İbrahim Kami B. Ali'nin (ö.1807'den sonra) "Humbara Risalesi" metinsel ve tarihsel analizi
Historical context and technical analysis of "Humbara Risalesi" of İbrahim Kami B. Ali (D. after 1807)
Yazar: BEKİR HAKAN SUNGUROĞLU
Danışman: DOÇ. DR. HASAN KARATAŞ ; PROF. DR. ATİLLA BİR
İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi / Lisansüstü Eğitim Enstitüsü / Bilim ve Teknoloji Tarihi Ana Bilim Dalı / Bilim ve Teknoloji Tarihi Bilim Dalı
Derece: Yüksek Lisans, 2023
Konu: Bilim ve Teknoloji = Science and Technology

Özet:
19. yüzyıl'da Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'nun askeri alanda Batılı devletlerin gerisinde kalmış olduğu acı tecrübeler ile anlaşılmıştı. Yüzyıllar boyunca savaş meydanlarında hem teknik hem de taktiksel manada tartışmasız bir üstünlük sağlayan Osmanlı Devleti, 18 yüzyıldan itibaren gerileme, sonrasında da bir çöküş devrine girmiştir. Bu dönemde her ne kadar Osmanlı Devleti padişahları ve devlet adamları yenilikleri takip etmemek veya uygulamamak ile eleştirilse de bu iddia yeninin eskiyi karalayarak yücelme çabasından ileri gelmektedir. Özellikle Sultan III. Mustafa döneminde ciddi bir modernleşme ve Batıyı yakalama isteği görülmüştür. Bu dönemde Bonneval Ahmet Paşa (ö.1747) ile başlayan Batılı uzman tahsis etme geleneği Baron de Tott (ö.1793) ve Saint-Remy (ö. 1787'den sonra) gibi Fransız uzmanlarla devam etmiştir. İmparatorluğun Almanya'ya müttefik olarak yaklaşmasıyla beraber Alman uzmanlar davet edilmeye başlanmıştır ve bu süreç I. Dünya Savaşı'na kadar devam etmiştir. Bu dönemde yalnızca dışarıdan getirilen birkaç uzmandan gelişmeler takip edilmeye çalışılmamış, aynı zamanda yeni askeri okullar açılmış ve ordular kurularak köklü reformlar da yapılmaya çalışılmıştır. 
İbrahim Kami b. Ali'nin (ö. 1807'den sonra) hayatı hakkında detaylı bilgiye sahip olmasak da ortaya koyduğu eserler ve görevleri ile bu dönemde oldukça önemli bir figür olarak yer aldığı düşünülmektedir. 1775'te ilk modern askeri okul olan olarak kurulan Mühendishane-i Bahr-i Hümayun'un ilk öğrencilerden ve 1795'te kurulan Mühendishane-i Berrî-i Hümayun'un ilk hocalarındadır. Mühendishane kökenli ilk Hassa Sermimarı olması da oldukça önemlidir. Kendisinin bir adet matematik, iki adet humbara eseri olmak üzerine toplamda üç eseri vardır. Tezimizde ele aldığımız Humbara Risalesi, İbrahim Kami'nin ana kitap olarak bahsettiği Yevmiyenâme isimli eserinin bir özeti mahiyetindedir. Yevmiyenâme balistik konularının yansıra; tapa, fişek imlası, yağlı paçavra terkibi, delikli humbara eczası hazırlanması gibi humbara alanında çok çeşitli konuları ele almaktadır. Humbara Risalesi ise, Yevmiyenâme'de geçen meselelerden yüzeysel olarak bahseder. Başlıca bir humbaracının bilmesi gereken temel bilgilerden bahsedilirken daha çok balistik üstüne pratik hesaplara yer verilmiştir. Eser beş bölümden oluşmaktadır. Birinci bölümde ufka paralel olan hedeflere, ikinci bölümde ufuktan yüksek hedeflere, üçüncü bölümde ise ufuktan aşağıdaki hedeflere atım yapılmak istediğinde yapılması gereken hesaplardan bahseder. Dördüncü bölümde barut miktarının hedeflere göre nasıl ayarlanacağından bahsedilir. Diğer gerekli meseleler olarak belirtilen son bölümde ise üst üste yığılmış humbara ve top tanelerinin nasıl kolayca sayılabileceğinden bahsedilir. Kitapta yukarıda belirtilen meseleler ile ilgili birçok örnek verilmiş ve çözümleri ispatlarıyla birlikte verilmiştir. Eserde ayrıca birçok tablo, grafik ve çizim mevcuttur. Özellikle ana kitap olarak refere edilen kitapta son derece nizami ve renkli top ve havan tasvirleri ve atım grafikleri mevcuttur. Mühendishane talebeleri, teknik resim dersleri de aldığından buradaki çizimler ve grafikler oldukça anlaşılır ve açıklayıcıdır. Bu çalışmada ele aldığımız özet, muhtemelen ana kitap için seviyesi yeterli olmayan, mühendishane derslerini dışardan takip eden veya kısa süreli temel eğitim almak için gelen zabitler için hazırlanmış bir eserdir.
