Applied digital optics from micro-optics to nanophotonics (2009)

About the Authors. Foreword by Professor Joseph Goodman. Foreword by Professor Trevor Hall. Acknowledgments. Acronyms. Introduction . Why a Book on Digital Optics? Digital versus Analog. What are Digital Optics? The Realm of Digital Optics. 1 From Refraction to Diffraction . 1.1 Refraction and Diffraction Phenomena. 1.2 Understanding the Diffraction Phenomenon. 1.3 No More Parasitic Effects. 1.4 From Refractive Optics to Diffractive Optics. 1.5 From Diffractive Optics to Digital Optics. 1.6 Are Diffractives and Refractives Interchangeable Elements? 2 Classification of Digital Optics 2.1 Early Digital Optics. 2.2 Guided-wave Digital Optics. 2.3 Free-space Digital Optics. 2.4 Hybrid Digital Optics. 3 Guided-wave Digital Optics 3.1 From Optical Fibers to Planar Lightwave Circuits (PLCs). 3.2 Light Propagation in Waveguides. 3.3 The Optical Fiber. 3.4 The Dielectric Slab Waveguide. 3.5 Channel Waveguides. 3.6 PLC In- and Out-coupling. 3.7 Functionality Integration. 4 Refractive Micro-optics 4.1 Micro-optics in Nature. 4.2 GRIN Lenses. 4.3 Surface-relief Micro-optics. 4.4 Micro-optics Arrays. 5 Digital Diffractive Optics: Analytic Type. 5.1 Analytic and Numeric Digital Diffractives. 5.2 The Notion of Diffraction Orders. 5.3 Diffraction Gratings. 5.4 Diffractive Optical Elements. 5.5 Diffractive Interferogram Lenses. 6 Digital Diffractive Optics: Numeric Type. 6.1 Computer-generated Holograms. 6.2 Designing CGHs. 6.3 Multiplexing CGHs. 6.4 Various CGH Functionality Implementations. 7 Digital Hybrid Optics 7.1 Why Combine Different Optical Elements? 7.2 Analysis of Lens Aberrations. 7.3 Improvement of Optical Functionality. 7.4 The Generation of Novel Optical Functionality. 7.5 Waveguide-based Hybrid Optics. 7.6 Reducing Weight, Size and Cost. 7.7 Specifying Hybrid Optics in Optical CAD/CAM. 7.8 A Parametric Design Example of Hybrid Optics via Ray-tracing Techniques. 8 Digital Holographic Optics 8.1 Conventional Holography. 8.2 Different Types of Holograms. 8.3 Unique Features of Holograms. 8.4 Modeling the Behavior of Volume Holograms. 8.5 HOE Lenses. 8.6 HOE Design Tools. 8.7 Holographic Origination Techniques. 8.8 Holographic Materials for HOEs. 8.9 Other Holographic Techniques. 9 Dynamic Digital Optics 9.1 An Introduction to Dynamic Digital Optics. 9.2 Switchable Digital Optics. 9.3 Tunable Digital Optics. 9.4 Reconfigurable Digital Optics. 9.5 Digital Software Lenses: Wavefront Coding. 10 Digital Nano-optics 10.1 The Concept of 'Nano' in Optics. 10.2 Sub-wavelength Gratings. 10.3 Modeling Sub-wavelength Gratings. 10.4 Engineering Effective Medium Optical Elements. 10.5 Form Birefringence Materials. 10.6 Guided Mode Resonance Gratings. 10.7 Surface Plasmonics. 10.8 Photonic Crystals. 10.9 Optical Metamaterials. 11 Digital Optics Modeling Techniques . 11.1 Tools Based on Ray Tracing. 11.2 Scalar Diffraction Based Propagators. 11.3 Beam Propagation Modeling (BPM) Methods. 11.4 Nonparaxial Diffraction Regime Issues. 11.5 Rigorous Electromagnetic Modeling Techniques. 11.6 Digital Optics Design and Modeling Tools Available Today. 11.7 Practical Paraxial Numeric Modeling Examples. 12 Digital Optics Fabrication Techniques. 12.1 Holographic Origination. 12.2 Diamond Tool Machining. 12.3 Photo-reduction. 12.4 Microlithographic Fabrication of Digital Optics. 12.5 Micro-refractive Element Fabrication Techniques. 12.6 Direct Writing Techniques. 12.7 Gray-scale Optical Lithography. 12.8 Front/Back Side Wafer Alignments and Wafer Stacks. 12.9 A Summary of Fabrication Techniques. 13 Design for Manufacturing. 13.1 The Lithographic Challenge. 13.2 Software Solutions: Reticle Enhancement Techniques. 13.3 Hardware Solutions. 13.4 Process Solutions. 14 Replication Techniques for Digital Optics. 14.1 The LIGA Process. 14.2 Mold Generation Techniques. 14.3 Embossing Techniques. 14.4 The UV Casting Process. 14.5 Injection Molding Techniques. 14.6 The Sol-Gel Process. 14.7 The Nano-replication Process. 14.8 A Summary of Replication Technologies. 15 Specifying and Testing Digital Optics. 15.1 Fabless Lithographic Fabrication Management. 15.2 Specifying the Fabrication Process. 15.3 Fabrication Evaluation. 15.4 Optical Functionality Evaluation. 16 Digital Optics Application Pools. 16.1 Heavy Industry. 16.2 Defense, Security and Space. 16.3 Clean Energy. 16.4 Factory Automation. 16.5 Optical Telecoms. 16.6 Biomedical Applications. 16.7 Entertainment and Marketing. 16.8 Consumer Electronics. 16.9 Summary. 16.10 The Future of Digital Optics. Conclusion. Appendix A: Rigorous Theory of Diffraction. A.1 Maxwell's Equations. A.2 Wave Propagation and the Wave Equation. A.3 Towards a Scalar Field Representation. Appendix B: The Scalar Theory of Diffraction. B.1 Full Scalar Theory. B.2 Scalar Diffraction Models for Digital Optics. B.3 Extended Scalar Models. Appendix C: FFTs and DFTs in Optics. C.1 The Fourier Transform in Optics Today. C.2 Conditions for the Existence of the Fourier Transform. C.3 The Complex Fourier Transform. C.4 The Discrete Fourier Transform. C.5 The Properties of the Fourier Transform and Examples in Optics. C.6 Other Transforms. Index.