Deep Venous Thrombosis (2004)

Venous thromboembolism (VTE), manifested as either deep venous thrombosis (DVT) or pulmonary embolism (PE), is an extremely common medical problem, occurring either in isolation or as a complication of other diseases or procedures. Yet, despite its frequency, much remains to be learned regarding the pathogenic mechanisms that initiate VTE, about tailoring its treatment to the individual with her/his specific set of risk factors for recurrence, and about its medical management when associated with specific disease entities, such as cancer. These three topics are addressed in this chapter. In Section I, Drs. López and Conde discuss the mechanisms by which venous thrombi may be initiated on the vessel wall in the absence of anatomically overt vessel wall injury. The authors propose a model whereby tissue factor (TF)-bearing microvesicles that arise from cells of monocyte/macrophage lineage can fuse with activated endothelial cells in regions of vessel activation or inflammation and initiate blood coagulation. Key components of this model include docking of the microvesicles to the stimulated endothelium through P-selectin glycoprotein ligand-1 on their surfaces binding to either P-selectin or E-selectin on the endothelium, and the role of hypoxia during blood stasis in initiating local endothelial activation. Elevations in the levels of TF-bearing microvesicles associated with inflammatory conditions would help to explain the increased risk of thrombosis associated with infections and inflammatory states such as inflammatory bowel disease. In Section II, Dr. Clive Kearon discusses the risk factors for recurrent thrombosis and strategies for determining length of therapy and tailoring specific therapies through risk stratification. Those patients who experience VTE in association with a major reversible risk factor such as surgery are much less likely to experience a recurrence when anticoagulation is discontinued than are patients with a persistent risk factor, such as thrombophilia or cancer unresponsive to therapy. Those with a minor reversible risk factor, such as prolonged air travel, have an intermediate risk of recurrence after discontinuance of anticoagulant therapy. The author provides an algorithm for using risk assessment as a means of determining the length and type of therapy to be used to minimize the rate of recurrence while simultaneously diminishing the risk of bleeding associated with anticoagulation. In Section III, Dr. Agnes Lee updates the topic of VTE associated with malignancy. Patients with cancer make up approximately 20% of those presenting with first time VTE, and the presence of VTE forebodes a much poorer prognosis for patients with cancer, likely because of the morbidity associated with VTE itself and because VTE may herald a more aggressive cancer. Recent evidence indicates that low-molecular weight heparins (LMWHs) improve survival in patients with advanced cancer through mechanisms beyond their effect as anticoagulants. Because of their improved efficacy and safety and potential anti-neoplastic effect, the LMWHs have become the anticoagulants of choice for treating VTE associated with cancer.