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+Produced by Stephen Hope, Joseph Cooper, Emmy and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CHILD'S HEALTH PRIMER.
+
+[Illustration: WASTING MONEY. (See p. 123.)]
+
+
+PATHFINDER PHYSIOLOGY No. 1
+
+
+
+
+CHILD'S
+
+HEALTH PRIMER
+
+FOR PRIMARY CLASSES
+
+          WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE EFFECTS OF ALCOHOLIC DRINKS,
+          STIMULANTS, AND NARCOTICS UPON THE HUMAN SYSTEM
+
+
+          INDORSED BY THE
+          SCIENTIFIC DEPARTMENT OF THE
+          WOMEN'S CHRISTIAN TEMPERANCE UNION
+          OF THE
+          UNITED STATES
+
+
+          COPYRIGHT, 1885
+          A. S. BARNES & COMPANY
+          NEW YORK AND CHICAGO
+
+
+
+
+          PATHFINDER SERIES
+          OF TEXT BOOKS ON
+          ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE.
+
+          With Special Reference to the Influence of Alcoholic
+          Drinks and Narcotics on the Human System.
+
+          INDORSED BY THE SCIENTIFIC DEPARTMENT OF THE
+          WOMEN'S CHRISTIAN TEMPERANCE UNION OF THE UNITED
+          STATES.
+
+
+          I.
+          FOR PRIMARY GRADES.
+          THE CHILD'S HEALTH PRIMER.
+          12mo. Cloth.
+
+          An introduction to the study of the science, suited to
+          pupils of the ordinary third reader grade.
+
+          Full of lively description and embellished by many apt
+          illustrations.
+
+
+          II.
+          FOR INTERMEDIATE CLASSES.
+          HYGIENE FOR YOUNG PEOPLE.
+          12mo. Cloth. Beautifully illustrated.
+
+          Suited to pupils able to read any fourth reader.
+
+          An admirable elementary treatise upon the subject.
+
+          The principles of the science more fully announced
+          and illustrated.
+
+
+          III.
+          FOR HIGH SCHOOLS AND ACADEMIES.
+          HYGIENIC PHYSIOLOGY.
+          12mo. Beautifully illustrated.
+          A MORE ELABORATE TREATISE.
+
+          Prepared for the instruction of youth in the principles which
+          underlie the preservation of health and the
+          formation of correct physical habits.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+As this little book goes to press, Massachusetts, by an act of its
+legislature, is made the fourteenth state in this country that requires
+the pupils in the primary, as well as in the higher grades of public
+schools, to be taught the effects of alcoholics and other narcotics upon
+the human system, in connection with other facts of physiology and
+hygiene.
+
+The object of all this legislation is, not that the future citizen may
+know the technical names of bones, nerves, and muscles, but that he may
+have a _=timely=_ and _=forewarning=_ knowledge of the effects of
+alcohol and other popular poisons upon the human body, and therefore
+upon life and character.
+
+With every reason in favor of such education, and the law requiring it,
+its practical tests in the school-room will result in failure, unless
+there shall be ready for teacher and scholar, a well-arranged, simple,
+and practical book, bringing these truths down to the capacity of the
+child.
+
+A few years hence, when the results of this study in our Normal Schools
+shall be realized in the preparation of the teacher, we can depend upon
+her adapting oral lessons from advanced works on this theme, but now,
+the average primary teacher brings to this study no experience, and
+limited previous study.
+
+To meet this need, this work has been prepared. Technical terms have
+been avoided, and only such facts of physiology developed as are
+necessary to the treatment of the effects of alcohol, tobacco, opium,
+and other truths of hygiene.
+
+To the children in the Primary Schools of this country, for whom it was
+prepared, this work is dedicated.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+  CHAPTER                                      PAGE
+
+          FRONTISPIECE                            2
+
+          TITLE-PAGE                              3
+
+          PREFACE                                 5
+
+          CONTENTS                                7
+
+      I.--JOINTS AND BONES                        9
+
+     II.--MUSCLES                                19
+
+    III.--NERVES                                 25
+
+     IV.--WHAT IS ALCOHOL?                       37
+
+      V.--BEER                                   43
+
+     VI.--DISTILLING                             47
+
+    VII.--ALCOHOL                                50
+
+   VIII.--TOBACCO                                53
+
+     IX.--OPIUM                                  59
+
+      X.--WHAT ARE ORGANS?                       61
+
+     XI.--WHAT DOES THE BODY NEED FOR FOOD?      71
+
+    XII.--HOW FOOD BECOMES PART OF THE BODY      79
+
+   XIII.--STRENGTH                               85
+
+    XIV.--THE HEART                              93
+
+     XV.--THE LUNGS                              97
+
+    XVI.--THE SKIN                              103
+
+   XVII.--THE SENSES                            109
+
+  XVIII.--HEAT AND COLD                         115
+
+    XIX.--WASTED MONEY                          122
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+JOINTS AND BONES.
+
+
+[Illustration: L]ITTLE girls like a jointed doll to play with, because
+they can bend such a doll in eight or ten places, make it stand or sit,
+or can even play that it is walking.
+
+[Illustration: _Jointed dolls._]
+
+As you study your own bodies to-day, you will find that you each have
+better joints than any dolls that can be bought at a toy shop.
+
+
+HINGE-JOINTS.
+
+Some of your joints work like the hinges of a door, and these are called
+hinge-joints.
+
+You can find them in your elbows, knees, fingers, and toes.
+
+How many hinge-joints can you find?
+
+Think how many hinges must be used by the boy who takes off his hat and
+makes a polite bow to his teacher, when she meets him on the street.
+
+How many hinges do you use in running up-stairs, opening the door,
+buttoning your coat or your boots, playing ball or digging in your
+garden?
+
+You see that we use these hinges nearly all the time. We could not do
+without them.
+
+
+BALL AND SOCKET JOINTS.
+
+All our joints are not hinge-joints.
+
+Your shoulder has a joint that lets your arm swing round and round, as
+well as move up and down.
+
+Your hip has another that lets your leg move in much the same way.
+
+[Illustration: _The hip-joint._]
+
+This kind of joint is the round end or ball of a long bone, which moves
+in a hole, called a socket.
+
+Your joints do not creak or get out of order, as those of doors and
+gates sometimes do. A soft, smooth fluid, much like the white of an egg,
+keeps them moist and makes them work easily.
+
+
+BONES.
+
+What parts of our bodies are jointed together so nicely? Our bones.
+
+How many bones have we?
+
+If you should count all your bones, you would find that each of you has
+about two hundred.
+
+Some are large; and some, very small.
+
+There are long-hones in your legs and arms, and many short ones in your
+fingers and toes. The backbone is called the spine.
+
+[Illustration: _Backbone of a fish._]
+
+If you look at the backbone of a fish, you can see that it is made up-of
+many little bones. Your own spine is formed in much the same way, of
+twenty-four small bones. An elastic cushion of gristle (gr[)i]s'l) fits
+nicely in between each little bone and the next.
+
+When you bend, these cushions are pressed together on one side and
+stretched on the other. They settle back into their first shape, as
+soon as you stand straight again.
+
+If you ever rode in a wheelbarrow, or a cart without springs, you know
+what a jolting it gave you. These little spring cushions keep you from
+being shaken even more severely every time you move.
+
+Twenty-four ribs, twelve on each side, curve around from the spine to
+the front, or breast, bone. (_See page 38._)
+
+They are so covered with flesh that perhaps you can not feel and count
+them; but they are there.
+
+Then you have two flat shoulder-blades, and two collar-bones that almost
+meet in front, just where your collar fastens.
+
+Of what are the bones made?
+
+Take two little bones, such as those from the legs or wings of a
+chicken, put one of them into the fire, when it is not very hot, and
+leave it there two or three hours. Soak the other bone in some weak
+muriatic (m[=u] r[)i] [)a]t'[)i]k) acid. This acid can be bought of any
+druggist.
+
+You will have to be careful in taking the bone out of the fire, for it
+is all ready to break. If you strike it a quick blow, it will crumble to
+dust. This dust we call lime, and it is very much like the lime from
+which the mason makes mortar.
+
+[Illustration: _Bone tied to a knot._]
+
+The acid has taken the lime from the other bone, so only the part which
+is not lime is left. You will be surprised to see how easily it will
+bend. You can twist it and tie it into a knot; but it will not easily
+break.
+
+You have seen gristle in meat. This soft part of the bone is gristle.
+
+Children's bones have more gristle than those of older people; so
+children's bones bend easily.
+
+I know a lady who has one leg shorter than the other. This makes her
+lame, and she has to wear a boot with iron supports three or four inches
+high, in order to walk at all.
+
+One day she told me how she became lame.
+
+"I remember," she said, "when I was between three and four years old,
+sitting one day in my high chair at the table, and twisting one foot
+under the little step of the chair. The next morning I felt lame; but
+nobody could tell what was the matter. At last, the doctors found out
+that the trouble all came from that twist. It had gone too far to be
+cured. Before I had this boot, I could only walk with a crutch."
+
+
+CARE OF THE SPINE.
+
+Because the spine is made of little bones with cushions between them, it
+bends easily, and children sometimes bend it more than they ought.
+
+If you lean over your book or your writing or any other work, the
+elastic cushions may get so pressed on the inner edge that they do not
+easily spring back into shape. In this way, you may grow
+round-shouldered or hump-backed.
+
+This bending over, also cramps the lungs, so that they do not have all
+the room they need for breathing. While you are young, your bones are
+easily bent. One shoulder or one hip gets higher than the other, if you
+stand unevenly. This is more serious, because you are growing, and you
+may grow crooked before you know it.
+
+Now that you know how soft your bones are, and how easily they bend, you
+will surely be careful to sit and stand erect. Do not twist your legs,
+or arms, or shoulders; for you want to grow into straight and graceful
+men and women, instead of being round-shouldered, or hump-backed, or
+lame, all your lives.
+
+When people are old, their bones contain more lime, and, therefore,
+break more easily.
+
+You should be kindly helpful to old people, so that they may not fall,
+and possibly break their bones.
+
+
+CARE OF THE FEET.
+
+Healthy children are always out-growing their shoes, and sometimes
+faster than they wear them out. Tight shoes cause corns and in-growing
+nails and other sore places on the feet. All of these are very hard to
+get rid of. No one should wear a shoe that pinches or hurts the foot.
+
+
+OUGHT A BOY TO USE TOBACCO?
+
+Perhaps some boy will say: "Grown people are always telling us, 'this
+will do for men, but it is not good for boys.'"
+
+Tobacco is not good for men; but there is a very good reason why it is
+worse for boys.
+
+If you were going to build a house, would it be wise for you to put into
+the stone-work of the cellar something that would make it less strong?
+
+Something into the brick-work or the mortar, the wood-work or the nails,
+the walls or the chimneys, that would make them weak and tottering,
+instead of strong and steady?
+
+It would he had enough if you should repair your house with poor
+materials; but surely it must be built in the first place with the best
+you can get.
+
+You will soon learn that boys and girls are building their bodies, day
+after day, until at last they reach full size.
+
+Afterward, they must be repaired as fast as they wear out.
+
+It would be foolish to build any part in a way to make it weaker than
+need be.
+
+Wise doctors have said that the boy who uses tobacco while he is
+growing, makes every part of his body less strong than it otherwise
+would be. Even his bones will not grow so well.
+
+Boys who smoke can not become such large, fine-looking men as they would
+if they did not smoke.