Yevmiyenâme ve Humbara Risalesi kendi gök kubbelerinde tek yıldız değildirler. Özellikle 19. yüzyıl başından itibaren askeri teknoloji ve uygulamalar alanlarıda verilen eserler artmıştır. Bu artışın başlıca sebebi Osmanlı'da 18. yüzyıl sonlarında açılan mühendishanelerde okutulmak için kitap ihtiyacı ortaya çıkmıştır. İlk dönemde yabancı uzmanların yanlarında getirdikleri kaynaklar tercüme edilerek bu eserlerden faydalanılmış daha sonraları ise Türk ilmiye sınıfı, askeri teknik alanında özgün eserler telif etmeye başlamıştır. İbrahim Kami b. Ali, bu dönüşüm döneminin önemli temsilcilerinden birisidir. Bu sebeple bu çalışmada, İbrahim Kami b. Ali'nin daha iyi anlaşılabilmesi için ilk olarak, Osmanlı Devleti'nde askeri modernleşmenin ana kaynağı olan mühendishanelerin tarihi ele alınmıştır. Ayrıca İbrahim Kami b. Ali'nin eserlerinin literatürdeki yerini belirlemek amacı ile Osmanlı'da topçuluk ve humbara alanındaki eserlerin bir listesini oluşturulmuştur. Çalışmamızın, ana kısmını ise İbrahim Kami'nin Humbara Risalesi isimli eserinin transliterasyonu ile matematiksel analizi oluşturmaktadır. 
Türkiye'de askeri tarih çalışmaları oldukça yaygın olsa da askeri teknolojiler tarihi henüz olgunlaşmış bir disiplin değildir. Birçok askeri tarih çalışmasında, askeri teknolojileri açıklamak üzere işin teknik kısmı "gelişmiş, geri kalmış, modern, daha uzun menzilli, daha etkili" gibi genel geçer sıfatlarla açıklanmaya çalışılmıştır. Askeri tarih yazımından, harp tarihine doğrudan etkisi olan silahların kabiliyeti maalesef gerektiği şekilde yer bulamamıştır. Bunun başlıca nedeni kullanılan harp gereçlerinin bir uzmanlık alanı olması ancak bu gereçleri inceleyecek gerekli teknik çalışmaların yapılmamasıdır. Bir diğer sebep ise Osmanlı Devleti, modern döneme kadar askeri meselelerin gizli tutulması gereken meseleler olarak gördüğü için askeri tekniklerin ele alındığı kitapların yazılması ve çoğaltılması konusunda destekleyici olmamıştır. Modern eğitime geçme çalışmalarıyla beraber birçok yabancı kaynaklı kitap Türkçeye çevrilmiş ve yeni risaleler yazılmıştır ancak bu eserler oldukça az çalışılmıştır. Ayrıca yukarıda da belirtildiği gibi yapılan çalışmalar, eserleri teknik yönden analiz etmemiştir. Bu sebeple bu tez kapsamında; bilimsel ve tarihsel açıdan değerli gördüğümüz bu eseri, yalnızca günümüz Türkçesine çevirmek değil aynı zamanda hesapları matematiksel olarak analiz ederek dönemin teknik bilgi ve becerisini analiz etmek amaçlanmıştır.

Abstract:
In the 19th century Ottoman Empire, it was understood through bitter experiences that the empire lagged Western states, particularly in the military field. Despite criticism of the Ottoman Empire and its rulers for not following or implementing innovations, this claim stems from an effort to denigrate the old by the purpose of exalting the new. Sultan Mustafa III's reign witnessed a strong desire for modernization and catching up with the Western science and technology. The tradition of employing Western experts started with Bonneval Ahmet Pasha (d. 1747) and continued with French experts such as Baron de Tott (d. 1793) and Saint-Remy (d. after 1787). With the Ottoman Empire's alignment with Germany as an ally, German experts were also invited, and this process continued until World War I. During this period, efforts were made not only to follow the developments through a few imported experts but also to establish new military schools, organize a new army, and implement profound reforms.
