base our conclusions on the well-developed, fixed spines on the dactylus of the walking legs, a character present in all Aliaporcellana species (see Figures Pachychelesackleianus A. Milne-Edwards, 1880, Polyonyxhendersoni Southwell, 1909 and P.splendidus Sankolli, 1963; see Aliaporcellana are commensal of sponges or octocorals, and that this morphological trait has evolved independently in different evolutionary lines within Porcellanidae. Aliaporcellanaspongicola sp. n. probably lives in male-female pairs, as A.telestophila does on the octocoral Solenocaulon (Our own observations of the morphology and ecology of nocaulon .Aliaporcellana species are needed to confirm the commensal status of the genus.The association between crab and sponge may be easily overlooked because sponges are often attached to each other and to rocks, and are damaged when the rocks are lifted. More collection data of other


Please download this article again to view the correct version. To request data access, contact the CIDRZ Ethics and Compliance Committee Chair/Chief Scientific Officer, Dr. Roma Chilengi, Roma.chilengi@cidrz.org), or the Secretary to the Committee/Head of Research Operations, Ms. Hope Mwanyungwi, Hope.Mwanyungwi@cidrz.org), mentioning the intended use for the data.This article was republished on 7


Synechococcus sp. and Nodularia spumigena filtrates on several aspects related to the physiology of the target species: population growth, cell morphology, and several indexes of photosynthesis rate and respiration. The target species were the following: two species of green algae  and two species of diatoms . These four species coexist in the natural environment with the employed strains of Synechococcus sp. and N. spumigena employed. The tests were performed with single and repeated addition of cyanobacterial cell-free filtrate. We also tested the importance of the growth phase in the strength of the allelopathic effect. The negative effects of both cyanobacteria were the strongest with repeated exudates addition, and generally, Synechococcus sp. and N. spumigena were allelopathic only in the exponential growth phase. O. submarina was not negatively affected by Synechococcus filtrates in any of the parameters studied, while C. vulgaris, B. paxillifer, and S. marinoi were affected in several ways. N. spumigena was characterized by a stronger allelopathic activity than Synechococcus sp., showing a negative effect on all target species. The highest decline in growth, as well as the most apparent cell physical damage, was observed for the diatom S. marinoi. Our findings suggest that cyanobacterial allelochemicals are associated with the cell physical damage, as well as a reduced performance in respiration and photosynthesis system in the studied microalgae which cause the inhibition of the population growth. Moreover, our study has shown that some biotic factors that increase the intensity of allelopathic effects may also alter the ratio between bloom-forming cyanobacteria and some phytoplankton species that occur in the same aquatic ecosystem.Only a few studies have documented the physiological effects of allelopathy from cyanobacteria against coexisting microalgae. We investigated the allelopathic ability of the bloom-forming cyanobacteria  Cyanobacteria are capable of producing a variety of metabolites for which toxicity to aquatic and terrestrial organisms has been demonstrated ,3,4,5,6.The mode of action of allelopathic compounds depends on the interrelationship between the different organisms, and the activity of released allelochemicals. The mechanism and exact mode of action of many of these chemical compounds are still insufficiently understood . In the Synechococcus sp. and N. spumigena. Also, we studied some biotic factors that could affect the strength of allelopathy, such as specificity of donor and target organisms and growth phase of the donor species. The allelopathic ability was tested on the growth, cell morphology, photosynthetic performance, and respiration rate of a set of species of green algae (O. submarina and C. vulgaris) and diatoms (B. paxillifer and S. marinoi) that coexist with the employed strain of cyanobacteria in the natural environment.The goal of this work was to examine mechanisms of action, at the level of cell main physiological processes of allelochemicals from the bloom-forming cyanobacteria Synechococcus sp. from the exponential growth phase significantly decreased the growth of green alga C. vulgaris, as well as diatoms B. paxillifer and S. marinoi, but not green alga O. submarina. N. spumigena, however, showed a negative effect on all the species tested  and 55%  for single and multiple exudates additions, respectively. On the seventh day, the growth in this microalga was, relative to the control, 72%  and 33%  for single and repeated filtrate addition, respectively. B. paxillifer growth was not so strongly inhibited as the other two species, showing a single significant effect for the repeated filtrate addition in the seventh day, being 83% relative to the control . The growth of S. marinoi was affected by Synechococcus sp. filtrate already at day 3, being, relative to the control, 57%  and 43%  with single and repeated additions of the filtrate, respectively. On the seventh day, the growth was reduced by 32%  and 44%  with single and repeated additions of the filtrate, respectively. O. submarina growth was not significantly affected by Synechococcus sp. filtrate.The growth of N. spumigena showed a greater negative impact on tested microalgae than Synechococcus sp. filtrate. On the first, third, and seventh day, the growth of S. marinoi was reduced by 70% , 65%  and 39%  with single additions of filtrate, and by 52%  and 19%  with repeated exudates additions on the third and seventh day of the experiment. In C. vulgaris, the highest decrease in growth was observed, for the single and repeated filtrate addition, after 7 days of the experiment, being 24% and 59%, respectively, relative to the control . In this same species, the single and repeated addition experiment showed a significant reduction of growth in the third day, for which the growth was, relative to the control, 33%  and 37% , respectively. The growth of B. paxillifer and O. submarina were affected already at the seventh day by N. spumigena filtrate, being, relative to the control, 87%  and 97%  for single filtrate additions and 83%  and 89%  for repeated exudates additions, respectively.Synechococcus sp. and N. spumigena cultures in the stationary phase did not have a negative allelopathic effect on tested microalgae . Furthermore, the growth of S. marinoi was affected on the seventh day by N. spumigena exudates, being, relative to the control, 85%  for filtrate additions.Surprisingly, the filtrate of the C. vulgaris, B. paxillifer, and S. marinoi) also experienced abnormal morphological changes , 84%  and 64% , respectively for Synechococcus sp. and 68% , 81%  and 58% , respectively for N. spumigena. No negative effect was observed against O. submarina.The same species whose growth was the most affected by filtrates , 83% , and 44% , relative to the control. Furthermore, for the N. spumigena filtrate the significant negative effect was found for two tested diatoms: B. paxillifer and S. marinoi in the single filtrate addition experiment, for which it constituted 75%  and 45% , respectively, of the control. For this same parameter, in the repeated addition experiments, the values of pm for C. vulgaris, B. paxillifer, and