Coccinella septempunctata and Hippodamia variegata—with the different aphid species, which are considered one of the alfalfa pests. The numerical relationships were separately studied in each of the alfalfa growing periods between cuttings (intercuts). Whereas the abundance of C. septempunctata was correlated with that of A. pisum in the second alfalfa intercut, H. variegata was mainly correlated with the abundance of T. trifolii in the fourth intercut as well as with the overall aphid abundance in the fifth intercut. This study helps to increase the knowledge on the predator–prey relationships, which is crucial for the proper pest management of alfalfa and the agricultural ecosystems in which it is included.Alfalfa is the main fodder crop of the irrigated crop systems of northern Spain, as well as many Mediterranean countries. Alfalfa crops are damaged by some pest species but are also considered to be vast reservoirs of natural enemies of these pests. However, in Europe, the relationships between these pests and their natural enemies have been poorly studied. The aim of this study was to fill this gap in the knowledge. Therefore, we characterized the coccinellid species complex, identifying sixteen species, and the numerical relationships of the two that were most prevalent—Coccinella septempunctata and Hippodamia variegata were, by far, the most prevalent species, with the former dominating during the first and second intercuts, whereas the latter dominated from the third to the fifth intercut. Acyrthosiphon pisum and Therioaphis trifolii were the most abundant aphid species, peaking in the second and fourth intercuts, respectively. Positive correlations were found between the abundance of C. septempunctata and A. pisum at the second intercut, between H. variegata and T. trifolii at the fourth intercut, and between H. variegata and the total number of aphids in the fifth intercut. This study helps to increase the knowledge on the predator–prey relationships of this crop and allows for designing strategies of conservation biological control against aphids.Alfalfa is known to be an important reservoir harboring natural enemies. The reduction in insecticide sprayings in recent years has allowed us to study the coccinellid species complex in this crop and the relationship between these predators and aphids. Alfalfa was sampled by sweep-netting throughout its productive period in several commercial stands each year between 2010 and 2021. The numbers and species of aphids and coccinellids were recorded. Sixteen coccinellid species were found.  Medicago sativa L., is the world’s most valuable cultivated forage crop [Alfalfa, age crop . In Spaiage crop , which rage crop . Spain iage crop . Stands Hypera postica  (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), Colaspidema barbarum (Fabricius) (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae), Holotrichapion pisi (Fabricius) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), lepidopteran leaf feeders , and aphids (Hemiptera: Aphididae).Several pests can economically damage this crop—Acyrthosiphon pisum (Harris), Aphis craccivora Koch, and Therioaphis trifolii (Monell). Their seasonal occurrence, phenology, and population dynamics have been previously reported [The aphid species that occur in Spanish alfalfa stands are reported ,6,7. Besreported ,9,10. Alreported .Studies on the occurrence and abundance of natural enemies of the alfalfa aphids in northern Catalonia have been conducted, where the relationships between aphids and parasitoids ,11, and The aims of the present work were to (1) characterize the coccinellid species complex in Spanish alfalfa stands, (2) determine their relative occurrence throughout the crop productive period, (3) define the aphid–coccinellid species associations, and (4) determine numerical and temporal relationships between the most abundant coccinellid and aphid species throughout the crop growing season.The study was conducted along the Ebro Valley region, in the northeast of Spain, corresponding to 60% of the land surface used for alfalfa cultivation in Spain (and 20% considering Europe) .H. postica occurred [A total of 112 alfalfa fields were sampled in the period from 2010 to 2021. All the sampled fields were sown with the Aragon variety, by far the most common one cultivated in the region ,11, fromoccurred . Each fioccurred ). Sampleoccurred ,15, and The total number of coccinellids of each species (adults and larvae) and aphids  recorded in each sampling point of one field were averaged, and one field was considered as one replicate. Alfalfa cuttings involve a temporary but drastic change to the system, therefore the five intercuts were considered as separate units. As unequal numbers of fields were sampled in each intercut, the overall relative abundances of the different coccinellid species for the total study period were calculated based on standardized values .H. postica larval instar abundances in the first intercut for some years and it has been reported as alternative prey for Coccinella septempunctata L. [Statistical analyses were performed with R version 4.0.3 . The numerical relationships between coccinellid and aphid species in each intercut were determined by correlation analysis (cor function). Additionally, because we had data on the different ctata L. ,17, the C. septempunctata, Hippodamia variegata (Goeze), Propylea quatuordecempunctata L., Scymnus spp., Coccinella quinquepunctata L., Coccinula quatuordecimpustulata L., Exochomus nigromaculatus (Goeze), Tytthaspis sedecimpunctata L., Hyperaspis sp., Adalia bipunctata L., Oenopia lyncea lyncea Olivier, Coccinella undecimpunctata L., Subcoccinella vigintiquattuorpunctata L., Chilochorus bipustulatus L., Psyllobora vigintiduopunctata L., and Stethorus punctillum (Weise). Whereas C. septempunctata, H. variegata, P. quatuordecempunctata, C. quatuordecimpustulata, Scymnus sp., E. nigromaculatus, C. quinquepunctata, A. bipunctata, O. lyncea lyncea, and C. undecimpunctata are aphidophagous predators, Hyperaspis sp. and C. bipustulatus are mainly coccidophagous, but consume aphids as secondary prey. Tytthaspis sedecimpunctata and P. vigintiduopunctata feed on fungus, especially powdery mildew. Subcoccinella vigintiquattuorpunctata is herbivorous and Stethorus punctillum is a mite predator.A total of 9124 coccinellids were collected throughout the study. Sixteen species/genus were recorded: C. septempunctata and H. variegata , but proportions of both development stages were equal in the second intercut  when we evaluated the numerical relationships between C. septempunctata and its potential alternative prey H. postica. However, after adding the values of the A. pisum and H. postica larvae abundances, the correlations improved, but statistically significant results were only obtained for C. septempunctata adults and H. postica L4 plus A. pisum , predator–prey species associations, and intraguild predation events. Assuming that both species overwinter as adults outside of alfalfa stands, it seems clear that C. septempunctata colonizes alfalfa earlier than H. variegata. However, reproduction may occur during the first intercut, and larvae were recorded for both coccinellid species. The non-significant correlation between C. septempunctata and A. pisum, practically the only aphid species present in the first intercut, suggests that aphids are probably not the only reason for the predominance of C. septempunctata. Aggregative and numerical coccinellid responses to aphids can be influenced by several factors [C. septempunctata adults and that obtained after the addition of A. pisum and H. postica fourth instar larvae abundances, suggesting that the weevil can contribute to the reproduction of this species and, thus, to the development of C. septempunctata populations, as reported by Richards and Evans [Regarding the seasonal occurrence of  studies , there w factors ,24, such factors . We founnd Evans .C. septempunctata was correlated with that of A. pisum, whereas H. variegata was not. Although this aphid species was relatively abundant in the first and second intercuts, the competence for prey resources and the intraguild predation events between these two coccinellid species could have contributed to this. The dominance of C. septempunctata over other coccinellid species has been reported in several studies [C. septempunctata and H. variegata has been already reported [H. variegata in alfalfa until the departure of C. septempunctata.In the second intercut, the abundance of  studies ,27. In areported ,29, and A. pisum in the second intercut, its occurrence decreased drastically in the third intercut, as did the occurrence of C. septempunctata. This was likely due to the lack of prey leading to the adults leaving the alfalfa stands. Ricci et al. [C. septempunctata populations, which do not return after leaving. Summer diapause has also been described as a common trait of Mediterranean C. septempunctata populations [C. barbarum, a significant pest that affects the second intercut, larvae of C. septempunctata may not be able to reach adulthood and migrate from alfalfa, becoming seriously affected. More studies are needed to elucidate the phenology of this species in the Ebro Valley area.After the peak of i et al.  reportedi et al.  and di Li et al. , who obsulations , so it sulations  seem to H. variegata adults were shown during the third and fourth intercuts. These results suggest that significant immigration to the alfalfa stands from the surrounding crops may occur during this period of the year. This massive entry could be related to the growing populations of T. trifolii, which were reported to act as an attracting and arrestant stimulus for H. variegata [H. variegata individuals between alfalfa and maize crops in this period. The better adaptation for the reproduction of this coccinellid species during the summer [The highest abundances of ariegata . Di Lascariegata  already e summer ,36 is prH. variegata in the fourth and fifth intercuts partially differ from the results of Pons et al. [A. craccivora in the fifth intercut. As mentioned above, the abundant presence of T. trifolii during the fourth intercut may have acted as an attracting and arrestant stimulus for H. variegata individuals and, thus, may have led to their positive correlation. During the fifth intercut, the dominance of A. craccivora, which was already described as very suitable prey for H. variegata [T. trifolli abundance recorded in this intercut could be due to its own phenology, but the predation of H. variegata and, possibly, other specific natural enemies as parasitoids may also have contributed. Trioxys complanatus Quilis and Praon exsoletum (Nees) have been reported as the parasitoid species associated with T. trifolii in the northern area of the study region [The positive correlations recorded for s et al. , who onlariegata , may expy region . The raty region . An exteP. quatuordecimpunctata, even as the third most frequently occurring species, was very low when compared to C. septempunctata and H. variegata. The numbers of larvae collected were especially low, and this suggests that adults of this species did not significantly reproduce in alfalfa stands. On the other hand, no correlation with aphids was found (data not shown).The abundance of H. variegata and T. trifolii, as well as new information about the coccinellid complex of alfalfa in the Ebro Valley region. More studies are needed in order to increase the knowledge on the predator–prey interactions of this crop in Europe.Our study presents previously unreported, positive coccinellid–aphid correlations, such as between Coccinella septempunctata and H. variegata were the prevalent species, but a clear succession between them was observed; the former dominated during the first and second intercuts, whereas the latter dominated from the third to the fifth intercut. Several positive correlations were found, but the most significant were those between the abundance of C. septempunctata and A. pisum in the second intercut, between H. variegata and T. trifolii in the fourth intercut, and between H. variegata and the total number of aphids in the fifth intercut. This study contributes to increase the knowledge on the predator–prey relationships of this crop, knowledge that remains scarce in Europe.Based on this eleven-year-long study, we present the first report on the coccinellid species complex in Spanish alfalfa stands and the relationships with aphids. Sixteen coccinellid species were recorded, among which eight were aphidophagous.