+
+Cigarettes are small, but they are very poisonous. Chewing tobacco is a
+worse and more filthy habit even than smoking. The frequent spitting it
+causes is disgusting to others and hurts the health of the chewer.
+Tobacco in any form is a great enemy to youth. It stunts the growth,
+hurts the mind, and <DW36>s in every way the boy or girl who uses it.
+
+Not that it does all this to every youth who smokes, but it is always
+true that no boy of seven to fourteen can begin to smoke or chew and
+have so fine a body and mind when he is twenty-one years old as he would
+have had if he had never used tobacco. If you want to be strong and well
+men and women, do not use tobacco in any form.
+
+
+REVIEW QUESTIONS.
+
+          1. What two kinds of joints have you?
+
+          2. Describe each kind.
+
+          3. Find as many of each kind as you can.
+
+          4. How are the joints kept moist?
+
+          5. How many bones are there in your whole body?
+
+          6. Count the bones in your hand.
+
+          7. Of how many bones is your spine made?
+
+          8. Why could you not use it so well if it were all
+          in one piece?
+
+          9. What is the use of the little cushions between
+          the bones of the spine?
+
+          10. How many ribs have you?
+
+          11. Where are they?
+
+          12. Where are the shoulder-blades?
+
+          13. Where are the collar-bones?
+
+          14. What are bones made of?
+
+          15. How can we show this?
+
+          16. What is the difference between the bones of
+          children and the bones of old people?
+
+          17. Why do children's bones bend easily?
+
+          18. Tell the story of the lame lady.
+
+          19. What does this story teach you?
+
+          20. What happens if you lean over your desk or
+          work?
+
+          21. How will this position injure your lungs?
+
+          22. What other bones may be injured by wrong
+          positions?
+
+          23. Why do old people's bones break easily?
+
+          24. How should the feet be cared for?
+
+          25. How does tobacco affect the bones?
+
+          26. What do doctors say of its use?
+
+          27. What is said about cigarettes?
+
+          28. What about chewing tobacco?
+
+          29. To whom is tobacco a great enemy? Why?
+
+          30. What is always true of its use by youth?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+MUSCLES.
+
+
+[Illustration: W]HAT makes the limbs move?
+
+You have to take hold of the door to move it back and forth; but you
+need not take hold of your arm to move that.
+
+What makes it move?
+
+Sometimes a door or gate is made to shut itself, if you leave it open.
+
+This can be done by means of a wide rubber strap, one end of which is
+fastened to the frame of the door near the hinge, and the other end to
+the door, out near its edge.
+
+When we push open the door, the rubber strap is stretched; but as soon
+as we have passed through, the strap tightens, draws the door back, and
+shuts it.
+
+If you stretch out your right arm, and clasp the upper part tightly with
+your left hand, then work the elbow joint strongly back and forth, you
+can feel something under your hand draw up, and then lengthen out again,
+each time you bend the joint.
+
+What you feel, is a muscle (m[)u]s'sl), and it works your joints very
+much as the rubber strap works the hinge of the door.
+
+One end of the muscle is fastened to the bone just below the elbow
+joint; and the other end, higher up above the joint.
+
+When it tightens, or contracts, as we say, it bends the joint. When the
+arm is straightened, the muscle returns to its first shape.
+
+There is another muscle on the outside of the arm which stretches when
+this one shortens, and so helps the working of the joint.
+
+Every joint has two or more muscles of its own to work it.
+
+Think how many there must be in our fingers!
+
+If we should undertake to count all the muscles that move our whole
+bodies, it would need more counting than some of you could do.
+
+
+TENDONS.
+
+You can see muscles on the dinner table; for they are only lean meat.
+
+[Illustration: _Tendons of the hand._]
+
+They are fastened to the bones by strong cords, called tendons
+(t[)e]n'd[)o]nz). These tendons can be seen in the leg of a chicken or
+turkey. They sometimes hold the meat so firmly that it is hard for you
+to get it off. When you next try to pick a "drum-stick," remember that
+you are eating the strong muscles by which the chicken or turkey moved
+his legs as he walked about the yard. The parts that have the most work
+to do, need the strongest muscles.
+
+Did you ever see the swallows flying about the eaves of a barn?
+
+Do they have very stout legs? No! They have very small legs and feet,
+because they do not need to walk. They need to fly.
+
+The muscles that move the wings are fastened to the breast. These breast
+muscles of the swallow must be large and strong.
+
+
+EXERCISE OF THE MUSCLES.
+
+People who work hard with any part of the body make the muscles of that
+part very strong.
+
+The blacksmith has big, strong muscles in his arms because he uses them
+so much.
+
+You are using your muscles every day, and this helps them to grow.
+
+Once I saw a little girl who had been very sick. She had to lie in bed
+for many weeks. Before her sickness she had plenty of stout muscles in
+her arms and legs and was running about the house from morning till
+night, carrying her big doll in her arms.
+
+After her sickness, she could hardly walk ten steps, and would rather
+sit and look at her playthings than try to lift them. She had to make
+new muscles as fast as possible.
+
+Running, coasting, games of ball, and all brisk play and work, help to
+make strong muscles.
+
+Idle habits make weak muscles. So idleness is an enemy to the muscles.
+
+There is another enemy to the muscles about which I must tell you.
+
+
+WHAT ALCOHOL WILL DO TO THE MUSCLES.
+
+Muscles are lean meat. Fat meat could not work your joints for you as
+the muscles do. Alcohol often changes a part of the muscles to fat, and
+so takes away a part of their strength. In this way, people often grow
+very fleshy from drinking beer, because it contains alcohol, as you will
+soon learn. But they can not work any better on account of having this
+fat. They are not really any stronger for it.
+
+
+REVIEW QUESTIONS.
+
+          1. How are the joints moved?
+
+          2. Where are the muscles in your arms, which help
+          you to move your elbows?
+
+          3. Show why joints must have muscles.
+
+          4. What do we call the muscles of the lower
+          animals?
+
+          5. What fasten the muscles to the bones?
+
+          6. Why do chickens and turkeys need strong muscles
+          in their legs?
+
+          7. Why do swallows need strong breast muscles?
+
+          8. What makes the muscles of the blacksmith's arm
+          so strong?
+
+          9. What will make your muscles strong?
+
+          10. What will make them weak?
+
+          11. What does alcohol often do to the muscles?
+
+          12. Can fatty muscles work well?
+
+          13. Why does not drinking beer make one stronger?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+NERVES.
+
+
+[Illustration: H]OW do the muscles know when to move?
+
+You have all seen the telegraph wires, by which messages are sent from
+one town to another, all over the country.
+
+You are too young to understand how this is done, but you each have
+something inside of you, by which you are sending messages almost every
+minute while you are awake.
+
+We will try to learn a little about its wonderful way of working.
+
+In your head is your brain. It is the part of you which thinks.
+
+As you would be very badly off if you could not think, the brain is your
+most precious part, and you have a strong box made of bone to keep it
+in.
+
+[Illustration: _Diagram of the nervous system._]
+
+We will call the brain the central telegraph office. Little white cords,
+called nerves, connect the brain with the rest of the body.
+
+A large cord called the spinal cord, lies safely in a bony case made by
+the spine, and many nerves branch off from this.
+
+If you put your finger on a hot stove, in an instant a message goes on
+the nerve telegraph to the brain. It tells that wise thinking part that
+your finger will burn, if it stays on the stove.
+
+In another instant, the brain sends back a message to the muscles that
+move that finger, saying: "Contract quickly, bend the joint, and take
+that poor finger away so that it will not be burned."
+
+You can hardly believe that there was time for all this sending of
+messages; for as soon as you felt the hot stove, you pulled your finger
+away. But you really could not have pulled it away, unless the brain had
+sent word to the muscles to do it.
+
+Now, you know what we mean when we say, "As quick as thought." Surely
+nothing could be quicker.
+
+You see that the brain has a great deal of work to do, for it has to
+send so many orders.
+
+There are some muscles which are moving quietly and steadily all the
+time, though we take no notice of the motion.
+
+You do not have to think about breathing, and yet the muscles work all
+the time, moving your chest.
+
+If we had to think about it every time we breathed, we should have no
+time to think of any thing else.
+
+There is one part of the brain that takes care of such work for us. It
+sends the messages about breathing, and keeps the breathing muscles and
+many other muscles faithfully at work. It does all this without our
+needing to know or think about it at all.
+
+Do you begin to see that your body is a busy work-shop, where many kinds
+of work are being done all day and all night?
+
+Although we lie still and sleep in the night, the breathing must go on,
+and so must the work of those other organs that never stop until we
+die.
+
+
+OTHER WORK OF THE NERVES.
+
+The little white nerve-threads lie smoothly side by side, making small
+white cords. Each kind of message goes on its own thread, so that the
+messages need never get mixed or confused.
+
+These nerves are very delicate little messengers. They do all the
+feeling for the whole body, and by means of them we have many pains and
+many pleasures.
+
+If there was no nerve in your tooth it could not ache. But if there were
+no nerves in your mouth and tongue, you could not taste your food.
+
+If there were no nerves in your hands, you might cut them and feel no
+pain. But you could not feel your mother's soft, warm hand, as she laid
+it on yours.
+
+One of your first duties is the care of yourselves.
+
+Children may say: "My father and mother take care of me." But even while
+you are young, there are some ways in which no one can take care of you
+but yourselves. The older you grow, the more this care will belong to
+you, and to no one else.
+
+Think of the work all the parts of the body do for us, and how they help
+us to be well and happy. Certainly the least we can do is to take care
+of them and keep them in good order.
+
+
+CARE OF THE BRAIN AND NERVES.
+
+As one part of the brain has to take care of all the rest of the body,
+and keep every organ at work, of course it can never go to sleep itself.
+If it did, the heart would stop pumping, the lungs would leave off
+breathing, all other work would stop, and the body would be dead.
+
+But there is another part of the brain which does the thinking, and this
+part needs rest.
+
+When you are asleep, you are not thinking, but you are breathing and
+other work of the body is going on.
+
+If the thinking part of the brain does not have good quiet sleep, it
+will soon wear out. A worn-out brain is not easy to repair.
+
+If well cared for, your brain will do the best of work for you for
+seventy or eighty years without complaining.
+
+The nerves are easily tired out, and they need much rest. They get tired
+if we do one thing too long at a time; they are rested by a change of
+work.
+
+
+IS ALCOHOL GOOD FOR THE NERVES AND THE BRAIN?
+
+Think of the wonderful work the brain is all the time doing for you!
+
+You ought to give it the best of food to keep it in good working order.
+Any drink that contains alcohol is not a food to make one strong; but is
+a poison to hurt, and at last to kill.
+
+It injures the brain and nerves so that they can not work well, and send
+their messages properly. That is why the drunkard does not know what he
+is about.
+
+Newspapers often tell us about people setting houses on fire; about men
+who forgot to turn the switch, and so wrecked a railroad train; about
+men who lay down on the railroad track and were run over by the cars.
+
+Often these stories end with: "The person had been drinking." When the
+nerves are put to sleep by alcohol, people become careless and do not do
+their work faithfully; sometimes, they can not even tell the difference
+between a railroad track and a place of safety. The brain receives no
+message, or the wrong one, and the person does not know what he is
+doing.
+
+You may say that all men who drink liquor do not do such terrible
+things.
+
+That is true. A little alcohol is not so bad as a great deal. But even a
+little makes the head ache, and hurts the brain and nerves.
+
+A body kept pure and strong is of great service to its owner. There are
+people who are not drunkards, but who often drink a little liquor. By
+this means, they slowly poison their bodies.