S. marinoi were significantly different from the control by the seventh day, when they constituted, relative to the control, 52% , 80% , and 50% , respectively for Synechococcus sp. exudates and 51% , 75% , and 67% , respectively for N. spumigena filtrate. There was no significant effect of cyanobacterial filtrate on the pm value of O. submarina, .For single filtrate addition acquired from α parameter, for B. paxillifer, in the single addition assay, it was 80% relative to the control . For this same species, it was not found a significant effect in the repeated addition experiment . For single filtrate addition acquired from N. spumigena, the values of pm in O. submarina, C. vulgaris, and B. paxillifer constituted, respectively, 92% , 42% , and 70% , relative to the control. There was no significant effect of repeated filtrate addition obtained from Synechococcus sp. and N. spumigena on the α parameter of the tested microalgal species .Regarding the Synechococcus sp. exudates did not cause a significant effect in the parameter Ek for any of the species tested . However, for single filtrate addition acquired from N. spumigena, the values of Ek in O. submarina and C. vulgaris constituted, respectively, 102%  and 280% , relative to the control. In the repeated exudates addition assay, the Ek values of C. vulgaris and S. marinoi were, relative to the control 49%  and 45% , respectively for Synechococcus sp. exudates and 63%  and 44% , respectively, for N. spumigena filtrate. There was no significant effect of repeated filtrate addition acquired from Synechococcus sp. and N. spumigena on the Ek of the O. submarina and B. paxillifer .The single addition of Rd) the only significant negative effect of Synechococcus sp. filtrate was found for S. marinoi in the single exudate addition assay, for which it constituted 38% of the control . In the same single filtrate addition experiment, in O. submarina, the effect was significantly positive, being 17% higher than the control . Repeated addition of Synechococcus sp. exudates did not cause a significant effect in the parameter Rd for any of the species tested . Regarding the Rd parameter, for the diatoms B. paxillifer and S. marinoi, in the single addition experiment with exudates from N. spumigena, the reduction was 62%  and 55%  relative to the control. In the same experiment, in C. vulgaris, the effect was significantly positive, being 264% higher than the control . A significant effect of N. spumigena in the multiple exudates addition treatment was found only for S. marinoi, for which it constituted 217% of the control .For the dark respiration  are hypothesized to be the main reasons explaining the differences in susceptibility to allelochemicals . These dChlorella vulgaris and the diatom Skeletonema marinoi. Previous studies also reported detrimental allelopathic impact of cyanobacteria on green algae [Synechococcus sp. and N. spumigena allelochemicals may differ between species within this group. The susceptibility of C. vulgaris and S. marinoi could be a consequence of its small cell size (less than 5 µm), and hence, relatively large surface to volume relationship, which enhances the efficiency of uptake of extracellular molecules [Synechococcus sp. exudates had no allelopathic impact on the abundance of Oocystis submarina. This could be due, at least in part, to the formation of colonies with thin, hyaline mucilaginous envelope. However, N. spumigena was characterized by a stronger allelopathic activity than Synechococcus sp., showing a negative effect on all tested species. This may be due to the release of higher amounts of allelochemicals or more potent compounds than those secreted by unicellular picocyanobacterium Synechococcus sp.We detected that population growth was the most negatively affected variable in the green alga en algae ,25,26,27en algae ,20,27,28en algae ,30,31. Tolecules . ConversA greater amount of allelopathic compounds present in the filtrate should have a stronger effect on target organisms ,33,34. WSynechococcus sp. and N. spumigena using non-axenic cultures. Heterotrophic bacteria may mediate allelopathic interactions between different species by altering cyanobacterial allelochemicals or releasing chemical substances on their own [We examined the allelopathic ability of heir own . Howeverheir own  revealedSynechococcus sp. and N. spumigena were more allelopathic in exponential than in the stationary growth phase. Suikkanen et al. [N. spumigena and K. brevis, respectively, from the exponential phase of growth, had a detrimental allelopathic effect, whereas the exudates from stationary phase did not show this same effect. Schmidt and Hansen [A relevant biotic factor influencing allelopathic interactions is the growth phase of the donor organism. The release of allelopathic compounds by donor organisms could depend on their growth phase . In thisn et al.  and Kuban et al.  also shod Hansen  concluded Hansen . Authorsd Hansen .Among the allelopathic effects detected in our study, there was physical damage to cell structures in three species, as observed by light and epifluorescence microscope. Other authors have described as well morphological changes or physical damage to cells caused by allelopathic activity ,41,42.Population growth and physical damage to cell structures could be end-of-chain  effects. As a consequence of allelochemicals effects at the metabolic or physiological scale , general cell processes would be negatively affected, and the ultimate consequence could be physical cell damage and growth inhibition. However, it is also possible that cell physical damage was the proximal effect of allelochemicals, and then would come improper functioning of metabolism and physiological processes. This would be the case if allelochemicals were some sort of cytolytic compounds, not rare among phytoplankton ,44.pm was shown to be the most sensitive parameter to detect allelopathic effects. The parameter Ek is a photosynthetic characteristic that is independent of algal biomass [Ek and pm values, and a minimal change in α, indicates that agents other than main pigment concentration are impacting the photosynthetic performance of light-harvesting and energy transduction in microalgae. In our work, we assumed that this factor could be cyanobacterial allelopathy. Besides, the α parameter was also significantly reduced. The α parameter is the maximum light utilization (assimilation of CO2) coefficient. Allelochemicals may inhibit the CO2 assimilation rate by modifying the stomata function, as suggested by Zhou and Yu [Rd parameters were observed. Respiration process can be directly disadvantaged through many modes of action. Secondary metabolites can both uncouple oxidative phosphorylation and inhibit mitochondrial electron transport.We also tested the photosynthetic and dark respiration rates, to evaluate the effects on physiological processes in more detail. The inhibition of photosynthesis via the secretion of allelopathic compounds may be another effective strategy for cyanobacteria, as demonstrated by Ma et al. . It is w biomass ,46. Moreu and Yu . Much ofu and Yu . In thisOne of the most unfinished tasks in the study of allelopathy is to identify the compounds responsible for the observed effects, where only a few works exist that have resolved this issue . CyanobaSynechococcus sp. and Nodularia spumigena employed were CCBA-124 and CCBA-15, respectively, and the target microalgae were the green algae Oocystis submarina CCBA-01 and Chlorella