Daskyleion'daki Komnenoslar dönemine tarihli kalenin (aplekton?) mimari özellikleri
The architectural features of the fortification dated to the Komnenos period in Daskyleion
Yazar: GÖKHAN KAYMAK
Danışman: PROF. DR. NEJAT TURGUT SANER
İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi / Lisansüstü Eğitim Enstitüsü / Mimarlık Ana Bilim Dalı / Mimarlık Tarihi Bilim Dalı
Derece: Yüksek Lisans, 2024
Konu: Arkeoloji = Archeology ; Mimarlık = Architecture

Özet:
Çalışma kapsamında, Antik Propontis'in (Marmara Denizi) güneyinde, Opsikion theması içerisinde yer alan Daskyleion'un Bizans Surları ele alınmıştır. 2022 yılında tez kapsamında gerçekleştirilen ziyarette, Hisartepe Höyüğü'nü çevreleyen surların çizimleri yapılmış, yapım tekniği ve mimarisi değerlendirilmiştir.
Çalışmanın ilk bölümünde Opsikion theması, Komnenos Hanedanı, Daskyleion'un Bizans yerleşimi ve yerleşimin araştırma tarihi konu alınmıştır. Bu bölüm, Bizans döneminde yerleşimi etkileyen siyasi, askeri, doğal olayları ve dönemin koşullarını anlamayı amaçlamaktadır
İkinci bölümde, höyüğün doğu ve güney yamaçlarında günümüze ulaşan Bizans kalesinin kalıntı durumu ve inşaat özellikleri incelenmiştir. Belgeleme çalışması sonucu elde edilen verilerle surların mevcut durumu detaylı şekilde tanıtılmış ve ölçüleri aktarılmıştır. Surların temel ve temel üstü bölümlerindeki incelemelerden elde edilen veriler değerlendirilerek, yapım tekniği açıklanmıştır.
Üçüncü bölümde kalenin Bizans mimarlığı içindeki yerinin anlaşılması hedeflenmiştir. Özellikle Komnenos Hanedanı dönemindeki sur inşa faaliyetlerine değinilmiştir; bu dönemde inşa edilen surların, Daskyleion surlarının inşasıyla ilişkisi tarihsel süreç üzerinden tartışılmıştır. Komnenos Hanedanı tarafından inşa edilen ve/veya inşa edildiği değerlendirilen surların özellikleri, Daskyleion surlarının günümüze ulaşan özellikleriyle karşılaştırılmıştır. Karşılaştırma sonucu Daskyleion surlarının Bizans mimarisi içindeki yerinin anlaşılması amaçlanmıştır.
Çalışmanın dördüncü bölümünde, mevcut mimari buluntular, Kurt Bittel'in Bizans suru krokisi ve karşılaştırma sonucu elde edilen verilerle sur hattının muhtemel planı çizilmiştir. Sur hattının neredeyse tamamında görülen hatıl izleri ve hatıl boşluklarının varlığından ötürü, hatıl sisteminin anlaşılması önem kazanmıştır. Kule 4, Kule 5 ve kuleler arasındaki beden duvarındaki mevcut hatıl boşlukları ve izleri kullanılarak iki hatıl sistemi önerisi geliştirilmiş ve çizimlerle aktarılmıştır.
Tezin amacı Daskyleion lokalize edilmeden önce Hisartepe Höyüğü'nde görünür olan ancak araştırmacıların ilgisini çekmeyen Bizans kalesinin mevcut durumunu belgeleyip, yakın coğrafyadaki benzer özelliklere sahip Bizans surlarıyla karşılaştırma yaparak, surların özgün durumuna ilişkin öneriler sunmaktır. Ayrıca Bizans dönemi kaynaklarında yer edinmeyen yerleşimde, sur inşa faaliyetinin nedenini ve inşaat özelliklerini anlamaktır. 
Çalışma sonucunda, araştırmacılar tarafından Komnenos Hanedanı döneminde inşa edildiği düşünülen kalenin, elde edilen bilgiler sayesinde II. Ioannes Komnenos (1118-1143) dönemine tarihlemek mümkün olmuştur.