+
+When sickness comes upon them, they are less able to bear it, and less
+likely to get well again, than those who have never injured their bodies
+with alcohol.
+
+When a sick or wounded man is brought into the hospital, one of the
+first questions asked him by the doctor is: "Do you drink?"
+
+If he answers "Yes!" the next questions are, "What do you drink?" and
+"How much?"
+
+The answers he gives to these questions, show the doctor what chance the
+man has of getting well.
+
+A man who never drinks liquor will get well, where a drinking man would
+surely die.
+
+
+TOBACCO AND THE NERVES.
+
+Why does any one wish to use tobacco?
+
+Because many men say that it helps them, and makes them feel better.
+
+Shall I tell you how it makes them feel better?
+
+If a man is cold, the tobacco deadens his nerves so that he does not
+feel the cold and does not take pains to make himself warmer.
+
+If a man is tired, or in trouble, tobacco will not really rest him or
+help him out of his trouble.
+
+It only puts his nerves to sleep and helps him think that he is not
+tired, and that he does not need to overcome his troubles.
+
+It puts his nerves to sleep very much as alcohol does, and helps him to
+be contented with what ought not to content him.
+
+A boy who smokes or chews tobacco, is not so good a scholar as if he did
+not use the poison. He can not remember his lessons so well.
+
+Usually, too, he is not so polite, nor so good a boy as he otherwise
+would be.
+
+
+REVIEW QUESTIONS.
+
+          1. How do the muscles know when to move?
+
+          2. What part of you is it that thinks?
+
+          3. What are the nerves?
+
+          4. Where is the spinal cord?
+
+          5. What message goes to the brain when you put
+          your finger on a hot stove?
+
+          6. What message comes back from the brain to the
+          finger?
+
+          7. What is meant by "As quick as thought"?
+
+          8. Name some of the muscles which work without
+          needing our thought.
+
+          9. What keeps them at work?
+
+          10. Why do not the nerve messages get mixed and
+          confused?
+
+          11. Why could you not feel, if you had no nerves?
+
+          12. State some ways in which the nerves give us
+          pain.
+
+          13. State some ways in which they give us
+          pleasure.
+
+          14. What part of us has the most work to do?
+
+          15. How must we keep the brain strong and well?
+
+          16. What does alcohol do to the nerves and brain?
+
+          17. Why does not a drunken man know what he is
+          about?
+
+          18. What causes most of the accidents we read of?
+
+          19. Why could not the man who had been drinking
+          tell the difference between a railroad track and a
+          place of safety?
+
+          20. How does the frequent drinking of a little
+          liquor affect the body?
+
+          21. How does sickness affect people who often
+          drink these liquors?
+
+          22. When a man is taken to the hospital, what
+          questions does the doctor ask?
+
+          23. What depends upon his answers?
+
+          24. Why do many men use tobacco?
+
+          25. How does it make them feel better?
+
+          26. Does it really help a person who uses it?
+
+          27. Does tobacco help a boy to be a good scholar?
+
+          28. How does it affect his manners?
+
+[Illustration: _Bones of the human body._]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+WHAT IS ALCOHOL?
+
+
+[Illustration: R]IPE grapes are full of juice.
+
+This juice is mostly water, sweetened with a sugar of its own. It is
+flavored with something which makes us know, the moment we taste it,
+that it is grape-juice, and not cherry-juice or plum-juice.
+
+Apples also contain water, sugar, and apple flavor; and cherries contain
+water, sugar, and cherry flavor. The same is true of other fruits. They
+all, when ripe, have the water and the sugar; and each has a flavor of
+its own.
+
+Ripe grapes are sometimes gathered and put into great tubs called vats.
+In these the juice is squeezed out.
+
+In some countries, this squeezing is done by bare-footed men who jump
+into the vats and press the grapes with their feet.
+
+The grape-juice is then drawn off from the skins and seeds and left
+standing in a warm place.
+
+Bubbles soon begin to rise and cover the top of it with froth. The juice
+is all in motion.
+
+[Illustration: _Picking grapes and making wine._]
+
+If the cook had wished to use this grape-juice to make jelly, she would
+say: "Now, I can not make my grape-jelly, for the grape-juice is
+spoiled."
+
+
+WHAT IS THIS CHANGE IN THE GRAPE-JUICE?
+
+The sugar in the grape-juice is changing into something else. It is
+turning into alcohol and a gas[A] that moves about in little bubbles in
+the liquid, and rising to the top, goes off into the air. The alcohol is
+a thin liquid which, mixed with the water, remains in the grape-juice.
+
+The sugar is gone; alcohol and the bubbles of gas are left in its place.
+
+This alcohol is a liquid poison. A little of it will harm any one who
+drinks it; much of it would kill the drinker.
+
+Ripe grapes are good food; but grape-juice, when its sugar has turned to
+alcohol, is not a safe drink for any one. It is poisoned by the alcohol.
+
+
+WINE.
+
+This changed grape-juice is called wine. It is partly water, partly
+alcohol, and it still has the grape flavor in it.
+
+Wine is also made from currants, elderberries, and other fruits, in very
+much the same way as from grapes.
+
+People sometimes make it at home from the fruits that grow in their own
+gardens, and think there is no alcohol in it, because they do not put
+any in.
+
+But you know that the alcohol is made in the fruit-juice itself by the
+change of the sugar into alcohol and the gas.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+It is the nature of alcohol to make the person who takes a little of it,
+in wine, or any other drink, want more and more alcohol. When one goes
+on, thus taking more and more of the drinks that contain alcohol, he is
+called a drunkard.
+
+In this way wine has made many drunkards. Alcohol hurts both the body
+and mind. It changes the person who drinks it. It will make a good and
+kind person cruel and bad; and will make a bad person worse.
+
+Every one who takes wine does not become a drunkard, but you are not
+sure that you will not, if you drink it.
+
+You should not drink wine, because there is alcohol in it.
+
+
+CIDER.
+
+Cider is made from apples. In a few hours after the juice is pressed out
+of the apples, if it is left open to the air the sugar begins to change.
+
+Like the sugar in the grape, it changes into alcohol and bubbles of gas.
+
+At first, there is but little alcohol in cider, but a little of this
+poison is dangerous.
+
+More alcohol is all the time forming until in ten cups of cider there
+may be one cup of alcohol. Cider often makes its drinkers ill-tempered
+and cross.
+
+Cider and wine will turn into vinegar if left in a warm place long
+enough.
+
+
+REVIEW QUESTIONS.
+
+          1. What two things are in all fruit-juices?
+
+          2. How can we tell the juice of grapes from that
+          of plums?
+
+          3. How can we tell the juice of apples from that
+          of cherries?
+
+          4. What is often done with ripe grapes?
+
+          5. What happens after the grape-juice has stood a
+          short time?
+
+          6. Why would the changed grape-juice not be good
+          to use in making jelly?
+
+          7. Into what is the sugar in the juice changed?
+
+          8. What becomes of the gas?
+
+          9. What becomes of the alcohol?
+
+          10. What is gone and what left?
+
+          11. What is alcohol?
+
+          12. What does alcohol do to those who drink it?
+
+          13. When are grapes good food?
+
+          14. When is grape-juice not a safe drink?
+
+          15. Why?
+
+          16. What is this changed grape-juice called?
+
+          17. What is wine?
+
+          18. From what is wine made?
+
+          19. What do people sometimes think of home-made
+          wines?
+
+          20. How can alcohol be there when none has been
+          put into it?
+
+          21. What does alcohol make the person who takes it
+          want?
+
+          22. What is such a one called?
+
+          23. What has wine done to many persons?
+
+          24. What does alcohol hurt?
+
+          25. How does it change a person?
+
+          26. Are you sure you will not become a drunkard if
+          you drink wine?
+
+          27. Why should you not drink it?
+
+          28. What is cider made from?
+
+          29. What soon happens to apple-juice?
+
+          30. How may vinegar be made?
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+[Footnote A: This gas is called car bon'ic acid gas.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+BEER.
+
+
+[Illustration: A]LCOHOL is often made from grains as well as from fruit.
+The grain has starch instead of sugar.
+
+If the starch in your mother's starch-box at home should be changed into
+sugar, you would think it a very strange thing.
+
+Every year, in the spring-time, many thousand pounds of starch are
+changed into sugar in a hidden, quiet way, so that most of us think
+nothing about it.
+
+
+STARCH AND SUGAR.
+
+All kinds of grain are full of starch.
+
+If you plant them in the ground, where they are kept moist and warm,
+they begin to sprout and grow, to send little roots down into the earth,
+and little stems up into the sunshine.
+
+These little roots and stems must be fed with sugar; thus, in a wise
+way, which is too wonderful for you to understand, as soon as the seed
+begins to sprout, its starch begins to turn into sugar.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+If you should chew two grains of wheat, one before sprouting and one
+after, you could tell by the taste that this is true.
+
+Barley is a kind of grain from which the brewer makes beer.
+
+He must first turn its starch into sugar, so he begins by sprouting his
+grain.
+
+Of course he does not plant it in the ground, because it would need to
+be quickly dug up again.
+
+He keeps it warm and moist in a place where he can watch it, and stop
+the sprouting just in time to save the sugar, before it is used to feed
+the root and stem. This sprouted grain is called malt.
+
+The brewer soaks it in plenty of water, because the grain has not water
+in itself, as the grape has.
+
+He puts in some yeast to help start the work of changing the sugar into
+gas[B] and alcohol.
+
+Sometimes hops are also put in, to give it a bitter taste.
+
+The brewer watches to see the bubbles of gas that tell, as plainly as
+words could, that sugar is going and alcohol is coming.
+
+When the work is finished, the barley has been made into beer.
+
+It might have been ground and made into barley-cakes, or into pearl
+barley to thicken our soups, and then it would have been good food. Now,
+it is a drink containing alcohol, and alcohol is a poison.
+
+You should not drink beer, because there is alcohol in it.
+
+Two boys of the same age begin school together. One of them drinks
+wine, cider, and beer. The other never allows these drinks to pass his
+lips. These boys soon become very different from each other, because one
+is poisoning his body and mind with alcohol, and the other is not.
+
+A man wants a good, steady boy to work for him. Which of these two do
+you think he will select? A few years later, a young man is wanted who
+can be trusted with the care of an engine or a bank. It is a good
+chance. Which of these young men will be more likely to get it?
+
+
+REVIEW QUESTIONS.
+
+          1. Is there sugar in grain?
+
+          2. What is in the grain that can be turned into
+          sugar?
+
+          3. What can you do to a seed that will make its
+          starch turn into sugar?
+
+          4. What does the brewer do to the barley to make
+          its starch turn into sugar?
+
+          5. What is malt?
+
+          6. What does the brewer put into the malt to start
+          the working?
+
+          7. What gives the bitter taste to beer?
+
+          8. How does the brewer know when sugar begins to
+          go and alcohol to come?
+
+          9. Why does he want the starch turned to sugar?
+
+          10. Is barley good for food?
+
+          11. Why is beer not good for food?
+
+          12. Why should you not drink it?
+
+          13. Why did the two boys of the same age, at the
+          same school, become so unlike?
+
+          14. Which will have the best chance in life?
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+[Footnote B: Car bon'ic acid gas.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+DISTILLING.
+
+
+[Illustration: D]ISTILLING (d[)i]s t[)i]l[\l]'ing) may be a new word to
+you, but you can easily learn its meaning.
+
+You have all seen distilling going on in the kitchen at home, many a
+time. When the water in the tea-kettle is boiling, what comes out at the
+nose? Steam.
+
+What is steam?