vulgaris CCBA-80, and the diatoms Bacillaria paxillifer CCBA-14 and Skeletonema marinoi CCBA-98. All these strains were isolated from the Baltic Sea and were maintained as unispecies cultures in the Culture Collection of Baltic Algae (CCBA).The strains of −2s−1, measured with a quantum-meter  with a cosine collector. All the target cultures employed in the experiments were kept under the same conditions at least 7 days prior to the experiments.These strains were grown in f/2 culture medium  in 25-mLSynechococcus sp. and N. spumigena cultures were gently filtered using a 0.45-µm filter . The cell abundance in the donor cultures was about 107 mL−1 for Synechococcus sp. and 106 mL−1 for N. spumigena. Prior to the experiments, the concentrations of nutrients (N-NO3 and P-PO4) in the cyanobacterial cultures were measured using DR6000 Spectrophotometer  according to Grasshoff [Allelopathic effects were tested in conformity with the methods from Śliwińska-Wilczewska and Latała  with cerrasshoff . Then, tSynechococcus sp. and N. spumigena cultures from exponential growth phase were kept in a culture room at 8 PSU, 20 °C and 190 μmol photons m−2s−1 with a 16:8 h light:dark cycle for one week, while cyanobacterial cultures from stationary growth phases were kept in the same conditions for three weeks. The cyanobacterial growth phases were determined by monitoring cell abundances. In the repeated filtrate addition experiments, the filtrate was daily renewed by replacing 2-mL of cell suspension from the experimental flasks with an equal volume of fresh filtrate  or filtered f/2 medium (for the controls). All the experimental treatments had three replicates. The initial concentration of the experimental cultures was 0.8 µg Chl a mL−1. In the case of cultures obtained from the stationary growth phase, the Synechococcus sp. and N. spumigena were first diluted with the f/2 medium to obtain a suitable concentration of Chl a and then filtered to obtain a cell-free filtrate. This concentration was low enough to represent relevant environmental conditions and high enough to be measured properly. The experimental duration was 7 days.We performed two kind of experiments: (a) single addition (at the beginning of the experiments) of cell-free culture filtrate from the cyanobacteria; and (b) repeated addition (daily) of culture filtrate. The last experiments were aimed to simulate continuous release of allelochemicals. Treatments were executed by adding the cell-free filtrate (V = 2 mL) to 25-mL Erlenmeyer flasks containing cell suspensions of the target species (V = 20 mL). Controls consisted in the addition of filtered f/2 medium (V = 2 mL) to 25-mL Erlenmeyer flasks containing cell suspensions of the same microalgae species (V = 20 mL). Separate treatments were prepared with exudates from cyanobacterial cultures in exponential and stationary phases of growth. −1) and optical density (OD). In order to fit this model, cyanobacterial and microalgal cells were counted under the microscope in a Bürker counting chamber [−1 and OD. The linear regression models for Synechococcus sp. and N. spumigena were chosen based on the model proposed by Barreiro Felpeto et al. [Cell abundances were assessed by measuring optical density (OD) at 750 nm with a Multiskan GO spectrophotometer  and then transforming these values to cell abundances with a previously fitted linear regression model between cell abundance  and therefore, the same single cell cannot be viewed under a light microscope.Cell morphology of target species was examined in samples from the seventh day of the experiment with repeated additions of cell-free filtrate. The analysis followed the method from Barreiro Felpeto et al. . The samSynechococcus sp. and N. spumigena cell-free filtrate in exponential growth phases. Measurements of oxygen production were carried out on the seventh day of the experiment with a Clark-type oxygen electrode . Experimental data were fitted to the photosynthesis irradiance response curves (P–E curves) using the equation from Jassby and Platt [pm, maximum light utilization coefficient—α, light saturation index—Ek, and dark respiration—Rd.Oxygen production of target species were examined in the experiments with single and repeated additions of nd Platt  with sofnd Platt , the part-tests were used to determine whether the photosynthetic parameters of the target microalgae species, when treated with cyanobacterial exudates, differed from the control on the last day of the allelopathic assay. Data are showed as means ± standard deviations (SD). Levels of significance were: * p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01; *** p < 0.001. The statistical analyses were executed using Statistica® 13.1. .Repeated measures ANOVA, with time (days) as covariate, was used to test the effect of cyanobacterial filtrate on growth of the tested microalgae. A post-hoc Tukey’s HSD test was used to determine significant differences between control and allelopathic assay. Differences in the abundance of the recognized morphological types of cells were analyzed with a Mann–Whitney test. The


AbstractSarothrogammarusyiiruaesp. nov., is described from Xinjiang, China. The new species is characterized by the absence of eyes; having the palm of the propodus without a mid-palmar spine on gnathopods I–II; a weakly concave coxal plate IV; narrow bases of pereopods V–VII; a peduncle of uropod I without a basofacial spine; uropod III longer than uropods I–II, a scale-like inner ramus, and a biarticulate outer ramus with distinct second article. Detailed morphological comparisons with related species are discussed. Genetic distances of the new and related species are provided as proof of species identification.A relic amphipod of the Tethys,  Sarothrogammarus-group in Pamir and a brackish genus, Rhipidogammarus Stock, 1971 along the Mediterranean coast . The genus Comatogammarus is distinguished from Sarothrogammarus in having filtrative setae on pereopod IV; while the genus Barnardiorum differs from Sarothrogammarus in having a vestigial second article on uropod III. Up to now, there are eight species recorded in Pamir: Comatogammarusferghanensis , Barnardiorumruffoi , B.shadini , Sarothrogammarusasiaticus Martynov, 1935, S.multipennatus Karaman, 1969, S.lindbergi Karaman, 1969, S.afghanus , and S.trichiatus Stock, 1971. They were all reported from Afghanistan or Tadzhikistan.Sarothrogammarid amphipods are considered relics of the Tethys fauna , 1995, can coast . This dian coast . The freSarothrogammarusyiiruae sp. nov. was found from the east margin of Pamir. In the current paper, the new species is described and illustrated. The genetic distances between the new species and known species are calculated to confirm the species delimitation.To explore the retreat route of the Tethys, an expedition was organized along the south side of the Tian Shan, China in 2014. A new species of Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences (IZCAS), Beijing.The specimens were collected with a fine-meshed hand net. Samples were preserved in 95% ethanol in the field and deposited in a -20 °C refrigerator for long term preservation. The body length was recorded by holding the specimen straight and measuring the distance along the dorsal side of the body from the base of the first antenna to the base of the telson. All dissected appendages were mounted on slides and were drawn using a Leica DM2500 compound microscope equipped with a drawing tube. Terminology and taxonomic descriptions follow