diff --git "a/small.csv" "b/small.csv" deleted file mode 100644--- "a/small.csv" +++ /dev/null @@ -1,119255 +0,0 @@ -,Unnamed: 0.1,Unnamed: 0,text,pageid,title,stem_label -0,0.0,0.0,"In engineering, a housing or enclosure is a container, a protective exterior (e.g. shell) or an enclosing structural element (e.g. chassis or exoskeleton) designed to enable easier handling, provide attachment points for internal mechanisms (e.g. mounting brackets for electrical components, cables and pipings), maintain cleanliness of the contents by shielding dirt/dust, fouling and other contaminations, or protect interior mechanisms (e.g. delicate integrated electrical fittings) from structural stress and/or potential physical, thermal, chemical, biological or radiational damages from the surrounding environment.",55321544,Housing (engineering),E -1,1.0,1.0,"A Stoneley wave is a boundary wave (or interface wave) that typically propagates along a solid-solid interface. When found at a liquid-solid interface, this wave is also referred to as a Scholte wave. The wave is of maximum intensity at the interface and decreases exponentially away from it. It is named after the British seismologist Dr. Robert Stoneley (1894–1976), a lecturer in the University of Leeds, who discovered it on October 1, 1924. - -Occurrence and use -Stoneley waves are most commonly generated during borehole sonic logging and vertical seismic profiling.",21576203,Stoneley wave,M -2,2.0,2.0,"Learning Object Metadata is a data model, usually encoded in XML, used to describe a learning object and similar digital resources used to support learning. The purpose of learning object metadata is to support the reusability of learning objects, to aid discoverability, and to facilitate their interoperability, usually in the context of online learning management systems (LMS). -The IEEE 1484.12.1-2002 – Standard for Learning Object Metadata is an internationally recognised open standard (published by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Standards Association, New York) under the LTSC sponsorship for the description of “learning objects"". Relevant attributes of learning objects to be described include: type of object; author; owner; terms of distribution; format; and pedagogical attributes, such as teaching or interaction style. - -IEEE 1484.12.1 – 2002 Standard for Learning Object Metadata -The IEEE working group that developed the standard defined learning objects, for the purposes of the standard, as being ""any entity, digital or non-digital, that may be used for learning, education or training."" This definition has struck many commentators as being rather broad in its scope, but the definition was intended to provide a broad class of objects to which LOM metadata might usefully be associated rather than to give an instructional or pedagogic definition of a learning object. IEEE 1484.12.1 is the first part of a multipart standard, and describes the LOM data model. The LOM data model specifies which aspects of a learning object should be described and what vocabularies may be used for these descriptions; it also defines how this data model can be amended by additions or constraints.",1955471,Learning object metadata,T -3,3.0,3.0,"Material take off (MTO) is a term used in engineering and construction, and refers to a list of materials with quantities and types (such as specific grades of steel) that are required to build a designed structure or item. This list is generated by analysis of a blueprint or other design document. The list of required materials for construction is sometimes referred to as the material take off list (MTOL). -Material take off is not limited to the amount of required material, but also the weight of the items taken off. This is important when dealing with larger structures, allowing the company that does the take off to determine total weight of the item and how best to move the item (if necessary) when construction is completed. - -Definition used by the ISA (International Society of Automation) -A material take off (MTO) is the process of analyzing the drawings and determining all the materials required to accomplish the design. Thereafter, the material take off is used to create a bill of materials (BOM).",12896417,Material take off,E -4,4.0,4.0,"Computer engineering (CoE or CpE) is a branch of electronic engineering and computer science that integrates several fields of computer science and electronic engineering required to develop computer hardware and software. Computer engineers require training in electronic engineering, computer science, hardware-software integration, software design, and software engineering. It uses the techniques and principles of electrical engineering and computer science, and can encompass areas such as artificial intelligence (AI), robotics, computer networks, computer architecture and operating systems. Computer engineers are involved in many hardware and software aspects of computing, from the design of individual microcontrollers, microprocessors, personal computers, and supercomputers, to circuit design. This field of engineering not only focuses on how computer systems themselves work, but also on how to integrate them into the larger picture.",50408,Computer engineering,E -5,5.0,5.0,"Massive parallel sequencing or massively parallel sequencing is any of several high-throughput approaches to DNA sequencing using the concept of massively parallel processing; it is also called next-generation sequencing (NGS) or second-generation sequencing. Some of these technologies emerged between 1993 and 1998 and have been commercially available since 2005. These technologies use miniaturized and parallelized platforms for sequencing of 1 million to 43 billion short reads (50 to 400 bases each) per instrument run. -Many NGS platforms differ in engineering configurations and sequencing chemistry. They share the technical paradigm of massive parallel sequencing via spatially separated, clonally amplified DNA templates or single DNA molecules in a flow cell. This design is very different from that of Sanger sequencing—also known as capillary sequencing or first-generation sequencing—which is based on electrophoretic separation of chain-termination products produced in individual sequencing reactions.",32020153,Massive parallel sequencing,S -6,6.0,6.0,"The subject of physical mathematics is concerned with physically motivated mathematics and is considered by some as a subfield of mathematical physics. -According to Margaret Osler the simple machines of Hero of Alexandria and the ray tracing of Alhazen did not refer to causality or forces. Accordingly these early expressions of kinematics and optics do not rise to the level of mathematical physics as practiced by Galileo and Newton. -The details of physical units and their manipulation were addressed by Alexander Macfarlane in Physical Arithmetic in 1885. The science of kinematics created a need for mathematical representation of motion and has found expression with complex numbers, quaternions, and linear algebra. -At Cambridge University the Mathematical Tripos tested students on their knowledge of ""mixed mathematics"". ""... [N]ew books which appeared in the mid-eighteenth century offered a systematic introduction to the fundamental operations of the fluxional calculus and showed how it could be applied to a wide range of mathematical and physical problems.",32439784,Physical mathematics,M -7,7.0,7.0,"The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to applied science: -Applied science – the branch of science that applies existing scientific knowledge to develop more practical applications, including inventions and other technological advancements. Science itself is the systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe. - -Branches of applied science -Applied cryptography – applications of cryptography. -Applied science – application of scientific knowledge transferred into a physical environment. -Actuarial science — applies mathematical and statistical methods to assess risk in the insurance, finance, and other industries -Agricultural science -Agronomy – science and technology of producing and using plants for food, fuel, feed, fiber, and reclamation. -Animal husbandry – agricultural practice of breeding and raising livestock. -Aquaculture – also known as aquafarming, is the farming of aquatic organisms such as fish, crustaceans, molluscs and aquatic plants.Algaculture – form of aquaculture involving the farming of species of algae. -Mariculture – cultivation of marine organisms for food and other products in the open ocean, an enclosed section of the ocean, or in tanks, ponds or raceways which are filled with seawater. -Agriculture – science of farming -Cuniculture – also known as rabbit farming, is the breeding and raising domestic rabbits, usually for their meat or fur. -Fungiculture – process of producing food, medicine, and other products by the cultivation of mushrooms and other fungi. -Heliciculture – also called snail farming, is the process of farming or raising land snails specifically for human consumption, and more recently, to obtain snail slime for cosmetics use. -Olericulture – science of vegetable growing, dealing with the culture of non-woody (herbaceous) plants for food. -Sericulture – also called silk farming, is the rearing of silkworms for the production of silk. Although there are several commercial species of silkworms, Bombyx mori is the most widely used and intensively studied. -Food science – study concerned with all technical aspects of foods, beginning with harvesting or slaughtering, and ending with its cooking and consumption, an ideology commonly referred to as ""from field to fork"". It is the discipline in which the engineering, biological, and physical sciences are used to study the nature of foods, the causes of deterioration, the principles underlying food processing, and the improvement of foods for the consuming public. -Forestry – art and science of managing forests, tree plantations, and related natural resources. -Arboriculture – cultivation, management, and study of individual trees, shrubs, vines, and other perennial woody plants. -Silviculture – practice of controlling the establishment, growth, composition, health, and quality of forests to meet diverse needs and values. It includes regenerating, tending and harvesting techniques. -Horticulture – art, science, technology and business of intensive plant cultivation for human use -Floriculture – discipline of horticulture concerned with the cultivation of flowering and ornamental plants for gardens and for floristry, comprising the floral industry. -Hydroculture – growing of plants in a soilless medium, or an aquatic based environment.",33764165,Outline of applied science,S -8,8.0,8.0,"Paper engineering is a branch of engineering that deals with the usage of physical science (e.g. chemistry and physics) and life sciences (e.g. biology and biochemistry) in conjunction with mathematics as applied to the converting of raw materials into useful paper products and co-products. The field applies various principles in process engineering and unit operations to the manufacture of paper, chemicals, energy and related materials. The following timeline shows some of the key steps in the development of the science of chemical and bioprocess engineering:From a heritage perspective, the field encompasses the design and analysis of a wide variety of thermal, chemical and biochemical unit operations employed in the manufacture of pulp and paper, and addresses the preparation of its raw materials from trees or other natural resources via a pulping process, chemical and mechanical pretreatment of these recovered biopolymer (e.g.",231209,Paper engineering,E -9,9.0,9.0,"Forensic science, also known as criminalistics, is the application of science to criminal and civil laws. During criminal investigation in particular, it is governed by the legal standards of admissible evidence and criminal procedure. It is a broad field utilizing numerous practices such as the analysis of DNA, fingerprints, bloodstain patterns, firearms, ballistics, and toxicology. -Forensic scientists collect, preserve, and analyze scientific evidence during the course of an investigation. While some forensic scientists travel to the scene of the crime to collect the evidence themselves, others occupy a laboratory role, performing analysis on objects brought to them by other individuals. Still others are involved in analysis of financial, banking, or other numerical data for use in financial crime investigation, and can be employed as consultants from private firms, academia, or as government employees.In addition to their laboratory role, forensic scientists testify as expert witnesses in both criminal and civil cases and can work for either the prosecution or the defense.",45710,Forensic science,S -10,10.0,10.0,"In mathematics, a field is a set on which addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division are defined and behave as the corresponding operations on rational and real numbers do. A field is thus a fundamental algebraic structure which is widely used in algebra, number theory, and many other areas of mathematics. -The best known fields are the field of rational numbers, the field of real numbers and the field of complex numbers. Many other fields, such as fields of rational functions, algebraic function fields, algebraic number fields, and p-adic fields are commonly used and studied in mathematics, particularly in number theory and algebraic geometry. Most cryptographic protocols rely on finite fields, i.e., fields with finitely many elements. -The relation of two fields is expressed by the notion of a field extension. Galois theory, initiated by Évariste Galois in the 1830s, is devoted to understanding the symmetries of field extensions.",289878,Field (mathematics),M -11,11.0,11.0,"Tronox Limited is an American worldwide chemical company involved in the titanium products industry with approximately 6,500 employees. Following its acquisition of the mineral sands business formerly belonging to South Africa's Exxaro Resources, Tronox is the largest fully integrated seller and marketer of titanium dioxide (TiO2) pigment, which provides brightness to applications such as coatings, plastics and paper. Tronox also sells titanium ore – the main feedstock of titanium dioxide - and zircon directly to customers. -Tronox is the third-largest titanium feedstock producer, with approximately 10% of global titanium ore production; and the second-largest producer of zircon, with approximately 20% of global production. The company also has an electrolytic and speciality chemicals business that services the paper and battery industries. Formerly a part of the Kerr-McGee Chemical Corporation and based in Oklahoma City since it was spun off from its parent in 2005, the company announced in June 2012 that it was moving its headquarters to Stamford, Connecticut.The company was spun off in part to offload its parent company Kerr-McGee's legacy of generations of environmental dumping of toxic waste across 22 states.",3396332,Tronox,T -12,12.0,12.0,"Ecosystem-based adaptation (EBA) encompasses a broad set of approaches to adapt to climate change. They all involve the management of ecosystems and their services to reduce the vulnerability of human communities to the impacts of climate change. The Convention on Biological Diversity defines EBA as ""the use of biodiversity and ecosystem services as part of an overall adaptation strategy to help people to adapt to the adverse effects of climate change"".EbA involves the conservation, sustainable management and restoration of ecosystems, such as forests, grasslands, wetlands, mangroves or coral reefs to reduce the harmful impacts of climate hazards including shifting patterns or levels of rainfall, changes in maximum and minimum temperatures, stronger storms, and increasingly variable climatic conditions. EbA measures can be implemented on their own or in combination with engineered approaches (such as the construction of water reservoirs or dykes), hybrid measures (such as artificial reefs) and approaches that strengthen the capacities of individuals and institutions to address climate risks (such as the introduction of early warning systems). -EbA is nested within the broader concept of nature-based solutions and complements and shares common elements with a wide variety of other approaches to building the resilience of social-ecological systems. These approaches include community-based adaptation, ecosystem-based disaster risk reduction, climate-smart agriculture, and green infrastructure, and often place emphasis on using participatory and inclusive processes and community/stakeholder engagement.",60945092,Ecosystem-based adaptation,S -13,13.0,13.0,"A collaboratory, as defined by William Wulf in 1989, is a “center without walls, in which the nation’s researchers can perform their research without regard to physical location, interacting with colleagues, accessing instrumentation, sharing data and computational resources, [and] accessing information in digital libraries” (Wulf, 1989). -Bly (1998) refines the definition to “a system which combines the interests of the scientific community at large with those of the computer science and engineering community to create integrated, tool-oriented computing and communication systems to support scientific collaboration” (Bly, 1998, p. 31). -Rosenberg (1991) considers a collaboratory as being an experimental and empirical research environment in which scientists work and communicate with each other to design systems, participate in collaborative science, and conduct experiments to evaluate and improve systems. -A simplified form of these definitions would describe the collaboratory as being an environment where participants make use of computing and communication technologies to access shared instruments and data, as well as to communicate with others. -However, a wide-ranging definition is provided by Cogburn (2003) who states that “a collaboratory is more than an elaborate collection of information and communications technologies; it is a new networked organizational form that also includes social processes; collaboration techniques; formal and informal communication; and agreement on norms, principles, values, and rules” (Cogburn, 2003, p. 86). -This concept has a lot in common with the notions of Interlock research, Information Routing Group and Interlock diagrams introduced in 1984. - -Other meaning -The word “collaboratory” is also used to describe an open space, creative process where a group of people work together to generate solutions to complex problems.This meaning of the word originates from the visioning work of a large group of people – including scholars, artists, consultant, students, activists, and other professionals – who worked together on the 50+20 initiative aiming at transforming management education. -In this context, by fusing two elements, “collaboration” and “laboratory”, the word “collaboratory” suggests the construction of a space where people explore collaborative innovations. -It is, as defined by Dr. Katrin Muff, “an open space for all stakeholders where action learning and action research join forces, and students, educators, and researchers work with members of all facets of society to address current dilemmas.” -The concept of the collaboratory as a creative group process and its application are further developed in the book “The Collaboratory: A co-creative stakeholder engagement process for solving complex problems”.Examples of collaboratory events are provided on the website of the Collaboratory community as well as by Business School Lausanne- a Swiss business school that has adopted the collaboratory method to harness collective intelligence. - -Background -Problems of geographic separation are especially present in large research projects.",1636593,Collaboratory,T -14,14.0,14.0,"Membrane bioreactors are combinations of some membrane processes like microfiltration or ultrafiltration with a biological wastewater treatment process, the activated sludge process. These technologies are now widely used for municipal and industrial wastewater treatment. The two basic membrane bioreactor configurations are the submerged membrane bioreactor and the side stream membrane bioreactor. In the submerged configuration, the membrane is located inside the biological reactor and submerged in the wastewater, while in a side stream membrane bioreactor, the membrane is located outside the reactor as an additional step after biological treatment. - -Overview -Water scarcity has prompted efforts to reuse waste water once it has been properly treated, known as ""water reclamation"" (also called wastewater reuse, water reuse, or water recycling). Among the treatment technologies available to reclaim wastewater, membrane processes stand out for their capacity to retain solids and salts and even to disinfect water, producing water suitable for reuse in irrigation and other applications. -A semipermeable membrane is a material that allows the selective flow of certain substances.",16743975,Membrane bioreactor,S -15,15.0,15.0,"Lahane Hospital, officially Dr. António de Carvalho Hospital (Portuguese: Hospital Dr. António de Carvalho, Tetum: Óspital Dr. António de Carvalho), and also known as the former Portuguese Hospital (Portuguese: antigo Hospital Português, Tetum: antigu Ospitál Portugés), is a heritage public hospital in East Timor. It is located in Lahane, at the southern edge of Dili, East Timor's capital city.On 13 April 2020, shortly after the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic in East Timor, the general director of health care at the Ministry of Health, Odete Maria Freitas Belo, announced that when the number of severely ill COVID-19 patients increased, the government would use the hospital as a medical facility for them.",73511758,Dr. António de Carvalho Hospital,S -16,16.0,16.0,"The VolturnUS is a floating concrete structure that supports a wind turbine, designed by University of Maine Advanced Structures and Composites Center and deployed by DeepCwind Consortium in 2013. The VolturnUS can support wind turbines in water depths of 150 ft (46 m) or more. -The DeepCwind Consortium and its partners deployed a 1:8 scale VolturnUS in 2013. Efforts are now underway by Maine Aqua Ventus 1, GP, LLC, to deploy to full-scale VolturnUS structures off the coast of Monhegan Island, Maine, in the UMaine Deepwater Offshore Wind Test Site. This demonstration project, known as New England Aqua Ventus I, is planned to deploy two 6 MW wind turbines by 2020.The University of Maine announced in September 2017 that its VolturnUS design became the first floating offshore wind turbine to meet American Bureau of Shipping requirements for floating offshore wind turbines, demonstrating the feasibility of the VolturnUS concept.",52375044,VolturnUS,E -17,17.0,17.0,"An engineering change order (ECO), also called an engineering change notice (ECN), engineering change (EC), or engineering release notice(ERN), is an artifact used to implement changes to components or end products. The ECO is utilized to control and coordinate changes to product designs that evolve over time. -The need for an engineering change may be triggered by a number of events and varies by industry. Typical engineering change categories are: - -Product Evolution - a change resulting in applying an existing part to a new application and maintaining backwards compatibility -Cost Reduction - a change resulting in lower overall cost to produce or maintain -Product Performance - a change that improves the capabilities of the item -Safety - a change required to enhance the safety to those using or interacting with the item - -Usage and contents -An ECO is defined as ""[A] document approved by the design activity that describes and authorizes the implementation of an engineering change to the product and its approved configuration documentation"".In product development the need for change is caused by: - -Correction of a design error that doesn't become evident until testing and modeling, or customer use reveals it. -A change in the customers' requirements necessitating the redesign of part of the product -A change in material or manufacturing method. This can be caused by a lack of material availability, a change in vendor, or to compensate for a design error.An ECO must contain at least this information: -Identification of what needs to be changed.",5210185,Engineering change order,E -18,18.0,18.0,"Ezra Michener (1794 - 1887) was an American botanist and medical doctor who lived in Chester County, Pennsylvania, USA for most of his life. In addition to writing a book, he made extensive collections of plants and fungi that are now in national collections. - -Early life, education and personal life -Michener was the fifth child of Mordecai and Alice (née Dunn) Michener. He was born on the family farm. He was not educated at a school but was taught by some local people and also self-taught. -He became interested in plants and spent time at Harmony Grove, a botanic garden begun in the mid-1770s by the self-taught botanist John Jackson (1748–1821), developed further by later generations of his family and which survived into the early twentieth century as the area developed into a horticultural company. It was well known at the time and also housed the Farmers Library.",73356430,Ezra Michener,S -19,19.0,19.0,"Although the subject of sexual dimorphism is not in itself controversial, the measures by which it is assessed differ widely. Most of the measures are used on the assumption that a random variable is considered so that probability distributions should be taken into account. In this review, a series of sexual dimorphism measures are discussed concerning both their definition and the probability law on which they are based. Most of them are sample functions, or statistics, which account for only partial characteristics, for example the mean or expected value, of the distribution involved. Further, the most widely used measure fails to incorporate an inferential support. - -Introduction -It is widely known that sexual dimorphism is an important component of the morphological variation in biological populations (see, e.g., Klein and Cruz-Uribe, 1984; Oxnard, 1987; Kelley, 1993).",6027945,Sexual dimorphism measures,S -20,20.0,20.0,"Proba-3 is a technological demonstration mission by the European Space Agency devoted to high precision formation flying to achieve scientific coronagraphy. It is part of the series of PROBA satellites that are being used to validate new spacecraft technologies and concepts while also carrying scientific instruments. - -History -The mission concept dates back to 2005 when a study was performed in the ESA CDF. After several phase A studies and a change of industrial organisation at the beginning of the phase B, the mission's implementation phase (Phases C/D/E1) eventually began in July 2014.The system CDR has been closed in 2018.The two spacecraft integration before environmental campaign has been completed as of March 2023 - -Mission concept -Proba-3 consists of two independent, three-axis stabilized spacecraft: the Coronagraph Spacecraft (CSC) and the Occulter Spacecraft (OSC). -Both spacecraft will fly close to each other on a highly elliptical orbit around the Earth, with an apogee at 60,500 km altitude.Along the apogee arc, when the gravity gradient is significantly smaller, the two spacecraft will autonomously acquire a formation configuration, such that the CSC remains at a fixed position in the shadow cast by the OSC. The CSC hosts a coronagraph which will then be able to observe the Sun Corona without being blinded by the intense light from the photosphere. -Given the diameter of the occulter disk on the OSC and the intended Corona observation regions, the CSC must be at approximately 150 meters from the OSC, and maintain this position with millimetric accuracy, both in range and laterally. The scientific objective is to observe the Corona down to about 1.1 solar radius in the visible wavelength range. -Besides formation flying for coronagraphy, some formation flying demonstration manoeuvers (retargeting and resizing manoeuvers) will be attempted during the apogee phase of the orbit, as well as a space rendezvous experiment.The formation acquisition and control is performed on-board thanks to a set of metrology equipment and actuators.",24943204,PROBA-3,T -21,21.0,21.0,"A Hacker Manifesto is a critical manifesto written by McKenzie Wark, which criticizes the commodification of information in the age of digital culture and globalization. It was published in the United States in 2004. - -Structure, style and influence -A Hacker Manifesto is divided into 17 chapters, with each chapter including a series of short numbered paragraphs (a total of 389) that mimics the epigrammic style of Guy Debord's The Society of the Spectacle. The opening sentence in the book, ""A double spooking the world, the double of abstraction"" is a clear homage to Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels' The Communist Manifesto, which opens with the line ""A specter is haunting Europe - the specter of Communism"". Wark builds on Marx and Engels’ ideas, alongside Deleuze and Guattari, by adding two new classes of workers into the mix - the ""hacker class"" and the ""vectoralist class"". - -Main ideas -Abstraction/hacker -For Wark, hacking begins with what she defines as an ""abstraction"", the construction of different and unrelated matters into previously unrealized relations. Hackers produce new conceptions, perceptions and sensations hacked out of raw data.",40931114,A Hacker Manifesto,T -22,22.0,22.0,"Boundary tracing, also known as contour tracing, of a binary digital region can be thought of as a segmentation technique that identifies the boundary pixels of the digital region. Boundary tracing is an important first step in the analysis of that region. -Boundary is a topological notion. However, a digital image is no topological space. Therefore, it is impossible to define the notion of a boundary in a digital image mathematically exactly. Most publications about tracing the boundary of a subset S of a digital image I describe algorithms which find a set of pixels belonging to S and having in their direct neighborhood pixels belonging both to S and to its complement I - S.",43999670,Boundary tracing,E -23,23.0,23.0,"The Pont du Bonhomme is located in the Lorient region of France. It links the cities of Kervignac and Lanester across the Blavet river, replacing a ferry that had been in use since the 17th century. Its location at the entrance to the valley was chosen to allow sailing boats to continue providing services to the upstream commune of Hennebont. -The first structure is a cable-stayed truss-girder bridge, built between 1900 and 1904 by Ferdinand Arnodin. Damaged several times during World War II, it was restored after the conflict and put into operation until 1974. It was then demolished, with the exception of its two pillars, and replaced by a second structure by Jacques Mathivat, reusing the girder bridge technique. - -Toponymy -The name comes from a rock on the left bank of the Blavet, on the Kervignac side, which, seen from a certain angle, resembles a human form.",74378116,Pont du Bonhomme,S -24,24.0,24.0,"This is a list of notable biologists with a biography in Wikipedia. It includes zoologists, botanists, biochemists, ornithologists, entomologists, malacologists, naturalists and other specialities. - -A -Ab–Ag -John Jacob Abel (1857–1938), American biochemist and pharmacologist, founder of the first department of pharmacology in the United States. -John Abelson (born 1938), American biologist with expertise in biophysics, biochemistry, and genetics -Richard J. Ablin (born 1940), American immunologist. Research on prostate cancer. Discovered prostate-specific antigen (PSA) which led to the development of the PSA test -Erik Acharius (1757–1819), Swedish botanist who studied lichens -Gary Ackers (1939–2011), American biophysicist who worked on thermodynamics of macromolecules. -Gilbert Smithson Adair (1896–1979), British protein chemist who identified cooperative binding of oxygen binding haemoglobin. -Arthur Adams (1820–1878), English physician and naturalist who classified crustaceans and molluscs -Michel Adanson (1727–1806), French naturalist who studied the plants and animals of Senegal -Julius Adler (born 1930), American biochemist and geneticist known for work on chemotaxis. -Monique Adolphe (born 1932), French cell biologist, pioneer of cell culture -Edgar Douglas Adrian (1st Baron Adrian) (1889–1977), British electrophysiologist, Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (1932) for research on neurons -Adam Afzelius (1750–1837), Swedish botanist who collected botanical specimens later acquired by Uppsala University -Carl Adolph Agardh (1785–1859), Swedish botanist who classified plant orders and classes -Jacob Georg Agardh (1813–1901), Swedish botanist known for classification of algae -Louis Agassiz (1807–1873), Swiss zoologist who studied the classification of fish; opponent of natural selection -Alexander Agassiz (1835–1910), American zoologist, son of Louis Agassiz, expert of marine biology and on mining -Nikolaus Ager (also Nicolas Ager, Agerius) (1568–1634), French botanist, author of De Anima Vegetativa - -Al–An -Nagima Aitkhozhina (1946–2020), Kazakh molecular biologist, structural and functional organisation of the genome of higher organisms and the molecular mechanisms of regulation of its expression. -William Aiton (1731–1793), Scottish botanist, director of the botanical garden at Kew -Bruce Alberts (born 1938), American biochemist, former President of the United States National Academy of Sciences, known for studying the protein complexes involved in chromosome replication, and for the book Molecular Biology of the Cell -Robert Alberty (1921–2014), American physical biochemist, with many contributions to enzyme kinetics. -Alfred William Alcock (1859–1933), British systematist of numerous species, aspects of biology and physiology of fishes -Nora Lilian Alcock (1874–1972), British pioneer in plant pathology who did research on fungal diseases -Boyd Alexander (1873–1910), English ornithologist who made surveys of birds in the Gold Coast (now Ghana), and the Bonin Islands -Richard D.",59018,List of biologists,S -25,25.0,25.0,"Food engineering is a scientific, academic, and professional field that interprets and applies principles of engineering, science, and mathematics to food manufacturing and operations, including the processing, production, handling, storage, conservation, control, packaging and distribution of food products. Given its reliance on food science and broader engineering disciplines such as electrical, mechanical, civil, chemical, industrial and agricultural engineering, food engineering is considered a multidisciplinary and narrow field.Due to the complex nature of food materials, food engineering also combines the study of more specific chemical and physical concepts such as biochemistry, microbiology, food chemistry, thermodynamics, transport phenomena, rheology, and heat transfer. Food engineers apply this knowledge to the cost-effective design, production, and commercialization of sustainable, safe, nutritious, healthy, appealing, affordable and high-quality ingredients and foods, as well as to the development of food systems, machinery, and instrumentation. - -History -Although food engineering is a relatively recent and evolving field of study, it is based on long-established concepts and activities. The traditional focus of food engineering was preservation, which involved stabilizing and sterilizing foods, preventing spoilage, and preserving nutrients in food for prolonged periods of time. More specific traditional activities include food dehydration and concentration, protective packaging, canning and freeze-drying .",1515853,Food engineering,E -26,26.0,26.0,"Artificial neural membrane (ANM) refers to a new class of functional structure developed through research adaptive and evolutionary neural networks and programmable materials. The greatest interest in ANM structures surround their potential as open architecture environments for the integration of microscale and nanoscale devices. -Originally based on the Neurogenesis Algorithms developed by mathematician and engineering physicist Dr. P. A. Menges.",9171489,Artificial neural membrane,S -27,27.0,27.0,"The Toyota Way is a set of principles defining the organizational culture of Toyota Motor Corporation. The company formalized the Toyota Way in 2001, after decades of academic research into the Toyota Production System and its implications for lean manufacturing as a methodology that could be adopted by other organizations. The two pillars of the Toyota Way are respect for people and continuous improvement. The philosophy was popularized by Jeffrey K. Liker in his 2004 book, The Toyota Way: 14 Management Principles from the World's Greatest Manufacturer.",9040377,The Toyota Way,E -28,28.0,28.0,"Bioelectromagnetics, also known as bioelectromagnetism, is the study of the interaction between electromagnetic fields and biological entities. Areas of study include electromagnetic fields produced by living cells, tissues or organisms, the effects of man-made sources of electromagnetic fields like mobile phones, and the application of electromagnetic radiation toward therapies for the treatment of various conditions. - -Biological phenomena -Bioelectromagnetism is studied primarily through the techniques of electrophysiology. In the late eighteenth century, the Italian physician and physicist Luigi Galvani first recorded the phenomenon while dissecting a frog at a table where he had been conducting experiments with static electricity. Galvani coined the term animal electricity to describe the phenomenon, while contemporaries labeled it galvanism. Galvani and contemporaries regarded muscle activation as resulting from an electrical fluid or substance in the nerves.",3108062,Bioelectromagnetics,S -29,29.0,29.0,"A turret lathe is a form of metalworking lathe that is used for repetitive production of duplicate parts, which by the nature of their cutting process are usually interchangeable. It evolved from earlier lathes with the addition of the turret, which is an indexable toolholder that allows multiple cutting operations to be performed, each with a different cutting tool, in easy, rapid succession, with no need for the operator to perform set-up tasks in between (such as installing or uninstalling tools) or to control the toolpath. The latter is due to the toolpath's being controlled by the machine, either in jig-like fashion, via the mechanical limits placed on it by the turret's slide and stops, or via digitally-directed servomechanisms for computer numerical control lathes. -The name derives from the way early turrets took the general form of a flattened cylindrical block mounted to the lathe's cross-slide, capable of rotating about the vertical axis and with toolholders projecting out to all sides, and thus vaguely resembled a swiveling gun turret. -Capstan lathe is the usual name in the UK and Commonwealth, though the two terms are also used in contrast: see below, Capstan versus turret. - -History -Turret lathes became indispensable to the production of interchangeable parts and for mass production. -The first turret lathe was built by Stephen Fitch in 1845 to manufacture screws for pistol percussion parts. In the mid-nineteenth century, the need for interchangeable parts for Colt revolvers enhanced the role of turret lathes in achieving this goal as part of the ""American system"" of manufacturing arms. Clock-making and bicycle manufacturing had similar requirements.",3982513,Turret lathe,E -30,30.0,30.0,"Microsoft SharePoint Workspace (formerly Microsoft Office Groove) is a discontinued desktop application designed for document collaboration in teams with members who are regularly off-line or who do not share the same network security clearance. It is no longer included with Microsoft Office 2013. It has been replaced by a web-based service called OneDrive for Business. -Groove's uses have included coordination between emergency relief agencies where different organizations do not share a common security infrastructure and where offline access is important, and amongst teams of knowledge workers, such as consultants who need to work securely on client sites. -It is also used as a staging system for documents in development, where content can be developed then transferred to a portal when complete. -Groove was initially developed by Lotus Notes creator Ray Ozzie, and developed by Groove Networks of Beverly, Massachusetts, until Microsoft's acquisition of Groove Networks in March 2005. - -Collaboration tools -Groove's basic set of services (including always-on security, persistent chat, store-and-forward messaging delivery, firewall/NAT transparency, ad-hoc group formation, and change notification) may be customized with tools. -Tools are mini-applications that rely on Groove's underlying functionality to disseminate and synchronize their contents with other members' copies of the workspace. Groove provides various tools that can be added to (and removed from) a workspace to customize the functionality of each space (for example a calendar, discussion, file sharing, an outliner, pictures, notepad, sketchpad, web browser, etc.). -Tools that members use in a workspace often drive the nature of the person-to-person collaboration that ensues. In Groove 2007, the SharePoint Files tools can be used to take SharePoint 2007 document libraries offline. -Groove 2007 includes a presence subsystem, which keeps track of which users in the contact store are online, and presents the information in the launchbar.",52716,Microsoft SharePoint Workspace,T -31,31.0,31.0,"A screw conveyor or auger conveyor is a mechanism that uses a rotating helical screw blade, called a ""flighting"", usually within a tube, to move liquid or granular materials. They are used in many bulk handling industries. Screw conveyors in modern industry are often used horizontally or at a slight incline as an efficient way to move semi-solid materials, including food waste, wood chips, aggregates, cereal grains, animal feed, boiler ash, meat, and bone meal, municipal solid waste, and many others. The first type of screw conveyor was the Archimedes' screw, used since ancient times to pump irrigation water.They usually consist of a trough or tube containing either a spiral blade coiled around a shaft, driven at one end and held at the other, or a ""shaftless spiral"", driven at one end and free at the other. The rate of volume transfer is proportional to the rotation rate of the shaft.",7529770,Screw conveyor,E -32,32.0,32.0,"A fake moustache or false moustache is an item of prosthetic make-up used in