Essentials of Medical Ultrasound: A Practical Introduction to the Principles, Techniques, and Biomedical Applications (1982)

1 Physical Characteristics of Ultrasound.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Acoustic Waves.- 2.1. Wave Motion.- 2.2. Periodic Wave Motion.- 3. Parameters on an Ultrasonic Wave.- 3.1. Modes of Wave Propagation.- 3.2. Standing Waves.- 4. Ultrasonic Transducers.- 4.1. Piezoelectric Materials.- 4.2. Medical Transducers.- 5. Characteristics of Ultrasound Beams.- 5.1. Huygen's Principle.- 5.2. Circular Transducers.- 5.3. Far Field.- 5.4. Near Field.- 5.5. Pulsed Transducers.- 6. Reflection and Refraction.- 6.1. Matching.- 6.2. Mode Conversion.- 7. Absorption and Scattering.- 7.1. Absorption.- 7.2. Dispersion.- 7.3. Scattering.- 7.4. Doppler Effect.- 8. Conclusion.- Appendix: Mathematical Derivations of Physical Characteristics.- A. 1. Acoustic Waves.- A. 2. Modes of Propagation of Acoustic Waves.- References.- 2 Biophysical Mechanisms of Ultrasound.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Thermal Mechanism.- 2.1. Temperature Rise Without Heat Transfer.- 2.2. Temperature Rise During a Single Pulse-No Heat Transfer.- 2.3. Thermal Method of Intensity Measurement-No Heat Transfer.- 2.4. Temperature Rise with Heat Transfer.- 2.5. Temperature vs Time in an Absorbing Sphere-Influence of Conduction.- 2.6. Applications to Biomedical Ultrasound.- 2.7. Summary of Findings for Thermal Mechanism.- 3. Stress Mechanisms.- 3.1. First-Order and Second-Order Quantities-Radiation Pressure.- 3.2. Radiation Force.- 3.3. Radiation Torque.- 3.4. Acoustic Microstreaming.- 3.5. Stress Fields of Gas-Filled Pores-Low Megahertz Frequencies.- 3.6. Summary of Findings for Stress Mechanism.- 4. Cavitation.- 5. Conclusions.- References.- 3 Ultrasonic Measurement Techniques and Equipment Output Levels.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Measurement Parameters.- 3. Techniques and Instrumentation.- 3.1. Total Power-Radiation Force.- 3.2. Radiation Force-Intensity Techniques.- 3.3. Thermal Methods.- 3.4. Optical Techniques.- 3.5. Reciprocity Calibration.- 3.6. Electrical Determination of Ultrasonic Output for Quartz Transducers.- 3.7. Miniature Hydrophones.- 4. Ultrasound Equipment Output Levels.- 4.1. Therapy Equipment.- 4.2. Diagnostic Equipment.- 4.3. Output Levels and Biological Effect Levels.- References.- 4 Selected Biological Effects of Ultrasound.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Whole-Body Radiation.- 2.1. Vertebrates.- 2.2. Insects.- 3. Tissues and Organs.- 3.1. Central Nervous System.- 3.2. Liver.- 3.3. Testes.- 3.4. Blood Stasis.- 3.5. Tissue Regeneration.- 3.6. Neoplastic Tissues and Synergism.- 4. Cells and Microorganisms.- 5. Biomacromolecules and Their Assemblages.- 5.1. Biomacromolecules.- 5.2. Macromolecular Assemblages.- 6. Concluding Remarks.- 7. Acknowledgments.- References.- 5 Clinical Applications of Diagnostic Ultrasound.- 1. Introduction.- 1.1. Limited Significance Method.- 1.2. Useful Ancillary Method of Investigation.- 1.3. Most Efficacious Method of Non-Invasive Examination.- 1.4. Sole Investigative Tool.- 2. Head.- 2.1. Brain.- 2.2. Eyes.- 3. Neck.- 3.1. Thyroid and Parathyroid Glands.- 3.2. Carotid Artery.- 4. Chest.- 4.1. Heart.- 4.2. Pleural Space.- 4.3. Breast.- 5. Abdomen.- 5.1. Liver.- 5.2. Kidneys.- 5.3. Pancreas.- 5.4. Spleen.- 5.5. Biliary Tract.- 5.6. Aorta.- 5.7. Lymph Nodes.- 5.8. Peritoneal Space.- 6. Pelvis.- 6.1. Uterus (Pregnant).- 6.2. Uterus (Nonpregnant).- 6.3. Fallopian Tubes and Ovaries.- 6.4. Bladder.- 6.5. Prostate and Scrotum.- 7. Extremities.- 8. Conclusion.- 6 Ultrasound Therapy.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Therapeutic Devices and the Ultrasound Field.- 2.1. Ultrasound Therapy Devices.- 2.2. Temporal (Time) Variations of the Ultrasound Field.- 2.3. Spatial Variations of Ultrasound Fields.- 3. Quality Assurance and Standards.- 3.1. Power and Intensity.- 3.2. Power Output and Exposure Time.- 3.3. Quality Assurance of Equipment.- 4. Ultrasound Transmission and Absorption in Biological Materials.- 5. Applications of Therapeutic Ultrasound.- 6. Minimizing Operator and Patient Exposure.- 7. Contraindications for the Application of Ultrasound in Therapy.- 8. Summary.- References.- 7 Quality Assurance in Diagnostic Ultrasound.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Description of Equipment Displays.- 2.1. A-Mode.- 2.2. B-Mode.- 2.3. M-Mode.- 2.4. Two-Dimensional Cross-Section Images.- 2.5. Gray-Scale.- 2.6. Real-Time Displays.- 2.7. Continuous-Wave Techniques.- 2.8. Holographic Display.- 3. Equipment Operation.- 3.1. Operator Controls.- 3.2. Scanning Technique.- 3.3. Potential Hazards.- 3.4. Warmup Procedure.- 3.5. Hardcopy Care.- 3.6. Hospital Electrical Noise.- 4. Routine Preventive Maintenance.- 4.1. Hardcopy.- 4.2. Air Filters.- 4.3. Scanning Arm Stability.- 4.4. Integrity of Enclosures.- 4.5. Worn or Frayed Cables.- 5. System Performance and Testing.- 5.1. Transducer.- 5.2. Receiver.- 5.3. Analog Scan Converter.- 5.4. Digital Scan Converter.- 5.5. Gray-Scale Display.- 5.6. B-Mode Registration.- 5.7. Display Size and Linearity.- 5.8. Document System Performance.- 6. Routine Performance Tests.- 6.1. Introduction.- 6.2. AIUM 100-mm Test Object.- 6.3. Test of Test Object Liquid Acoustic Velocity.- 6.4. Other Performance Tests.- Performance Test Worksheets.- 7. Summary.- Sample Service Logs.- References.- Bibliography: Selected Quality Assurance Publications.- 8 Ultrasound Standards: Regulations and Guidelines.- 1. Philosophy of Developing Standards.- 2. Biological Effects.- 3. Types of Standards.- 4. Device or Emission Standards.- 4.1. Diagnostic Ultrasound.- 4.2. Therapy Devices.- 4.3. Surgical Devices.- 4.4. Dentistry.- 5. Safe-Use Guidelines and Education.- 5.1. Guidelines.- 5.2. Education.- 6. International Activities.- 7. National Standards.- 8. Summary.- References.- Glossary of Ultrasound Terminology.