the literature . The terCOI) and nuclear 28S rRNA were amplified to confirm identifications. Genomic DNA extraction, amplification and sequencing procedures were performed as in Partial fragments of mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase subunit .Four males, two females, and two juveniles, same data as for preceding. Two males were used for molecular analysis, but no variation was found between them. Sequences were submitted to GenBank , 8.0 mm., 7.0 mm. in genitive case.The specific name is named in honor of Ms Menghe Yiiru, lovely daughter of the collector Meng Kaibayier, for their kind support of This species was collected from a stream, rising in snow-capped mountains.Sarothrogammarus according to the scale-like inner ramus of uropod III and the narrow bases of pereopods V–VII. It is not a member of the genus Comatogammarus because pereopod V lacks filtrative setae. It is not assigned to the genus Barnardiorum because the second article of the outer ramus in uropod III is distinct rather than vestigial.The new species is assigned to the genus Sarothrogammarusyiiruae sp. nov. is most similar to S.trichiatus Stock, 1971 in having urosomites I–III with setae on the dorsal margin and the shape of uropods I and II. Sarothrogammarusyiiruae sp. nov. differs from S.trichiatus (character states for S.trichiatus in parentheses) in the following: the absence of eyes (the presence of eyes); gnathopod II without mid-palmar spine ; pereopod III without filtrative long setae on merus and carpus (pereopod III with filtrative setae); second article of outer ramus in uropod III distinct, longer than adjacent spines . The comparison between the species of sarothrogammarids from the Pamir region is presented in the following key.COI and 28S sequences of sarothrogammarids from Pamir (Comatogammarusferghanensis (voucher number SLOCHN266), Barnardiorumshadini (voucher number SLOCHN263), and Barnardiorum sp. . Molecular analyses showed high interspecific divergence  for crustacean species delimitation (S.yiiruae sp. nov. being a new species.We downloaded om Pamir , includie Tables , 2. The mitation . The genmitation . Therefo


In the original article Intekhab Alam was not indicated as having contributed equally to the article. The author list above has been updated to reflect this. The corrected Author Contributions Statement appears below.in vitro assay and cell-based in vivo assay. SH and KK wrote manuscript.”“KK, SH, MC, and HK conceived and analyzed the experimental data. J-HL, BP, IA, and JS solved the crystal structure. J-HL and SK conducted TEM. KH, J-HL, SB, and JC conducted the Additionally, the city name in affiliation 2 was incorrectly given as Daejeon. The correct city name is Gyeonggi-do.The authors apologize for these errors and state that this does not change the scientific conclusions of the article in any way. The original article has been updated.The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.


Rattus norvegicus) are known to transmit zoonotic pathogens and diminish rat health. To the best of our knowledge, there is no published information regarding the prevalence of ectoparasites on R. norvegicus in Grenada. This study aimed to determine the prevalence and types of ectoparasites present on brown rats from Grenada.Arthropod ectoparasites  on common house rats or brown rats , fleas (3.4%), an unidentified larval tick (0.7%), and a mite in the family Myobiidae (0.7%). Infestation rates were higher in St. David Parish  than in St. George Parish  (p=0.001). When comparing sex and age, males had a marginal increase in infestation rate  compared to females  (p=0.054), and adults had an infestation rate of 90.7% (97/107) compared to juvenile rats who had a 66.7% (14/21) infestation rate.Over 2000 ectoparasites were collected from 149 of the 168 trapped rats (88.7%). Ectoparasites identified included mesostigmatid mites (found on 84.6% of infested rats), fur mites in the families Atopomelidae and Listrophoridae (67.1%), Brown rats in Grenada are heavily infested with ectoparasites, including known vectors of pathogens. Future studies will examine the prevalence of zoonotic pathogens in these arthropods. Rattus norvegicus, the common house rat, can be found across the world densely populated in temperate climates. Rodent-human encounters are on the rise with continuous demolition of rat habitats [Yersinia pestis [Borrelia burgdorferi [Bartonella henselae [habitats . With inhabitats . Common a pestis , Borreligdorferi , and Barhenselae .Y. pestis infection being the bubonic form [B. henselae are reported in the US annually, according to the CDC [There is a reported average of seven cases of the plague annually in the United States with the most common manifestation of nic form . Centersnic form . An esti the CDC . All menR. norvegicus in the Caribbean region. This study aimed to estimate the prevalence of external parasites on brown rats from Grenada, West Indies.There is a paucity of published research on the prevalence of ectoparasites on The project was approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC #16009-R) of St. George’s University (SGU), Grenada.2. The country, with low hills, small trees, shrubs, and a tropical climate, is suitable for rats. The country is composed of six parishes: St. Andrew, St. David, St. George, St. John, St. Mark, and St. Patrick. Landscape and climatic conditions are similar in all parishes. The populous parishes of St. David and St. George were selected for this study.Grenada is a southern Caribbean island with an area of 348.5 kmOne hundred sixty-eight rats were collected live from May to July 2017 using wood and wire mesh traps (45 cm l×15 cm w×15 cm h) baited with cheese or fruit. Traps were placed within 10 m of residential buildings twice weekly in the evening and collected the next morning. Species identification of the captured rats was achieved by evaluating their morphological characteristics. Attributes used to identify the brown rat include coat color, ear stature and color, and length of tail. Brown rats are stout in build with brown-gray coats, prominent bare ears that protrude past the head, and short tails in relation to the length of their body . Traps wet al. [et al. [The euthanized rats were examined for their physical health, weight, and sex. Rats below 100 g were grouped as a juvenile and over 100 g as an adult following the methodology used by Panti-May  [et al. . Externa [et al.  using 30Rats are known to normally harbor fleas, mites, and lice ,13. In tPolyplax spp. lice , fleas , an unidentified larval tick , and a mite in the family Myobiidae .The prevalence of ectoparasites on brown rats was evaluated in two human densely populated parishes in Grenada: St. David and St. George . Out of Rats in St. George Parish had an infestation rate of 79.7% (63/79), while rats in St. David had a 96.6% (86/89) infestation rate (difference: p=0.001). The prevalence in male and female rats in St. George and St. David is included in et al. [Previous researchers reported wide variations in the prevalence of positive brown rats for ectoparasites in different parts of the world. Reports from the following countries demonstrate the diversity in external parasite prevalence from Croatia 32.2% ; from Niet al.  linked tBartonella and two Rickettsia spp. in eight pools of tropical fur mites (Ornithonyssus bacoti) [Rickettsia typhi) and tularaemia (Francisella tularensis) [The most numerous ectoparasite present on rats were mesostigmatid mites, which