Abstract:
The Byzantine walls of Daskyleion situated to the southwest of Lake Manyas and west of Ergili Village in the Ancient Mysia region are examined within the research framework. Daskyleion settlement at the Hisartepe Mound was first localized by Kurt Bittel in 1952. During his examinations at Hisartepe Mound, Bittel also sketched the sections of the Byzantine walls located on the slopes. Following its localization, Ekrem Akurgal initiated excavations in Daskyleion in 1954. Through excavations that have continued until today, the Byzantine walls on the eastern and southeastern slopes of the mound have been partially uncovered. During this period, researchers have predominantly focused on the Achaemenid Period of the ancient city, leading to the partial neglect of the Byzantine walls. In 2022, as part of the thesis, a visit to the Daskyleion led by Turgut Saner involved documenting the Byzantine walls surrounding Hisartepe Mound, with an assessment of the construction technique and architecture.
The thesis aims to document the current state of the Byzantine walls that were visible at Hisartepe Mound even before the localization of Daskyleion but did not attract much attention from researchers. The objective is to compare these walls with Byzantine walls in the nearby region that share similar characteristics and to provide recommendations regarding the original condition of these walls. Another aim of the thesis is to understand the reasons behind the construction activity and the construction features of the walls in the settlement that did not gain a place in Byzantine period sources.
The first section of the study aims to understand the political, military, natural events, and conditions of the Byzantine Empire that influenced the Dakyleion settlement located to the southeast of Lake Manyas. Therefore, the research focuses on the Opsikion Theme, the Komnenian Dynasty, the Daskyleion settlement, and the historical research related to the settlement. During the Roman Empire and early Byzantine periods, the settlement was situated within the borders of the province of Hellespont. Following the adoption of the theme system, it became part of the Opsikion Theme. The settlement, which lost its significance from the Hellenistic period onwards, is not mentioned in Byzantine sources. Sources that mention Daskyleion during the Byzantine era specifically address the settlement located in Eşgel/Esence. In Hierocles' Synecdemos, a document listing Roman provinces and cities affiliated with those provinces, Daskyleion is mentioned as a city in the Bithynia. A similar situation is observed in the Notitiae Episcopatuum. In the Notitiae, Daskyleion is identified as a settlement in the port of Eşkel, affiliated with the Nikomedeia metropolis. Therefore, the focus has been on events in the region to understand the Byzantine period of Daskyleion, located in the southeast of Lake Manyas.
In the second section, the remnants and construction features of the Daskyleion walls, which have reached the present day on the eastern and southern slopes of the mound, have been examined. During the survey, seven towers affiliated with the Byzantine walls were identified. The presence of a gate at the southwestern end of the mound has also been identified, leading to the assumption that the Daskyleion walls had at least two gates based on the current findings. The wall line to the north of the main gate can be traced on the ground surface, while the wall remains untraceable on the northern and western slopes of the mound. Throughout the wall line, walls have been constructed almost nowhere directly on the bedrock. Due to this reason, certain sections of the walls have disappeared on the eastern and southern slopes. Except for the main gate and its surroundings, the thickness of the walls is approximately 2.9 meters, reaching only their foundations in almost all sections. The wall-filling is created by binding large and small stones and brick fragments with dense lime mortar. A bonding timber system has been employed from the foundation. When constructing the wall above the foundation, it was narrowed by approximately 6 cm from the outside and 12-15 cm from the inside of the fortification. Single or double rows of bricks can be observed on the facades of both the curtain and tower walls. Particularly around the main gate, spolia blocks have been utilized, with some blocks featuring vertically placed broken brick pieces. The current state of the walls has been comprehensively presented, and their measurements have been conveyed through the data obtained from documentation. The information gathered from examinations of the foundation and upper sections of the walls has been evaluated to elucidate the construction technique.