Pomacea canaliculata is one of the 100 worst invasive alien species in the world, causing significant effects and harm to native species, ecological environment, human health, and social economy. In this study, we used species distribution modeling (SDM) methods to predict the potential distribution of P. canaliculata in China and found that with climate change, there would be a trend of expanding and moving northward in the future.Pomacea canaliculata is one of the 100 worst invasive alien species in the world, which has significant effects and harm to native species, ecological environment, human health, and social economy. Climate change is one of the major causes of species range shifts. With recent climate change, the distribution of P. canaliculata has shifted northward. Understanding the potential distribution under current and future climate conditions will aid in the management of the risk of its invasion and spread. Here, we used species distribution modeling (SDM) methods to predict the potential distribution of P. canaliculata in China, and the jackknife test was used to assess the importance of environmental variables for modeling. Our study found that precipitation of the warmest quarter and maximum temperature in the coldest months played important roles in the distribution of P. canaliculata. With global warming, there will be a trend of expansion and northward movement in the future. This study could provide recommendations for the management and prevention of snail invasion and expansion. Heightened connectivity between countries brought about by globalization’s facilitation has contributed to tremendous economic and social development through global trade, international travel/tourism, etc. and also resulted in the introduction of numerous invasive alien species, posing significant threats to native species, the ecological environment, human health, and the social economy .Pomacea canaliculata (Gastropoda: Ampullariidae), commonly called the apple snail, a freshwater snail native to tropical and temperate South America, was listed by the International Union of Conservation of Nature (IUCN) in the “100 of the world’s worst invasive alien species” [P. canaliculata severely harmed the biodiversity in China, altered the spatial distribution of native species, caused direct harm to the production of agriculture, forestry, animal husbandry, and fishery, and resulted in massive economic losses [species” , as wellc losses . The spec losses .Pomacea have characteristics that have been linked to invasiveness. After invading the United States, Japan, the Philippines, and other countries, it caused serious damage to the local nature and agriculture, but the control effect of various countries was not ideal, and the population and spread area continued to increase [P. canaliculata, which is widely distributed in China’s south of the Yangtze River, is the most common Pomacea spp. Found in the area [P. canaliculata is selective, endangering the species diversity of the aquatic plant community [P. canaliculata more easily becomes the local dominant population, causing varying degrees of damage to the fish and shellfish resources in the water and endangering the local biodiversity. Meanwhile, as an intermediate host, it carries several main parasites that are harmful to human health and include Echinostomarevolutum, Angiostrongylus cantonensis, and Gonathostomaspinigerum, which cause a variety of serious diseases such as echinostomiasis, eosinophilic meningitis, gnathostomiasis, etc. [A. cantonensis primarily uses Achatina fulica and P. canaliculata as intermediate hosts [P. canaliculata is more common due to its large market sales volume, widespread distribution, and strong adaptability. In an outbreak of A. cantonensis in Beijing during 2006, as many as 160 patients became ill after eating undercooked P. canaliculata or related eatables, showing varying degrees of fever, headache, neck stiffness, and skin paresthesia [Some species of increase ,6. P. cathe area ,8. Due tthe area , which iommunity . Its excommunity . With chommunity ,13,14,15is, etc. ,17. Althte hosts , eosinopesthesia .P. canaliculata, which will limit the future development of the species to some extent, with corresponding policies for prevention and control.Quantitative risk assessment of alien invasive species is the general trend of development. Currently, risk assessment is based on the analysis of the adaptability of alien invasive species in the target area. Species distribution modeling (SDM) has been widely used in assessing the risk of invasive alien species , as wellP. canaliculata, we used environmental variables to estimate the suitable habitats for P. canaliculata, and the key environmental variables impacting the distribution were obtained. In this study, we generated a model of P. canaliculata distribution using MaxEnt optimized by kuenm, the global occurrence records of P. canaliculata and environmental variables were used to predict the potential distribution changes in the present and under four climate change scenarios in the future to aid in the prevention and control of its invasion and spread in China.Since temperature is one of the most important factors that influence species diffusion and distribution, global warming threatens to accelerate the spread of invasive alien species ,25,26. Iwww.worldclim.org/data/worldclim21.html, released in January 2020) [P. canaliculata under four shared socioeconomic pathways (SSPs): 126, 245, 370, and 585. Here, the Beijing Climate Center Climate System Model (BCC–CSM2–MR) was used for the global climate model (GCM) [The environmental variables were downloaded from WorldClim version 2.1 (ry 2020) , with 2.el (GCM) , which iel (GCM) ,30.www.esri.com, accessed on 3 January 2021) was used to sample the data of distribution points in all environmental variable layers, where autocorrelation and multilinearity were inevitable and nonnegligible. To reduce the impact of collinearity, Pearson’s correlation analysis was performed on environmental variables. For model development, only variables with correlation coefficients less than 0.8 and eco-physiological significance were chosen. A jackknife test was used to determine variable importance, and variables with less than a 1% contribution were also eliminated. The results were analyzed using GraphPad Prism 8 software .ArcGIS version 10.7 , and those occurrence records were deleted for which the values of the predictor variables were absent. To reduce spatial autocorrelation, the ENMTools package was used to delete duplicate occurrences in the same grid cell [P. canaliculata , low suitable habitat (MTSS–0.4), moderately suitable habitat (0.4–0.6), and highly suitable habitat (0.6–1.0).Maximum training sensitivity plus specificity logistic threshold (MTSS) was used to convert the continuous MaxEnt predictions to presence/absence map, which was generally accepted as a promising method when only presence data were available ,33. The The tool “distribution changes between binary SDMs” of SDM toolbox version 2.4  for ArcGP. canaliculata since it has a better modeling effect even when there are fewer occurrence records [MaxEnt software (version 3.4.1) was used in this study to generate a model for the potential distribution of  records . We usedTo reduce the overfitting and complexity of the model, the kuenm R package was used to optimize feature combination (FC) and regularization multiplier (RM) , which aThe model’s prediction effect was also assessed using the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) of the area under the curve (AUC), which would have a higher value when the species distribution deviates more from random distribution . The evaAmong 248 candidates, only one statistically significant model met the omission rate and AICc criteria. In this candidate model (RM = 0.5 FC = LQP), the mean AUC ratio was 1.782, the partial ROC was 0, the omission rate was 0.05, and the AICc was 10991.12, which represents the lowest delta AICc after adjusting .Pearson’s correlation coefficients among 11 main contribution variables are shown in P. canaliculata and can effectively reflect its distribution in China (The potential distribution was predicted based on the above models and current environmental variables, which occurred in the south of the Yangtze River, as well as in the most southeastern part of China . The higin China .P. canaliculata, followed by tamx11. The cumulative contribution of the two variables was more than 70%, which were major factors that contributed to the MaxEnt model.According to the results of the jackknife test of variable importance , bio18 hP. canaliculata. As a result, the suitable range for the precipitation of the warmest quarter was 230.89~2044.43 mm, the suitable range for a maximum temperature of November was 7.86~33.17 °C, the suitable range for elevation was less than 607.44 m, the suitable range for a mean temperature of the wettest quarter was more than 13.96 °C, the suitable range for annual precipitation was 574.41~3803.38 mm, the suitable range for precipitation of March was 5.94~359.50 mm, and the suitable range for precipitation of the coldest quarter were less than 1076.88 mm.The response curves showed how the predicted probability of presence changes as each environmental variable was varied . A probaP. canaliculata potential distribution from 2021 to 2100 in four SSPs of CMIP6 is shown in P. canaliculata, with the total suitable habitats increasing (The change of creasing . Furthercreasing .P. canaliculata under current and future climatic conditions in China by using the worldwide distribution data. Despite the fact that P. canaliculata has invaded and colonized in China, the suitable habitat may be better predicted using global distribution data, especially given its strong invasiveness. The prediction was found to be reliable when compared with the current distribution of P. canaliculata in China [In this study, the MaxEnt model was used to predict the potential distribution of in China  and the P. canaliculata is one of numerous Pomacea spp. that are morphologically similar, and several of them have been brought to non-native regions and misidentified as P. canaliculata [P. canaliculata and P. maculata [Pomacea spp. distributed in Asia such as P. maculate, P. diffusa, etc., none of which was as widely distributed in China as P. canaliculata. Therefore, it was considered that, while many species may be included, our result can still be illustrated.liculata ,38. Accomaculata . Indeed,When considering the transferability and prediction accuracy of the model, over–fitting and parameters selection were particularly important . In thisP. canaliculata [P. canaliculata could boost the energy supply, tolerance ability, and supercooling to improve the cold resistance [P. canaliculata has been found numerous times in Beijing, Shandong Province, and other northern Chinese cities in recent years. Therefore, it is critical to predict and prevent the northward movement of P. canaliculata. Consistent with the results of Byers et al. [P. canaliculata would continue to expand and move northward in the future, and