were found on 84.6% of positive rats. Some mesostigmatid mites are of a human health concern as they act as vectors in the transmission of zoonotic pathogens . A study bacoti) . It is aarensis) .The second most prevalent ectoparasites found were mites of the family Atopomelidae and Listrophoridae, which were present on 67.1% of infested rats. These fur mites are obligate parasites found attached to the hair shafts of rats. Mites of family Atopomelidae and Listrophoridae feed on sebaceous secretions and tissue particles ,23. TheyPolyplax spp.) were found on six of the positive examined rats. These ectoparasites are reservoirs and are adept at spreading different zoonotic pathogens. In a Taiwan study, 11 out of 81 collected Polyplax spp. collected from R. norvegicus were PCR positive for Bartonella DNA [R. norvegicus revealed that 21.4% of rats were positive for external parasites. Polyplax spp. made up 23.5% of the external parasites. There are concerns that Polyplax spp. are vectors for zoonotic agents, such as Rickettsia spp. [Lice  were found on 3.4% of rats. Fleas transmit flea-borne spotted fever caused by Rickettsia felis [et al. [R. felis in St. Kitts, a neighboring island of Grenada, suggesting that the bacteria are present in cat fleas in the Caribbean. The cat flea is also known to transmit Bartonella spp. to humans [Bartonella [During our study, fleas . These mites can be found anywhere on the rodent body but are found mainly in dense areas along hair bases . Myobia st blood . These mdiseases .R. norvegicus is not commonly infested with ticks [Borrelia spp. (the causative agents of Lyme disease and tick-borne relapsing fever), Anaplasma spp. , and Ehrlichia spp. (ehrlichiosis) [Anaplasma spp. and Ehrlichia spp. in Grenada [One rat (0.7%) was infested with a soft red larval tick from the family Argasidae. Soft ticks are found in close proximity of humans and animals in arid and semi-arid regions. There are 193 described species, 87 of which are found in the Caribbean, the South of Mexico, and in South America . Interesth ticks . Many zochiosis) . Previou Grenada ,35.et al. [et al.[et al. [et al. [et al. [et al. [With regard to the infestation rate by sex, our findings corroborate those reported by Paul et al.  and Stoj. [et al. who repo.[et al.  claimed  [et al. , Webster [et al.  found si [et al.  who foun [et al.  also obsR. norvegicus) in Grenada revealed the presence of four taxa of ectoparasites: mites, lice, fleas, and ticks. Several of these ectoparasites are a potential public health concern as they may serve as vectors of many zoonotic pathogens. With the rise in rodent-human contact due to the urbanization of the brown rat’s habitats, these external parasites should be studied more. Accordingly, upcoming studies by our research group will examine the presence of pathogens in rat ectoparasites in Grenada. The Grenadian population should be educated regarding the health hazards associated with close contact with brown rats. Education of the public will be beneficial in implementing proper rat control in residential areas.This study of ectoparasites on brown rats (RNS: planned, supervised the research, and finalized the manuscript. KNT and NFR: collected and identified parasites from brown rats. KNT: drafted the manuscript. DMF: helped KNT and NFR in identification of ectoparasites and finalizing the manuscript. CCS and RDP: confirmed identity of ectoparasites. KT: collection of rats and helped KNT and NFR in collection of parasites. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.


Phaseolus vulgaris L. is one of the most consumed and documented legumes in regard to its grain composition, but little is known about P. coccineus L. To evaluate and compare the phenolic compound content and antioxidant activity between landraces of P. coccineus and P. vulgaris, a total of 14 accessions of P. coccineus and P. vulgaris were collected from farmers in Oaxaca, Mexico. Based on reference standards and spectrophotometry, the polyphenol, flavonoid and anthocyanin contents were quantified, and the antioxidant activity was determined by the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) method. The results showed significant differences (p ≤ 0.05) between species and accessions, where P. coccineus and P. vulgaris significantly differed in their contents of polyphenols, flavonoids, and anthocyanins, as well as their antioxidant activity in the seed coat and cotyledons. Higher concentrations were found in the seed coat than in the cotyledons for both species. P. vulgaris had a higher anthocyanin content in the seed coat and a higher flavonoid content in the cotyledons than P. coccineus, but it did not for the other compounds tested. There was high variability among the accessions that were classified into four phenotypic groups: Two of P. coccineus, one of a P. coccineus–vulgaris mixed group, and one group of P. vulgaris. Phaseolus (Fabaceae) includes more than 400 species, five of which are the best known, including—in order of commercial importance—Phaseolus vulgaris L., Phaseolus coccineus L., Phaseolus lunatus L., Phaseolus acutifolius A. Gray., and Phaseolus dumosus Macfady. All have their origin, domestication and diversification in America. The first three have a worldwide distribution [P. vulgaris and P. coccineus are conserved in situ as part of the traditional cultivation systems, backyards and forests [The genus ribution ,2,3. In  forests .P. vulgaris is one of the most documented species of the genus Phaseolus in regard to grain composition, including its polyphenol profile [P. coccineus, the concentration of phenolic acids [P. vulgaris grains differ from those of P. coccineus. For example, cyanidin-3-glucoside, delphinidin-3-glucoside, cyanidin, methyldelphinidin, and methylcyanidin anthocyanins are more common in P. coccineus, among others, whereas peonidin, petunidin and malvidin are more common in P. vulgaris [ profile ; phenols profile ,8,9; and profile . In the ic acids , proximaic acids ,13. In svulgaris ,15. ThisP. coccineus are distributed from Mexico to Central America. In Oaxaca, Mexico, both germplasm sources grow simultaneously in adjacent areas; the wild populations grow in natural vegetation zones, fences or back yards near cropping parcels, and farmers commonly move seed from wild populations to cultivated plots, promoting a continual gene flow [P. coccineus variants preserved on-farm have hybrid combinations of morphological and biochemical traits of seed between wild and cultivated forms. In the evaluation conducted by Quiroz-Sodi et al. [P. coccineus. Additionally, in the southern region of Mexico, which includes Oaxaca, farmers preserve in situ hundreds of landraces known regionally but not yet evaluated in terms of bioactive compounds, which are broadly used as food by rural communities. In such a communitarian context, it is relevant to evaluate the contribution of P. coccineus to the diet in terms of its beneficial potential for health and to compare their composition with P. vulgaris throughout the evaluation of secondary metabolites in the cotyledons and seed coat.Wild and cultivated ene flow . Therefoi et al. , they anP. coccineus and P. vulgaris landraces are cultivated traditionally in the central-south of Mexico and Central America under environmental conditions restrictive of soil fertility, without the use of agrochemical supplies under rain-fed conditions, and just for the use for self-consumption at the household level; all of these agroecological factors