As is known, in military history writing, there is a significant impact of weapon technology. The sophistication of weapon technologies used determines the outcomes of many battles considered as turning points in history, but unfortunately, the details of these technologies are not explained as they should be. For example, when discussing a type of weapon technology, using terms like more advanced, long-ranged, accurate, robust, and powerful diminish the quality of military history writing. While it might seem that the disciplines of history and history of science diverge at this point, the studies conducted in the field of military history must draw from the discipline of history, and similarly, the studies in the field of military technology history must utilize the discipline of military technology history. If a study within the historical discipline fails to adequately explain the military technologies of its time and their impact on the subject at hand, or if a study within the military technology history field cannot elucidate the contribution of the military technology it covers to its era and its historical context, then both studies remain incomplete.
The subject of military revolution is a highly debatable issue. The number of studies conducted in the field of military history has significantly increased in recent years. Particularly, the subject of "Military Revolution" has been extensively examined by European and American historians. However, within Ottoman history, it has not been embraced or thoroughly explored to the extent necessary. In Ottoman military history, rather than a process treated as a revolution, the focus is on periods of modernization through the establishment of engineering institutions, or the abolishment of the Janissary corps. Limited and superficial research exists on the introduction of firearms to the Ottoman Empire and its periods of peak proficiency in this field. It is argued that a military revolution centered around Europe occurred between the years 1500 and 1700. Many military historians refrain from using the term 'revolution.' Nevertheless, regardless of the definition, it is widely recognized that significant advancements in military technologies took place in Europe during this period. The reasons and consequences of the process labeled as a military revolution are quite extensive and complex. Generally, it is widely accepted that, similar to many new technological endeavors of the Ottoman Empire in Europe, the inability to keep up with advancements in military technologies contributed to a prolonged period of stagnation, ultimately leading to the downfall of the state. 
During this period, there were no innovations of a magnitude that would directly alter warfare doctrines, such as automatic rifles, bombing aircraft, tactical ballistic missiles, or nuclear bombs. Therefore, to draw comparisons between the West and the Ottoman Empire, a comprehensive understanding of the military technologies of the era and a thorough comparison of these technologies are necessary. This approach can shed light on the technological positions of both the West and the Ottoman Empire. Relying solely on the examination of innovations in European states' military technologies does not lead to a comprehensive understanding of the overall structure of the era. 
Although we don't have detailed information about the life of Ibrahim Kami b. Ali (d. after 1807), he is considered to be a significant figure during this period based on his works and duties. What we know about Ibrahim Kami b. Ali's life is based on various documents found in the Ottoman State Archives and secondary sources related to the history of engineering, in addition to his own works. Since Ibrahim Kami b. Ali served as the Chief Architect of Hassa (the imperial household), it has been possible to access information about his architectural activities from the state archives. Despite being one of the first students of Mühendishane-i Bahr-i Hümayûn and one of the first teachers of Mühendishane-i Berr-i Hümayûn, limited information is provided about him in studies focusing on educational history. Basic details about his life, such as his birthplace, birth year, and year of death, have not been attainable. According to Kemal Beydilli, in the salary register of the year 1807, he is listed as "Muallim-i Evvel" (First Teacher), indicating that he was in service in that year.
He was one of the first students at the Mühendishane-i Bahr-i Hümayun, the first modern military school established in 1775, and one of the first teachers at the Mühendishane-i Berrî-i Hümayun, established in 1795. During the establishment of Mühendishane-i Berrî-i Hümayûn, the teaching staff was selected from among the graduates of Bahr-i Hümayûn. Ibrahim Kami b. Ali successfully passed the examination conducted for this purpose and was appointed as the head instructor, making him the first individual to hold this position following Abdurrahman Efendi, the previous instructor of the engineering school. His status as the first specialized imperial artillery architect originating from the Mühendishane is also significant. He has three works, one on mathematics and two on artillery. The Humbara Risalesi (Artillery Treatise,) which we address in our thesis, is a summary of Ibrahim Kami's main book, called Yevmiyenâme. In addition to ballistic topics, Yevmiyenâme covers various subjects in artillery, such as cannonball, cartridge assembly, preparation of greased rags, and the construction of perforated artillery parts. The Humbara Risalesi briefly mentions the issues discussed in Yevmiyenâme, focusing more on practical calculations related to ballistics. The work consists of five sections: the first section deals with targets parallel to the horizon, the second section covers targets higher than the horizon, the third section discusses calculations for firing at targets below the horizon, and the fourth section explains how to adjust the amount of gunpowder according to the targets. The final section, mentioned as other necessary issues, explains how to easily count stacked artillery and cannonballs. The book provides numerous examples and their solutions, including proofs, related to the mentioned topics. It also contains many tables, graphs, and illustrations. Especially in the book referred to as the main book, there are highly organized and colorful depictions of cannons and mortars, as well as firing diagrams. Due to Mühendishane students also had technical drawing lessons, the drawings and graphics in the book are quite comprehensible and explanatory. Presumably, the summary we address in our thesis is a work prepared for officers who follow Mühendishane lessons externally or receive short-term basic training and do not possess the necessary level for the main book.