temperature in the coldest months is critical climate variable. Given the high correlation among Tmax11, Tmin1, and Bio4, we chose Tmax11 for its high percent contribution and highest gain in the jackknife test. Tmax11 may also alter its overwintering ability due to the maximum temperature in the coldest months. Furthermore, we used the elevation variable in the model generation, and based on the jackknife test results, it decreased the gain the most when it was omitted, which therefore appeared to have the most information that is not present in the other variables. In addition, the results of the jackknife test showed that the environmental variable with highest gain when used in isolation is Bio18, which appeared to have the most useful information by itself. In general, our predicted results indicated that P. canaliculata grew in warm, humid and low–altitude environments, which was consistent with its growth habits.A previous study has found that low temperatures in winter play significant roles in limiting the growth of liculata . While nliculata . Meanwhisistance . This cos et al. , the tems et al.  and Lei s et al. , that isP. canaliculata would shift to the high latitudes in the northwest, while suitable areas in the lower latitudes of the southeast would shrink, as high temperatures and global warming change the spread of this species [P. canaliculata. The difference among different SSPs was mainly due to the changes in greenhouse gas concentrations, especially the effect of CO2 concentration on temperature [P. canaliculata. On the other hand, the development of the use of high fossil fuel consumption will result in the obvious expansion and northward migration of suitable areas of P. canaliculata. Therefore, sustainable development will protect our environment, but it will also limit the colonization and spread of invasive organisms.Under the background of climate change, suitable habitats for  species . The res species , which mperature . Taking P. canaliculata in China.Physical, chemical, biological, and other methods are currently used to prevent and control invasive snails. Among them, chemical control is the most commonly used, and while side effects are obvious, it has the greatest impact on the original ecosystem, and there are issues such as drug resistance that limit its effectiveness . PhysicaP. canaliculata in China. It was found that humidity in the warmest quarter and temperature in the coldest month play key roles in its growth, which was primarily related to its overwinter ability. With global warming, the invasive habitat of P. canaliculata could further expand and move northward in China. This study served as a resource for the management and prevention of P. canaliculata invasion. In addition, strict quarantine measures should be implemented in areas where P. canaliculata has not been reported according to the current research results, and appropriate biological, chemical and physical control measures should be combined to reduce the loss caused by P. canaliculata invasion.In this study, we used the optimized MaxEnt model to establish the current and future niche model of


R. norvegicus and R. tanezumi trapped in urban areas of southern China. A total of 461 R. norvegicus and 64 R. tanezumi were trapped. Using a pan-hantavirus PCR method, hantaviruses were detected in liver, lung, and serum samples from these animals. About 7.43% of liver samples were positive for Seoul virus (SEOV). The detection rate of SEOV in liver samples from R. norvegicus (8.24%) was higher than that from R. tanezumi (1.56%), suggesting the predominant role of R. norvegicus in the transmission of SEOV in urban areas of China. Three R. norvegicus had SEOV RNA in their liver samples but not in their lung samples, suggesting that the liver might be one of the targeted organs of SEOV. The first full SEOV protein-coding sequences (CDS) of the S and M segments, and partial CDS of the L segment from R. tanezumi were amplified. Several full and partial CDS of the S, M, and L segments from R. norvegicus were also obtained. The SEOV sequences obtained from different animals were highly similar, suggesting the cross-species transmission potential of SEOV between R. norvegicus and R. tanezumi.Rodents are important hosts of hantaviruses, and lungs and kidneys are known to be the preferred organs of these viruses. Recently, hantaviruses were detected in liver samples from wild rodents in Hungary and the United States, and feeder rats in the Netherlands. However, few studies have detected hantaviruses in the liver of rats from China. In this study, hantaviruses were investigated in liver samples from  Mammantavirinae within the family hantaviridae  and Hantaan virus (HTNV) (Rattus norvegicus (Norway rat) is the predominant reservoir of SEOV in urban residential areas in China , are also prevalent in urban areas of southern China, and are also hosts of SEOV  . The pops (HTNV) , 13. In s (HTNV) . Rattus in China . Other R of SEOV .Apodemus, Myodes, and Microtus rodent species in Hungary  gene  between 2014 and 2018 . All anitB) gene .Total RNA and DNA were extracted from ~20 mg of liver tissue samples or 200 μL aliquot of serum samples using the MiniBEST Viral RNA/DNA Extraction Kit . Given the previous report that lung was the most preferred organ for the detection of SEOV , total ROrthohantavirus (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/nucleotide) by using BLASTN.A nested PCR assay designed based on a conserved region within the L segment of hantaviruses was used to detect currently known and possible novel members within the genus ntavirus . The amphttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/nucleotide) by using BLASTN. Fragments that did not represent SEOV were excluded. Then the Lasergene SeqMan software  was used to assemble the sequences with reference-based approach (assemble method: pro assemble). Unassembled singletons were verified by amplification using different primers that designed based on the SEOV sequences to ensure they represent SEOV.Based on the reference sequences , primers were designed to amplify the near full-length genome of SEOV . After shttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/genbank/) using the ClustalW multiple sequence alignment program in MEGA . Phylogenetic trees were constructed based on the PCR screening sequences, and full and partial CDS of the S, M, and L fragments via MrBayes . Using the GTR + G + I nucleotide substitution matrix, two million Markov chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) iterations were sampled every 100 steps to obtain 20,000 trees, with the burn-in generally being 25% of the tree replicates (https://file.org/free-download/bioedit). Recombination events were investigated using SimPlot .All of the screening sequences, and the full and partial protein-coding sequences (CDS) obtained in this study were aligned with hantavirus genomic sequences from GenBank (plicates . The idehttps://github.com/BioEasy/EasyCodeML) was used to calculate the dN (nonsynonymous substitution), dS (synonymous substitution), and ω-values (dN/dS) for each branch  in MEGA  was used to construct phylogenetic trees. The free-ratio model in CODEML in EasyCodeML . Descriptive statistics (Crosstabs) were used to assess detection rates. Chi-square tests were performed to test differences in detection rates across different animals and different sampling locations. The study protocol was approved by the Animal Ethics and Welfare Committee of the School of Public Health, Southern Medical University and adhered to the guidelines for the Rules for the Implementation of Laboratory Animal Medicine (1998) from the Ministry of Health, China. All surgical procedures were performed under anesthesia in efforts to minimize the suffering of the animals. Endangered or protected animal species were not included in this study.Rattus species rodents were trapped, including 461 Rattus norvegicus and 64 Rattus tanezumi . A total of 7.43% (39/525) of the liver tissue samples were positive for SEOV, with the detection rates of 8.24% (38/461) and 1.56% (1/64) in R. norvegicus and R. tanezumi, respectively , followed by R. norvegicus trapped in Xiamen City (8.57%) and Maoming City (4.65%). All of the SEOV-positive serum samples were from R. norvegicus , eight partial CDS of the M segment (GenBank accession numbers: MZ031948-MZ031955), and eight partial CDS of the L segment were obtained from R. norvegicus . In addition, the first full CDS of the S (GenBank accession number: MZ031956) and M (GenBank accession number: MZ031947) segments, and partial CDS of the L (GenBank accession number: MZ031945) segment were also amplified from R. tanezumi. High level of similarity was found between the full and partial CDS obtained from R. norvegicus and R. tanezumi, indicating the cross-species transmission potential of SEOV between these species  varied and all of them were <1 , suggesting the negative selective pressure on all of the SEOV genes. The M gene had the largest ω-value (0.01846), indicating a greater selective pressure on this gene. Site model analysis found no amino acid sites with signals of positive selection.Rattus species rodents in China . Among these animals, three R. norvegicus with SEOV-positive lung tissue samples had SEOV-negative liver tissue samples, suggesting that the positivity within one tissue sample doesn't always correspond to the positivity in other tissue samples. When investigating SEOV in animals, different organs should be tested to fully understand the prevalence of viral infection and the risk of disease transmission. More studies are needed to investigate the tropism and pathogenesis of SEOV in its naturally infected reservoir hosts.Detection of SEOV RNA in liver tissue, lung tissue, and serum samples from rvegicus , 20. Int studies , 20. In  studies . It seemR. norvegicus and R. tanezumi were highly similar, suggesting the cross-species transmission potential of SEOV between R. norvegicus and R. tanezumi. The partial CDS of the L segment from R. tanezumi obtained in this study was most similar to an L segment detected in R. norvegicus from the United Kingdom .The datasets supporting the conclusions of this article are included within the article and its additional files. All PCR screening sequences and full and partial CDS of SEOV are available in the NCBI database  from the Ministry of Health, China. All surgical procedures were performed under anesthesia in efforts to minimize the suffering of the animals. Endangered or protected species were not included in this study.WH and QC conceived of the project and QC obtained the funding. WH and QC contributed to the writing of the paper. WH and JF performed the experiment. WH, YW, and MC analyzed the data. WH, JF, YW, MC, and YM collected the samples. All of the authors have read and approved the manuscript for publication.This work was supported by the Key-Area Research and Development Program of Guangdong Province (no. 2018B020241002) and the National Natural Science Foundation of China (no. 81373051). The funders had no role in the study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.


