Kapadokya Bizans anıtsal resim sanatında bezeme
Ornament in Byzantine monumental painting art of Cappadocia
Yazar: METİN KAYA
Danışman: PROF. DR. ASNU BİLBAN YALÇIN
İstanbul Üniversitesi / Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü / Sanat Tarihi Ana Bilim Dalı
Derece: Doktora, 2023
Konu: Sanat Tarihi = Art History

Özet:
Bu çalışmanın konusunu, Kapadokya Bölgesi'nde bulunan kiliselerin 9. yüzyıl ile erken 14. yüzyıllara tarihlenen duvar resimlerinde görülen anikonik bezeme motifleri oluşturmaktadır. Konuyla ilgili detaylı bir çalışma henüz yapılmamıştır. Çalışmamız kapsamında, tarihi Neolitik Döneme kadar dayandırılan ve Bizans İmparatorluğu idaresinde önemli bir merkez olan Kapadokya'da bulunan kiliselerde ikonaklast dönem (726-842) sonrası karşılaştığımız anikonik bezeme motifleri, menşeileri tespit edilerek; Bizans sanatında görülen farklı örnekler ile birlikte ayrıntılı olarak tanım ve tasvirleri ile tanıtılmıştır. Ayrıca, bu motifler İslam dünyası ve diğer medeniyetlerle olan etkileşimleri ile başkent sanatına yansımaları açısından bir bütünlük içerisinde incelenmiştir.
Tez kapsamında; bölgede bulunan kiliselerin duvar resimlerinde yer alan anikonik bezeme motifleri: Bitkisel, geometrik, imitasyon ve pseudo kufi olmak üzere dört ana grupta detaylı olarak tanıtılmıştır. Kapadokya Bölgesi'ndeki kiliselerin duvar resimlerinde görülen anikonik bezeme motiflerini araştırmaktaki amaç; bu tarihi mirası belgelemek, menşeilerini ve diğer medeniyetler ile etkileşimlerini tespit edebilmek; ayrıca bilim dünyasına tanıtarak, konu ile ilgili özgün temel bir kaynak oluşturmaktır. Bu çerçevede doktora tezinin içeriğinde: Kapadokya bölgesi (Roma ve Bizans tarihi), bezeme ve motifin tanım ve Bizans sanatı içerisindeki gelişimi, bezeme ve motif, Kapadokya bölgesi duvar resimlerinde ikonaklast dönem sonrası anikonik bezeme motifleri kataloğu, karşılaştırma ve değerlendirme - sonuç olmak üzere dört ana bölüme yer verilmiştir.
Yaptığımız araştırmalar; Bizanslı sanatçıların, dönemin güncel Bizans motif repertuvarını takip ederek bölgenin koşulları doğrultusunda anikonik desenleri resmettiklerini ortaya çıkarmaktadır. Dönemsel olarak bölgenin mimari ve ikonografisinde değişiklikler yaşansa da kiliselerin motif repertuvarlarında önemli değişikliklerin yaşanmadığı; ancak bazı motiflerin kullanımından vazgeçildiği ve yeni tip motiflerin dönemin mimari ve ikonografisine uygun şekilde entegre edildiği gözlemlenmektedir. Ayrıca, anikonik motiflerin taşıdıkları sembolik anlam ve formal özellikleri itibariyle mekan, ikonografi, yazıt gibi kilisenin diğer bileşenleri ile birlikte işlev gördüğü de anlaşılmaktadır.

Abstract:
The subject of this study consists of the churches in the Cappadocia region dates back to the 9th century to early 14th centuries that have aniconic decoration motifs (except the folk ornaments) in their wall paintings. A detailed study on this subject has not been done yet.

Cappadocia dates back to the Neolithic Period and was an important center in the administration of the Byzantine Empire. In the context of our study, the aniconic ornamental motifs that we have encountered in the churches of Cappadocia after the Iconoclast period (726-842) have been introduced in detail with definitions and descriptions, along with different examples seen in Byzantine art identifying their origin. In addition, these motifs have been examined as a whole in terms of their interaction with the Islamic world and other civilizations and their reflections on the capital art.