dressing-up, acting, espionage and crime. Fake moustaches are made in different ways, but usually require the wearer to use adhesive to affix the moustache to their face. Some have a self-adhesive backing. National fake moustache day in the United States is on 24 February, while the international celebration is on 3 February. - -Notable false moustaches -The most notable fake moustache of all-time was probably worn by Charlie Chaplin for his role as The Tramp. He initially wore a fake toothbrush moustache as a means of disguising his youth for the role. -Groucho Marx also used a fake moustache during his years in vaudeville and in the early Marx Brothers movies.",4601646,Fake moustache,T -33,33.0,33.0,"Geoprofessions is a term coined by the Geoprofessional Business Association to connote various technical disciplines that involve engineering, earth and environmental services applied to below-ground (""subsurface""), ground-surface, and ground-surface-connected conditions, structures, or formations. The principal disciplines include, as major categories: - -geomatics engineering -geotechnical engineering; -geology and engineering geology; -geological engineering; -geophysics; -geophysical engineering; -environmental science and environmental engineering; -construction-materials engineering and testing; and -other geoprofessional services.Each discipline involves specialties, many of which are recognized through professional designations that governments and societies or associations confer based upon a person's education, training, experience, and educational accomplishments. In the United States, engineers must be licensed in the state or territory where they practice engineering. Most states license geologists and several license environmental ""site professionals."" Several states license engineering geologists and recognize geotechnical engineering through a geotechnical-engineering titling act. - -Geotechnical-engineering specialties -Although geotechnical engineering is applied for a variety of purposes, it is essential to foundation design. As such, geotechnical engineering is applicable to every existing or new structure on the planet; every building and every highway, bridge, tunnel, harbor, airport, water line, reservoir, or other public work.",31071816,Geoprofessions,M -34,34.0,34.0,"Corrosion engineering is an engineering specialty that applies scientific, technical, engineering skills, and knowledge of natural laws and physical resources to design and implement materials, structures, devices, systems, and procedures to manage corrosion. -From a holistic perspective, corrosion is the phenomenon of metals returning to the state they are found in nature. The driving force that causes metals to corrode is a consequence of their temporary existence in metallic form. To produce metals starting from naturally occurring minerals and ores, it is necessary to provide a certain amount of energy, e.g. Iron ore in a blast furnace.",18665993,Corrosion engineering,E -35,35.0,35.0,"Space debris (also known as space junk, space pollution, space waste, space trash, space garbage, or cosmic debris) are defunct human-made objects in space – principally in Earth orbit – which no longer serve a useful function. These include derelict spacecraft – nonfunctional spacecraft and abandoned launch vehicle stages – mission-related debris, and particularly numerous in Earth orbit, fragmentation debris from the breakup of derelict rocket bodies and spacecraft. In addition to derelict human-made objects left in orbit, other examples of space debris include fragments from their disintegration, erosion and collisions or even paint flecks, solidified liquids expelled from spacecraft, and unburned particles from solid rocket motors. Space debris represents a risk to spacecraft.Space debris is typically a negative externality – it creates an external cost on others from the initial action to launch or use a spacecraft in near-Earth orbit – a cost that is typically not taken into account nor fully accounted for in the cost by the launcher or payload owner.Several spacecraft, both crewed and uncrewed, have been damaged or destroyed by space debris. -The measurement, mitigation, and potential removal of debris are conducted by some participants in the space industry.As of November 2022, the US Space Surveillance Network reported 25,857 artificial objects in orbit above the Earth, including 5,465 operational satellites. However, these are just the objects large enough to be tracked and in an orbit that makes tracking possible.",266344,Space debris,T -36,36.0,36.0,"A vessel traffic service is a marine traffic monitoring system established by harbour or port authorities, similar to air traffic control for aircraft. The International Maritime Organization defines vessel traffic service as ""a service implemented by a competent authority designed to improve the safety and efficiency of vessel traffic and protect the environment. The service shall have the capability to interact with the traffic and respond to traffic situations developing in the vessel traffic service area"". Typical vessel traffic service systems use radar, closed-circuit television, VHF radiotelephony and automatic identification system to keep track of vessel movements and provide navigational safety in a limited geographical area. -In the United States, vessel traffic services are established and operated by the Coast Guard Navigation Center. Some services operate as partnerships between the Coast Guard and private agencies. - -Personnel -Guidelines require that the vessel traffic service authority should be provided with sufficient staff, appropriately qualified, suitably trained and capable of performing the tasks required, taking into consideration the type and level of services to be provided in conformity with the current International Maritime Organization guidelines on the subject.International Association of Marine Aids to Navigation and Lighthouse Authorities Recommendation V-103 is the recommendation sn Standards for training and certification of vessel traffic service personnel.",1862254,Vessel traffic service,T -37,37.0,37.0,"The World Center for Birds of Prey in Boise, Idaho, is the headquarters for The Peregrine Fund, an international non-profit organization founded in 1970 that conserves endangered raptors around the world.Built 39 years ago in 1984, the World Center for Birds of Prey is located on 580 acres (2.3 km2) on a hilltop overlooking Boise, south of the airport and east of Kuna. The campus consists of the business offices of The Peregrine Fund, breeding facilities for endangered raptors, the Velma Morrison Interpretive Center, and the Herrick Collections Building, which houses a large research library and the Archives of Falconry. -The Peregrine Fund is known for its worldwide conservation and recovery efforts of rare and endangered raptors. The organization's first recovery effort focused on the peregrine falcon, which was facing extinction due to the widespread use of the chemical DDT. The peregrine falcon was removed from the U.S. Endangered Species list in 1999 at an international celebration held in Boise. - -History -The Peregrine Fund's original breeding facilities were established at Cornell University in central New York state in 1970 and at a Colorado Division of Wildlife facility in Fort Collins in 1974.",1650071,World Center for Birds of Prey,S -38,38.0,38.0,"A tracking system, also known as a locating system, is used for the observing of persons or objects on the move and supplying a timely ordered sequence of location data for further processing. - -Applications -A myriad of tracking systems exists. Some are 'lag time' indicators, that is, the data is collected after an item has passed a point for example a bar code or choke point or gate. Others are 'real-time' or 'near real-time' like Global Positioning Systems (GPS) depending on how often the data is refreshed. There are bar-code systems which require items to be scanned and automatic identification (RFID auto-id). For the most part, the tracking worlds are composed of discrete hardware and software systems for different applications.",3154072,Tracking system,T -39,39.0,39.0,"Corrosion fatigue is fatigue in a corrosive environment. It is the mechanical degradation of a material under the joint action of corrosion and cyclic loading. Nearly all engineering structures experience some form of alternating stress, and are exposed to harmful environments during their service life. The environment plays a significant role in the fatigue of high-strength structural materials like steel, aluminum alloys and titanium alloys. Materials with high specific strength are being developed to meet the requirements of advancing technology.",4170806,Corrosion fatigue,E -40,40.0,40.0,"In mathematics, Diophantine geometry is the study of Diophantine equations by means of powerful methods in algebraic geometry. By the 20th century it became clear for some mathematicians that methods of algebraic geometry are ideal tools to study these equations. Diophantine geometry is part of the broader field of arithmetic geometry. -Four theorems in Diophantine geometry which are of fundamental importance include: -Mordell–Weil theorem -Roth's theorem -Siegel's theorem -Faltings's theorem - -Background -Serge Lang published a book Diophantine Geometry in the area in 1962, and by this book he coined the term ""Diophantine Geometry"". The traditional arrangement of material on Diophantine equations was by degree and number of variables, as in Mordell's Diophantine Equations (1969). Mordell's book starts with a remark on homogeneous equations f = 0 over the rational field, attributed to C.",502205,Diophantine geometry,M -41,41.0,41.0,"Biological organisation is the organisation of complex biological structures and systems that define life using a reductionistic approach. The traditional hierarchy, as detailed below, extends from atoms to biospheres. The higher levels of this scheme are often referred to as an ecological organisation concept, or as the field, hierarchical ecology. -Each level in the hierarchy represents an increase in organisational complexity, with each ""object"" being primarily composed of the previous level's basic unit. The basic principle behind the organisation is the concept of emergence—the properties and functions found at a hierarchical level are not present and irrelevant at the lower levels. -The biological organisation of life is a fundamental premise for numerous areas of scientific research, particularly in the medical sciences. Without this necessary degree of organisation, it would be much more difficult—and likely impossible—to apply the study of the effects of various physical and chemical phenomena to diseases and physiology (body function).",8553751,Biological organisation,S -42,42.0,42.0,"In mathematics, arithmetic geometry is roughly the application of techniques from algebraic geometry to problems in number theory. Arithmetic geometry is centered around Diophantine geometry, the study of rational points of algebraic varieties.In more abstract terms, arithmetic geometry can be defined as the study of schemes of finite type over the spectrum of the ring of integers. - -Overview -The classical objects of interest in arithmetic geometry are rational points: sets of solutions of a system of polynomial equations over number fields, finite fields, p-adic fields, or function fields, i.e. fields that are not algebraically closed excluding the real numbers. Rational points can be directly characterized by height functions which measure their arithmetic complexity.The structure of algebraic varieties defined over non-algebraically closed fields has become a central area of interest that arose with the modern abstract development of algebraic geometry. Over finite fields, étale cohomology provides topological invariants associated to algebraic varieties.",1973177,Arithmetic geometry,M -43,43.0,43.0,"Digital Prototyping gives conceptual design, engineering, manufacturing, and sales and marketing departments the ability to virtually explore a complete product before it's built. Industrial designers, manufacturers, and engineers use Digital Prototyping to design, iterate, optimize, validate, and visualize their products digitally throughout the product development process. Innovative digital prototypes can be created via CAutoD through intelligent and near-optimal iterations, meeting multiple design objectives (such as maximised output, energy efficiency, highest speed and cost-effectiveness), identifying multiple figures of merit, and reducing development gearing and time-to-market. Marketers also use Digital Prototyping to create photorealistic renderings and animations of products prior to manufacturing. Companies often adopt Digital Prototyping with the goal of improving communication between product development stakeholders, getting products to market faster, and facilitating product innovation. -Digital Prototyping goes beyond simply creating product designs in 3D.",13480873,Digital prototyping,E -44,44.0,44.0,"The history of the programming language Scheme begins with the development of earlier members of the Lisp family of languages during the second half of the twentieth century. During the design and development period of Scheme, language designers Guy L. Steele and Gerald Jay Sussman released an influential series of Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) AI Memos known as the Lambda Papers (1975–1980). This resulted in the growth of popularity in the language and the era of standardization from 1990 onward. Much of the history of Scheme has been documented by the developers themselves. - -Prehistory -The development of Scheme was heavily influenced by two predecessors that were quite different from one another: Lisp provided its general semantics and syntax, and ALGOL provided its lexical scope and block structure.",914513,History of the Scheme programming language,S -45,45.0,45.0,"The Zodiac settle is a piece of painted furniture designed by the English architect and designer William Burges and made between 1869 and 1871. A wooden settle designed with Zodiac themes, it was made for Burges' rooms at Buckingham Street, and later moved to the drawing room of The Tower House, the home that he designed for himself in Holland Park. Burges desired to fill his home with furniture ""covered with paintings, both ornaments and subjects; it not only did its duty as furniture, but spoke and told a story."" At one stage the poet John Betjeman gave the settle to the novelist Evelyn Waugh, and it is now in the collection of The Higgins Art Gallery & Museum in Bedford. - -Design -The settle is a wooden bench with a canopy. It is painted and stenciled, with inlaid pieces of glass crystal and vellum. -In 1865, Burges wrote, ""it is almost impossible for us to conceive the effect of a first-class piece of medieval sacred furniture covered with burnished gilding engraved and punched into patterns enriched with paintings by an artist like Giotto, and glittering with mosaics of gilt and coloured glass.""The only settle that Burges created, its form has been likened to a day bed of the Italian Renaissance. -Burges scorned his typical French Gothic influences in his design for the settle, being influenced instead by English Gothic sources as well as the Italian Renaissance. It is decorated with a central painted panel, painted by Henry Stacy Marks. -The panel features an enthroned sun, with the Zodiac signs dancing around it.",41521158,Zodiac settle,T -46,46.0,46.0,"The Summerlee Iron Works (1836–1930) was an iron works established in Coatbridge, Scotland. The site has been incorporated into the Summerlee, Museum of Scottish Industrial Life. - -History -The Summerlee Iron Works was an early adopter of the 'Hot Blast Process', recently patented by James Beaumont Neilson in 1828. This process burned waste furnace gases in regenerative stoves, to heat up a lattice of fire bricks inside them. Once the bricks were sufficiently heated, the waste furnace gases were purged and replaced by fresh air intended to fire the furnaces. The fire bricks transferred their heat to this air, turning it into the 'hot blast' pumped into the furnaces.No traces of the original small rectangular stoves remain, but foundations of the round Cowper Stoves, that were as tall as the furnaces themselves (20 m) and installed in the 1870s, are visible. -The iron works closed in the early 1930s during the Great Depression and was demolished in 1938.",53317831,Summerlee Iron Works,E -47,47.0,47.0,"Larkinville, also known as The Hydraulics, is an area of Buffalo, New York located near downtown, South Buffalo and Canalside. Once an industrial neighborhood, it is now home to offices, shops, and a public gathering space called Larkin Square that regularly features food trucks, events, and concerts. The current form of the neighborhood came as a result of the gentrification of the former headquarters complex of the Larkin Soap Company, which includes the Larkin Terminal Warehouse, and other abandoned warehouses nearby. - -History -The Buffalo Hydraulic Association was formed in 1827, constructing the Hydraulic Canal as the city's first source of industrial power on the site of the neighborhood. Soon after, numerous mills sprang up on the site, now called the Hydraulics. In 1876, John D.",59787682,Larkinville,E -48,48.0,48.0,"The Visual Understanding Environment (VUE) is a free, open-source concept mapping application written in Java. The application is developed by the Academic Technology group at Tufts University. VUE is licensed under the Educational Community License. VUE 3.0, the latest release, was funded under a grant from the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation. - -The VUE Project -The VUE project at Tufts UIT Academic Technology is focused on creating flexible tools for managing and integrating digital resources in support of teaching, learning and research.",16350256,Visual Understanding Environment,T -49,49.0,49.0,"Twinkle Toes is the largest excavator in the Southern Hemisphere. It was used in Christchurch to demolish tall buildings following the 2010 and 2011 earthquakes before moving to Wellington following the 2016 Kaikoura earthquake. - -History and description -The excavator is based on a 2008 Liebherr 984 that was heavily modified by Kocurek Excavators Ltd for the Birmingham-based demolition Coleman & Company. It was bought for around NZ$4m and imported to New Zealand by Auckland-based demolition firm Nikau Contractors, and arrived in the Port of Lyttelton in September 2011. The tracked excavator weighs 220 tonnes (220 long tons; 240 short tons) and has a maximum reach of 65 metres (213 ft). When the telescoping arm is not extended, the reach is 25 metres (82 ft).",23679374,Twinkle Toes,E -50,50.0,50.0,"The project to create the International Space Station required the utilization and/or construction of new and existing manufacturing facilities around the world, mostly in the United States and Europe. The agencies overseeing the manufacturing involved NASA, Roscosmos, the European Space Agency, JAXA, and the Canadian Space Agency. Hundreds of contractors working for the five space agencies were assigned the task of fabricating the modules, trusses, experiments and other hardware elements for the station. -The fact that the project involved the co-operation of sixteen countries working together created engineering challenges that had to be overcome: most notably the differences in language, culture and politics, but also engineering processes, management, measuring standards and communication; to ensure that all elements connect together and function according to plan. The ISS agreement program also called for the station components to be made highly durable and versatile — as it is intended to be used by astronauts indefinitely. A series of new engineering and manufacturing processes and equipment were developed, and shipments of steel, aluminium alloys and other materials were needed for the construction of the space station components. - -History and planning -The project began as Space Station Freedom, a US only effort, but was long delayed by funding and technical problems.",60562746,Manufacture of the International Space Station,E -51,51.0,51.0,"Fake fur, also called faux fur, is a pile fabric engineered to have the appearance and warmth of animal fur. Fake fur can be made from a variety of materials including polyester, nylon, or acrylic. -First introduced in 1929, fake furs were initially composed of hair from the South American alpaca. The ensuing decades saw substantial improvements in their quality, particularly in the 1940s, thanks to significant advances in textile manufacture. By the mid-1950s, a transformative development in fake furs occurred when alpaca hair was replaced with acrylic polymers, leading to the creation of the synthetic fur we recognize today.The promotion of fake furs by animal rights and animal welfare organizations has contributed to its increasing popularity as an animal-friendly alternative to traditional fur clothing. - -Uses -Fake fur is used in all applications where real fur would be used, including stuffed animals, fashion accessories, and home decorations like pillows, bedding and throws. It is also used for craft projects because it can be sewn on a standard sewing machine whereas real fur is generally thicker and requires a special machine, hand sewing, or an awl.",1576566,Fake fur,E -52,52.0,52.0,"Finished goods are goods that have completed the manufacturing process but have not yet been sold or distributed to the end user. - -Manufacturing - -Manufacturing has three classes of inventory: - -Raw material -Work in process -Finished goodsA good purchased as a ""raw material"" goes into the manufacture of a product. A good only partially completed during the manufacturing process is called ""work in process"". When the good is completed as to manufacturing but not yet sold or distributed to the end-user, it is called a ""finished good"".This is the last stage for the processing of goods. The goods are ready to be consumed or distributed. -There is no processing required in term of the goods after this stage by the seller. Though there maybe instance that seller finished goods become buyer’s raw materials -Finished goods is a relative term.",6553782,Finished goods,E -53,53.0,53.0,"This outline is an overview of software and a topical guide in list form. -Software is a comprehensive term for a collection of computer programs and related data that provides the information for the functioning of a computer. It is held in various forms of memory of the computer. It comprises procedures, algorithms, and documentation concerned with the operation of a data processing system. The term was coined to contrast to the term hardware, meaning physical devices. In contrast to hardware, software ""cannot be touched"".",24775031,Outline of software,T -54,54.0,54.0,"LetterWise and WordWise were predictive text entry systems developed by Eatoni Ergonomics (Eatoni) for handheld devices with ambiguous keyboards / keypads, typically non-smart traditional cellphones and portable devices with keypads. All patents covering those systems have expired. LetterWise used a prefix based predictive disambiguation method and can be demonstrated to have some advantages over the non-predictive Multi-tap technique that was in widespread use at the time that system was developed. WordWise was not a dictionary-based predictive system, but rather an extension of the LetterWise system to predict whole words from their linguistic components. It was designed to compete with dictionary-based predictive systems such as T9 and iTap which were commonly used with mobile phones with 12-key telephone keypads. - -History -The court dismissed a claim that Eatoni Ergonomics came into being in the Spring 1998 as an orally agreed partnership between Howard Gutowitz, David A.",5481270,LetterWise,T -55,55.0,55.0,"A Radio Interface Layer (RIL) is a layer in an operating system which provides an interface to the hardware's radio and modem on e.g. a mobile phone. - -Android RIL -The Android Open Source Project provides a Radio Interface Layer (RIL) between -Android telephony services (android.telephony) and the radio hardware. -It consists of a stack of two components: a RIL Daemon and a Vendor RIL. The RIL Daemon talks to the telephony services and dispatches ""solicited commands"" to the Vendor RIL. The Vendor RIL is specific to a particular radio implementation, and dispatches ""unsolicited commands"" up to the RIL Daemon. - -Windows Mobile RIL -A RIL is a key component of Microsoft's Windows Mobile OS. The RIL enables wireless voice or data applications to communicate with a GSM/GPRS or CDMA2000 1X modem on a Windows Mobile device.",12173431,Radio Interface Layer,T -56,56.0,56.0,"Digital materialization (DM) -can loosely be defined as two-way direct communication or conversion between matter and information that enables people to exactly describe, monitor, manipulate and create any arbitrary real object. DM is a general paradigm alongside a specified framework that is suitable for computer processing and includes: holistic, coherent, volumetric modeling systems; symbolic languages that are able to handle infinite degrees of freedom and detail in a compact format; and the direct interaction and/or fabrication of any object at any spatial resolution without the need for “lossy” or intermediate formats. -DM systems possess the following attributes: - -realistic - correct spatial mapping of matter to information -exact - exact language and/or methods for input from and output to matter -infinite - ability to operate at any scale and define infinite detail -symbolic - accessible to individuals for design, creation and modificationSuch an approach can not only be applied to tangible objects but can include the conversion of things such as light and sound to/from information and matter. Systems to digitally materialize light and sound already largely exist now (e.g. photo editing, audio mixing, etc.) and have been quite effective - but the representation, control and creation of tangible matter is poorly support by computational and digital systems. -Commonplace computer-aided design and manufacturing systems currently represent real objects as ""2.5 dimensional"" shells. In contrast, DM proposes a deeper understanding and sophisticated manipulation of matter by directly using rigorous mathematics as complete volumetric descriptions of real objects.",26580361,Digital materialization,E -57,57.0,57.0,"Feminist biology is an approach to biology that is concerned with the influence of gender values, the removal of gender bias, and the understanding of the overall role of social values in biological research and practices. Feminist biology was founded by, among others, Dr. Ruth Bleier of the University of Wisconsin-Madison (who authored the 1984 work Science and Gender: A Critique of Biology and Its Theories on Women and inspired the university's endowed fellowship for feminist biology). It aims to enhance biology by incorporating feminist critique in matters varying from the mechanisms of cell biology and sex selection to the assessment of the meaning of words such as ""gender"" and ""sex"". -Overall, the field is broadly defined and pertains itself to philosophies behind both biological and feminist practice. These considerations make feminist biology debatable and conflictive with itself, particularly when concerning matters of biological determinism, whereby descriptive sex terms of male and female are intrinsically confining, or extreme postmodernism, whereby the body is viewed more as a social construct.",46439815,Feminist biology,S -58,58.0,58.0,"The Fauna of British India (short title) with long titles including The Fauna of British India, Including Ceylon and Burma, and The Fauna of British India Including the Remainder of the Oriental Region is a series of scientific books that was published by the British government in India and printed by Taylor and Francis of London. The series was started sometime in 1881 after a letter had been sent to the Secretary of State for India signed by Charles Darwin, Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker and other ""eminent men of science"" forwarded by P.L.Sclater to R.H. Hobart. W. T.",763533,"The Fauna of British India, Including Ceylon and Burma",S -59,59.0,59.0,"In mathematics, specifically in the representation theory of groups and algebras, an irreducible representation - - - - ( - ρ - , - V - ) - - - {\displaystyle (\rho ,V)} - or irrep of an algebraic structure - - - - A - - - {\displaystyle A} - is a nonzero representation that has no proper nontrivial subrepresentation - - - - ( - ρ - - - | - - - W - - - , - W - ) - - - {\displaystyle (\rho |_{W},W)} - , with - - - - W - ⊂ - V - - - {\displaystyle W\subset V} - closed under the action of - - - - { - ρ - ( - a - ) - : - a - ∈ - A - } - - - {\displaystyle \{\rho (a):a\in A\}} - . -Every finite-dimensional unitary representation on a Hilbert space - - - - V - - - {\displaystyle V} - is the direct sum of irreducible representations. Irreducible representations are always indecomposable (i.e. cannot be decomposed further into a direct sum of representations), but the converse may not hold, e.g. the two-dimensional representation of the real numbers acting by upper triangular unipotent matrices is indecomposable but reducible. - -History -Group representation theory was generalized by Richard Brauer from the 1940s to give modular representation theory, in which the matrix operators act on a vector space over a field - - - - K - - - {\displaystyle K} - of arbitrary characteristic, rather than a vector space over the field of real numbers or over the field of complex numbers. The structure analogous to an irreducible representation in the resulting theory is a simple module. - -Overview -Let - - - - ρ - - - {\displaystyle \rho } - be a representation i.e.",385982,Irreducible representation,M -60,60.0,60.0,"A deformity, dysmorphism, or dysmorphic feature is a major abnormality of an organism that makes a part of the body appear or function differently than how it is supposed to. - -Causes -Deformity can be caused by a variety of factors: - -Arthritis and other rheumatoid disorders -Chronic application of external forces, e.g. artificial cranial deformation -Chronic paresis, paralysis or muscle imbalance, especially in children, e.g. due to poliomyelitis or cerebral palsy -Complications at birth -Damage to the fetus or uterus -Fractured bones left to heal without being properly set (malunion) -Genetic mutation -Growth or hormone disorders -Infection -Reconstructive surgery following a severe injury, e.g. burn injuryDeformity can occur in all organisms: - -Frogs can be mutated due to Ribeiroia (Trematoda) infection. -Plants can undergo irreversible cell deformation -Insects, such as honeybees, can be affected by deformed wing virus -Fish can be found with scoliosis due to environmental factors - -Mortality -In many cases where a major deformity is present at birth, it is the result of an underlying condition severe enough that the baby does not survive very long. The mortality of severely deformed births may be due to a range of complications including missing or non-functioning vital organs, structural defects that prevent necessary function, high susceptibility to injuries, abnormal facial appearance, or infections that eventually lead to death. -In some cases, such as that of twins, one fetus is brought to term healthy, while the other faces major, even life-threatening defects.",749788,Deformity,S -61,61.0,61.0,"A blowout preventer (BOP) (pronounced B-O-P) is a specialized valve or similar mechanical device, used to seal, control and monitor oil and gas wells to prevent blowouts, the uncontrolled release of crude oil or natural gas from a well. They are usually installed in stacks of other valves. -Blowout preventers were developed to cope with extreme erratic pressures and uncontrolled flow (formation kick) emanating from a well reservoir during drilling. Kicks can lead to a potentially catastrophic event known as a blowout. In addition to controlling the downhole (occurring in the drilled hole) pressure and the flow of oil and gas, blowout preventers are intended to prevent tubing (e.g. drill pipe and well casing), tools and drilling fluid from being blown out of the wellbore (also known as bore hole, the hole leading to the reservoir) when a blowout threatens.",5239446,Blowout preventer,E -62,62.0,62.0,"The Fullmetal Alchemist manga and anime series feature an extensive cast of fictional characters created by Hiromu Arakawa. The story is set in a fictional universe within the 20th century in which alchemy is one of the most advanced scientific techniques. Although they essentially start off the same, the 2003 anime series begins to differ greatly from the manga midway through its run; to the point where by its final act it is narratively a completely different story from the original manga series. However, the second anime, Fullmetal Alchemist: Brotherhood, faithfully follows the entirety of events from the manga.The story follows the adventure of the titular character, Edward Elric, also known as the ""Fullmetal Alchemist"", who is frequently accompanied by his brother Alphonse. While trying to revive their mother, the brothers lost parts of their bodies, with Alphonse's soul being contained in a suit of armor, and Edward replacing his right arm and left leg with two sets of automail, a type of advanced prosthetic limb.",8023218,List of Fullmetal Alchemist characters,M -63,63.0,63.0,"The Health Valley covers the Western Switzerland region, where the life sciences sector extends from Geneva to Bern, including the seven cantons of Bern, Fribourg, Geneva, Jura, Neuchâtel, Valais and Vaud. This cluster presents a critical mass of 1,000 companies, research centers and innovation support structures, representing today more than 25,000 employees. The Health Valley strives to animate the life sciences ecosystem of the region, by establishing thriving bridges between its ambassadors. -The name of the Health Valley is inspired by that of Silicon Valley in California, United States (where the focus is on information technology). According to Swiss newspaper Le Temps, there were close to 1,000 biotech and medtech companies in the Health Valley in 2017, employing 25,000 people.The Health Valley network is led by BioAlps, an association funded by the 7 cantons of Western Switzerland and 12 academic members such as EPFL, UNIL, UNINE, UNIGE, HES-SO, HEIG-VD, HEPIA, UNIFR, CHUV, HUG, CSEM, SIB. Its mission is to represent the whole ecosystem and to foster synergies between all the actors.",43423591,Health Valley,S -64,64.0,64.0,"Product engineering refer to the process of designing and developing a device, assembly, or system such that it be produced as an item for sale through some product manufacturing process. Product engineering usually entails activity dealing with issues of cost, producibility, quality, performance, reliability, serviceability, intended lifespan and user features. These product characteristics are generally all sought in the attempt to make the resulting product attractive to its intended market and a successful contributor to the business of the organization that intends to offer the product to that market. It includes design, development and transitioning to manufacturing of the product. The term encompasses developing the concept of the product and the design and development of its hardware and software components.",7815335,Product engineering,E -65,65.0,65.0,"This list includes terms used in video games and the video game industry, as well as slang used by players. - -0–9 -1CC -Abbreviation of one-credit completion or one-coin clear. To complete an arcade (or arcade-style) game without using any additional credits besides the one used to start the playthrough. - -1-up -An object that gives the player an extra life (or attempt) in games where the player has a limited number of chances to complete a game or level. - -100% -To collect all collectibles within a game, either indicated within games as a percentage counter or determined by player community consensus. - -1v1 -An abbreviation of 1 versus 1, denoting two players battling against each other. Can be extended to any player versus player grouping, such as '2v2' to mean two teams of two battling each other, or ""1v4"" to refer to a team of four players against one (as seen in asymmetrical gameplay). - -2D graphics -Graphic rendering technique in a two-dimensional perspective, often using sprites. - -2.5D graphics -Also isometric graphics.Graphic rendering technique of three-dimensional objects set in a two-dimensional plane of movement. Often includes games where some objects are still rendered as sprites. -3D graphics -Graphic rendering technique featuring three-dimensional objects. - -4K resolution -An aspect ratio of digital display devices such as televisions and monitors, supporting up to 3840 × 2160 pixel (roughly 4 kilopixels wide) resolutions. - -4X -A genre of strategic video games, short for ""explore, expand, exploit, and exterminate"". Such games are usually complicated, involving extensive diplomacy, technology trees, and win conditions. - -8-bit -A descriptor for hardware or software that arose during the third generation of video game consoles, targeting 8-bit computer architecture. - -8K resolution -An aspect ratio of digital display devices such as televisions and monitors, supporting up to 7680 × 4320 pixel (roughly 8 kilopixels wide) resolutions. - -16-bit -A descriptor for hardware or software that arose during the fourth generation of video game consoles, targeting 16-bit computer architecture. - -32-bit -A descriptor for hardware or software that arose during the fifth generation of video game consoles, targeting 32-bit computer architecture. - -64-bit -A descriptor for hardware or software that arose during the fifth generation of video game consoles, targeting 64-bit computer architecture. -360 no-scope -A type of trickshot, very common in first-person shooters and similar, in which a player spins a full 360 degrees and lands a shot (usually with a sniper rifle of some sort) without aiming, ultimately heavily damaging or killing the adversary on the receiving end of the shot. - -A -AAA -Also triple A.A high-budget game with a large development team.",8180907,Glossary of video game terms,T -66,66.0,66.0,"The term cosmetic packaging is used for cosmetic containers (primary packaging) and secondary packaging of fragrances and cosmetic products. Cosmetic products are substances intended for human cleansing, beautifying and promoting an enhanced appearance without altering the body's structure or functions.Cosmetic packaging is standardized by an international norm set by the International Organization for Standardization and regulated by national or regional regulations such as those issued by the EU or the FDA. Marketers and manufacturers of cosmetic products must be compliant to these regulations to be able to market their cosmetic products in the corresponding areas of jurisdiction. - -History -A cosmetic container, cosmetic box, or cosmetic vessel is found in the historical records, both as an artifact, as relief items in some cultures, and are sometimes referenced in historical or archaeological literature. They are sometimes created in specific styles, shapes, or motifs. -The named 'cosmetic vessel' in Ancient Greece is the pyxis. In Ancient Egypt artifacts of hieroglyphically inscribed kohl tubes are found; also kohl vessels, and kohl spoons, which were formed in stylized shapes relevant to Egyptian ideology, including specific hieroglyphs. -The use of the cosmetic vessel may extend to trinket items, car-keys, toiletry accessories, for example a nail clipper; as a non-toiletry storage container, it becomes an 'all-purpose' decorated, special-use vessel. -Containers are known from many societies, ancient and modern.",52177827,Cosmetic packaging,T -67,67.0,67.0,"The spatial-numerical association of response codes (SNARC) is an example of the spatial organisation of magnitude information. Put simply, when presented with smaller numbers (0 to 4), people tend to respond faster if those stimuli are associated with the left extrapersonal hemiside of their perceived surroundings; when presented with larger numbers (6 to 9), people respond faster if those stimuli are instead associated with the right extrapersonal hemiside of their perceived surroundings. The SNARC effect is this automatic association that occurs between the location of the response hand and the semantic magnitude of a modality-independent number.Even for tasks in which magnitude is irrelevant, like parity judgement or phoneme detection, larger numbers are faster responded to with the right response key while smaller numbers are faster responded to with the left. This also occurs when the hands are crossed, with the right hand activating the left response key and vice versa. The explanation given by Dehaene and colleagues is that the magnitude of a number on an oriented mental number line is automatically activated.",12322554,Spatial-numerical association of response codes,M -68,68.0,68.0,"Bed bugs are insects from the genus Cimex that feed on blood, usually at night. Their bites can result in a number of health impacts including skin rashes, psychological effects, and allergic symptoms. Bed bug bites may lead to skin changes ranging from small areas of redness to prominent blisters. Symptoms may take between minutes to days to appear and itchiness is generally present. Some individuals may feel tired or have a fever.",48483301,Bed bug,S -69,69.0,69.0,"In science, the concept of a macroscope is the antithesis of the microscope, namely a method, technique or system appropriate to the study of very large objects or very complex processes, for example the Earth and its contents, or conceptually, the Universe. Obviously, a single system or instrument does not presently exist that could fulfil this function, however its concept may be approached by some current or future combination of existing observational systems. The term ""macroscope"" has also been applied to a method or compendium which can view some more specific aspect of global scientific phenomena in its entirety, such as all plant life, specific ecological processes, or all life on earth. The term has also been used in the humanities, as a generic label for tools which permit an overview of various other forms of ""big data"". As discussed here, the concept of a ""macroscope"" differs in essence from that of the macroscopic scale, which simply takes over from where the microscopic scale leaves off, covering all objects large enough to be visible to the unaided eye, as well as from macro photography, which is the imaging of specimens at magnifications greater