Babesia and Theileria are apicomplexan parasites that cause established and emerging diseases in humans, domestic and wild animals. These protozoans are transmitted by Ixodid ticks causing babesiosis or theileriosis, both characterized by fever, hemolytic anemia, jaundice, and splenomegaly. In North America (NA), the most common species affecting humans is B. microti, which is distributed in the Northeastern and Upper Midwestern United States (US), where the tick vector Ixodes scapularis is established. In livestock, B. bovis and B. bigemina are the most important pathogens causing bovine babesiosis in tropical regions of Mexico. Despite efforts toward eradication of their tick vector, Rhipicephalus microplus, B. bovis and B. bigemina present a constant threat of being reintroduced into the southern US and represent a continuous concern for the US cattle industry. Occasional outbreaks of T. equi, and T. orientalis have occurred in horses and cattle, respectively, in the US, with significant economic implications for livestock including quarantine, production loss, and euthanasia of infected animals. In addition, a new species, T. haneyi, has been recently discovered in horses from the Mexico-US border. Domestic dogs are hosts to at least four species of Babesia in NA that may result in clinical disease that ranges from subclinical to acute, severe anemia. Herein we review the pathogenesis, diagnosis, and epidemiology of the most important diseases caused by Babesia and Theileria to humans, domestic and wild animals in Canada, the US, and Mexico.  Ticks are obligate hematophagous ectoparasites that negatively impact humans, domestic and wild animals directly through tick bites and blood feeding, and indirectly by transmission of viral, bacterial, and protozoan pathogens . Some ofAmblyomma spp., Dermacentor spp., Haemaphysalis spp., Ixodes spp., and Rhipicephalus spp., which infest humans and animals and vector various species of Babesia and Theileria  to humans is widely distributed from the Nearctic regions of Canada and United States (US) southward to the Neotropical regions of Mexico . Me. MeBabes species ,37. Smalcaribou) . Clinicacaribou) ,35.Babesia spp. involves hard ticks as definitive hosts and vertebrates as intermediate hosts . In. InB. bonnulatus . Bovine nnulatus . In the annually . B. bovis  and animals are sub clinically infected. For chronic Babesia spp. infections, DNA extraction followed by PCR amplification with parasite-specific primers will detect one piroplasm in 109 erythrocytes and differentiate Babesia species or isolates . Ot. OtB. caB. caballi and T. equi reported in 1972 ,100Theilemerging . Other Tule deer ,94,95,96f the US ,33,97 anTheileria spp. Initiates when a tick ingests a blood meal from the vertebrate host containing piroplasms. These undergo syngamy in the tick gut and spread through the hemolymph to the tick salivary glands, where sporogony and formation of infective sporozoites occur. After the tick bite, the sporozoites contained in the tick saliva invade host leukocytes, where schizonts form. After schizogony, merozoites are released into the bloodstream, and in turn invade erythrocytes, producing more merozoites and trophozoites [T. orientalis, the intraerythrocytic form is the major pathogenic stage, for T. parva it is the intralymphocytic form, and for T. annulata and T. equi, both forms are considered pathogenic [Theileria spp. are transmitted transstadially within tick vectors, requiring a 2- or 3-host tick species [The life cycle of hozoites ,102. Durthogenic ,103. The species  (Figure T. orientalis is usually subclinical or results in mild disease [T. orientalis usually lead to anemia and hypoxia due to erythrocyte destruction, while severe disease can cause pyrexia, weakness, increased heart and respiratory rates, and sometimes abortion [T. orientalis is grouped into 11 genotypes: types 1–8 and N1–N3. Types 1, 2 and 3 are also referred to as chitose, ikeda and buffeli respectively. Among these genotypes, only chitose and ikeda are pathogenic [T. orientalis are associated with stress and immunosuppression in hosts [Infection with  disease . Neverth disease ,107. Milabortion ,109,110.thogenic . Most clin hosts .T. orientalis infections. In the US, clinical signs of T. orientalis in cows from Virginia were weakness, icterus and anemia [T. orientalis parasitemia is usually low, and detection in the blood is rare and unspecific [A combination of clinical signs along with serological and molecular methods help the diagnosis of d anemia . T. oriespecific . Serologspecific . DNA-basspecific  T. mutans and the second as T.orientalis, genotype buffeli. Reports of T. orientalis in the US include individual cases caused by the genotype buffeli in 1999 and 2000 in cows from Missouri and North Carolina [T. orientalis from Virginia included cows from three separate herds. Infection of T. orientalis genotype ikeda was detected in 10 animals at two different times. Ages of infected cows ranged from 3 months to 13 years (T. orientalis, genotype ikeda on these three Virginia farms were associated with infestations by H. longicornis, the longhorned tick, on cattle. H. longicornis is native to Asia, but has been introduced to the US and is now present in several eastern and central states [T. orientalis, genotype ikeda in Virginia is not clear. The first cases of bovine theileriosis in the US were reported in 1950 in Kansas and Texas , with thCarolina ,91, genoCarolina , and genCarolina . The rep13 years . Three ol states . The oriB. microti is a problem in the Northeastern and Midwestern US, where the number of annual cases show an increasing trend due to the geographical expansion of the tick vector, I. scapularis. As result of this expansion, new cases have been detected in Canada and the Southern US. In Mexico, although a few cases of human babesiosis have been reported, tick vectors and wild animal reservoirs have yet to be identified. The small amount of information on human babesiosis and other tick-borne pathogens in Mexico is due to the lack of serological and molecular diagnostic methods, which are not yet widely available to researchers in the country. The current manuscript aimed to review the pathogenesis, diagnosis, and epidemiology of babesiosis and theileriosis disease in humans, domestic and wild animals in NA. Based on the reviewed literature, human babesiosis caused by Babesia continue to threaten the health of domestic dogs. Bovine babesiosis limits the movement of animals from infested areas, affecting exportation of cattle from Mexico to the US, where restrictions on importation of animals have been implemented to prevent re-establishment of the tick vector, R. microplus. The recent detection of cattle theileriosis, linked to the presence of the longhorned tick H. longicornis, outbreaks of equine piroplamsosis in the US, and the newly discovered species, T. haneyi are just a few examples of the complexity, challenges and research opportunities surrounding ticks and tick-borne pathogens in US, Canada, and Mexico.In NA, domestic animals are impacted by several species of tick-borne Apicomplexa. Several species of large and small


In the acknowledgment part of the original publication, one of titles was inappropriate. Here is a correct acknowledgment:We would like to thank Drs. Hiroyuki Takeda, Toru Kawanishi, and Atsuko Shimada  for allowing us to use the light sheet microscope, Mr. Harunobu Kametani and Ms. Yue Tong  for assistance in light sheet microscopy, and Dr. Ichiro Terashima  for helpful suggestions.


Howeverf cancer  that CRCf cancer . Howeverf cancer . The colf cancer . In addif cancer , 20, 21.+pksE. coli and tumorigenesis (+pksE. coli, and therefore reduce the risk of CRC (We again fully agree with Dubbert and von Bünau  that CRCigenesis , 23. It k of CRC , 25.E. coli for therapeutic use in humans.In conclusion, the impact of colibactin in cancer can still be discussed and needs to be further studied. However, in light of our results  and of t


D., & Gai, X. (2021). Peer feedback and teacher feedback: a comparative study of revision effectiveness in writing instruction for EFL learners. Higher Education Research & Development. doi: 10.1080/07294360.2021.1969541.”In the original article, the reference for “Cui, Y., Schunn, C. D., and Gai, X. (2021)” was incorrectly written as “Cui, Y., Schunn, C. D., and Gai, X. (2021). Peer Feedback and Teacher Feedback: A Comparative Study of Revision Effectiveness in Writing Instruction for EFL learners. UK: Routledge. doi: Additionally, in the original article, there was an error in the text. A full stop was missing, which altered the meaning of the text.Introduction, Internalization of Motivation, Paragraph 2. The corrected paragraph is shown below.A correction has been made to According to Ryan and Deci , in pursMaterials and Methods section. The average score on the Test for English Majors-Band 4 (TEM-4) was stated incorrectly.There was also an error in the Materials and Methods, Participants, Paragraph 1. The corrected paragraph is shown below.A correction has been made to The 122 participants were a convenience sample of all enrollees in a writing course (described below). They were English majors  who were third year undergraduate students (mean age of 21) at a private university in northeastern China. All spoke Mandarin as their first language and had received formal English training for more than 8 years at the time of the study. However, their average score on the Test for English Majors-Band 4 (TEM-4) was only 50 out of 100, which is a relatively low score. They had not previously received training on peer feedback before the study. Twenty-eight participants were excluded because they failed to submit papers or questionnaires, leaving 94 in the study.The authors apologize for these errors and state that they do not change the scientific conclusions of the article in any way. The original article has been updated.All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.


