Hydrogen (2000)

The article contains sections titled: 1. History 2. Properties 2.1. Physical Properties 2.1.1. General Physical Data 2.1.2. Solubilities, Diffusion Properties and Evaporation Equilibria 2.2. Chemical Properties 2.3. Ignition and Detonation Performance 2.4. Isotopes 3. Occurence 4. Production 4.1. Production from Coal and Hydrocarbons 4.1.1. Coke Oven Gas 4.1.2. Gasification of Coal and Hydrocarbons 4.1.2.1. Coal Gasification 4.1.2.2. Gasification of Liquid and Gaseous Hydrocarbons 4.1.2.3. Examples of Industrial Scale Hydrogen Production (by Partial Oxidation of Hydrocarbons) 4.1.3. Catalytic Reforming of Hydrocarbons 4.1.3.1. Feedstocks 4.1.3.2. Tubular Reformer 4.1.3.3. Steam Reforming Plant 4.1.3.4. Special Designs 4.1.3.5. Autothermal Reactors 4.1.4. Refinery Processes 4.1.5. Petrochemical Processes 4.2. Electrolysis 4.2.1. Principles 4.2.2. Conventional Water Electrolysis 4.2.3. New Developments in Electrolytic Processes 4.2.4. Hydrogen as Byproduct from other Electrochemical Processes 4.3. Thermochemical Water Cleavage 4.3.1. Thermodynamics of Closed Cycles 4.3.2. Further Criteria of Thermochemical Cycles 4.3.3. Thermochemical Cyclic Processes 4.3.4. Hybrid Cycle Processes 4.4. Other Methods for the Cleavage of Water 4.4.1. Thermolytic and Radiolytic Processes 4.4.2. Photochemical or Photoelectrical Water Cleavage 4.4.3. Hydrogen Formation in Biological Systems 4.5. Other Chemical Processes 4.5.1. Hydrogen from Conversion of Metals 4.5.2. Hydrogen from Ammonia 4.5.3. Hydrogen from Methanol 4.5.4. Hydrogen from Hydrogen Sulfide 4.5.5. Hydrogen as Byproduct 4.6. Economic Aspects 4.6.1. Analysis of the Cost Structure 4.6.2. Prognosis of the Hydrogen Costs 5. Purification of Hydrogen 5.1. Low-Temperature Processes 5.1.1. Condensation Processes 5.1.2. Condensation and Rectification 5.1.3. Low-Temperature Absorption Processes 5.2. Adsorption Processes 5.2.1. Principles 5.2.2. Thermally Regenerated Adsorbers 5.2.3. Pressure-Swing Adsorption (PSA) 5.3. Catalytic Gas Purification 5.3.1. Carbon Monoxide Removal 5.3.2. Methanation 5.3.3. Selective Oxidation 5.3.4. Catalytic Removal of Sulfur Compounds 5.3.5. Removal of Oxygen 5.3.6. Removal of Nitrogen Oxides 5.4. Scrubbing Processes 5.4.1. Principles 5.4.2. Physical Scrubbing (Rectisol Process) 5.4.3. Chemical Scrubbing Processes 5.5. Permeation Processes 5.5.1. Metal Membrane Techniques 5.5.2. Polymer Membrane Processes 6. Liquefaction of Hydrogen 6.1. Principles of Hydrogen Liquefaction 6.2. Liquefaction Plants 6.3. Further Developments 7. Handling of Hydrogen 7.1. Quality Specifications 7.2. Compression and Expansion 7.3. Transportation and Distribution 7.4. Storage 7.5. Materials 7.6. Removal of Hydrogen 7.7. Safety Aspects 7.8. Toxicology 7.9. Analysis 8. Conventional Uses 8.1. Hydrogen in the Chemical Industry 8.1.1. Ammonia Synthesis 8.1.2. Hydrogen in Refinery Processes 8.1.3. Hydrogen in Coal Refinement 8.1.4. Synthesis Gas 8.1.5. Hydrogen in Organic Synthesis 8.1.6. Hydrogen in Inorganic Synthesis 8.2. Hydrogen in Metallurgy 8.3. Other Uses 9. Hydrogen Energy 9.1. Aims of the Hydrogen Energy Economy 9.2. Production Systems for Hydrogen Energy 9.2.1. Energy Sources 9.2.2. Production Methods for the Energy Carrier Hydrogen 9.3. Hydrogen-Energy Conversion Systems 9.3.1. New Developments for Hydrogen Storage 9.3.1.1. Cryoadsorption 9.3.1.2. Hydride Technology 9.3.1.3. Liquid Organic Hydrogen Carriers 9.3.2. Combustion and Heating 9.3.3. Hydrogen Fuel Systems 9.3.3.1. Hydrogen Propulsion Systems for Space 9.3.3.2. Hydrogen as Aviation Fuel 9.3.3.3. Hydrogen for Automotive Vehicle Transport 9.3.4. Electricity Generation from Hydrogen 9.3.4.1. Heat - Power Processes 9.3.4.2. Electrochemical Energy Conversion 9.4. Future Developments 9.4.1. Production Schemes 9.4.2. Hydrogen Energy Economics 9.4.3. International Research