Toplam kalite yönetimi, kalite güvencesi sistemleri ve Türkiye'deki uygulamaları
Total quality management, quality assurance systems and their applications in Turkey
Yazar: AHMET BEŞKESE
Danışman: PROF.DR. ATAÇ SOYSAL
İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi / Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü
Derece: Yüksek Lisans, 1995
Konu: Endüstri ve Endüstri Mühendisliği = Industrial and Industrial Engineering
Dizin: Kalite güvence sistemi = Quality assurance system ; Toplam kalite yönetimi = Total quality management

Özet:
ÖS ET Doğu Bloğu ' nun parçalanmasıyla, dünya ülkelerini sadece siyasi ve sosyal alanlarda değil, ekonomik alanda da kalın çizgilerle bölen duvarların kalkması, Japonya önderliğinde Uzakdoğu ülkelerinin dünya ticaretindeki payında yaşanan patlama ve buna ilâveten A. T. örneğinde olduğu gibi bazı ülkelerin gümrük birliği gibi güçlü bağlarla gruplaşmaları, dünya pazarında "Küreselleşme" oluşumunu gündeme getirmiştir. Bu oluşum içinde bulunan işletmelerin, oluşan bu dev pazardan paylarını alabilmek için yapmaları gereken, müşte rilerinin isteklerini tamamiyle karşılamak, hatta onlara, beklentilerinin üzerinde mal ve hizmetler sunmaktır. Bunun yolu da Toplam Kalite Yönetimi 'nden geçer. Toplam Kalite kavramının işletmelerde uygulanmasından bahsedilirken, bir kısım kaynakta Toplam Kalite Kontrol (TKK), diğerlerinde ise Toplam Kalite Yönetimi (TKY) isim lerinin aynı kavram için kullanılması dikkat çekici bir un sur olarak görülmüştür. Bu konudaki anlayış eksikliğinin giderilmesi amacıyla yapılmış bulunan bu çalışma kapsamın da, bundan sonraki çalışmalarda bu iki kavramın birbirinden ayırt edilmesini sağlayacak bir dayanak oluşturmak ümidiy le, her iki kavrama açıklık getirmek hedeflenmiştir. Yapılan tanımlar, Toplam Kalite Yönetiminin, Toplam Kalite yaklaşımının özü olduğu, Toplam Kalite Kontrolü' nün ise bu yaklaşımın kontrol olgusuna bakış açısı olması temeline dayandırılmıştır. Bu çalışmanın bir amacı da, sektör ve işletme büyüklüğü ayırt edilmeksizin yapılan ve SPSS for Windows programıyla değerlendirilen bir anketle, Türkiye'de mevcut durumun göz lenmesi ve geniş bir kaynak araştırması ile, tam olarak ye rine oturmamış birçok kavrama elden geldiğince açıklık ka- z and ırmakt ir. 100 f ün üzerinde işletmeye gönderilen anketlerden, değerlendirmelerinden yararlanılabilecek olan 44 tanesinin değerlendirilmesi, çalışmanın uygulama yönünü oluşturmuş tur. Elde edilen sonuçlar, Türkiye'deki işletmelerin, uy guladıkları kavramın felsefi yönüne hiç önem vermediklerini ve birçok kavramın henüz yerine oturmadığını göstermiştir. Birçok işletmede ISO 9000'in TKK'dan tamamen kopuk olarak, sadece belirli zorlamaların bir getirişi olarak düşünülme si, TKK ile Kalite Çemberleri arasında bile çok iyi bir i- lişki bulunamaması bunun sonucudur. Bu noktada görev, sa nayi ile sürekli ilişkide olan üniversitelere düşmektedir. xı

Abstract:
SUMMMIY TOTAL QUALITY MAMAGEMEMT, QUALITY &SSURMTCE SYSTEMS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IH TURKEY The concept of "quality" has been contemplated throughout history and continues to be a topic of intence interest today. Quality has been described as "the single most important force leading to the economic growth of companies in international markets" (Feigenbaum, 1982) " A search for the definition of quality has yielded inconsistent results. Quality has been variously defined as value (Abbott, 1955; Feigenbaum, 1951), conformance to specifications (Gilmore, 1074; Levitt 1972), conformance to requirements (Crosby, 1979), fitness for use (Juran, 1974, 1988), loss avoidance (Taguchi, cited in Ross, 1989), and meeting and/or exceeding customers' expectations (Gronroos, 1983; Parasuraman, Zeithaml, & Berry, 1985). " (REEVES, 1994) Regardless of the time period or context in which quality is examined, the concept has been used to describe a wide variety of phenomena. TQM is a management philosophy that builds customer -driven learning or organizations dedicated to total customer satisfaction with continuous improvement in the effectiveness and the efficiency of the organization and its processes. This definition describes TQM with a vision to provide total customer satisfaction through continuous improvement. The main attributes of TQM can be highlighted as: * TQM#s philosophy is a frame for cultural change; * TQM provides a new vision for management leadership ; * TQM places the customer as the principle pivot around which company activities rotate; * TQM emphasizes "continuous improvement" of the processes by using appropriate techniques; xii* TQM seeks employee involvement and empowerment; * TQM de-emphasizes numerical quotas, unfounded numerical goals, and employee performance evaluation; * TQM replaces an antagonistic relationship with cooperation and partnership. TQM is the management framework that facilitates and guides changes in the design process. With TQM, the traditional hierarchical organization can transform itself from one that focuses on sequential designs to one that focuses on having all employees understand and satisfy customer requirements. Management must design and implement a TQM system that incorporates the philosophy of continuous improvement into the existing work culture. TQM is not a series of specialized techniques