Schistosoma haematobium in endemic rural and semi-urban areas of Gabon. Snails were collected, morphologically identified, and tested for infection by cercarial shedding. Released cercariae were morphologically identified using low-power light microscopy. A total of six species of snails were collected throughout the study area, with Bulinus truncatus, B. forskalii, and Potadoma spp. being the most predominant species collected. Only the Bulinus species were tested for infection by cercarial shedding, of which only B. truncatus shed cercariae. Some B. truncatus shed mammalian schistosome cercariae, while others shed Gymnocephalus cercariae. Our results indicate that B. truncatus appears to be a potential intermediate host of schistosomiasis in Gabon, where cases of S. haematobium, S. guineensis, and S. intercalatum infection are reported. However, it will be important to further understand the species diversity and transmission dynamics of schistosomes.The objective of this pilot malacological survey was to identify the snail intermediate hosts for  Schistosoma haematobium causing urogenital schistosomiasis, and S. japonicum and S. mansoni, which both cause intestinal schistosomiasis. There are other species that cause intestinal schistosomiasis, although their distribution is restricted to specific foci, including S. guineensis and its variant S. intercalatum in Central Africa, and S. mekongi in South East Asia [Schistosoma species depends on the presence and distribution of their freshwater snail intermediate hosts; the snail genus is specific to the species of the parasite, with some variations across countries. In Africa, for instance, predominantly snails of the genus Biomphalaria serve as intermediate hosts of S. mansoni, while snails of the genus Bulinus serve as intermediate hosts of S. haematobium, as well as of S. intercalatum and S. guineensis [Bulinus spp. are also known as the intermediate hosts of S. bovis [Schistosomiasis, a water-borne helminthic disease, is the second most important parasitic infection after malaria in terms of public health and economic impact . Human iast Asia . The worineensis . BulinusS. bovis , a schisB. globosus and B. forskalii in two different sites in the Estuaire province; Libreville and Ekouk [Freshwater snail control is part of the WHO’s recommendation for the control of schistosomiasis . Malacolnd Ekouk . We condS. haematobium being the predominant species [The surveys were carried out at CERMEL  and were species ,8,9. Ind species ,8.For each of the three study areas, human-water contact sites, known as potential schistosomiasis foci, were identified. All sites had on average up to 50% vegetation cover, with the watercourse bed being either muddy, sandy, or both. At the selected sites, snails were collected systematically by three collectors for about ten minutes between 8 a.m. and 11 a.m. from aquatic plants and other objects in the habitats. Specifically, vegetation and any materials such as discarded pieces of clothing and tires were thoroughly searched for possibly attached mollusks. During the snail collections, the geographic coordinates of the site were taken using a hand-held GPS, and human-water contact behaviors were observed. All collected snails were placed in a perforated container with wet cotton wool or wet vegetation before being transported back to the CERMEL laboratory.At the laboratory, snails were separated and identified mostly to the genus level based on the shell morphological characteristics using the standardized taxonomic keys proposed by the WHO identification center . On the A number of snail collection points were selected over the study area . In the Potadoma species (most likely P. freethi), Bulinus truncatus, Bulinus forskalii, Melanoides species (most likely M. tuberculata), Lanistes (most likely L. nsedweensis), and Gabiella species. Bulinus species, a total of 44 snails were collected over the study area, including four B. forskalii and 40 B. truncatus.In total, six snail species were collected from a number of collection points. The overall freshwater snails that were found were: B. forskalii snails examined were infected, while 12 (30%) of the 40 B. truncatus .When testing for cercarial shedding, none of the four runcatus a examineercariae b, whilstB. truncatus appears to be an intermediate host of schistosomiasis in the region. It is known that some Bulinus snails may act as intermediate hosts of Schistosoma bovis [S. haematobium by cercariae morphology. However, no domestic animals were observed at the study sites, nor any evidence of bovine game. Moreover, no data are available on the potential presence of S. bovis in Gabon, and particularly in the study area. Since the study area is known to be endemic for S. haematobium [S. haematobium cercariae, shed by B. truncatus. However, the use of molecular tools to accurately identify B. truncatus as a snail host for S. haematobium cercariae in the area remains. As some cases of Schistosome eggs in stool have been reported in the region [S. guineensis have been reported in the country, the role of B. truncatus in the transmission of S. intercalatum and S. guineensis [The present survey adds malacological information to the scarce data available from the schistosomiasis-endemic region. Our results establish the first evidence of cercarial shedding in the Moyen-Ogooué province. Indeed, we found that ma bovis ,12 whichmatobium ,8,9, we ineensis  in the cBulinus was present in all three study areas, while B. truncatus was found in Lambaréné and in the Zilé-PK areas, known as areas with a moderate or high prevalence of urogenital schistosomiasis [B. truncatus could sustain the prevalence of schistosomiasis in the region, and probably in the country. The study was conducted in November, corresponding with the beginning of the rainy season. During the surveys, we observed a low density of snails in the study areas, particularly in the Bindo-Makouké villages. Since seasonal rainfall affects snail density , we hyposomiasis ,8,9, comsomiasis ,8. This B. truncatus shed cercariae. Similar to what was reported earlier by Mintsa et al. [B. forskalii we collected shed cercariae. However, we found that a high proportion of B. truncatus shed cercariae (around 30%), particularly those from the Zilé-PK rural area. This is in contrast to what was reported from southern Mauritania and western Kenya where no to few (1.8%) snails sampled shed cercariae [B. truncatus intermediate hosts we identified are a very efficient vector of schistosomiasis in our study area, which contrasts with the observation of a similar snail species in Kenya, which is refractive to the local S. haematobium [When exposed to daylight illumination, only a et al. , no B. fercariae ,16, respmatobium .Bulinus snails involved in schistosomiasis transmission, we found other snail intermediate hosts that are capable of transmitting other parasitic diseases. Potadoma spp. was one of the snail genera found, particularly in the Zilé-PK area. It has been suspected that Potadoma snails may be the intermediate hosts of the lung flukes of the human Paragonimus species , which are reported to occur in parts of Central (Zaire and Cameroon) and West (Nigeria) Africa, respectively [In addition to the ectively . It woulectively ,20.Bulinus spp., a potential intermediate host of schistosomiasis, appears to be present in Gabon, particularly B. globosus, B forskalii, and, as we reported, B. truncatus, which appears to be an efficient intermediate host of schistosomiasis. However, it remains necessary to properly identify the species in Lambaréné and the surrounding areas using molecular analyses to understand the seasonality of snail transmission and population dynamics to guide an appropriate strategy for schistosomiasis control.


Staphylococcus aureus causes a diverse range of infections including septicaemia and endocarditis. However, in food, it mainly causes food poisoning by the production of enterotoxins. With the discovery of methicillin-resistant S. aureus strains that have a separate reservoir in livestock animals, which were termed as livestock-associated methicillin-resistant S. aureus (LA-MRSA) in 2005, it became clear that animals may pose another health risk. Though LA-MRSA is mainly transferred by direct contact, food transmission cannot be excluded. While the current strains are not very pathogenic, mitigation is advisable, as they may acquire new virulence genes, becoming more pathogenic, and may transfer their resistance genes. Control of LA-MRSA poses significant problems, and only Norway has an active mitigation strategy. There is limited information about LA-MRSA, MRSA in general, and other S. aureus infections from African countries. In this review, we discuss the prevalence and characteristics of antimicrobial susceptible and resistant S. aureus (with a focus on MRSA) from meat and meat products in African countries and compare it to the situation in the rest of the world.Antimicrobial resistance has been increasing globally, which negatively affects food safety, veterinary, and human medicine. Ineffective antibiotics may cause treatment failure, which results in prolonged hospitalisation, increased mortality, and consequently, increased health care costs.  The increase in antimicrobial-resistant zoonotic bacterial pathogens has become a significant public health challenge. There are diverse drivers of antimicrobial resistance, with the use of antimicrobial agents in food-producing animals as a major driver of resistance in animal bacteria . IneffecStaphylococcus aureus causes a diverse range of infections in humans. These include severe diseases such as septicaemia and endocarditis, which are frequently associated with high mortality if not treated properly [S. aureus (MRSA) [properly . This baproperly ,4. Howevs (MRSA) .S. aureus has been documented as one of the most significant causes of hospital-acquired infections in the past decades. It belongs to the ESKAPE group of bacteria , all of which have multi-drug resistant profiles [S. aureus has been associated with a high rate of antimicrobial resistance in both hospitals and other environments such as community settings [profiles . S. auresettings . While tsettings . This inS. aureus acquired resistance to methicillin and most other beta-lactamase resistant beta-lactam antibiotics through the acquisition of the mec gene located on the staphylococcal cassette chromosome mec (SCCmec) element [mecA gene is the most prevalent, mecC has been mainly associated with animals, and it has also been detected in human and environmental staphylococci [S. aureus [mecA genes can have several mutations, which may contribute to the variation of oxacillin MICs [S. aureus strains may even be susceptible to oxacillin in vitro while simultaneously harbouring mecA, and they are referred to as OS-MRSAs [S. aureus (LA-MRSA) was only detected in 2005 and was found mainly amongst pigs and veal calves [ element . While tylococci . The MRS. aureus . Since t. aureus . The prolin MICs . Some S.OS-MRSAs . OS-MRSAOS-MRSAs . Livestol calves .S. aureus results from poor hygiene practices during food processing and storage. Both human- and animal-associated strains can be involved [sea gene, cause food poisoning outbreaks [seb, sec, sed and see enterotoxin genes [Contamination of food by involved . Howeverutbreaks . The othin genes .Food poisoning by the staphylococcal toxin is characterised by diarrhoea, nausea, abdominal cramping, and vomiting within 24 h of ingestion . HoweverS. aureus infections from African countries. In this review, we discuss the prevalence and characteristics of S. aureus, including MRSA recovered from meat and meat products in African countries, and evaluate the extent of antimicrobial resistance of S. aureus recovered from humans and animals in African countries, compared to other regions.There is limited information about MRSA, LA-MRSA, and other S. aureus on their skin and in their nares [S. aureus in meat and meat products. Moreover, few isolates have been characterized in detail. Different types of meat may have a different prevalence and, in this section, we handle the different meat types separately.Animals such as cattle, pigs, chickens, turkey, horses, sheep, and man can be colonised by ir nares . Typicalir nares . Few stuIn S. aureus. Positive samples included raw unprocessed beef, pork, goat meat, camel meat, lamb/sheep, and unspecified red meat products. The total prevalence of S. aureus in meat products was 24.5%, and of all red meats, beef samples showed the highest prevalence with 33.08% of the samples being positive. These findings indicate a higher potential risk of beef for human infections. Compared to data from other countries, the results are similar [S. aureus was 16.4% [S. aureus. These findings are similar to what was found in the US [We could find data on a total of 2853 samples from all over Africa. Overall, 699 were contaminated with  similar ,37,38,39 similar , as well similar , while ias 16.4% . This laas 16.4% . A totaln the US ,44,45. In the US .There was quite some variation in the prevalence between the