+
+You can find out what it is by catching some of it on a cold plate, or
+tin cover. As soon as it touches any thing cold, it turns into drops of
+water.
+
+When we boil water and turn it into steam, and then turn the steam back
+into water, we have distilled the water. We say vapor instead of steam,
+when we talk about the boiling of alcohol.
+
+It takes less heat to turn alcohol to vapor than to turn water to
+steam; so, if we put over the fire some liquid that contains alcohol,
+and begin to collect the vapor as it rises, we shall get alcohol first,
+and then water.
+
+But the alcohol will not be pure alcohol; it will be part water, because
+it is so ready to mix with water that it has to be distilled many times
+to be pure.
+
+But each time it is distilled, it will become stronger, because there is
+a little more alcohol and a little less water.
+
+In this way, brandy, rum, whiskey, and gin are distilled, from wine,
+cider, and the liquors which have been made from corn, rye, or barley.
+
+The cider, wine, and beer had but little alcohol in them. The brandy,
+rum, whiskey, and gin are nearly one-half alcohol.
+
+A glass of strong liquor which has been made by distilling, will injure
+any one more, and quicker, than a glass of cider, rum, or beer.
+
+But a cider, wine, or beer-drinker often drinks so much more of the
+weaker liquor, that he gets a great deal of alcohol. People are often
+made drunkards by drinking cider or beer. The more poison, the more
+danger.
+
+
+REVIEW QUESTIONS.
+
+          1. Where have you ever seen distilling going on?
+
+          2. How can you distill water?
+
+          3. How can men separate alcohol from wine or from
+          any other liquor that contains it?
+
+          4. Why will not this be pure alcohol?
+
+          5. How is a liquor made stronger?
+
+          6. Name some of the distilled liquors.
+
+          7. How are they made?
+
+          8. How much of them is alcohol?
+
+          9. Which is the most harmful--the distilled
+          liquor, or beer, wine, or cider?
+
+          10. Why does the wine, cider, or beer-drinker
+          often get as much alcohol?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+ALCOHOL.
+
+
+[Illustration: A]LCOHOL looks like water, but it is not at all like
+water.
+
+Alcohol will take fire, and burn if a lighted match is held near it; but
+you know that water will not burn.
+
+When alcohol burns, the color of the flame is blue. It does not give
+much light: it makes no smoke or soot; but it does give a great deal of
+heat.
+
+A little dead tree-toad was once put into a bottle of alcohol. It was
+years ago, but the tree-toad is there still, looking just as it did the
+first day it was put in. What has kept it so?
+
+It is the alcohol. The tree-toad would have soon decayed if it had been
+put into water. So you see that alcohol keeps dead bodies from
+decaying.
+
+Pure alcohol is not often used as a drink. People who take beer, wine,
+and cider get a little alcohol with each drink. Those who drink brandy,
+rum, whiskey, or gin, get more alcohol, because those liquors are nearly
+one half alcohol.
+
+You may wonder that people wish to use such poisonous drinks at all. But
+alcohol is a deceiver. It often cheats the man who takes a little, into
+thinking it will be good for him to take more.
+
+Sometimes the appetite which begs so hard for the poison, is formed in
+childhood. If you eat wine-jelly, or wine-sauce, you may learn to like
+the taste of alcohol and thus easily begin to drink some weak liquor.
+
+The more the drinker takes, the more he often wants, and thus he goes on
+from drinking cider, wine, or beer, to drinking whiskey, brandy, or rum.
+Thus drunkards are made.
+
+People who are in the habit of taking drinks which contain alcohol,
+often care more for them than for any thing else, even when they know
+they are being ruined by them.
+
+
+REVIEW QUESTIONS.
+
+          1. How does alcohol look?
+
+          2. How does alcohol burn?
+
+          3. What will alcohol do to a dead body?
+
+          4. What drinks contain a little alcohol?
+
+          5. What drinks are about one half alcohol?
+
+          6. How does alcohol cheat people?
+
+          7. When is the appetite sometimes formed?
+
+          8. Why should you not eat wine-sauce or
+          wine-jelly?
+
+          9. How are drunkards made?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+TOBACCO.
+
+
+[Illustration: A] FARMER who had been in the habit of planting his
+fields with corn, wheat, and potatoes, once made up his mind to plant
+tobacco instead.
+
+Let us see whether he did any good to the world by the change.
+
+The tobacco plants grew up as tall as a little boy or girl, and spread
+out broad, green leaves.
+
+By and by he pulled the stalks, and dried the leaves. Some of them he
+pressed into cakes of tobacco; some he rolled into cigars; and some he
+ground into snuff.
+
+If you ask what tobacco is good for, the best answer will be, to tell
+you what it will do to a man or boy who uses it, and then let you answer
+the question for yourselves.
+
+Tobacco contains something called nicotine (n[)i]k'o t[)i]n). This is a
+strong poison. One drop of it is enough to kill a dog. In one cigar
+there is enough, if taken pure, to kill two men.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+Even to work upon tobacco, makes people pale and sickly. Once I went
+into a snuff mill, and the man who had the care of it showed me how the
+work was done.
+
+The mill stood in a pretty place, beside a little stream which turned
+the mill-wheel. Tall trees bent over it, and a fresh breeze was blowing
+through the open windows. Yet the smell of the tobacco was so strong
+that I had to go to the door many times, for a breath of pure air.
+
+I asked the man if it did not make him sick to work there.
+
+He said: "It made me very sick for the first few weeks. Then I began to
+get used to it, and now I don't mind it."
+
+He was like the boys who try to learn to smoke. It almost always makes
+them sick at first; but they think it will be manly to keep on. At last,
+they get used to it.
+
+The sickness is really the way in which the boy's body is trying to say
+to him: "There is danger here; you are playing with poison. Let me stop
+you before great harm is done."
+
+Perhaps you will say: "I have seen men smoke cigars, even four or five
+in a day, and it didn't kill them."
+
+It did not kill them, because they did not swallow the nicotine. They
+only drew in a little with the breath. But taking a little poison in
+this way, day after day, can not be safe, or really helpful to any one.
+
+
+REVIEW QUESTIONS.
+
+          1. What did the farmer plant instead of corn,
+          wheat, and potatoes?
+
+          2. What was done with the tobacco leaves?
+
+          3. What is the name of the poison which is in
+          tobacco?
+
+          4. How much of it is needed to kill a dog?
+
+          5. What harm can the nicotine in one cigar do, if
+          taken pure?
+
+          6. Tell the story of the visit to the snuff mill.
+
+          7. Why are boys made sick by their first use of
+          tobacco?
+
+          8. Why does not smoking a cigar kill a man?
+
+          9. What is said about a little poison?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+OPIUM.
+
+
+[Illustration: A]LCOHOL and tobacco are called narcotics (nar
+k[)o]t'iks). This means that they have the power of putting the nerves
+to sleep. Opium ([=o]'p[)i] [)u]m) is another narcotic.
+
+It is a poison made from the juice of poppies, and is used in medicines.
+
+Opium is put into soothing-syrups (s[)i]r'[)u]ps), and these are
+sometimes given to babies to keep them from crying. They do this by
+injuring the tender nerves and poisoning the little body.
+
+How can any one give a baby opium to save taking patient care of it?
+
+Surely the mothers would not do it, if they knew that this
+soothing-syrup that appears like a friend, coming to quiet and comfort
+the baby, is really an enemy.
+
+[Illustration: _Don't give soothing-syrup to children._]
+
+Sometimes, a child no older than some of you are, is left at home with
+the care of a baby brother or sister; so it is best that you should know
+about this dangerous enemy, and never be tempted to quiet the baby by
+giving him a poison, instead of taking your best and kindest care of
+him.
+
+
+REVIEW QUESTIONS.
+
+          1. What is a narcotic?
+
+          2. Name three narcotics?
+
+          3. From what is opium made?
+
+          4. For what is it used?
+
+          5. Why is soothing-syrup dangerous?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+WHAT ARE ORGANS?
+
+
+[Illustration: A]N organ is a part of the body which has some special
+work to do. The eye is the organ of sight. The stomach (st[)u]m'[)a]k)
+is an organ which takes care of the food we eat.
+
+
+THE TEETH.
+
+[Illustration: _Different kinds of teeth._]
+
+Your teeth do not look alike, since they must do different kinds of
+work. The front ones cut, the back ones grind.
+
+They are made of a kind of bone covered with a hard smooth enamel ([)e]n
+[)a]m'el). If the enamel is broken, the teeth soon decay and ache, for
+each tooth is furnished with a nerve that very quickly feels pain.
+
+
+CARE OF THE TEETH.
+
+Cracking nuts with the teeth, or even biting thread, is apt to break the
+enamel; and when once broken, you will wish in vain to have it mended.
+The dentist can fill a hole in the tooth; but he can not cover the tooth
+with new enamel.
+
+Bits of food should be carefully picked from between the teeth with a
+tooth-pick of quill or wood, never with a pin or other hard and sharp
+thing which might break the enamel.
+
+The teeth must also be well brushed. Nothing but perfect cleanliness
+will keep them in good order. Always brush them before breakfast. Your
+breakfast will taste all the better for it. Brush them at night before
+you go to bed, lest some food should be decaying in your mouth during
+the night.
+
+Take care of these cutters and grinders, that they may not decay, and so
+be unable to do their work well.
+
+
+THE CHEST AND ABDOMEN.
+
+You have learned about the twenty-four little bones in the spine, and
+the ribs that curve around from the spine to the front, or breast-bone.
+
+These bones, with the shoulder-blades and the collar-bones, form a bony
+case or box.
+
+In it are some of the most useful organs of the body.
+
+This box is divided across the middle by a strong muscle, so that we may
+say it is two stories high.
+
+The upper room is called the chest; the lower one, the abdomen ([)a]b
+d[=o]'m[)e]n).
+
+In the chest, are the heart and the lungs.
+
+In the abdomen, are the stomach, the liver, and some other organs.
+
+
+THE STOMACH.
+
+The stomach is a strong bag, as wonderful a bag as could be made, you
+will say, when I tell you what it can do.
+
+The outside is made of muscles; the lining prepares a juice called
+gastric (g[)a]s'tr[)i]k) juice, and keeps it always ready for use.
+
+Now, what would you think if a man could put into a bag, beef, and
+apples, and potatoes, and bread and milk, and sugar, and salt, tie up
+the bag and lay it away on a shelf for a few hours, and then show you
+that the beef had disappeared, so had the apples, so had the potatoes,
+the bread and milk, sugar, and salt, and the bag was filled only with a
+thin, grayish fluid? Would you not call it a magical bag?
+
+Now, your stomach and mine are just such magical bags.
+
+We put in our breakfasts, dinners, and suppers; and, after a few hours,
+they are changed. The gastric juice has been mixed with them. The strong
+muscles that form the outside of the stomach have been squeezing the
+food, rolling it about, and mixing it together, until it has all been
+changed to a thin, grayish fluid.
+
+
+HOW DOES ANYBODY KNOW THIS?
+
+A soldier was once shot in the side in such a way that when the wound
+healed, it left an opening with a piece of loose skin over it, like a
+little door leading into his stomach.
+
+A doctor who wished to learn about the stomach, hired him for a servant
+and used to study him every day.
+
+He would push aside the little flap of skin and put into the stomach any
+kind of food that he pleased, and then watch to see what happened to it.
+
+In this way, he learned a great deal and wrote it down, so that other
+people might know, too. In other ways, also, which it would take too
+long to tell you here, doctors have learned how these magical food-bags
+take care of our food.
