Manisa'da beylikler ve Osmanlı dönemi yapılarında devşirme malzeme (Spolia) kullanımı
Spolia use in Manisa beylik and Ottoman period buildings
Yazar: HİLAL AKTUR
Danışman: PROF. DR. AYGÜL AĞIR
İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi / Lisansüstü Eğitim Enstitüsü / Mimarlık Ana Bilim Dalı / Mimarlık Tarihi Bilim Dalı
Derece: Doktora, 2021
Konu: Mimarlık = Architecture ; Sanat Tarihi = Art History ; Tarih = History

Özet:
Anadolu'daki Türk-İslâm kentleri Antik, Roma ve Bizans dönemlerinden beri sürekliliğini koruyan yerleşim bölgelerinin olduğu yerlere ya da yakınlarına kurulmuştur. Bu yerleşimlerin üzerine kurulan Anadolu Selçuklu ve Beylikler dönemi kentlerindeki yapıların mimarilerinde yoğun olarak önceki dönemlere ait yapı malzemelerinin kullanıldığı görülmektedir. Yeniden kullanılan bu mimari malzemeler, devşirme malzeme "spolia" olarak adlandırılmaktadır. Devşirmenin mimarideki en genel tanımı, daha önce başka bir yapıda kullanılmış mimari malzemenin aynı ya da farklı bir işlev ile yeniden kullanılmasıdır.
Saruhanoğulları'nın başkenti ve Osmanlı şehzadelerinin ikamet yeri olan Manisa devşirme malzeme spolia kullanımının değerlendirilmesi için bu tez çalışmasının konusu olarak belirlenmiştir. Manisa'nın bu çalışma için araştırma bölgesi olarak seçilmesindeki etkenler arasında, Manisa'nın çok katmanlı kültür ve mimari ortamını yansıtan Beylikler ve Osmanlı dönemi yapılarındaki yoğun devşirme malzeme kullanımının tespit edilmesi, Batı Anadolu'da devşirme malzeme odaklı ve Saruhanoğulları Beyliği mimarisi üzerine yeterli çalışmanın yapılmamış olması yer almaktadır.
Manisa'nın Türk Dönemi, Saruhan Bey'in 14. yüzyılın başında Magnesia'yı Bizans İmparatorluğu'ndan alarak Saruhanoğulları Beyliği'nin başkenti yapmasıyla başlamıştır. Manisa, Saruhanoğulları Beyliği'nin mimari örneklerinin günümüze kadar gelebildiği nadir yerleşimlerdendir. Bölge, 15. yüzyılın başında Osmanoğulları Beyliği'nin egemenliği altına girmiştir. Osmanlı hâkimiyetine geçmesiyle Manisa, gözde şehzadenin ikamet yeri olmuştur. Cumhuriyet'in ilanına kadar Osmanlı İmparatorluğu yönetiminde kalan Manisa ve çevresi, Kurtuluş Savaşı yıllarında kısa bir süre Yunanlılar tarafından işgal edilmiştir.
Manisa'nın Antik, Roma ve Bizans dönemlerine ait mimari eserler günümüze ulaşmamıştır. Manisa'nın Türk Dönemi öncesine ait yapı stoğuna ilişkin bilgilere Saruhanoğulları ve Osmanlı dönemi yapılarındaki yeniden kullanımlar ışık tutmaktadır. Türk öncesi dönemlere ait mimari malzemelerin devşirilerek kullanılması Antik, Roma ve Bizans dönemlerine ait mimari elemanların günümüze kadar ulaşmasını sağlamıştır. 
Manisa'nın Beylikler Dönemi Saruhanoğulları Beyliği, Manisa ilçelerinde ise Saruhanoğulları ile birlikte Germiyanoğulları ve Aydınoğulları beyliklerine ait mimari eserlerle Osmanlı Dönemi mimari eserleri tez kapsamında incelenmiştir. Yapılardaki devşirme malzeme tespitine paralel olarak literatür araştırması yapılmış; yapıların tarihleri ile ilgili bilgilere ulaşılmıştır. Bununla birlikte yapıların –mevcut ise- vakfiyelerinin incelenmesi ve geçirdikleri onarım süreçlerinin tespit edilmesi için T.C. Başbakanlık Vakıflar Genel Müdürlüğü Arşivi'nde araştırma yapılmıştır. Bu arşivde yer alan teknik doküman ve fotoğrafların incelenmesi yapılarda inceleme yapılan dönemde tespit edilemeyen devşirmelerin belirlenmesi açısından da önem arz etmektedir.
