Question: Je,Rais wa kwanza wa Mongolia ni nani?

Jamhuri ya Watu wa China



China (pia: Uchina, Sina; kirefu: Jamhuri ya Watu wa China) ni nchi kubwa ya Asia ya Mashariki ambayo ndiyo nchi yenye watu wengi kuliko zote duniani.
China imepakana na Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar, India, Bhutan, Nepal, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, Urusi, Mongolia, Korea ya Kaskazini. 
Kuna pwani ndefu kwenye Bahari ya Kusini ya China na Bahari ya Mashariki ya China ambazo ni bahari ya kando ya Pasifiki. 
China kuna makabila 56 tofauti. Wahan ndio kabila kubwa zaidi nchini China kwa idadi ya watu ikiwa na asilimia 92. 
Lugha rasmi ni Kichina cha Mandarin kinachotumiwa na asilimia 70 za wananchi. 
Siasa inatawaliwa na chama cha kikomunisti. 
Mji mkuu ni Beijing lakini Shanghai ndio mji mkubwa zaidi. 
Hong Kong iliyokuwa koloni la Uingereza na Macau iliyokuwa koloni la Ureno ni maeneo ya China yenye utawala wa pekee. 
Taiwan na visiwa vingine vya Jamhuri ya China vinatazamwa na serikali ya Beijing kuwa majimbo yake lakini vimekuwa kama nchi ya pekee tangu mwaka 1949.
Jiografia
China ina eneo la kilomita za mraba milioni 9.6 hivyo ni nchi ya tatu au ya nne[1] kwa ukubwa duniani.
Sura ya nchi inaonyesha tabia tofautitofauti. 
Upande wa kaskazini, mpakani mwa Siberia na Mongolia, kuna maeneo yabisi pamoja na jangwa la Gobi. 
Kinyume chake upande wa kusini, mpakani mwa Vietnam, Laos na Burma, hali ya hewa ni nusutropiki yenye mvua nyingi inayolisha misitu minene. 
Sehemu za magharibi zina milima mingi ambayo ni kati ya milima mirefu duniani kama Himalaya na Tian Shan.
Mashariki ya nchi huwa na tambarare zenye rutuba na hapa ndipo kanda lenye wakazi wengi. 
Upana wa China kati ya kaskazini na kusini ni kilomita 4,200 na kati ya mashariki na magharibi ni kilomita 4,200.
Pwani ina urefu wa kilomita 14,400. 
Kuna mito mikubwa; mrefu zaidi ni Yangtse (km 6,300), Hwangho au Mto Njano, Xi Jiang au mto wa Magharibi, Mekong, Mto wa Lulu, Brahmaputra na Amur. Mito hiyo yote ina vyanzo vyake katika milima mikubwa yenye usimbishaji mwingi, ikibeba maji kwenda tambarare pasipo mvua nyingi. 
Jiografia hiyo ilikuwa chanzo cha kilimo cha umwagiliaji na kukua kwa madola ya kwanza. 
Kutokana na madawa ya kilimo na maji machafu ya viwanda, mito na maziwa ya China hupambana na machafuko makali; mwaka 2007 ziwa Tai lilisafishwa kwa gharama kubwa mno kwa sababu maji hayakufaa tena kwa mahitaji ya binadamu (maji ya bomba).
Hali ya hewa

Kuna kanda 18 za hali ya hewa zinazoonyesha tofauti kubwa kati yake. Upande wa magharibi, kaskazini na kaskazini-mashariki huwa na majira yenye joto kali na baridi kali. Upande wa kusini ina tabia ya tropiki au nusutropiki. Tibet huwa na hali ya hewa kulingana na kimo chake juu ya mita 4,000.
Ramani ya usimbishaji inaonyesha ya kwamba kilimo kinawezekana katika nusu ya kusini na kusini-mashariki ya nchi tu. Upande wa kaskazini na magharibi mvua ni chache mno. Mstari mwekundu unaonyesha mpaka na juu yake usimbishaji ni chini ya milimita 390 kwa mwaka.
Historia

