Türk mimarlığında yabancı mimarlar
Foreign architects within the context of Turkish architecture
Yazar: AYŞE NASIR
Danışman: PROF. DR. METİN SÖZEN
İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi / Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü
Derece: Doktora, 1991
Konu: Mimarlık = Architecture
Dizin: Cumhuriyet Dönemi = Republican Period ; Modernleşme = Modernization ; Osmanlı mimarisi = Ottoman architecture ; Türk mimarisi = Turkish architecture ; Yabancı mimarlar = Foreign architects

Özet:
Bu çalışma tarihte Türkiye'nin iki dönemde çağa uymak amacıyla Batı'ya yönelmesinin sonucu olarak mimarlık alanında da yabancı uzmanlardan yararlanılmasının Türk Mimarlığı üzerindeki etkilerini incelemeyi amaçlamaktadır. Yabancı mimarların çalışmalarının Türk Mimarlığı üzerindeki etkileri incelenirken mimarlar toplumdan soyutlanmamış ve mimarlık ürünleri üretildikleri dönemin politik, sosyo-ekonomik ve kültürel yapısı içinde değerlendirilmiştir. Türk Mimarlığı'nda uzun bir geçmişi olan yabancı uzman sorunu özellikle iki dönemde belirli bir ivme kazanmış ve devlet tarafından yönlendirilmiştir. Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'nda 18. yüzyıl sonu ve 19. yüzyıl süresinde "Batılılaşma" hareketlerine bağlı olarak; Cumhuriyet'te ise 1927-1950 yılları arasında her alanda kalkınma, yeniden örgütlenme ve "Çağdaşlaşma" çabalarına koşut olarak mimarlık alanında da yabancı uzmanlardan yararlanılmıştır. Araştırmada yabancı mimar sorunu bu iki dönem çerçevesinde iki ana bölümde incelenmiştir. Yabancı mimarların etkinlikleri ilk dönemde Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'nun başkenti İstanbul'da ikinci dönemde ise Türkiye Cumhuriyeti'nin başkenti Ankara'da yoğunlaşmıştır. Her dönem için önce yabancı uzman kullanımını belirleyen etkenler ortaya konulmuş, yabancı mimarların uygulama ve eğitim alanındaki çalışmaları aynı yıllarda Batı dünyasındaki gelişmelerle birlikte toplu bir kesit olarak ele alınmıştır. Yabancı mimarların Türk Mimarlığı üzerindeki etkileri her dönem için ayrı olarak dönemi belirleyen özellikler çerçevesinde irdelenmiş, ve mimar kimliklerini ortaya koyan ayrıntılı bir katalog bölümünden sonra karşılaştırmalı bir genel değerlendirme verilmiştir.

Abstract:
military barracks and palaces. It was introduced by various Europe an architects and military engineers who had been recruited to design the edificies required for the New Order. Meanwhile, the members of the Imperial Guild of Ottoman Architects, trained to build for the traditional Ottoman society, lost their jobs to foreign and minority architects. Court architects were also being replaced by Ottoman architects of non-Islamic origin who, with their European training, were better equipped to cope with the complex spatial demands of the reforming sultans or they were directly commissioned from Europe. Among the foreign architects who worked in Tanzimat Period, the Eng lish architect W.J. Smith and the Swiss architect Gaspare T. Fossati were in the forefront due to their commissions. W.J. Smith who came to Istanbul for the construction of the English Embassy (Pera House), lived in Istanbul between the years 1841-1853. He didn't work only for the English community but was also commissioned by Sultan Abdiil- mecit to design the large scale edificies such Turkish military bar racks (Mecidiye and Selimiye) and the Turkish military hospital. G.T. Fossati who came Istanbul to build the Russian Embassy building was commissioned by sultan Abdiilmecit after the success of his work for this building. His major works were the Turkish military hos pital (in Beyazxt, 1843), the university building (Darülfünun) erec ted between Hagia Sophia and the Sultan Ahmet Mosque (1845-1863), the archive building in Sublime Porte (1847-1848) and the restoration of Hagia Sophia (1846-1849). During the reign of Abdülaziz (1861-1876) two Italian architects were commissioned for the architectural activities. Barborini and his French assistant Leon Parville were appointed to design Ottoman pavillion at the Paris Exhibition of 1867. Barborini was also the member of the building committe of Istanbul. Another Itailan arc hitect Montani prepared the book titled "Usul-u Mimarî Osmani" (or L* Architecture Ottomane) with collabration Barborini upon imperial command for the 1873 Vienna Universal Exposition. Montani also built Valide Mosque, considered one of the pioneers of Ottoman Revivalism. With the reign of Abdülhamit II (1876-1908) foreign architects began to be commissioned for major works and chosen as the court architects. French architect A. Vallaury and German architect Jachmundwho emp loyed elements borrowed from Ottoman and Islamic architectures on the facades of their buildings with the aim of finding harmony with the existing environment, shaped the new Ottoman Imperial Architecture. Major commissions of Vallaury were School of Fine Arts (1882), Impe rial Archeological Museum (1891-1907), Ottoman Bank in Galata (1890), the Ottoman Public Dept Administration (Duyun-u Umumiye İdaresi 1899- 1900), Imperial Collage of Military Medicine (Mekteb-i Tıbbiye-i Şa hane, 1895-1900, with the collabration of R. d'Aronco). Vallaury was also employed as the chief instructor of the School of Fine Arts. The other more influential architect of the period was Professor Jachmund, who was sent to İstanbul by the Imperial German government to stuy the history of Ottoman architecture. He was employed at the new School of Civil Engineering as an instructor, and was officially appointed to design and build the Sirkeci Railroad Terminal which was completed in 1890. Among the other foreign architects working in İstanbul at the turn of the century was the Italian Art-Nouveau master Raimondo d'Aronco IXwho built several pavillions of the new Yıldız Palace and a large number of private timber houses on the Bosphorus. R. d'Aronco's career in Istanbul commenced in 1893 by Abdiilhamit II' s invitation to prepare an exhibition. From 1896 until the establishment of the second Turkish Constitution in 1908, R d'Aronco worked in the service of Abdiilhamit II, as an architect of State. The origins of Art-Nouveau in Istanbul are rightly attributed to the R. d'Aron co. Among the foreign architects working in Istanbul during this period, Vallaury and Jahmund who set the tone for the new imperial architec ture of the Ottoman capital because of their influential academic positions, were in the forefront. They were able to inculcate young architects with their own aesthetic norms. Turkish members of the student body, who were affected by the emerging Turkish nationalism and were opposed to the European domination in the architectural field, resented their influence. The reaction by the students marked the begining of a trend in architectural styling, known as the First National Style dominated the next two decades under the leadership of two young architects Vedat and Kemalettin Bey. In creation of this style they were ondoubtedly influenced by the ideas of the sociologist Ziya Gökalp who formulated the basic principles of Turkish nationalism. Although they were opposed to the foreign architects, their works exhibited the influences of them. In spite of their efforts to dress the building with such Ottoman building elements as depressed or pointed arches in traditional proportions and with classical Turkish tiles applied to spandrels, influences of the European teachers are still obvious in their designing of the general mass. The other foreign architect who continued working from the last years of the Ottoman Empire and the early years of the Republic was the Italian architect G. Mongeri. During the last years of the Empire, Mongeri was known as the designer of such buildings in Istanbul as the Karaköy Palace a multi-storey office building in Neo-Renaissance style with Byzantine features. Though he was well-versed in Neo- Classic architecture and made use of it in his designs when he worked in Istanbul, he was also influenced by the prevailing National Move ment with which he had come into close contact while teaching at the Academy of Fine Arts with Vedat Bey. His further works also exhibi ted a kind of the Turkish eclectisism. Second period in which foreign architects were invited according to Turkish Modernization, is analyzed for the years 1927-1950. Since economic policies had a major effect in shaping the built environ ment and the economic policy of the Republic was almost changed after the World War II, this study is limited to the period of 1927- 1950. The Treaty of Lausanne (1924), which recognized the Turkish Republic, stipulated that customs duties remain at the 1916 levels until 1929. Morever, no controls over currency and foreign exchange could be implemented. As a result, domestic industry could not be protected and hard currency reserves were spent on purchasing consumer goods from Europe. These liberal economic policies began with the Izmir Economic Congress of 1923. At the end of the decade, World Economic Depression forced Republican cadres to change the economic policymilitary barracks and palaces. It was introduced by various Europe an architects and military engineers who had been recruited to design the edificies required for the New Order. Meanwhile, the members of the Imperial Guild of Ottoman Architects, trained to build for the traditional Ottoman society, lost their jobs to foreign and minority architects. Court architects were also being replaced by Ottoman architects of non-Islamic origin who, with their European training, were better equipped to cope with the complex spatial demands of the reforming sultans or they were directly commissioned from Europe. Among the foreign architects who worked in Tanzimat Period, the Eng lish architect W.J. Smith and the Swiss architect Gaspare T. Fossati were in the forefront due to their