than their original size, and for which a specialised microscope-related instrument known as a ""Macroscope"" has previously been marketed.",64208794,Macroscope (science concept),M -70,70.0,70.0,"Real-time transcription is the general term for transcription by court reporters using real-time text technologies to deliver computer text screens within a few seconds of the words being spoken. Specialist software allows participants in court hearings or depositions to make notes in the text and highlight portions for future reference. -Real-time transcription is also used in the broadcasting environment where it is more commonly termed ""captioning."" - -Career opportunities -Real-time reporting is used in a variety of industries, including entertainment, television, the Internet, and law. -Specific careers include the following: - -Judicial reporters use a stenotype to provide instant transcripts on computer screens as a trial or deposition occurs. -Communication access real-time translation (CART) reporters assist the hearing-impaired by transcribing spoken words, giving them personal access to the communications they need day to day. -Television broadcast captioners use real-time reporting technology to allow hard-of-hearing or deaf people to see what is being said on live television broadcasts such as news, emergency broadcasts, sporting events, awards shows, and other programs. -Internet information (or Webcast) reporters provide real-time reporting of sales meetings, press conferences, and other events, while simultaneously transmitting the transcripts to computers worldwide. -Other rapid data entry positions. - -History -Before the advent of the stenotype machine, court reporters wrote official trial transcripts by hand using a shorthand system of stenoforms that could later be translated into readable English. It often took eight years of training to learn this manual form of writing at the necessary speed. Walter Heironimus was among the first stenographers to make use of the stenotype machine during his work in the U.S. District Court system in New Jersey in 1935.A ""transcript crisis"" arose during the later half of the twentieth century due to the increasing volume of lawsuits.",9031121,Real-time transcription,T -71,71.0,71.0,"SHIFT is a German smartphone and phablet manufacturer with its headquarters with design and development department in Wabern in Northern Hesse Germany and Production in China. Its smartphone products are called shiftphones. The company focuses on fairness in manufacturing and sustainability through a modular design. - -History -The foundation of Shift was preceded by the crowdfunding of the smartphone shift7. The financing period was from April to July 2014 and was expected to raise €77,700, which was exceeded by one third and was therefore successful.The company was officially founded in November of the same year and entered into the commercial register at the Amtsgericht Fritzlar.In 2016 Shift became the first telecommunications equipment manufacturer to introduce an device deposit for all Shift products. In order to avoid waste, end users are to return defective devices to the company to ensure that they are disposed of properly or reused by second or third parties. -In June 2018, the company employs eleven people at its headquarters in Wabern and ten in Hangzhou, earning four times as much as the industry average in China.By June 2019 Shift had sold 30,000 units. - -Critiques -Doubts in the c't -Initially, doubts were expressed about the credibility of SHIFT GmbH's corporate goals, which were formulated as fair.",65843268,SHIFT (company),E -72,72.0,72.0,"A shellworld is any of several types of hypothetical megastructures: - -A planet or a planetoid turned into series of concentric matryoshka doll-like layers supported by massive pillars. A shellworld of this type features prominently in Iain M. Banks' novel Matter. -A megastructure consisting of multiple layers of shells suspended above each other by orbital rings supported by hypothetical mass stream technology. This type of shellworld can be theoretically suspended above any type of stellar body, including planets, gas giants, stars and black holes. The most massive type of shellworld could be built around supermassive black holes at the center of galaxies. -An inflated canopy holding high pressure air around an otherwise airless world to create a breathable atmosphere.",56600907,Shellworld,T -73,73.0,73.0,"NextGenPower is an integrated project which aims to demonstrate new alloys and coatings in boiler, turbine and interconnecting pipework. The concept of NextGenPower is to perform innovative demonstrations that will significantly contribute to the EU target to increase the efficiency in existing and new build pulverized coal power plants. - -Background -Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) is envisaged to be the main transition technology to comply with the CO2 reduction targets set by the European Commission. However, CCS has the drawback that the electrical efficiency of the coal-fired power plant will drop significantly. The efficiency loss caused by CCS in coal-fired power plants will range from 4 to 12% points, depending on the CCS technology chosen. -To overcome this drawback, one has to increase the plant efficiency or the share of biomass co-firing. Both options are limited due to the quality of the current available coatings and materials.",32304493,NextGenPower,E -74,74.0,74.0,"This is a list of most likely gravitationally rounded objects of the Solar System, which are objects that have a rounded, ellipsoidal shape due to their own gravity (but are not necessarily in hydrostatic equilibrium). Apart from the Sun itself, these objects qualify as planets according to common geophysical definitions of that term. The sizes of these objects range over three orders of magnitude in radius, from planetary-mass objects like dwarf planets and some moons to the planets and the Sun. This list does not include small Solar System bodies, but it does include a sample of possible planetary-mass objects whose shapes have yet to be determined. The Sun's orbital characteristics are listed in relation to the Galactic Center, while all other objects are listed in order of their distance from the Sun. - -Star -The Sun is a G-type main-sequence star.",5828178,List of gravitationally rounded objects of the Solar System,M -75,75.0,75.0,"In telecommunications, particularly in radio frequency engineering, signal strength refers to the transmitter power output as received by a reference antenna at a distance from the transmitting antenna. High-powered transmissions, such as those used in broadcasting, are expressed in dB-millivolts per metre (dBmV/m). For very low-power systems, such as mobile phones, signal strength is usually expressed in dB-microvolts per metre (dBμV/m) or in decibels above a reference level of one milliwatt (dBm). In broadcasting terminology, 1 mV/m is 1000 μV/m or 60 dBμ (often written dBu). - -Examples -100 dBμ or 100 mV/m: blanketing interference may occur on some receivers -60 dBμ or 1.0 mV/m: frequently considered the edge of a radio station's protected area in North America -40 dBμ or 0.1 mV/m: the minimum strength at which a station can be received with acceptable quality on most receivers - -Relationship to average radiated power -The electric field strength at a specific point can be determined from the power delivered to the transmitting antenna, its geometry and radiation resistance. Consider the case of a center-fed half-wave dipole antenna in free space, where the total length L is equal to one half wavelength (λ/2).",690346,Signal strength in telecommunications,T -76,76.0,76.0,"Manufacturing in New Zealand contributed $23 billion (12%) of the country's gross domestic product and directly employed 241,000 people in 2017, while manufactured goods made up 52% of the country's exports by value. The food and beverage subsector alone contributed 32% of manufacturing's GDP and 71% of exports.New Zealand has a disadvantage in export manufacturing due to its small population, isolated location, and high costs. Therefore, the majority of manufacturing is for the domestic markets, with the majority of exported manufactured goods being large-scale commodities (e.g. meat and dairy), high-value innovative products, and products targeting global niches. - -Employment -The manufacturing sector (ANZSIC division C) in New Zealand employed 238,417 people according to the 2018 New Zealand census, an increase from 188,286 people at the 2013 census. However, the proportion of employed New Zealanders working in manufacturing decreased slightly from 9.80% to 9.75%.",64093938,Manufacturing in New Zealand,E -77,77.0,77.0,"The Blaisdell Slow Sand Filter Washing Machine at Yuma, Arizona is a device invented by Hiram W. Blaisdell to wash sand filters used in the treatment of drinking water. The machine was built in 1902 at Blaisdell's privately operated waterworks, which treated the muddy water of the Colorado River for local consumption. Blaisdell patented the device and marketed it throughout the United States. The Yuma filter is now on City of Yuma property, and has been preserved as the first of its kind. - -Description -The Blaisdell machine traveled along steel tracks laid on top of the walls of rectangular filter basins, bridging the walls with its structure.",40119423,Blaisdell Slow Sand Filter Washing Machine,E -78,78.0,78.0,"This article contains a list of restriction enzymes whose names start with A and have a clearly defined cutting site. -The following information is given for each enzyme: - -Name of Restriction Enzyme: Accepted name of the molecule, according to the internationally adopted nomenclature, and bibliographical references. Note: When alphabetizing, enzymes are first ordered alphabetically by the acronyms (everything before the roman numeral); then enzymes of a given acronym are ordered alphabetically by the roman numeral, treating the numeral as a number and not a string of letters. This helps keep the entries ordered hierarchically while also alphabetic.(Further reading: see the section ""Nomenclature"" in the article ""Restriction enzyme"".) -PDB code: Code used to identify the structure of a protein in the PDB database of protein structures. The 3D atomic structure of a protein provides highly valuable information to understand the intimate details of its mechanism of action. -REBASE Number: Number used to identify restriction enzymes in the REBASE restriction enzyme database. This database includes important information about the enzyme such as Recognition sequence, source, and Isoschizomers, as well as other data, such as the commercial suppliers of the enzyme. -Source: Organism that naturally produces the enzyme. -Recognition sequence: Sequence of DNA recognized by the enzyme and to which it specifically binds. -Cut: Displays the cut site and pattern and products of the cut.",27456094,List of restriction enzyme cutting sites: A,S -79,79.0,79.0,"In mathematics, a recurrence relation is an equation according to which the - - - - n - - - {\displaystyle n} - th term of a sequence of numbers is equal to some combination of the previous terms. Often, only - - - - k - - - {\displaystyle k} - previous terms of the sequence appear in the equation, for a parameter - - - - k - - - {\displaystyle k} - that is independent of - - - - n - - - {\displaystyle n} - ; this number - - - - k - - - {\displaystyle k} - is called the order of the relation. If the values of the first - - - - k - - - {\displaystyle k} - numbers in the sequence have been given, the rest of the sequence can be calculated by repeatedly applying the equation. -In linear recurrences, the nth term is equated to a linear function of the - - - - k - - - {\displaystyle k} - previous terms. A famous example is the recurrence for the Fibonacci numbers, - -where the order - - - - k - - - {\displaystyle k} - is two and the linear function merely adds the two previous terms. This example is a linear recurrence with constant coefficients, because the coefficients of the linear function (1 and 1) are constants that do not depend on - - - - n - - - {\displaystyle n} - .",146806,Recurrence relation,M -80,80.0,80.0,"Food science is the basic science and applied science of food; its scope starts at overlap with agricultural science and nutritional science and leads through the scientific aspects of food safety and food processing, informing the development of food technology. -Food science brings together multiple scientific disciplines. It incorporates concepts from fields such as chemistry, physics, physiology, microbiology, and biochemistry. Food technology incorporates concepts from chemical engineering, for example. -Activities of food scientists include the development of new food products, design of processes to produce these foods, choice of packaging materials, shelf-life studies, sensory evaluation of products using survey panels or potential consumers, as well as microbiological and chemical testing. Food scientists may study more fundamental phenomena that are directly linked to the production of food products and its properties. - -Definition -The Institute of Food Technologists defines food science as ""the discipline in which the engineering, biological, and physical sciences are used to study the nature of foods, the causes of deterioration, the principles underlying food processing, and the improvement of foods for the consuming public"". The textbook Food Science defines food science in simpler terms as ""the application of basic sciences and engineering to study the physical, chemical, and biochemical nature of foods and the principles of food processing"". - -Disciplines -Some of the subdisciplines of food science are described below. - -Food chemistry -Food chemistry is the study of chemical processes and interactions of all biological and non-biological components of foods.",252137,Food science,S -81,81.0,81.0,"In mathematics, the small boundary property is a property of certain topological dynamical systems. It is dynamical analog of the inductive definition of Lebesgue covering dimension zero. - -Definition -Consider the category of topological dynamical system (system in short) consisting of a compact metric space - - - - X - - - {\displaystyle X} - and a homeomorphism - - - - T - : - X - → - X - - - {\displaystyle T:X\rightarrow X} - . A set - - - - E - ⊂ - X - - - {\displaystyle E\subset X} - is called small if it has vanishing orbit capacity, i.e., - - - - ocap - ⁡ - ( - E - ) - = - 0 - - - {\displaystyle \operatorname {ocap} (E)=0} - . This is equivalent to: - - - - ∀ - μ - ∈ - - M - - T - - - ( - X - ) - , - - μ - ( - E - ) - = - 0 - - - {\displaystyle \forall \mu \in M_{T}(X),\ \mu (E)=0} - where - - - - - M - - T - - - ( - X - ) - - - {\displaystyle M_{T}(X)} - denotes the collection of - - - - T - - - {\displaystyle T} - -invariant measures on - - - - X - - - {\displaystyle X} - . -The system - - - - ( - X - , - T - ) - - - {\displaystyle (X,T)} - is said to have the small boundary property (SBP) if - - - - X - - - {\displaystyle X} - has a basis of open sets - - - - { - - O - - i - - - - } - - i - = - 1 - - - ∞ - - - - - {\displaystyle \{O_{i}\}_{i=1}^{\infty }} - whose boundaries are small, i.e., - - - - ocap - ⁡ - ( - ∂ - - O - - i - - - ) - = - 0 - - - {\displaystyle \operatorname {ocap} (\partial O_{i})=0} - for all - - - - i - - - {\displaystyle i} - . - -Can one always lower topological entropy? -Small sets were introduced by Michael Shub and Benjamin Weiss while investigating the question ""can one always lower topological entropy?"" Quoting from their article:""For measure theoretic entropy, it is well known and quite easy to see that a positive entropy transformation always has factors of smaller entropy. Indeed the factor generated by a two-set partition with one of the sets having very small measure will always have small entropy.",55638696,Small boundary property,M -82,82.0,82.0,"Antisense therapy is a form of treatment that uses antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs) to target messenger RNA (mRNA). ASOs are capable of altering mRNA expression through a variety of mechanisms, including ribonuclease H mediated decay of the pre-mRNA, direct steric blockage, and exon content modulation through splicing site binding on pre-mRNA. Several ASOs have been approved in the United States, the European Union, and elsewhere. - -Nomenclature -The common stem for antisense oligonucleotides drugs is -rsen. The substem -virsen designates antiviral antisense oligonucleotides. - -Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics -Half-life and stability -ASO-based drugs employ highly modified, single-stranded chains of synthetic nucleic acids that achieve wide tissue distribution with very long half-lives. For instance, many ASO-based drugs contain phosphorothioate substitutions and 2' sugar modifications to inhibit nuclease degradation enabling vehicle-free delivery to cells. - -In vivo delivery -Phosphorothioate ASOs can be delivered to cells without the need of a delivery vehicle.",1137144,Antisense therapy,S -83,83.0,83.0,"Biomagnetics is a field of biotechnology. It has actively been researched since at least 2004. Although the majority of structures found in living organisms are diamagnetic, the magnetic field itself, as well as magnetic nanoparticles, microstructures and paramagnetic molecules can influence specific physiological functions of organisms under certain conditions. The effect of magnetic fields on biosystems is a topic of research that falls under the biomagnetic umbrella, as well as the construction of magnetic structures or systems that are either biocompatible, biodegradable or biomimetic. Magnetic nanoparticles and magnetic microparticles are known to interact with certain prokaryotes and certain eukaryotes.Magnetic nanoparticles under the influence of magnetic and electromagnetic fields were shown to modulate redox reactions for the inhibition or the promotion of animal tumor growth.",25646933,Biomagnetics,S -84,84.0,84.0,"The Optogan group of is a vertically integrated producer of High Brightness LED lights based in St. Petersburg, Russia. Optogan is also active in Finland and Germany.Founded in 2004 by 3 graduates of the Ioffe Physical-Technical Institute, Optogan currently owned by various private and government investment funds. - -History -Optogan was founded in 2004 in Espoo, Finland by Dr. Maxim Odnoblyudov, Dr. Vladislav Bougrov and Dr.",26974467,Optogan,M -85,85.0,85.0,"Atmospheric chemistry is a branch of atmospheric science in which the chemistry of the Earth's atmosphere and that of other planets is studied. It is a multidisciplinary approach of research and draws on environmental chemistry, physics, meteorology, computer modeling, oceanography, geology and volcanology and other disciplines. Research is increasingly connected with other areas of study such as climatology. -The composition and chemistry of the Earth's atmosphere is of importance for several reasons, but primarily because of the interactions between the atmosphere and living organisms. The composition of the Earth's atmosphere changes as result of natural processes such as volcano emissions, lightning and bombardment by solar particles from corona. It has also been changed by human activity and some of these changes are harmful to human health, crops and ecosystems.",706999,Atmospheric chemistry,M -86,86.0,86.0,"Existential risk from artificial general intelligence is the hypothesis that substantial progress in artificial general intelligence (AGI) could result in human extinction or another irreversible global catastrophe.One argument goes as follows: The human species currently dominates other species because the human brain possesses distinctive capabilities other animals lack. If AI were to surpass humanity in general intelligence and become superintelligent, then it could become difficult or impossible to control. Just as the fate of the mountain gorilla depends on human goodwill, so might the fate of humanity depend on the actions of a future machine superintelligence.The plausibility of existential catastrophe due to AI is widely debated, and hinges in part on whether AGI or superintelligence are achievable, the speed at which dangerous behavior may emerge, and whether practical scenarios for AI takeovers exist. Concerns about superintelligence have been voiced by leading computer scientists and tech CEOs such as Geoffrey Hinton, Yoshua Bengio, Alan Turing, Elon Musk, and OpenAI CEO Sam Altman. In 2022, a survey of AI researchers with a 17% response rate found that the majority of respondents believed there is a 10 percent or greater chance that our inability to control AI will cause an existential catastrophe.",46583121,Existential risk from artificial general intelligence,T -87,87.0,87.0,"The universality–diversity paradigm is the analysis of biological materials based on the universality and diversity of its fundamental structural elements and functional mechanisms. The analysis of biological systems based on this classification has been a cornerstone of modern biology. -For example, proteins constitute the elementary building blocks of a vast variety of biological materials such as cells, spider silk or bone, where they create extremely robust, multi-functional materials by self-organization of structures over many length- and time scales, from nano to macro. Some of the structural features are commonly found in many different tissues, that is, they are conservation|highly conserved. Examples of such universal building blocks include alpha-helices, beta-sheets or tropocollagen molecules. In contrast, other features are highly specific to tissue types, such as particular filament assemblies, beta-sheet nanocrystals in spider silk or tendon fascicles.",20433613,Universality–diversity paradigm,S -88,88.0,88.0,"In computer science and logic, a dependent type is a type whose definition depends on a value. It is an overlapping feature of type theory and type systems. In intuitionistic type theory, dependent types are used to encode logic's quantifiers like ""for all"" and ""there exists"". In functional programming languages like Agda, ATS, Coq, F*, Epigram, and Idris, dependent types help reduce bugs by enabling the programmer to assign types that further restrain the set of possible implementations. -Two common examples of dependent types are dependent functions and dependent pairs. The return type of a dependent function may depend on the value (not just type) of one of its arguments.",1949487,Dependent type,M -89,89.0,89.0,"The Mathematics Subject Classification (MSC) is an alphanumerical classification scheme that has collaboratively been produced by staff of, and based on the coverage of, the two major mathematical reviewing databases, Mathematical Reviews and Zentralblatt MATH. The MSC is used by many mathematics journals, which ask authors of research papers and expository articles to list subject codes from the Mathematics Subject Classification in their papers. The current version is MSC2020. - -Structure -The MSC is a hierarchical scheme, with three levels of structure. A classification can be two, three or five digits long, depending on how many levels of the classification scheme are used. -The first level is represented by a two-digit number, the second by a letter, and the third by another two-digit number. For example: - -53 is the classification for differential geometry -53A is the classification for classical differential geometry -53A45 is the classification for vector and tensor analysis - -First level -At the top level, 64 mathematical disciplines are labeled with a unique two-digit number.",3008091,Mathematics Subject Classification,M -90,90.0,90.0,"A single point of failure (SPOF) is a part of a system that, if it fails, will stop the entire system from working. SPOFs are undesirable in any system with a goal of high availability or reliability, be it a business practice, software application, or other industrial system. - -Overview -Systems can be made robust by adding redundancy in all potential SPOFs. Redundancy can be achieved at various levels. -The assessment of a potential SPOF involves identifying the critical components of a complex system that would provoke a total systems failure in case of malfunction. Highly reliable systems should not rely on any such individual component. -For instance, the owner of a small tree care company may only own one woodchipper.",26207504,Single point of failure,E -91,91.0,91.0,"A field guide is a book designed to help the reader identify wildlife (flora or fauna or funga) or other objects of natural occurrence (e.g. rocks and minerals). It is generally designed to be brought into the ""field"" or local area where such objects exist to help distinguish between similar objects. Field guides are often designed to help users distinguish animals and plants that may be similar in appearance but are not necessarily closely related. -It will typically include a description of the objects covered, together with paintings or photographs and an index. More serious and scientific field identification books, including those intended for students, will probably include identification keys to assist with identification, but the publicly accessible field guide is more often a browsable picture guide organized by family, colour, shape, location or other descriptors. - -History -Popular interests in identifying things in nature probably were strongest in bird and plant guides.",500948,Field guide,S -92,92.0,92.0,"RML AgTech Pvt. Ltd. (RML AgTech), formerly known as Reuters Market Light (founded and earlier led by Amit Mehra) was a business that provided Technology and Data Analytics Solutions to farmers and the agriculture value chain.The Decision Support Technology provided farmers with personalised agricultural data analytics. They received data on topics like pre-sowing or post-harvest via a mobile application or SMS during the initial phase. -Approximately 3.4 million Indian farmers across 18 states were a part of this service. They received information on 450 crop varieties and more than 1300 markets. - -Core Business -At its core, RML AgTech Pvt.",29091886,Reuters Market Light,T -93,93.0,93.0,"The American National Standards Institute (ANSI AN-see) is a private nonprofit organization that oversees the development of voluntary consensus standards for products, services, processes, systems, and personnel in the United States. The organization also coordinates U.S. standards with international standards so that American products can be used worldwide. -ANSI accredits standards that are developed by representatives of other standards organizations, government agencies, consumer groups, companies, and others. These standards ensure that the characteristics and performance of products are consistent, that people use the same definitions and terms, and that products are tested the same way. ANSI also accredits organizations that carry out product or personnel certification in accordance with requirements defined in international standards.The organization's headquarters are in Washington, D.C.",659,American National Standards Institute,T -94,94.0,94.0,"Sewing is the craft of fastening or attaching objects using stitches made with a sewing needle and thread. Sewing is one of the oldest of the textile arts, arising in the Paleolithic era. Before the invention of spinning yarn or weaving fabric, archaeologists believe Stone Age people across Europe and Asia sewed fur and leather clothing using bone, antler or ivory sewing-needles and ""thread"" made of various animal body parts including sinew, catgut, and veins.For thousands of years, all sewing was done by hand. The invention of the sewing machine in the 19th century and the rise of computerization in the 20th century led to mass production and export of sewn objects, but hand sewing is still practiced around the world. Fine hand sewing is a characteristic of high-quality tailoring, haute couture fashion, and custom dressmaking, and is pursued by both textile artists and hobbyists as a means of creative expression.The first known use of the word ""sewing"" was in the 14th century. - -History -Origins -Sewing has an ancient history estimated to begin during the Paleolithic Era.",92295,Sewing,E -95,95.0,95.0,"Chemistry and physics are branches of science that both study matter. The difference between the two lies in their scope and approach. Chemists and physicists are trained differently, and they have different professional roles, even when working in a team. The division between chemistry and physics becomes diffused at the interface of the two branches, notably in fields such as physical chemistry, chemical physics, quantum mechanics, nuclear physics/chemistry, materials science, spectroscopy, solid state physics, solid-state chemistry, crystallography, and nanotechnology. - -Scope -Physics and chemistry may overlap when the system under study involves matter composed of electrons and nuclei made of protons and neutrons. On the other hand, chemistry is not usually concerned with other forms of matter such as quarks, mu and tau leptons and dark matter. -Although fundamental laws that govern the behaviour of matter apply to both in chemistry and physics, the disciplines of physics and chemistry are distinct in focus: -Physics is concerned with nature from a huge scale (the entire universe) down to a very small scale (subatomic particles).",33615960,Comparison of chemistry and physics,M -96,96.0,96.0,"Human Systems Integration (HSI) is an interdisciplinary managerial and technical approach to developing and sustaining systems which focuses on the interfaces between humans and modern technical systems. The objective of HSI is to provide equal weight to human, hardware, and software elements of system design throughout systems engineering and lifecycle logistics management activities across the lifecycle of a system. The end goal of HSI is to optimize total system performance and minimize total ownership costs. The field of HSI integrates work from multiple human centered domains of study include training, manpower (the number of people), personnel (the qualifications of people), human factors engineering, safety, occupational health, survivability and habitability.HSI is a total systems approach that focuses on the comprehensive integration across the HSI domains, and across systems engineering and logistics support processes. The domains of HSI are interrelated: a focus on integration allows tradeoffs between domains, resulting in improved manpower utilization, reduced training costs, reduced maintenance time, improved user acceptance, decreased overall lifecycle costs, and a decreased need for redesigns and retrofits.",67470005,Human Systems Integration,E -97,97.0,97.0,"Missile defense systems are a type of missile defense intended to shield a country against incoming missiles, such as intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) or other ballistic missiles. The United States, Russia, India, France, Israel, Italy, United Kingdom, China and Iran have all developed missile defense systems. - -Definitions -The term ""Missile defense system"" broadly means a system that provides any defense against any missile type (conventional or nuclear) by any country. -Any mechanism which can detect and then destroy a missile before it can cause any harm is called a missile defence system (MDS).The role of defense against nuclear missiles has been a heated military and political topic for several decades. However, missile defense is no longer limited to interception of strategic nuclear weapons. The gradual development and proliferation of missile technology has blurred the line between the technologies for the interception of tactical missiles (usually short to intermediate range with non-nuclear payloads) and the interception of strategic missiles (usually long ranged with nuclear payloads). High-performance tactical ballistic missiles carrying non-nuclear payloads now have the ability to affect strategic balance in conflict zones.",36647151,Missile defense systems by country,T -98,98.0,98.0,"This article lists the living orders of the Viridiplantae, based primarily on the work of Ruggiero et al. 2015. Living order of Lycophytes and ferns are taken from Christenhusz et al. 2011b and Pteridophyte Phylogeny Group. Living orders of Gymnosperms are added from Christenhusz et al.",10084913,List of plant orders,S -99,99.0,99.0,"In aviation, a flight director (FD) is a flight instrument that is overlaid on the attitude indicator that shows the pilot of an aircraft the attitude required to execute the desired flight path. Flight directors are mostly commonly used during approach and landing. They can be used with or without autopilot systems. - -Description -Flight director (FD) modes integrated with autopilot systems perform calculations for more advanced automation, like ""selected course (intercepting), changing altitudes, and tracking navigation sources with cross winds."" FD computes and displays the proper pitch and bank angles required for the aircraft to follow a selected flight path. -A simple example: The aircraft flies level on 045° heading at flight level FL150 at 260 kn (480 km/h) indicated airspeed, the FD bars are thus centered. Then the flight director is set to heading 090° and a new flight level FL200. The aircraft must thus turn to the right and climb. -This is done by banking to the right while climbing.",6905266,Flight director (aeronautics),T -100,100.0,100.0,"ZetaGrid was at one time the largest distributed computing project, designed to explore the non-trivial roots of the Riemann zeta function, checking over one billion roots a day. -Roots of the zeta function are of particular interest in mathematics; a single root out of alignment would disprove the Riemann hypothesis, with far-reaching consequences for all of mathematics. As of June, 2023 no counterexample to the Riemann hypothesis has been found. -The project ended in November 2005 due to instability of the hosting provider. The first more than 1013 zeroes were checked. The project administrator stated that after the results were analyzed, they would be posted on the American Mathematical Society website. The official status remains unclear, however, as it was never published nor independently verified.",2848762,ZetaGrid,M -101,101.0,101.0,"Beefy meaty peptide, also known as delicious peptide and abbreviated as BMP, is an 8-amino acid long peptide that has been identified as giving a beefy flavour to foods in which it is present. It was isolated from beef soup by Yamasaki and Maekawa in 1978. Ongoing research since its discovery by Yamasaki and Maekawa has provided general support for the presence of its flavor-imparting properties. However, due to its high production cost, the peptide's potential for widespread application in the food industry has yet to be realized, prompting current research efforts to focus on finding a method of mass-production for the peptide. - -Identification -Sequence -Lys-Gly-Asp-Glu-Glu-Ser-Leu-AlaThe primary structure was first determined by Yamasaki and Maekawa, who carried out the experiment using the Edman degradation method for N-terminus sequencing and carboxypeptidase A (Cpase A) and triazination methods for C-terminus sequencing. At the time of the experiment (1978), both methods were used in order to determine the amino acid composition and order of the sequence, including the discovery of a Glu-Glu linkage and the detection of alanine at the C-terminus.",17659919,Beefy meaty peptide,S -102,102.0,102.0,"Airbag launching refers to a method to launch vessels with marine air bags. It is a methodology for ship launching utilizing air bags.The Xiao Qinghe shipyard launched a tank barge with marine airbags on January 20, 1981, and it is known as the first use of marine airbags. -This kind of ship launching method has the advantages of requiring less permanent infrastructure, risk, and cost. The airbags provide support to the hull of the ship, air bags rolling motion take a vessel launch into water, thus it is arguably safer than other options like sideways launching. -Unlike most other launching methods that are fixed infrastructures, airbag launching has relatively less limitations and can be used in versatile ways. It overcomes the disadvantage of fixed track launching in which capacity of shipbuilding and ship repairing is limited by the fixed infrastructures especially in small and medium-sized shipyards. - -Airbags -Ship launching airbags are specialized air bags that are used for launching marine vessels. These air bags are made of synthetic-tire-cord reinforcement layers and rubber layers, and are also known as marine airbags.",48707247,Airbag launching,E -103,103.0,103.0,"The Daskyleion steles are three marble steles discovered in 1958 in Dascylium, in northwest Turkey. -The Aramaic inscription is known as KAI 318. It is dated to the fifth century BCE. - -Text of the inscription -The inscription seems to be sepulchral. The text reads: -The inscription had originally been interpreted as a kind of ""insurance project"" set up by Elnap, presumably a merchant, for the safe passage of his caravans: -These are the images of Elnap, son of ’ŠY (Isai). -He has made (it) for himself as (a man) devoted(?) to -Bel and Nabu, so that his caravan (lit.: road) may travel safely. -May no-one suffer from harm!The revised interpretation as a sepulchral monument is based on the iconography, the place where the stelae were found, and a more natural reading of the Aramaic (the problematic word HWMYTK in line 2 had originally been taken to be an Iranian loanword). - -Bibliography -Dupont-Sommer André. Une inscription araméenne inédite d'époque perse trouvée à Daskyléion (Turquie). In: Comptes rendus des séances de l'Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, 110e année, N.",65194705,Daskyleion steles,T -104,104.0,104.0,"A final good or consumer good is a final product ready for sale that is used by the consumer to satisfy current wants or needs, unlike an intermediate good, which is used to produce other goods. A microwave oven or a bicycle is a final good, but the parts purchased to manufacture them are intermediate goods. -When used in measures of national income and output, the term ""final goods"" includes only new goods. For example, gross domestic product (GDP) excludes items counted in an earlier year to prevent double counting based on resale of items. In that context, the economic definition of goods also includes what are commonly known as services. - -Manufactured goods are goods that have been processed in any way. They are distinct from raw materials but include both intermediate goods and final goods. - -Law -There are legal definitions.",6221280,Final good,E -105,105.0,105.0,"Robert Hale Nelson (1903–1996) was an American entomologist, federal agriculture- and insecticide researcher, and leader within the Entomological Society of America. - -Biography -Nelson was born June 13, 1903, on a farm in Bristow, Nebraska. He received a B.S. in 1929 and a M.S. the following year from the University of Nebraska.Upon finishing his M.S. Nelson, in 1931, Nelson was hired by the USDA's Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine.",69535840,Robert Nelson (entomologist),S -106,106.0,106.0,"Biocybernetics is the application of cybernetics to biological science disciplines such as neurology and multicellular systems. Biocybernetics plays a major role in systems biology, seeking to integrate different levels of information to understand how biological systems function. The field of cybernetics itself has origins in biological disciplines such as neurophysiology. Biocybernetics is an abstract science and is a fundamental part of theoretical biology, based upon the principles of systemics. Biocybernetics is a psychological study that aims to understand how the human body functions as a biological system and performs complex mental functions like thought processing, motion, and maintaining homeostasis.(PsychologyDictionary.org)Within this field, many distinct qualities allow for different distinctions within the cybernetic groups such as humans and insects such as beehives and ants.",3929318,Biocybernetics,S -107,107.0,107.0,"Documentation is any communicable material that is used to describe, explain or instruct regarding some attributes of an object, system or procedure, such as its parts, assembly, installation, maintenance and use. As a form of knowledge management and knowledge organization, documentation can be provided on paper, online, or on digital or analog media, such as audio tape or CDs. Examples are user guides, white papers, online help, and quick-reference guides. Paper or hard-copy documentation has become less common. Documentation is often distributed via websites, software products, and other online applications. -Documentation as a set of instructional materials shouldn't be confused with documentation science, the study of the recording and retrieval of information. - -Principles for producing documentation -While associated International Organization for Standardization (ISO) standards are not easily available publicly, a guide from other sources for this topic may serve the purpose.Documentation development may involve document drafting, formatting, submitting, reviewing, approving, distributing, reposting and tracking, etc., and are convened by associated standard operating procedure in a regulatory industry.",164430,Documentation,T -108,108.0,108.0,"In mathematics, a numerical semigroup is a special kind of a semigroup. Its underlying set is the set of all nonnegative integers except a finite number and the binary operation is the operation of addition of integers. Also, the integer 0 must be an element of the semigroup. For example, while the set {0, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, ...} is a numerical semigroup, the set {0, 1, 3, 5, 6, ...