Within the scope of the thesis, the aniconic ornamental motifs in the wall paintings of the churches in the region have been introduced into four groups: herbal, geometric, imitation, and pseudo-kufic. The aim of investigating the aniconic ornament motifs seen in the wall paintings of the churches in the Cappadocia Region is to document this historical heritage, identify its origins and interactions with other civilizations, introduce it to the world of science, and create an original basic resource on the subject. Within this framework, the content of this doctoral thesis includes four main sections: the Cappadocia region (Roman and Byzantine history), the definition of ornament and motif and its development in Byzantine art, the catalog of ornamental motifs after the iconoclast period in the wall paintings of the Cappadocia region, comparison and evaluation, and conclusion. Our research reveals that Byzantine artists painted aniconic patterns in line with the conditions of the region by following the contemporary Byzantine motif repertoire of the period. Although there were radical changes in the architecture and iconography of the region periodically, there were no significant changes in the motif repertoires of the churches; however, it is observed that the use of some motifs was abandoned and new types of motifs were integrated in accordance with the architecture and iconography of the period. It is also understood that aniconic motifs functioned together with other components of the church, such as space, iconography, and inscriptions, in terms of their symbolic meaning and formal characteristics.

It is seen that miniature manuscripts, textiles, easily transportable works of art such as coins, pots and pans, and architectural plastic materials played an active role in the transfer of both the traditions of the capital Byzantine art and some decorative features of the arts of neighboring civilizations to the Cappadocia region. 

Most of the plants, such as vine grape and wheat spike, were cultivated in the region by the local people. It is also known that barley and wheat were the two main cereals cultivated in Cappadocia during the Byzantine period and that the homeland of the laurel tree was Anatolia. Therefore, this situation suggests that the painters in Cappadocia were not unfamiliar with some forms existing in nature.

The aniconic motifs found in the archaic painting programs of Cappadocia (850-950) predominantly follow models also found in the late antique early Byzantine decorative repertoire: Laurel leaf, stylized peacock feather, ivy leaf, three-crowned leaf, wheat spike, horn of fertility, anthrolac, and perspective toothed frieze pattern appear only in this period. Following the architectural and painting program; it is observed that aniconic decorations were mostly used as stripe decoration. However, although figural decoration elements were used in buildings such as Kızılçukur Üzümlü (Niketas) Church (9th century), Ürgüp/Mustafapaşa St. Basil Church (9th century) and Ürgüp/Cemilköy Keşlik Monastery St. Stephanos Church (9th century), which are considered within the archaic period, aniconic motifs also occupied an important place by covering large areas within the building. In this period, since the models belonging to the decorative repertoire of Late Antiquity were followed, it is seen that the motifs were mainly taken from the decorative repertoire of Roman mosaic art, and the "Greco-Roman" traditions were continued.

The churches dated to the transition period (c. 950 - 1020) largely continue the decorative repertoire of the archaic period and that the intertwined circle motif with leaf-shaped  intersections as a common feature is depicted in almost every building. However, it is understood that the motifs of acanthus (non-spiral - in leaf form), horn of fertility, laurel leaf, three-crowned leaf, peacock feather, wheat spike, palmette (non-spiral - in leaf form), anthrolac, braid (S-curl), imitation curtain, ivy leaf and perspective toothed frieze motifs, which were found in the repertoire of the archaic period, were largely removed from the repertoire of this period.

In Cappadocia, it is known that the best representative examples of the architecture and painting program of the middle Byzantine period are the buildings in the colonnaded church group in Göreme. These buildings are understood to be in the capital school in terms of their decorative features due to their rich repertoire of motifs, extremely elaborate use of motifs, and success in color pigments in general. In terms of the structural features of the Middle Byzantine period, it is seen that floral motifs such as acanthus and palmettes started to be used spirally and rhythmically in larger areas, and in the buildings we examined in the Göreme colonnaded church group, it is seen that these spiral motifs were depicted much more enthusiastically and aesthetically extremely meticulously with the mastery of the painters of the capital school, which coincides with the peak period in the Byzantine decorative repertoire of the 11th century. Therefore, it seems that the 11th-century painters working in Cappadocia followed the ornamental characteristics of the capital's art and, as in the general evaluation of Byzantine decorative art, the motifs in Cappadocia were the most successful examples in terms of their ornamental characteristics and aesthetic values.

In the 13th century, it is clear that Byzantine art experienced cultural interaction with many civilizations; however, with the entry of the Turks into Anatolia (1071) and especially as a result of the Seljuk rule of Cappadocia in the 13th century, a new social and cultural revival is observed for the Greek Orthodox population, which has been living in this region since the Byzantine period. Moreover, the intertwining with the Turkish population was also reflected in the Christian art of the region. As a matter of fact, it is understood that the pseudo-kufic motif, the last example of which we encounter in the 11th century, continued to be used in the 13th century. The use of marble pavements in the interiors of late Byzantine churches continued, and their capital city examples were imitated in the wall paintings of Cappadocian churches in an attempt to follow the capital city structures.