Among today's military equipment, the hand grenade is the closest equivalent to the "humbara." Like the humbara, a hand grenade consists of small hollow iron cubes. These hollow cubes are filled with gunpowder, a fuse, and a detonator. The humbara, composed of these three fundamental components, is roughly classified into two types based on the method of deployment: hand-held humbara and mortar-fired humbara. The timing and location of the humbara's explosion are determined by the length of the fuse it contains. In some cases, the explosion is planned to occur upon impact, while in others, it is designed to explode in the air above the enemy. When it detonates above the enemy, it scatters iron shrapnel, which can wound or kill multiple soldiers simultaneously.
Yevmiyenâme and Humbara Risalesi are not the only stars in their heavens. In military history literature, there has been an increase in works related to the military field in the 19th and 20th centuries. The main reason for this increase is the need for books to be taught in these educational institutions, which emerged with the opening of engineering schools in the late 18th century in the Ottoman Empire, the main source of military modernization. In the early period, translated sources brought by foreign experts were utilized, but later on, the Turkish scholarly class began to produce original works in the field of military technology. Ibrahim Kami b. Ali is one of the important representatives of this transformation period. Therefore, in this study, we first discuss the history of engineering schools, which were the main source of military modernization in the Ottoman Empire, in order to better understand Ibrahim Kami b. Ali. Furthermore, we compile a list of works on artillery and ordnance in the Ottoman Empire to indicate the place of Ibrahim Kami b. Ali's works in the literature. The main part of our study consists of the transliteration and mathematical analysis of Ibrahim Kami's work, the Humbara Risalesi.
Due to his position as the Chief Architect of Hassa (the imperial household), Ibrahim Kami b. Ali was involved in the construction and repair of numerous structures. These projects include repair of all sidewalks around At Meydanı (Horse Square), Kadırga Port, Zeyrek, and Edirnekapı, completion of repairs to piers and bridges in the Golden Horn and the Bosphorus that were initiated during the time of Ahmer Nurullah Ağa, Repair of rooms for gatekeepers and restrooms (lavatories) within the Bâb-ı Hümayûn section of Topkapı Palace, Construction of a new Arslanhane (Lion's Den) and guardroom in the stone section of Fazıl Paşa Palace within Sultan Ahmet Square, Repair of the artillery barracks and the artillery furnace in Hasköy, along with the construction of a hexagonal fortress in the barracks' courtyard for military training, Repair of the dilapidated house belonging to Kireçcibaşı in Bahçekapısı and the addition of a new chamber (şahniş), conversion of the old building of Hasköy Engineering School into an ammunition depot for the Humbaracı and Lağımcı (artillerymen and bombardiers) barracks located there.
Although military history studies are quite common in Turkey, the history of military technologies is not yet a mature discipline. In many military history studies the technical part of the military technologies have been explained with general attributes such as; advanced, backward, modern, longer-range, more effective, etc. Unfortunately, the capabilities of the weapons that directly influenced the writing of military history have not been adequately addressed. The main reason for this is that the examination of the weapons used requires expertise, but the necessary technical studies have not been conducted. Another issue is that the Ottoman Empire, considering military matters as confidential until the mentioned modern period, did not support the writing and dissemination of books on military techniques. With the efforts to transition to modern education, many foreign-authored books were translated into Turkish, and new treatises were written; however, these works have been relatively neglected. Moreover, as mentioned above, the conducted studies have not analyzed the works from a technical perspective. Therefore, in this thesis, our aim is not only to translate this valuable work into contemporary Turkish but also to analyze the calculations mathematically to evaluate the technical knowledge and skills of that period.