The Effect of a Score on Band Directors' Written Comments of a Recorded Performance (2012)

One of the goals of teacher preparation programs is to train future music educators to effectively detect errors in music ensemble performance. Students studying instrumental conducting generally receive training in aural discrimination: the ability to accurately and comprehensively identify music performance errors. One area of research has examined the effect of physical characteristics of music have on error detection. When examining college students' aural discrimination abilities, musical performance errors are more easily detected when the number of parts are only one or two (Byo, 1997) and the texture is homophonic as opposed to polyphonic (Byo, 1993, 1997). Rhythm errors are more likely to be detected than pitch errors (Byo, 1993, 1997; Sheldon, 1998). Other research has examined teacher characteristics and behaviors that could affect error detection. Increased knowledge of the score has been shown to increase error detection (Byo & Sheldon, 2000). When comparing college students, early research found no difference in error detection abilities between undergraduate and graduate students (Forsythe & Woods, 1983). Later research found an effect of age or experience with graduate students being more accurate at detecting performance errors than undergraduate students (Byo, 1997). In attempts to identify elements of effective music teacher preparation, research has examined training techniques and other behaviors that might affect error detection. Training in error detection transfers more effectively when training occurs on a podium in front of an actual group as opposed to a set of programmed materials (DeCarbo, 1982). Listening skills have been found to be inhibited while conducting (Forsythe & Woods, 1983). Other factors have been examined that do not affect error discrimination. Repeated listening has not been found to increase accuracy of error detection (Sheldon, 2004). Although there is evidence of previous experiences affecting score study, there is also evidence that college students have difficulty transferring previously learned musical skills into score study (Lane, 2006). Singing while listening to music has also been found to have little effect on error detection when the number of parts is minimal (Byo & Sheldon, 2000). Error detection and correction has also been studied in professional educators. Cavitt (2003) analyzed the verbal correction behavior of ten high school and middle school band directors using rehearsal frames developed by Duke (1994). The pacing of the rehearsal changed depending on the element of performance being addressed and different elements of music were given differing amounts of time during rehearsal. Although listening to a recording of the music while studying a score is practiced among many educators and conductors, this practice has been found not to affect error detection (Oyen, 1998; Sheldon, 2004). Repeated listening while looking at a score has not been found to significantly increase the amount of error-correction past the initital listening (Sheldon, 2004). A visual stimulus can be a distraction to interpretation of the aural stimulus. A score is the notated representation of the music that a conductor uses to rehearse. The factor of a visual stimulus directed towards the conductor occurs at the same time that the aural stimulus is being assessed. In a study using music accompanied by video stimulus, Iwamiya (1994) found that the presence of the video stimulus compensated for degradations in the quality of the sound stimulus. In relation to musical tension, the presence of a visual stimulus has been shown to decrease the extremity of responses when subjects were asked to assess musical tension (Frego, 1999). For performers, a visual stimulus may have little effect, especially on pitch perception (Salzberg, 1980). For directors and educators, the visual stimulus is helpful. Tempo changes that slow down are more discernible, both visually and aurally, than tempo changes that speed up (Brittin, 1993). …