Manisa ve ilçelerinde Beylikler ve Osmanlı dönemi yapılarında tespit edilen devşirme malzemelerin nerede, nasıl ve neden kullanıldığının değerlendirilebilmesinde, benzerliklerin ortaya konabilmesi ve mimarlık çerçevesinde devşirme malzeme "spolia" tanımının yapılabilmesi için Roma, Bizans, İslâm, Anadolu Selçuklu, Beylikler ve Osmanlı dönemlerindeki devşirme malzeme kullanımı örneklerine tezde yer verilmiştir.

Abstract:
This study began in 2012, as a result of the survey conducted with the aim of identifying spolia use in the Beylik and Ottoman Era buildings in Western Anatolia. During the visit, spolia in structures in Bergama, Manisa (Centre), Tire, Bilgi, Selçuk and Bala were examined.
The title of the thesis uses the term spolia for reused architectural materials. In recent years, this term has been frequently used in foreign language publications as well as in publications translated into Turkish and those originally published in Turkish.
The objective of the thesis is to re-examine where, how and why spolia was used in Beylik and Ottoman Era structures, focusing on the city of Manisa and its environs.
The Turkish–Islamic cities in Anatolia were founded either at or near locations with continuous habitation since the Antiquity, Roman or Byzantine Eras. In such Anatolian Seljuk and Beylik Era cities, extensive use of repurposed building materials is often observed. These reused architectural elements are termed spolia. The broadest definition of spolia in architecture is the reuse of an architectural element from a different structure, either with the same function or a different one.
This study provides examples of spolia use in Roman, Byzantine, Islamic, Anatolian Seljuk and Beylik Era structures. These examples explore and illustrate how spolia was used in different periods with similar or different approaches, reaching beyond its evident practical and economic benefits. Through these examples, symbolic, apotropaic and ideological motives of spolia use are explored, revealing practices such as the transformative reuse of an element for a completely different function for the purposes of illustrating conquest, victory or holy war or the explicit allusions to or the replication of the plan and façade of an existing building; acknowledging the ease and practicality of construction in using elements from structures from previous periods or the current one, or from buildings that are in ruins in a new building; and highlighting social, cultural and historical continuity and aesthetic concerns.
Manisa, which was the capital of the Sarukhanids and the residence of Ottoman heirs to the throne, was chosen as the focus of this study in examining spolia use. The reasons for this choice are firstly the identification of intensive spolia use in the Beylik and Ottoman Era structures in the Manisa, which reflects the multilayered cultural and architectural background of the city, and secondly the absence of comprehensive studies on Sarukhanid architecture with a focus on spolia use.
The Turkish Era in Manisa begins with Saruhan Bey's conquest of Magnesia from the Byzantine Empire at the beginning of the 14th century. Manisa is one of the rare settlements where the architectural examples of the Sarukhanids survive to this day. The region was taken by the Ottomans at the beginning of the 15th century. With that, Manisa became the residence for the heir apparent. Manisa and environs remained under Ottoman rule until the declaration of the Turkish Republic, although it was briefly under Greek occupation during the Independence War.
There are no surviving architectural works from the Antiquity, Roman and Byzantine Era in Manisa. Instead, the reused architectural elements in Sarukhanid and Ottoman Era structures shed light on the pre-Turkish Era building stock of the city. The reuse of pre-Turkish Era materials has enabled architectural elements from the Antiquity, Roman and Byzantine Era to survive to this day.
Within the scope of this study, Beylik Era in Manisa is examined through the Sarukhanids alongside the architectural works from Germiyanids and Aydınids as well as the Ottomans, especially in the case of Manisa districts. In parallel with the identification of spolia in the structures, a literature survey was conducted and essential information was gathered with regards to dating. Furthermore, in order to examine the foundation certificate charters for the structures, where possible, and to determine the restoration processes they have been through, research was conducted at the General Directorate of Foundations Archives. The examination of the technical documents and photographs from the archives has been additionally significant in terms of identifying spolia that where not identified during the surveys.
