Su elemanlarının kentsel mekanlarda ve yeşil alanlarda kullanımı /
Yazar: AYSUN CENDERE
Danışman: PROF. DR. HALE ÇIRACI
İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi / Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü / Şehir ve Bölge Planlama Ana Bilim Dalı / Peyzaj Planlama Bilim Dalı
Derece: Yüksek Lisans, 1998
Konu: Şehircilik ve Bölge Planlama = Urban and Regional Planning
Dizin: Kentsel mekan = Urban space ; Su elemanları = Water elements ; Yeşil alanlar = Green areas

Özet:
Bu çalışmada, suyun önemi üzerinde durulmuş, tarihten günümüze su elemanlarının kullanım stilleri araştırılmış, gelişmeler gözlenmiş, yurt dışında ve İstanbul'da bulunan kentsel mekanlardaki ve yeşil alanlarındaki örnekler incelenmiştir. İlk bölümde araştırmanın konusu olan suyun tanımı, genel olarak kullanımı ve hangi yönlerden incelendiği anlatılmış, araştırmanın amacı belirtilmiştir. İkinci bölümde, su elemanının genel özelliklerinden bahsedilmiş, tasarımdaki önemi vurgulanmıştır. Gerek peyzaj planlamada gerekse kentsel tasarımda yarattığı etkiler ve çevreye kattığı değerler belirtilmiş, mimariyle olan ilişkisi kurulmuştur. Üçüncü bölümde, su elemanlarının tarihten günümüze kadar gelişimi, birbirlerinden etkileniş biçimleri Asya, Avrupa, Uzakdoğu, Amerika'da ve ülkemizde kullanım şekilleri, benzerlikler ve farklılıklar örnekleriyle incelenmiştir. Dördüncü bölümde, su elemanının günümüzdeki kullanım amaçları ele alınmıştır. Estetik amaçlar altında görsel, işitsel, psikolojik, temassal ve serinletici etkiler; fonksiyonel amaçlar altında ise rekreasyon, sirkülasyon kontrolü ve faydacılık yönleri yer almıştır. Suyun kullanım şekilleri durgun ve hareketli sular olarak ikiye ayrılmıştır. Durgun sular; süs havuzları, göl ve göletler, hareketli sular ise; su perdeleri, kanallar-dereler, fıskiyeler, kaskadlar-çağlıyanlar, kaynaklar-çeşmeler başlıkları altında incelenmiştir. Beşinci bölümde, suyun çekiciliğini arttıran diğer unsurlarla birlikte kullanımı araştırılarak, su elemanlarının ışık ve ses gösterileri, suyun bitkiler, heykeller ve mağaralarla yaptığı kombinasyonlar incelenmiştir. Altıncı bölümde, kentsel dış mekanın tanımı, mekansal algı ile mekansal uyarım kavramları üzerinde durulmuştur. Kentsel mekanın algılanmasında biçim, renk, doku, ölçek ve oran gibi biçimsel öğelerin görsel etkileri anlatılmıştır. Bu doğrultuda bir çeşit kent mobilyası olan su elemanının kentsel mekandaki yeri, meydan ile park ölçeğinde kullanımı üzerinde durulmuş ve örnekleriyle anlatılmıştır. Çeşitli örnekleri içeren yedinci bölümde, yurt dışında (Amerika'da) ve İstanbul'da bulunan bazı seçilmiş meydanlarda ve parklardaki su unsurları ayrıntılı olarak incelenmiştir. Çalışmanın uygulama kısmını içeren sekizinci bölümde, İstanbul içinde seçilmiş iki alanda anket ve algı ölçme tekniklerini kullanmak suretiyle, kullanıcıların su elemanları ile ilgili yargılan ölçülmüş; değerlendirmeler ve yorumlar yapılmıştır. Dokuzuncu bölümde ise sonuçlar, eleştiriler ve çözüm önerileri ile tez neticelendirilmiştir.