} is not because 1 is in the set and 1 + 1 = 2 is not in the set. Numerical semigroups are commutative monoids and are also known as numerical monoids.The definition of numerical semigroup is intimately related to the problem of determining nonnegative integers that can be expressed in the form x1n1 + x2 n2 + ...",31434142,Numerical semigroup,M -109,109.0,109.0,"Artificial muscles, also known as muscle-like actuators, are materials or devices that mimic natural muscle and can change their stiffness, reversibly contract, expand, or rotate within one component due to an external stimulus (such as voltage, current, pressure or temperature). The three basic actuation responses– contraction, expansion, and rotation can be combined within a single component to produce other types of motions (e.g. bending, by contracting one side of the material while expanding the other side). Conventional motors and pneumatic linear or rotary actuators do not qualify as artificial muscles, because there is more than one component involved in the actuation. -Owing to their high flexibility, versatility and power-to-weight ratio compared with traditional rigid actuators, artificial muscles have the potential to be a highly disruptive emerging technology. Though currently in limited use, the technology may have wide future applications in industry, medicine, robotics and many other fields. - -Comparison with natural muscles -While there is no general theory that allows for actuators to be compared, there are ""power criteria"" for artificial muscle technologies that allow for specification of new actuator technologies in comparison with natural muscular properties.",33413026,Artificial muscle,S -110,110.0,110.0,"In academic publishing, a scientific journal is a periodical publication intended to further the progress of science, usually by sharing findings from research with readers. They are normally specialized based on discipline, with authors picking which one they send their manuscripts to. - -Content -Scientific journals -There are thousands of scientific journals in publication, with one estimate from 2012 indicating that there were 28,100 that were active, and many more have been published at various points in the past (see list of scientific journals). Most journals are highly specialized, although some of the oldest journals such as Science and Nature publish articles and scientific papers across a wide range of scientific fields. Scientific journals contain articles that have been peer reviewed, in an attempt to ensure that articles meet the journal's standards of quality and scientific validity.Although scientific journals are superficially similar to professional magazines (or trade journals), they are actually quite different. Among other things, scientific journals' papers' authors are experts who must cite everything (and have a bibliography).",37316,Scientific journal,T -111,111.0,111.0,"Historia Plantarum (The History of Plants) is a botany book by John Ray, published in 1686. - -Publication -Historia Plantarum was published in three volumes: vol 1 in 1686, vol 2 in 1688, vol 3 in 1704. The third volume lacked plates, so Ray's assistant, the apothecary James Petiver, published Petiver's Catalogue, effectively a supplement containing the plates, in parts in 1715–1764. The work on the first two volumes was supported by subscriptions from the President and Fellows of the Royal Society. - -Editions -Ray, John (1686). Historia plantarum. London: Clark.",43011733,Historia Plantarum (Ray book),S -112,112.0,112.0,"An engineering drawing is a type of technical drawing that is used to convey information about an object. A common use is to specify the geometry necessary for the construction of a component and is called a detail drawing. Usually, a number of drawings are necessary to completely specify even a simple component. The drawings are linked together by a master drawing or assembly drawing which gives the drawing numbers of the subsequent detailed components, quantities required, construction materials and possibly 3D images that can be used to locate individual items. Although mostly consisting of pictographic representations, abbreviations and symbols are used for brevity and additional textual explanations may also be provided to convey the necessary information. -The process of producing engineering drawings is often referred to as technical drawing or drafting (draughting).",171414,Engineering drawing,E -113,113.0,113.0,"The International Noble Gas Experiment (INGE) was formed in 1999 as an informal expert's group of developers of radioactive xenon measurement systems for the International Monitoring System for the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT) (signed in 1997, but which has not entered into force). The group originally consisted of research and development groups from Germany, France, Russia, Sweden, and the United States, as well as personnel from Provisional Technical Secretariat of the Preparatory Commission for the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization CTBTO. -The INGE group was formed to test aspects of measuring xenon fission product radionuclides released by nuclear explosions. The systems developed and participating in the INGE measure xenon isotopes in the atmosphere and includes 131mXe, 133Xe, 133mXe, and 135Xe. -Since the INGE was formed in 1999, the group has expanded somewhat and now includes R&D and operational groups from many locations around the world. Although there is no official list of INGE members, the group is informally composed of scientists, engineers, and others from Argentina, Austria, Australia, Canada, China, France, Germany, Japan, Norway, South Korea, Sweden, Russia, the United States, and several other countries. These members regularly contribute to better understanding radioactive xenon measurements through operation of samplers, measurements of background at various locations, creation of data analysis routines, etc. -Staff from the preparatory commission of the CTBTO oversaw the experiment, with technical assistance from a German group of noble gas experts from the BfS in Freiburg, Germany.",12599355,International Noble Gas Experiment,S -114,114.0,114.0,"TSE or Tris/Saline/EDTA, is a buffer solution containing a mixture of Tris base, Sodium chloride and EDTA. -In molecular biology, TSE buffers are often used in procedures involving nucleic acids. Tris-acid solutions are effective buffers for slightly basic conditions, which keep DNA deprotonated and soluble in water. The concentration of tris in the solution is kept near 25 mM. EDTA is a chelator of divalent cations, particularly of magnesium (Mg2+). As these ions are necessary co-factors for many enzymes, including contaminant nucleases, the role of the EDTA is to protect the nucleic acids against enzymatic degradation.",22600725,TSE buffer,S -115,115.0,115.0,"Directed differentiation is a bioengineering methodology at the interface of stem cell biology, developmental biology and tissue engineering. It is essentially harnessing the potential of stem cells by constraining their differentiation in vitro toward a specific cell type or tissue of interest. Stem cells are by definition pluripotent, able to differentiate into several cell types such as neurons, cardiomyocytes, hepatocytes, etc. Efficient directed differentiation requires a detailed understanding of the lineage and cell fate decision, often provided by developmental biology. - -Conceptual frame -During differentiation, pluripotent cells make a number of developmental decisions to generate first the three germ layers (ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm) of the embryo and intermediate progenitors, followed by subsequent decisions or check points, giving rise to all the body's mature tissues. The differentiation process can be modeled as sequence of binary decisions based on probabilistic or stochastic models.",44305878,Directed differentiation,S -116,116.0,116.0,"Meteoritics is the science that deals with meteors, meteorites, and meteoroids. It is closely connected to cosmochemistry, mineralogy and geochemistry. A specialist who studies meteoritics is known as a meteoriticist.Scientific research in meteoritics includes the collection, identification, and classification of meteorites and the analysis of samples taken from them in a laboratory. Typical analyses include investigation of the minerals that make up the meteorite, their relative locations, orientations, and chemical compositions; analysis of isotope ratios; and radiometric dating. These techniques are used to determine the age, formation process, and subsequent history of the material forming the meteorite.",2120962,Meteoritics,M -117,117.0,117.0,"Adversarial Design is a type of political design that evokes and engages political issues. In doing so, the cultural production of Adversarial Design crosses all disciplinary boundaries in the construction of objects, interfaces, networks, spaces and events. Most importantly, Adversarial Design does the work in expressing and enabling agonism. - -Origin and meaning -The term was first used by Carl DiSalvo in his 2012 book Adversarial Design, as an attempt to provide design criticism as an approach to thinking about political expression, computation as a medium and the processes and products of design. - -Characteristics -Fundamental to Adversarial Design is agonism, a condition of productive contestation and dissensus. Adversarial Design allows for spaces of agonism to flourish and provide resources and opportunities for others to participate in this contestation. As such, “Adversarial” in Adversarial Design paves the way for dissensus, contestational relations and experiences through made designed artefacts and its expression.",44077929,Adversarial Design,T -118,118.0,118.0,"The Histoire Naturelle, générale et particulière, avec la description du Cabinet du Roi (French: [istwaʁ natyʁɛl]; English: Natural History, General and Particular, with a Description of the King's Cabinet) is an encyclopaedic collection of 36 large (quarto) volumes written between 1749–1804, initially by the Comte de Buffon, and continued in eight more volumes after his death by his colleagues, led by Bernard Germain de Lacépède. The books cover what was known of the ""natural sciences"" at the time, including what would now be called material science, physics, chemistry and technology as well as the natural history of animals. - -Histoire Naturelle, an encyclopaedic work -The Histoire Naturelle, générale et particulière, avec la description du Cabinet du Roi is the work that the Comte de Buffon (1707–1788) is remembered for. He worked on it for some 50 years, initially at Montbard in his office in the Tour Saint-Louis, then in his library at Petit Fontenet. 36 volumes came out between 1749 and 1789, followed by 8 more after his death, thanks to Bernard Germain de Lacépède. It includes all the knowledge available in his time on the ""natural sciences"", a broad term that includes disciplines which today would be called material science, physics, chemistry and technology.",44817531,Histoire Naturelle,S -119,119.0,119.0,"In discrete geometry, Tverberg's theorem, first stated by Helge Tverberg in 1966, is the result that sufficiently many points in d-dimensional Euclidean space can be partitioned into subsets with intersecting convex hulls. Specifically, for any positive integers d, r and any set of - - - - - ( - d - + - 1 - ) - ( - r - − - 1 - ) - + - 1 - - - - {\displaystyle (d+1)(r-1)+1\ } - points there exists a point x (not necessarily one of the given points) and a partition of the given points into r subsets, such that x belongs to the convex hull of all of the subsets. The partition resulting from this theorem is known as a Tverberg partition. -The special case r = 2 was proved earlier by Radon, and it is known as Radon's theorem. - -Examples -The case d = 1 states that any 2r-1 points on the real line can be partitioned into r subsets with intersecting convex hulls. Indeed, if the points are x1 < x2 < ... < x2r < x2r-1, then the partition into Ai = {xi, x2r-i} for i in 1,...,r satisfies this condition (and it is unique). -For r = 2, Tverberg's theorem states that any d + 2 points may be partitioned into two subsets with intersecting convex hulls.",3115869,Tverberg's theorem,M -120,120.0,120.0,"Hooper's paradox is a falsidical paradox based on an optical illusion. A geometric shape with an area of 32 units is dissected into four parts, which afterwards get assembled into a rectangle with an area of only 30 units. - -Explanation -Upon close inspection one can notice that the triangles of the dissected shape are not identical to the triangles in the rectangle. The length of the shorter side at the right angle measures 2 units in the original shape but only 1.8 units in the rectangle. This means, the real triangles of the original shape overlap in the rectangle. The overlapping area is a parallelogram, the diagonals and sides of which can be computed via the Pythagorean theorem.",64921659,Hooper's paradox,M -121,121.0,121.0,"Ellen D. Jorgensen (born 2 June 1955) is a New York-based molecular biologist leading the do-it-yourself biology movement. She works to increase scientific literacy in the general population, particularly in the fields of molecular and synthetic biology. She is a co-founder of both Biotech Without Borders and Genspace. In 2017, Ellen Jorgensen was named one of the Most Creative Leaders in Business by Fast Company. - -Education and career -Ellen Jorgensen graduated from New York University (NYU) in 1977 with a B.A.",56642366,Ellen Jorgensen,S -122,122.0,122.0,"In computer security, coordinated vulnerability disclosure (CVD, formerly known as responsible disclosure) is a vulnerability disclosure model in which a vulnerability or an issue is disclosed to the public only after the responsible parties have been allowed sufficient time to patch or remedy the vulnerability or issue. This coordination distinguishes the CVD model from the ""full disclosure"" model. -Developers of hardware and software often require time and resources to repair their mistakes. Often, it is ethical hackers who find these vulnerabilities. Hackers and computer security scientists have the opinion that it is their social responsibility to make the public aware of vulnerabilities. Hiding problems could cause a feeling of false security.",6989858,Coordinated vulnerability disclosure,T -123,123.0,123.0,"The Hydropower Sustainability Assessment Protocol (HSAP) is a global framework for assessing the sustainability of hydropower projects. The Protocol defines good and best practice at each stage of the life-cycle of a hydropower project across twenty-four environmental, social, technical and economic topics.The Protocol was developed between 2007 and 2010 by a multi-stakeholder forum made up of representatives from industry, civil society, donors, developing country governments and financial institutions. The final version was published in 2010 after a trial period in sixteen countries. The Protocol was updated in 2018 to include good and best practice in climate change resilience and mitigation.After the Protocol's launch, the governance entity of the Protocol approved the development of two additional tools derived from the HSAP, the Hydropower ESG Gap Analysis Tool (HESG Tool) to identify gaps against basic good practice and the Hydropower Sustainability Guidelines on Good International Industry Practice (HGIIP Guidelines), a reference document presenting definitions relating to good and best industry practice. - -Application -Background -The construction of a dam, power plant and reservoir creates social and physical changes in the surrounding area. As a result, hydropower projects can have both a positive and a negative environmental and social impacts. -The sustainability of the hydropower sector was the subject of a report by the World Commission on Dams in 2000.",47963327,Hydropower Sustainability Assessment Protocol,T -124,124.0,124.0,"Bittern (pl. bitterns), or nigari, is the salt solution formed when halite (table salt) precipitates from seawater or brines. Bitterns contain magnesium, calcium, and potassium ions as well as chloride, sulfate, iodide, and other ions.Bittern is commonly formed in salt ponds where the evaporation of water prompts the precipitation of halite. These salt ponds can be part of a salt-producing industrial facility, or they can be used as a waste storage location for brines produced in desalination processes.Bittern is a source of many useful salts. It is used as a natural source of Mg2+, and it can be used as a coagulant both in the production of tofu and in the treatment of industrial wastewater. - -History -Bittern has been extracted for a long time, at least several centuries.",13464959,Bittern (salt),M -125,125.0,125.0,"The Strehl ratio is a measure of the quality of optical image formation, originally proposed by Karl Strehl, after whom the term is named. Used variously in situations where optical resolution is compromised due to lens aberrations or due to imaging through the turbulent atmosphere, the Strehl ratio has a value between 0 and 1, with a hypothetical, perfectly unaberrated optical system having a Strehl ratio of 1. - -Mathematical definition -The Strehl ratio - - - - S - - - {\displaystyle S} - is frequently defined as the ratio of the peak aberrated image intensity from a point source compared to the maximum attainable intensity using an ideal optical system limited only by diffraction over the system's aperture. It is also often expressed in terms not of the peak intensity but the intensity at the image center (intersection of the optical axis with the focal plane) due to an on-axis source; in most important cases these definitions result in a very similar figure (or identical figure, when the point of peak intensity must be exactly at the center due to symmetry). Using the latter definition, the Strehl ratio - - - - S - - - {\displaystyle S} - can be computed in terms of - - - - δ - ( - x - , - y - ) - - - {\displaystyle \delta (x,y)} - , the offset of the wavefront due to an on-axis point source, compared to that produced by an ideal focusing system over the aperture A(x,y). Using Fraunhofer diffraction theory, one computes the wave amplitude using the Fourier transform of the aberrated pupil function evaluated at 0,0 (center of the image plane) where the phase factors of the Fourier transform formula are reduced to unity.",4653057,Strehl ratio,E -126,126.0,126.0,"Irrigation informatics is a newly emerging academic field that is a cross-disciplinary science using informatics to study the information flows and data management related to irrigation. The field is one of many new informatics sub-specialities that uses the science of information, the practice of information processing, and the engineering of information systems to advance a biophysical science or engineering field. - -Background -Agricultural productivity increases are eagerly sought by governments and industry, spurred by the realisation that world food production must double in the 21st century to feed growing populations and that as irrigation makes up 36% of global food production, but that new land for irrigation growth is very limited, irrigation efficiency must increase. Since irrigation science is a mature and stable field, irrigation researchers are looking to cross-disciplinary science to bring about production gains and informatics is one such science along with others such as social science. Much of the driver for work in the area of irrigation informatics is the perceived success of other informatics fields such as health informatics. - -Current research -Irrigation informatics is very much a part of the wider research into irrigation wherever information technology or data systems are used, however the term informatics is not always used to describe research involving computer systems and data management so that information science or information technology may alternatively be used. This leads to a great number of irrigation informatics articles not using the term irrigation informatics.",28770638,Irrigation informatics,S -127,127.0,127.0,"A number of animals are capable of aerial locomotion, either by powered flight or by gliding. This trait has appeared by evolution many times, without any single common ancestor. Flight has evolved at least four times in separate animals: insects, pterosaurs, birds, and bats. Gliding has evolved on many more occasions. Usually the development is to aid canopy animals in getting from tree to tree, although there are other possibilities.",4014603,Flying and gliding animals,S -128,128.0,128.0,"Kinesiology (from Ancient Greek κίνησις (kínēsis) 'movement', and -λογία -logía 'study of') is the scientific study of human body movement. Kinesiology addresses physiological, anatomical, biomechanical, pathological, neuropsychological principles and mechanisms of movement. Applications of kinesiology to human health include biomechanics and orthopedics; strength and conditioning; sport psychology; motor control; skill acquisition and motor learning; methods of rehabilitation, such as physical and occupational therapy; and sport and exercise physiology. Studies of human and animal motion include measures from motion tracking systems, electrophysiology of muscle and brain activity, various methods for monitoring physiological function, and other behavioral and cognitive research techniques. - -Basics -Kinesiology studies the science of human movement, performance, and function by applying the fundamental sciences of Cell Biology, Molecular Biology, Chemistry, Biochemistry, Biophysics, Biomechanics, Biomathematics, Biostatistics, Anatomy, Physiology, Exercise Physiology, Pathophysiology, Neuroscience, and Nutritional science. A bachelor's degree in kinesiology can provide strong preparation for graduate study in biomedical research, as well as in professional programs, such as medicine, dentistry, physical therapy, and occupational therapy. -The term ""kinesiologist"" is not a licensed nor professional designation in many countries, with the notable exception of Canada.",545909,Kinesiology,S -129,129.0,129.0,"Technology strategy (information technology strategy or IT strategy) is the overall plan which consists of objectives, principles and tactics relating to use of technologies within a particular organization. Such strategies primarily focus on the technologies themselves and in some cases the people who directly manage those technologies. The strategy can be implied from the organization's behaviors towards technology decisions, and may be written down in a document. The strategy includes the formal vision that guide the acquisition, allocation, and management of IT resources so it can help fulfill the organizational objectives.Other generations of technology-related strategies primarily focus on: the efficiency of the company's spending on technology; how people, for example the organization's customers and employees, exploit technologies in ways that create value for the organization; on the full integration of technology-related decisions with the company's strategies and operating plans, such that no separate technology strategy exists other than the de facto strategic principle that the organization does not need or have a discrete 'technology strategy'. -A technology strategy has traditionally been expressed in a document that explains how technology should be utilized as part of an organization's overall corporate strategy and each business strategy. In the case of IT, the strategy is usually formulated by a group of representatives from both the business and from IT.",2906805,Technology strategy,T -130,130.0,130.0,"""The investigation of the useful plants of Formosa"" was a project that was initiated by the Government-General of Taiwan in 1905. This project was funded by money allocated by the government. Takiya Kawakami was appointed as the chief of the project, and Bunzo Hayata was entrusted to carry out the plant appraisal. Several assistants were recruited to collect plant samples. The investigation was being published as the “A List of Plants of Formosa” and the “Icones Plantarum Formosanarum”, serving as an important foundation for subsequent Taiwan plants investigation. - -Project content -The project began in 1905.",74555157,Draft:The investigation of the useful plants of Formosa,S -131,131.0,131.0,"The Resilience Project is a project, undertaken by the Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai in collaboration with Sage Bionetworks. - -Overview -The project seeks to identify protective factors against disease through collaboration with people who have significant risk factors for disease that nevertheless do not manifest typical signs and symptoms. In a pilot study, big data was used to identify individuals with apparent resistance to severe genetic disease.This approach may seem weird, since the gene that is known to cause a genetic disorder could also be dealt with (head on) by just using overwriting the genetic code of this faulty gene with ""good code"" using gene therapy. -However, there is never just one version of ""good code"" (even people that do not have a disorder, the gene that is otherwise known to cause the defect can be present with different code). So rather than having to deal with these problems, Stephen Friend decided to use a workaround method (which consists of the approach noted above). - -Diseases -Initially, the diseases the project looked at were 170 severe, Mendelian, disorders. However, the genetic data gathered from 600,000 people was not enough(only resilient individuals of 8 of the targeted diseases were found). The list of diseases it know look at is the following: -Cystic fibrosis -Smith–Lemli–Opitz syndrome -Familial dysautonomia -Epidermolysis Bullosa simplex -Pfeiffer syndrome -Autoimmune polyendocrine syndrome type 1 (APECED) -Acampomelic campomelic dysplasia -Atelosteogenesis - -Data -DNA sequences from 589,306 people were used, obtained from 23andMe, Beijing Genomics Institute, Broad Institute and others. - -Criticism -Critics have argued that the researchers could not contact any of people to positively ensure that they were indeed healthy, despite having the disease mutation.",54375950,The Resilience Project,S -132,132.0,132.0,"Fur seals are any of nine species of pinnipeds belonging to the subfamily Arctocephalinae in the family Otariidae. They are much more closely related to sea lions than true seals, and share with them external ears (pinnae), relatively long and muscular foreflippers, and the ability to walk on all fours. They are marked by their dense underfur, which made them a long-time object of commercial hunting. Eight species belong to the genus Arctocephalus and are found primarily in the Southern Hemisphere, while a ninth species also sometimes called fur seal, the Northern fur seal (Callorhinus ursinus), belongs to a different genus and inhabits the North Pacific. The fur seals in Arctocephalus are more closely related to sea lions than they are to the Northern fur seal, but all three groups are more closely related to each other than they are to true seals. - -Taxonomy -Fur seals and sea lions make up the family Otariidae.",11780,Fur seal,S -133,133.0,133.0,"A drifter drill, sometimes called a rock drill, is a tool used in mining and civil engineering to drill into rock. Rock drills are used for making holes for placing dynamite or other explosives in rock blasting, and holes for plug and feather quarrying.While a rock drill may be as simple as a specialized form of chisel, it may also take the form of a powered machine. The mechanism may be worked or powered by hand, by steam, by compressed air (pneumatics), by hydraulics, or by electricity. -Machine rock drills come in two basic forms: those that operate by percussion (using a reciprocating motion), and those that are abrasive (using a rotary motion). A smaller, hand-held percussion rock drill is considered a type of jackhammer. - -History and types -The simplest form of rock drill consists of a long chisel or drill steel that was struck with a sledgehammer. Mark Twain, who worked unsuccessfully as a silver miner in the early 1860s before taking up journalism, described the process: ""One of us held the iron drill in its place and another would strike with an eight-pound sledge--it was like driving nails on a large scale.",7786897,Drifter drill,E -134,134.0,134.0,"The European Innovation Council (EIC) was introduced by the European Commission to support the commercialization of high-risk, high-impact technologies in the European Union. The fully-fledged EIC was launched March 2021 under Horizon Europe and is incorporated within the European Innovation Council and SMEs Executive Agency (EISMEA). Its goal is to aid researchers, start-ups and SMEs bring their innovations to market by providing funding, networking and partnership opportunities, and business acceleration services. In its latest form, the concept has been put forth by the EU Research Commissioner Carlos Moedas in mid-2015. The EIC has a budget of €10.1 billion to support innovations throughout the lifecycle from early stage research, to proof of concept, technology transfer, and the financing and scale up of start-ups and SMEs. - -Pilot Phase (2018–2021) -The EIC pilot phase was launched in 2018, incorporating existing instruments under the Horizon 2020 programme, in particular the SME instrument and Future & Emerging Technology (FET) programme.",51462035,European Innovation Council,T -135,135.0,135.0,"A jige (Korean: 지게) is a traditional Korean farming tool used by farmers to carry large quantities of heavy materials. The tool is used in agricultural communities to facilitate the transportation of large quantities of materials such as compost, grain, wood, and grass. Its design varies depending on the region. A jige is easy to make and has been used extensively due to the mountainous terrain of Korea. - -History -The word jige was first used by Jeong Cheol (1536–1593) during the Joseon Dynasty and is mentioned in books from the late 17th to the middle 19th century. In 1905, according to the Korea Land and Agriculture Research Report, jige are also called jigi and damje. - -Part -The jige is made of the following parts:Saegojari (Korean: 새고자리): the narrow top. -Saejang (Korean: 새장): a piece of wood that is cut across the base so that its two pairs are woven together.",57556277,Jige,T -136,136.0,136.0,"Hierarchical INTegration, or HINT for short, is a computer benchmark that ranks a computer system as a whole (i.e. the entire computer instead of individual components). It measures the full range of performance, mostly based on the amount of work a computer can perform over time. A system with a very fast processor would likely be rated poorly if the buses were very poor compared to those of another system that had both an average processor and average buses. For example, in the past, Macintosh computers with relatively slow processor speeds (800 MHz) used to perform better than x86 based systems with processors running at nearly 2 GHz. -HINT is known for being almost immune to artificial optimization and can be used by many computers ranging from a calculator to a supercomputer.",1081948,Hierarchical INTegration,T -137,137.0,137.0,"In a general sense, the design load is the maximum amount of something a system is designed to handle or the maximum amount of something that the system can produce, which are very different meanings. For example, a crane with a design load of 20 tons is designed to be able to lift loads that weigh 20 tons or less. However, when a failure could be catastrophic, such as a crane dropping its load or collapsing entirely, a factor of safety is necessary. As a result, the crane should lift about 2 to 5 tons at the most. -In structural design, a design load is greater than the load which the system is expected to support.",3584524,Design load,E -138,138.0,138.0,"Humboldtian science refers to a movement in science in the 19th century closely connected to the work and writings of German scientist, naturalist and explorer Alexander von Humboldt. It maintained a certain ethics of precision and observation, which combined scientific field work with the sensitivity and aesthetic ideals of the age of Romanticism. Like Romanticism in science, it was rather popular in the 19th century. The term was coined by Susan Faye Cannon in 1978. -The example of Humboldt's life and his writings allowed him to reach out beyond the academic community with his natural history and address a wider audience with popular science aspects. It has supplanted the older Baconian method, related as well to a single person, Francis Bacon. - -Brief biography -Humboldt was born in Berlin in 1769 and worked as a Prussian mining official in the 1790s until 1797 when he quit and began collecting scientific knowledge and equipment.",8243937,Humboldtian science,S -139,139.0,139.0,"A behavior-shaping constraint, also sometimes referred to as a forcing function or poka-yoke, is a technique used in error-tolerant design to prevent the user from making common errors or mistakes. One example is the reverse lockout on the transmission of a moving automobile. -The microwave oven provides another example of a forcing function. In all modern microwave ovens, it is impossible to start the microwave while the door is still open. Likewise, the microwave will shut off automatically if the door is opened by the user. By forcing the user to close the microwave door while it is in use, it becomes impossible for the user to err by leaving the door open.",1683043,Behavior-shaping constraint,E -140,140.0,140.0,"A plastome is the genome of a plastid, a type of organelle found in plants and in a variety of protoctists. The number of known plastid genome sequences grew rapidly in the first decade of the twenty-first century. For example, 25 chloroplast genomes were sequenced for one molecular phylogenetic study.The flowering plants are especially well represented in complete chloroplast genomes. As of January, 2017, all of their orders are represented except Commelinales, Picramniales, Huerteales, Escalloniales, Bruniales, and Paracryphiales. -A compilation of all available complete plastid genomes is maintained by the NCBI in a public repository. - -Plants -Bryophytes s.l. -Ferns and Lycophytes -Gymnosperms -Flowering plants -This sortable table is expected to compile complete plastid genomes representing the largest range of sizes, number of genes, and angiosperm families. - -Green algae -Red algae -Glaucophytes -Meta-algae and apicomplexans -Meta-algae are organisms with photosynthetic organelles of secondary or tertiary endosymbiotic origin, and their close non-photosynthetic, plastid-bearing, relatives. Apicomplexans are a secondarily non-photosynthetic group of chromalveoates which retain a reduced plastid organelle. - -Photosynthetic chromalveolates -Dinoflagellate plastid genomes are not organised into a single circular DNA molecule like other plastid genomes, but into an array of mini-circles. - -Chlorarachniophytes -Euglenophytes -Apicomplexans -Nucleomorph genomes -In some photosynthetic organisms that ability was acquired via symbiosis with a unicellular green alga (chlorophyte) or red alga (rhodophyte).",18667488,List of sequenced plastomes,S -141,141.0,141.0,"Model-based enterprise (MBE) is a term used in manufacturing, to describe a strategy where an annotated digital three-dimensional (3D) model of a product serves as the authoritative information source for all activities in that product's lifecycle.A key advantage of MBE is that it replaces digital drawings. In MBE, a single 3D model contains all the information typically found on in an entire set of engineering drawings, including geometry, topology, dimensions, tolerances, materials, finishes, and weld call-outs.MBE was originally championed by the aerospace and defense industries, with the automotive industry following. It has been adopted by many manufacturers around the world, in a wide range of industries. Significant benefits for manufacturers include reduced time to market and savings in production costs from improved tool design and fabrication, fewer overall assembly hours, less rework, streamlined development and better collaboration on engineering changes.There are two prerequisites to implementing MBE: The first is the creation of annotated 3D models, known as a Model-based definitions (MBD). This requires the use of a CAD system capable of creating precise solid models, with product and manufacturing information (PMI), a form of 3D annotation which may include dimensions, GD&T, notes, surface finish, and material specifications.",54409102,Model-based enterprise,E -142,142.0,142.0,"A four-slide, also known as a multislide, multi-slide, or four-way, is a metalworking machine tool used in the high-volume manufacture of small stamped components from bar or wire stock. The press is most simply described as a horizontal stamping press that uses cams to control tools. The machine is used for progressive or transfer stamping operations. - -Design -A four-slide is quite different from most other presses. The key of the machine is its moving slides that have tools attached, which strike the workpiece together or in sequence to form it. These slides are driven by four shafts that outline the machine.",22293052,Four-slide,E -143,143.0,143.0,"A surveyor's tripod is a device used to support any one of a number of surveying instruments, such as theodolites, total stations, levels or transits. - -History -The modern sturdy, but portable, tripod stand with three leg pairs hinged to a triangular metal head was invented and first manufactured for sale by Sir Francis Ronalds in the late 1820s in Croydon. He sold 140 of the stands in the decade 1830-40 and his design was soon imitated by others.Older surveying tripods had slightly different features compared to modern ones. For example, on some older tripods, the instrument had its own footplate and did not need to move laterally relative to the tripod head. For this reason, the head of the tripod was not a flat footplate but was simply a large diameter fitting. Threads on the outside of the head engaged threads on the instrument's footplate.",20530144,Tripod (surveying),E -144,144.0,144.0,"Dance science is the scientific study of dance and dancers, as well as the practical application of scientific principles to dance. Its aims are the enhancement of performance, the reduction of injury, and the improvement of well-being and health. - -Overview -Dance medicine and science as a field of study developed in the 1970s and '80s out of the field of sports medicine. In the early 1980s, the American Dance Festival (ADF) started including dance medicine courses in their coursework for dancers. When ADF moved to Duke University, physicians from Duke University Hospital became interested in dancers. Then, in 1990, the International Association for Dance Medicine and Science (IADMS) was formed by an international group of dance medicine practitioners, dance educators, dance scientists, and dancers.",11275122,Dance science,S -145,145.0,145.0,"Anti-sweatshop movement refers to campaigns to improve the conditions of workers in sweatshops, i.e. manufacturing places characterized by low wages, poor working conditions and often child labor. It started in the 19th century in industrialized countries such as the United States, Australia, New Zealand and the United Kingdom to improve the conditions of workers in those countries. - -History -Some of the earliest sweatshop critics were found in the 19th-century abolitionist movement that had originally coalesced in opposition to chattel slavery, and many abolitionists saw similarities between slavery and sweatshop work. As slavery was successively outlawed in industrial countries between 1794 (in France) and 1865 (in the United States), some abolitionists sought to broaden the anti-slavery consensus to include other forms of harsh labor, including sweatshops. As it happened, the first significant law to address sweatshops (the Factory Act of 1833) was passed in the United Kingdom at the same time that the slave trade (1807) and ownership of slaves (1833) were made illegal.Ultimately, the abolitionist movement split apart.",16945262,Anti-sweatshop movement,E -146,146.0,146.0,"Alexander Joseph ""Lex"" Luthor () is a supervillain appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics. The character was created by Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster. Lex Luthor originally appeared in Action Comics #23 (cover dated: April 1940). He has since endured as the archnemesis of the superhero Superman.Lex Luthor was depicted as a narcissistic and egotistical mad scientist from the 1960s to the mid-1980s. Since the mid-late 1980s, he has more often been portrayed as the power-mad CEO of LexCorp.",18595,Lex Luthor,M -147,147.0,147.0,"Gloger's rule is an ecogeographical rule which states that within a species of endotherms, more heavily pigmented forms tend to be found in more humid environments, e.g. near the equator. It was named after the zoologist Constantin Wilhelm Lambert Gloger, who first remarked upon this phenomenon in 1833 in a review of covariation of climate and avian plumage color. Erwin Stresemann later noted that the idea had been expressed even earlier by Peter Simon Pallas in Zoographia Rosso-Asiatica (1811). Gloger found that birds in more humid habitats tended to be darker than their relatives from regions with higher aridity.",2907440,Gloger's rule,S -148,148.0,148.0,"ISO/TC 37 is a technical committee within the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) that prepares standards and other documents concerning methodology and principles for terminology and language resources. -Title: Terminology and other language and content resources -Scope: Standardization of principles, methods and applications relating to terminology and other language and content resources in the contexts of multilingual communication and cultural diversity -ISO/TC 37 is a so-called ""horizontal committee"", providing guidelines for all other technical committees that develop standards on how to manage their terminological problems. However, the standards developed by ISO/TC 37 are not restricted to ISO. Collaboration with industry is sought to ensure that the requirements and needs from all possible users of standards concerning terminology, language and structured content are duly and timely addressed. -Involvement in standards development is open to all stakeholders and requests can be made to the TC through any liaison or member organization (see the list of current members and liaisons of ISO/TC 37:) -ISO/TC 37 standards are therefore fundamental and should form the basis for many localization, translation, and other industry applications. - -ISO/TC 37 ""Terminology and other language and content resources"" -International Standards are developed by experts from industry, academia and business who are delegates of their national standards institution or another organization in liaison. Involvement, therefore, is principally open to all stakeholders. They are based on consensus among those national standards institutes who collaborate in the respective committee by way of membership. -ISO/TC 37 develops International Standards concerning: - -terminological principles and methods -vocabulary of terminology and language resource management -terminology work -preparation and management of language resources -preparation and layout of terminology standards -computerized terminography and lexicography -terminology documentation -coding and codes in the field of terminology and other language resources -applications of terminology and other language resources in language engineering and content management -translation, interpreting and related technologyISO/TC 37 looks upon a long history of terminology