Applied Surfactants: Principles and Applications (2005)

Preface.1 Introduction.1.1 General Classification of Surface Active Agents.1.2 Anionic Surfactants.1.3 Cationic Surfactants.1.4 Amphoteric (Zwitterionic) Surfactants.1.5 Nonionic Surfactants.1.6 Speciality Surfactants - Fluorocarbon and Silicone Surfactants.1.7 Polymeric Surfactants.1.8 Toxicological and Environmental Aspects of Surfactants.2 Physical Chemistry of Surfactant Solutions.2.1 Properties of Solutions of Surface Active Agents.2.2 Solubility-Temperature Relationship for Surfactants.2.3 Thermodynamics of Micellization.2.4 Micellization in Surfactant Mixtures (Mixed Micelles).2.5 Surfactant-Polymer Interaction.3 Phase Behavior of Surfactant Systems.3.1 Solubility-Temperature Relationship for Ionic Surfactants.3.2 Surfactant Self-Assembly.3.3 Structure of Liquid Crystalline Phases.3.4 Experimental Studies of the Phase Behaviour of Surfactants.3.5 Phase Diagrams of Ionic Surfactants.3.6 Phase Diagrams of Nonionic Surfactants.4 Adsorption of Surfactants at the Air/Liquid and Liquid/Liquid Interfaces.4.1 Introduction.4.2 Adsorption of Surfactants.4.3 Interfacial Tension Measurements.5 Adsorption of Surfactants and Polymeric Surfactants at the Solid/Liquid Interface.5.1 Introduction.5.2 Surfactant Adsorption.5.3 Adsorption of Polymeric Surfactants at the Solid/Liquid Interface.5.4 Adsorption and Conformation of Polymeric Surfactants at Interfaces.5.5 Experimental Methods for Measurement of Adsorption Parameters for Polymeric Surfactants.6 Applications of Surfactants in Emulsion Formation and Stabilisation.6.1 Introduction.6.2 Physical Chemistry of Emulsion Systems.6.3 Mechanism of Emulsification.6.4 Methods of Emulsification.6.5 Role of Surfactants in Emulsion Formation.6.6 Selection of Emulsifiers.6.7 Cohesive Energy Ratio (CER) Concept for Emulsifier Selection.6.8 Critical Packing Parameter (CPP) for Emulsifier Selection.6.9 Creaming or Sedimentation of Emulsions.6.10 Flocculation of Emulsions.6.11 Ostwald Ripening.6.12 Emulsion Coalescence.6.13 Phase Inversion.6.14 Rheology of Emulsions.6.15 Interfacial Rheology.6.16 Investigations of Bulk Rheology of Emulsion Systems.6.17 Experimental Methods for Assessing Emulsion Stability.7 Surfactants as Dispersants and Stabilisation of Suspensions.7.1 Introduction.7.2 Role of Surfactants in Preparation of Solid/Liquid Dispersions.7.3 Effect of Surfactant Adsorption.7.4 Wetting of Powders by Liquids.7.5 Rate of Penetration of Liquids.7.6 Structure of the Solid/Liquid Interface.7.7 Structure of the Electrical Double Layer.7.8 Electrical Double Layer Repulsion.7.9 Van der Waals Attraction.7.10 Total Energy of Interaction: Deryaguin-Landau-Verwey-Overbeek (DLVO) Theory.7.11 Criteria for Stabilisation of Dispersions with Double Layer Interaction.7.12 Electrokinetic Phenomena and the Zeta Potential.7.13 Calculation of Zeta Potential.7.14 Measurement of Electrophoretic Mobility.7.15 General Classification of Dispersing Agents.7.16 Steric Stabilisation of Suspensions.7.17 Interaction Between Particles Containing Adsorbed Polymer Layers.7.18 Criteria for Effective Steric Stabilisation.7.19 Flocculation of Sterically Stabilised Dispersions.7.20 Properties of Concentrated Suspensions.7.21 Characterisation of Suspensions and Assessment of their Stability.7.22 Bulk Properties of Suspensions.7.23 Sedimentation of Suspensions and Prevention of Formation of Dilatant Sediments (Clays).7.24 Prevention of Sedimentation