+
+
+WHY DOES THE FOOD NEED TO BE CHANGED?
+
+Your mamma tells you sometimes at breakfast that you must eat oat-meal
+and milk to make you grow into a big man or woman.
+
+Did you ever wonder what part of you is made of oat-meal, or what part
+of milk?
+
+That stout little arm does not look like oat-meal; those rosy cheeks do
+not look like milk.
+
+If our food is to make stout arms and rosy cheeks, strong bodies and
+busy brains, it must first be changed into a form in which it can get to
+each part and feed it.
+
+When the food in the stomach is mixed and prepared, it is ready to be
+sent through the body; some is carried to the bones, some to the
+muscles, some to the nerves and brain, some to the skin, and some even
+to the finger nails, the hair, and the eyes. Each part needs to be fed
+in order to grow.
+
+
+WHY DO PEOPLE WHO ARE NOT GROWING NEED FOOD?
+
+Children need each day to make larger and larger bones, larger muscles,
+and a larger skin to cover the larger body.
+
+Every day, each part is also wearing out a little, and needing to be
+mended by some new food. People who have grown up, need their food for
+this work of mending.
+
+
+CARE OF THE STOMACH.
+
+One way to take care of the stomach is to give it only its own work to
+do. The teeth must first do their work faithfully.
+
+The stomach must have rest, too. I have seen some children who want to
+make their poor stomachs work all the time. They are always eating
+apples, or candy, or something, so that their stomachs have no chance to
+rest. If the stomach does not rest, it will wear out the same as a
+machine would.
+
+The stomach can not work well, unless it is quite warm. If a person
+pours ice-water into his stomach as he eats, just as the food is
+beginning to change into the gray fluid of which you have learned, the
+work stops until the stomach gets warm again.
+
+
+ALCOHOL AND THE STOMACH.
+
+You remember about the man who had the little door to his stomach.
+Sometimes, the doctor put in wine, cider, brandy, or some drink that
+contained alcohol, to see what it would do. It was carried away very
+quickly; but during the little time it stayed, it did nothing but harm.
+
+It injured the gastric juice, so that it could not mix with the food.
+
+If the doctor had put in more alcohol, day after day, as one does who
+drinks liquor, sores would perhaps have come on the delicate lining of
+the stomach. Sometimes the stomach is so hurt by alcohol, that the
+drinker dies. If the stomach can not do its work well, the whole body
+must suffer from want of the good food it needs.[C]
+
+
+TOBACCO AND THE MOUTH.
+
+The saliva in the mouth helps to prepare the food, before it goes into
+the stomach. Tobacco makes the mouth very dry, and more saliva has to
+flow out to moisten it.
+
+But tobacco juice is mixed with the saliva, and that must not be
+swallowed. It must be spit out, and with it is sent the saliva that was
+needed to help prepare the food.
+
+Tobacco discolors the teeth, makes bad sores in the mouth, and often
+causes a disease of the throat.
+
+You can tell where some people have been, by the neatness and comfort
+they leave after them.
+
+You can tell where the tobacco-user has been, by the dirty floor, and
+street, and the air made unfit to breathe, because of the smoke and
+strong, bad smell of old tobacco from his pipe and cigar and from his
+breath and clothes.
+
+
+REVIEW QUESTIONS.
+
+          1. What are organs?
+
+          2. What work do the front teeth do? the back
+          teeth?
+
+          3. What are the teeth made of?
+
+          4. What causes the toothache?
+
+          5. How is the enamel often broken?
+
+          6. Why should a tooth-pick be used?
+
+          7. Why should the teeth be well brushed?
+
+          8. When should they be brushed?
+
+          9. What bones form a case or box?
+
+          10. What is the upper room of this box called? the
+          lower room?
+
+          11. What organs are in the chest? the abdomen?
+
+          12. What is the stomach?
+
+          13. What does its lining do?
+
+          14. What do the stomach and the gastric juice do
+          to the food we have eaten?
+
+          15. How did anybody find out what the stomach
+          could do?
+
+          16. Why must all the food we eat be changed?
+
+          17. Why do you need food?
+
+          18. Why do people who are not growing need food?
+
+          19. What does alcohol do to the gastric juice? to
+          the stomach?
+
+          20. What is the use of the saliva?
+
+          21. How does the habit of spitting injure a
+          person?
+
+          22. How does tobacco affect the teeth? the mouth?
+
+          23. How does the tobacco-user annoy other people?
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+[Footnote C: The food is partly prepared by the liver and some other
+organs.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+WHAT DOES THE BODY NEED FOR FOOD?
+
+
+[Illustration: N]OW that you know how the body is fed, you must next
+learn what to feed it with; and what each part needs to make it grow and
+to keep it strong and well.
+
+
+WATER.
+
+A large part of your body is made of water. So you need, of course, to
+drink water, and to have it used in preparing your food.
+
+Water comes from the clouds, and is stored up in cisterns or in springs
+in the ground. From these pipes are laid to lead the water to our
+houses.
+
+Sometimes, men dig down until they reach a spring, and so make a well
+from which they can pump the water, or dip it out with a bucket.
+
+Water that has been standing in lead pipes, may have some of the lead
+mixed with it. Such water would be very likely to poison you, if you
+drank it.
+
+Impurities are almost sure to soak into a well if it is near a drain or
+a stable.
+
+If you drink the water from such a well, you may be made very sick by
+it. It is better to go thirsty, until you can get good water.
+
+A sufficient quantity of pure water to drink is just as important for
+us, as good food to eat.
+
+We could not drink all the water that our bodies need. We take a large
+part of it in our food, in fruits and vegetables, and even in beefsteak
+and bread.
+
+
+LIME.
+
+Bones need lime. You remember the bone that was nothing but crumbling
+lime after it had been in the fire.
+
+Where shall we get lime for our bones?
+
+We can not eat lime; but the grass and the grains take it out of the
+earth. Then the cows eat the grass and turn it into milk, and in the
+milk we drink, we get some of the lime to feed our bones.
+
+[Illustration: _Lime being prepared for our use._]
+
+In the same way, the grain growing in the field takes up lime and other
+things that we need, but could not eat for ourselves. The lime that thus
+becomes a part of the grain, we get in our bread, oat-meal porridge, and
+other foods.
+
+
+SALT.
+
+Animals need salt, as children who live in the country know very well.
+They have seen how eagerly the cows and the sheep lick up the salt that
+the farmer gives them.
+
+Even wild cattle and buffaloes seek out places where there are salt
+springs, and go in great herds to get the salt.
+
+We, too, need some salt mixed with our food. If we did not put it in,
+either when cooking, or afterward, we should still get a little in the
+food itself.
+
+
+FLESH-MAKING FOODS.
+
+Muscles are lean meat, that is flesh; so muscles need flesh-making
+foods. These are milk, and grains like wheat, corn and oats; also, meat
+and eggs. Most of these foods really come to us out of the ground. Meat
+and eggs are made from the grain, grass, and other vegetables that the
+cattle and hens eat.
+
+
+FAT-MAKING FOODS.
+
+We need cushions and wrappings of fat, here and there in our bodies, to
+keep us warm and make us comfortable. So we must have certain kinds of
+food that will make fat.
+
+[Illustration: _Esquimaux catching walrus._]
+
+There are right places and wrong places for fat, as well as for other
+things in this world. When alcohol puts fat into the muscles, that is
+fat badly made, and in the wrong place.
+
+The good fat made for the parts of the body which need it, comes from
+fat-making foods.
+
+In cold weather, we need more fatty food than we do in summer, just as
+in cold countries people need such food all the time.
+
+The Esquimaux, who live in the lands of snow and ice, catch a great many
+walrus and seal, and eat a great deal of fat meat. You would not be well
+unless you ate some fat or butter or oil.
+
+
+WHAT WILL MAKE FAT?
+
+Sugar will make fat, and so will starch, cream, rice, butter, and fat
+meat. As milk will make muscle and fat and bones, it is the best kind of
+food. Here, again, it is the earth that sends us our food. Fat meat
+comes from animals well fed on grain and grass; sugar, from sugar-cane,
+maple-trees, or beets; oil, from olive-trees; butter, from cream; and
+starch, from potatoes, and from corn, rice, and other grains.
+
+Green apples and other unripe fruits are not yet ready to be eaten. The
+starch which we take for food has to be changed into sugar, before it
+can mix with the blood and help feed the body. As the sun ripens fruit,
+it changes its starch to sugar. You can tell this by the difference in
+the taste of ripe and unripe apples.
+
+
+CANDY.
+
+Most children like candy so well, that they are in danger of eating more
+sugar than is good for them. You would starve if fed only on sugar.
+
+We would not need to be quite so much afraid of a little candy if it
+were not for the poison with which it is often .
+
+Even what is called pure, white candy is sometimes not really such.
+There is a simple way by which you can find this out for yourselves.
+
+If you put a spoonful of sugar into a tumbler of water, it will all
+dissolve and disappear. Put a piece of white candy into a tumbler of
+water; and, if it is made of pure sugar only, it will dissolve and
+disappear.
+
+If it is not, you will find at the bottom of the tumbler some white
+earth. This is not good food for anybody. Candy-makers often put it
+into candy in place of sugar, because it is cheaper than sugar.
+
+
+REVIEW QUESTIONS.
+
+          1. Why do we need food?
+
+          2. How do people get water to drink?
+
+          3. Why is it not safe to drink water that has been
+          standing in lead pipes?
+
+          4. Why is the water of a well that is near a drain
+          or a stable, not fit to drink?
+
+          5. What food do the bones need?
+
+          6. How do we get lime for our bones?
+
+          7. What is said about salt?
+
+          8. What food do the muscles need?
+
+          9. Name some flesh-making foods.
+
+          10. Why do we need fat in our bodies?
+
+          11. What is said of the fat made by alcohol?
+
+          12. What kinds of food will make good fat?
+
+          13. What do the Esquimaux eat?
+
+          14. How does the sun change unripe fruits?
+
+          15. Why is  candy often poisonous?
+
+          16. What is sometimes put into white candy? Why?
+
+          17. How could you show this?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+HOW FOOD BECOMES PART OF THE BODY.
+
+
+[Illustration: H]ERE, at last, is the bill of fare for our dinner:
+
+          Roast beef,
+          Potatoes,
+          Tomatoes,
+          Squash,
+          Bread,
+          Butter,
+          Salt,
+          Water,
+          Peaches,
+          Bananas,
+          Oranges,
+          Grapes.
+
+What must be done first, with the different kinds of food that are to
+make up this dinner?
+
+The meat, vegetables, and bread must be cooked. Cooking prepares them to
+be easily worked upon by the mouth and stomach. If they were not cooked,
+this work would be very hard. Instead of going on quietly and without
+letting us know any thing about it, there would be pains and aches in
+the overworked stomach.
+
+The fruit is not cooked by a fire; but we might almost say the sun had
+cooked it, for the sun has ripened and sweetened it.
+
+When you are older, some of you may have charge of the cooking in your
+homes. You must then remember that food well cooked is worth twice as
+much as food poorly cooked.
+
+"A good cook has more to do with the health of the family, than a good
+doctor."
+
+
+THE SALIVA.
+
+Next to the cooking comes the eating.
+
+As soon as we begin to chew our food, a juice in the mouth, called
+saliva (sa l[=i]'va), moistens and mixes with it.
+
+Saliva has the wonderful power of turning starch into sugar; and the
+starch in our food needs to be turned into sugar, before it can be taken
+into the blood.
+
+You can prove for yourselves that saliva can turn starch into sugar.