that incorporate formulas or obscure doctrine; it is a management philosophy that incorporates technical skills and continues improvement at all organizational levels. The fundamental theorems for a TQM system are: * TQM is a business philosophy that encompasses all functions and groups, including manufacturing, engineering, marketing, sales and senior management. Communication among these groups provides the necessary advisory and feedback channels fundamental to high quality. * TQM is the mind-set to approve only criteria that meet customers'' requirements. Management should recognize accomplishments, especially incremental improvements that will collectively result in more effective designs. * TQM is continuous improvement through employees working together to achieve process and product designs that produce a product meeting customers' expectations. If the standards exceed the customers' requirements, the product will delight the customer. TQM provides an unrelenting forum to increase quality performance. * TQM provides tools techniques to improve reliability and consistency in the delivered product or service. As a check-and- balance system, TQM ensures that the design criteria satisfy the external customer. The performance measurement system provides the manufacturing and design team with feedback on performance and reliability. The advantages of implementing a TQM system are both qualitative and quantitative. The overall benefit is that the company becomes proactive rather than reactive to xiiidesign and production problems. Financially, the return on investment will materialize through greater sales because there are better product designs and product offerings. These improvements can then be positioned as competitive advantages in the marketplace. Other benefits include: * A change in emphasis from detection to prevention. The daily scrambling to get products shipped is substantially reduced. * Identification of special causes of variation. Through the use of statistical process control (SPC) and problem-solving teams, shop- floor and design-table problems can be solved and eliminated from future products. * Lower costs, higher productivity, and less rework. Improved product and process designs are qualified and validated long before the first parts are manufactured. When the production lot is released, minimal problems are encountered. * Improved employee morale. One functional group will no longer drive the design process. Employees at all levels will be part of the design team, making it cross-functional. One group will not dominate the other on decision-making process. * Measurement of the effect of process changes. Subtle changes in material, machine efficiency, and even operator performance can affect a process. Preventive measures can be identified or new requirements can be established by monitoring the effects of process changes before substantial rework is inadvertently generated during the manufacturing process. There are some basic differences between the Japanese and the Western approaches to quality control: 1) The job of QC manger in the West is often a technical one with little support from top management for working in the areas of people and organization. The QC manager seldom ranks high enough to have the close and constant contact with top management needed to promote QC as a primary corporate objective in a company-wide program. 2) In the West, the often heterogeneous composition of the work force and the adversarial relations between labor and management may make it difficult for management to introduce changes for improved productivity and quality control. Japan's relatively homogeneous population has a more uniform educational background and social outlook, all of which tends to simplify management- labor relations. xxv3) Professional knowledge of quality control and other engineering techniques is being spread to engineers in the West, but it is rarely made available to other employees. In Japan, a great deal of effort has been spent on transmitting the necessary knowledge to everyone, including blue-collar workers, so people can solve their own job problems better. 4) Top managers in Japanese companies are committed to TQC, making TQC a company -wide concern rather than the lonely job of specific QC manager. TQC means that QC efforts must involve people organization, hardware, and software. 5) There is a Japanese axiom, "Quality control starts with training and ends with training. "Training is conducted regularly for top management, middle management, and workers. 6) In Japan, small groups of volunteers within the company engage in quality-control activities, using TQC s special statistical tools. The quality circle is one such small-group activity. Quality circle activities account for 10 percent to 30 percent of all management efforts in the field of quality control. Quality circles are a very important part of quality control, but their contribution should not be overemphasized, since nothing can be substitute for a good, fully integrated TQC management program. 