The third section aims to comprehend the place of the Byzantine walls in Daskyleion within Byzantine architecture. Particular emphasis has been placed on the construction activities of the walls during the Komnenian Dynasty. The relationship between the walls built during this era and the construction of the Daskyleion walls has been discussed from a historical perspective. In the era of Alexios I Komnenos (1081-1118), the lost territories in Anatolia began to be reclaimed. By the first quarter of the 12th century, security and stability were established in the vicinity of Daskyleion. During this period, the cities of Korykos and Seleucia were captured, and city walls were constructed. However, unlike in these walls, there is no evidence of the use of bricks, and the specific wall construction technique associated with the Komnenian era is not observed. During the reign of John II Komnenos (1118-1143), the walls of Lopadion and Achyraous were constructed as aplekta. According to Foss, Sultançayır walls should also have been built during this period. During the reign of Manuel I Komnenos (1143-1180), between the years 1162-1173, the walls of Adramyttaion, Chliara, and Pergamon were constructed in the Neokastra theme. In 1175, the construction of the walls of Soublaion and Dorylaion was completed. In the historical context, an attempt has been made to explain the wall construction activities from the period of Alexios I Komnenos to Manuel I Komnenos. Considering the relationship between construction activities and the period and geography, emphasis has been placed on the probable reasons for the construction of the Daskyleion walls. The walls constructed during the Komnenian era, including those of Korykos, Seleukia, Achyraous, Lopadion, Pergamon, Sultançayır, and Pegadia, have been examined. Comparisons have been made based on elements such as the wall structure, use of spolia blocks and bricks, topography, planning characteristics, and types of towers. The comparisons aims to comprehend the place of the Daskyleion walls within Byzantine architecture.
In the fourth section of the study, the presumed plan of the wall line is drawn based on existing architectural findings, Kurt Bittel's sketch of the Byzantine wall, and the data obtained from the comparisons. The connection of the tower located in the southwest of the mound and the potential gate to the wall line has been evaluated. Accordingly, it is considered that the curtain wall extending to the west of Tower 2 may have been oriented towards the south at an angle of 136 degrees, based on the foundation of the Hellenistic wall. By evaluating the existing tower intervals to the north and south of the main gate, it is thought that there may be two more towers that could exist and be revealed through excavations. The extension of the wall line has been identified to the north of Tower 7. Using Bittel's sketch, a site plan has been prepared for the probable line of the Byzantine wall around the mound. Due to the steep slope on the western slope of the mound, it is suggested that a towerless line may require less reinforcement, similar to what is seen in Achyraous walls. Another goal in this section was to comprehend the bonding timber system by examining the bonding timber traces and gaps observed in almost the entire wall line. Therefore, considering the bonding timber traces and gaps in Tower 4, Tower 5, and the curtain wall, two suggestions for the bonding timber system have been developed. This suggestion primarily focuses on the arrangement of the bonding timbers in the towers. A three-dimensional drawing has been made for showing the probable system of the foundation bonding timber plan and illustrating the traces and gaps of the bonding timber in the upper levels.
As a result of the study, it has become possible to date the walls to John II Komnenos (1118-1143) era based on the information obtained by research. During the reign of John II Komnenos, in addition to Achyraous and Lopadion near Daskyleion, Foss also believes that Sultançayır walls were built during this period. While the region was being captured during the reign of Alexios I Komnenos, the construction of castles and military bases in this area must have been considered significant during the reign of John II Komnenos. The selection of strategic locations that provide natural protection for fortifications shows similarities for all the castles built in this era. The frequent occurrence of intense Turkish raids in the areas where the fortifications were built, their proximity to agricultural lands, and their location on important routes are also valid considerations for the location of Byzantine walls in Daskyleion. Especially in Lopadion, the brick rows, the presence of partial cloisonné application with vertically placed broken brick pieces, and the intensive use of lime mortar, particularly around the joints on the facades, highlight the architectural similarity on the facades. The massive circular planned towers, the orientation of the castle towards the area with less slope, and the cloisonné applications in Achyraous Castle, dated to John II Komnenos, highlight the architectural similarities with Daskyleion. In this context, it is possible that Daskyleion was constructed as an aplekton during the reign of John II Komnenos, around the same time as Lopadion and Achyraous fortifications. It could have served as a military base for the security of the region and potential military activities, being part of a comprehensive fortification construction activity throughout the entire region.