+Chew slowly a piece of dry cracker. The cracker is made mostly of
+starch, because wheat is full of starch. At first, the cracker is dry
+and tasteless. Soon, however, you find it tastes sweet; the saliva is
+changing the starch into sugar.
+
+All your food should be eaten slowly and chewed well, so that the saliva
+may be able to mix with it. Otherwise, the starch may not be changed;
+and if one part of your body neglects its work, another part will have
+more than its share to do. That is hardly fair.
+
+If you swallow your food in a hurry and do not let the saliva do its
+work, the stomach will have extra work. But it will find it hard to do
+more than its own part, and, perhaps, will complain.
+
+It can not speak in words; but will by aching, and that is almost as
+plain as words.
+
+
+SWALLOWING.
+
+Next to the chewing, comes the swallowing. Is there any thing wonderful
+about that?
+
+We have two passages leading down our throats. One is to the lungs, for
+breathing; the other, to the stomach, for swallowing.
+
+Do you wonder why the food does not sometimes go down the wrong way?
+
+The windpipe leading to the lungs is in front of the other tube. It has
+at its top a little trap-door. This opens when we breathe and shuts when
+we swallow, so that the food slips over it safely into the passage
+behind, which leads to the stomach.
+
+If you try to speak while you have food in your mouth, this little door
+has to open, and some bit of food may slip in. The windpipe will not
+pass it to the lungs, but tries to force it back. Then we say the food
+chokes us. If the windpipe can not succeed in forcing back the food, the
+person will die.
+
+
+HOW THE FOOD IS CARRIED THROUGH THE BODY.
+
+But we will suppose that the food of our dinner has gone safely down
+into the stomach. There the stomach works it over, and mixes in gastric
+juice, until it is all a gray fluid.
+
+Now it is ready to go into the intestines,--a long, coiled tube which
+leads out of the stomach,--from which the prepared food is taken into
+the blood.
+
+The blood carries it to the heart. The heart pumps it out with the blood
+into the lungs, and then all through the body, to make bone, and muscle,
+and skin, and hair, and eyes, and brain.
+
+Besides feeding all these parts, this dinner can help to mend any parts
+that may be broken.
+
+Suppose a boy should break one of the bones of his arm, how could it be
+mended?
+
+If you should bind together the two parts of a broken stick and leave
+them a while, do you think they would grow together?
+
+No, indeed!
+
+But the doctor could carefully bind together the ends of the broken bone
+in the boy's arm and leave it for awhile, and the blood would bring it
+bone food every day, until it had grown together again.
+
+So a dinner can both make and mend the different parts of the body.
+
+
+REVIEW QUESTIONS.
+
+          1. What shall we have for dinner?
+
+          2. What is the first thing to do to our food?
+
+          3. Why do we cook meat and vegetables?
+
+          4. Why do not ripe fruits need cooking?
+
+          5. What is said about a good cook?
+
+          6. What is the first thing to do after taking the
+          food into your mouth?
+
+          7. Why must you chew it?
+
+          8. What does the saliva do to the food?
+
+          9. How can you prove that saliva turns starch into
+          sugar?
+
+          10. What happens if the food is not chewed and
+          mixed with the saliva?
+
+          11. What comes next to the chewing?
+
+          12. What is there wonderful about swallowing?
+
+          13. What must you be careful about, when you are
+          swallowing?
+
+          14. What happens to the food after it is
+          swallowed?
+
+          15. How is it changed in the stomach?
+
+          16. What carries the food to every part of the
+          body?
+
+          17. How can food mend a bone?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII.
+
+STRENGTH.
+
+
+[Illustration: H]ERE are the names of some of the different kinds of
+food. If you write them on the blackboard or on your slates, it will
+help you to remember them.
+
+                  _Water._ _Salt._ _Lime._
+
+          Meat,  }                 Sugar,  }
+          Milk,  }                 Starch, }
+          Eggs,  }                 Fat,    } for fat and heat.
+          Wheat, } for muscles.    Cream,  }
+          Corn,  }                 Oil,    }
+          Oats,  }
+
+Perhaps some of you noticed that we had no wine, beer, nor any drink
+that had alcohol in it, on our bill of fare for dinner. We had no
+cigars, either, to be smoked after dinner. If these are good things, we
+ought to have had them. Why did we leave them out?
+
+          _We should eat in order to grow strong and keep
+          strong._
+
+
+STRENGTH OF BODY.
+
+If you wanted to measure your strength, one way of doing so would be to
+fasten a heavy weight to one end of a rope and pass the rope over a
+pulley. Then you might take hold at the other end of the rope and pull
+as hard and steadily as you could, marking the place to which you raised
+the weight. By trying this once a week, or once a month, you could tell
+by the marks, whether you were gaining strength.
+
+But how can we gain strength?
+
+We must exercise in the open air, and take pure air into our lungs to
+help purify our blood, and plenty of exercise to make our muscles grow.
+
+We must eat good and simple food, that the blood may have supplies to
+take to every part of the body.
+
+
+ALCOHOL AND STRENGTH.
+
+People used to think that alcohol made them strong.
+
+Can alcohol make good muscles, or bone, or nerve, or brain?
+
+You have already answered "No!" to each of these questions.
+
+If it can not make muscles, nor bone nor nerve, nor brain, it can not
+give you any strength.
+
+
+BEER.
+
+Some people may tell you that drinking beer will make you strong.
+
+The grain from which the beer is made, would have given you strength. If
+you should measure your strength before and after drinking beer, you
+would find that you had not gained any. Most of the food part of the
+grain has been turned into alcohol.
+
+
+CIDER.
+
+The juice of crushed apples, you know, is called cider. As soon as the
+cider begins to turn sour, or "hard," as people say, alcohol begins to
+form in it.
+
+Pure water is good, and apples are good. But the apple-juice begins to
+be a poison as soon as there is the least drop of alcohol in it. In
+cider-making, the alcohol forms in the juice, you know, in a few hours
+after it is pressed out of the apples.
+
+None of the drinks in which there is alcohol, can give you real
+strength.
+
+Then why do people think they can?
+
+Because alcohol puts the nerves to sleep, they can not, truly, tell the
+brain how hard the work is, or how heavy the weight to be lifted.
+
+The alcohol has in this way cheated men into thinking they can do more
+than they really can. This false feeling of strength lasts only a little
+while. When it has passed, men feel weaker than before.
+
+A story which shows that alcohol does not give strength, was told me by
+the captain of a ship, who sailed to China and other distant places.
+
+Many years ago, when people thought a little alcohol was good, it was
+the custom to carry in every ship, a great deal of rum. This liquor is
+distilled from molasses and contains about one half alcohol. This rum
+was given to the sailors every day to drink; and, if there was a great
+storm, and they had very hard work to do, it was the custom to give
+them twice as much rum as usual.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The captain watched his men and saw that they were really made no
+stronger by drinking the rum; but that, after a little while, they felt
+weaker. So he determined to go to sea with no rum in his ship. Once out
+on the ocean, of course the men could not get any.
+
+At first, they did not like it; but the captain was very careful to have
+their food good and plentiful; and, when a storm came, and they were wet
+and cold and tired, he gave them hot coffee to drink. By the time they
+had crossed the ocean, the men said: "The captain is right. We have
+worked better, and we feel stronger, for going without the rum."
+
+
+STRENGTH OF MIND.
+
+We have been talking about the strength of muscles; but the very best
+kind of strength we have is brain strength, or strength of mind.
+
+Alcohol makes the head ache and deadens the nerves, so that they can
+not carry their messages correctly. Then the brain can not think well.
+Alcohol does not strengthen the mind.
+
+Some people have little or no money, and no houses or lands; but every
+person ought to own a body and a mind that can work for him, and make
+him useful and happy.
+
+Suppose you have a strong, healthy body, hands that are well-trained to
+work, and a clear, thinking brain to be master of the whole. Would you
+be willing to change places with a man whose body and mind had been
+poisoned by alcohol, tobacco, and opium, even though he lived in a
+palace, and had a million of dollars?
+
+If you want a mind that can study, understand, and think well, do not
+let alcohol and tobacco have a chance to reach it.
+
+
+REVIEW QUESTIONS.
+
+          1. What things were left out of our bill of fare?
+
+          2. How could you measure your strength?
+
+          3. How can you gain strength?
+
+          4. Why does drinking beer not make you strong?
+
+          5. Show why drinking wine or any other alcoholic
+          drink will not make you strong.
+
+          6. Why do people imagine that they feel strong
+          after taking these drinks?
+
+          7. Tell the story which shows that alcohol does
+          not help sailors do their work.
+
+          8. What is the best kind of strength to have?
+
+          9. How does alcohol affect the strength of the
+          mind?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV.
+
+THE HEART.
+
+
+[Illustration: T]HE heart is in the chest, the upper part of the strong
+box which the ribs, spine, shoulder-blades, and collar-bones make for
+each of us.
+
+It is made of very thick, strong muscles, as you can see by looking at a
+beef's heart, which is much like a man's, but larger.
+
+
+HOW THE HEART WORKS.
+
+Probably some of you have seen a fire-engine throwing a stream of water
+through a hose upon a burning building.
+
+As the engine forces the water through the hose, so the heart, by the
+working of its strong muscles, pumps the blood through tubes, shaped
+like hose, which lead by thousands of little branches all through the
+body. These tubes are called arteries (aer't[)e]r iz).
+
+Those tubes which bring the blood back again to the heart, are called
+veins (v[=a]nz). You can see some of the smaller veins in your wrist.
+
+If you press your finger upon an artery in your wrist, you can feel the
+steady beating of the pulse. This tells just how fast the heart is
+pumping and the blood flowing.
+
+The doctor feels your pulse when you are sick, to find out whether the
+heart is working too fast, or too slowly, or just right.
+
+Some way is needed to send the gray fluid that is made from the food we
+eat and drink, to every part of the body.
+
+To send the food with the blood is a sure way of making it reach every
+part.
+
+So, when the stomach has prepared the food, the blood takes it up and
+carries it to every part of the body. It then leaves with each part,
+just what it needs.
+
+
+THE BLOOD AND THE BRAIN.
+
+As the brain has so much work to attend to, it must have very pure, good
+blood sent to it, to keep it strong. Good blood is made from good food.
+It can not be good if it has been poisoned with alcohol or tobacco.
+
+We must also remember that the brain needs a great deal of blood. If we
+take alcohol into our blood, much of it goes to the brain. There it
+affects the nerves, and makes a man lose control over his actions.
+
+
+EXERCISE.
+
+When you run, you can feel your heart beating. It gets an instant of
+rest between the beats.
+
+Good exercise in the fresh air makes the heart work well and warms the
+body better than a fire could do.
+
+
+DOES ALCOHOL DO ANY HARM TO THE HEART?
+
+Your heart is made of muscle. You know what harm alcohol does to the
+muscles.
+
+Could a fatty heart work as well as a muscular heart? No more than a
+fatty arm could do the work of a muscular arm. Besides, alcohol makes
+the heart beat too fast, and so it gets too tired.
+
+
+REVIEW QUESTIONS.
+
+          1. Where is the heart placed?
+
+          2. Of what is it made?
+
+          3. What work does it do?
+
+          4. What are arteries and veins?
+
+          5. What does the pulse tell us?
+
+          6. How does the food we eat reach all parts of the
+          body?
+
+          7. How does alcohol in the blood affect the brain?
+
+          8. When does the heart rest?
+
+          9. How does exercise in the fresh air help the
+          heart?
+
+          10. What harm does alcohol do to the heart?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV.
