İran'da modernizasyon, ulus inşası ve mimari araçsallaştırma (1848-1941)
Modernization, nation building and architectural instrumentalization in Iran (1848-1941)
Yazar: ARAS KAHRAMAN
Danışman: PROF. DR. MEHMET MURAT GÜL
İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi / Lisansüstü Eğitim Enstitüsü / Mimarlık Ana Bilim Dalı / Mimarlık Tarihi Bilim Dalı
Derece: Doktora, 2022
Konu: Mimarlık = Architecture ; Sosyoloji = Sociology ; Tarih = History
Dizin: Milliyetçilik = Nationalism ; Mimarlık tarihi = Architectural history ; Modernleşme = Modernization ; Sosyoloji = Sociology ; İran = Iran

Özet:
XIX. yüzyılın ikinci yarısı ve XX. yüzyılın ilk çeyreğinde dünyadaki sanayi dışı toplumların uluslaşma süreçlerinin makro ölçekteki benzerliklerinin aksine mezo ve mikro ölçekte birbirlerleriyle örtüşen ve ayrışan noktaları olmuştur. İran ulus-devletinin ulusal kimliğinin inşasındaki süreçte düşünsel boyutun yanısıra modernizasyon alanındaki girişimler de ulus inşası sürecini doğrudan etkiler. Batı Avrupa'da gerçekleşen uluslaşma sürecinin düşünsel ve maddi boyutunun birlikte ilerleyişinin aksine İran'daki benzer düşünsel-maddi birlikteliğinin olmayışından dolayı ülkenin ulus inşasının maddi boyutunu oluşturan modernizasyonun üstlendiği görev daha da çok önem kazanır. Bu maddi boyutun bileşenlerinden olan mimari/kentsel alandaki ürünler ulus inşasında öğretici, örgütleyici, tektipleştirici, yıkıcı ve parçalayıcı özellikleriyle otoriteler tarafından araçsallaştırılırlar. Bu meselenin İran ölçeğindeki çıktıları bu çalışmanın asıl varsayımını oluşturmaktadır.
XVIII. yüzyıldan itibaren sanayi toplumlarında oluşmaya başlayan uluslaşma süreci yeni kulrulan ve kurulmakta olan ulus-devletler için "yönetimsellik" olarak nitelendirilen yeni sorunları beraberinde getirir. İktidarlar "yönetimsellik" sorununu modern araçlar ve kurumlar aracılığıyla çözebilmek için çözüm olarak gördükleri model yurttaşın inşasında, toplum üzerinde tektipleştirici, örgütleyici, biçimlendirici ve bütünleştirici uygulamalara başvururlar. Bu bakımdan mimari/kentsel ürünler bu uygulamaların sonuçlanmasında önemli görevler üstlenir. 
İran'da ulus inşasının ilk sürecinde veya Tabula-rasa'nın şekillenmesinde modern düşünsel zeminin oluşması ve modern araçların devreye girmesi XIX. yüzyılın ilk çeyreğinde Kaçar devletinin girişimleriyle başlasa da mimari/kentsel alanda XIX. yüzyılın ikinci yarısından itibaren dördüncü Kaçar padişahı Nassıreddin Şah'ın döneminde belirgin belirtiler vermeye başlar. Nasıreddin Şah döneminde mimari/kentsel alanındaki değişim ve yenilikler kendisinin Batı Avrupa seyahatleri öncesi ve sonrasındaki süreçte devam eder. Bu dönemde bir çok modernizasyon girişimi doğrultusunda Tahran eski sınırlarına sığmadığından Nasıreddin Şah yönetimi 1867'deki törenle kentin büyütülmesine yönelik girişimde bulunur. Ülkeyi çağdaş Batı uygarlıklarına kavuşturmak ve küresel ticaret ekonomisine katmak doğrultusunda Tahran ve bir çok büyük şehrin geleneksel (çarşı, ulu cami ve bunları birleştiren meydanlar) dokusu değişir. Eğitim, sağlık, dini, askeri, ticari vb. modern işlevli binalar ve parklar devlet binalarıyla yanyana gelir. Modern işlevli yapılar ızgara kent planı örgütlenmesiyle yeni silüetine kavuşan meydanlarda birleşir. Hükümet, gerçekleştirdiği bütün bu girişimleri aynı zamanda siyasal meşruiyetin sağlanması yolunda büyük törenlerle araçsallaştırır. Nasıreddin Şah'ın siyasal meşruiyeti elde etme yolunda gerçekleştirdiği yenilikler aynı zamanda dönem Tahran'ının silüetini önemli derecede etkileyen Devlet Tekyesi ve Nasıriye Camii gibi büyük dini binalar aracılığıyla geleneksel/dini kültürün onayını alarak gerçekleşir.