Historia ya China hugawanyika katika vipindi vya nasaba za kifalme mbalimbali. Vipindi muhimu zaidi ni kama ifuatavyo:
Nasaba ya Qin (221 – 207 KK)
Nasaba ya Han (206 KK – 220 BK)
Kipindi cha milki tatu (220 – 280)
Nasaba ya Jin (265 – 420)
Kipindi cha nasaba za kusini na kaskazini (420 – 581)
Nasaba ya Sui (581 – 618)
Nasaba ya Tang (618 – 907)
Nasaba tano na milki kumi (907 – 960)
Nasaba ya Song (960 – 1279)
Nasaba ya Yuan (1279 - 1368)
Nasaba ya Ming (1368 - 1644)
Nasaba ya Qing (1644 - 1911)
Utawala wa kifalme uliendelea hadi mapinduzi ya China ya 1911. 
Baada ya kipindi cha vurugu, jamhuri ya China ilitawaliwa na chama cha Kuomintang chini ya rais Chiang Kai-shek.
Wakati wa vita kuu ya pili ya dunia sehemu kubwa ilitwaliwa na Japani. Wakati huo Chama cha Kikomunisti cha China kiliandaa jeshi kikapambana na serikali ya Kuomintang na Japani pia. 
Baada ya mwisho wa vita kuu Wakomunisti waliendelea kupingana na serikali na mwaka 1949 Kuomintang ilishindwa. Wakomunisti chini ya Mao Zedong walianza kutawala China Bara kama Jamhuri ya Watu wa China na Kuomintang walikimbilia kisiwa cha Taiwan walipoendelea kutawala kama "Jamhuri ya China".
Siasa
Serikali ya China inatawala kwa mfumo wa udikteta chini ya uongozi wa Chama cha Kikomunisti ya China. Kuna vyama vidogo pia, lakini hivi havina umuhimu wowoteː vinasimamiwa na Wakomunisti, hivyo hali halisi ni mfumo wa chama kimoja. 
Kikatiba chombo kikuu ni Bunge la umma la China linalomchagua rais, serikali, mahakama kuu, kamati kuu ya kijeshi na mwanasheria mkuu. Lakini hali halisi maazimio yote ya bunge ni utekelezaji tu wa maazimio ya uongozi wa chama cha Kikomunisti. 
Uongozi huo ni kundi dogo la wakubwa wa chama na jeshi. Mwanasiasa muhimu ni Xi Jinping. Kwa sasa yeye anaunganisha vyeo vya Katibu Mkuu wa Chama cha Kikomunisti, Rais wa Jamhuri ya Watu wa China na mwenyekiti wa Kamati Kuu ya Kijeshi. Kwa jumla katika mapokeo ya Kikomunisti vyeo vya chama ni muhimu kuliko vyeo vya serikali ingawa katiba na sheria inasema tofauti.
Kuna pia "maeneo yenye utawala wa pekee" ambayo ni Hongkong na Macau. Katika miji hiyo miwili, iliyokuwa makoloni ya Uingereza na Ureno, kuna uhuru wa kisiasa na wa uandishi, uchaguzi huru na upinzani kwa kiasi fulani, lakini maeneo yana tu madaraka kadhaa ya kujitawala kwa mambo ya ndani.
Watu
China ikiwa na wakazi milioni 1,376 ni nchi yenye watu wengi zaidi duniani. Historia yake yote iliona tena na tena vipindi vya njaa kutokana na idadi kubwa ya watu wake. Msongamano wa watu kwa wastani ni wakazi 145 kwa kilomita ya mraba. Lakini tofauti ziko kubwa kati ya miji mikubwa ambako milioni 115 wanakaa kwenye eneo la km² 50,000 na Tibet yenye watu 2 tu kwa kilomita ya mraba.
Zaidi ya asilimia 90 za wakazi wote wanakaa katika theluthi ya kusini-mashariki ya nchi yenye mvua ya kutosha. Ndani ya theluthi hiyo ni nusu ya Wachina wote wanaosongamana kwenye asilimia 10 za China yote, maana yake katika 10% hizi kuna msongamano wa watu 740 kwa km².
Wakazi walio wengi ni Wahan au Wachina wenyewe. Wanatumia hasa lahaja mbalimbali za lugha ya Kichina. Pamoja na Wahan kuna makabila 55 yaliyotambuliwa na serikali. Kwa jumla lugha hai ni 292 ambazo zinahusika na makundi mbalimbali ya lugha (angalia orodha ya lugha za China).
Serikali inafuata rasmi ukanamungu, lakini inaruhusu dini kwa kiasi fulani. Pamoja na hayo, dhuluma zinaendelea dhidi ya madhehebu mbalimbali. Takwimu hazieleweki, pia kwa sababu kabla ya Ukomunisti kupinga dini, hasa wakati wa Mapinduzi ya utamaduni, watu waliweza kuchanganya mafundisho na desturi za Ukonfusio, Utao na Ubuddha. Leo wanaoendelea kufanya hivyo wanakadiriwa kuwa asilimia 30-80 za wakazi. Wabuddha ni 6-16%, Wakristo (hasa Waprotestanti, halafu Wakatoliki na kidogo Waorthodoksi) ni 2-4%, Waislamu ni 1-2%.
Tazama pia
Majimbo ya China
Orodha ya nasaba za Kichina
Orodha ya nchi kufuatana na wakazi
Tanbihi