influence grain composition as well as genotype or variant cultivated [P. coccineus and P. vulgaris and to obtain estimators of the phenotypic variation inter- and intraspecific in terms of phenolic compounds and antioxidant activity to propose strategies of direct use of such landraces or to start a plant breeding program.Hundreds of ltivated ,18. In altivated , but theltivated . Thus, iP. coccineus, even though it is poorly documented [P. coccineus, in addition to the grain [P. coccineus and P. vulgaris cultivated by indigenous communities of Oaxaca, Mexico.The bioactive compounds identified in the common bean are associated with biological activity in reducing the risk of obesity, diabetes, ischemic cardiomyopathy, cardiovascular diseases, some types of cancer, Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, stress, anxiety, depression, and digestive tract diseases, among others ,24,25,26cumented . In parthe grain . In thisPhaseolus coccineus L. (scarlet runner bean) and six P. vulgaris (common bean) accessions were collected in different indigenous communities of Oaxaca (13) and Veracruz (1), Mexico  according to the method described by Aquino-Bolaños et al. [A sample of 100 g of seeds from each accession was left to soak in distilled water for 12 h at 25 °C, followed by the manual separation of the seed coat from the cotyledons; after this separation, they were handled separately. Subsequently, a 3 g sample of seed coat and another similar portion of cotyledons were homogenized  with 25 mL of 70% acidified acetone , and the results were expressed in mg equivalents of gallic acid per gram of dry sample (mg GAE g−1 dw).nd Rossi , and theTotal flavonoids. The spectrophotometric evaluation of the total flavonoids was based on the method reported by Zhishen et al. [−1). The values were expressed in mg equivalents of catechin per gram of dry sample (mg CE g−1 dw).n et al. . The absMonomeric anthocyanins. The anthocyanin content was determined by the differential pH method described by Giusti and Wrolstad [−1 dw).Wrolstad . Two dilAntioxidant activity. The antioxidant activity was evaluated by the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) method reported by Brand-Williams et al. [v/v) methanol as the target. To quantify the antioxidant activity, it was performed based on the inhibition percentage of a standard 6-hydroxy-2,5,7,8-tetramethylchroman-2-carboxylic acid (Trolox) curve in a concentration range of 0.13–0.79 μmol equivalents of Trolox per mL. The results were expressed in micromoles of Trolox equivalents per gram of dry sample (μmol Eq. Trolox g−1 dw).s et al. . A 100 μp ≤ 0.05). Subsequently, a cluster analysis of hierarchical clustering was performed based on the averages of each variable by accession using the Ward method. Once the groups were defined, a canonical discriminant analysis was performed to test the variability and dispersion of accessions as a function of the phenolic compound content and antioxidant activity. All statistical analyses were performed using SAS software [A database with all results was integrated, and an analysis of variance was performed using a completely random design with the nesting of accessions within species. Comparisons among species and accessions were made by the Tukey method  of the seed coat, and the polyphenols and antioxidant activity of the cotyledons were higher in P. coccineus than those in P. vulgaris. However, in regard to the monomeric anthocyanin content in the seed coat and flavonoids in the cotyledons, the concentrations were greater in P. vulgaris than those in P. coccineus  groups, an intermediate group called P. coccineus–vulgaris (G3) because it was composed of two P. coccineus accessions  and two P. vulgaris accessions , and a fourth more compact group composed of four P. vulgaris accessions   a. These P. coccineus accessions are located predominantly on the left side and P. vulgaris accessions are on the right side. Thus, four P. coccineus accessions (G1), located in the upper left quadrant, differ from the group of P. coccineus located in the lower left quadrant (G2); then, there is an intermediate group near the center referred to as the P. coccineus–vulgaris combined group (G3), and finally, four P. vulgaris accessions (upper right) are preferably associated with a higher anthocyanin content in the seed coat and higher flavonoids in the cotyledons. In contrast, P. coccineus showed a lower content of anthocyanins but higher concentrations of phenols and flavonoids, as well as a higher antioxidant activity.The scatter plot of the discriminant analysis presented in P. coccineus accessions had significantly greater seed length, width, thickness, weight, density and volume than those of P. vulgaris accessions. The different dimensions, among other factors, are due to characteristics inherent to the species and are influenced by agroecological factors, cultivation practices and places of origin [P. coccineus variations are highly preferred for the preparation of traditional dishes [In the general description of seeds, it was determined that f origin ,38,39. Tl dishes .P. vulgaris and P. coccineus in grain composition  and gallic acid  in the seed coat of P. coccineus relative to P. vulgaris. The differences found reinforce the theory that there is an ability to make different nutritional and nutraceutical contributions that are complementary to health through the consumption of P. vulgaris and P. coccineus because different bioactive compounds are concentrated in the grain.The significant differences found between position  suggest nd Islam  for flavP. vulgaris and P. coccineus, there was a greater accumulation or concentrations of polyphenols, flavonoids and anthocyanins in the seed coat than in the cotyledons, and, specifically, the amount of anthocyanins in the cotyledons were below the estimated levels. This pattern was also reflected by the greater antioxidant activity in the seed coat than that in the cotyledons  and not in the cotyledons; in the latter structure, the carbohydrates and protein are accumulated instead [In both tyledons . Quiroz- instead .P. coccineus grains, and they differ from those found in P. vulgaris. Though specific anthocyanins were not tested in this study, it was determined that P. vulgaris presents a higher content of anthocyanins in the seed coat than that in P. coccineus, a pattern that is repeated with the flavonoid content in the cotyledons. The results are opposite in regard to the polyphenol content and antioxidant activity in the seed coat and grain, as well as the flavonoid content being higher in the seed coat of P. coccineus , as seen in P. vulgaris by Ombra et al. [P. vulgaris compared to those of P. coccineus, and this indicates that anthocyanins are determinants of the black color in the seed coat.Regarding the intraspecific variation of phenolic compounds and antioxidant activity, the results showed high variation in nd black . In the a et al.  in diffeP. coccineus stood out for their phenols, flavonoids and antioxidant activity in the seed coat and grain, and in the case of P. vulgaris, SS-02 was the best .The SMT, Z-03 and Z-04 accessions of the best . This inP. vulgaris accessions were homogeneous, having similarity in their composition, with an intermediate group of P. coccineus-vulgaris, and two groups of P. coccineus (P. coccineus accessions than that between P. vulgaris accessions, a fact that is confirmed in the scatter plot of the discriminant analysis (P. coccineus, independent