Ulaşım altyapılarının arazi değer artışına etkileri -Tem Otoyolu İstanbul Anadolu kesimi örneği
The effects of transportation infrastructure on land value increases - a case for Istanbul Anatolian section of Tem Motorway
Yazar: YAŞASIN ERYILMAZ
Danışman: PROF. DR. NADİR YAYLA
İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi / Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü / İnşaat Mühendisliği Ana Bilim Dalı / Ulaştırma Mühendisliği Bilim Dalı
Derece: Doktora, 2013
Konu: Ulaşım = Transportation

Özet:
Ulaştırma yatırımları, kamulaştırma, yapım ve işletme maliyetleri yüksek olan yatırımlardır. Mali gücü sınırlı olan ülkeler bu sebeple ulaştırma yatırımlarını zamanında gerçekleştirememekte bunun sonucu olarak projelerin işletmeye açılma sürelerinin uzaması nedeniyle önemli ekonomik kayıpları karşılamak zorunda kalmaktadır. 
Ulaştırma altyapı yatırımlarının inşaasında kamu kaynaklarının kullanılmasının yanısıra, yap-işlet–devret, özel sektör–kamu işbirliği, satın alma garantili hizmete dayalı antlaşmalar veya gelirin önceden satın alınması gibi yöntemler geliştirilmiştir. Diğer bir yöntem ise bu çalışmalarda ortaya konan yapılacak yatırım sonucunda bölgedeki arazi ve emlak değer artışlarının ulaştırma yatırımlarının finansmanında kullanılmasıdır. 
Çalışma kapsamında O-2 ve O-4 otoyollarının hizmete açılması sonucunda, arazi kullanımı ve nüfustaki değişimlerin yanısıra erişilebilirlik ile arazi fiyatlarının etkileşimi incelenmiştir. Ulaşım altyapısına olan erişim kolaylığının arazi değerleri üzerinde etkileri, Istanbul-Anadolu yakasında ortaya konmuştur. Bu amaçla, 1985 ile 2006 yılları arası için, kamulaştırma takdir değerleri, kamulaştırma bedellerine yapılan itiraz nedeniyle açılan davaların sonuç değerleri ve tüm yerleşme alanlarını ve arazi alanlarını asgari standartlara göre vergilendirme için saptanan rayiç bedellerine ait veriler kullanılmıştır. 
Tez kapsamında inceleme bölgesindeki mahallelerin; ticari merkezlere, yönetim merkezlerine, TEM üzerinde yer alan kavşaklara, D-100, Boğaziçi köprüsü ve FSM köprüsüne olan uzaklıkları (karayolu ağı kullanılarak), zaman (dakika) ve mesafe (metre) olarak alınmıştır. Otoyolun etkilediği bölgede yer alan arsa ve arazilere ait takdir değerlerinin istatistiksel olarak yorumlanmasında ise regresyon metodu kullanılmıştır. 
Çalışmada esas alınan otoyol kesimi bütünü ile ele alındığında arazi değerinde artış olmakla birlikle (kavşak bölgelerinde kısmi korelasyon bulunmasına rağmen), otoyola uzaklık ve erişebilirlik ile değer artışı arasında anlamlı bir ilişki görülememiştir. Otoyolun özellikle kuzey kesiminde yer alan orman alanları, kırsal niteliği korunacak doğal alanlar, ağaçlandırılacak alanlar ile havza koruma kuşağı ve askeri alanların mevcudiyeti etkilidir. Ayrıca kentsel dokuda, yapılaşmış alanların, mahallelerin  mevcut MİA ve çalışma alanlarıyla olan ilişkisi nedeniyle TEM yapımından sonra bu alanların etkisinin azalmadığı, TEM otoyolundan 6 km den daha uzakta olsalar bile arazi değerlerinde azalma olmayıp ulaşılabilirlikte artış olması nedeniyle, D-100 ve deniz kıyısında yer alan mahallelerde değer artışı olduğu görülmüştür. Araştırmaya konu otoyol kesimindeki kavşakların yakınındaki arazi artış değerlerinin kavşaktan kavşağa, ayrıca otoyola olan uzaklık ile değiştikleri saptanmıştır.