commissions. W.J. Smith who came to Istanbul for the construction of the English Embassy (Pera House), lived in Istanbul between the years 1841-1853. He didn't work only for the English community but was also commissioned by Sultan Abdiil- mecit to design the large scale edificies such Turkish military bar racks (Mecidiye and Selimiye) and the Turkish military hospital. G.T. Fossati who came Istanbul to build the Russian Embassy building was commissioned by sultan Abdiilmecit after the success of his work for this building. His major works were the Turkish military hos pital (in Beyazxt, 1843), the university building (Darülfünun) erec ted between Hagia Sophia and the Sultan Ahmet Mosque (1845-1863), the archive building in Sublime Porte (1847-1848) and the restoration of Hagia Sophia (1846-1849). During the reign of Abdülaziz (1861-1876) two Italian architects were commissioned for the architectural activities. Barborini and his French assistant Leon Parville were appointed to design Ottoman pavillion at the Paris Exhibition of 1867. Barborini was also the member of the building committe of Istanbul. Another Itailan arc hitect Montani prepared the book titled "Usul-u Mimarî Osmani" (or L* Architecture Ottomane) with collabration Barborini upon imperial command for the 1873 Vienna Universal Exposition. Montani also built Valide Mosque, considered one of the pioneers of Ottoman Revivalism. With the reign of Abdülhamit II (1876-1908) foreign architects began to be commissioned for major works and chosen as the court architects. French architect A. Vallaury and German architect Jachmundwho emp loyed elements borrowed from Ottoman and Islamic architectures on the facades of their buildings with the aim of finding harmony with the existing environment, shaped the new Ottoman Imperial Architecture. Major commissions of Vallaury were School of Fine Arts (1882), Impe rial Archeological Museum (1891-1907), Ottoman Bank in Galata (1890), the Ottoman Public Dept Administration (Duyun-u Umumiye İdaresi 1899- 1900), Imperial Collage of Military Medicine (Mekteb-i Tıbbiye-i Şa hane, 1895-1900, with the collabration of R. d'Aronco). Vallaury was also employed as the chief instructor of the School of Fine Arts. The other more influential architect of the period was Professor Jachmund, who was sent to İstanbul by the Imperial German government to stuy the history of Ottoman architecture. He was employed at the new School of Civil Engineering as an instructor, and was officially appointed to design and build the Sirkeci Railroad Terminal which was completed in 1890. Among the other foreign architects working in İstanbul at the turn of the century was the Italian Art-Nouveau master Raimondo d'Aronco IXwho built several pavillions of the new Yıldız Palace and a large number of private timber houses on the Bosphorus. R. d'Aronco's career in Istanbul commenced in 1893 by Abdiilhamit II' s invitation to prepare an exhibition. From 1896 until the establishment of the second Turkish Constitution in 1908, R d'Aronco worked in the service of Abdiilhamit II, as an architect of State. The origins of Art-Nouveau in Istanbul are rightly attributed to the R. d'Aron co. Among the foreign architects working in Istanbul during this period, Vallaury and Jahmund who set the tone for the new imperial architec ture of the Ottoman capital because of their influential academic positions, were in the forefront. They were able to inculcate young architects with their own aesthetic norms. Turkish members of the student body, who were affected by the emerging Turkish nationalism and were opposed to the European domination in the architectural field, resented their influence. The reaction by the students marked the begining of a trend in architectural styling, known as the First National Style dominated the next two decades under the leadership of two young architects Vedat and Kemalettin Bey. In creation of this style they were ondoubtedly influenced by the ideas of the sociologist Ziya Gökalp who formulated the basic principles of Turkish nationalism. Although they were opposed to the foreign architects, their works exhibited the influences of them. In spite of their efforts to dress the building with such Ottoman building elements as depressed or pointed arches in traditional proportions and with classical Turkish tiles applied to spandrels, influences of the European teachers are still obvious in their designing of the general mass. The other foreign architect who continued working from the last years of the Ottoman Empire and the early years of the Republic was the Italian architect G. Mongeri. During the last years of the Empire, Mongeri was known as the designer of such buildings in Istanbul as the Karaköy Palace a multi-storey office building in Neo-Renaissance style with Byzantine features. Though he was well-versed in Neo- Classic architecture and made use of it in his designs when he worked