of the P. vulgaris accession group, are noted. The diversity evaluated of P. coccineus and P. vulgaris with respect to seed composition reflects part of the genetic diversity present in Mesoamerica that was evaluated by Sicard et al. [The four phenotypic groups classified by the cluster analysis indicate that four occineus a. The reanalysis b, where d et al. .P. coccineus and P. vulgaris significantly differ in their contents of polyphenols, flavonoids, and anthocyanins, as well as their antioxidant activity in the seed coat and cotyledons. However, both species had greater concentrations in the seed coat than in the cotyledons. P. vulgaris had a higher anthocyanin content in the seed coat and a higher content of flavonoids in the cotyledons than that in P. coccineus, but it did not have such for the other compounds evaluated. There was high variability between the accessions evaluated, and, specifically, P. vulgaris accessions had slightly more than double the anthocyanins compared to those of P. coccineus. The variability measured between accessions was classified into four phenotypic groups: Two of P. coccineus, one P. coccineus-vulgaris combined group, and one group of P. vulgaris with greater homogeneity in phenolic compounds and antioxidant activity. Both species are a source of complementary polyphenols, flavonoids and anthocyanins that can be used to improve the diet in rural communities where there is greater access to P. vulgaris and P. coccineus. Other studies are necessary to determine their potential in preventing some chronic degenerative diseases. Likewise, it is important to promote the cultivation of P. vulgaris and P. coccineus native species in their place of origin, enhancing them in situ and using them as a cheaper source of food.Based on the community of origin of the accessions and plant material evaluated to determine the phenolic compounds and antioxidant activity, it was concluded that


Schistosoma mansoni. The fight against transmission through the use of molluscicides is not recent and has been advocated as the only activity with the possibility of interruption of transmission in small, epidemiologically active outbreaks. Euphorbia milii var. hislopii (syn. splendens)  is the most promising for use in official schistosomiasis control programs according to the WHO. In this review, we show that an understanding of some how E. milii latex affects the snail vector and their parasites from a molecular level to field conditions is lacking. On the other hand, this type of treatment could also provide a rationale for the control of schistosomiasis and other parasitosis. Several publications contribute to enforcing the use of E. milii latex in endemic countries as a cheap alternative or complement to mass drug treatment with praziquantel, the only available drug to cure the patients (without preventing re-infection).Worldwide schistosomiasis remains a serious public health problem with approximately 67 million people infected and 200 million at risk of infection from inhabiting or transiting endemically active regions. Africa, South America, the Caribbean, and the Middle East are the main transmission regions of  S. mansoni remains a serious public health problem with approximately 67 million people infected and 200 million at risk of infection from inhabiting or transiting endemically active regions [S. mansoni [S. mansoni infection is low, but this pathology presents the highest degree of socioeconomic impact of human helminthiasis [Worldwide schistosomiasis caused by  regions . Africa,nthiasis . Accordinthiasis , the ananthiasis ,5.S. mansoni life cycle, and although traditional models based exclusively on the use of schistosomicidal drugs in proven infected individuals have a significant impact on morbidity, the prevalence remains high after decades of treatment. In addition, the appearance of resistance in both laboratory and wild-type lines is an important factor in the search for and development of schistosomicidal compounds. Currently, the only compound used in humans for control and treatment of schistosomiasis is PZQ. Other schistosomicides such as niridazol, hicantone, and oxaminiquine were used in the last century but were abandoned due to their low curative efficiency, host side effects, and/or the appearance of parasitic resistance [S. mansoni strains [S. mansoni has the capacity to support different factors of stress. The rapid adaptability of the parasite to various treatment attempts or precautions deserves special attention from research teams from all over the world [For the control of schistosomiasis, World Health Organization (WHO) recommends the mass administration of the chemotherapeutic praziquantel (PZQ), control of snails, health education, and technical cooperation between health institutions and research to verify the elimination of infection . The comsistance . Aspectssistance . Thus, g strains ,10,11. A strains , this evhe world . In viewThe fight against transmission through the use of molluscicides is not recent and has been advocated as the only activity with the possibility of interruption of transmission in small, epidemiologically active outbreaks . The useBiomphalaria and Bulinus genus [Controlling or preventing morbidity in patients has not been a very successful strategy to limit schistosomiasis transmission in high-risk areas. Optimal disease prevention can occur only when parasite infection and/or reinfection is effectively impeded . In thisus genus . Molluscus genus , it is wus genus . In otheus genus . In Zimbus genus . Howeverus genus  highligh®) is recommended by the WHO as the only chemical molluscicide to be used for snail control despite reported cases of resistance in molluscs after two decades of repeated use [® has biocidal activity in non-target organisms such as plants and animals, genotoxicity, and a carcinogenic effect [Biomphalaria and Bulinus, are limiting factors for the official use of this compound in large-scale control programs [In this review, molluscicides will be divided into (i) chemical and (ii) phytochemical compounds. Among the chemical compounds, niclosamide (Bayluscideated use . Brieflyc effect . These fprograms .P. dodecandra (L’Herit) , a member of the Phytolaccaceae, is one of the first plants systematically analyzed to be used as a phytochemical molluscicide [P. dodecandra are related to the high levels of triterpenoids, oleanoic acid, and mainly saponins [P. dodecandra berries results in a significant reduction of Bulinus truncatus population and, as a consequence, the transmission of schistosomiasis haematobium [Nowadays, research and developmental studies on low-dose compounds, biodegradable, low-cost, and less aggressive molluscicidal activity have been intensively investigated ,23,24. Auscicide . The gresaponins . In Ethimatobium ,29,30.Euphorbia genus presents more than 200 species, and it is an important source of medicinal resources for human and veterinary use, as well as in agriculture [Ricinus communis [Euphorbium compositum from the latex of Euphorbia resinífera, a nasal solution indicated for viral infections, rhinitis, and sinusitis, among others, Dysenteral® from the extract of E. hirta and indicated for the treatment of diarrheal diseases, and the root extract of E. kansui used as a purgative, among many others.On the other hand, iculture . In geneiculture ,32. Due iculture ,34,35,36communis . Others Euphorbia milii var. hislopii (syn. splendens)  is the most promising for use in official schistosomiasis