Abstract:
Man felt constricted among concrete blocks, after the urbanization had increased, technology had developed and consuming had extended to incredible dimensions as a result of settled life. Because of that, man's need and desire for nature have increased gradually. Therefore, landscape architecture was born, aiming at designs of functional, esthetical and enduring natural green spaces and recreation areas. These would be spaces for taking breath by the people. These spaces introduce nature as a masterpiece of art. They respond to the psychological needs as well as the physical needs of the society. Water, taking place in these spaces, is an important element as it is metaphorically speaking. It has a lot of meaning. The existence of water is the beginning and the end of everything. It is the pleasure and the dread, which is entangled by life and death. Water not only provides a basis for man's existence and a continuous challenge to secure its use, but it is a source of metaphysical symbolism, aesthetic pleasure and therapeutic value. The content of the study is mentioned in the first chapter. The general description of water element, the meaning and the changing features of the water through history are explained generally. The reason why water element was selected as the topic of the study, its importance in urban and landscape designs was exhibited in order. The viewpoint of the research and the purpose of this study with its application method are presented. In the second chapter, the importance of the water element is explained. The visual, atmospheric, metaphysical, religious and natural characteristics of water were presented. The use of water in urban space and the its relation with architecture as a design element were researched. Water is a powerful design element in terms of its effects on man. It attracts people in any form. It is used for different purposes as a design element with its symbolic, visual and auditory characteristics. Water plays an essential role in our psychology. It is a focus of interest in people's surroundings, having the potential to stimulate all of the senses. From the view of architecture; water acts as a point, line, pool and edge. The relation between space and water fall into four headlines in the designs. These are, water as a surface of space, water as an element in space, water as a light reflecting element to space and water as an element around buildings. The third chapter is concerned with the use of water element throughout the history. The use of water in decorative manner dates from the development of irrigation techniques, particularly in the Middle East. It continues to be used but changes its forms from one civilization to another, affected by time and culture. XVIWater was a scarce thing in former times. Turning the irrigation systems into channels, pools and fountains succeeded its usage as a decorative feature. The water had religious and mystical significance in Ancient Egypt. Rivers divided the Islamic gardens into four parts, symbolizing the paradise. Due to the Islamic religious sanctions against standing water, Persian designs emphasized the moving water itself. Through history, water was utilised in Assyrian, Babylonian, Persian and Aegian civilisations. Its most conspicious use, complemented with jetties, sculptures and cascades, was during Renaissance in Italy. In Baroque, water became a large reflective surface in symmetric canals in classical French gardens. The water displays were very fantastic in monumental scale of formal layouts. Despite the artificial and monumental displays of water in Europe, elements of water were carefully designed to constitute small replicas of nature in the Far East. Here, Chinese and Japanese designs incorporating water was more symbolic. In England, water was used in its natural form, as lakes or rivers, by the influence of naturalistic landscapes of China and Japan. In the United States, the adventurous and spectacular water displays and exhibitions developed in terms of scale and complexity. Theme parks and water fun parks appeared. The water element is also used in Turkish gardens. It appears as a sea, stream, pool, or as a simplified fountain in every design. The moving water has been preferred to the still one. Jets and waterfalls activated the water in the pools. Especially the public fountains and the reservoirs built for cleaning and drinking were famous. They had gained statuary values. Europe affected the forms of water element as the time changed. There are some important palaces and parks with water features in their gardens. In the fourth chapter, the use of water recently in urban spaces and landscaped areas is described. Man has brought water to outer and inner space, and followed it by giving forms of pool, cascade, fountain to it, and developed different water displays. Besides having slight formal slight differences, the interest shown to the water is the common way of all people despite of different cultures, traditions and living standards. Recently, lots of new applications serving to different functions have been made. These functions are:. To form esthetical applications of monumental scale.. To supply the usage of water in water springs.. To embody water features in green areas and urban spaces.. To benefit from the acoustic of water element.. To use water as a means for cleaning air. In the first section of this chapter, the purposes of water displays are divided into two category in terms of qualities; firstly as aesthetic reasons, secondly as functional reasons. These reasons also divide into sub-qualities. Aesthetic reasons comprise of visual (reflecting), auditory, psychological, touch and cooling qualities. In terms of visual quality, water can function as a focal point or as a means of creating and maintaining a sense of continuity within a space. A quiet stream or pool creates a sense of calm and serenity, while excitement and drama can be achieved by swiftly moving, densely massed, or strongly vertical displays. The forms of pools and displays will influence the level of formality. xvuIt is an essential aspect of human behavior to be drawn toward a riverbank, edge of a lake or seashore; because of the psychological quality the water has. The intensity and frequency of the sound generated by a water display can be used to convey a sense of calm or excitement, and can also mask unpleasant noise. Evaporation from water displays and the airborne spray cause a cooling effect. The total water surface has this function of cooling, droplets and sprays from active, aerated displays are particularly effective. The second purpose of the water displays come up as functional reasons of recreation, circulation control and utilitarian qualities. Water may be useful as a source of recreation for people. Children and adult's pools of wading and playing, swimming, boating, canoeing and fishing may be designed. Pools may be used to direct or interrupt traffic patterns for reasons of circulation control; or they can be utilitarian by being used as a fire fighting or irrigation reservoir, as a retention pond for she drainage or as a means for cooling air and mechanical equipment. In the second section of the chapter, water gardens are grouped into two basic classes: (1) still water and (2) moving water. Still water: Moving water:.Pools,.Channels and