XIX. yüzyılın ikinci yarısından itibaren İran'da Batılı Aryanist oryantalistlerin söylemleri arkeolojik ve mimari kalıntılara taşındıktan sonra yüzyılın son çeyreğinde bu söylem İran'daki yerel Fars milliyetçilerinin de sık sık başvurdukları unsur olarak belirmeye başlar. Bu doğrultuda Fırsatüddevle-i Şirazi'nin Asâr-ı Ecem adlı eseri Fars milliyetçiliğinin arkeolojik/mimari alanındaki ilk eseri olur. 
1906 yılında Meşrutiyet Harekatı ile birlikte kurulan Meclis-i Şura-i Milli, Fars milliyetçiliğinin fikri söylemini siyasal alana taşır. Sürekli sömürgeci ülkelerin doğrudan müdahalesine maruz kalan Kaçar devleti Birinci Dünya Savaşı esnasında giderek çözülmeye başlar. Fars milliyetçileri siyasal iktidarı ele geçirerek Aralık 1925 yılında Rıza Han'ın Rıza Şah olarak saltanat tahtına çıkmasıyla İran ulus-devletini kurarlar.
Pehlevi devletinin kurulmasıyla ülkedeki kültürel politikalar ulus-devletin resmi ideolojisinin çizgisinde farklı boyuta girer. Hükümetin resmi ideolojisi olan Fars milliyetçiliği "Yüksek Aryan ırkının parçası olmak" yolunda eskiyi yıkarak yeni ulusun inşasınının arayışında bulunur. Kaçar döneminden kalan mimari/kentsel ürünler dahil somut olan ve olmayan kültürel varlıklar imha edilir.  Hükümetin resmi yayın organlarının propagandalarının yanı sıra hükümete bağlı Encümen-i Asâr-ı Milli çok sayıda yerel ve yabancı Aryanist oryantalistlerin çabalarıyla kültürel ve mimari/kentsel alanda önemli girişimlerde bulunur. Firdevsi kongresi, Firdevsi anıt-mezarının inşası ve Fars tarihi şahsiyetlerinin yüceltilmesi Encümen-i Asâr-ı Milli'nin girişimiyle gerçekleşir. 
Pehlevi döneminde "antik İran'ı yüceltme" girişimleri dönemin dergileri, gazeteleri ve bütün yayın organlarının ortak çabası olur. Arkaik İran'ı canlandırmak dönemin farklı kültürel mecralarında gerçekleştiği gibi mimari/kentsel alanda da hızla devam eder. Tahran'daki bir çok resmi devlet yapısı Ahamenid-Sasani canlandırmacı üslubuyla kısa sürede kentin silüetini değiştirir. Bu yapıların yanısıra Rıza Şah'ın 1933 yılındaki Nazi Almanyası'na yakınlaşması ülke genelinde Alman mühendislerinin istihdamı ve Nazi Almanyası mimari kültürünün yaygınlaşmasıyla sonuçlanır. Köprüler, fabrikalar, barajlar, demiryolları, tren stasyonları ve bir çok modern işlevli yapılar merkezden yönetilen hükümetin meşruiyetinin sağlanılmasında büyük propaganda unsurları olarak araçsallaştırılır. Bu eserler hükümetin egemenlik simgeleri olarak ülkenin farklı noktalarında belirmeye başalar. Mimari/kentsel alandaki bütün projeler Pehlevi hükümetinin kültür politikacılarının ideolojik görüşüne göre inşa edilir.

Abstract:
In the second half of the 19th century and the first quarter of the 20th century, contrary to their macro-scale similarities, the nationalization processes of non-industrial societies in the world had overlapping and diverging points on the meso and micro scale. In addition to the intellectual dimension in the process of building the national identity of the Iranian nation-state, initiatives in the field of modernization also directly affected the nation-building process. Contrary to the fact that the intellectual and material aspects of the nation-building process that took place in Western Europe progressed together, the role of modernization, which constitutes the material dimension of the country's nation-building, became even more important due to the lack of a similar intellectual-material unity in Iran. Architectural/urban products, which are one of the components of this material dimension, were instrumentalized by the authorities with their instructive, organizing, standardizing, destructive and disintegrating features in nation building. The outputs of this theory in Iran scale constitute the main assumption of this study.