Marejeo

Farah, Paolo (2006). "Five Years of China's WTO Membership: EU and US Perspectives on China's Compliance with Transparency Commitments and the Transitional Review Mechanism". Legal Issues of Economic Integration. Kluwer Law International. Volume 33, Number 3. pp.263–304. .
Heilig, Gerhard K. (2006/2007). . China-Profile.com.
Jacques, Martin (2009).When China Rules the World: The End of the Western World and the Birth of a New Global Order. Penguin Books. Revised edition (28 August 2012). ISBN 978-1-59420-185-1.



Vyanzo kuhusu dini
Adler, Joseph A. . Kenyon College, 2014.

Billioud, Sébastien. . On: OE 49 (2010)

Chan, Kim-Kwong. Religion in China in the Twenty-first Century: Some Scenarios. On: Religion, State & Society, Vol. 33, No. 2. Routledge, June 2005.
Chen, Yong. Confucianism as Religion: Controversies and Consequences. Brill, 2012. ISBN 9004243739
Clart, Philip. . In: Wang Chien-chuan, Li Shiwei, Hong Yingfa; Yanjiu xin shijie: “Mazu yu Huaren minjian xinyang” guoji yantaohui lunwenji. Taipei: Boyang, 2014. pp.391–412
Clart, Philip. . On: T'uong Pao LXXXIX. Brill, Leiden, 2003.
Didier, John C. In and Outside the Square: The Sky and the Power of Belief in Ancient China and the World, c. 4500 BC – AD 200: , , . On: Sino-Platonic Papers, n. 192, 2009. Victor H. Mair, University of Pennsylvania.

Fan Lizhu, Chen Na. Revival of Confucianism and Reconstruction of Chinese Identity. Paper presented at: The Presence and Future of Humanity in the Cosmos, ICU, Tokyo, 18–23 March 2015. (a)
Fan Lizhu, Chen Na. . Published on , Fudan-UC Center for China Studies, Fudan University, 2013.
Fan Lizhu, Chen Na. The Religiousness of "Confucianism" and the Revival of Confucian Religion in China Today. On: Cultural Diversity in China 1: 27-43. De Gruyter Open, 2015. ISSN 2353-7795, DOI: 10.1515/cdc-2015-0005

Fowler, Jeaneane D. An Introduction to the Philosophy and Religion of Taoism: Pathways to Immortality. Sussex Academic Press, 2005. ISBN 1845190866
Goossaert, Vincent, David Palmer. The Religious Question in Modern China. University of Chicago Press, 2011. ISBN 0226304167
Jing, Jun. The Temple of Memories: History, Power, and Morality in a Chinese Village. Stanford University Press, 1996. ASIN: B004FPIAVW

Lagerway, John. China: A Religious State. Hong Kong, University of Hong Kong Press, 2010. ISBN 9888028049

Libbrecht, Ulrich. . Peeters Publishers, 2007. ISBN  9042918128
Littlejohn, Ronnie. Confucianism: An Introduction. I. B. Tauris, 2010. ISBN 184885174X
Lü Daji, Gong Xuezeng. . Brill, 2014. ISBN 9047428021
Miller, James. . ABC-CLIO, 2006. ISBN 1851096264