streams,.Ponds and lakes. »Water walls and jets,.Cascades and waterfalls,.Springs and fountains. The still water gives the impression of rest and tranquility. Its effects are fascinatingly various. The reflecting surface of water attracts the eye. Pools, ponds and lakes under the class of still water, are examined in detail. Pools can be any size, from a small, formal raised structure built on a patio, to a full-sized lake. Pools take formal or informal shapes according to the environment they take place. The ponds are the informal ones. They are integrated into the surroundings and are blurred at the edges with waterside planting. The moving water in the form of water walls, rivers and streams, jets, cascades and waterfalls, springs and fountains, generates a sense of liveliness, adds a touch of sparkling excitement to the space. When the water falls or cascades, its sound can become a soothing component of the natural world which affects people. A natural stream flowing through the area makes a superb feature. They need slope to flow. Accessories such as bridges enhance the character of the space. Waterfalls and cascades consist of water falling from one pool to another. Fountains are most usually associated with pools. The simplest kind consists of a pump submerged under the water with the fountain nozzle just above the surface; various spray patterns are available. In the fifth chapter, the uses of water with the elements that increase its attractiveness are defined. These are the illumination, sound displays, aquatic plants (bog gardens), sculptures and grottos. Fountain lighting falls into three groups. (1) Day lighting, which is an important aspect of siting; display orientation, particularly with directional displays. (2) Flood lighting, is similar to the day lighting in their effects. The sources should be minimized, for an effective and economic result. (3) Underwater lighting, which is potentially the most dramatic, renders a self-illuminated quality to display effects. XVlllRecently, developed sound and light performance take place in water displays. The apparatus called "Spectra Vox" is used for this purpose to make the sound visible with different colors. The four groups of aquatic plants are mentioned. The first group is water lilies, which appear to float but have their roots firmly bedded in pond bottom The second group is floating aquatics, which genuinely float, such as Stratiotes. The third group is submerged oxygenating plants, which are anchored to the pond bed. The last group is marginal plants, which grow in shallow water. Bog gardens are fully planted wet and spongy features which help merge the pools into the landscape. They are recreations of natural habitats. Garden sculpture and statuary has been used as a fountain decoration or to actually issue water. Figures with an obvious water association, from mythological creatures and personifications of rivers to fishes have always been popular. Water sometimes pours from jugs, urns, rocks and other containers and often issues from a variety of orifices, human and animal. Grottos, in other words caves, are architectural nymphs, usually ornamented with sculpture and with fountains and water effects. Especially in Italian gardens fine grottos were created. These features add attractiveness to the character of the water element. The sixth chapter defines the concept of urban outer space. The spatial perception, its affecting factors and the spatial stimulation are mentioned. The visual effects of physical elements like form, color, texture, scale and proportion are explained in detail. The place and the position of water feature as urban furniture in the urban outer space (parks and plazas) is indicated by convenient examples. The concept of urban open space and the water as a decorative element in it is mentioned. The planning criteria of water element in the urban outer space are explained. The most important principle is the totality. The principles that make up the totality are the balance, the continuity-rhythm, and the strength-focus point. The seventh chapter includes the famous fountains in the landscaped areas such as the plazas and the parks in foreign countries and Istanbul. The water elements are closely examined and the observations have been written. The observed cases in America are Robson Square, Federal Science Pavilion, San Jose Plaza Park, Fountain Place, Williams Square. The examples from Istanbul are the entrance of Akmerkez, Bahçeşehir Doğa Park, Habitat Park, Maçka Demokrasi Park, Kuruçeşme (Cemil Topuzlu) Park, Taksim Gezi Park, Taksim Square, Ulus Park and the crossroads in Yeşilköy. In the eighth chapter, a questionnaire has been applied to the users of the selected two open spaces, Ulus Park as a concept green area; and Taksim Square as a concept of an urban space. The social and demographic status of the users has been researched. The usage frequency of the park has been measured. The reasons for visiting that space have been asked. Users' preferences, comments and perceptions about the water elements in these spaces have been analyzed. Evaluating the answers has drawn the results of the questionnaire. They have been shown by column, pie and line graphics with comparisons. The results show that people like those water features in Ulus Park and Taksim Square; but they find them ordinary and complain about the dirtiness. The users want to see still water as clean and moving water as working, especially enlightened and covered with plants and fishes. They mostly prefer moving water XIXfeatures to the still ones. Firstly visual, secondly relaxing qualities and thirdly cooling effects of water are looked for as main functions. The results and the proposals are presented in the last chapter. The conclusion has been drawn for this study. The developing technology has created new opportunities about water based recreation. The features that are used, reflect modern style despite the historical origins. The new mechanisms about filtration and circulation of water, new storing, drainage and electrical systems have enlarged the scope of water volumes designed for esthetical and functional reasons answering to the needs. The existence of water in the surrounding reminds the wealth of landscape. We see this especially in foreign countries. But it is, somewhat, different in Istanbul. The water elements in these spaces suffer from neglect and dirtiness. The reasons of the indifference about these elements should be the means of local administrations' insufficient technical, financial attempts and sanctions, and also the neglect of the connected designers. Public also damages the present urban spaces and the features in them as those features are not functional enough and are not convenient to the social and cultural characteristics of the people. The solution models about management, periodic care and repair should be developed. Designs and applications that incorporate water elements, serving to esthetical and functional purposes according to the need of the city should be made while the existing ones are being reformed and renewed. Removing the negative factors in the urban public spaces, will bring new dimensions to these places. The viewpoints will also be different; therefore the taste of water feature will fit to the descriptions and the definitions made all over the study. XX