Vitamins (2000)

The article contains sections titled: 1. Introduction 1.1. Definition 1.2. Substances with Vitamin-Like Character 1.3. History 1.4. Determination of Requirement 1.5. Application and Tolerance 1.6. Studies with Vitamins 1.7. Use of Vitamins in Food- and Feedstuffs 1.8. Antivitamins 1.9. Analysis of Vitamins 1.10. Production 2. Vitamin A (Retinoids) 2.1. Introduction 2.2. Historical Aspects 2.3. Physical Properties 2.4. Chemical Properties 2.5. Occurrence 2.6. Biosynthesis 2.7. Production 2.7.1. Isolation and Purification from Natural Raw Materials 2.7.2. Industrial Synthesis 2.8. Metabolism and Physiological Functions 2.8.1. Preformed Vitamin A 2.8.2. β-Carotene 2.9. Deficiency Symptoms and Requirements 2.10. Analysis and Standardization 2.11. Trade Names and Economic Aspects 2.12. Tolerance 3. Vitamin D 3.1. Introduction 3.2. History 3.3. Structure and Nomenclature 3.4. Chemical and Physical Properties 3.5. Biosynthesis and Occurrence 3.5.1. Biosynthesis 3.5.2. Occurrence 3.6. Vitamin D Requirements 3.7. Pharmacological Effects and Uses 3.7.1. Calcium Homeostasis and Disorders of Calcium Metabolism 3.7.2. Further Activities 3.8. Synthesis 3.8.1. Synthesis of Vitamin D3 and D2 3.8.2. Synthesis of Calcitriol 3.9. Assays for Vitamin D and Metabolites 3.10. Trade Names and Economic Aspects 4. Vitamin E (Tocopherols, Tocotrienols) 4.1. Introduction 4.2. History 4.3. Physical Properties 4.4. Chemical Properties 4.5. Metabolism and Importance in the Organism 4.6. Deficiency, Requirement, and Application 4.7. Analysis and Standardization 4.8. Occurrence 4.9. Economic Aspects 4.10. Biosynthesis 4.11. Production 4.11.1. Semisynthetic Vitamin E: Isolation from Plant Oils and Methylation 4.11.2. Totally Synthetic Vitamin E: Industrial Synthesis 4.11.3. Trimethylhydroquinone 4.11.4. Phytol and Isophytol 4.11.5. Stereoselective Syntheses of α-Tocopherol 5. Vitamin K 5.1. Introduction; History 5.2. Physical Properties 5.3. Chemical Properties 5.4. Occurrence 5.5. Biosynthesis 5.6. Chemical Synthesis 5.7. Analysis 5.8. Metabolism 5.9. Importance for the Organism 5.9.1. Function 5.9.2. Antagonists and Anticoagulants 5.9.3. Relative Activity 5.10. Deficiency Symptoms 5.10.1. Causes 5.10.2. Evaluation of Vitamin K Status 5.11. Requirement 5.12. Application 5.13. Tolerance 5.14. Trade Names and Economic Aspects 6. Vitamin B1 (Thiamin) 6.1. Structure and Nomenclature 6.2. History 6.3. Physical Properties 6.4. Chemical Properties 6.5. Natural Occurrence and Isolation 6.6. Biosynthesis in Microorganisms 6.6.1. Biosynthesis of the Pyrimidine Component in Prokaryotes 6.6.2. Biosynthesis of the Pyrimidine Component in Eukaryotes 6.6.3. Biosynthesis of the Thiazole Component 6.6.4. Biosynthesis of Thiamin Pyrophosphate 6.6.5. Thiamin Biosynthetic Genes from E. coli 6.6.6. Mapping and Cloning of Thiamin Biosynthetic Genes from Other Species 6.6.7. Regulation of Thiamin Biosynthesis in Prokaryotes 6.6.8. Regulation of Thiamin Biosynthesis in Yeasts 6.6.9. Thiamin-Overexpressing Microorganisms 6.7. Chemical Synthesis 6.7.1. Condensation of the Pyrimidine and Thiazole Rings 6.7.2. Construction of the Thiazole Ring on a Preformed Pyrimidine Portion 6.8. Commercial Forms 6.9. Derivatives, Analogues, and Antimetabolites 6.10. Biochemical and Physiological Functions 6.10.1. Metabolic Functions in the Organism 6.10.2. Thiamin Requirements and