African countries, even between studies from the same country as exemplified by the Nigerian studies. In Nigeria, there was an apparent increase in prevalence ,46, and S. aureus from goat meat [S. aureus in sheep meat. Both were conducted in South Africa, and the results showed major differences [S. aureus from camel meat [S. aureus in those meats; however, it indicates that also those meat products can substantially be contaminated. Surprisingly, on unspecified raw red meat in Nigeria, nearly all products were contaminated [Only one study reported the prevalence of oat meat . The preferences ,26. Onlymel meat . Those saminated , while aaminated .Staphylococcus aureus in red meat differs, thus widely based on different studies, and it seems to be dependent on both the country and the meat product, though other factors cannot be excluded. No firm conclusion on differences between countries, in time or red meat type, can be made, as the studies are too limited and too different. It is, however, clear that S. aureus contamination of red meat products is, and remains, a problem that needs mitigation.The distribution of S. aureus  were positive for S. aureus. One would expect higher levels of contamination, compared to unprocessed meat, as processed meat is more prone to microbial contamination. However, we could not confirm this with the published data. It should be noted also that some processes such as smoking and drying may reduce contamination, and from the above studies, the meat used was dried and smoked. As no ample data are present, no real conclusions can be drawn for this type of food.S. aureus from ready-to-eat meat, and only one study was found and few samples were included. This study showed a low prevalence of S. aureus.S. aureus across the food chain is a complicated process. The contamination may originate from animals, as well as from humans. It has been shown before that in humans, the main source of contamination is food handlers that carry S. aureus in their noses or hands [The contamination of meat by or hands . ImpropeS. aureus on their skin, nose, as well as in their intestine. The main factors that influence the level of contamination are the length at which animals are transported and the methods which are used to move animals from one place to another, holding conditions, geographic location, as well as climate changes [S. aureus and the production of enterotoxins in food is caused by improper handling of foods and the improper storage conditions that support the growth of this pathogen [The other source of contamination is the animals themselves. Food-producing animals carry  changes . Next topathogen . In devepathogen . Only tyS. aureus, compared to other types of meat. S. aureus has been reported to be one of the pathogens causing foodborne infections from different regions worldwide. Findings indicate a specific problem on the African continent in beef production that needs further investigation.In Africa, red meat has the highest prevalence of S. aureus was found on all equipment that was used in the abattoirs [Few studies in Africa have assessed contamination sites across the food chain. However, in Ethiopia, battoirs .S. aureus via the food chain. It is also important that African countries should improve the hygiene conditions, especially in abattoirs, butcheries, and retail shops to improve public health. S. aureus has been associated with foodborne diseases in different parts of the world, and infections caused by this pathogen are difficult to treat because some strains are resistant to antibiotics.From the results obtained in our review, more research needs to be conducted in Africa to fully understand the prevalence and way of spread of The data for antimicrobial resistance in different types of meat from various African countries comprised 20 antibiotics that were tested, representing 10 different classes of antibiotics . Not allHigh resistance was observed from ampicillin (50%), clindamycin (33.8%), doxycycline (27%), and ofloxacin (57%), though ofloxacin represented a small sample size.S. aureus, as determined by the disk diffusion test, is not very reliable [S. aureus may thus be questionable. Resistance against the tetracyclines is somewhat varying between studies, as was the case with the difference in the prevalence of resistance against the different antibiotics in this class. A similar observation can be made for fluoroquinolones. Resistance against other antibiotics was medium to low. Apart from the presence of MRSA, there does not seem to be a very large problem with resistance in this bacterium on meat and meat products in Africa.Upon examination of the data in more detail, we observe that the resistance against beta-lactam antibiotics is in general quite high. It is surprising to see such high resistance against the penicillinase-resistant β-lactam antibiotics, as the isolation methods that were used were not specifically targeting MRSA. It should be noted, however, that in the concerned studies, the resistance was not confirmed by PCR and may thus be lower ,34,54,59reliable , and theS. aureus from turkey meat [Compared to other parts in the world where antimicrobial resistance has been assessed on strains from food, similar resistance percentages were noted such as in China, ,64, the key meat .S. aureus (MSSA) from meat products in Africa  or they can originate from humans. The LA-MRSA are specific types of MRSA that can be distinguished by molecular typing. Therefore, the prevalence of LA-MRSA is mainly related to carcass contamination from animal origin, rather than other origins. Therefore, the prevalence of LA-MRSA is in direct relation with the prevalence in the animal itself, although not excluding cross-contamination during slaughter and processing.We separated the studies dealing with the detection of MRSA from the other studies, as they applied a very different methodology. Using selective isolation, the studies were focusing only on the presence of a specific subtype of We found data on the selective isolation of MRSA from a total of 3746 meat samples which included beef, pork, and poultry . The numPrevalence in beef was 6.12%, which was higher than 4%, 0.8%, and 1.7% found in beef meat from the USA ,38,49 anFrom Unfortunately, there are little data from Africa on the prevalence of LA-MRSA , though vanA and vanB in Egyptian camel and beef isolates [vanA or vanB gene in staphylococci has rarely been described in staphylococci and is mainly associated with vancomycin resistance in enterococci [van gene-mediated resistance could be detected [In few studies, a selection of resistance genes in MRSA have been determined, which makes the data rather incomplete . The genisolates ,32. Vancerococci . The reaerococci . Anotherdetected . Unfortudetected , whereasdetected . Hospitadetected . The preIn South Africa, ST612 (a CC8 strain) has been associated with human infections and has been identified as a dominant clone in hospitals in Cape Town and other provinces ,104. HowThe presence of ST398 (CC398) indicates that the situation in North Africa might be more similar to Europe, as this is the most detected LA-MRSA clone in animals. Probably this is due to its closer geographical location. The ST398 clonal complex is associated with multi-resistance, including heavy metal resistance, which highlights the need for more studies in Africa on its prevalence. There is thus a need for more research on the prevalence and characteristics of LA-MRSA in African countries .The current data are not representative of what types of MRSA can be found in meat from Africa, nor even of the two countries on which we have information regarding typed strains. The typed MRSA isolates are derived from a single study in Tunisia and two studies from South Africa  47,71,1,171,110.S. aureus from meat products in Africa, and there is even less on the types and their antimicrobial resistance. Nevertheless, the observation is that meats can be heavily contaminated with S. aureus, including MRSA, and this represents a potential public health threat. There is thus an urgent need for more studies on the subject to be able to estimate the public health burden. The current studies are fragmentary using different methodologies, which makes it difficult to compare studies. While the MRSA clones on meat detected in few studies seem to be mainly of human origin, the presence of LA-MRSA CC398 warrants further investigation, as does the presence of VISA.Unfortunately, there is little information on


Dirofilaria spp. have spread rapidly within dog populations of several European countries. Increasing scientific interest in filariasis, and the availability of new diagnostic tools, has led to improved knowledge of the biology, morphology, and epidemiology of different species of filarial worms. However, data are still scarce for a number of countries, including the Republic of Moldova. Thus, we assessed the epidemiological status of canine filariasis in the Republic of Moldova to address part of this knowledge gap.During the last decades, filarial infections caused by A total of 120 blood samples were collected between June 2018 and July 2019 from dogs originating from the cities of Cahul and Chişinău. The samples were examined microscopically, and multiplex polymerase chain reaction was performed to evaluate filarioid species diversity.Acanthocheilonema reconditum (0.8%), one for Dirofilariaimmitis (0.8%), six for Dirofilariarepens (5.0%), and four (3.3%) harboured a co-infection with D. immitis and D. repens. Prevalence was significantly higher in dogs aged ≥ 2 years.Microscopic examination revealed that 12 dogs (10.0%) were positive for circulating microfilariae. The molecular test showed that one dog was positive for D. immitis, D. repens and A. reconditum in dogs that had not received any heartworm preventive.The epidemiological survey presented here for the Republic of Moldova confirmed the presence  Dirofilaria immitis and Dirofilariarepens), other filarial species have been rather neglected (e.g. Cercopithifilaria bainae and Cercopithifilariagrassii) or are less well known   were performed using species-specific forward primers and the reverse primer NTR, as described in the literature [Genomic DNA was extracted from 200 μl of whole blood using a commercial kit  according to the manufacturer’s instructions. Multiplex PCRs amplifying partial regions of the cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 gene of three filarioid species [terature . The PCRP < 0.05.Data analysis was performed using Epi Info 7 software . The frequency and prevalence of infection are reported with 95% confidence intervals (CIs), and the risk factors  were assessed using a Chi-square test. Differences were considered statistically significant at 2 = 2.91, df = 1, P = 0.038). There were no significant differences regarding location, sex, breed or origin of the animals  were positive for circulating microfilariae. Age had a significant effect on filarioid infection, as all of these dogs were ≥ 2 years old , one for D. immitis , six for D. repens , and four  harboured a co-infection with D. immitis and D. repens. Infection with Acanthocheilonema spp. was identified only in Cahul, while Dirofilaria spp. were detected at both locations. Although prevalence tended to be higher for both Dirofilaria spp. in Cahul than in Chişinău, the difference was not statistically significant. No other significant risk factors were identified . For D. immitis, all five sequences were identical, and had 100% nucleotide similarity to other isolates from Europe and Asia . Two different sequences were obtained from the D. repens isolates. The first one, identified from nine dogs, was 100% identical to three other European isolates from human cases  and mosquitoes (GenBank: MF695085). The second sequence, identified from a dog originating in Cahul, was 100% similar to an isolate from a human case (GenBank: AB973225), a Japanese woman after she had travelled to Europe.The molecular analysis confirmed the microscopy outcomes. In the case of Dirofilaria spp. and A. reconditum. A lack of diagnostic tools, misdiagnosis, and the low awareness of doctors and veterinarians of dirofilariasis are considered to be the main factors responsible for this gap in knowledge [D. repens and D. immitis, respectively. From their analysis of the geographic distribution and temperatures of the sites where the positive sample were collected, the authors concluded that the entire country has favourable climatic conditions for the transmission of Dirofilaria spp. [D. immitis in canine populations in the Republic of Moldova. A total of 13 shepherd dogs originating from two counties, Ialoveni and Criuleni, located in the central part of Moldova, were evaluated for the presence of various parasite species by necropsy, and three of the examined dogs were found to be infected with D. immitis [D. immitis and D. repens have been found in the human population of the Republic of Moldova, most of the available information comprises individual case reports, where the nematodes were identified based on microscopic examination only. Five