unification activities.",11234940,ISO/TC 37,T -149,149.0,149.0,"In computing, a legacy system is an old method, technology, computer system, or application program, ""of, relating to, or being a previous or outdated computer system"", yet still in use. Often referencing a system as ""legacy"" means that it paved the way for the standards that would follow it. This can also imply that the system is out of date or in need of replacement. -Legacy code is old computer source code that is no longer supported on the standard hardware and environments, and is a codebase that is in some respect obsolete or supporting something obsolete. Legacy code may be written in programming languages, use frameworks and external libraries, or use architecture and patterns that are no longer considered modern, increasing the mental burden and ramp-up time for software engineers who work on the codebase. Legacy code may have zero or insufficient automated tests, making refactoring dangerous and likely to introduce bugs.",18295,Legacy system,T -150,150.0,150.0,"A presence sensing device (PSD) is a safety device for press brakes and similar metal-bending machines. The device operator often holds the sheet metal work-piece in one place while another portion of the piece is being formed in the die. If a foreign object is detected, the PSD immediately retracts the die or stops the motion of the ram. PSDs protect the operator and other employees in the area. - -Photoelectric sensors -One category of presence sensing devices is Photoelectric Sensors. Light Curtains also fall into this category.",53269934,Presence sensing device,E -151,151.0,151.0,"HotJava Views was a productivity software suite developed by Sun Microsystems and implemented in Java. It was released in 1996 and was intended primarily for JavaStation or other JavaOS-based network computers. -HotJava Views consisted of four applications: - -MailView -IMAP4 e-mail client -CalendarView -Group scheduling -WebView -HotJava web browser -NameView -Directory servicesThe graphical user interface of HotJava Views was quite novel in that it dispensed with some of the common features of GUIs in order to simplify the interface. Menu bars and overlapping, resizable windows were eliminated, and a simple Selector icon bar was used to switch between applications. Other third-party Java applications could be added to the Selector. - -References -Tom R. Halfhill (July 1997).",19685901,HotJava Views,T -152,152.0,152.0,"Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) are fully or partly halogenated hydrocarbons that contain carbon (C), hydrogen (H), chlorine (Cl), and fluorine (F), produced as volatile derivatives of methane, ethane, and propane. -The most common representative is dichlorodifluoromethane (R-12). R-12 is also commonly called Freon and is used as a refrigerant. Many CFCs have been widely used as refrigerants, propellants (in aerosol applications), and solvents. Because CFCs contribute to ozone depletion in the upper atmosphere, the manufacture of such compounds has been phased out under the Montreal Protocol, and they are being replaced with other products such as hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) including R-410A and R-134a. - -Structure, properties and production -As in simpler alkanes, carbon in the CFCs bond with tetrahedral symmetry. Because the fluorine and chlorine atoms differ greatly in size and effective charge from hydrogen and from each other, the methane-derived CFCs deviate from perfect tetrahedral symmetry.The physical properties of CFCs and HCFCs are tunable by changes in the number and identity of the halogen atoms.",51851537,Chlorofluorocarbon,T -153,153.0,153.0,"The Brumalia (Latin: Brumalia [bruːˈmaːlɪ.a]) were a winter solstice festival celebrated in the eastern part of the Roman Empire. In Rome there had been the minor holiday of Bruma on November 24, which turned into large scale end of the year festivities in Constantinople and Christianity. The festival included night-time feasting, drinking, and merriment. During this time, prophetic indications were taken as predictions for the remainder of the winter. Despite the 6th century emperor Justinian's official repression of paganism, the holiday was celebrated at least until the 11th century, as recorded by Christopher of Mytilene.",1598299,Brumalia,M -154,154.0,154.0,"The non-marine mollusks of Jordan are a part of the fauna of Jordan. That country is land-locked and therefore it has no marine molluscs, only land and freshwater species, including snails, slugs, freshwater clams and freshwater mussels. There are ?? species of gastropods (19 species of freshwater gastropods, ?? species of land gastropods) and ?? species of freshwater bivalves living in the wild. - -Summary table of number of species - -Freshwater gastropods -Neritidae - -Theodoxus jordani (Sowerby, 1844) -Theodoxus macrii (Sowerby, 1844)Bithyniidae - -Bithynia philalensis (Conrad, 1852)Valvatidae - -Valvata saulcyi Bourguignat, 1853Cochliopidae - -Eupaludestrina contempta (Dautzenberg, 1894) -Eupaludestrina longiscata (Bourguignat, 1856) -Pyrgophorus coronatus (L. Pfeiffer, 1840)- non-indigenousHydrobiidae - -Globuliana gaillardotii (Bourguignat, 1856) -Pseudamnicola solitaria Tchernov, 1971Thiaridae - -Melanoides tuberculata (O. F.",51395067,List of non-marine molluscs of Jordan,S -155,155.0,155.0,"Engineering ethics is the field of system of moral principles that apply to the practice of engineering. The field examines and sets the obligations by engineers to society, to their clients, and to the profession. As a scholarly discipline, it is closely related to subjects such as the philosophy of science, the philosophy of engineering, and the ethics of technology. - -Background and origins -Up to the 19th century and growing concerns -As engineering rose as a distinct profession during the 19th century, engineers saw themselves as either independent professional practitioners or technical employees of large enterprises. There was considerable tension between the two sides as large industrial employers fought to maintain control of their employees.In the United States growing professionalism gave rise to the development of four founding engineering societies: The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) (1851), the American Institute of Electrical Engineers (AIEE) (1884), the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) (1880), and the American Institute of Mining Engineers (AIME) (1871). ASCE and AIEE were more closely identified with the engineer as learned professional, where ASME, to an extent, and AIME almost entirely, identified with the view that the engineer is a technical employee.Even so, at that time ethics was viewed as a personal rather than a broad professional concern.: 6 - -Turn of the 20th century and turning point -When the 19th century drew to a close and the 20th century began, there had been series of significant structural failures, including some spectacular bridge failures, notably the Ashtabula River Railroad Disaster (1876), Tay Bridge Disaster (1879), and the Quebec Bridge collapse (1907).",4790683,Engineering ethics,T -156,156.0,156.0,"The Belfast Natural History and Philosophical Society was founded in 1821 to promote the scientific study of animals, plants, fossils, rocks and minerals. - -History -The Society was founded by George Crawford Hyndman, James Lawson Drummond, James Grimshaw, James McAdam, Robert Patterson, Robert Simms, Francis Archer, the Thomas Dix Hincks, Edward Hincks and Edmund Getty. Five years later in 1826 Alexander Henry Haliday and William Thompson both joined. In 1823, the Society's collection and the small collection begun in 1788 in the rooms of the Belfast Reading Society and that of the Belfast Literary Society were moved to Belfast Academical Institution where James Bryce was centralising Belfast's rapidly expanding natural history holdings. A new building opened at No. 7 College Square North in 1831. -How big the first collections were is unknown but the 1831 figure of 300 insects given when the Belfast Natural History and Philosophical Society Museum opened to non-members may refer to specimens on display.",2370921,Belfast Natural History Society,S -157,157.0,157.0,"This is the timeline of the nuclear program of Iran. - -1956–1979 -1957: The United States and Iran sign a civil nuclear co-operation agreement as part of the U.S. Atoms for Peace program.August 9, 1963: Iran signs the Partial nuclear test ban treaty (PTBT) and ratifies it on December 23, 1963.1967: The Tehran Nuclear Research Centre is built and run by the Atomic Energy Organization of Iran (AEOI). -September 1967: The United States supplies 5.545 kg of enriched uranium, of which 5.165 kg contain fissile isotopes for fuel in a research reactor. The United States also supplies 112 g of plutonium, of which 104 g are fissile isotopes, for use as start-up sources for research reactor.July 1968: Iran signs the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and ratifies it. It goes into effect on March 5, 1970. -1970s: Under the rule of Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi, plans are made to construct up to 20 nuclear power stations across the country with U.S. support and backing.",10340960,Timeline of the nuclear program of Iran,M -158,158.0,158.0,"An injury-induced stem-cell niche is a cellular microenvironments generated during tissue injury. These environments are triggered by injury and the local responses of support cells, and enable the possibility of repair by endogenous or transplanted neural stem cells. These environments have been demonstrated in several injury models, most notable in the CNS. The term was coined by Jaime Imitola and Evan Y. Snyder when they demonstrated that astrocytes and endothelial cells during stroke are able to create a permissive environment for neural regeneration, that is most striking for exogenous transplanted neural stem cells.",41497393,Injury-induced stem-cell niche,S -159,159.0,159.0,"Human nutrition deals with the provision of essential nutrients in food that are necessary to support human life and good health. Poor nutrition is a chronic problem often linked to poverty, food security, or a poor understanding of nutritional requirements. Malnutrition and its consequences are large contributors to deaths, physical deformities, and disabilities worldwide. Good nutrition is necessary for children to grow physically and mentally, and for normal human biological development. - -Overview -The human body contains chemical compounds such as water, carbohydrates, amino acids (found in proteins), fatty acids (found in lipids), and nucleic acids (DNA and RNA). These compounds are composed of elements such as carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorus.",93827,Human nutrition,S -160,160.0,160.0,"""A Thing About Machines"" is episode 40 of the American television anthology series The Twilight Zone. It originally aired on October 28, 1960, on CBS. - -Opening narration -This is Mr. Bartlett Finchley, age forty-eight, a practicing sophisticate who writes very special and very precious things for gourmet magazines and the like. He's a bachelor and a recluse with few friends, only devotees and adherents to the cause of tart sophistry. He has no interests save whatever current annoyances he can put his mind to.",152745,A Thing About Machines,T -161,161.0,161.0,"Divers face specific physical and health risks when they go underwater with scuba or other diving equipment, or use high pressure breathing gas. Some of these factors also affect people who work in raised pressure environments out of water, for example in caissons. This article lists hazards that a diver may be exposed to during a dive, and possible consequences of these hazards, with some details of the proximate causes of the listed consequences. A listing is also given of precautions that may be taken to reduce vulnerability, either by reducing the risk or mitigating the consequences. A hazard that is understood and acknowledged may present a lower risk if appropriate precautions are taken, and the consequences may be less severe if mitigation procedures are planned and in place. -A hazard is any agent or situation that poses a level of threat to life, health, property, or environment.",460448,List of diving hazards and precautions,T -162,162.0,162.0,"Carl and Wilhelm Blumwe were successful German entrepreneurs, industrialists and businessmen in Bromberg from the second half of the 19th century. Their buildings and realizations are still standing today in the city. - -Blumwe family -Carl Blumwe -Carl was born on October 20, 1827, in Chojnice. In his youth, he moved to Erfurt, where he learned the blacksmith business. He arrived in Bydgoszcz as a foreman in the Prussian Eastern Railway, around 1850, and lived at Dworcowa Street 42. -In 1865, he opened his own construction and repair workshop for agricultural machinery under his name ""Carl Blumwe"", which moved in 1869 to a plot at Jagiellońska street 94. It was a small foundry, specialized in the manufacture of patent axle wagon and woodworking machines.",52782817,Blumwes' buildings in Bydgoszcz,E -163,163.0,163.0,"Applied Spectral Imaging or ASI is a multinational biomedical company that develops and manufactures microscopy imaging and digital analysis tools for hospitals, service laboratories and research centers. The company provides cytogenetic, pathology, and research laboratories with bright-field, fluorescence and spectral imaging in clinical applications. Test slides can be scanned, captured, archived, reviewed on the screen, analyzed with computer-assisted algorithms, and reported. ASI system platforms automate the workflow process to reduce human error in the identification and classification of chromosomal disorders, genome instability, various oncological malignancies, among other diseases. - -History -Founded in 1993, ASI initially focused on spectral imaging devices for the research community.In 2002, ASI made a strategic move to expand into the clinical cytogenetics market and thereby, introduced its CytoLabView system for karyotyping and FISH imaging.In 2005, ASI launched its automated scanning system in order to increase throughput for case analysis, compensating for higher sample volumes and helping laboratories to better cope with a deficit of laboratory technicians and other professions. As the demand increased for more diagnostics, ASI focused on providing faster imaging and analysis to improve turn-around-time for patient results.",59524587,Applied Spectral Imaging,S -164,164.0,164.0,"Montgomery ""Scotty"" Scott is a fictional character in the science fiction franchise Star Trek. First portrayed by James Doohan in the original Star Trek series, Scotty also appears in the animated Star Trek series, 10 Star Trek films, the Star Trek: The Next Generation episode ""Relics"", and in numerous books, comics, and video games.Simon Pegg has assumed the character and appeared in the Star Trek reboot (2009) and its sequels, Star Trek Into Darkness (2013) and Star Trek Beyond (2016). In 2023, a young version of Scotty appeared in the final episode of the second season of Star Trek: Strange New Worlds, portrayed by Martin Quinn. - -Development and portrayals -Doohan was cast as the Enterprise engineer for the second Star Trek pilot, ""Where No Man Has Gone Before"" (1966) on the recommendation of that episode's director, James Goldstone, who had worked with him before. The character almost did not make it to the show after series creator Gene Roddenberry sent Doohan a letter informing him, ""We don't think we need an engineer in the series"". Only through the intervention of Doohan's agent did the character remain.Doohan tried a variety of accents for the part and decided to use a Scottish accent on the basis that he thought Scottish people make the best engineers.",422828,Scotty (Star Trek),M -165,165.0,165.0,"Project engineering includes all parts of the design of manufacturing or processing facilities, either new or modifications to and expansions of existing facilities. A ""project"" consists of a coordinated series of activities or tasks performed by engineers, designers, drafters and others from one or more engineering disciplines or departments. Project tasks consist of such things as performing calculations, writing specifications, preparing bids, reviewing equipment proposals and evaluating or selecting equipment and preparing various lists, such as equipment and materials lists, and creating drawings such as electrical, piping and instrumentation diagrams, physical layouts and other drawings used in design and construction. A small project may be under the direction of a project engineer. Large projects are typically under the direction of a project manager or management team.",13324782,Project engineering,E -166,166.0,166.0,"Design for manufacturability (also sometimes known as design for manufacturing or DFM) is the general engineering practice of designing products in such a way that they are easy to manufacture. The concept exists in almost all engineering disciplines, but the implementation differs widely depending on the manufacturing technology. DFM describes the process of designing or engineering a product in order to facilitate the manufacturing process in order to reduce its manufacturing costs. DFM will allow potential problems to be fixed in the design phase which is the least expensive place to address them. Other factors may affect the manufacturability such as the type of raw material, the form of the raw material, dimensional tolerances, and secondary processing such as finishing. -Depending on various types of manufacturing processes there are set guidelines for DFM practices.",3497359,Design for manufacturability,E -167,167.0,167.0,"An active structure (also known as a smart or adaptive structure) is a mechanical structure with the ability to alter its configuration, form or properties in response to changes in the environment. -The term active structure also refers to structures that, unlike traditional engineering structures (e.g., bridges, buildings), require constant motion and hence power input to remain stable. The advantage of active structures is that they can be far more massive than a traditional static structure: an example would be a space fountain, a building that reaches into space. - -Function -The result of the activity is a structure more suited for the type and magnitude of the load it is carrying. For example, an orientation change of a beam could reduce the maximum stress or strain level, while a shape change could render a structure less susceptible to dynamic vibrations. A good example of an adaptive structure is the human body where the skeleton carries a wide range of loads and the muscles change its configuration to do so. Consider carrying a backpack.",1411852,Active structure,E -168,168.0,168.0,"In mathematics, a series expansion is a technique that expresses a function as an infinite sum, or series, of simpler functions. It is a method for calculating a function that cannot be expressed by just elementary operators (addition, subtraction, multiplication and division).The resulting so-called series often can be limited to a finite number of terms, thus yielding an approximation of the function. The fewer terms of the sequence are used, the simpler this approximation will be. Often, the resulting inaccuracy (i.e., the partial sum of the omitted terms) can be described by an equation involving Big O notation (see also asymptotic expansion). The series expansion on an open interval will also be an approximation for non-analytic functions. - -Types of series expansions -There are several kinds of series expansions, listed below. - -Taylor series -A Taylor series is a power series based on a function's derivatives at a single point.",1575813,Series expansion,M -169,169.0,169.0,"A dam failure or dam burst is a catastrophic type of structural failure characterized by the sudden, rapid, and uncontrolled release of impounded water or the likelihood of such an uncontrolled release. Between the years 2000 and 2009 more than 200 notable dam failures happened worldwide.A dam is a barrier across flowing water that obstructs, that directs or slows down the flow, often creating a reservoir, lake or impoundments. Most dams have a section called a spillway or weir over or through which water flows, either intermittently or continuously, and some have hydroelectric power generation systems installed. -Dams are considered ""installations containing dangerous forces"" under international humanitarian law due to the massive impact of a possible destruction on the civilian population and the environment. Dam failures are comparatively rare, but can cause immense damage and loss of life when they occur. In 1975 the failure of the Banqiao Reservoir Dam and other dams in Henan Province, China caused more casualties than any other dam failure in history.",12569240,Dam failure,T -170,170.0,170.0,"Sharps waste is a form of biomedical waste composed of used ""sharps"", which includes any device or object used to puncture or lacerate the skin. Sharps waste is classified as biohazardous waste and must be carefully handled. Common medical materials treated as sharps waste are -hypodermic needles, -disposable scalpels and blades, -contaminated glass and certain plastics, and -guidewires used in surgery. - -Qualifying materials -In addition to needles and blades, anything attached to them, such as syringes and injection devices, is also considered sharps waste. -Blades can include razors, scalpels, X-Acto knives, scissors, or any other items used for cutting in a medical or biological research setting, regardless of whether they have been contaminated with biohazardous material. While glass and sharp plastic are considered sharps waste, their handling methods can vary. -Glass items which have been contaminated with a biohazardous material are treated with the same concern as needles and blades, even if unbroken. If glass is contaminated, it is still often treated as a sharp, because it can break during the disposal process.",3410731,Sharps waste,S -171,171.0,171.0,"Mathematics is a field of study that investigates topics such as number, space, structure, and change. - -Philosophy -Nature -Definitions of mathematics – Mathematics has no generally accepted definition. Different schools of thought, particularly in philosophy, have put forth radically different definitions, all of which are controversial. -Language of mathematics is the system used by mathematicians to communicate mathematical ideas among themselves, and is distinct from natural languages in that it aims to communicate abstract, logical ideas with precision and unambiguity. -Philosophy of mathematics – its aim is to provide an account of the nature and methodology of mathematics and to understand the place of mathematics in people's lives.Classical mathematics refers generally to the mainstream approach to mathematics, which is based on classical logic and ZFC set theory. -Constructive mathematics asserts that it is necessary to find (or ""construct"") a mathematical object to prove that it exists. In classical mathematics, one can prove the existence of a mathematical object without ""finding"" that object explicitly, by assuming its non-existence and then deriving a contradiction from that assumption. -Predicative mathematics - -Mathematics is -An academic discipline – branch of knowledge that is taught at all levels of education and researched typically at the college or university level. Disciplines are defined (in part), and recognized by the academic journals in which research is published, and the learned societies and academic departments or faculties to which their practitioners belong. -A formal science – branch of knowledge concerned with the properties of formal systems based on definitions and rules of inference. Unlike other sciences, the formal sciences are not concerned with the validity of theories based on observations in the physical world. - -Concepts -Mathematical object — an abstract concept in mathematics; an object is anything that has been (or could be) formally defined, and with which one may do deductive reasoning and mathematical proofs.",33543938,Outline of mathematics,M -172,172.0,172.0,"Biomin is an animal health and nutrition company headquartered in Inzersdorf-Getzersdorf, Austria that develops and produces feed additives and premixes for livestock animals including swine, poultry, dairy and beef cattle as well as aquaculture.The firm supplies customers in more than 100 countries throughout the world. -The Biomin Research Center (BRC) at Campus Tulln in Austria, employs 80 researchers engaged in applied basic research to lead the firm’s in-house R&D efforts, supported by a research network of 150 academic and research institutions worldwide. - -Company history -1983: Erich Erber opened Biomin in a small warehouse in Pottenbrunn, Austria with a staff of three, starting with a livestock premix product line containing probiotics. Founder Erich Erber named the product and company based on the idea of combining “biological minerals” and so the brand name ""Biomin"" was born.1985: Biomin bought Interpremix, a small premix factory, as its first production facility. The acquired firm also made a product called Antitox Plus, the first product available that ‘binds’ mycotoxins through a process known as adsorption.1988: Biomin signed a research agreement with the University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Austria, and Dr. Josef Leibetseder to further improve the efficacy of Antitox Plus to a wider range of mycotoxins. Only several years later the second generation of the mycotoxin deactivation product was launched under the brand name Mycofix.1994: The Biomin brand name was separated from the Interpremix product line.",46745932,Biomin,S -173,173.0,173.0,"Jane Foster is a fictional character in the film and television franchise Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) portrayed by Natalie Portman, based on the character of the same name from Marvel Comics created by Stan Lee, Larry Lieber, and Jack Kirby. -Foster appears in Thor (2011), Thor: The Dark World (2013), and Thor: Love and Thunder (2022), where she becomes the Mighty Thor. Alternate versions of Foster appear in Avengers: Endgame (2019) and the animated television series What If...? (2021). -Although Portman's performance was praised, the character received mixed reception from the first two Thor films, though her portrayal in Thor: Love and Thunder as the Mighty Thor was better received and is considered by many to be one of the highlights of the film. - -Concept and creation -The comic book character, Jane Foster, first appeared in Journey into Mystery #84 (September 1962), and was created by plotter Stan Lee, scripter Larry Lieber and penciler Jack Kirby. Named ""Jane Nelson"" in her first two appearances, she went on to appear as the love interest of Dr. Donald Blake, the secret identity of the Norse god superhero Thor, in nearly every issue through #136 (Jan. 1967) of the title, by then renamed Thor.Natalie Portman was cast as Foster in July 2009.",67500163,Jane Foster (Marvel Cinematic Universe),M -174,174.0,174.0,"The water–cement ratio (w/c ratio, or water-to-cement ratio, sometimes also called the Water-Cement Factor, f) is the ratio of the mass of water (w) to the mass of cement (c) used in a concrete mix: - - - - - f - = - - - mass of water - mass of cement - - - = - - - w - c - - - - - {\displaystyle f={\frac {\text{mass of water}}{\text{mass of cement}}}={\frac {w}{c}}} - The typical values of this ratio f = w⁄c are generally comprised in the interval 0.40 and 0.60. -The water-cement ratio of the fresh concrete mix is one of the main, if not the most important, factors determining the quality and properties of hardened concrete, as it directly affects the concrete porosity, and a good concrete is always a concrete as compact and as dense as possible. A good concrete must be therefore prepared with as little water as possible, but with enough water to hydrate the cement minerals and to properly handle it. -A lower ratio leads to higher strength and durability, but may make the mix more difficult to work with and form. Workability can be resolved with the use of plasticizers or super-plasticizers.",4594861,Water–cement ratio,E -175,175.0,175.0,"COLD-PCR (co-amplification at lower denaturation temperature PCR) is a modified polymerase chain reaction (PCR) protocol that enriches variant alleles from a mixture of wildtype and mutation-containing DNA. The ability to preferentially amplify and identify minority alleles and low-level somatic DNA mutations in the presence of excess wildtype alleles is useful for the detection of mutations. Detection of mutations is important in the case of early cancer detection from tissue biopsies and body fluids such as blood plasma or serum, assessment of residual disease after surgery or chemotherapy, disease staging and molecular profiling for prognosis or tailoring therapy to individual patients, and monitoring of therapy outcome and cancer remission or relapse. Common PCR will amplify both the major (wildtype) and minor (mutant) alleles with the same efficiency, occluding the ability to easily detect the presence of low-level mutations. The capacity to detect a mutation in a mixture of variant/wildtype DNA is valuable because this mixture of variant DNAs can occur when provided with a heterogeneous sample – as is often the case with cancer biopsies.",26415811,COLD-PCR,S -176,176.0,176.0,"Reverse engineering of Printed circuit boards (sometimes called “cloning”, or PCB RE) is the process of generating fabrication and design data for an existing circuit board, either closely or exactly replicating its functionality.Obtaining circuit board design data is not by necessity malicious or aimed at intellectual property theft. The data generated in the reverse engineering process can be used for troubleshooting, repair, redesign and re-manufacturing, or even testing the security of a device to be used in a restricted environment. - -Uses -Legacy product support -Legacy systems need maintenance and replacement parts to operate past their intended life cycle. Demand for parts that are no longer being manufactured can lead to material shortages of parts, called DMS/DMSMS. -There is much demand that entire government divisions have been created to regulate and plan the obsolescence of those systems and parts. Areas commonly affected by technical obsolescence include power station controls, ATC and aviation controls, medical imaging systems, and many aspects of military technology. -There are many legacy systems developed in the 70s, 80s or 90s whose original manufacturer is no longer in business or no longer has the original design data, but whose original equipment is still in use. In many cases exact Form, fit and function is required, either that so parts can “handshake” properly with the existing framework, or to avoid requirements of time-consuming and costly testing.For industries with highly regulated electronics, (like military or aerospace) this approach can vastly reduce the time required to fabricate replacement parts for system repairs, since the new part's specifications match the original design exactly and therefore do not need to undergo the same level of rigorous re-certification and testing that would be required of a newly designed or revised circuit board. -For example, a power company in Florida was forced to shut down due to the failure of a single, inexpensive PCB, which had no replacement parts and no data available to print them.",61934142,PCB reverse engineering,E -177,177.0,177.0,"In mathematics, the Kostka number - - - - - K - - λ - μ - - - - - {\displaystyle K_{\lambda \mu }} - (depending on two integer partitions - - - - λ - - - {\displaystyle \lambda } - and - - - - μ - - - {\displaystyle \mu } - ) is a non-negative integer that is equal to the number of semistandard Young tableaux of shape - - - - λ - - - {\displaystyle \lambda } - and weight - - - - μ - - - {\displaystyle \mu } - . They were introduced by the mathematician Carl Kostka in his study of symmetric functions (Kostka (1882)).For example, if - - - - λ - = - ( - 3 - , - 2 - ) - - - {\displaystyle \lambda =(3,2)} - and - - - - μ - = - ( - 1 - , - 1 - , - 2 - , - 1 - ) - - - {\displaystyle \mu =(1,1,2,1)} - , the Kostka number - - - - - K - - λ - μ - - - - - {\displaystyle K_{\lambda \mu }} - counts the number of ways to fill a left-aligned collection of boxes with 3 in the first row and 2 in the second row with 1 copy of the number 1, 1 copy of the number 2, 2 copies of the number 3 and 1 copy of the number 4 such that the entries increase along columns and do not decrease along rows. The three such tableaux are shown at right, and - - - - - K - - ( - 3 - , - 2 - ) - ( - 1 - , - 1 - , - 2 - , - 1 - ) - - - = - 3 - - - {\displaystyle K_{(3,2)(1,1,2,1)}=3} - . - -Examples and special cases -For any partition - - - - λ - - - {\displaystyle \lambda } - , the Kostka number - - - - - K - - λ - λ - - - - - {\displaystyle K_{\lambda \lambda }} - is equal to 1: the unique way to fill the Young diagram of shape - - - - λ - = - ( - - λ - - 1 - - - , - … - , - - λ - - m - - - ) - - - {\displaystyle \lambda =(\lambda _{1},\dotsc ,\lambda _{m})} - with - - - - - λ - - 1 - - - - - {\displaystyle \lambda _{1}} - copies of 1, - - - - - λ - - 2 - - - - - {\displaystyle \lambda _{2}} - copies of 2, and so on, so that the resulting tableau is weakly increasing along rows and strictly increasing along columns is if all the 1s are placed in the first row, all the 2s are placed in the second row, and so on. (This tableau is sometimes called the Yamanouchi tableau of shape - - - - λ - - - {\displaystyle \lambda } - .) -The Kostka number - - - - - K - - λ - μ - - - - - {\displaystyle K_{\lambda \mu }} - is positive (i.e., there exist semistandard Young tableaux of shape - - - - λ - - - {\displaystyle \lambda } - and weight - - - - μ - - - {\displaystyle \mu } - ) if and only if - - - - λ - - - {\displaystyle \lambda } - and - - - - μ - - - {\displaystyle \mu } - are both partitions of the same integer - - - - n - - - {\displaystyle n} - and - - - - λ - - - {\displaystyle \lambda } - is larger than - - - - μ - - - {\displaystyle \mu } - in dominance order.In general, there are no nice formulas known for the Kostka numbers. However, some special cases are known.",22606041,Kostka number,M -178,178.0,178.0,"Most of the terms listed in Wikipedia glossaries are already defined and explained within Wikipedia itself. However, glossaries like this one are useful for looking up, comparing and reviewing large numbers of terms together. You can help enhance this page by adding new terms or writing definitions for existing ones. -This glossary of calculus is a list of definitions about calculus, its sub-disciplines, and related fields. - -A -Abel's test -A method of testing for the convergence of an infinite series. -absolute convergence -An infinite series of numbers is said to converge absolutely (or to be absolutely convergent) if the sum of the absolute values of the summands is finite. More precisely, a real or complex series - - - - - - ∑ - - n - = - 0 - - - ∞ - - - - a - - n - - - - - - {\displaystyle \textstyle \sum _{n=0}^{\infty }a_{n}} - is said to converge absolutely if - - - - - - ∑ - - n - = - 0 - - - ∞ - - - - | - - a - - n - - - | - - = - L - - - - {\displaystyle \textstyle \sum _{n=0}^{\infty }\left|a_{n}\right|=L} - for some real number - - - - - L - - - - {\displaystyle \textstyle L} - . Similarly, an improper integral of a function, - - - - - - ∫ - - 0 - - - ∞ - - - f - ( - x - ) - - d - x - - - - {\displaystyle \textstyle \int _{0}^{\infty }f(x)\,dx} - , is said to converge absolutely if the integral of the absolute value of the integrand is finite—that is, if - - - - - - ∫ - - 0 - - - ∞ - - - - | - - f - ( - x - ) - - | - - d - x - = - L - . - - - - {\displaystyle \textstyle \int _{0}^{\infty }\left|f(x)\right|dx=L.} - -absolute maximum -The highest value a function attains. -absolute minimum -The lowest value a function attains. -absolute value -The absolute value or modulus |x| of a real number x is the non-negative value of x without regard to its sign.",53252845,Glossary of calculus,M -179,179.0,179.0,"Naturhistorieselskabet - the Society for Natural History - was a private society that was the only institution to offer education in natural history in Denmark in the late 18th century. The spirit of the Age of Enlightenment and an escalating agricultural crisis, led the king and the Danish elite to call foreign experts on economy, including botany and silviculture, to the country. The autonomous University of Copenhagen, on the other hand, was reluctant to employ foreign experts in little-established disciplines. Naturhistorieselskabet was formed in 1788 in order to ensure education in botany, zoology and mineralogy based on private funds. For example, Martin Vahl lectured in botany.",18400577,Naturhistorieselskabet,S -180,180.0,180.0,"The Gartner hype cycle is a graphical presentation developed, used and branded by the American research, advisory and information technology firm Gartner to represent the maturity, adoption, and social application of specific technologies. The hype cycle claims to provide a graphical and conceptual presentation of the maturity of emerging technologies through five phases.The model has been criticized on various grounds, including not being scientifically accurate and the use of subjective terminology. - -Five phases -Each hype cycle drills down into the five key phases of a technology's life cycle. - -The term ""hype cycle"" and each of the associated phases are now used more broadly in the marketing of new technologies. - -Hype in new media -Hype (in the more general media sense of the term ""hype"") plays a large part in the adoption of new media. Analyses of the Internet in the 1990s featured large amounts of hype, and that created ""debunking"" responses. A longer-term historical perspective on such cycles can be found in the research of the economist Carlota Perez. Desmond Roger Laurence, in the field of clinical pharmacology, described a similar process in drug development in the seventies. - -Criticisms -There have been numerous criticisms of the hype cycle, prominent among which are that it is not a cycle, that the outcome does not depend on the nature of the technology itself, that it is not scientific in nature, and that it does not reflect changes over time in the speed at which technology develops.",2838569,Gartner hype cycle,T -181,181.0,181.0,"Biomanufacturing is a type of manufacturing or biotechnology that utilizes biological systems to produce commercially important biomaterials and biomolecules for use in medicines, food and beverage processing, and industrial applications. Biomanufacturing products are recovered from natural sources, such as blood, or from cultures of microbes, animal cells, or plant cells grown in specialized equipment. The cells used during the production may have been naturally occurring or derived using genetic engineering techniques. - -Products -There are thousands of biomanufacturing products on the market today. Some examples of general classes are listed below: - -Medicine -Amino acids -Biopharmaceuticals -Cytokines -Fusion proteins -Growth factors -Monoclonal antibodies -Vaccines - -Food and beverage -Amino acids -Enzymes -Protein supplements - -Industrial applications that employ cells and/or enzymes -Biocementation -Bioremediation -Detergents -Plastics - -Unit operations -A partial listing of unit operations utilized during biomanufacturing includes the following: - -Blood plasma fractionation -Cell culture -Cell separation, such as filtration and centrifugation -Fermentation -Homogenization -Column chromatography -Ultrafiltration and/or diafiltration -Clarification, such as filtration -Formulation -Filling vials or syringes for injectable medicines - -Equipment and facilities -Equipment and facility requirements are dictated by the product(s) being manufactured. Process equipment is typically constructed of stainless steel or plastic.",35438992,Biomanufacturing,S -182,182.0,182.0,"Surface tension is one of the areas of interest in biomimetics research. Surface tension forces will only begin to dominate gravitational forces below length scales on the order of the fluid's capillary length, which for water is about 2 millimeters. Because of this scaling, biomimetic devices that utilize surface tension will generally be very small, however there are many ways in which such devices could be used. - -Applications -Coatings -A lotus leaf is well known for its ability to repel water and self-clean. Yuan and his colleagues fabricated a negative mold of alotus leaf from polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) to capture the tiny hierarchical structures integral for the leaf's ability to repel water, known as the lotus effect. The lotus leaf's surface was then replicated by allowing a copper sheet to flow into the negative mold with the assistance of ferric chloride and pressure.",52520385,Surface tension biomimetics,S -183,183.0,183.0,"An underground rocket or rocket drill is a device for rapidly drilling holes through soil and rock of varying composition at rates up to 1 metre per second by utilising supersonic jets of hot gases. It was developed by Russian engineer Mikhail Tsiferov in 1948.Proposed uses for the device included drilling shallow holes for mineral exploration, construction, underground gasification of coal, water and methane drainage.The initial design called for an autonomous device equipped with a drill head that would be rotated by expanding gases generated by a propellant burning inside a combustion chamber, in a manner similar to a Segner wheel. As the hot gases escaped the slits in the drill head at high speeds, they would break down the ground in front of the device. Experiments have shown the device could achieve drilling speed of 5 metres per minute through solid rock and up to 100 metres per minute in soil. In 1970, Soviet geologist Vladimir Smirnov said, the device ""may well bring about a revolution in the facilities for penetrating the interior of the earth"".",36092701,Underground rocket,E -184,184.0,184.0,"The Linux Documentation Project (LDP) is a dormant all-volunteer project that maintains a large collection of GNU and Linux-related documentation and publishes the collection online. It began as a way for hackers to share their documentation with each other and with their users, and for users to share documentation with each other. Its documents tend to be oriented towards experienced users such as professional system administrators, but it also contains tutorials for beginners. - -History -The LDP originally began as an FTP site in 1992, but it went on the World Wide Web at MetaLab in 1993. It is believed to have been the