Otoyol üzerinde yer alan kavşaklar ayrı ayrı incelenmiştir.  TEM otoyolundaki kavşaklar çevresindeki etki alanı belirlemeye yönelik çalışmada 1.bölge olarak tanımlanan 1,0 km. alan içinde kalan bölgelerde 126 TL/m2, 2.bölge olarak tanımlanan 1,0 km ile 2,0 km arasındaki bölgelerde 67 TL/m2 ve 3. bölge olarak tanımlanan 2,0 km ile 3,0 km arasında kalan bölgelerde ise 59 TL/m2'lik ortalama fiyat artışları olmuştur. Samandıra kavşağı hariç, ortalama fiyatlar 1. bölgede %760, 2.bölgede %357, 3.bölgede %222 oranlarında artış göstermiştir.
Çalışmada varılan sonuçlar ulaştırma yatırımlarından kaynaklanan arazi değer artışlarının yatırımların finansmanında kullanılabilecek önemli bir kaynak olabileceğini göstermiştir. Bunun için yasalarda düzenleme yapılarak vergilendirmenin olabildiğince adil şekilde nasıl yapılacağının belirlenmesi ve kamuya açıklanması önem taşımaktadır.

Abstract:
In general; transportation investments are expensive because of expropriation, construction and operating costs. Countries with limited financial resources, therefore, unable to make transportation investments on time or otherwise they have to deal with the significant economic losses owing to the fact that the project could not be put into operation in a timely manner. 
Transportation investments were evaluated under five main categories: Environmental, economic, social impacts, physical effects on the environment and legal effects.
The increase in population and income levels, leads to an increase in emissions and energy consumption especially in the transport sector. Transport sector was responsible for 24% of the total emissions in 1971 and 33% in 1997. This share is expected to reach 37% by the year 2020 according to an OECD report.
Emissions raise the temperature of the surface layer of the atmosphere. As a result of this natural imbalance; adverse environmental effects arise. The external cost of adverse environmental effects such as air pollution, noise, traffic accidents, traffic congestion etc., were calculated as € 360 bn. for EU countries in 2009; which relate to %6 of the total gross national products. One of the most harmful products in Turkey, about 17% of CO2 emissions are generated by the transportation sector. 
According to the economic theory of highway construction, new highways increase the accessibility to remote regions in the metropolitan area while expanding the urban boundaries. Transportation investments lead to the modification of the land use as the residential, industrial, etc. in addition various environmental impacts. The constructions of road and rail systems consume vast amounts of green areas, agricultural land.
Transportation-oriented planning of residential areas requires the proper management of high transportation demand with a focus without overlooking on urban density and the state of the transportation network. For meeting the high demand for transportation, investments for high capacity rail and/or highway facilities are needed. Moreover transportation-oriented planning has the potential to offer a number of alternative solutions to ongoing traffic congestion problems. In this planning approach; residential land value tax increase vital importance. In cities such as Tokyo and Stockholm transport-oriented developments were applied.
Problematic issues related motor vehicles (in urban areas) such as create mental pressure and stress on individuals. As disruption of public transport services, increased traffic noise, traffic congestion, overcrowding seen in public transport, increased travel time creates pressure mentally. Usually numerous health effects and behavioral irregularities (aggressive driving, etc.) are attributed to this mental pressure.
In general, regional transportation investments alter the physical structure of the city in the micro and macro scale. Through improved mobility which lead to division of labor and changes on location preferences. Therefore the choice of the work place, residential and recreational areas highly influenced by issues related with transportation including mode choice average trip time, average trip cost, etc. Arrangements and/or changes individuals or groups of social layer about in road, air, sea, or rail facilities, regulations for ownership and division of labor as well as legal provisions have a role in this preference changes.
In terms of city planning; unusable parcels of land are converted into usable form arrangements. Roads, schools, etc., to provide public services and the rest of the field is done for the evaluation of the parcel. 
As a result of the zoning regulations, creation of joint-owned properties and small parcels should be prevented while new parcels should be as close as possible to old parcel boundaries. From the public service perspective another opportunity for governments is the development readjustment share regulation which grants free expropriation for 40% of any parcel readjusted. 