in Istanbul, he was also influenced by the prevailing National Move ment with which he had come into close contact while teaching at the Academy of Fine Arts with Vedat Bey. His further works also exhibi ted a kind of the Turkish eclectisism. Second period in which foreign architects were invited according to Turkish Modernization, is analyzed for the years 1927-1950. Since economic policies had a major effect in shaping the built environ ment and the economic policy of the Republic was almost changed after the World War II, this study is limited to the period of 1927- 1950. The Treaty of Lausanne (1924), which recognized the Turkish Republic, stipulated that customs duties remain at the 1916 levels until 1929. Morever, no controls over currency and foreign exchange could be implemented. As a result, domestic industry could not be protected and hard currency reserves were spent on purchasing consumer goods from Europe. These liberal economic policies began with the Izmir Economic Congress of 1923. At the end of the decade, World Economic Depression forced Republican cadres to change the economic policymilitary barracks and palaces. It was introduced by various Europe an architects and military engineers who had been recruited to design the edificies required for the New Order. Meanwhile, the members of the Imperial Guild of Ottoman Architects, trained to build for the traditional Ottoman society, lost their jobs to foreign and minority architects. Court architects were also being replaced by Ottoman architects of non-Islamic origin who, with their European training, were better equipped to cope with the complex spatial demands of the reforming sultans or they were directly commissioned from Europe. Among the foreign architects who worked in Tanzimat Period, the Eng lish architect W.J. Smith and the Swiss architect Gaspare T. Fossati were in the forefront due to their commissions. W.J. Smith who came to Istanbul for the construction of the English Embassy (Pera House), lived in Istanbul between the years 1841-1853. He didn't work only for the English community but was also commissioned by Sultan Abdiil- mecit to design the large scale edificies such Turkish military bar racks (Mecidiye and Selimiye) and the Turkish military hospital. G.T. Fossati who came Istanbul to build the Russian Embassy building was commissioned by sultan Abdiilmecit after the success of his work for this building. His major works were the Turkish military hos pital (in Beyazxt, 1843), the university building (Darülfünun) erec ted between Hagia Sophia and the Sultan Ahmet Mosque (1845-1863), the archive building in Sublime Porte (1847-1848) and the restoration of Hagia Sophia (1846-1849). During the reign of Abdülaziz (1861-1876) two Italian architects were commissioned for the architectural activities. Barborini and his French assistant Leon Parville were appointed to design Ottoman pavillion at the Paris Exhibition of 1867. Barborini was also the member of the building committe of Istanbul. Another Itailan arc hitect Montani prepared the book titled "Usul-u Mimarî Osmani" (or L* Architecture Ottomane) with collabration Barborini upon imperial command for the 1873 Vienna Universal Exposition. Montani also built Valide Mosque, considered one of the pioneers of Ottoman Revivalism. With the reign of Abdülhamit II (1876-1908) foreign architects began to be commissioned for major works and chosen as the court architects. French architect A. Vallaury and German architect Jachmundwho emp loyed elements borrowed from Ottoman and Islamic architectures on the facades of their buildings with the aim of finding harmony with the existing environment, shaped the new Ottoman Imperial Architecture. Major commissions of Vallaury were School of Fine Arts (1882), Impe rial Archeological Museum (1891-1907), Ottoman Bank in Galata (1890), the Ottoman Public Dept Administration (Duyun-u Umumiye İdaresi 1899- 1900), Imperial Collage of Military Medicine (Mekteb-i Tıbbiye-i Şa hane, 1895-1900, with the collabration of R. d'Aronco). Vallaury was also employed as the chief instructor of the School of Fine Arts. The other more influential architect of the period was Professor Jachmund, who was sent to İstanbul by the Imperial German government to stuy the history of Ottoman architecture. He was employed at the new School of Civil Engineering as an instructor, and was officially appointed to design and build the Sirkeci Railroad Terminal which was completed in 1890. Among the other foreign architects working in İstanbul at the turn of the century was the Italian Art-Nouveau master Raimondo d'Aronco IXwho built several pavillions of the new Yıldız Palace and a large number of private timber houses on the Bosphorus. R. d'Aronco's career in Istanbul commenced in 1893 by Abdiilhamit II' s invitation to prepare an exhibition. From 1896 until the establishment of the second Turkish Constitution in 1908, R