first Linux related website ever.Today, the LDP serves over 475 documents contributed by even more authors. About a dozen of them are book length, and most of those are available in print from major technical publishers including O'Reilly. -On 1 September 2008, LDP started a wiki to allow a better interaction with the authors and the users, with a plan to convert documentation to the wiki format -and a list of pages to be ported.Presently (as of July 2020), the LDP is no longer active; the last entry under ""Recent Changes"" dates from 2016-01-29, -the last guide inserted from Mar 2014. - -Content -The LDP published many HOWTO documents, which instruct a user on the specific steps to take to achieve a desired goal.",19263334,Linux Documentation Project,T -185,185.0,185.0,"The Mooskappe is an old, traditional miners head covering. It was intended to protect miners when working underground from the impact of small rockfalls and from hitting their heads against the gallery roof (Firste). The term is German and this type of hat was worn especially in the Harz Mountains of Germany. -It is known that the Mooskappe was definitely used in the Harz and Barsinghausen mining regions. It appears in steel engravings from about 1850, for example by Wilhelm Ripe, as an important item of safety gear. In 1824 Heinrich Heine visited the Caroline and Dorothea mines at Clausthal, writing about these visits in various works.",36748690,Mooskappe,E -186,186.0,186.0,"Between 1992 and 2022, the worldwide usage of photovoltaics (PV) increased exponentially. During this period, it evolved from a niche market of small-scale applications to a mainstream electricity source.When solar PV systems were first recognized as a promising renewable energy technology, subsidy programs, such as feed-in tariffs, were implemented by a number of governments in order to provide economic incentives for investments. For several years, growth was mainly driven by Japan and pioneering European countries. As a consequence, cost of solar declined significantly due to experience curve effects like improvements in technology and economies of scale. Several national programs were instrumental in increasing PV deployment, such as the Energiewende in Germany, the Million Solar Roofs project in the United States, and China's 2011 five-year-plan for energy production.",21150165,Growth of photovoltaics,T -187,187.0,187.0,"The visual workplace is a continuous improvement paradigm that is closely related to lean manufacturing, the Toyota Production System (TPS), and operational excellence yet offers its own comprehensive methodology that aims for significant financial and cultural improvement gains. Introduced by Gwendolyn Galsworth in her 1997 book Visual Systems, this system integrates and codifies the many iterations of visuality in the world of continuous improvement. - -Brief history of visual information sharing -Visual communication rests on the natural inclination of humans to use pictures, graphics, and other images to quickly and simply convey meaning and understand information. For instance, look at the practices and applications that civil engineers have developed to handle complex human interaction on our roads and highways, as well as the entire field of wayfinding in public spaces.The same logic eventually migrated into the workplace, notably in post-war Japan, and most saliently at Toyoda Motors where visual applications (visual devices) became a commonplace element in the Toyota Production System (TPS). Other leading companies in Japan, such as Canon and Okidata, adopted many of the same practices. However, while visibility was clearly a part of Japan's success solution, it was only noticed—or cited in the literature—as a generalized principle and not a codified system or a framework of thinking.",50902679,Visual workplace,E -188,188.0,188.0,"Lean product development (LPD) is a lean approach to counter the challenges of product development, notably: - -Lack of innovative solutions -Long development cycle times -Many redevelopment cycles -High development costs -Long production cycle times -High production costs - -See also -Design for lean manufacturing -Muntzing -Toyota Production System - -History of lean product development -Toyota started its journey with lean product development at Toyota Loom Works (see History of Toyota). Their early approach is notably different from Lean manufacturing that became famous through the book ""The Machine that changed the world"". -When Toyota started manufacturing cars, there was a difference in manufacturing conditions between Japan and the USA. Toyota had few educated engineers and little prior experience. Car companies in US employed a well-educated work force in the cities and benefited from the research and student skill-sets of established engineering schools. To tackle this shortfall in knowledge and experience, Toyota conducted an incremental approach to development that built on their existing knowledge and became the basis of the lean systems Toyota uses today.Allen Ward studied Toyota’s lean product development system and found parallels with the US airplane industry.",32173564,Lean product development,E -189,189.0,189.0,"An application strings manager is a software tool primarily designed to optimize the download and storage of strings files used and produced in software development. It centralizes the management of all the product strings generated and used by an organization to overcome the complexity arising from the diversity of strings types, and their position in the overall content workflow. - -Uses -Application strings manager is a kind of software repository for text files, strings, and their corresponding keys. It can be used to store strings files produced by an organization itself, such as product content strings and UI content strings, or for third-party content which must be treated differently for both technical and workflow reasons. - -Uses in software development -To manage the source files used in software development, organizations typically use revision control. The many source files used in software development are eventually built into the product strings (also known as ""strings files"") which constitute the components of a software product. Consequently, a software product may comprise hundreds and even thousands of individual product strings which must be managed in order to efficiently maintain a coherent and functional software product.",57258146,Application strings manager,T -190,190.0,190.0,"Mathematical logic is the study of formal logic within mathematics. Major subareas include model theory, proof theory, set theory, and recursion theory. Research in mathematical logic commonly addresses the mathematical properties of formal systems of logic such as their expressive or deductive power. However, it can also include uses of logic to characterize correct mathematical reasoning or to establish foundations of mathematics. -Since its inception, mathematical logic has both contributed to and been motivated by the study of foundations of mathematics. This study began in the late 19th century with the development of axiomatic frameworks for geometry, arithmetic, and analysis.",19636,Mathematical logic,M -191,191.0,191.0,"An electric tug is a battery-powered and pedestrian-operated machine used to move heavy loads on wheels. -The machines form part of the material-handling equipment field that, amongst others, also covers forklift trucks, overhead cranes and pallet jacks. -Although electric tug is perhaps the most commonly used term, suppliers and customers regularly use a range of other names, such as towing tractor, battery-powered tug, electric hand truck, electric tugger and pedestrian-operated tug. -The tugs move loads across a single level. They do not lift the load clear of the ground which is why the load must be on wheels. If the load itself does not have wheels, it would be placed on a wheeled platform often referred to as a trolley, bogie or skate. The tug connects to this wheeled platform just as a forklift truck picks up a pallet to move a load placed on it. -In most cases a steel coupling (male) attached to the machine itself connects to a corresponding coupling (female) bolted to the load's bogie. A second bogie or multiple bogies will each have identical female couplings attached to them so that a single male coupling attached to the machine can move them all without alterations. - -Operation -An electric tug relies on the principal of tractive effort.",42119079,Electric tug,E -192,192.0,192.0,"Binary Ninja is a reverse-engineering platform developed by Vector 35 Inc. It can disassemble a binary and display the disassembly in linear or graph views. It performs automated in-depth analysis of the code, generating information that helps to analyze a binary. It lifts the instructions into intermediate languages, and eventually generates the decompiled code. -Binary Ninja supports various CPU architectures and binary executable formats.",64647989,Binary Ninja,E -193,193.0,193.0,"In software and systems engineering, the phrase use case is a polyseme with two senses: - -A usage scenario for a piece of software; often used in the plural to suggest situations where a piece of software may be useful. -A potential scenario in which a system receives an external request (such as user input) and responds to it.This article discusses the latter sense. -A use case is a list of actions or event steps typically defining the interactions between a role (known in the Unified Modeling Language (UML) as an actor) and a system to achieve a goal. The actor can be a human or another external system. In systems engineering, use cases are used at a higher level than within software engineering, often representing missions or stakeholder goals. The detailed requirements may then be captured in the Systems Modeling Language (SysML) or as contractual statements. - -History -In 1987, Ivar Jacobson presented the first article on use cases at the OOPSLA'87 conference. He described how this technique was used at Ericsson to capture and specify requirements of a system using textual, structural, and visual modeling techniques to drive object-oriented analysis and design.",300006,Use case,T -194,194.0,194.0,"GS1 EDI is a set of global electronic messaging standards for business documents used in Electronic Data Interchange (EDI). The standards are developed and maintained by GS1. GS1 EDI is part of the overall GS1 system, fully integrated with other GS1 standards, increasing the speed and accuracy of the supply chain. -Examples of GS1 EDI standards include messages such as: Order, Despatch Advice (Shipping Notice), Invoice, Transport Instruction, etc. -The development and maintenance of all GS1 standards is based on a rigorous process called the Global Standard Management Process (GSMP). GS1 develops its global supply chain standards in partnership with the industries using them.",48697908,GS1 EDI,T -195,195.0,195.0,"Entomophaga maimaiga is a Japanese fungus which has shown striking success in managing spongy moth populations in North America. - -Etymology -Maimaiga is the Japanese name for the spongy moth. - -History -In 1908, shortly after classical efforts began to control spongy moth populations, North American researchers studied cadavers of Japanese spongy moths which had been killed by an entomophthoralean fungus. The fungus was released in the Boston area between 1910 and 1911. By 1912, they summarized their work, stating that extensive releases had never established this fungal pathogen, which they referred to as ""gypsy fungus"".In the early 1980s, another attempt was made to introduce Entomophaga maimaiga into the wild. They obtained the sample from the western coast of Honshu. The fungus was determined to belong to the genus Entomophaga in the fungal order Entomophthorales and was given the name maimaiga based on geographical distribution. -In 1985 and 1986 were made small-scale releases of laboratory spongy moth larvae injected with fungal cells.",38553101,Entomophaga maimaiga,S -196,196.0,196.0,"Precast concrete is a construction product produced by casting concrete in a reusable mold or ""form"" which is then cured in a controlled environment, transported to the construction site and maneuvered into place; examples include precast beams, and wall panels for tilt up construction. In contrast, cast-in-place concrete is poured into site-specific forms and cured on site.Recently lightweight expanded polystyrene foam is being used as the cores of precast wall panels, saving weight and increasing thermal insulation. -Precast stone is distinguished from precast concrete by the finer aggregate used in the mixture, so the result approaches the natural product. - -Overview -Precast concrete is employed in both interior and exterior applications, from highway, bridge, and hi-rise projects to tilt-up building construction. By producing precast concrete in a controlled environment (typically referred to as a precast plant), the precast concrete is afforded the opportunity to properly cure and be closely monitored by plant employees. Using a precast concrete system offers many potential advantages over onsite casting. Precast concrete production can be performed on ground level, which maximizes safety in its casting.",4558584,Precast concrete,E -197,197.0,197.0,"Cloud engineering is the application of engineering disciplines to cloud computing. It brings a systematic approach to concerns of commercialization, standardization, and governance of cloud computing applications. In practice, it leverages the methods and tools of engineering in conceiving, developing, operating and maintaining cloud computing systems and solutions. It is about the process of designing the systems necessary to leverage the power and economics of cloud resources to solve business problems. - -Core features -Cloud engineering is a field of engineering that focuses on cloud services, such as ""software as a service"", ""platform as a service"", and ""infrastructure as a service"". It is a multidisciplinary method encompassing contributions from diverse areas such as systems engineering, software engineering, web engineering, performance engineering, information technology engineering, security engineering, platform engineering, service engineering, risk engineering, and quality engineering.",32760944,Cloud engineering,E -198,198.0,198.0,"The Corliss Steam Engine on the Pawnee County Fairgrounds in Pawnee, Oklahoma is a Corliss steam engine that was built c. 1912. It and a twin sister engine were originally built for the Blackwell Zinc Co., of Blackwell, Oklahoma. It powered most of the electricity-powered machinery in the 1000-employee zinc smelter plant, until the plant closed in 1973.It was later donated to the Oklahoma Steam Thresher Association, disassembled, and restored in its own building on the Pawnee County Fairgrounds. One source on the web has 6 photos of the engine displayed there. - -NRHP listing -It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on May 7, 1979, with NRIS number 79002016.",24056483,"Corliss Steam Engine (Pawnee, Oklahoma)",E -199,199.0,199.0,"This glossary of chemistry terms is a list of terms and definitions relevant to chemistry, including chemical laws, diagrams and formulae, laboratory tools, glassware, and equipment. Chemistry is a physical science concerned with the composition, structure, and properties of matter, as well as the changes it undergoes during chemical reactions; it features an extensive vocabulary and a significant amount of jargon. -Note: All periodic table references refer to the IUPAC Style of the Periodic Table. - -A -absolute zero -A theoretical condition concerning a system at the lowest limit of the thermodynamic temperature scale, or zero kelvins, at which the system does not emit or absorb energy (i.e. all atoms are at rest). By extrapolating the ideal gas law, the internationally agreed-upon value for absolute zero has been determined as −273.15 °C (−459.67 °F; 0.00 K). - -absorbance - -absorption -1. The physical or chemical process by which a substance in one state becomes incorporated into and retained by another substance of a different state.",13849906,Glossary of chemistry terms,M -200,200.0,200.0,"The M-1 (or M-59) was a standard issue gas mask for troops in Yugoslavia, as well as for SFRY successor states (Bosnia, Croatia, Macedonia, Montenegro, Slovenia, Serbia). This respirator was only available until 2005, therefore, the filters are said to have had a limited working lifetime assigned. It is a copy of the U.S. M-9 gas mask. It was also used by the Iraqi army in the Gulf War, where it was designated M-59.",28184814,M1 gas mask,T -201,201.0,201.0,"Serono was a biotechnology company headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland. It was acquired by the German pharmaceutical company Merck in 2006. The company was founded as the Serono Pharmacological Institute by Cesare Serono in 1906 in Rome, Italy. -A key step in its development was the discovery of a method of extracting urinary gonadotropins by Dr. Piero Donini.",1511771,Serono,S -202,202.0,202.0,"A military artificial intelligence arms race is an arms race between two or more states to develop and deploy lethal autonomous weapons systems (LAWS). Since the mid-2010s, many analysts have noted the emergence of such an arms race between global superpowers for better military AI, driven by increasing geopolitical and military tensions. An AI arms race is sometimes placed in the context of an AI Cold War between the US and China. - -Terminology -Lethal autonomous weapons systems use artificial intelligence to identify and kill human targets without human intervention. LAWS have colloquially been called ""slaughterbots"" or ""killer robots"". Broadly, any competition for superior AI is sometimes framed as an ""arms race"".",56127293,Artificial intelligence arms race,T -203,203.0,203.0,"Solar radio emission refers to radio waves that are naturally produced by the Sun, primarily from the lower and upper layers of the atmosphere called the chromosphere and corona, respectively. The Sun produces radio emissions through four known mechanisms, each of which operates primarily by converting the energy of moving electrons into electromagnetic radiation. The four emission mechanisms are thermal bremsstrahlung (braking) emission, gyromagnetic emission, plasma emission, and electron-cyclotron maser emission. The first two are incoherent mechanisms, which means that they are the summation of radiation generated independently by many individual particles. These mechanisms are primarily responsible for the persistent ""background"" emissions that slowly vary as structures in the atmosphere evolve.",66213716,Solar radio emission,M -204,204.0,204.0,"The mismatch negativity (MMN) or mismatch field (MMF) is a component of the event-related potential (ERP) to an odd stimulus in a sequence of stimuli. It arises from electrical activity in the brain and is studied within the field of cognitive neuroscience and psychology. It can occur in any sensory system, but has most frequently been studied for hearing and for vision, in which case it is abbreviated to vMMN. The (v)MMN occurs after an infrequent change in a repetitive sequence of stimuli (sometimes the entire sequence is called an oddball sequence.) For example, a rare deviant (d) stimulus can be interspersed among a series of frequent standard (s) stimuli (e.g., s s s s s s s s s d s s s s s s d s s s d s s s s...). In hearing, a deviant sound can differ from the standards in one or more perceptual features such as pitch, duration, loudness, or location.",6240439,Mismatch negativity,S -205,205.0,205.0,"The idea that there are specific marine counterparts to land creatures, inherited from the writers on natural history in Antiquity, was firmly believed in Islam and in Medieval Europe. It is exemplified by the creatures represented in the medieval animal encyclopedias called bestiaries, and in the parallels drawn in the moralising attributes attached to each. ""The creation was a mathematical diagram drawn in parallel lines,"" T. H. White said a propos the bestiary he translated.",15522138,Marine counterparts of land creatures,S -206,206.0,206.0,"Roku ( ROH-koo) is a brand of hardware digital media players manufactured by American company Roku, Inc. headquartered in San Jose, CA. They offer access to streaming media content from online services. -The first Roku model, developed in collaboration with Netflix, was introduced in May 2008. Roku devices are considered to have popularized the concept of low-cost, small-form-factor set-top boxes for over-the-top media consumption. Roku has also licensed its platform as middleware for smart TVs. -As of September 2022, Roku has 65.4 million active accounts. - -History -Roku was founded by Anthony Wood in 2002, who had previously founded ReplayTV, a DVR company that competed with TiVo.",42125403,Roku,T -207,207.0,207.0,"Krakatoa is a modular explosive device used for explosive ordnance disposal (EOD) or demolitions developed by the British company Alford Technologies. The device is designed to fire a number of different projectiles, operates both in air and underwater, and can be used in a vertical or horizontal orientation.The device was featured during the second season of Discovery Channel's television series Future Weapons, in which it was shown penetrating an inch of steel plate at 25 yards. The device's casing is made of plastic which is packed with plastique (C4) and capped with an inverted copper cone. -The device itself is ""no bigger than a standard can of coke."" -It is named after the 1883 eruption of Krakatoa, which resulted in the loudest sound ever heard and was the second deadliest volcanic eruption in recorded history. - -Uses -This explosive device was designed to play a role in covert operations, as a small but extremely powerful device that can disable tanks, vehicles, or even a warship. The device can be used underwater, at high altitudes, and in snow, hail, sleet, or any form of weather. -The device has copper cone with a driving charge of very fast high explosive behind it. The metal cone is the difference between a regular C4 'slappack' or hollow charge and a HEAT device. -When detonated, the copper cone is inverted into a narrow stream of copper and fired at extremely high velocity at the target, this can pierce certain thicknesses of steel armor or concrete. - -Characteristics and use -The weapon looks like a small circular tube, no wider than a tea-cup plate and no taller than a soft-drink can.",11263300,Krakatoa (explosive),E -208,208.0,208.0,"Human genetic enhancement or human genetic engineering refers to human enhancement by means of a genetic modification. This could be done in order to cure diseases (gene therapy), prevent the possibility of getting a particular disease (similarly to vaccines), to improve athlete performance in sporting events (gene doping), or to change physical appearance, metabolism, and even improve physical capabilities and mental faculties such as memory and intelligence. -These genetic enhancements may or may not be done in such a way that the change is heritable (which has raised concerns within the scientific community). - -Gene therapy -Genetic modification in order to cure genetic diseases is referred to as gene therapy. Many such gene therapies are available, made it through all phases of clinical research and are approved by the FDA. Between 1989 and December 2018, over 2,900 clinical trials were conducted, with more than half of them in phase I. As of 2017, Spark Therapeutics' Luxturna (RPE65 mutation-induced blindness) and Novartis' Kymriah (Chimeric antigen receptor T cell therapy) are the FDA's first approved gene therapies to enter the market.",887836,Human genetic enhancement,E -209,209.0,209.0,"ALL-IN-1 was an office automation product developed and sold by Digital Equipment Corporation in the 1980s. It was one of the first purchasable off the shelf electronic mail products. It was later known as Office Server V3.2 for OpenVMS Alpha and OpenVMS VAX systems before being discontinued. - -Overview -ALL-IN-1 was advertised as an office automation system including functionality in Electronic Messaging, Word Processing and Time Management. It offered an application development platform and customization capabilities that ranged from scripting to code-level integration.ALL-IN-1 was designed and developed by Skip Walter, John Churin and Marty Skinner from Digital Equipment Corporation who began work in 1977. Sheila Chance was hired as the software engineering manager in 1981.",25791203,ALL-IN-1,T -210,210.0,210.0,"MulteFire is an LTE-based technology that operates standalone in unlicensed and shared spectrum, including the global 5 GHz band. Based on 3GPP Release 13 and 14, MulteFire technology supports ""listen-before-talk ""for co-existence with Wi-Fi and other technologies operating in the same spectrum. It supports private LTE and neutral host deployment models. Target vertical markets include industrial IoT, enterprise, cable, and various other vertical markets. -The MulteFire Release 1.0 specification was developed by the MulteFire Alliance, an industry consortium promoting it. Release 1.0 was published to MulteFire Alliance members in January 2017 and was made publicly available in April 2017.",51682311,MulteFire,T -211,211.0,211.0,"Dioxygen complexes are coordination compounds that contain O2 as a ligand. The study of these compounds is inspired by oxygen-carrying proteins such as myoglobin, hemoglobin, hemerythrin, and hemocyanin. Several transition metals form complexes with O2, and many of these complexes form reversibly. The binding of O2 is the first step in many important phenomena, such as cellular respiration, corrosion, and industrial chemistry. The first synthetic oxygen complex was demonstrated in 1938 with cobalt(II) complex reversibly bound O2. - -Mononuclear complexes of O2 -O2 binds to a single metal center either “end-on” (η1-) or “side-on” (η2-).",23491418,Transition metal dioxygen complex,S -212,212.0,212.0,"In the field of Industrial Control Systems, the interfacing of various control components must provide means to coordinate the signals and commands sent between control modules. While tight coordination is desirable for discrete inputs and outputs, it is especially important in motion controls, where directing the movement of individual axes of motion must be precisely coordinated so that the motion of the entire system follows a desired path. Types of equipment requiring such coordination include metal cutting machine tools, metal forming equipment, assembly machinery, packaging machinery, robotics, printing machinery and material handling equipment. The Sercos (serial real-time communication system) interface is a globally standardized open digital interface for the communication between industrial controls, motion devices (drives) and input output devices (I/O). Sercos I and II are standardized in IEC 61491 and EN 61491.",11264866,SERCOS interface,E -213,213.0,213.0,"A mining simulator is a type of simulation used for entertainment as well as in training purposes for mining companies. These simulators replicate elements of real-world mining operations on surrounding screens displaying three-dimensional imagery, motion platforms, and scale models of typical and atypical mining environments and machinery. The results of the simulations can provide useful information in the form of greater competence in on-site safety, which can lead to greater efficiency and decreased risk of accidents. - -Training -Mining simulators are used to replicate real-world conditions of mining, assessing real-time responses from the trainee operator to react to what tasks or obstacles appear around them. This is often achieved through the use of surrounding three-dimensional imagery, motion platforms, and realistic replicas of actual mining equipment. Trainee operator employees are often taught in a program where they are scored against both their peers and an expert benchmark to produce a final evaluation of competence with the tasks they may need to complete in real-life. - -Criticism -Mining companies that have implemented mining simulators into their training have shown greater employee competence in on-site safety, leading to an overall more productive working environment, and a higher chance of profitability for the company in the long-run by decreasing the risk of accidents, injuries, or deaths on the site though prior education.",4111503,Mining simulator,T -214,214.0,214.0,"A marudai (丸台, lit. 'round stand') is the most common of the traditional frames used for making kumihimo, a type of Japanese braid. - -Etymology -The marudai is generally made of a close-grained wood and consists of a round disk (kagami or ""mirror"") with a hole in the center, supported by four legs set in a base. The Japanese style marudai is often about 16 in (41 cm) high and is used while kneeling or when placed on a table. The Western style 26 in (66 cm) marudai allows the braider to sit in a chair to braid. -The warp threads that form the braid are wound around weighted bobbins called tama (lit. 'egg'). Tama were once made of clay, but now are most commonly wood filled with lead. The weight of the tama maintains even tension on the warp threads, and is balanced by a bag of counterweights called omori that is attached to the base of the braid. -Modern braiders often replace the marudai with a foam disk with numbered slots that tightly grip the warp threads so that no weighted bobbins are needed to maintain tension on them.",7087984,Marudai,E -215,215.0,215.0,"An imaging cycler microscope (ICM) is a fully automated (epi)fluorescence microscope which overcomes the spectral resolution limit resulting in parameter- and dimension-unlimited fluorescence imaging. The principle and robotic device was described by Walter Schubert in 1997 and has been further developed with his co-workers within the human toponome project. The ICM runs robotically controlled repetitive incubation-imaging-bleaching cycles with dye-conjugated probe libraries recognizing target structures in situ (biomolecules in fixed cells or tissue sections). This results in the transmission of a randomly large number of distinct biological informations by re-using the same fluorescence channel after bleaching for the transmission of another biological information using the same dye which is conjugated to another specific probe, a.s.o. Thereby noise-reduced quasi-multichannel fluorescence images with reproducible physical, geometrical, and biophysical stabilities are generated.",42191418,Imaging cycler microscopy,M -216,216.0,216.0,"Criticism of technology is an analysis of adverse impacts of industrial and digital technologies. It is argued that, in all advanced industrial societies (not necessarily only capitalist ones), technology becomes a means of domination, control, and exploitation, or more generally something which threatens the survival of humanity. Some of the technology opposed by the most radical critics may include everyday household products, such as refrigerators, computers, and medication. However, criticism of technology comes in many shades. - -Overview -Prominent authors elaborating a critique of technology include Donna J. Haraway, Jacques Ellul, Wendy Hui Kyong Chun, Joanna Bryson, Kate Crawford, Gilles Deleuze, Ted Kaczynski, Ivan Illich, Ritesh Kumar, Langdon Winner, Joseph Weizenbaum, Theodore Roszak, Günther Anders, Neil Postman, Martin Heidegger, Oswald Spengler, Pentti Linkola, Andrew Feenberg, David Skrbina, Mike Cooley, John Zerzan, Lewis Mumford, Derrick Jensen, and Layla AbdelRahim.",10928765,Criticism of technology,T -217,217.0,217.0,"A glass crusher provides for pulverization of glass to a yield size of 2 inches (5 cm) or less.Recycling operations may range from simple, manually-fed, self-contained machines to extravagant crushing systems complete with screens, conveyors, crushers and separators. All non-glass contaminants must generally be removed from the glass prior to recycling. The processes used in glass crushing for recycling involves the same methods used by the aggregate industry for crushing rock into sand (rock crusher). - -Vertical shaft impactor (VSI) glass crushing -The use of VSI crushers in large scale operations allow the production of up to 125 tons per hour of crushed glass cullet. -VSI crushers use a high speed rotor with wear-resistant tips and a crushing chamber designed to 'throw' the glass against. The VSI crushers utilize velocity rather than surface force as the predominant force to break glass as this allows the breaking force to be applied evenly both across the surface of the material as well as through the mass of the material. In its shattered state, glass has a jagged and uneven surface.",20762753,Glass crusher,E -218,218.0,218.0,"An automated vacuum waste collection system, also known as pneumatic refuse collection, or automated vacuum collection (AVAC), transports waste at a high speed through underground pneumatic tubes to a collection station where it is compacted and sealed in containers. When the container is full, it is transported away and then emptied. The system helps facilitate the separation and recycling of waste.The process begins with the deposition of trash into intake hatches, called portholes, which may be specialized for waste, recycling, or compost. Portholes are located in public areas and on private property where the owner has opted in. The waste is then pulled through an underground pipeline by an air pressure difference created by large industrial fans, in response to porthole sensors that indicate when the trash needs to be emptied and help ensure that only one kind of waste material travels through the pipe at a time.",7159903,Automated vacuum collection,T -219,219.0,219.0,"The domestication of the Syrian hamster began in the late 1700s when naturalists cataloged the Syrian hamster, also known as Mesocricetus auratus or the golden hamster. In 1930 medical researchers captured Syrian hamster breeding stock for animal testing. Further domestication led this animal to become a popular pet. -The Syrian hamster's natural habitat is in a small region of Northwest Syria near the city of Aleppo. It was first described by science in the 1797 second edition of The Natural History of Aleppo, a book written and edited by two Scottish physicians living in Syria. The Syrian hamster was first recognized as a distinct species in 1839.",48925198,Domestication of the Syrian hamster,S -220,220.0,220.0,"ROBOTY (Arabic: روبوتي) is a differential wheeled robot with self-balancing, motion, speech and object recognition capabilities. ROBOTY is also the first autonomous robot in Yemen, all of which will be primarily controlled by voice commands. The final goal of this research project is to build a robot capable of playing chess.ROBOTY was first introduced on October 21, 2010 by its inventor, Hamdi M. Sahloul, as his final year project. The seminar showed the components and capabilities of the robot.",29218859,Roboty,T -221,221.0,221.0,"Parabiosis is a laboratory technique used in physiological research, derived from the Greek word meaning ""living beside."" The technique involves the surgical joining of two living organisms in such a way that they develop a single, shared physiological system. Through this unique approach, researchers can study the exchange of blood, hormones, and other substances between the two organisms, allowing for the examination of a wide range of physiological phenomena and interactions. Parabiosis has been employed in various fields of study, including stem cell research, endocrinology, aging research, and immunology. - -Physiology -Parabiotic experiments -Parabiosis combines two living organisms which are joined surgically and develop single, shared physiological systems. Researchers can prove that the feedback system in one animal is circulated and affects the second animal via blood and plasma exchange. -Parabiotic experiments were pioneered by Paul Bert in the mid-1800s. He postulated that surgically connected animals could share a circulatory system.",26305461,Parabiosis,S -222,222.0,222.0,"Kunstformen der Natur (known in English as Art Forms in Nature) is a book of lithographic and halftone prints by German biologist Ernst Haeckel. - -Publication -Originally published in sets of ten between 1899 and 1904 and collectively in two volumes in 1904, it consists of 100 prints of various organisms, many of which were first described by Haeckel himself. Over the course of his career, over 1000 engravings were produced based on Haeckel's sketches and watercolors; many of the best of these were chosen for Kunstformen der Natur, translated from sketch to print by lithographer Adolf Giltsch.A second edition of Kunstformen, containing only 30 prints, was produced in 1914. - -Themes -According to Haeckel scholar Olaf Breidbach, the work was ""not just a book of illustrations but also the summation of his view of the world."" The over-riding themes of the Kunstformen plates are symmetry and level of organization. The subjects were selected to embody these to the full, from the scale patterns of boxfishes to the spirals of ammonites to the perfect symmetries of jellies and microorganisms, while images composing each plate are arranged for maximum visual impact.Among the notable prints are numerous radiolarians, which Haeckel helped to popularize among amateur microscopists; at least one example is found in almost every set of 10. Cnidaria also feature prominently throughout the book, including sea anemones as well as Siphonophorae, Semaeostomeae, and other medusae. The first set included Desmonema annasethe (now Cyanea annasethe), a particularly striking jellyfish that Haeckel observed and described shortly after the death of his wife Anna Sethe. - -Influence -Kunstformen der Natur was influential in early 20th-century art, architecture, and design, bridging the gap between science and art.",5318004,Kunstformen der Natur,S -223,223.0,223.0,"Pure mathematics is the study of mathematical concepts independently of any application outside mathematics. These concepts may originate in real-world concerns, and the results obtained may later turn out to be useful for practical applications, but pure mathematicians are not primarily motivated by such applications. Instead, the appeal is attributed to the intellectual challenge and aesthetic beauty of working out the logical consequences of basic principles. -While pure mathematics has existed as an activity since at least ancient Greece, the concept was elaborated upon around the year 1900, after the introduction of theories with counter-intuitive properties (such as non-Euclidean geometries and Cantor's theory of infinite sets), and the discovery of apparent paradoxes (such as continuous functions that are nowhere differentiable, and Russell's paradox). This introduced the need to renew the concept of mathematical rigor and rewrite all mathematics accordingly, with a systematic use of axiomatic methods. This led many mathematicians to focus on mathematics for its own sake, that is, pure mathematics. -Nevertheless, almost all mathematical theories remained motivated by problems coming from the real world or from less abstract mathematical theories.",457210,Pure mathematics,M -224,224.0,224.0,"Microbeads, also called Ugelstad particles after the Norwegian chemist, professor John Ugelstad, who invented them in 1977 and patented the method in 1978, are uniform polymer particles, typically 0.5 to 500 micrometres in diameter. Bio-reactive molecules can be absorbed or coupled to their surface, and used to separate biological materials such as cells, proteins, or nucleic acids. -Microbeads have been used for isolation and handling of specific material or molecules, as well as for analyzing sensitive molecules, or those that are in low abundance, e.g. in miniaturized and automated settings. - -Background -Microbeads were created when John Ugelstad managed to form polystyrene beads of the same spherical sizes at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU) in 1977. A few years later he created superparamagnetic microbeads (Dynabeads), which exhibit magnetic properties when placed in a magnetic field. When they are removed from the magnetic field, there is no residual magnetism, which led to the development of magnetic separation technology.",43318261,Microbead (research),S -225,225.0,225.0,"The Nadal formula, also called Nadal's formula, is an equation in railway design that relates the downward force exerted by a train's wheels upon the rail, with the lateral force of the wheel's flange against the face of the rail. This relationship is significant in railway design, as a wheel-climb derailment may occur if the lateral and vertical forces are not properly considered.The Nadal formula is represented by: - - - - - - ( - - - L - V - - - ) - - - = - - - ( - - - - tan - ⁡ - ( - δ - ) - − - μ - - - 1 - + - μ - ∗ - tan - ⁡ - ( - δ - ) - - - - ) - - - - {\displaystyle \left({\frac {L}{V}}\right){=}\left({\frac {\tan(\delta )-\mu }{1+\mu *\tan(\delta )}}\right)} - -In this equation, L and V refer to the lateral and vertical forces acting upon the rail and wheel, δ is the angle made when the wheel flange is in contact with the rail face, and μ is the coefficient of friction between the wheel and the rail.Typically, the axle load for a railway vehicle should be such that the lateral forces of the wheel against the rail should not exceed 50% of the vertical down-force of the vehicle on the rail. Put another way, there should be twice as much downward force holding the wheel to the rail, as there is lateral force which will tend to cause the wheel to climb in turns. This ratio is accomplished by matching the wheelset with the appropriate rail profile to achieve the L/V ratio desired. If the L/V ratio gets too high, the wheel flange will be pressing against the rail face, and during a turn this will cause the wheel to climb the face of the rail, potentially derailing the railcar. - -Wagner Formula -The Nadal formula assumes the wheel remains perpendicular to the rail—it does not take into account hunting oscillation of the wheelset, or the movement of the wheel flange contact point against the rail.A variation of the Nadal formula, which does take these factors into consideration, is the Wagner formula.",27480090,Nadal formula,S -226,226.0,226.0,"The Australasian strewnfield is the youngest and largest of the tektite strewnfields, with recent estimates suggesting it might cover 10%–30% of the Earth's surface. Research indicates that the impact forming the tektites occurred around 788,000 years ago, most likely in Southeast Asia. - -Introduction -The c. 788,000-year-old strewnfield includes most of Southeast Asia (Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, Cambodia, and Southern China). The material from the impact stretches across the ocean to