There are many variables to be measured in order to evaluate the economic impacts of transportation investments. These variables can be defined in four different groups: user effects, economical impacts, impact on public and social effects. 
Generally, public infrastructure investments have a positive effect on economic efficiency. A transportation investment increases productivity with a chain reaction effect. It can also affect the structure of the companies working structure. In the U.S. for country, state and local level highway investments the rate of return between years 1990-2000 was calculated as in the 6.8% - 7.8% country, 3% - 7% state and local scale. 
As a result of increasing accessibility from road investments, travel demand constantly rise. Thus, it will not be mistake to state that transportation investments contribute to economic development. Such as schools, hospitals, roads, etc. acceptability of an infrastructure investment is closely related with the association community in decision making process. Regardless of the support by community, most of the time when investment is made in a region, real estate prices increases due to raised demand. As the real estate prices boost, land taxes also go up and consequently further increases land values triggered.
The construction of transportation infrastructures can be financed by using public resources or other methods such as build-operate-transfer, private-public cooperation, service-based agreements with purchase guarantees, pre-purchased income, etc. Apart from these, employing the revenue obtained from land and property value increases at a particular region for financing transportation investments that is explained in this study could also be applied.
Utilizing increases in prices for financing transportation investments can be conducted by two methods. First, pricing the improved accessibility and, second allowing enhance in density to cope with the raised demand due to improved accessibility and implementing a flexible taxation. 
In this study, the changes in land values, land use and population in addition to the interaction between accessibility and land values after the construction of the Trans European Motorway (sections O-2 and O4) are investigated. Specifically, the effects of the improvements in the ease of access to transportation infrastructure on the property values, at the Asian side of Istanbul have been revealed. Within the scope of this thesis, two types of datasets are used. The first group is obtained from the Revenue Administration and the second group was provided by the General Directorate of Highways. In this purpose, the land expropriation appreciation values decided by legal authorities, the land values ruled by courts according to the appeals against expropriation prices set by legal authorities and standard market values of land for taxation between the years 1985-2006 were evaluated.
In the context of this thesis, for each neighborhood in the study area, the time (min) and distance (m) required to access the D-100 highway, interchanges on TEM, Bosporus and FSM bridges, commercial areas and government centers were evaluated. In order to interpret tax values of land and/or properties that are influenced by the Trans European Motorway; regression method was used.
The results show that although an increase in land values is detected for the entire motorway section, no significant relationship (except interchanges on TEM) between distance and accessibility to the motorway and value increases could be identified. This outcome might be related to the presence of forest and afforest areas, bands of catchment areas and military zones located on the north of the motorway. 
In addition, it is found that that influence of the built environment was unchanged even after the construction of TEM since the relationship between the neighborhoods, and CBD remain intact. Moreover, for areas around D-100 and areas at the shore which are more than 6 km away from TEM, the land values still increase. For the areas in the vicinity of study motorway section, the land values differ according to the distance to the motorway or from the intersection to intersection. 
In general the surroundings of motorway intersections or interchanges are mostly preferred locations. This demand is also enhanced by the accessibility provided by link roads and presence of alternative routes at intersections or interchanges. The surroundings of intersections and interchanges have critical importance for shopping centers, logistic companies, intercity firms, etc. as well. 
In order to determine the influence zones of interchanges, each interchange is evaluated separately. For this aim 3 zones that are identified according to the distance from the interchanges center are defined. The cut-off distances are 1 km, between 1 km and 2 km and between 2 km and 3 km for zones 1, 2 and 3 respectively. The average and value increases were calculated as 126 TL/m2 for zone 1, 67 TL/ m2 for zone 2 and 59 TL/m2 for zone 3. Except the Samandıra interchange, on average the land values increase 760% in zone 1, 357% in zone 2 and 222% in zone 3 in a span of 20 years.
For future transportation in order to avoid difficulties related with geographic, demographic data, etc., GIS and the creation of a continuously updated database are important details.
The results of this thesis show that the land value increases due to transportation investments could be used as a significant resource for financing. However legal modifications are required to obtain an impartial and transparent taxation policy.