Lyman Creighton Craig: Developer of the Counter-current Distribution Method (2005)

Identification of Small Amounts of Organic Compounds by Distribution Studies. Application to Atabrine (Craig, L. C. (1943) J. Biol. Chem. 150, 33-45) Identification of Small Amounts of Organic Compounds by Distribution Studies. II. Separation By Counter-current Distribution (Craig, L. C. (1944) J. Biol. Chem. 155, 519-534) Lyman Creighton Craig (1906-1974) was born on a farm in Iowa. Influenced by his older brother's enthusiasm for chemistry, Craig graduated from Iowa State College in 1928 with a B.S. degree. He remained at Iowa State for graduate school where he majored in chemistry and minored in entomology, partly due to his appreciation for the role of insecticides in agriculture. After earning his Ph.D. in 1931, Craig went to Johns Hopkins University to study with E. Emmet Reid. During his three years at Iowa State and his two years at Johns Hopkins, Craig published twelve papers, mostly in the Journal of the American Chemical Society, on the chemistry of nicotine alkaloids and their insecticidal action. 1All biographical information on Lyman C. Craig was taken from Ref. 7Moore S. Biographical Memoir ofLyman Creighton Craig. 49. National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C.1978: 49-77Google Scholar.1All biographical information on Lyman C. Craig was taken from Ref. 7Moore S. Biographical Memoir ofLyman Creighton Craig. 49. National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C.1978: 49-77Google Scholar. These accomplishments earned Craig an appointment in 1933 as a research assistant in chemical pharmacology at the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research in New York. At Rockefeller, Craig worked on the ergot alkaloids with Walter A. Jacobs, the subject of a previous Journal of Biological Chemistry (JBC) Classic (1Classics JBC Jacobs W.A. Craig L.C. J. Biol. Chem. 1934; 104 (http://www.jbc.org/cgi/content/full/277/38/e26): 547-551Abstract Full Text PDF Google Scholar). Craig was a gifted experimentalist with skill in equipment design, and his first of many contributions to chemical instrumentation was in 1936 when he designed and built a microdistillation apparatus (2Craig L.C. A microdistillation apparatus.Ind. Eng. Chem. Anal. Ed. 1936; 8: 219-220Crossref Scopus (2) Google Scholar). Craig was forced to shift his research focus during the war and applied his efforts to aspects of the wartime program on antimalarials. It was during the course of examining whether the antimalarial drug atabrine, or a product of its metabolism, was the active parasiticide in humans that Craig invented a laboratory apparatus for the separation of organic compounds by the technique of counter-current distribution (CCD). Faced with having to identify small amounts of atabrine and its transformation products in urine and blood, Craig developed a method that could be used to accurately detect microgram amounts of compounds. This method is the subject of the first JBC Classic reprinted here. Milton T. Bush of Vanderbilt University School of Medicine suggested to Craig that the distribution coefficient might be a useful physical constant for the identification and purity determination of an organic compound that could be used along with the melting point and the boiling point. Craig enlarged upon this idea by measuring a series of distribution constants (“the ratio of the weight per cc. in ethylene dichloride solution to the apparent weight so derived for the aqueous layer”) for atabrine while progressively diluting the solution with methyl alcohol. He repeated the experiment with several compounds closely related to atabrine. The resulting plots of distribution coefficients versus volume percentage of water in the aqueous phase gave characteristic curves for each compound. Craig then used these standard curves to analyze the blood and urine from patients and dogs receiving atabrine. A. J. P. Martin and R. L. M. Synge at the Wool Research Laboratory in Leeds, England used CCD to separate different types of N-acetyl amino acids, which were prepared by acteylation of the amino acids in acid hydrolysates of wool. They did this manually in separatory funnels by transferring the dissolved N-acetyl amino acids partitioned between the upper and lower phases of two immiscible solvents from one funnel to another. This then led them to use the principle of CCD to develop partition chromatography in which one of the liquid phases was immobilized on a column of gel, and the other phase, the mobile phase, was passed down the column. Partition chromatography led then to the development of paper chromatography