include the Philippines, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Java. It also reaches far west out into the Indian Ocean, and south to Australia, including Tasmania.",5010249,Australasian strewnfield,M -227,227.0,227.0,"The American Tapestry Alliance (ATA) is an association of a broad range of tapestry enthusiasts. ATA was founded in the United States in 1982. It provides educational programs, exhibition opportunities, and a variety of awards for tapestry artists. In addition, ATA publishes a quarterly journal, Tapestry Topics. - -History -At the turn of the twentieth century, a few tapestry workshops, such as William Baumgarten & Co, were operating in the United States. Many of the weavers in these workshops had come from Aubusson, Creuse, France, a region known for tapestry production.",44459360,American Tapestry Alliance,E -228,228.0,228.0,"Nemesis was a hypothetical red dwarf or brown dwarf, originally postulated in 1984 to be orbiting the Sun at a distance of about 95,000 AU (1.5 light-years), somewhat beyond the Oort cloud, to explain a perceived cycle of mass extinctions in the geological record, which seem to occur more often at intervals of 26 million years. In a 2017 paper, Sarah Sadavoy and Steven Stahler argued that the Sun was probably part of a binary system at the time of its formation, leading them to suggest ""there probably was a Nemesis, a long time ago"". Such a star would have separated from this binary system over four billion years ago, meaning it could not be responsible for the more recent perceived cycle of mass extinctions.More recent theories suggest that other forces, like close passage of other stars, or the angular effect of the galactic gravity plane working against the outer solar orbital plane (Shiva Hypothesis), may be the cause of orbital perturbations of some outer Solar System objects. In 2010, A. L.",89344,Nemesis (hypothetical star),M -229,229.0,229.0,"ISO/TR 11941:1996 is a Korean romanization system used in ISO. It is not commonly used. One example of its use is in Unicode character names. The standard was withdrawn in December 2013. -It appears to be modelled on the Revised Romanization, cf. the vowels. - -Transcription rules -Consonants -Vowels -Usage -This system is used in Unicode character names.",16147076,ISO/TR 11941,T -230,230.0,230.0,"The Foundation for Technology Assessment TA-SWISS is a Centre of Competence of the Swiss Academies of Arts and Sciences, based on a mandate in the Swiss federal law on research. It is an advisory body, financed by public money, and devoted to technology assessment. (The abbreviation «TA» which is used to describe TA-SWISS stands for Technology Assessment, and reflects the activities of the Centre.) - -Mission -The object of the Foundation for Technology Assessment TA-SWISS is to follow technological changes and developments and to identify the social, legal and ethical consequences of new technologies. Another element of its mission is to encourage the discussion of scientific and technological challenges. -The recommendations that result from TA-SWISS projects are used to assist the decision making process, and are intended for the Swiss Parliament and the Federal Council. Depending on the topics covered, these recommendations may also be of interest to other groups, such as professional associations, commercial enterprises, universities and stakeholder groups, as well as public administrations.",28774755,TA-SWISS,T -231,231.0,231.0,"Hypersonic flight is flight through the atmosphere below altitudes of about 90 km at speeds greater than Mach 5, a speed where dissociation of air begins to become significant and high heat loads exist. Speeds of Mach 25+ have been achieved below the thermosphere as of 2020. - -History -The first manufactured object to achieve hypersonic flight was the two-stage Bumper rocket, consisting of a WAC Corporal second stage set on top of a V-2 first stage. In February 1949, at White Sands, the rocket reached a speed of 8,290 km/h (5,150 mph), or about Mach 6.7. The vehicle, however, burned on atmospheric re-entry, and only charred remnants were found. In April 1961, Russian Major Yuri Gagarin became the first human to travel at hypersonic speed, during the world's first piloted orbital flight.",14564979,Hypersonic flight,E -232,232.0,232.0,"The conservation and restoration of insect specimens is the process of caring for and preserving insects as a part of a collection. Conservation concerns begin at collection and continue through preparation, storage, examination, documentation, research and treatment when restoration is needed. - -Collection -Insect collecting can be done in many different ways depending on the kind of insects being collected and from which habitats. Both hobbyists and professional entomologist have found particular ways to collect with minimal damage to their specimens. Following established techniques helps begin the conservation of insect specimens from the beginning by eliminating as much potential damage as possible. It must be done delicately to ensure that neither the collector nor the live insect itself will cause harm to the distinctive features such as wings, legs and antennae that give purpose to the collection.",53643626,Conservation and restoration of insect specimens,S -233,233.0,233.0,"Artificial plants are imitations of natural plants used for commercial or residential decoration. They are sometimes made for scientific purposes (the collection of glass flowers at Harvard University, for example, illustrates the flora of the United States). Artificial plants vary widely from mass-produced varieties that are distinguishable from real plants by casual observation to highly detailed botanical or artistic specimens. -Materials used in their manufacture have included painted linen and shavings of stained horn in ancient Egypt, gold and silver in ancient Rome, rice-paper in China, silkworm cocoons in Italy, colored feathers in South America, and wax and tinted shells. Modern techniques involve carved or formed soap, nylon netting stretched over wire frames, ground clay, and mass-produced injection plastic mouldings. Polyester has been the main material for manufacturing artificial flowers since the 1970s.",2622866,Artificial plants,T -234,234.0,234.0,"Multi-disciplinary design optimization (MDO) is a field of engineering that uses optimization methods to solve design problems incorporating a number of disciplines. It is also known as multidisciplinary system design optimization (MSDO), and Multidisciplinary Design Analysis and Optimization (MDAO). -MDO allows designers to incorporate all relevant disciplines simultaneously. The optimum of the simultaneous problem is superior to the design found by optimizing each discipline sequentially, since it can exploit the interactions between the disciplines. However, including all disciplines simultaneously significantly increases the complexity of the problem. -These techniques have been used in a number of fields, including automobile design, naval architecture, electronics, architecture, computers, and electricity distribution. However, the largest number of applications have been in the field of aerospace engineering, such as aircraft and spacecraft design.",547743,Multidisciplinary design optimization,E -235,235.0,235.0,"In mathematical logic, a Boolean-valued model is a generalization of the ordinary Tarskian notion of structure from model theory. In a Boolean-valued model, the truth values of propositions are not limited to ""true"" and ""false"", but instead take values in some fixed complete Boolean algebra. -Boolean-valued models were introduced by Dana Scott, Robert M. Solovay, and Petr Vopěnka in the 1960s in order to help understand Paul Cohen's method of forcing. They are also related to Heyting algebra semantics in intuitionistic logic. - -Definition -Fix a complete Boolean algebra B and a first-order language L; the signature of L will consist of a collection of constant symbols, function symbols, and relation symbols. -A Boolean-valued model for the language L consists of a universe M, which is a set of elements (or names), together with interpretations for the symbols. Specifically, the model must assign to each constant symbol of L an element of M, and to each n-ary function symbol f of L and each n-tuple ⟨a0,...,an-1⟩ of elements of M, the model must assign an element of M to the term f(a0,...,an-1). -Interpretation of the atomic formulas of L is more complicated.",2732301,Boolean-valued model,M -236,236.0,236.0,"Asfotase alfa, sold under the brand name Strensiq, is a medication used in the treatment of people with perinatal/infantile- and juvenile-onset hypophosphatasia.The most common side effects include injection site reactions, hypersensitivity reactions (such as difficulty breathing, nausea, dizziness and fever), lipodystrophy (a loss of fat tissue resulting in an indentation in the skin or a thickening of fat tissue resulting in a lump under the skin) at the injection site, and ectopic calcifications of the eyes and kidney.The enzyme tissue non-specific alkaline phosphatase (ALP) plays a key role in creating and maintaining healthy bones, and managing calcium and phosphate in the body. People with hypophosphatasia cannot make enough working ALP, which leads to weak bones. Asfotase alfa is a version of the human ALP enzyme and serves as a replacement, thereby increasing levels of working ALP. - -Medical uses -In the United States, asfotase alfa is indicated for the treatment of people with perinatal/infantile- and juvenile-onset hypophosphatasia (HPP).In the European Union, asfotase alfa is indicated for long-term enzyme replacement therapy in people with paediatric-onset hypophosphatasia to treat the bone manifestations of the disease. - -Adverse effects -The most common adverse effects in studies included injection site reactions (pain, itching, erythema, etc.), headache, limb pain, and haematoma. Possible rare side effects could not be assessed because of the low number of patients. - -Interactions -Asfotase alfa interferes with alkaline phosphatase measurements. As asfotase alfa is a glycoprotein (as opposed to a small molecule), no relevant interactions via the cytochrome P450 liver enzymes are expected. - -Pharmacology -Mechanism of action -Hypophosphatasia is caused by a genetic defect of tissue-nonspecific alkaline phosphatase (TNSALP), an enzyme that plays a role in bone mineralization.",50368559,Asfotase alfa,S -237,237.0,237.0,"In recreational mathematics, Maris–McGwire–Sosa pairs (MMS pairs, also MMS numbers) (sequence A045759 in the OEIS) are two consecutive natural numbers such that adding each number's digits (in base 10) to the digits of its prime factorization gives the same sum. - -Thus 61 → 6 + 1 (the sum of its digits) + 6 + 1 (since 61 is its prime factorization) -and 62 → 6 + 2 (the sum of its digits) + 3 + 1 + 2 (since 31 × 2 is its prime factorization).The above two sums are equal (= 14), so 61 and 62 form an MMS pair. -MMS pairs are so named because in 1998 the baseball players Mark McGwire and Sammy Sosa both hit their 62nd home runs for the season, passing the old record of 61, held by Roger Maris. American engineer Mike Keith noticed this property of these numbers and named pairs of numbers like these MMS pairs. - -See also -Ruth–Aaron pair - -References -External links -Mike Keith. Maris–McGwire–Sosa Numbers. -Ivars Peterson. MathTrek – Home Run Numbers. Archived 2 July 2013 at the Wayback Machine -Hans Havermann.",2470260,Maris–McGwire–Sosa pair,M -238,238.0,238.0,"A crescendo pedal is a large pedal commonly found on medium-sized and larger pipe organs (as well as digital organs), either partially or fully recessed within the organ console. The crescendo pedal incrementally activates stops as it is pressed forward and removes stops as it is depressed backward. The addition of stops, in order from quietest to loudest, creates the effect of a crescendo (and, likewise, a diminuendo, when the stops are deactivated). The crescendo pedal is located directly above the pedalboard, to the right of any expression pedals that may be present. In actual use, the operation of the crescendo pedal usually does not move the draw knobs or stop tabs on the console; the stops are electronically activated inside the organ.",9636501,Crescendo pedal,T -239,239.0,239.0,"The Unified Profile for DoDAF/MODAF (UPDM) is the product of an Object Management Group (OMG) initiative to develop a modeling standard that supports both the USA Department of Defense Architecture Framework (DoDAF) and the UK Ministry of Defence Architecture Framework (MODAF). The current UPDM - the Unified Profile for DoDAF and MODAF was based on earlier work with the same acronym and a slightly different name - the UML Profile for DoDAF and MODAF. - -History -The UPDM initiative began in 2005, when the OMG issued a Request for Proposal. This request was based on the then current versions of DoDAF (1.0) and MODAF (1.1). While the specification submission development was underway, significant changes were made to the DoDAF and MODAF. Therefore, although a UPDM 1.0 beta 1 specification was adopted by the OMG in 2007, and UPDM 1.0 beta 2 was submitted by an OMG Finalization Task Force in 2008, UPDM 1.0 beta 2 has not been endorsed by the US Department of Defense or the UK Ministry of Defence (MOD). -The UPDM 1.0 specification, the result of additional work by many members of the original submission teams, is architecturally aligned with DoDAF 1.5 and MODAF 1.2.",4748617,UPDM,T -240,240.0,240.0,"Utility fog (also referred to as foglets) is a hypothetical collection of tiny nanobots that can replicate a physical structure. As such, it is a form of self-reconfiguring modular robotics. - -Conception -The term was coined by John Storrs Hall in 1989. Hall thought of it as a nanotechnological replacement for car seatbelts. The robots would be microscopic, with extending arms reaching in several different directions, and could perform three-dimensional lattice reconfiguration. Grabbers at the ends of the arms would allow the robots (or foglets) to mechanically link to one another and share both information and energy, enabling them to act as a continuous substance with mechanical and optical properties that could be varied over a wide range.",518104,Utility fog,T -241,241.0,241.0,"An Elton's quadrant is a derivative of the Davis quadrant. It adds an index arm and artificial horizon to the instrument, and was invented by English sea captain John Elton, who patented his design in 1728 and published details of the instrument in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society in 1732. - -Construction -This instrument clearly reflects the shape and features of the Davis quadrant. The significant differences are the change in the upper arc to a simple triangular frame and the addition of an index arm. The triangular frame at the top spans 60° as did the arc on the backstaff. The main graduated arc subtends 30° as in the backstaff.",14078238,Elton's quadrant,M -242,242.0,242.0,"A LO NOx burner is a type of burner that is typically used in utility boilers to produce steam and electricity. - -Background -The first discovery -Around 1986 John Joyce (of Bowin Cars fame), an influential Australian inventor, first learned about oxides of nitrogen (NOx) and their role in the production of smog and acid rain. His first introduction to the complexities of the subject was brought about by the work of Fred Barnes and Dr John Bromley from the state Energy Commission of Western Australia.The vast majority of the research and development stretching back over twenty years was about large scale industrial burners and complex mechanisms which, in the end, did not produce what one would consider low NOx (2 ng/J or ~ 4 ppm at 0% O2 on dry basis).In fact at that time, 15 ng/J NO2 appears to have been considered low NO2. The one clear message that did flow through all the mass of information he studied, was the effect of temperature on the formation of NOx. - -""Need is the Mother of Invention"" -In the late 1980s, Health and Environment Authorities in Australia raised concerns about the indoor air quality and the extent that particularly older style unflued gas heaters were contributing to higher than acceptable levels of nitrogen dioxide (NO2). Consequently in 1989 the New South Wales Department of School Education initiated an extensive investigation of nitrogen dioxide in schools throughout New South Wales. As an interim measure the Health Authorities advised that a level of 0.3 ppm NO2 should become the upper limit for classrooms.",4376793,LO-NOx burner,E -243,243.0,243.0,"In computing, triple modular redundancy, sometimes called triple-mode redundancy, (TMR) is a fault-tolerant form of N-modular redundancy, in which three systems perform a process and that result is processed by a majority-voting system to produce a single output. If any one of the three systems fails, the other two systems can correct and mask the fault. -The TMR concept can be applied to many forms of redundancy, such as software redundancy in the form of N-version programming, and is commonly found in fault-tolerant computer systems. -Space satellite systems often use TMR, although satellite RAM usually uses Hamming error correction.Some ECC memory uses triple modular redundancy hardware (rather than the more common Hamming code), because triple modular redundancy hardware is faster than Hamming error correction hardware. Called repetition code, some communication systems use N-modular redundancy as a simple form of forward error correction. For example, 5-modular redundancy communication systems (such as FlexRay) use the majority of 5 samples – if any 2 of the 5 results are erroneous, the other 3 results can correct and mask the fault. -Modular redundancy is a basic concept, dating to antiquity, while the first use of TMR in a computer was the Czechoslovak computer SAPO, in the 1950s. - -General case -The general case of TMR is called N-modular redundancy, in which any positive number of replications of the same action is used.",8950361,Triple modular redundancy,E -244,244.0,244.0,"Algebraic geometry is a branch of mathematics which classically studies zeros of multivariate polynomials. Modern algebraic geometry is based on the use of abstract algebraic techniques, mainly from commutative algebra, for solving geometrical problems about these sets of zeros. -The fundamental objects of study in algebraic geometry are algebraic varieties, which are geometric manifestations of solutions of systems of polynomial equations. Examples of the most studied classes of algebraic varieties are lines, circles, parabolas, ellipses, hyperbolas, cubic curves like elliptic curves, and quartic curves like lemniscates and Cassini ovals. These are plane algebraic curves. A point of the plane lies on an algebraic curve if its coordinates satisfy a given polynomial equation.",1997,Algebraic geometry,M -245,245.0,245.0,"Multi-messenger astronomy is astronomy based on the coordinated observation and interpretation of signals carried by disparate ""messengers"": electromagnetic radiation, gravitational waves, neutrinos, and cosmic rays. They are created by different astrophysical processes, and thus reveal different information about their sources. -The main multi-messenger sources outside the heliosphere are expected to be compact binary pairs (black holes and neutron stars), supernovae, irregular neutron stars, gamma-ray bursts, active galactic nuclei, and relativistic jets. The table below lists several types of events and expected messengers. -Detection from one messenger and non-detection from a different messenger can also be informative. - -Networks -The Supernova Early Warning System (SNEWS), established in 1999 at Brookhaven National Laboratory and automated since 2005, combines multiple neutrino detectors to generate supernova alerts. (See also neutrino astronomy). -The Astrophysical Multimessenger Observatory Network (AMON), created in 2013, is a broader and more ambitious project to facilitate the sharing of preliminary observations and to encourage the search for ""sub-threshold"" events which are not perceptible to any single instrument. It is based at Pennsylvania State University. - -Milestones -1940s: Some cosmic rays are identified as forming in solar flares. -1987: Supernova SN 1987A emitted neutrinos that were detected at the Kamiokande-II, IMB and Baksan neutrino observatories, a couple of hours before the supernova light was detected with optical telescopes. -August 2017: A neutron star collision in the galaxy NGC 4993 produced the gravitational wave signal GW170817, which was observed by the LIGO/Virgo collaboration.",42718949,Multi-messenger astronomy,M -246,246.0,246.0,"Milan Pogačnik (born 30 August 1946) is a Slovenian politician. Between November 2008 and March 2010, he served as the Minister of Agriculture, Forestry and Nutrition of Slovenia. - -Biography -Pogačnik was born in Celje, then part of the People's Republic of Slovenia in the Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia. He studied veterinary medicine at the University of Ljubljana, graduating in 1971. He obtained his PhD in 1984. Between 1990 and 2008, he served as dean of the Veterinary Faculty at the University of Ljubljana. - -Career -Between 1994 and 1998, he served as member of the Council for Higher Education of the Republic of Slovenia, and between 1999 and 2002 as member of the Slovenian Council for Science and Technology; both are advisory organs to the Government of Slovenia.",26186299,Milan Pogačnik,S -247,247.0,247.0,"The American Institute of Physics (AIP) instituted their Science Writing Award to ""promote effective science communication in print and broadcast media in order to improve the general public's appreciation of physics, astronomy, and allied science fields."" The winner receives $3000, and an engraved Windsor chair. The award is given in three broad categories: 1) science writing, 2) work intended for children, and 3) work done in new media. The AIP stopped issuing awards to three categories: 1) work by a professional journalist (last awarded in 2011) 2) work by a scientist (last awarded in 2009), and 3) broadcast media (last awarded in 2009) -Winners of this Science Writing Award include Nobel Prize winners Charles Townes, Steven Weinberg, and Kip Thorne; other notable winners include Simon Singh, Neil DeGrasse Tyson, Lawrence Krauss, John Wheeler, Leonard Susskind, Clifford Martin Will, Abraham Pais, Heinz Pagels, Banesh Hoffmann, and Martin Gardner. Marcia Bartusiak has won the award three times, twice for her books (in 2019 and 2001) and once for her journalism (in 1982). - -Winners: New Media -2012: - Anna Rothschild for Nova, ""The Amazing Atomic Clock"" - -Past Winners: Books -2020: Susan Hockfield for The Age of Living Machines (W.W. Norton & Company). -2019: Marcia Bartusiak for Dispatches from Planet 3 (Yale University Press). -2019: David Hu for How to Walk on Water and Climb Up Walls (Yale University Press). -2018: David Baron for American Eclipse: A Nation's Epic Race to Catch the Shadow of the Moon and Win the Glory of the World (Liveright Publishing Corporation/W.",12848329,Science Writing Award,M -248,248.0,248.0,"Stercomata (or stercomes) are extracellular pellets of waste material produced by some groups of foraminiferans, including xenophyophoreans and komokiaceans, Gromia, and testate amoebae. The pellets are ovoid (egg-shaped), brownish in color, and on average measure from 10-20 µm in length. Stercomata are composed of small mineral grains and undigested waste products held together by strands of glycosaminoglycans.The term “sterkome” was first used Schaudinn in 1899 to describe the balls of undigested food remains produced by the testate amoeba Trichosphaerium sieboldi, the foraminiferan Saccammina sphaerica, and the gromiid Gromia dujardinii. Schaudinn conducted feeding experiments on live individuals of Trichosphaerium sieboldi kept in culture dishes to confirm that stercomata were accumulations of waste material produced as a byproduct of feeding. - -Taxonomic distribution -Foraminifera -Stercomata are produced by members of several different subclades of Foraminifera that possess organic-walled or agglutinated tests, including: single-chambered taxa with spherical organic-walled tests (e.g., Bathyallogromia and other undescribed species), single-chambered taxa with sac-like agglutinated tests (e.g., Saccammina and Leptammina), single-chambered taxa with tubular agglutinated tests (e.g., Bathysiphon), multi-chambered taxa with organic-walled tests (e.g., Nodellum and Resigella), taxa with complex agglutinated tests composed of delicate branching tubes (Komokioidea), and deep-sea taxa with large, complex tests agglutinated tests (Xenophyophorea). - -Saccamminid foraminiferans -Komokiaceans -Xenophyophores -In xenophyophores, the stercomata are contained within an organic tubes called stercomare. - -Multichambered, organic-walled foraminiferans -Gromiida -Gromiida is a subclade of Endomyxa, a clade that branches within the more inclusive group Rhizaria, a clade that encompasses a diverse array free-living and parasitic single-celled eukaryotes that possess branching or anastomosing pseudopodia and complex life cycles. In Gromia, the only described genus of Gromiida, stercomata are spherical to ovoid in shape and range in color from brown to gray to orange.",52399962,Stercomata,S -249,249.0,249.0,"Ethernet Advanced Physical Layer (Ethernet-APL) describes a physical layer for the Ethernet communication technology which is especially developed for the requirements of the process industries. The development of Ethernet-APL was determined by the need for communication at high speeds and over long distances, the supply of power and communications signals via common single, twisted-pair (2-wire) cable as well as protective measures for the safe use within explosion hazardous areas. -Because it was created specifically for demanding industrial applications, Ethernet-APL, as a subset of the widely adopted Ethernet standard, offers a high level of robustness for extremely reliable operation. -Ethernet has long become the standard communication solution in the information technology field, while Industrial Ethernet is the common description of the variant of this standard for the manufacturing and process industries. Ethernet-APL provides the missing link, extending unified Ethernet communication all the way down to field instrumentation. - -Structure -Being a physical layer, Ethernet-APL is independent of any protocol or communications stack and designed for wide adoption and application in process automation. - -Ethernet as basis for APL -Ethernet-APL is a specific, single-pair Ethernet based on 10BASE-T1L as defined in IEEE 802.3cg, with additional provisions for process industries.",63535350,Advanced Physical Layer,E -250,250.0,250.0,"A lean laboratory is one which is focused on processes, procedures, and infrastructure that deliver results in the most efficient way in terms of cost, speed, or both. Lean laboratory is a management and organization process derived from the concept of lean manufacturing and the Toyota Production System (TPS). The goal of a lean laboratory is to reduce resource usage and costs while improving productivity, staff morale, and laboratory-driven outcomes. - -Overview -Manufacturing companies, including medical device and pharmaceutical manufacturers, operate in highly regulated environments which often necessitate a great deal of resources, time, and money being expended in the testing, release, and quality assurance of their products. Since the early 1990s, there has been a more widespread drive to adopt more lean approaches both in the manufacturing and testing of products. The advances in lean thinking developed and refined in the automotive industry initially by Toyota (TPS) are now being used as best practices across most manufacturing sectors.",16020608,Lean laboratory,E -251,251.0,251.0,"== 1952 == -Radushkevich and Lukyanovich publish a paper in the Soviet Journal of Physical Chemistry showing hollow graphitic carbon fibers that are 50 nanometers in diameter. - -1955 -Hofer, Sterling and McCarney observe a growth of tubular carbon filaments, of 10–200 nm in diameter. - -1958 -Hillert and Lange observe a growth of nanoscale tubular carbon filaments from n-heptane decomposition on iron at about 1000 °C. - -1960 -Roger Bacon grows ""graphite wiskers"" in an arc-discharge apparatus and use electron microscopy to show that the structure consist of rolled up graphene sheets in concentric cylinders. -Bollmann and Spreadborough discuss friction properties of carbon due to rolling sheets of graphene in Nature. Electron microscope picture clearly shows MWCNT. - -1971 -M.L. Lieberman reports growth of three different graphitic like filaments; tubular, twisted, and balloon like. TEM images and diffraction data shows that the hollow tubes are multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNT). - -1976 -A. Oberlin, Morinobu Endo, and T.",7452748,Timeline of carbon nanotubes,T -252,252.0,252.0,"Mathematics is a broad subject that is commonly divided in many areas that may be defined by their objects of study, by the used methods, or by both. For example, analytic number theory is a subarea of number theory devoted to the use of methods of analysis for the study of natural numbers. -This glossary is alphabetically sorted. This hides a large part of the relationships between areas. For the broadest areas of mathematics, see Mathematics § Areas of mathematics. The Mathematics Subject Classification is a hierarchical list of areas and subjects of study that has been elaborated by the community of mathematicians.",34189212,Glossary of areas of mathematics,M -253,253.0,253.0,"Transhumanism is a philosophical and intellectual movement which advocates the enhancement of the human condition by developing and making widely available sophisticated technologies that can greatly enhance longevity and cognition.Transhumanist thinkers study the potential benefits and dangers of emerging technologies that could overcome fundamental human limitations, as well as the ethics of using such technologies. Some transhumanists believe that human beings may eventually be able to transform themselves into beings with abilities so greatly expanded from the current condition as to merit the label of posthuman beings.Another topic of transhumanist research is how to protect humanity against existential risks, such as nuclear war or asteroid collision.Julian Huxley was a biologist who popularised the term transhumanism in an influential 1957 essay. The contemporary meaning of the term ""transhumanism"" was foreshadowed by one of the first professors of futurology, a man who changed his name to FM-2030. In the 1960s, he taught ""new concepts of the human"" at The New School when he began to identify people who adopt technologies, lifestyles, and worldviews ""transitional"" to posthumanity as ""transhuman"". The assertion would lay the intellectual groundwork for the British philosopher Max More to begin articulating the principles of transhumanism as a futurist philosophy in 1990, and organizing in California a school of thought that has since grown into the worldwide transhumanist movement.Influenced by seminal works of science fiction, the transhumanist vision of a transformed future humanity has attracted many supporters and detractors from a wide range of perspectives, including philosophy and religion.In 2017, Penn State University Press, in cooperation with philosopher Stefan Lorenz Sorgner and sociologist James Hughes, established the Journal of Posthuman Studies as the first academic journal explicitly dedicated to the posthuman, with the goal of clarifying the notions of posthumanism and transhumanism, as well as comparing and contrasting both. -Transhumanism is often compared, especially in the media, to the Nazi project to improve the race in a eugenic sense.",30299,Transhumanism,T -254,254.0,254.0,"KEGG (Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes) is a collection of databases dealing with genomes, biological pathways, diseases, drugs, and chemical substances. KEGG is utilized for bioinformatics research and education, including data analysis in genomics, metagenomics, metabolomics and other omics studies, modeling and simulation in systems biology, and translational research in drug development. -The KEGG database project was initiated in 1995 by Minoru Kanehisa, professor at the Institute for Chemical Research, Kyoto University, under the then ongoing Japanese Human Genome Program. Foreseeing the need for a computerized resource that can be used for biological interpretation of genome sequence data, he started developing the KEGG PATHWAY database. It is a collection of manually drawn KEGG pathway maps representing experimental knowledge on metabolism and various other functions of the cell and the organism. Each pathway map contains a network of molecular interactions and reactions and is designed to link genes in the genome to gene products (mostly proteins) in the pathway.",3971631,KEGG,E -255,255.0,255.0,"Tolerance coning is the engineering discipline of creating a budget of all tolerances that potentially add/subtract to affect adequacy of a particular parameter. This is particularly critical where stages of design/manufacture precede test/use. -For example, when setting a test limit for a measurement on each manufactured item of some type, to assure that no bad items are shipped, the limit must be tighter than the requirement to allow for the worst case sum of measurement inaccuracies (e.g. equipment, test fixture etc.). The design of the item thus has to take into account not only the product requirement but also the test tolerances. The buildup of this budget is tolerance coning. -Electronics engineers intuitively do tolerance coning and tend to formalise it for critical parameters.",22936371,Tolerance coning,E -256,256.0,256.0,"Monochrome photography is one of the earliest styles of photography and dates back to the 1800s. Monochrome photography is also a popular technique among astrophotographers. This is due to the omission of the Bayer filter, a colour filter array that sits in front of the CMOS or CCD sensor, allowing for a single sensor to produce a colour image. - -Sensor design -Colour cameras produce colour images using a Bayer matrix, a colour filter array that sits in front of the sensor. The matrix allows light of primary colours, red, green and blue, to enter the sensor. A typical matrix arrangement consists of a 25% red pass through area, 25% blue, and 50% green.",70476313,Monochrome-astrophotography-techniques,M -257,257.0,257.0,"VHS (short term for Video Home System) is a standard for consumer-level analog video recording on tape cassettes invented in 1976 by the Victor Company of Japan and was the competitor to the ill-fated Sony Betamax system. -Magnetic tape video recording was adopted by the television industry in the 1950s in the form of the first commercialized video tape recorders (VTRs), but the devices were expensive and used only in professional environments. In the 1970s, videotape technology became affordable for home use and widespread adoption of videocassette recorders (VCRs) began, largely as a means for television viewers to watch programming at more convenient times or more than once.In the later 1970s and early 1980s, the home video industry experienced a ""format war"" between incompatible tape standards backed by competing technology companies. Two of the standards, VHS and Betamax, received the most media exposure. VHS eventually won the war, gaining 60% of the North American market by 1980 and emerging as the dominant home video format throughout the tape media period.Optical disc formats later began to offer better quality than analog consumer video tape such as VHS and S-VHS. The earliest of these formats, LaserDisc, was not widely adopted across Europe, but was hugely popular in Japan and a minor success in the United States.",52124,VHS,T -258,258.0,258.0,"Tanning is the process of treating skins and hides of animals to produce leather. A tannery is the place where the skins are processed. -Tanning hide into leather involves a process which permanently alters the protein structure of skin, making it more durable and less susceptible to decomposition and coloring. -Before tanning, the skins are dehaired, degreased, desalted and soaked in water over a period of six hours to two days. Historically this process was considered a noxious or ""odoriferous trade"" and relegated to the outskirts of town. -Historically, tanning used tannin, an acidic chemical compound derived from the bark of certain trees. An alternative method, developed in the 1800s, is chrome tanning, where chromium salts are used instead of natural tannins. - -History -The English word for tanning is from medieval Latin tannāre, derivative of tannum (oak bark), from French tan (tanbark), from old-Cornish tann (red oak). These terms are related to the hypothetical Proto-Indo-European *dʰonu meaning 'fir tree'.",140990,Tanning (leather),E -259,259.0,259.0,"Chemical energy is the energy of chemical substances that is released when the substances undergo a chemical reaction and transform into other substances. Some examples of storage media of chemical energy include batteries, food, and gasoline (as well as oxygen gas, which is of high chemical energy due to its relatively weak double bond and indispensable for chemical-energy release in gasoline combustion). Breaking and re-making chemical bonds involves energy, which may be either absorbed by or evolved from a chemical system. If reactants with relatively weak electron-pair bonds convert to more strongly bonded products, energy is released. Therefore, relatively weakly bonded and unstable molecules store chemical energy.Energy that can be released or absorbed because of a reaction between chemical substances is equal to the difference between the energy content of the products and the reactants, if the initial and final temperature is the same.",417846,Chemical energy,M -260,260.0,260.0,"Interplanetary contamination refers to biological contamination of a planetary body by a space probe or spacecraft, either deliberate or unintentional. -There are two types of interplanetary contamination: - -Forward contamination is the transfer of life and other forms of contamination from Earth to another celestial body. -Back contamination is the introduction of extraterrestrial organisms and other forms of contamination into Earth's biosphere. It also covers infection of humans and human habitats in space and on other celestial bodies by extraterrestrial organisms, if such habitats exist.The main focus is on microbial life and on potentially invasive species. Non-biological forms of contamination have also been considered, including contamination of sensitive deposits (such as lunar polar ice deposits) of scientific interest. In the case of back contamination, multicellular life is thought unlikely but has not been ruled out. In the case of forward contamination, contamination by multicellular life (e.g.",31028310,Interplanetary contamination,T -261,261.0,261.0,"In engineering, a bug is a defect in the design, manufacture or operation of machinery, circuitry, electronics, hardware, or software that produces undesired results or impedes operation. It is contrasted with a glitch which may only be transient. Sometimes what might be seen as unintended or defective operation can be seen as a feature. - -History -The Middle English word bugge is the basis for the terms ""bugbear"" and ""bugaboo"" as terms used for a monster.The term ""bug"" to describe defects has been a part of engineering jargon since the 1870s and predates electronic computers and computer software; it may have originally been used in hardware engineering to describe mechanical malfunctions. For instance, Thomas Edison wrote the following words in a letter to an associate in 1878: - -It has been just so in all of my inventions. The first step is an intuition, and comes with a burst, then difficulties arise—this thing gives out and [it is] then that ""Bugs""—as such little faults and difficulties are called—show themselves and months of intense watching, study and labor are requisite before commercial success or failure is certainly reached. -This shows that using the word bugs was already widespread by 1870s. -In a comic strip printed in a 1924 telephone industry journal, a naive character hears that a man has a job as a ""bug hunter"" and gives a gift of a backscratcher.",60928950,Bug (engineering),E -262,262.0,262.0,"Alignments of random points in a plane refers to the study of the relative positions of point that are randomly placed in a planar region. For example, how closely can we expect to find three points lying on a straight line? -Studies have shown that such near-alignments occur by chance with greater frequency than one might intuitively expect. This has been put forward as a demonstration that ley lines and other similar mysterious alignments believed by some to be phenomena of deep significance might exist solely due to chance alone, as opposed to the supernatural or anthropological explanations put forward by their proponents. The topic has also been studied in the fields of computer vision and astronomy. -A number of studies have examined the mathematics of alignment of random points on the plane. In all of these, the width of the line — the allowed displacement of the positions of the points from a perfect straight line — is important.",289860,Alignments of random points,E -263,263.0,263.0,"The Penrose process (also called Penrose mechanism) is theorised by Sir Roger Penrose as a means whereby energy can be extracted from a rotating black hole. The process takes advantage of the ergosphere – a region of spacetime around the black hole dragged by its rotation faster than the speed of light, meaning that from the point of an outside observer any matter inside is forced to move in the direction of the rotation of the black hole. - -In the process, a working body falls (black thick line in the figure) into the ergosphere (gray region). At its lowest point (red dot) the body fires a propellant backwards; however, to a faraway observer both seem to continue to move forward due to frame-dragging (albeit at different speeds). The propellant, being slowed, falls (thin gray line) to the event horizon of the black hole (black disk). And the remains of the body, being sped up, fly away (thin black line) with an excess of energy (that more than offsets the loss of the propellant and the energy used to shoot it). -The maximum amount of energy gain possible for a single particle decay via the original (or classical) Penrose process is 20.7% of its mass in the case of an uncharged black hole (assuming the best case of maximal rotation of the black hole).",2975616,Penrose process,T -264,264.0,264.0,"Physical science is a branch of natural science that studies non-living systems, in contrast to life science. It in turn has many branches, each referred to as a ""physical science"", together called the ""physical sciences"". - -Definition -Physical science can be described as all of the following: - -A branch of science (a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe).A branch of natural science – natural science is a major branch of science that tries to explain and predict nature's phenomena, based on empirical evidence. In natural science, hypotheses must be verified scientifically to be regarded as scientific theory. Validity, accuracy, and social mechanisms ensuring quality control, such as peer review and repeatability of findings, are amongst the criteria and methods used for this purpose. Natural science can be broken into two main branches: life science (for example biology) and physical science.",23638,Outline of physical science,M -265,265.0,265.0,"Engineering science and mechanics (ESM) is a multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary engineering program and/or academic department. It is available at various American universities, including Pennsylvania State University, University of Virginia, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Georgia Institute of Technology, and University of Alabama. - -Programs -A Bachelor of Science, Master of Science, Master of Engineering, or Ph.D. degree in engineering science, engineering mechanics, or engineering science and mechanics is awarded upon completion of the respective program. -Areas of specialization include aerodynamics, biomechanics, bionanotechnology, biosensors and bioelectronics, composite materials, continuum mechanics, data mining, electromagnetics of complex materials, electronic materials and devices, experimental mechanics, fluid mechanics, laser-assisted micromanufacturing, metamaterials, microfabrication, microfluidic systems, microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) and microoptoelectromechanical systems (MOEMS), nanotechnology, neural engineering, non-destructive testing or evaluation, nonlinear dynamics, optoelectronics, photonics and plasmonics, quantum mechanics, solar-energy-harvesting materials, solid mechanics, solid-state physics, structural health monitoring, and thin films and nanostructured materials. - -History -In 1972, the department of engineering mechanics at the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University changed its name and undergraduate program to engineering science and mechanics. In 1974, the department of engineering mechanics at the Pennsylvania State University merged with engineering science program and the department was renamed to engineering science and mechanics. Engineering science and mechanics is a graduate program in the School of Civil and Environmental Engineering at the Georgia Institute of Technology.",6457764,Engineering science and mechanics,E -266,266.0,266.0,"A living medicine is a type of biologic that consists of a living organism that is used to treat a disease. This usually takes the form of a cell (animal, bacterial, or fungal) or a virus that has been genetically engineered to possess therapeutic properties that is injected into a patient. Perhaps the oldest use of a living medicine is the use of leeches for bloodletting, though living medicines have advanced tremendously since that time. -Examples of living medicines include cellular therapeutics (including immunotherapeutics), phage therapeutics, and bacterial therapeutics, a subset of the latter being probiotics. - -Development of living medicines -Development of living medicines is an extremely active research area in the fields of synthetic biology and microbiology. Currently, there is a large focus on: 1) identifying microbes that naturally produce therapeutic effects (for example, probiotic bacteria), and 2) genetically programming organisms to produce therapeutic effects. - -Applications -Cancer therapy -There is tremendous interest in using bacteria as a therapy to treat tumors. In particular, tumor-homing bacteria that thrive in hypoxic environments are particularly attractive for this purpose, as they will tend to migrate to, invade (through the leaky vasculature in the tumor microenvironment) and colonize tumors.",63567957,Living medicine,S -267,267.0,267.0,"A beltweigher or belt weigher is a piece of industrial control equipment used to gauge the mass or flow rate of material travelling over a troughed (cupped) conveyor belt of any length which is able to adequately contain the material being weighed. These are also known as belt scales, dynamic scales, conveyor scales, and in-motion weighers. Many such check weighers or feed weighers are an active part of the process flow control of the conveyor line. -A belt weigher replaces a short section of the support mechanism of the belt, which might be one or more sets of idler rollers, or a short section of channel or plate. This weighed support is mounted on load cells, either pivoted, counterbalanced or not, or fully suspended. The mass measured by the load cells is integrated with the belt speed to compute the mass of material moving on the belt, after allowing for the mass of the belt itself.",7529592,Beltweigher,E -268,268.0,268.0,"Mitutoyo Corporation (株式会社ミツトヨ, Kabushiki Kaisha Mitsutoyo) is a Japanese multinational corporation specializing in measuring instruments and metrological technology, headquartered at Takatsu-ku, Kawasaki, Kanagawa.It was founded in 1934 by Yehan Numata (沼田 恵範 Numata Ehan). - -History -Mitutoyo was founded by Japanese entrepreneur Yehan Numata in 1934. Numata had spent the decade of the 1920s in the United States, where he studied at the University of California, Berkeley. While studying, he left a profound impression on those at Berkeley, which led him to be recognized many years later. He first entered the United States to study in 1921 and spent the next few years studying mathematics and statistics as an undergraduate. He remained at UC Berkeley until 1928, when he received his master's degree.",18426245,Mitutoyo,S -269,269.0,269.0,"The M-77 Oganj (from Serbian: огањ, lit. 