+
+THE LUNGS.
+
+
+[Illustration: T]HE blood flows all through the body, carrying good food
+to every part. It also gathers up from every part the worn-out matter
+that can no longer be used. By the time it is ready to be sent back by
+the veins, the blood is no longer pure and red. It is dull and bluish in
+color, because it is full of impurities.
+
+If you look at the veins in your wrist, you will see that they look
+blue.
+
+If all this bad blood goes back to the heart, will the heart have to
+pump out bad blood next time? No, for the heart has neighbors very near
+at hand, ready to change the bad blood to pure, red blood again.
+
+
+THE LUNGS.
+
+These neighbors are the lungs. They are in the chest on each side of
+the heart. When you breathe, their little air-cells swell out, or
+expand, to take in the air. Then they contract again, and the air passes
+out through your mouth or nose. The lungs must have plenty of fresh air,
+and plenty of room to work in.
+
+[Illustration: _The lungs, heart, and air-passages._]
+
+If your clothes are too tight and the lungs do not have room to expand,
+they can not take in so much air as they should. Then the blood can not
+be made pure, and the whole body will suffer.
+
+For every good breath of fresh air, the lungs take in, they send out one
+of impure air.
+
+In this way, by taking out what is bad, they prepare the blood to go
+back to the heart pure and red, and to be pumped out through the body
+again.
+
+How the lungs can use the fresh air for doing this good work, you can
+not yet understand. By and by, when you are older, you will learn more
+about it.
+
+
+CARE OF THE LUNGS.
+
+Do the lungs ever rest?
+
+You never stop breathing, not even in the night. But if you watch your
+own breathing you will notice a little pause between the breaths. Each
+pause is a rest. But the lungs are very steady workers, both by night
+and by day. The least we can do for them, is to give them fresh air and
+plenty of room to work in.
+
+You may say: "We can't give them more room than they have. They are
+shut up in our chests."
+
+I have seen people who wore such tight clothes that their lungs did not
+have room to take a full breath. If any part of the lungs can not
+expand, it will become useless. If your lungs can not take in air enough
+to purify the blood, you can not be so well and strong as God intended,
+and your life will be shortened.
+
+If some one was sewing for you, you would not think of shutting her up
+in a little place where she could not move her hands freely. The lungs
+are breathing for you, and need room enough to do their work.
+
+
+THE AIR.
+
+The lungs breathe out the waste matter that they have taken from the
+blood. This waste matter poisons the air. If we should close all the
+doors and windows, and the fireplace or opening into the chimney, and
+leave not even a crack by which the fresh air could come in, we would
+die simply from staying in such a room. The lungs could not do their
+work for the blood, and the blood could not do its work for the body.
+
+Impure air-will poison you. You should not breathe it. If your head
+aches, and you feel dull and sleepy from being in a close room, a run in
+the fresh air will make you feel better.
+
+The good, pure air makes your blood pure; and the blood then flows
+quickly through your whole body and refreshes every part.
+
+We must be careful not to stay in close rooms in the day-time, nor sleep
+in close rooms at night. We must not keep out the fresh air that our
+bodies so much need.
+
+It is better to breathe through the nose than through the mouth. You can
+soon learn to do so, if you try to keep your mouth shut when walking or
+running.
+
+If you keep the mouth shut and breathe through the nose, the little
+hairs on the inside of the nose will catch the dust or other impurities
+that are floating in the air, and so save their going to the lungs. You
+will get out of breath less quickly when running if you keep your mouth
+shut.
+
+
+DOES ALCOHOL DO ANY HARM TO THE LUNGS?
+
+The little air-cells of the lungs have very delicate muscular (m[)u]s'ku
+lar) walls. Every time we breathe, these walls have to move. The muscles
+of the chest must also move, as you can all notice in yourselves, as you
+breathe.
+
+All this muscular work, as well as that of the stomach and heart, is
+directed by the nerves.
+
+You have learned already what alcohol will do to muscles and nerves, so
+you are ready to answer for stomach, for heart, and for lungs. Is
+alcohol a help to them?
+
+
+REVIEW QUESTIONS.
+
+          1. Besides carrying food all over the body, what
+          other work does the blood do?
+
+          2. Why does the blood in the veins look blue?
+
+          3. Where is the blood made pure and red again?
+
+          4. Where is it sent, from the lungs?
+
+          5. What must the lungs have in order to do this
+          work?
+
+          6. When do the lungs rest?
+
+          7. Why should we not wear tight clothes?
+
+          8. How does the air in a room become spoiled?
+
+          9. How can we keep it fresh and pure?
+
+          10. How should we breathe?
+
+          11. Why is it better to breathe through the nose
+          than through the mouth?
+
+          12. Why is alcohol not good for the lungs?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI.
+
+THE SKIN.
+
+
+[Illustration: T]HERE is another part of your body carrying away waste
+matter all the time--it is the skin.
+
+The body is covered with skin. It is also lined with a more delicate
+kind of skin. You can see where the outside skin and the lining skin
+meet at your lips.
+
+There is a thin outside layer of skin which we can pull off without
+hurting ourselves; but I advise you not to do so. Because under the
+outside skin is the true skin, which is so full of little nerves that it
+will feel the least touch as pain. When the outer skin, which protects
+it, is torn away, we must cover the true skin to keep it from harm.
+
+In hot weather, or when any one has been working or playing hard, the
+face, and sometimes the whole body, is covered with little drops of
+water. We call these drops perspiration (p[~e]r sp[)i] r[=a]'sh[)u]n).
+
+[Illustration: _Perspiratory tube._]
+
+Where does it come from? It comes through many tiny holes in the skin,
+called pores (p[=o]rz). Every pore is the mouth of a tiny tube which is
+carrying off waste matter and water from your body. If you could piece
+together all these little perspiration tubes that are in the skin of one
+person, they would make a line more than three miles long.
+
+Sometimes, you can not see the perspiration, because there is not enough
+of it to form drops. But it is always coming out through your skin, both
+in winter and summer. Your body is kept healthy by having its worn-out
+matter carried off in this way, as well as in other ways.
+
+
+THE NAILS.
+
+The nails grow from the skin.
+
+The finger nails are little shields to protect the ends of your fingers
+from getting hurt. These finger ends are full of tiny nerves, and would
+be badly off without such shields. No one likes to see nails that have
+been bitten.
+
+
+CARE OF THE SKIN.
+
+Waste matter is all the time passing out through the perspiration tubes
+in the skin. This waste matter must not be left to clog up the little
+openings of the tubes. It should be washed off with soap and water.
+
+When children have been playing out-of-doors, they often have very dirty
+hands and faces. Any one can see, then, that they need to be washed. But
+even if they had been in the cleanest place all day and had not touched
+any thing dirty, they would still need the washing; for the waste matter
+that comes from the inside of the body is just as hurtful as the mud or
+dust of the street. You do not see it so plainly, because it comes out
+very little at a time. Wash it off well, and your skin will be fresh and
+healthy, and able to do its work. If the skin could not do its work, you
+would die.
+
+Do not keep on your rubber boots or shoes all through school-time.
+Rubber will not let the perspiration pass off, so the little pores get
+clogged and your feet begin to feel uncomfortable, or your head may
+ache. No part can fail to do its work without causing trouble to the
+rest of the body. But you should always wear rubbers out-of-doors when
+the ground is wet. Certainly, they are very useful then.
+
+When you are out in the fresh air, you are giving the other parts of
+your body such a good chance to perspire, that your feet can bear a
+little shutting up. But as soon as you come into the house, take the
+rubbers off.
+
+Now that you know what the skin is doing all the time, you will
+understand that the clothes worn next to your skin are full of little
+worn-out particles, brought out by the perspiration. When these clothes
+are taken off at night, they should be so spread out, that they will
+air well before morning. Never wear any of the clothes through the
+night, that you have worn during the day.
+
+Do not roll up your night-dress in the morning and put it under your
+pillow. Give it first a good airing at the window and then hang it where
+the air can reach it all day. By so doing, you will have sweeter sleep
+at night.
+
+You are old enough to throw the bed-clothes off from the bed, before
+leaving your rooms in the morning. In this way, the bed and bed-clothes
+may have a good airing. Be sure to give them time enough for this.
+
+
+WORK OF THE BODY.
+
+You have now learned about four important kinds of work:--
+
+1st. The stomach prepares the food for the blood to take.
+
+2d. The blood is pumped out of the heart to carry food to every part of
+the body, and to take away worn-out matter.
+
+3d. The lungs use fresh air in making the dark, impure blood, bright and
+pure again.
+
+4th. The skin carries away waste matter through the little perspiration
+tubes.
+
+All this work goes on, day and night, without our needing to think about
+it at all; for messages are sent to the muscles by the nerves which keep
+them faithfully at work, whether we know it or not.
+
+
+REVIEW QUESTIONS.
+
+          1. What covers the body?
+
+          2. What lines the body?
+
+          3. Where are the nerves of the skin?
+
+          4. What is perspiration? What is the common name
+          for it?
+
+          5. What are the pores of the skin?
+
+          6. How does the perspiration help to keep you
+          well?
+
+          7. Of what use are the nails?
+
+          8. How should they be kept?
+
+          9. What care should be taken of the skin?
+
+          10. Why should you not wear rubber boots or
+          overshoes in the house?
+
+          11. Why should you change under-clothing night and
+          morning?
+
+          12. Where should the night-dress be placed in the
+          morning?
+
+          13. What should be done with the bed-clothes? Why?
+
+          14. Name the four kinds of work about which you
+          have learned.
+
+          15. How are the organs of the body kept at work?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII.
+
+THE SENSES.
+
+
+[Illustration: W]E have five ways of learning about all things around
+us. We can see them, touch them, taste them, smell them, or hear them.
+Sight, touch, taste, smell, and hearing, are called the five senses.
+
+You already know something about them, for you are using them all the
+time.
+
+In this lesson, you will learn a little more about seeing and hearing.
+
+
+THE EYES.
+
+In the middle of your eye is a round, black spot, called the pupil. This
+pupil is only a hole with a muscle around it. When you are in the light,
+the muscle draws up, and makes the pupil small, because you can get all
+the light you need through a small opening. When you are in the dark,
+the muscle stretches, and opens the pupil wide to let in more light.
+
+The pupils of the cat's eyes are very large in the dark. They want all
+the light they can get, to see if there are any mice about.
+
+[Illustration: _The eyelashes and the tear-glands._]
+
+The pupil of the eye opens into a little, round room where the nerve of
+sight is. This is a safe place for this delicate nerve, which can not
+bear too much light. It carries to the brain an account of every thing
+we see.
+
+We might say the eye is taking pictures for us all day long, and that
+the nerve of sight is describing these pictures to the brain.
+
+
+CARE OF THE EYES.
+
+The nerves of sight need great care, for they are very delicate.
+
+Do not face a bright light when you are reading or studying. While
+writing, you should sit so that the light will come from the left side;
+then the shadow of your hand will not fall upon your work.
+
+One or two true stories may help you to remember that you must take good
+care of your eyes.
+
+The nerve of sight can not bear too bright a light. It asks to have the
+pupil made small, and even the eyelid curtains put down, when the light
+is too strong.
+
+Once, there was a boy who said boastfully to his playmates: "Let us see
+which of us can look straight at the sun for the longest time."
+
+Then they foolishly began to look at the sun. The delicate nerves of
+sight felt a sharp pain, and begged to have the pupils made as small as
+possible and the eyelid curtains put down.