d'Aronco worked in the service of Abdiilhamit II, as an architect of State. The origins of Art-Nouveau in Istanbul are rightly attributed to the R. d'Aron co. Among the foreign architects working in Istanbul during this period, Vallaury and Jahmund who set the tone for the new imperial architec ture of the Ottoman capital because of their influential academic positions, were in the forefront. They were able to inculcate young architects with their own aesthetic norms. Turkish members of the student body, who were affected by the emerging Turkish nationalism and were opposed to the European domination in the architectural field, resented their influence. The reaction by the students marked the begining of a trend in architectural styling, known as the First National Style dominated the next two decades under the leadership of two young architects Vedat and Kemalettin Bey. In creation of this style they were ondoubtedly influenced by the ideas of the sociologist Ziya Gökalp who formulated the basic principles of Turkish nationalism. Although they were opposed to the foreign architects, their works exhibited the influences of them. In spite of their efforts to dress the building with such Ottoman building elements as depressed or pointed arches in traditional proportions and with classical Turkish tiles applied to spandrels, influences of the European teachers are still obvious in their designing of the general mass. The other foreign architect who continued working from the last years of the Ottoman Empire and the early years of the Republic was the Italian architect G. Mongeri. During the last years of the Empire, Mongeri was known as the designer of such buildings in Istanbul as the Karaköy Palace a multi-storey office building in Neo-Renaissance style with Byzantine features. Though he was well-versed in Neo- Classic architecture and made use of it in his designs when he worked in Istanbul, he was also influenced by the prevailing National Move ment with which he had come into close contact while teaching at the Academy of Fine Arts with Vedat Bey. His further works also exhibi ted a kind of the Turkish eclectisism. Second period in which foreign architects were invited according to Turkish Modernization, is analyzed for the years 1927-1950. Since economic policies had a major effect in shaping the built environ ment and the economic policy of the Republic was almost changed after the World War II, this study is limited to the period of 1927- 1950. The Treaty of Lausanne (1924), which recognized the Turkish Republic, stipulated that customs duties remain at the 1916 levels until 1929. Morever, no controls over currency and foreign exchange could be implemented. As a result, domestic industry could not be protected and hard currency reserves were spent on purchasing consumer goods from Europe. These liberal economic policies began with the Izmir Economic Congress of 1923. At the end of the decade, World Economic Depression forced Republican cadres to change the economic policymilitary barracks and palaces. It was introduced by various Europe an architects and military engineers who had been recruited to design the edificies required for the New Order. Meanwhile, the members of the Imperial Guild of Ottoman Architects, trained to build for the traditional Ottoman society, lost their jobs to foreign and minority architects. Court architects were also being replaced by Ottoman architects of non-Islamic origin who, with their European training, were better equipped to cope with the complex spatial demands of the reforming sultans or they were directly commissioned from Europe. Among the foreign architects who worked in Tanzimat Period, the Eng lish architect W.J. Smith and the Swiss architect Gaspare T. Fossati were in the forefront due to their commissions. W.J. Smith who came to Istanbul for the construction of the English Embassy (Pera House), lived in Istanbul between the years 1841-1853. He didn't work only for the English community but was also commissioned by Sultan Abdiil- mecit to design the large scale edificies such Turkish military bar racks (Mecidiye and Selimiye) and the Turkish military hospital. G.T. Fossati who came Istanbul to build the Russian Embassy building was commissioned by sultan Abdiilmecit after the success of his work for this building. His major works were the Turkish military hos pital (in Beyazxt, 1843), the university building (Darülfünun) erec ted between Hagia Sophia and the Sultan Ahmet Mosque (1845-1863), the archive building in Sublime Porte (1847-1848) and the restoration of Hagia Sophia (1846-1849). During the reign of Abdülaziz (1861-1876) two Italian architects were commissioned for the architectural activities. Barborini and his French assistant Leon Parville were appointed to design Ottoman pavillion at the Paris Exhibition of 1867. Barborini was also the member of the building committe of Istanbul. Another