cases of human dirofilariasis were reported up until 2016 [Dirofilaria spp. One sample was positive for D. repens antigens, 36 were positive for anti-D. immitis immunoglobulin G, and three samples were reactive for antigens of both D. immitis and D. repens [The Republic of Moldova is one of the countries for which few epidemiological data are available on nowledge . In a moria spp. . The res immitis . The mettil 2016 . Howevertil 2016 . An exte. repens .Dirofilaria spp. infection in dogs, our study found no significant differences regarding location, sex, breed or origin of the animals. This might be due to the low numbers of samples used. However, prevalence of infection was significantly higher for dogs aged ≥ 2 years. Age was previously highlighted as one of the most important risk factors for infection [Although previous studies found that sex  or breednfection , 21. OurD. repens and A. reconditum have not been previously reported for the Republic of Moldova. However, in Ukraine, which borders the Republic of Moldova to the east, north and south, and Romania, the western neighbour state, many infections with these pathogens have been reported in human and animal populations. In Ukraine, dirofilariasis caused by D. repens was first reported in dogs in 1904 and in humans in 1927 [D. repens were confirmed in humans. The incidence of Dirofilaria infection ranged between 0.07–3.71 per 100,000 people in the geographical areas neighbouring the Republic of Moldova. Due to the presence of the pathogen in all the oblasts of Ukraine, as well as the high incidence registered in many regions, the authors concluded that dirofilariasis due to D. repens is an emergent zoonosis in the country [D. immitis and D. repens in ocular and subcutaneous pathologies in humans in Ukraine. In Romania, sporadic infections with D. immitis in dogs had been reported from the beginning of the twentieth century, but more recent studies, which used various diagnostic methods, revealed prevalences ranging from 23.1% to 38.0% [D. immitis and D. repens were categorized as endemic in areas of southern and southeastern Romania, and the same study provided the first extensive overview of the prevalence and distribution of A. reconditum in the country [Dirofilaria spp. in the former, it is highly probable that the limited number of reports of these pathogens in the Republic of Moldova is the result of a lack of targeted epidemiological studies.Infections with  in 1927 . Between country . Rossi e country  demonstrto 38.0% , 25. In  country . Taking Dirofilaria spp. in dogs have spread from the traditionally endemic regions of Italy, Spain, France, [D. repens for the first time in 2012 [D. immitis and D. repens had tripled by 2018 [During the last decades, infections with  France,  into cen France, , Germany France, , Austria France, , Czech R France, , Poland  France,  and Roma France, . Interes France, . In cont France, . Austria in 2012 , announc by 2018 . Similar by 2018 , 35.Angiostrongylus vasorum of some commercially available antigen tests for D. immitis, and false negative results found with the same type of test where the parasitic burden is low, are the main limitations of these diagnostic tools [Many methods have been proposed for the diagnosis of filarioid infections in dogs. However, a lack of sensitivity of microscopic methods for the detection of larvae, cross-reactivity with ic tools , 23. PCRic tools . Our stuDirofilaria spp., and thus serve as a source of infection for mosquito vectors and possible subsequent transmission to humans and other susceptible mammalian hosts [Dirofilaria spp. The need for more detailed information and the development of monitoring programmes and epidemiological studies on dirofilariasis and other zoonotic vector-borne pathogens in dogs from the Republic of Moldova has been previously highlighted [Dirofilaria spp. in dogs, humans and vectors would allow a better understanding of the circulation of these pathogens in the Republic of Moldova. Although we recognize that the sample size used here is not high, the results of our study should raise awareness amongst veterinarians and physicians. The circulation of dogs between different countries, with their owners or for commercial reasons, is becoming increasingly common. In light of the current study, dogs originating from the Republic of Moldova should be screened for Dirofilaria spp. and Acanthocheilonema spp. Moreover, preventive measures are advisable for dogs (and their owners) entering the Republic of Moldova.Dogs are the main reservoirs of an hosts . Monitorhlighted , 15. MorA. reconditum and D. repens represent the first report of these pathogens in the canine population of the Republic of Moldova.The role of stray dogs in the circulation of these filarial worms, and thus the high risk that they pose for human health, has been previously demonstrated . AlthougD. immitis, D. repens and A. reconditum in dogs that did not receive any heartworm preventive. The data reported here extend our knowledge of the geographical distribution of these nematodes and highlight the need for the development of programmes to prevent their spread because of the deleterious effects that they can have on animal and human health.The present epidemiological survey confirms the presence in the Republic of Moldova of


Echinococcus tapeworms in wolves from south-eastern Poland. An investigation was carried out on the intestines of 13 wolves from south-eastern Poland. The small intestines were divided into three equal segments. Each segment was separately examined using the sedimentation and counting technique (SCT). The detected Echinococcus tapeworms were isolated and identified by PCRs and sequencing (nad1 and cox1 genes). Additionally, DNA isolated from the feces of wolves positive for Echinococcus tapeworms was examined with two diagnostic PCRs. The intestines of one wolf were positive for E. granulosus s.l. when assessed by SCT; the intestine was from a six-year-old male wolf killed in a communication accident. We detected 61 adult tapeworms: 42 in the anterior, 14 in the middle, and 5 in the posterior parts of the small intestine. The PCRs conducted for cox1 and nad1 produced specific products. A sequence comparison with the GenBank database showed similarity to the deposited E. ortleppi (G5) sequences. An analysis of the available phylogenetic sequences showed very little variation within the species of E. ortleppi (G5), and identity ranged from 99.10% to 100.00% in the case of cox1 and from 99.04% to 100.00% in the case of nad1. One of the two diagnostic PCRs used and performed on the feces of Echinococcus-positive animals showed product specific for E. granulosus. This study showed the presence of adult E. ortleppi tapeworms in wolves for the first time. The aim of this study is to confirm the presence and molecular identification of  Echinococcus consists of several species of tapeworms of zoonotic importance. The differences between the species concern the morphology of the parasites and their characteristic life cycles, mainly with a predilection to specific host species   (11.5%) . MoreoveE. granulosus s.l. in which this parameter was taken into account, we obtained a relatively low intensity. For example, in a study in the USA [E. granulosus, which, unlike E. multilocularis, is more predisposed to the anterior and middle part of the intestine [The intensity of infection of the wolf in our study was 61 tapeworms. Compared to most studies on wolves with  the USA , only ab the USA , the ave the USA . Howeverntestine ,41,42.E. ortleppi , and the larval forms are most often located in the lungs. Therefore, in the typical development cycle of this parasite, cattle act as an intermediate host, and dogs are the final host [E. ortleppi in a wolf, presented in our research, may also suggest the presence of E. ortleppi cysts in wild cervids in this area. Cervids are the main food for wolves in Poland, and in the south-eastern region of the country, wolves preferentially prey on red deer (Cervus elaphus) [E. ortleppi in cervid species  in a British zoo [Echinococcus cysts should also be taken into account. However, it must be stressed that in Poland domestic ungulates are only secondary food components of the wolf diet  [Cattle are considered the most common intermediate host of nal host ,2. Howevelaphus) . This astish zoo . Howeveredators) . E. ortleppi is also a zoonotic threat; some cases of cystic echinococcosis (CE) have been reported in humans in Europe, the Americas (South and North), Africa, and Asia [E. ortleppi in humans was also reported [and Asia ,47,48,49reported , and it Echinococcus spp. in the south of the country  [E. granulosus s.l. DNA has not been confirmed. However, it should be noted that the authors performed their own PCR method without presenting sufficient basic validation parameters (sensitivity and specificity) concerning E. granulosus s.l. species. Therefore, the presence of E. ortleppi or other E. granulosus s.l. species in that population cannot be excluded.In Poland, wolves have already been tested for al Park) , but theEchinococcus tapeworms have not shown the presence of E. granulosus s.l., in general [E. multilocularis was found in 1.5% of the animals tested. Probably, the problem in detecting E. granulosus s.l. is due to the relatively low sensitivity of the method by Abbasi et al. (2003) [E. ortleppi (SCT positive) was detected using the Multiplex PCR method [E. granulosus s.l. in feces, but it is hard to conclude based on one sample. Therefore, recently, there is an interest in developing a universal method for detecting E. granulosus s.l. infections, e.g., a recently published study presenting a set of qPCR methods covering all species of the E. granulosus complex [More extensive investigation is needed in the dog population, which is the typical definitive host for this species. Thus far, studies in dogs in Poland for  general ,21. The . (2003) . In the R method . HoweverR method , gave a  complex .E. ortleppi cysts [E. ortleppi species. Moreover, the similarity between both phylogenetic trees (nad1 and cox1) is probably related to the common inheritance of mitochondrial genes. The relatively high similarity between all E. ortleppi analyzed isolates with exemplary haplotypes of E. canadensis is noteworthy; the two species are considered sister species [The Polish haplotype isolated from wolves had the greatest similarity to isolates obtained from European pi cysts ,34,36,37pi cysts ,52. Full species ,54. Canis lupus) from south-eastern Poland (NUTS PL821) (An investigation was carried in the intestines of 13 wolves (S PL821) ; they weEchinococcus eggs). First, each small intestine was divided into three equal segments . Each segment was prepared separately and examined using the sedimentation and counting technique (SCT) [Echinococcus tapeworms. The detected Echinococcus spp. tapeworms were isolated during the SCT procedure and preserved in 70% ethanol. Additionally, the feces from a distal part of the large intestine of a wolf positive for Echinococcus in SCT were collected and frozen for further molecular examination. The study material consisted of the intestines sent to a laboratory. The samples were stored for two weeks at <−70 °C before examination for safety reasons  ,56 to fiEchinococcus tapeworms (isolated previously from the intestine) were washed in physiological saline in a petri dish. In this manner, three tapeworms were prepared and used for analysis. DNA was extracted from isolated Echinococcus tapeworms using a QIAamp DNA Mini Kit , according to the manufacturer’s protocol. The fragments of two mitochondrial genes were amplified for analysis: NADH dehydrogenase subunit 1 (nad1) and cytochrom c oxidase (cox1) subunit 1. PCR was performed according to the procedure by Bowles and McManus (1993) [nad1 amplification. Cox1 was amplified with PCR according to Casuli et al. (2008) [Before DNA extraction, s (1993)  using th. (2008)  with theE. granulosus-positive wolf) was extracted using the QIAamp DNA Mini Kit , according to the manufacturer’s protocol for larger volumes of stool. The DNA samples were examined using multiplex PCR for the detection of E. multilocularis, E. granulosus, and other cestodes, including Taenia spp. [E. granulosus s.l. [Additionally, DNA from samples of feces . The selected PCR products were sequenced by standard Sanger sequencing at a commercial company . The sequences obtained were compared to the GenBank collection using BLAST searches.cox1 and nad1), sequenced fragments of cox1 and nad1 were edited and analyzed in Geneious R11 [For phylogenetic analyses . Moreover, this is the first confirmed case in almost sixty years of E. granulosus s.l. in a definitive host in Poland and the first case of E. ortleppi in an animal host in this country. This indicates the need to continue research in this area with the use of sensitive methods in both wolf and dog populations, bearing in mind the particular zoonotic risk that CE caused by E. ortleppi in humans was confirmed in Poland a few years earlier [This study showed for the first time the presence of adult  earlier .