The nation-building process, which started to emerge in industrial societies since the 18th century, brought along new problems, which are described as "governmentality" for newly used and newly established nation-states. While the problem of governmentality is tried to be solved by the governments through modern tools and institutions, standardizing, organizing, formative and integrative implementations are applied on the society in order to build a model citizen. In this respect, architectural/urban products play an important role in the conclusion of these implementations.
The traditional Turkic monarchy states in Iran, which were formed with the Ghaznavids in the 10th century, continued ten centuries later with the establishment of the Qajar state as a result of the difficult attempts of Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar. With the establishment of the Qajar state, which was ruled by the traditional Turkic monarchy government style, the geography of Iran entered the 19th century. After this date, the geography of Iran witnessed the colonial interventions of Russia, France and the United Kingdom. From the beginning of the 19th century as a result of the Russo-Qajar wars (known as Russo-Persian wars) the territorial losses in the Caucasus geography led to serious modernization initiatives of the Qajar state. These modernization initiatives, which began with the reign of Abbas Mirza, continued with the establishment of modern institutions during the long and relatively stable period of Nasser al-Din Shah. In the first half of the 19th century, while the modernization attempts of the Qajar state continued, the influence of the colonialist countries increased day by day.
The decisive role of the East India Company in the economic, military, political and cultural fields of the region, directly affected the Iranian geography, which entered the 19th century isolated from the modern world. While simultaneously dealing with serious threats from the Russian Empire, the Qajar state tried to thwart British elements on its eastern and southern borders. The cultural influence of the United Kingdom and thus the East India Company continued to increase over the Qajar state. In this context, the orientalists financed by the East India Company tried to open up official fields of legitimacy both for the activities of the United Kingdom in the east and for creating new fellows in the region by shifting the historiography of other colonized geographies under the discourse of Aryanism, including Iran. 
"The History of Persia", written by Sir John Malcolm in the first quarter of the 19th century, became the first source on the scale of Iran with the approach of continuous historiography of Aryanism. The discourse of the Orientalist Aryanism movement gained a new dimension by entering the field of archeology and architecture in the middle of the 19th century. Numerous works emphasized Iran's pre-Islamic antiquity and the Zoroastrian faith and tried to present them under the discourse of "pure Aryan civilization".
The East Indian Company's support of the Mumbai Parsi Zoroastrians started to give new outputs in Iran from the second half of the 19th century. Leading Zoroastrian investors such as Maneckji Limji Hataria supported many local and foreign Aryanist orientalists with the resources of the East Indian Company formed the theoretical basis of Persian nationalism. In this context, it is possible to evaluate Persian nationalism as a localized extension of Aryanism. With the strengthening of Persian nationalism, the nationalist discourse formed the core of Iranian historiography, and it soon began to produce many ideological works. In this direction, the discourse of Persian nationalism as the local extension of Aryanism, entered the field of architectural and architectural historiography in the last quarter of the 19th century. Thus, since the second half of the 19th century after moving the discourses of western Aryanist orientalists to archaeological and architectural relics, in the last quarter of the century, this discourse began to appear as a factor frequently applied by local Persian nationalists in Iran. In this direction, the work titled "Asâr-i Ajam" by Forsat-od-Dowleh Shirazi became the first work of Persian nationalism in the field of archeology/architecture.
The fact that most of these new formations coincided with the period of Nasser al-Din Shah and his effective initiatives in the field of modernization actually constitute the obvious reasons for describing the second half of the 19th century as an important period in modern Iranian history.
In Iran despite the formation of the modern intellectual background and the intervention of modern tools in the first process of nation building or in the formation of Tabula-rasa that started with the initiatives of the Qajar state in the first quarter of the 19th century, since the second half of the 19th century during the fourth Qajar sultan Nasser al-Din Shah reign it began to show obvious indications in the architectural/urban field. 