+
+But the foolish boys said "No." They were trying to see which would bear
+it the longest. Great harm was done to the brains as well as eyes of
+both these boys. The one who looked longest at the sun died in
+consequence of his foolish act.
+
+The second story is about a little boy who tried to turn his eyes to
+imitate a schoolmate who was cross-eyed. He turned them; but he could
+not turn them back again. Although he is now a gentleman more than fifty
+years old and has had much painful work done upon his eyes, the doctors
+have never been able to set them quite right.
+
+You see from the first story, that you must be careful not to give your
+eyes too much light. But you must also be sure to give them light
+enough.
+
+When one tries to read in the twilight, the little nerve of sight says:
+"Give me more light; I am hurt, by trying to see in the dark."
+
+If you should kill these delicate nerves, no others would ever grow in
+place of them, and you would never be able to see again.
+
+
+THE EARS.
+
+What you call your ears are only pieces of gristle, so curved as to
+catch the sounds and pass them along to the true ears. These are deeper
+in the head, where the nerve of hearing is waiting to send an account
+of each sound to the brain.
+
+
+CARE OF THE EARS.
+
+The ear nerve is in less danger than that of the eye. Careless children
+sometimes put pins into their ears and so break the "drum." That is a
+very bad thing to do. Use only a soft towel in washing your ears. You
+should never put any thing hard or sharp into them.
+
+I must tell you a short ear story, about my father, when he was a small
+boy.
+
+One day, when playing on the floor, he laid his ear to the crack of the
+door, to feel the wind blow into it. He was so young that he did not
+know it was wrong; but the next day he had the earache severely.
+Although he lived to be an old man, he often had the earache. He thought
+it began from the time when the wind blew into his ear from under that
+door.
+
+
+ALCOHOL AND THE SENSES.
+
+All this fine work of touching, tasting, seeing, smelling, and hearing,
+is nerve work.
+
+The man who is in the habit of using alcoholic drinks can not touch,
+taste, see, smell, or hear so well as he ought. His hands tremble, his
+speech is sometimes thick, and often he can not walk straight.
+Sometimes, he thinks he sees things when he does not, because his poor
+nerves are so confused by alcohol that they can not do their work.
+
+Answer now for your taste, smell, and touch, and also for your sight and
+hearing; should their beautiful work be spoiled by alcohol?
+
+
+REVIEW QUESTIONS.
+
+          1. Name the five senses.
+
+          2. What is the pupil of the eye?
+
+          3. How is it made larger or smaller?
+
+          4. Why does it change in size?
+
+          5. What can a cat's eyes do?
+
+          6. Where is the nerve of the eye?
+
+          7. What work does it do?
+
+          8. Why must one be careful of his eyes?
+
+          9. Where should the light be for reading or
+          studying?
+
+          10. Tell the story of the boys who looked at the
+          sun.
+
+          11. Tell the story of the boy who made himself
+          cross-eyed.
+
+          12. Why should you not read in the twilight?
+
+          13. What would be the result, if you should kill
+          the nerves of sight?
+
+          14. Where are the true ears?
+
+          15. How may the nerves of hearing be injured?
+
+          16. Tell the story of the boy who injured his ear.
+
+          17. How is the work of the senses affected by
+          drinking liquor?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII.
+
+HEAT AND COLD.
+
+
+WHAT MAKES US WARM?
+
+"[Illustration: M]Y thick, warm clothes make me warm," says some child.
+
+No! Your thick, warm clothes keep you warm. They do not make you warm.
+
+Take a brisk run, and your blood will flow faster and you will be warm
+very quickly.
+
+On a cold day, the teamster claps his hands and swings his arms to make
+his blood flow quickly and warm him.
+
+Every child knows that he is warm inside; for if his fingers are cold,
+he puts them into his mouth to warm them.
+
+If you should put a little thermometer into your mouth, or under your
+tongue, the mercury (m[~e]r'ku r[)y]) would rise as high as it does out
+of doors on a hot, summer day.
+
+This would be the same in summer or winter, in a warm country or a cold
+one, if you were well and the work of your body was going on steadily.
+
+
+WHERE DOES THIS HEAT COME FROM?
+
+Some of the work which is all the time going on inside your body, makes
+this heat.
+
+The blood is thus warmed, and then it carries the heat to every part of
+the body. The faster the blood flows, the more heat it brings, and the
+warmer we feel.
+
+In children, the heart pumps from eighty to ninety times a minute.
+
+This is faster than it works in old people, and this is one reason why
+children are generally much warmer than old people.
+
+But we are losing heat all the time.
+
+You may breathe in cold air; but that which you breathe out is warm. A
+great deal of heat from your warm body is all the time passing off
+through your skin, into the cooler air about you. For this reason, a
+room full of people is much warmer than the same room when empty.
+
+
+CLOTHING.
+
+We put on clothes to keep in the heat which we already have, and to
+prevent the cold air from reaching our skins and carrying off too much
+heat in that way.
+
+Most of you children are too young to choose what clothes you will wear.
+Others decide for you. You know, however, that woolen under-garments
+keep you warm in winter, and that thick boots and stockings should be
+worn in cold weather. Thin dresses or boots may look pretty; but they
+are not safe for winter wear, even at a party.
+
+A healthy, happy child, dressed in clothes which are suitable for the
+season, is pleasanter to look at than one whose dress, though rich and
+handsome, is not warm enough for health or comfort.
+
+When you feel cold, take exercise, if possible. This will make the hot
+blood flow all through your body and warm it. If you can not, you should
+put on more clothes, go to a warm room, in some way get warm and keep
+warm, or the cold will make you sick.
+
+
+TAKING COLD.
+
+If your skin is chilled, the tiny mouths of the perspiration tubes are
+sometimes closed and can not throw out the waste matter. Then, if one
+part fails to do its work, other parts must suffer. Perhaps the inside
+skin becomes inflamed, or the throat and lungs, and you have a cold, or
+a cough.
+
+
+ALCOHOL AND COLD.
+
+People used to think that nothing would warm one so well on a cold day,
+as a glass of whiskey, or other alcoholic drink.
+
+It is true that, if a person drinks a little alcohol, he will feel a
+burning in the throat, and presently a glowing heat on the skin.
+
+The alcohol has made the hot blood rush into the tiny tubes near the
+skin, and he thinks it has warmed him.
+
+But if all this heat comes to the skin, the cold air has a chance to
+carry away more than usual. In a very little time, the drinker will be
+colder than before. Perhaps he will not know it; for the cheating
+alcohol will have deadened his nerves so that they send no message to
+the brain. Then he may not have sense enough to put on more clothing and
+may freeze. He may even, if it is very cold, freeze to death.
+
+People, who have not been drinking alcohol are sometimes frozen; but
+they would have frozen much quicker if they had drunk it.
+
+Horse-car drivers and omnibus drivers have a hard time on a cold winter
+day. They are often cheated into thinking that alcohol will keep them
+warm; but doctors have learned that it is the water-drinkers who hold
+out best against the cold. Alcohol can not really keep a person warm.
+
+All children are interested in stories about Arctic explorers, whose
+ships get frozen into great ice-fields, who travel on sledges drawn by
+dogs, and sometimes live in Esquimau huts, and drink oil, and eat walrus
+meat.
+
+These men tell us that alcohol will not keep them warm, and you know
+why.
+
+The hunters and trappers in the snowy regions of the Rocky Mountains say
+the same thing. Alcohol not only can not keep them warm; but it lessens
+their power to resist cold.
+
+[Illustration: _Scene in the Arctic regions._]
+
+Many of you have heard about the Greely party who were brought home from
+the Arctic seas, after they had been starving and freezing for many
+months.
+
+There were twenty-six men in all. Of these, nineteen died. Seven were
+found alive by their rescuers; one of these died soon afterward. The
+first man who died, was the only one of the party who had ever been a
+drunkard.
+
+Of the nineteen who died, all but one used tobacco. Of the six now
+living,--four never used tobacco at all; and the other two, very seldom.
+
+The tobacco was no real help to them in time of trouble. It had probably
+weakened their stomachs, so that they could not make the best use of
+such poor food as they had.
+
+
+REVIEW QUESTIONS.
+
+          1. Why do you wear thick clothes in cold weather?
+
+          2. How can you prove that you are warm inside?
+
+          3. What makes this heat?
+
+          4. What carries this heat through your body?
+
+          5. How rapidly does your heart beat?
+
+          6. How are you losing heat all the time?
+
+          7. How can you warm yourself without going to the
+          fire?
+
+          8. Will alcohol make you warmer, or colder?
+
+          9. How does it cheat you into thinking that you
+          will be warmer for drinking it?
+
+          10. What do the people who travel in very cold
+          countries, tell us about the use of alcohol?
+
+          11. How did tobacco affect the men who went to the
+          Arctic seas with Lieutenant Greely?
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX.
+
+WASTED MONEY.
+
+
+COST OF ALCOHOL.
+
+[Illustration: N]OW that you have learned about your bodies, and what
+alcohol will do to them, you ought also to know that alcohol costs a
+great deal of money. Money spent for that which will do no good, but
+only harm, is certainly wasted, and worse than wasted.
+
+If a boy or a girl save ten cents a week, it will take ten weeks to save
+a dollar.
+
+You can all think of many good and pleasant ways to spend a dollar. What
+would the beer-drinker do with it? If he takes two mugs of beer a day,
+the dollar will be used up in ten days. But we ought not to say used,
+because that word will make us think it was spent usefully. We will say,
+instead, the dollar will be wasted, in ten days.
+
+If he spends it for wine or whiskey, it will go sooner, as these cost
+more. If no money was spent for liquor in this country, people would not
+so often be sick, or poor, or bad, or wretched. We should not need so
+many policemen, and jails, and prisons, as we have now. If no liquor was
+drunk, men, women, and children would be better and happier.
+
+
+COST OF TOBACCO.
+
+Most of you have a little money of your own. Perhaps you earned a part,
+or the whole of it, yourselves. You are planning what to do with it, and
+that is a very pleasant kind of planning.
+
+Do you think it would be wise to make a dollar bill into a tight little
+roll, light one end of it with a match, and then let it slowly burn up?
+That would be wasting it, you say! (_See Frontispiece._)
+
+Yes! it would be wasted, if thus burned. It would be worse than wasted,
+if, while burning, it should also hurt the person who held it. If you
+should buy cigars or tobacco with your dollar, and smoke them, you could
+soon burn up the dollar and hurt yourselves besides.
+
+Can you count a million? Can you count a hundred millions? Try some day
+to do this counting. Then, when you begin to have some idea how much six
+hundred millions is, remember that six hundred million dollars are spent
+in this country every year for tobacco--burned up--wasted--worse than
+wasted.
+
+Do you think the farmer who planted tobacco instead of corn, did any
+good to the world by the change?
+
+
+REVIEW QUESTIONS.
+
+          1. How may one waste money?
+
+          2. Name some good ways for spending money.
+
+          3. How does the liquor-drinker spend his money?
+
+          4. What could we do, if no money was spent for
+          liquor?
+
+          5. Tell two ways in which you could burn up a
+          dollar bill.
+
+          6. Which would be the safer way?
+
+          7. How much money is spent for tobacco, yearly, in
+          this country?
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Transcriber's Notes:
+
+This book contains pronunciation codes. These are indicated in the text
+by the following
+
+          breve: [)i]
+          macron: [=i]
+          tilde: [~i]
+          slash through the letter: [\l]
+
+Obvious punctuation errors repaired.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Child's Health Primer For Primary
+Classes, by Jane Andrews
+
+*** 
\ No newline at end of file