and Formation of Dilatant Sediments.8 Surfactants in Foams.8.1 Introduction.8.2 Foam Preparation.8.3 Foam Structure.8.4 Classification of Foam Stability.8.5 Drainage and Thinning of Foam Films.8.6 Theories of Foam Stability.8.7 Foam Inhibitors.8.8 Physical Properties of Foams.8.9 Experimental Techniques for Studying Foams.9 Surfactants in Nano-Emulsions.9.1 Introduction.9.2 Mechanism of Emulsification.9.3 Methods of Emulsification and the Role of Surfactants.9.4 Preparation of Nano-Emulsions.9.5 Steric Stabilization and the Role of the Adsorbed Layer Thickness.9.6 Ostwald Ripening.9.7 Practical Examples of Nano-Emulsions.10 Microemulsions.10.1 Introduction.10.2 Thermodynamic Definition of Microemulsions.10.3 Mixed Film and Solubilisation Theories of Microemulsions.10.4 Thermodynamic Theory of Microemulsion Formation.10.5 Free Energy of Formation of Microemulsion.10.6 Factors Determining W/O versus O/W Microemulsions.10.7 Characterisation of Microemulsions Using Scattering Techniques.11 Role of Surfactants in Wetting, Spreading and Adhesion.11.1 General Introduction.11.2 Concept of Contact Angle.11.3 Adhesion Tension.11.4 Work of Adhesion Wa.11.5 Work of Cohesion.11.6 Calculation of Surface Tension and Contact Angle.11.7 Spreading of Liquids on Surfaces.11.8 Contact Angle Hysteresis.11.9 Critical Surface Tension of Wetting and the Role of Surfactants.11.10 Effect of Surfactant Adsorption.11.11 Measurement of Contact Angles.11.12 Dynamic Processes of Adsorption and Wetting.11.13 Wetting Kinetics.11.14 Adhesion.11.15 Deposition of Particles on Surfaces.11.16 Particle-Surface Adhesion.11.17 Role of Particle Deposition and Adhesion in Detergency.12 Surfactants in Personal Care and Cosmetics.12.1 Introduction.12.2 Surfactants Used in Cosmetic Formulations.12.3 Cosmetic Emulsions.12.4 Nano-Emulsions in Cosmetics.12.5 Microemulsions in Cosmetics.12.6 Liposomes (Vesicles).12.7 Multiple Emulsions.12.8 Polymeric Surfactants and Polymers in Personal Care and Cosmetic Formulations.12.9 Industrial Examples of Personal Care Formulations and the Role of Surfactants.13 Surfactants in Pharmaceutical Formulations.13.1 General Introduction.13.2 Surfactants in Disperse Systems.13.3 Electrostatic Stabilisation of Disperse Systems.13.4 Steric Stabilization of Disperse Systems.13.5 Surface Activity and Colloidal Properties of Drugs.13.6 Biological Implications of the Presence of Surfactants in Pharmaceutical Formulations.13.7 Aspects of Surfactant Toxicity.13.8 Solubilised Systems.13.9 Pharmaceutical Suspensions.13.10 Pharmaceutical Emulsions.13.11 Multiple Emulsions in Pharmacy.13.12 Liposomes and Vesicles in Pharmacy.13.13 Nano-particles, Drug Delivery and Drug Targeting.13.14 Topical Formulations and Semi-solid Systems.14 Applications of Surfactants in Agrochemicals.14.1 Introduction.14.2 Emulsifiable Concentrates.14.3 Concentrated Emulsions in Agrochemicals (EWs).14.4 Suspension Concentrates (SCs).14.5 Microemulsions in Agrochemicals.14.6 Role of Surfactants in Biological Enhancement.15 Surfactants in the Food Industry.15.1 Introduction.15.2 Interaction Between Food-grade Surfactants and Water.15.3 Proteins as Emulsifiers.15.4 Protein-Polysaccharide Interactions in Food Colloids.15.5 Polysaccharide-Surfactant Interactions.15.6 Surfactant Association Structures, Microemulsions and Emulsions in Food.15.7 Effect of Food Surfactants on the Rheology of Food Emulsions.15.8 Practical Applications of Food Colloids.Subject Index.