Nature Communications 10.1038/s41467-021-27842-z, published online 11 January 2022.Correction to: th author Clemens Burda, who is from the Department of Chemistry, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, 44106, USA. The text ‘C.K. and C.B. provided the femtosecond transient-absorption spectroscopy experiments and analysis’ was already present in the Author Contributions. The author list has been corrected in both the PDF and HTML versions of the Article, and the HTML has been updated to include a corrected version of the The original version of this Article, and the original version of the Updated Supplementary Information


Pandion haliaetus) was found weak and unable to fly in Auburn, Alabama in August 2019. The bird was captured and submitted to the Southeastern Raptor Center of the Auburn University College of Veterinary Medicine for evaluation. On presentation, the bird was thin with a body condition score of approximately 1.5 out of 5. The bird died during the examination and was submitted for necropsy. At the necropsy, there was a severe loss of muscle mass over the body, and the keel was prominent. The liver and spleen were moderately enlarged with pale tan to red foci randomly scattered throughout the parenchyma. A histopathologic observation revealed multifocal to coalescing areas of necrosis and hemorrhage with intralesional protozoans in the liver, spleen, lungs, kidney, sciatic nerve, esophagus, cerebrum, heart, and proventriculus. Immunohistochemistry using anti-Toxoplasma gondii-specific antibodies showed a strong positive labeling of the parasite. Semi-nested PCR, specific for the B1 gene of T. gondii, successfully identified T. gondii. This is the first confirmed case of T. gondii infection in an osprey.An adult female osprey ( Toxoplasma gondii (genus Apicomplexa: family Sarcocystidae) is a protozoan parasite infective to a wide range of wild and domestic, warm-blooded animals including birds and human beings [n beings . The onln beings . In felin beings . All othn beings ,3,4. Witn beings . Followin beings . Young an beings . Older, n beings . In thesn beings .An adult female osprey was found weak and unable to fly in Chewacla State Park of Auburn, Alabama, USA. The bird was captured and presented to the Southeastern Raptor Center of the Auburn University College of Veterinary Medicine for evaluation. A physical examination was initiated upon presentation, but the osprey died during the procedure. The body was submitted for necropsy and a postmortem examination was conducted a few hours after death.Edwardsiella tarda was obtained from both organs. Fungal cultures were negative. An oral swab was negative for avian influenza virus and no West Nile virus was detected in the submitted cerebrum. Tissue samples from the cerebrum, liver, spleen, lungs, kidneys, heart, sciatic nerve, stomach, duodenum, pancreas, jejunum, ileum, colon, cecum, esophagus, and trachea were fixed in 10% neutral-buffered formalin and paraffin processed for routine histopathologic evaluation. Four micron sections were cut and stained with hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) for microscopic examination. Sections of the liver and spleen were additionally processed for anti-T. gondii immunohistochemistry.At necropsy, the osprey was in a poor body condition (body condition score of 1.5/5) with mild postmortem changes. There was a severe loss of muscle mass over the body and the keel was prominent. The liver was moderately enlarged with multifocal to coalescing areas of hemorrhage scattered over the capsular surface. Multifocal to coalescing, 1 mm × 1-mm, pale-brown-to-yellow, well-demarcated, smooth foci extending from Glisson’s capsule into the parenchyma were observed throughout the liver a. The spT. gondii, were also found in the surrounding extracellular spaces. Immunohistochemical staining, using a rabbit polyclonal antibody against T. gondii as a primary antibody and a horse anti-rabbit horseradish peroxidase as a secondary antibody, were positive for the parasite, with membranous immunoreactivity to the intracytoplasmic tachyzoites. Replacing most of the splenic parenchyma were multifocal-to-coalescing areas of necrosis characterized by pale, granular, eosinophilic material, with cellular debris, extravasated erythrocytes, fibroblasts, degenerative heterophils, lymphocytes, and plasma cells. Macrophages and adjacent clear spaces contained bradyzoites and tachyzoites of T. gondii  as previously described [T. gondii: TOXO1 (5′-GGAACTGC ATCCGTTCATGAG-3′) and TOXO2 (5′-TCTTTAAAGCGTTCGTGGTC-3′). The repetitive region of T. gondii was amplified with the oligonucleotide primers: TOX4 (5′-CGCTGCAGGGAGGAAGACGAAAGTTG-3′) and TOX5 (5′-CGCTGCAGACAGAGTGCATCTGGATT-3′). The BLASTn demonstrated the identified T. gondii from this work had an 100% identity with the T. gondii isolate EIReal109a , and the T. gondii VEG strain (GenBank Accession #: LN714499.1).The presence of escribed ,11. DNA escribed . OligonuT. gondii was isolated from other raptors in the US [Based on the gross and histopathological findings and molecular analyses, the bird was diagnosed with disseminated toxoplasmosis. Although n the US ,13, to oPandion haliaetus carolinensis, P. haliaetus haliaetus, P. haliaetus rudgayi and P. haliaetus leucocephalus [P. haliaetus carolinensis, the subspecies found in the southeastern United States, breeds across North America and the Caribbean, and winters in Central and South America. In North America, their range extends from much of Alaska and Canada downward throughout all regions of the continental United States and Mexico. There are resident populations in the southeastern United States and Southern California that do not migrate but spend their entire year in those locations [Ospreys are diurnal, migratory birds of prey with a worldwide distribution, wintering or breeding on every continent except Antarctica . The bircephalus . P. haliocations ,15.T. gondii in wild birds is common, and viable T. gondii bradyzoites were isolated from the tissues of a variety of raptor species [T. gondii organisms was reported in a bald eagle in New Hampshire [T. gondii organisms was observed in an adult barred owl in Canada [T. gondii in raptors in the southeastern US, the researchers isolated viable T. gondii from 27 (26.7%) of the 101 raptors surveyed [T. gondii in 281 birds, in a raptor rehabilitation facility between 2012 and 2014, was examined. This survey found a variety of hawks, owls, and eagles to be seropositive for T. gondii, but American kestrels, Mississippi kites and an osprey were serologically negative [T. gondii infection in wild birds found 29% of surveyed ospreys to be seropositive [T. gondii seropositivity in all wild birds tested were bird age and feeding behavior, with the highest exposure observed in older animals and in species with a carnivorous diet. Fish-eating birds were much less likely to have serum antibodies against T. gondii than the carnivorous species. In experimental infections of raptors with the parasite, clinical disease was not observed [Serologic surveys indicate that an exposure to  species ,16,17. H species . Myocardn Canada . In a stsurveyed . Four ospositive . The datobserved .T. gondii infection in the present case is unknown. The bird was likely infected with the protozoan through the ingestion of oocysts from the soil or water or by the ingestion of intermediate hosts harboring encysted bradyzoites in their tissues. Additionally, the infection of the bird could have occurred secondary to the ingestion of oocysts present in the gastrointestinal tract of fish. Oocyst ingestion is a common source of infection in a variety of species, including humans [T. gondii can remain viable for over a year in soil [T. gondii [T. gondii as a cause of toxoplasmosis in this bird is unknown but fish were implicated as a source of T. gondii infection for human beings and marine mammals [T. gondii but can be contaminated with T. gondii oocysts from water run-off following rains and flooding, and act as mechanical carriers for the parasite [T. gondii in fish and invertebrates focused on the possibility of these aquatic animals being a source of T. gondii infection for marine mammals and examined the concentration and survival of protozoal stages in fish and invertebrates [T. gondii was shown to persist in many invertebrates [Carassius auratus), maintained at 37 °C with T. gondii, failed to contract T. gondii infections [T. gondii tachyzoites were demonstrated in zebrafish (Danio rerio) infected experimentally with bradyzoites derived from mouse brain, suggesting that the development of T. gondii is possible in fish [T. gondii in fish in the southeastern United States is unknown and the importance of fish in the transmission of the parasite to this osprey remains in question.The source of g humans . The ext in soil , freshwa in soil , and sal in soil , and the in soil . Ospreys in soil , which a. gondii . This su mammals . Fish arparasite . Previoutebrates ,28. T. gtebrates ,30,31,32fections . However in fish . The preT. gondii infection with severe, widespread tissue necrosis in an osprey.In the present study, we report the first case of disseminated