For the study, Beylik and Ottoman Era structures both in Manisa and its districts were examined. The necessary permits were obtained from the Governorship of Manisa for examinations and photography. Modern day Manisa is composed of seventeen districts:  Ahmetli, Akhisar, Alaşehir, Demirci, Gölmarmara, Gördes, Kırkağaç, Köprübaşı, Kula, Salihli, Sarıgöl, Saruhanlı, Selendi, Soma, Turgutlu, Şehzadeler and Yunusemre, the last two comprising the the Manisa City. The structures in Manisa City that are included in this study are all found in the district of Şehzadeler.
The study began in January 2014 with the examination of photographs of the Beylik and Ottoman Era structures in Merkez (Centre), Akhisar, Alaşehir, Demirci, Gölmarmara, Gördes, Kırkağaç, Kula, Salihli, Sarıgöl, Saruhanlı, Selendi, Soma, and Turgutlu districts, accessed through the General Directorate of Foundations Digital Archives. In addition, publications on Manisa and environs were surveyed, and those Beylik and Ottoman Era structures in which spolia use was identified were included in the study along with those marked during the area survey.
The study covers religious buildings such as mosques and masjids; non-religious buildings such as mausoleums and social complexes; educational buildings such as madrasahs, primary schools and libraries; public interest structures such as hospitals, alms houses, bath houses and fountains; and commercial buildings such as covered bazaars and inns. In the case of social complexes, each building has been examined. Fountains that belong to the complexes and share the same plot of land with the already included structures have also been incorporated into the catalogue.
In the case of detached fountains and fountains that are outside the settlements but on current transport routes, those in which spolia have been identified are documented, but not included in the catalogue. Likewise, examples of military and civil architecture and the Islamic monasteries (zaviye) except for those in the Centre, have not been included. 
The study provides a brief history of Manisa and its districts. The locations of the pre- Beylik and Ottoman Era settlements in Manisa and environs have been established with the help of available sources and they have been marked on the map showing the Manisa districts.
The Beylik Era structures in Manisa are dated to the Sarukhanid Period. The Turkish Era structures in Manisa, are examined under two separate subheadings, namely Sarkuhanid Period and Ottoman Era. The Beylik and Ottoman Era structures in Manisa and districts are included in the study for the purpose of reflecting the continuity of the construction activities. The structures in Manisa Centre and districts where spolia has been identified are presented with a short piece of information about each item. On the other hand, İshak Çelebi Complex and Ulu Camisi (Mosque), Madrasah and Mausoleum have been discussed in greater detail as these structures are highly significant in terms of the development of Manisa as a city and the density of spolia. As mentioned above, this study primarily covers Sarukhanid structures alongside Ottoman structures built before the end of the 16th century in the case of Manisa City, and Beylik and Ottoman Era structures in the case of Manisa districts. In the course of the examination, spolia use in structures built or renovated after the 16th century has also been incorporated to the study when required.
Fieldwork has been conducted in Manisa in 2012, 2014, 2016, 2018, 2019 and 2020; in Akhisar in 2014 and 2018; in Turgutlu, Saruhanlı and Gölmarmara in 2014; Salihli, Kula, Alaşehir and Sarıgöl in 2015; in Soma and Kırkağaç in 2016; Demirci, Gördes and Selendi in 2018. The choice of districts to be included in the study was based on the spolia density. After Manisa City, the densest spolia use in Beylik and Ottoman Era structures is observed in Akhisar, Kula, Soma and Alaşehir.
As a result of the examinations, as spolia use relevant to this study was not identified in the Beylik and Ottoman Era structures in Gölmarmara, Salihli, Soma, Kırkağaç, Gördes, Selendi district centres and in Sarıgöl Sığırtmaçlı Village, these districts were not included in the catalogue. In the case of Kırkağaç district, spolia added during renovations and the free-standing architectural elements that date to the Antiquity and the Byzantine Era found around the structures have been included. In addition, structures that were not included in the catalogues, but were marked either during the examinations or in sources for spolia density, or structures around which construction materials from Antiquity and Byzantine Era were identified, have also been added to the study.
Eski Gördes, Soma Darkale, Kula Emre and Kula Gökçeören villages were surveyed, spolia use in Beylik and Ottoman Era structures that fit the study objectives was identified and added to the catalogue.