Before, during and after his Western travels, the improvements carried out by Nasser al-Din Shah in the architectural/urban field, which was an important dimension of modernization, significantly changed the face of the country's major cities, including Tehran. In this period, in line with many modernization initiatives, Tehran was enlarged with a ceremony in 1867. The traditional texture of Tehran and many big cities (the bazaar, the great mosque and the squares that unite them) changed in order to bring the country to contemporary western civilizations and to include it in the global trade economy. Education, health, religious, military, commercial etc. modern functional buildings came together with parks and government buildings. Buildings with a modern function were combined with the squares that had gained their new silhouettes with the grid city plan organization. The government also instrumentalized all these initiatives to ensure political legitimacy with great ceremonies. The innovations made by Nasser al-Din Shah to achieve political legitimacy also took place by receiving the approval of traditional/religious culture with big religious buildings such as the Tekyeh Dowlat and Nasseriyeh Mosque, which had a significant impact on the silhouette of Tehran of the period. Architectural products became the most instrumentalized elements for the Shah's cultural and modernization initiatives. However, these activities took place in harmony with the image of the cultural and historical background.
After the period of Nasser al-Din Shah, with the constitutional edict of Mozaffar al-Din Shah, remarkable progress was made by the Qajar state to establish a democratic basis. The National Consultative Assembly, which was founded in 1906 with the Constitutional Revolution, carried the intellectual discourse of Persian nationalism to the political arena.  However, with the arrival of Mohammad Ali Shah, in addition to the democratic demands in the country, the anti-Qajar power groups organized by United Kingdom interventions and non-muslim capitalists to overthrow the government, began to gain strength. While Persian was chosen as the official language, speaking and writing languages other than Persian was prohibited in the parliament. The Qajar state, which was constantly exposed to the direct intervention of colonial countries, gradually began to disintegrate during the First World War. As a result of these events, Persian nationalists, who seized political power in the country and parliament, abolished this semi-democratic atmosphere with the coup d'etat of Reza Khan in 1921 and established the Iranian nation-state when Reza Khan ascended to the throne as Reza Shah in December 1925.
With the establishment of the Pahlavi state, cultural policies in the country entered a different stage along the lines of the official ideology of the nation-state. Persian nationalism, the official ideology of the government, sought to build a new nation by destroying the old on the way of "being a part of the civilization of the Aryan race". The Aryanist and nationalist understanding that formed the mentality of the government quickly overturned the ethno-cultural, social, religious, economic and architectural/urban fields in the country. The " emphasis on ancient Persia " were uttered by the official and unofficial organs of the government, and the religion of Islam was tried to be overshadowed by the Zoroastrian belief. The harshest assimilation policies against non-Persians ethno-cultural entities such as Turks and Arabs began to be implemented.Tangible and intangible cultural heritages, including architectural/urban products from the Qajar period, were demolished. In addition to the propaganda of the government's official media organs, the Anjoman-e Asar-e Melli, affiliated to the government, made important initiatives in the cultural and architectural/urban field with the efforts of many local and foreign Aryanist orientalists. 
The Ferdowsi Millennium Congress, the construction of the Ferdowsi mausoleum and the glorification of Persian historical figures took place with the initiative of the Anjoman-e Asar-e Melli. Aryanist orientalists attended the Ferdowsi Millennium Congress held by Anjoman-e Asar-e Melli from all over the world presented Ferdowsi as the holy prophet of the newly established nation-state. From this date on, with the construction of Ferdowsi's mausoleum, "overemphasis on Ferdowsi" became one of the main materials that Pahlavi cultural politicians resorted to for legitimacy.
Attempts to " glorifying ancient Persia" during the Pahlavi period were the joint efforts of the period's magazines, newspapers and all media organs. Reviving ancient Persia continued rapidly in the architectural/urban field as well as in different cultural channels of the period. Many official state buildings in Tehran changed the silhouette of the city in a short time with the Achaemenid-Sassanid revivalist style. In addition to these buildings, the rapprochement of Reza Shah with Nazi Germany in 1933 brought about the employment of German engineers throughout the country and the spread of the architectural culture of Nazi Germany. Bridges, factories, dams, railways, train stations and many modern functional buildings were instrumentalized as major propaganda elements in ensuring the legitimacy of the centralized government. These works began to appear in different parts of the country as symbols of the government's sovereignty. All the projects in the architectural/urban field were built according to the ideological perspective of the cultural politicians of the Pahlavi government.
In the modernization of the totalitarian Pahlavi government, architectural/urban initiatives had an authoritarian and formalist character. These initiatives, which were implemented in the architectural/urban field, were the most basic element legitimizing the nationalist policies of the government. The building of the nation was carried out by destroying the old memory and superseding a new religious, cultural and value system and architectural products were used as the most basic means of reaching the target point of this process. 
Nation building process, which was started from the period of Nasir al-Din Shah, was stopped with the Pahlavi government and gained a completely different dimension with the totalitarian policies of Persian nationalism.