control programs according to the WHO [Of the species belonging to this family,  the WHO ,38.Euphorbia milii is a shrub with alternating, simple leaves, unisex flowers, gathered in ciliary-like inflorescences with red bracts and campanulate shell with five apical glands [E. milii is a shrub originating from Inselberge, located on the central plains of Madagascar (Africa) easily cultivable, as it does not require soil care, fertilizers, and water [l glands . Commonlnd water . In genend water .E. milii latex, eight categories of milliamines were isolated and tested for their molluscicidal activity on Biomphalaria glabrata, with L-milliamine being the most efficient, with a lethality of 90% below 0.1 ppm [E. milii latex over the past several years; however, the research of molluscicidal activity was initiated by Vasconcellos & Schall [B. glabrata and B. tenagophila at concentrations lower than 0.5 ppm. Based on the promising results obtained, the Oswaldo Cruz Institute  deposited the patent for collection, use, and storage in 1998.Among the bioactive fractions of  0.1 ppm . Singh e 0.1 ppm  have des 0.1 ppm . A wide & Schall  against E. milii is a complex solution and when undiluted can cause inflammatory reaction in the mucous membranes and skin is integrated by the action of phorbol esters and proteases of low pH (4.5 to 5.5), as well as burning in the lips, in the tongue, and in the buccal mucosa in case of ingestion [The crude extract of ngestion . For usengestion , cutaneongestion , cytotoxngestion , embryo-ngestion , and econgestion . The molE. milii was tested against B. glabrata, B. straminea, B. tenagophila, B. pfeifferi, Bulinus sp., Pseudosuccinea columella, Melanoides tuberculata, and Achatina fulica [E. milii latex can also be used in the control of several parasites, such as S. mansoni, Fasciola hepatica, Paragonimus westermani, and Angiostrongylus sp. Furthermore, the proprieties of E. milii were tested against other invertebrates such as the Diptera Megaselia scalaris Loew 1866 and the Nematoda Heterodera cajanikoshi 1967 [Nowadays, the molluscicidal effect of a fulica ,52,53,54shi 1967 ,55.E. milii latex to niclosamide against the intermediate hosts B. glabrata and B. tenagophila, non-schistosomiasis related snails , and nontarget aquatic organisms such as oligochaete (Tubifex tubifex), planktonic crustacea , fishes , frog tadpoles (Rana catesbeiana), bacteria (Pseudomonas putida and Vibrio fischeri), algae (Selenas trumcapricornutum and Chlorella vulgaris), and mosquito larvae Anopheles albitarsis, Aedes aegypti, Aedes fluviatilis). In general, E. milii latex, as compared with the reference molluscicide niclosamide, is less toxic to non-target aquatic organisms and presents a higher degree of selectivity toward snails, which are intermediate hosts of Schistosoma trematodes.Oliveira-Filho and Paumgartten  comparedB. glabrata-S. mansoni model, the exposition to E. milli latex for 24 h at concentrations below 2 mg/L significantly affects reproductive biology, energy stocks, and excretory products of infected and uninfected snails. The physiological changes caused by E. milli latex were studied by Mello-Silva et al. [B. glabrata [S. mansoni, a similar mechanism is observed; however, infected snails are more sensitive to the compound and express, in the third week of infection, lower levels of glycogen in the digestive gland and cephalopedial mass [In the a et al. ,38. Afteglabrata ,57. In sial mass  attributS. mansoni-infected snails to the latex caused exhaustion of alternative sources of energy , as well as significant variation in the concentration of nitrogen degradation products. According to the authors, increases in urea level and simultaneous decreases in uric acid levels reflect the disturbance caused by latex poisoning in the snail’s metabolism, especially in those infected. This suggests a change in the excretion pattern, moving from uricotelic to ureotelic. These results reflect the loss of the snails’ ability to regulate their metabolism due to intoxication from E. milii latex exposure [E. milii latex on the control of B. glabrata populations in control actions of schistosomiasis [Mello-Silva et al.  observedexposure . This fasomiasis .E. milii latex is a plausible alternative in the control of schistosomiasis, De-Carvalho et al. [S. mansoni cycle. In graded concentration tests (from 10 to 100 mg/L), the authors did not observe lethal effects on eggs, miracidia, or cercaria. Although the concentration demonstrates no effect on the survival of S. mansoni, there is evidence of a positive correlation between exposure time and mortality of miracidia and cercariae [Since o et al.  analyzedercariae .S. mansoni cycle after contact of eggs, miracidia, and infected snails (1–8 weeks of infection) with the same latex. According to the authors, the exposure negatively influenced the development of the parasite in the intermediate host with a consequent reduction in the elimination of cercariae in all groups observed. Recently, Augusto et al. [Nevertheless, the toxic effects of the environment on parasitic forms go beyond the analysis of survival and mortality. Augusto et al.  studied o et al.  demonstrOn schistosomiasis control, despite the efficacy of mass drug administration (MDA) campaigns in reducing morbidity, a decrease in the transmission of the parasite was not achieved . TreatmeAnother important point that should consider before molluscicide application is linked to the cost-effectiveness of the compound to be used . MolluscE. milii latex as a molluscicide and as a schistosomastatic  on a large-scale project. Although some descriptions on the composition of this product can be found in the literature, there is still little information on the structural stability in different geographic regions, through the years and different seasons. This knowledge is essential in large-scale projects in view of variations in lethal power of the latex could affect the effectiveness of control actions, such as for latex supply and maintenance during the occurrence of control actions.The availability of modern technologies opens new horizons for understanding the effects of the In addition, studies on the phenotypic and physiological effect of latex on naive and infected snails are not uncommon in the literature; however, few studies at the molecular level can be found. Essentially, studies such as those on the immune response system and gene expression are needed to clarify the compatibility factors observed in previous works ,59,61. AS. mansoni cycle for a period of 14 months. However, both studies lack complementary information about the effects of latex on non-target organisms, on parasitic cycles, and on the physico-chemical properties of field solutions, among others.Field tests performed in Comercinho, the municipality of Vale do Jequitinhonha, northeast of Minas Gerais, eliminated the presence of the intermediate host mollusc for the period of three consecutive months . AccordiE. milii latex affects the snail vector and their parasites from a molecular level to field conditions is lacking. On the other hand, this type of treatment could also provide a rationale for the control of schistosomiasis and other parasitosis. Several publications contribute to enforcing the use of E. milii latex endemic countries as a cheap alternative or as a complement to mass drug treatment with praziquantel, the only drug available for curing patients (without preventing re-infection).In conclusion, an understanding of how