Deficiency 6.11. Analytical Methods 7. Riboflavin 7.1. Introduction 7.2. History 7.3. Physical and Chemical Properties 7.4. Occurrence 7.5. Biosynthesis 7.6. Production 7.6.1. Syntheses 7.6.2. Industrial Chemical Production 7.6.3. Industrial Production by Fermentation 7.6.4. Syntheses of Flavin Mononucleotide (FMN) 7.6.5. Syntheses of Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide (FAD) 7.7. Importance for the Organism 7.8. Requirements, Deficiency Symptoms, and Therapeutic Application 7.9. Analysis 7.10. Economic Aspects 7.11. Tolerance 8. Vitamin B6 8.1. Introduction 8.2. History 8.3. Physical Properties 8.4. Chemical Reactions 8.5. Occurrence 8.6. Biosynthesis 8.7. Production of Vitamin B6 Compounds 8.7.1. Pyridoxine 8.7.1.1. Oxidative Degradation of Bicyclic Heterocyclic Compounds 8.7.1.2. Condensation Reactions with Aliphatic Precursors 8.7.1.3. From Furan Compounds 8.7.1.4. Diels - Alder Syntheses with Oxazoles 8.7.1.5. Cobalt-Catalyzed [2+2+2]-Cycloaddition Reactions of Acetylenes and Acetonitrile 8.7.2. Pyridoxine 5′-Phosphate 8.7.3. Pyridoxal 8.7.4. Pyridoxal 5′-Phosphate 8.7.5. Pyridoxamine 8.7.6. Pyridoxamine 5′-Phosphate 8.8. Metabolism and Importance for the Organism 8.9. Deficiency Symptoms and Applications 8.10. Analysis 8.11. Economic Aspects 8.12. Requirements and Tolerance 9. Vitamin B12 (Cobalamins) 9.1. Introduction 9.2. Properties of Vitamin B12 9.3. Analysis 9.4. Biosynthesis 9.5. Production 9.5.1. Fermentation 9.5.2. Work-Up 9.5.3. Patents and Scientific Survey 9.6. Specifications and Legal Aspects 9.7. Economic Aspects 10. Vitamin C (l-Ascorbic Acid) 10.1. Introduction 10.2. History 10.3. Physical and Chemical Properties 10.4. Analysis 10.5. Occurrence and Sources of Vitamin C 10.6. Biosynthesis 10.7. Manufacture of Vitamin C 10.7.1. Reichstein Synthesis 10.7.2. Industrial Manufacture by the Reichstein Route 10.7.3. Other Methods for Production of Ascorbic Acid 10.8. Absorption and Metabolism 10.9. Medical Aspects of Vitamin C 10.10. Industrial Uses 10.11. Economic Aspects 11. Pantothenic Acid 11.1. Introduction 11.2. History 11.3. Physical and Chemical Properties 11.4. Occurrence 11.5. Biosynthesis 11.6. Production 11.7. Metabolism and Importance for the Organisms; Coenzyme A and its Precursors 11.8. Deficiency Symptoms, Requirement, and Application 11.9. Analysis 11.10. Economic Aspects 12. Biotin 12.1. Introduction 12.2. History 12.3. Physical and Chemical Properties 12.4. Occurrence 12.5. Biosynthesis 12.6. Function as Prosthetic Group 12.7. Isolation and Production 12.8. Metabolism and Importance for the Organism 12.9. Deficiency Symptoms, Requirement, and Application 12.9.1. Symptoms and Therapy in Humans 12.9.2. Symptoms and Therapy in Animals 12.10. Biotin Analogs 12.11. Analysis and Standardization 12.12. Uses and Economic Aspects 12.13. Tolerance and Environmental Protection 13. Folic Acid 13.1. Introduction 13.2. Historical Notes 13.3. Properties 13.4. Content in Food and Bioavailability 13.5. Biosynthesis 13.6. Chemical Synthesis 13.7. Metabolism and Biochemical Functions 13.8. Nutritional Requirements and Medical Use 13.9. Analysis 13.10. Economic Aspects 14. Niacin (Nicotinic Acid, Nicotinamide) 14.1. Introduction 14.2. Physical and Chemical Properties 14.3. Biochemical Functions 14.4. Production 14.5. Quality Specifications 14.6. Analysis 14.7. Uses 14.8. Economic Aspects 14.9. Toxicology