Overmyer, Daniel. Religion in China Today. Cambridge University Press, 2003. ISBN 0521538238
Palmer, David A., Glenn Landes Shive, Glenn Shive, Philip L. Wickeri. Chinese Religious Life. Oxford University Press, 2011. ISBN 0199731381
Palmer, D. A. . On: Journal of Chinese Ritual, Theatre and Folklore, V. 172, 2011, p.21-72
Pas, Julian F. Historical Dictionary of Taoism. Part of: Historical Dictionaries of Religions, Philosophies, and Movements Series. Scarecrow Press, 2014. ASIN: B00IZ9E7EI
Ruokanen, Miikka, Paulos Zhanzhu Huang. Christianity and Chinese Culture. William B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2011. ISBN 0802865569
Sautman, Barry. Myths of Descent, Racial Nationalism and Ethnic Minorities in the People's Republic of China. In: Frank Dikötter. The Construction of Racial Identities in China and Japan: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives. Honolulu, University of Hawai'i Press, 1997, pp.75–95. ISBN 9622094430
Shahar, Meir, Robert Paul Weller. Unruly Gods: Divinity and Society in China. University of Hawaii Press, 1996. ISBN 0824817249
Shen, Qingsong, Kwong-loi Shun. Confucian Ethics in Retrospect and Prospect. Council for Research in Values & Philosophy, 2007. ISBN 1565182456
Shi, Yilong. The Spontaneous Religious Practices of Han Chinese Peoples — Shenxianism (中国汉人自发的宗教实践 — 神仙教). On: Journal of South-Central University for Nationalities (Humanities and Social Sciences) (中南民族大学学报 — 人文社会科学版), Vol. 28, No. 3, 2008.
Teiser, Stephen F., extracts from: Stephen F. Teiser. The Spirits of Chinese Religion. In: Religions of China in Practice. Princeton University Press, 1996.
Thien Do. Vietnamese Supernaturalism: Views from the Southern Region. Series: Anthropology of Asia. Routledge, 2003. ISBN 0415307996
Wang, Robin R. Chinese Philosophy in an Era of Globalization. State University of New York Press, 2004. ISBN 0791460061
Yang, Fenggang, Graeme Lang. Social Scientific Studies of Religion in China. Brill, 2012. ISBN 9004182462
 Chapter of: David Held, Henrietta Moore. Cultural Politics in a Global Age: Uncertainty, Solidarity and Innovation, Oxford: Oneworld Publications. ISBN 1851685502
Yao, Xinzhong. . Bloomsbury Academic, 2011. ISBN 1847064760
Payette, Alex. . Part of: Role of Religion in Political Life, Panel RC43, 23rd World Congress of Political Science, 19–24 July 2014.
Pregadio, Fabrizio. The Encyclopedia of Taoism, 2 vol. Routledge, 2008. ISBN 9780700712007
Tay, Wei Leong. . In: Haneda Masashi, Secularization, Religion and the State, University of Tokyo Center for Philosophy, 2010.
Xie, Zhibin. Religious Diversity and Public Religion in China. Ashgate Publishing, 2006. ISBN 9780754656487
Zhou, Jixu. . On: Sino-Platonic Papers, n. 167, 2005. Victor H. Mair, University of Pennsylvania.
Marejeo mengine
Bays, Daniel H. Christianity in China from the Eighteenth Century to the Present. (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1996). ISBN 0804726094.
Ch'en, Kenneth K. S. Buddhism in China, a Historical Survey. (Princeton, N.J.,: Princeton University Press, The Virginia and Richard Stewart Memorial Lectures, 1961, 1964).
, , Brill, Leiden, The Netherlands, 1892–1910. 6 volumes.
Overmyer, Daniel L. Religions of China: The World as a Living System. (New York: Harper & Row, Religious Traditions of the World, 1986).

Wright, Arthur F.. Buddhism in Chinese History. (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1959; various reprints and translations).
Yang, CK., Religion in Chinese Society (California U. Press, 1970)
Xinzhong Yao and Yanxia Zhao, Chinese Religion (Continuum, 2010)
Viungo vya nje

 from People's Daily


 from UCB Libraries GovPubs
 at Curlie
's Encyclopædia Britannica entry
 by Yiching Wu
 from International Futures
. PBS Online NewsHour. October 2005.


Serikali

 —Authorized government portal site to China
Masomo
. Minxin Pei (2006). IFRI Proliferation Papers. No. 15.
Utalii
 (CNTO)
Ramani

Wikimedia Atlas of the People's Republic of China
Dini







, Asia for Educators, Columbia University.
Media
Euraxess Science Slam: 
eRenlai Ricci: 
GBTimes: —
Berkeley Center: 
Berkeley Center: 
Berkeley Center: 
Coordinates: 



Jamii:Nchi za Asia