Itailan arc hitect Montani prepared the book titled "Usul-u Mimarî Osmani" (or L* Architecture Ottomane) with collabration Barborini upon imperial command for the 1873 Vienna Universal Exposition. Montani also built Valide Mosque, considered one of the pioneers of Ottoman Revivalism. With the reign of Abdülhamit II (1876-1908) foreign architects began to be commissioned for major works and chosen as the court architects. French architect A. Vallaury and German architect Jachmundwho emp loyed elements borrowed from Ottoman and Islamic architectures on the facades of their buildings with the aim of finding harmony with the existing environment, shaped the new Ottoman Imperial Architecture. Major commissions of Vallaury were School of Fine Arts (1882), Impe rial Archeological Museum (1891-1907), Ottoman Bank in Galata (1890), the Ottoman Public Dept Administration (Duyun-u Umumiye İdaresi 1899- 1900), Imperial Collage of Military Medicine (Mekteb-i Tıbbiye-i Şa hane, 1895-1900, with the collabration of R. d'Aronco). Vallaury was also employed as the chief instructor of the School of Fine Arts. The other more influential architect of the period was Professor Jachmund, who was sent to İstanbul by the Imperial German government to stuy the history of Ottoman architecture. He was employed at the new School of Civil Engineering as an instructor, and was officially appointed to design and build the Sirkeci Railroad Terminal which was completed in 1890. Among the other foreign architects working in İstanbul at the turn of the century was the Italian Art-Nouveau master Raimondo d'Aronco IXwho built several pavillions of the new Yıldız Palace and a large number of private timber houses on the Bosphorus. R. d'Aronco's career in Istanbul commenced in 1893 by Abdiilhamit II' s invitation to prepare an exhibition. From 1896 until the establishment of the second Turkish Constitution in 1908, R d'Aronco worked in the service of Abdiilhamit II, as an architect of State. The origins of Art-Nouveau in Istanbul are rightly attributed to the R. d'Aron co. Among the foreign architects working in Istanbul during this period, Vallaury and Jahmund who set the tone for the new imperial architec ture of the Ottoman capital because of their influential academic positions, were in the forefront. They were able to inculcate young architects with their own aesthetic norms. Turkish members of the student body, who were affected by the emerging Turkish nationalism and were opposed to the European domination in the architectural field, resented their influence. The reaction by the students marked the begining of a trend in architectural styling, known as the First National Style dominated the next two decades under the leadership of two young architects Vedat and Kemalettin Bey. In creation of this style they were ondoubtedly influenced by the ideas of the sociologist Ziya Gökalp who formulated the basic principles of Turkish nationalism. Although they were opposed to the foreign architects, their works exhibited the influences of them. In spite of their efforts to dress the building with such Ottoman building elements as depressed or pointed arches in traditional proportions and with classical Turkish tiles applied to spandrels, influences of the European teachers are still obvious in their designing of the general mass. The other foreign architect who continued working from the last years of the Ottoman Empire and the early years of the Republic was the Italian architect G. Mongeri. During the last years of the Empire, Mongeri was known as the designer of such buildings in Istanbul as the Karaköy Palace a multi-storey office building in Neo-Renaissance style with Byzantine features. Though he was well-versed in Neo- Classic architecture and made use of it in his designs when he worked in Istanbul, he was also influenced by the prevailing National Move ment with which he had come into close contact while teaching at the Academy of Fine Arts with Vedat Bey. His further works also exhibi ted a kind of the Turkish eclectisism. Second period in which foreign architects were invited according to Turkish Modernization, is analyzed for the years 1927-1950. Since economic policies had a major effect in shaping the built environ ment and the economic policy of the Republic was almost changed after the World War II, this study is limited to the period of 1927- 1950. The Treaty of Lausanne (1924), which recognized the Turkish Republic, stipulated that customs duties remain at the 1916 levels until 1929. Morever, no controls over currency and foreign exchange could be implemented. As a result, domestic industry could not be protected and hard currency reserves were spent on purchasing consumer goods from Europe. These liberal economic policies began with the Izmir Economic Congress of 1923. At the end of the decade, World Economic Depression forced Republican cadres to change the economic policy