7) In Japan, several organizations actively promote TQC activities on a nationwide basis. Examples are JUSE (The Union of Japanese Scientists and Engineers), the Japan Management Association, Japan Standard Association, Central Japan Quality Control Association, and the Japan Productivity Center. These organizations have few if any counterparts in the West. Kaoru Tshikawa, president of Musashi Institute of Technology and professor emeritus at Tokyo University, has played a crucial role in developing the QC movement and QC circles in Japan. He has listed six features as characterizing the TQC movement in Japan: 1) Company-wide TQC, with all employees participating 2) Emphasis on education and training 3) QC-circle activities 4) TQC audits, as exemplified by the Deming Prize audit and by the President's audit 5) Application of statistical methods 6) Nationwide TQC promotion xvIn this project, it is believed that the Japanese way of looking at TQC is suitable for the Turkish industry. The observation and the survey results also supports this belief. It is found that the firms which have understood the concept of TQM have reached solid successes and the ones which are going blindly into the business have failed to reach the stated success level. QC circles were started in 1962 under JUSE (The Union of Japanese Scientists and Engineers) auspices in order to build cheerful and meaningful places of work. QC circles were not formed for the purpose of improving productivity and quality control. On the contrary, the circles were formed by employees, of their own volition, to make their work more meaningful and worthwhile. When such a group is formed, it takes up an issue immediately at hand, such as how to organize work and maintain safety, and gradually goes on to more challenging tasks. Improved productivity and quality are only two measures of the success of its efforts. Quality circles have found many uses in today's competitive business environment. Their traditional uses have emphasized quality control and productivity improvements, labor-management communication, the enhancement of job satisfaction, effective teamwork, and overall improvement of the quality of work life for employees. According to the "General Principles of the QC Circle" published by JUSE, the QC circle is defined as small group that voluntarily performs quality control activities within the shop where its members work, the small group carrying out its work continuously as part of a company-wide program of quality control, self development, mutual development, and flow-control and improvement within the workshop. By engaging in QC circle activities, the circle members gain valuable experience in communicating with colleagues, working together to solve problems, and sharing their findings not only among themselves but with other circles at other companies. QC circles are participatory; they integrate sociotechnical decision making for groups of employees with different kinds of job knowledge. An effective group can achieve far greater results in identifying alternatives and potential problems than one person working alone. The size of the QC group is the most important point. Large groups mean potentially more complex interactions and usually more time consumed. Small groups must have enough members to provide the necessary resources and expertise. Once a group exceeds approximately seven members, additional individuals will probably detract from he overall process. Three negative outcomes may result when groups are too large; xv i1. Opportunities for each member of the group to share knowledge or insight decrease. 2. One or two members of the group may dominate the communication. 3. Subgroups may develop within the larger group. The size of the group depends on the experience and skills of the people involved and the precise goals of the group. The optimum size of a problem-solving group is generally around five. If 10 or 12 employees are needed to provide the required expertise, then the large group should be divided into subgroups based on logical subdivision of the tasks. A good group size is from three to seven with five being the desirable average. Kaizen is one of the concepts that has direct relationship with TQM. Kaizen means improvement. Moreover, Kaizen means ongoing improvement involving everyone, including both managers and workers. The Kaizen philosophy assumes that the way of life - the working life, the social life, or home life - deserves to be constantly improved. The term Kaizen can be used in place of such word as productivity, TQC, ZD(zero defects), kamban, and the suggestion system. The implications of TQC or CWQC (Company-Wide Quality Control) in Japan have been that these concepts helped Japanese companies generate a process-oriented way of thinking and develop strategies that assure continuous improvement involving people at all levels of the organizational hierarchy. The message of the Kaizen strategy is that not a day should go by without some kind of improvement being made somewhere in the company. The ISO 9000 standards define the requirements of a prevention- based quality assurance system. If the system is adhered to, the supplier will always produce and deliver a predictable product or service. ISO 9000 is a set of five primary standards: three address specific quality systems (ISO 9001, ISO 9002, and ISO 9003) and two are guidelines (ISO 9000 and ISO 9004). The definition of the standards is as follows; ISO 9000 : A guideline for the