The structures covered in the study were examined in person and the spolia were documented by photographs. Consequently, in light of the fieldwork and literature survey the framework of the study was thus established.
Spolia identified through the examination of the Beylik and Ottoman Era structures were subsequently catalogued. These include load bearing elements such as column capitals, column shafts and column bases; decorated and profiled architectural blocks, inscribed elements or those with lapidary signs or similar identifying marks; and marble, granite or similar plates used for decorative purposes. Architectural blocks used in the masonry and undecorated and unprofiled spolia were not included in the catalogue, and were instead documented with photographs and discussed for the sake of comprehensiveness in the study. Furthermore, spolia that could not be determined in the fieldwork examination but was identified through the photographs in the General Directorate of Foundations Digital Archives and in published studies, were also included for the sake of illustrating historical continuity.
The catalogue is put together in a way to present the identified spolia within structural integrity and to reflect each item in relation to the other spolia in the structure. The identification tag of each item in the catalogue is as follows: Name, location, date, donor, architect of the structure and the date of examination; location of the spolia within the structure, its function, its original function, date and material. The location and the number of the spolia have been noted on the building plan where available and/or on the photograph of the façade. The structures are numbered in the catalogue as KATALOG NO. 01. Each spolia item is then numbered on the catalogue, such as 01. In addition, in reference to the structure they are found in or more specifically their location within the structure, they are marked as H01 (sanctuary), R01 (narthex and portico), MIN01 (minaret), T01 (mausoleum), MED01 (madrasah), HAM01 (baths), ÇEŞ01 (fountain), KUT01 (library), HAN01 (inn), DAR01 (darulhadis madrasah), BIM01 (hospital), BED (covered bazaar), MT (gravestone), A01 (garden and courtyard walls), and S01 (free standing items found in the garden or the courtyard). The catalogue is found in the appendix section.
In order to determine the density of spolia use in the Beylik and Ottoman Era structures in Manisa in different periods, the structures were marked on the map (Google Maps) according to the period they are dated to.
In order to interpret where, how and why the spolia identified in the Beylik and Ottoman Era structures in Manisa and environs were used and to reveal similarities as well as defining spolia in an architectural framework, examples of spolia use from Roman, Byzantine, Islamic, Anatolian Seljuk, Beylik and Ottoman Era are also cited in this study.
Spolia use in Beylik and Ottoman Era structures have often been explained solely with a preference for readily available, low-cost materials and with the intention of speeding up the construction process, leaving any motivation beyond these factors largely unexplored. In this study, the similarities and differences between the spolia use in Manisa and districts are examined under two subheadings in terms of the approach to spolia use in Beylik and Ottoman Era architecture: One, functional, structural and practical; and the other, aesthetic, symbolic and ideological.
As mentioned above, in Manisa, which hosted pre-Turkish, Beylik and Ottoman Era cultures, there are no surviving structures or remains from the Antiquity, Roman and Byzantine Era.  Accordingly, the relationship between the Turkish Era and the pre-Turkish Era, the continuity of habitation and the multilayered cultural heritage can only be traced through loose pre-Turkish architectural elements found in the city, through the architectural elements, sculptures and small objects in Manisa, Akhisar, İzmir, Bergama and Istanbul Museums, and particularly through the spolia in the Beylik and Ottoman Era structures. The examination of spolia within the scope of this thesis study is therefore also significant for the history and the architectural history of the Manisa and environs.
The identification of the original functions of the spolia used in the Beylik and Ottoman Era structures in Manisa will allow the re-examination of our existing knowledge of the city's past. In line with this, available sources, publications and experts on the issue have been consulted and the original functions and the corresponding periods of the spolia have been added to the catalogue.
Overall, this study examines the motives behind the preference for spolia use through the spolia identified in the Beylik and Ottoman Era structures in Manisa and environs. Based on this examination, the study redefines spolia within the architectural history framework. In the architectural framework, spolia is defined either as the reuse of an entire structure built within the same period or in a different one, where the new and old uses of the building can represent the same culture or faith or different ones; or as the re-use of architectural elements in a new structure with the same or a similar function for practical, functional, structural, aesthetic, symbolic or ideological reasons.