that opened new worlds to biochemists. Craig, however, decided to build an apparatus for the separation of mixtures of organic compounds by CCD. In the second JBC Classic reprinted here, Craig describes an apparatus that could accomplish, simultaneously, 20 quantitative extractions in a single step. The device, which was made of stainless steel, consisted of a series of 20 small separatory funnels (plates) with the capability, after each shaking and settling, of sliding the top phase from one funnel into the lower phase of the next. The distribution of the compounds being extracted was based on a Gaussian curve that could be calculated from the number of plates, the distribution constant, and the concentration. He tested his apparatus on β-naphthoic acid in an ethylene dichloride-water-methanol solvent system and showed that the actual performance of the machine was very close to theoretical predictions. The novelty and originality of this work is attested by the fact that Craig is the sole author and there are no references cited at the end of the paper. Craig's first major application of this technique was with Vincent du Vigneaud, author of a previous JBC Classic (3du Vigneaud V. Cohn M. Chandler J.P. Schenck J.R. Simmonds S. J. Biol.Chem. 1941; 140: 625-641Abstract Full Text PDF Google Scholardu Vigneaud V. Melville D.B. Folkers K. Wolf D.E. Mozingo R. Keresztesy J.C. Harris S.A. J. Biol. Chem. 1942; 146: 475-485Abstract Full Text PDF Google Scholardu Vigneaud V. Ressler C. Trippett S. J. Biol. Chem. 1953; 205: 949-957Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google ScholarKatsoyannis P.G. du Vigneaud V. J. Biol. Chem. 1958; 233 (JBC Classics (http://www.jbc.org/cgi/content/full/279/51/e11)): 1352-1354Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar), in characterizing penicillins and estimating the purity of benzylpenicillin, with an ether-aqueous buffer solvent system (4Craig L.C. Hogeboom G.H. Carpenter F.H. du Vigneaud V. Separation and characterization of some penicillins bythe method of counter-current distribution.J. Biol.Chem. 1947; 168: 665-686Abstract Full Text PDF PubMed Google Scholar). In 1950 he built a 200-tube CCD apparatus made from glass and another in 1958 with 1000 tubes. He used his equipment to examine substances such as gramicidin, bacitracin, insulin, bile acids, tyrocidine, serum albumin, parathyroid hormone, ribonucleic acids, and ribonuclease. CCD has also been used by other scientists to isolate hormones such as oxytocin, vasopressin, adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH), growth hormone, lactogenic hormone, melanophore-stimulating hormone, and parathyroid hormone. It has also aided in studies on the structure of the tobacco mosaic virus protein, human hemoglobin α and β chains, angiotensin, and other biologically active peptides. Also, CCD was used by Robert Holley at Cornell University to fractionate crude RNA from liver to give a pure tRNA, which was then fully sequenced for the first time. In addition to his CCD apparatus, Craig was involved in the design of several other instruments widely used in biochemistry. For example, his rotary evaporator for removal of solvents (5Craig L.C. Gregory J.D. Hausmann W. Versatile laboratory concentration device.Anal. Chem. 1950; 22: 1462Crossref Scopus (13) Google Scholar) increased the speed of the process and eliminated the problem of bumping of the solution often encountered in distillation. He also devised ways to use dialysis for the separation of compounds on the basis of size. He developed a dialysis cell in which the entering solution flows over a cellophane membrane, which is stretched or acetylated to vary the pore size (6Craig L.C. Stewart K. Dialysis. X. Onthin film counter-current dialysis.Biochemistry. 1965; 4: 2712-2719Crossref PubMed Scopus (11) Google Scholar). Because a molecule's ability to diffuse through a membrane depends on its conformation, Craig also used rotatory dispersion, nuclear magnetic resonance, tritium-hydrogen exchange, circular dichroism, and fluorescent probes to get additional information on the shapes of molecules in solution. This broad approach to studying polypeptide conformation was the principle theme of Craig's research at Rockefeller during the last decade of his life. Lyman Craig received wide recognition and many honors for his scientific work. He was elected to the National Academy of Sciences in 1950 and received the Albert Lasker Award for Basic Medical Research in 1963. In 1966 he received the Fisher Award in Analytical Chemistry from the American Chemical Society and the Kolthoff Medal of the American Pharmaceutical Association in 1971.