selection and the use of quality management and the quality assurance standards ISO 9001 : A model for the assurance of the quality systems for design and development, production, installation, and servicing ISO 9002 : A model for the assurance of the quality systems for production and installation ISO 9003 ı A model for the assurance of the quality systems for final inspection and tests xviiISO 9004 : Guidelines for quality management and quality system elements ISO 9000 is not a quality check as expected with the classical standards. It is a way of doing business. Commitment must be made by top-level management toward the implementation and certification process. Some of the areas most affected by ISO 9000 certification are: * Document control; * Quality records; * Process control; * Inventory control; * Shipping and receiving; * Purchasing; * Inspection; * Testing; and * Training. ISO 9000 registration is promoted as the passport required to do business in the post-1992 global market place and the only true way to TQM. Unfortunately, over promotion can raise expectations beyond reality and ultimately cause misapplication, subsequent rejection, and the loss of ISO 9000 ' s excellent objectives and benefits. ISO 9000 is much more than just a credential to flaunt at others. It is an excellent quality tool and can be the major element of the company -wide program of continuous quality improvement or total quality management (TQM). ISO 9000 and TQM supplement each other. A successful TQM effort will have a quality system that is similar to the ISO 9000 quality system. Therefore, a corporation that has successfully woven TQM into the fabric of its business should need only minor changes to meet ISO 9000 registration requirements. Although ISO 9000 and TQM supplement and support each other, they do have different objectives, evaluation and improvement processes, and management and success goals. After the different aims and focuses of ISO 9000 and TQM are understood, ISO 9000 as a path to TQM can be considered. Reengineering, the new and increasingly popular management trend, is taking by storm the management field. Reengineering is the fundamental rethinking and radical redesign of business processes to achieve dramatic xviiiimprovements in critical, contemporary measures of performance, such as cost, quality, service and speed. In more direct language, business reengineering deals with the eradication of old processes for the sake of starting over new ones. Innovative Reengineering principles compel an interesting reevaluation of business. On the other hand TQM philosophy provides the organization with a solid array of management's principles that stimulate the growth of quality and productivity. TQM has been adding new ideas to its developmental process that bolster the philosophy further. TQM as a broad body of management philosophy holds principles that nurture a culture for change and improvement, and contain some characteristics of reengineering. Comparing both methodologies, reengineering' s narrow focal concentration on improving processes does not qualify the new management trend as a substitute for TQM. Nothing within the TQM philosophy dictates that continuous improvements must proceed by moderate increments. Improvements are welcomed either in small steps or gigantic leaps. TQM flexibility allows for the adoption of new tools, thus becoming stronger by adding new elements to the philosophy. Instead of a dispute for supremacy, it is more constructive to incorporate reengineering as a valuable tool within the TQM framework of management. They work well together; these management concepts are compatible. It is a mistake to think that they are mutually exclusive. When the time for engineering comes, it should be done under the framework of the TQM philosophy. While preparing this project, it was interesting to find that both Total Quality Management (TQM) and Total Quality Control (TQC) terms are used for the same concept in literature. In this project, it was goaled to identify these terms so that with the help of this study the concepts will be clarified. To observe the current situation in the companies in Turkey, which have different sizes and belong to various sectors, with a surway that is evaluated with SPSS for Windows was another objective of this project. In this surway study, it was possible to evaluate only 44 company results, that have sent the surway papers back, among 100 companies which were communicated. So, eventhough this project is a scientific study, the conclusions may not reflect the true situation in Turkey because of not receiving the necessary amount of surways. 3CX3CAccording to the results it can be concluded that the firms in Turkey which try to apply the concept of Total Quality do not give importance to the philosophy and do not know the concept very well. It is observed that some of the companies which have guality assurance certifications do not apply TQM and some of the ones which apply TQM do not have any guality assurance certification. Additionally, some of the firms that have formed quality circles do not apply TQM because of missunderstanding the concepts. In this point it is understood that the universities must be a guide for teaching the terms and leading applications. xx