'fire') is a 128mm self-propelled multiple rocket launcher developed in the former Yugoslavia. NATO designation is the YMRL-32. - -Development -Development started in 1968. Professor Obrad Vučurović, mechanical Engineer and Chief Operating Officer of the Artillery department of Military Technical Institute, developed and managed construction and production of the M-77 Oganj.The 6 pre-serial production version, based on a FAP 2220 6x6 truck, was shown to the public for the first time in 1975. Serial production started two years later. The M-77 is mounted on FAP 2026 BDS/A 6x6 truck bed.",11069468,M-77 Oganj,E -270,270.0,270.0,"Tech mining or technology mining refers to applying text mining methods to technical documents. For patent analysis purposes, it is named ‘patent mining’. Porter, as one of the pioneers in technology mining, defined ‘tech mining’ in his book as follows: “the application of text mining tools to science and technology information, informed by understanding of technological innovation processes.” Therefore, tech mining has two significant characteristics: 1) using ‘text mining tools’, 2) applying these tools to ‘technology management’. Also, technology mining can be considered as one of technology intelligence branches. - -Applications -Technology mining have many applications including R&D portfolio selection, R&D project initiation, new product development, strategic technology planning, technology roadmapping, etc. Tech miner should communicate closely with target users what technological issue they have, and how they want to address the issues.",56199829,Technology mining,T -271,271.0,271.0,"Sarek is a fictional character in the Star Trek media franchise. He is a Vulcan astrophysicist, the Vulcan ambassador to the United Federation of Planets, and father of Spock. The character was originally played by Mark Lenard in the episode ""Journey to Babel"" in 1967. Lenard later voiced Sarek in the animated series, and appeared in Star Trek films and the series Star Trek: The Next Generation. -Actor Jonathan Simpson played a younger Sarek in a brief scene in Star Trek V: The Final Frontier, with voice-over provided by Lenard. Ben Cross portrayed Sarek in the 2009 Star Trek film.",145408,Sarek,M -272,272.0,272.0,"In biology and botany, indeterminate growth is growth that is not terminated in contrast to determinate growth that stops once a genetically pre-determined structure has completely formed. Thus, a plant that grows and produces flowers and fruit until killed by frost or some other external factor is called indeterminate. For example, the term is applied to tomato varieties that grow in a rather gangly fashion, producing fruit throughout the growing season, and in contrast to a determinate tomato plant, which grows in a more bushy shape and is most productive for a single, larger harvest, then either tapers off with minimal new growth or fruit, or dies. - -Inflorescences -In reference to an inflorescence (a shoot specialised for bearing flowers, and bearing no leaves other than bracts), an indeterminate type (such as a raceme) is one in which the first flowers to develop and open are from the buds at the base, followed progressively by buds nearer to the growing tip. The growth of the shoot is not impeded by the opening of the early flowers or development of fruits and its appearance is of growing, producing, and maturing flowers and fruit indefinitely. In practice the continued growth of the terminal end necessarily peters out sooner or later, though without producing any definite terminal flower, and in some species it may stop growing before any of the buds have opened.",1989020,Indeterminate growth,S -273,273.0,273.0,"Sessility is the biological property of an organism describing its lack of a means of self-locomotion. Sessile organisms for which natural motility is absent are normally immobile. This is distinct from the botanical concept of sessility, which refers to an organism or biological structure attached directly by its base without a stalk. -Sessile organisms can move via external forces (such as water currents), but are usually permanently attached to something. Organisms such as corals lay down their own substrate from which they grow. Other sessile organisms grow from a solid object, such as a rock, a dead tree trunk, or a man-made object such as a buoy or ship's hull. - -Mobility -Sessile animals typically have a motile phase in their development.",20097070,Sessility (motility),S -274,274.0,274.0,"The Macau Red Cross (Portuguese: Cruz Vermelha Macau, Chinese: 澳門紅十字會) is a branch of the Red Cross in Macau. The headquarters is in the China Civil Plaza (中土大廈) in Sé. It also has a Medical Transfer Centre (醫療輔助服務中心) in the Edificio Industrial Hap Si (合時工業大廈) in Areia Preta, Nossa Senhora de Fátima.It is the humanitarian organisation in the territory that has existed for the longest time.The previous head office is in São Lourenço. - -History -The Portuguese Red Cross's presence in Macau began in 1920, and became established as a delegation in 1943. A chapter of the book The Red Cross Movement described the Macau Red Cross as ""simultaneously, a local creation, a delegation integrated into a national/colonial context, an inter-imperial structure and part of a transnational institution with global reach."" The Macau Red Cross left the Portuguese organisation and joined the Red Cross Society of China effective 20 December 1999.It supports a school in Heba Town, Shiqian County, Tongren, Guizhou: Melco Crown-Macau Red Cross Bo-Ai Primary School (新濠博亚澳门红十字博爱小学). It first opened in 1964 and had its current facility open in 2017. - -Ambulance Fleet -Macau Red Cross operates a fleet of ambulances (MB Sprinter vans, Toyota Coaster minibuses, Toyota Hiace van) to supplement the fire service's amubulance fleet.",66836668,Macau Red Cross,S -275,275.0,275.0,"Folksonomy is a classification system in which end users apply public tags to online items, typically to make those items easier for themselves or others to find later. Over time, this can give rise to a classification system based on those tags and how often they are applied or searched for, in contrast to a taxonomic classification designed by the owners of the content and specified when it is published. This practice is also known as collaborative tagging, social classification, social indexing, and social tagging. Folksonomy was originally ""the result of personal free tagging of information [...] for one's own retrieval"", but online sharing and interaction expanded it into collaborative forms. Social tagging is the application of tags in an open online environment where the tags of other users are available to others.",23219749,Folksonomy,T -276,276.0,276.0,"The following table compares features of dosimeters. - -References -Literature -""Intercomparison of personal dose equivalent measurements by active personal dosimeters"" (PDF). International Atomic Energy Agency. Chicago. 2007. -Bordy JM, Daures J, Clairand I, Denozière M, Donadille L, d'Errico F, Gouriou J, Itié C, Struelens L (2008). ""Evaluation of the calibration procedure of active personal dosemeters for interventional radiology"".",28393571,Comparison of dosimeters,T -277,277.0,277.0,"The vibration theory of smell proposes that a molecule's smell character is due to its vibrational frequency in the infrared range. This controversial theory is an alternative to the more widely accepted docking theory of olfaction (formerly termed the shape theory of olfaction), which proposes that a molecule's smell character is due to a range of weak non-covalent interactions between its protein odorant receptor (found in the nasal epithelium), such as electrostatic and Van der Waals interactions as well as H-bonding, dipole attraction, pi-stacking, metal ion, Cation–pi interaction, and hydrophobic effects, in addition to the molecule's conformation. - -Introduction -The current vibration theory has recently been called the ""swipe card"" model, in contrast with ""lock and key"" models based on shape theory. As proposed by Luca Turin, the odorant molecule must first fit in the receptor's binding site. Then it must have a vibrational energy mode compatible with the difference in energies between two energy levels on the receptor, so electrons can travel through the molecule via inelastic electron tunneling, triggering the signal transduction pathway. The vibration theory is discussed in a popular but controversial book by Chandler Burr.The odor character is encoded in the ratio of activities of receptors tuned to different vibration frequencies, in the same way that color is encoded in the ratio of activities of cone cell receptors tuned to different frequencies of light.",1674555,Vibration theory of olfaction,S -278,278.0,278.0,"Astronomy is a natural science that studies celestial objects and phenomena. It uses mathematics, physics, and chemistry in order to explain their origin and evolution. Objects of interest include planets, moons, stars, nebulae, galaxies, meteoroid, asteroid, and comets. Relevant phenomena include supernova explosions, gamma ray bursts, quasars, blazars, pulsars, and cosmic microwave background radiation. More generally, astronomy studies everything that originates beyond Earth's atmosphere.",52038,Astronomy,M -279,279.0,279.0," -DSW (German: Deutsche Stiftung Weltbevölkerung) is an international private non-profit foundation addressing Sexual & Reproductive Health (SRH) and population dynamics. DSW funds its project and advocacy work from private donations and the financial support of governments, foundations and other organisations. It has its headquarters in Hanover, Germany. - -History -DSW was founded in 1991 by German entrepreneurs Erhard Schreiber and Dirk Roßmann. DSW opened country offices in the 1990s in Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda to provide field-based services. The organisation’s goal is to strengthen the human right to family planning, especially in East Africa, and to support young people in making self-determined decisions about their sexuality and contraception.",20989612,German Foundation for World Population,S -280,280.0,280.0,"In game theory, asynchrony occurs when gameplay does not proceed in consistently paced rounds. A system is synchronous if agents in a game move in lockstep according to a global timing system, whereas ""in an asynchronous system, there is no global clock. The agents in the system can run at arbitrary rates relative to each other."" - -External links -Abraham, I., Alvisi, L., & Halpern, J. Y. (2011).",61274856,Asynchrony (game theory),M -281,281.0,281.0,"Synthetic microbial consortia (commonly called co-cultures) are multi-population systems that can contain a diverse range of microbial species, and are adjustable to serve a variety of industrial, ecological, and tautological interests. For synthetic biology, consortia take the ability to engineer novel cell behaviors to a population level. -Consortia are more common than not in nature, and generally prove to be more robust than monocultures. Just over 7,000 species of bacteria have been cultured and identified to date. Many of the estimated 1.2 million bacteria species that remain have yet to be cultured and identified, in part due to inabilities to be cultured axenically. Evidence for symbiosis between microbes strongly suggests it to have been a necessary precursor of the evolution of land plants and for their transition from algal communities in the sea to land.",59987872,Synthetic microbial consortia,S -282,282.0,282.0,"The electric flash-lamp uses electric current to start flash powder burning, to provide a brief sudden burst of bright light. It was principally used for flash photography in the early 20th century but had other uses as well. Previously, photographers' flash powder, introduced in 1887 by Adolf Miethe and Johannes Gaedicke, had to be ignited manually, exposing the user to greater risk. - -Invention -The electric flash-lamp was invented by Joshua Cohen (a.k.a. Joshua Lionel Cohen of the Lionel toy train fame) in 1899, and by Paul Boyer in France. It was granted U.S.",23542979,Flash-lamp,T -283,283.0,283.0,"Blain was an animal disease of unknown etiology that was well known in the 18th and 19th centuries. It is unclear whether it is still extant, or what modern disease it corresponds to. -According to Ephraim Chambers' 18th-century Cyclopaedia, or an Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences, blain was ""a distemper"" (in the archaic eighteenth-century sense of the word, meaning ""disease"") occurring in animals, consisting of a ""Bladder growing on the Root of the Tongue against the Wind-Pipe"", which ""at length swelling, stops the Wind"". It was thought to occur ""by great chafing, and heating of the Stomach"". -Blain is also mentioned in Cattle: Their Breeds, Management, and Diseases, published in 1836, where it is also identified as ""gloss-anthrax"". W. C.",4363105,Blain (animal disease),S -284,284.0,284.0,"A best practice is a method or technique that has been generally accepted as superior to other known alternatives because it often produces results that are superior to those achieved by other means or because it has become a standard way of doing things, e.g., a standard way of complying with legal or ethical requirements. -Best practices are used to maintain quality as an alternative to mandatory legislated standards and can be based on self-assessment or benchmarking. Best practice is a feature of accredited management standards such as ISO 9000 and ISO 14001.Some consulting firms specialize in the area of best practice and offer ready-made templates to standardize business process documentation. Sometimes a best practice is not applicable or is inappropriate for a particular organization's needs. A key strategic talent required when applying best practice to organizations is the ability to balance the unique qualities of an organization with the practices that it has in common with others. -Good operating practice is a strategic management term. More specific uses of the term include good agricultural practices, good manufacturing practice, good laboratory practice, good clinical practice, and good distribution practice. - -In public policy -Best practice is a form of program evaluation in public policy.",805228,Best practice,T -285,285.0,285.0,"An integer is the number zero (0), a positive natural number (1, 2, 3, etc.) or a negative integer with a minus sign (−1, −2, −3, etc.). The negative numbers are the additive inverses of the corresponding positive numbers. In the language of mathematics, the set of integers is often denoted by the boldface Z or blackboard bold - - - - - Z - - - - {\displaystyle \mathbb {Z} } - .The set of natural numbers - - - - - N - - - - {\displaystyle \mathbb {N} } - is a subset of - - - - - Z - - - - {\displaystyle \mathbb {Z} } - , which in turn is a subset of the set of all rational numbers - - - - - Q - - - - {\displaystyle \mathbb {Q} } - , itself a subset of the real numbers - - - - - R - - - - {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} } - . Like the natural numbers, - - - - - Z - - - - {\displaystyle \mathbb {Z} } - is countably infinite. An integer may be regarded as a real number that can be written without a fractional component.",14563,Integer,M -286,286.0,286.0,"Business and technology alignment, or just technology alignment, corrects terminology and assumptions used in business to better match those of technology and standards anticipated in the technology strategy and technology roadmaps. - -Changes terminology -When technology is changing very rapidly in an industry, the aligning of business terms to the distinctions that the technology requires tends to dominate any enterprise taxonomy development effort. In such circumstances, consultants or specific technology training is usually required, as the organization lacks the internal skills or experience with the technologies that it expects to be using soon. - -Example: government -In government, for example, citizen use of the Internet and the increased availability of remote work has presented special challenges and opportunities, typically called ""e-government"". At the same time, internal operational efficiencies have become more of a priority due to rising competition between jurisdictions. Often the first step is to limit the number of different departments or agencies involved. By ""consolidating the technology operations of 91 state agencies into the Virginia Information Technology Agency, the State of Virginia estimates an eventual savings of nearly $100 million a year."" - [1] -""Similarly, the U.S.",2028016,Technology alignment,T -287,287.0,287.0,"Encoded Archival Description (EAD) is a standard for encoding descriptive information regarding archival records. - -Overview -Archival records differ from the items in a library collection because they are unique, usually unpublished and unavailable elsewhere, and because they exist as part of a collection that unifies them. For these reasons, archival description involves a hierarchical and progressive analysis that emphasizes the intellectual structure and content of the collection and does not always extend to the level of individual items within it.Following the development of technologies in the middle to late 1980s that enabled the descriptive encoding of machine-readable findings, it became possible to consider the development of digital finding aids for archives. Work on an encoding standard for archival description began in 1992 at the University of California, Berkeley, and in 1998 the first version of EAD was released. A second version was released in 2002, and the latest version, EAD3, was released in August 2015. The Society of American Archivists and the Library of Congress are jointly responsible for the maintenance and development of EAD.EAD is now used around the world by archives, libraries, museums, national libraries and historical societies.",2455247,Encoded Archival Description,T -288,288.0,288.0,"Nick Petford (born 27 May 1961, London, England) is a British academic and former Vice-Chancellor of the University of Northampton. Previously he was Pro-Vice Chancellor (Research and Enterprise) at Bournemouth University and before that Professor of Earth and Planetary Sciences at Kingston University. He has also worked for BP and on academic and commercial research projects throughout the world. As an academic he is known for his expertise in magmatic systems and volcanology. His publicly available Google Scholar Nick Petford account records over 200 journal articles, pieces of journalism, published abstracts and book chapters in this and other fields.",29244958,Nick Petford,M -289,289.0,289.0,"Applied anthropology is the practical application of anthropological theories, methods, and practices to the analysis and solution of practical problems. The term was first put forward by Daniel G. Brinton in his paper titled, ""The Aims of Anthropology"" and John Van Willengen simply defined applied anthropology as ""anthropology put to use"" Applied anthropology includes conducting research with a primary or tertiary purpose to solve real-world problems in areas such as public health, education, government, business, and more. -In Applied Anthropology: Domains of Application, Kedia and Van Willigen define the process as a ""complex of related, research-based, instrumental methods which produce change or stability in specific cultural systems through the provision of data, initiation of direct action, and/or the formulation of policy"". In other words, applied anthropology is the praxis-based side of anthropological research; it includes researcher involvement and activism within the participating community. - -Spanning academic disciplines -The American Anthropological Association (AAA) website describes anthropology as a focus on ""the study of humans, past and present.",631934,Applied anthropology,S -290,290.0,290.0,"The Peterson Identification System is a practical method for the field identification of animals, plants and other natural phenomena. It was devised by ornithologist Roger Tory Peterson in 1934 for the first of his series of Field Guides (See Peterson Field Guides.) Peterson devised his system ""so that live birds could be identified readily at a distance by their 'field marks' without resorting to the bird-in-hand characters that the early collectors relied on. During the last half century the binocular and the spotting scope have replaced the shotgun."" As such, it both reflected and contributed to awareness of the emerging early environmental movement. Another application of this system was made when Roger Tory Peterson was enlisted in the US Army Corps of Engineers from 1943 to 1945. “...plane identification—the aircraft spotting technique—was based on Roger’s bird identification method-the Peterson system.”. - -The system -Created for use by amateur naturalists and laymen, rather than specialists, the ""Peterson System"" is essentially a pictorial key based upon readily noticed visual impressions rather than on the technical features of interest to scientists.",15654603,Peterson Identification System,S -291,291.0,291.0,"A mirror image (in a plane mirror) is a reflected duplication of an object that appears almost identical, but is reversed in the direction perpendicular to the mirror surface. As an optical effect it results from reflection off from substances such as a mirror or water. It is also a concept in geometry and can be used as a conceptualization process for 3-D structures. - -In geometry and geometrical optics -In two dimensions -In geometry, the mirror image of an object or two-dimensional figure is the virtual image formed by reflection in a plane mirror; it is of the same size as the original object, yet different, unless the object or figure has reflection symmetry (also known as a P-symmetry). -Two-dimensional mirror images can be seen in the reflections of mirrors or other reflecting surfaces, or on a printed surface seen inside-out. If we first look at an object that is effectively two-dimensional (such as the writing on a card) and then turn the card to face a mirror, the object turns through an angle of 180° and we see a left-right reversal in the mirror. In this example, it is the change in orientation rather than the mirror itself that causes the observed reversal.",148234,Mirror image,M -292,292.0,292.0,"Manufacturing in Vietnam after reunification followed a pattern that was initially the reverse of the record in agriculture; it showed recovery from a depressed base in the early postwar years. However, this recovery stopped in the late 1970s as the war in Cambodia and the threat from China caused the government to redirect food, finance, and other resources to the military. This move worsened shortages and intensified old bottlenecks. At the same time, the invasion of Cambodia cost Vietnam urgent foreign economic support. China's attack on Vietnam in 1979 compounded industrial problems by damaging important industrial facilities in the North, particularly a major steel plant and an apatite mine. - -National objectives -National leadership objectives during the immediate postwar period included consolidating the Northern factories and workshops that had been scattered and hidden during the war to improve their chances of survival and nationalizing banks and significant factories in the South to bring the financial and industrial sectors under state control.",16593281,Manufacturing in Vietnam,E -293,293.0,293.0,"A protoplanet is a large planetary embryo that originated within a protoplanetary disc and has undergone internal melting to produce a differentiated interior. Protoplanets are thought to form out of kilometer-sized planetesimals that gravitationally perturb each other's orbits and collide, gradually coalescing into the dominant planets. - -The planetesimal hypothesis -A planetesimal is an object formed from dust, rock, and other materials, measuring from meters to hundreds of kilometers in size. -According to the Chamberlin–Moulton planetesimal hypothesis and the theories of Viktor Safronov, a protoplanetary disk of materials such as gas and dust would orbit a star early in the formation of a planetary system. The action of gravity on such materials form larger and larger chunks until some reach the size of planetesimals.It is thought that the collisions of planetesimals created a few hundred larger planetary embryos. Over the course of hundreds of millions of years, they collided with one another.",245586,Protoplanet,M -294,294.0,294.0,"Sir John Mills McCallum (12 August 1847 – 10 January 1920) was a Scottish soap manufacturer and Liberal politician. - -Family and education -McCallum was born in Paisley the son of John McCallum who was originally from Kintyre and was a partner in a firm of dyers. McCallum attended Allan Glen's School in Glasgow to pursue studies in chemistry. In 1875, he married Miss Oates the daughter of a Grimsby Justice of the Peace. He lived in Paisley all his life. - -Career -McCallum followed his father into business and became a partner in the firm of Isdale and McCallum, soap manufacturers. - -Politics -Local politics -McCallum became a member of the Paisley Town Council in 1899. He was a magistrate in the town and also served as a Justice of the Peace for Renfrew.He was sometime president of the Scottish Liberal Association and took a prominent part in the promotion of the Paisley Liberal Club, despite being a teetotaller and a temperance campaigner. - -Political position -McCallum was identified as a supporter of the great Liberal prime minister William Ewart Gladstone, particularly on the issue of Irish Home Rule.",22691233,John McCallum (British politician),E -295,295.0,295.0,"A real-time polymerase chain reaction (real-time PCR, or qPCR when used quantitatively) is a laboratory technique of molecular biology based on the polymerase chain reaction (PCR). It monitors the amplification of a targeted DNA molecule during the PCR (i.e., in real time), not at its end, as in conventional PCR. Real-time PCR can be used quantitatively and semi-quantitatively (i.e., above/below a certain amount of DNA molecules). -Two common methods for the detection of PCR products in real-time PCR are (1) non-specific fluorescent dyes that intercalate with any double-stranded DNA and (2) sequence-specific DNA probes consisting of oligonucleotides that are labelled with a fluorescent reporter, which permits detection only after hybridization of the probe with its complementary sequence. -The Minimum Information for Publication of Quantitative Real-Time PCR Experiments (MIQE) guidelines propose that the abbreviation qPCR be used for quantitative real-time PCR and that RT-qPCR be used for reverse transcription–qPCR. The acronym ""RT-PCR"" commonly denotes reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction and not real-time PCR, but not all authors adhere to this convention. - -Background -Cells in all organisms regulate gene expression by turnover of gene transcripts (single stranded RNA): The amount of an expressed gene in a cell can be measured by the number of copies of an RNA transcript of that gene present in a sample. In order to robustly detect and quantify gene expression from small amounts of RNA, amplification of the gene transcript is necessary.",3487107,Real-time polymerase chain reaction,T -296,296.0,296.0,"In aquatic toxicology, bioconcentration is the accumulation of a water-borne chemical substance in an organism exposed to the water.There are several ways in which to measure and assess bioaccumulation and bioconcentration. These include: octanol-water partition coefficients (KOW), bioconcentration factors (BCF), bioaccumulation factors (BAF) and biota-sediment accumulation factor (BSAF). Each of these can be calculated using either empirical data or measurements, as well as from mathematical models. One of these mathematical models is a fugacity-based BCF model developed by Don Mackay.Bioconcentration factor can also be expressed as the ratio of the concentration of a chemical in an organism to the concentration of the chemical in the surrounding environment. The BCF is a measure of the extent of chemical sharing between an organism and the surrounding environment.In surface water, the BCF is the ratio of a chemical's concentration in an organism to the chemical's aqueous concentration.",35741423,Bioconcentration,M -297,297.0,297.0,"In combinatorial mathematics, block walking is a method useful in thinking about sums of combinations graphically as ""walks"" on Pascal's triangle. As the name suggests, block walking problems involve counting the number of ways an individual can walk from one corner A of a city block to another corner B of another city block given restrictions on the number of blocks the person may walk, the directions the person may travel, the distance from A to B, et cetera. - -An example block walking problem -Suppose such an individual, say ""Fred"", must walk exactly k blocks to get to a point B that is exactly k blocks from A. It is convenient to regard Fred's starting point A as the origin, (0,0), of a rectangular array of lattice points and B as some lattice point - - - - ( - e - , - n - ) - - - {\displaystyle (e,n)} - , e units ""East"" and n units ""North"" of A, where - - - - e - + - n - = - k - - - {\displaystyle e+n=k} - and both e and n are nonnegative. - -Solution by brute force -A ""brute force"" solution to this problem may be obtained by systematically counting the number of ways Fred can reach each point - - - - X - = - ( - - x - - 1 - - - , - - x - - 2 - - - ) - - - {\displaystyle X=(x_{1},x_{2})} - where - - - - - 0 - ≤ - - x - - 1 - - - ≤ - e - - - {\displaystyle 0\leq x_{1}\leq e} - and - - - - 0 - ≤ - - x - - 2 - - - ≤ - n - - - {\displaystyle 0\leq x_{2}\leq n} - without backtracking (i.e. only traveling North or East from one point to another) until a pattern is observed. For example, the number of ways Fred could go from (0,0) to (1,0) or (0,1) is exactly one; to (1,1) is two; to (2,0) or (0,2) is one; to (1,2) or (2,1) is three; and so on.",3827112,Block walking,M -298,298.0,298.0,"Applied science is the use of the scientific method and knowledge obtained via conclusions from the method to attain practical goals. It includes a broad range of disciplines such as engineering and medicine. Applied science is often contrasted with basic science, which is focused on advancing scientific theories and laws that explain and predict natural or other phenomena.Applied science can also apply formal science, such as statistics and probability theory, as in epidemiology. Genetic epidemiology is an applied science applying both biological and statistical methods. Applied science can also apply social science, such as application of psychology in applied psychology, criminology, and law. - -Applied research -Applied research is the practical application of science.",419386,Applied science,S -299,299.0,299.0,"ZMapp is an experimental biopharmaceutical drug comprising three chimeric monoclonal antibodies under development as a treatment for Ebola virus disease. Two of the three components were originally developed at the Public Health Agency of Canada's National Microbiology Laboratory (NML), and the third at the U.S. Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases; the cocktail was optimized by Gary Kobinger, a research scientist at the NML and underwent further development under license by Mapp Biopharmaceutical. ZMapp was first used on humans during the Western African Ebola virus epidemic, having only been previously tested on animals and not yet subjected to a randomized controlled trial. The National Institutes of Health (NIH) ran a clinical trial starting in January 2015 with subjects from Sierra Leone, Guinea, and Liberia aiming to enroll 200 people, but the epidemic waned and the trial closed early, leaving it too statistically underpowered to give a meaningful result about whether ZMapp worked.In 2016, a clinical study comparing ZMapp to the current standard of care for Ebola was inconclusive. - -Chemistry -The drug is composed of three monoclonal antibodies (mAbs), initially harvested from mice exposed to Ebola virus proteins, that have been chimerized with human constant regions.",43478312,ZMapp,S -300,300.0,300.0,"Oblique projection is a simple type of technical drawing of graphical projection used for producing two-dimensional (2D) images of three-dimensional (3D) objects. -The objects are not in perspective and so do not correspond to any view of an object that can be obtained in practice, but the technique yields somewhat convincing and useful. -Oblique projection is commonly used in technical drawing. The cavalier projection was used by French military artists in the 18th century to depict fortifications. -Oblique projection was used almost universally by Chinese artists from the 1st or 2nd centuries to the 18th century, especially to depict rectilinear objects such as houses.Various graphical projection techniques can be used in computer graphics, including in Computer Aided Design (CAD), computer games, computer generated animations, and special effects used in movies. - -Overview -Oblique projection is a type of parallel projection: - -it projects an image by intersecting parallel rays (projectors) -from the three-dimensional source object with the drawing surface (projection plane).In both oblique projection and orthographic projection, parallel lines of the source object produce parallel lines in the projected image. The projectors in oblique projection intersect the projection plane at an oblique angle to produce the projected image, as opposed to the perpendicular angle used in orthographic projection. -Mathematically, the parallel projection of the point - - - - ( - x - , - y - , - z - ) - - - {\displaystyle (x,y,z)} - on the - - - - x - y - - - {\displaystyle xy} - -plane gives - - - - ( - x - + - a - z - , - y - + - b - z - , - 0 - ) - - - {\displaystyle (x+az,y+bz,0)} - . The constants - - - - a - - - {\displaystyle a} - and - - - - b - - - {\displaystyle b} - uniquely specify a parallel projection. When - - - - a - = - b - = - 0 - - - {\displaystyle a=b=0} - , the projection is said to be ""orthographic"" or ""orthogonal"".",497039,Oblique projection,S -301,301.0,301.0,"The Biomimicry Institute is a 501(c)(3) not-for-profit organization founded in 2006 and based in Missoula, Montana in the United States. Its goal is to help innovators learn from nature in order to design sustainable products, processes, and policies in response to real-world problems. The Biomimicry Institute has become a key communicator in the field of biomimetics, connecting thousands of practitioners and organizations across the world. Its Global Network currently supports 38 regional networks across 26 countries as of 2022. -The Biomimicry Institute was founded by Bryony Schwan, Dayna Baumeister and Janine Benyus -and originated following the publishing of Biomimicry: Innovation Inspired by Nature by Janine Benyus; a natural sciences writer, innovation consultant and author. - -Approach -Biomimicry is an approach to design and innovation that finds inspiration in the function of living organisms. The idea of connecting biologists, ecologists and other life scientists with designers and product engineers in the design process was introduced by Janine Benyus.",28443164,Biomimicry Institute,S -302,302.0,302.0,"Leapfrogging is a concept used in many domains of the economics and business fields, and was originally developed in the area of industrial organization and economic growth. The main idea behind the concept of leapfrogging is that small and incremental innovations lead a dominant firm to stay ahead. However, sometimes, radical innovations will permit new firms to leapfrog the ancient and dominant firm. The phenomenon can occur to firms but also to leadership of countries or cities, where a developing country can skip stages of the path taken by industrial nations, enabling them to catch up sooner, particularly in terms of economic growth. - -Industrial organization -In the field of industrial organization (IO), the main work on leapfrogging was developed by Fudenberg, Gilbert, Stiglitz and Tirole (1983). In their article, they analyze under which conditions a new entrant can leapfrog an established firm.",1310760,Leapfrogging,T -303,303.0,303.0,"Insect collecting refers to the collection of insects and other arthropods for scientific study or as a hobby. Most insects are small and the majority cannot be identified without the examination of minute morphological characters, so entomologists often make and maintain insect collections. Very large collections are conserved in natural history museums or universities where they are maintained and studied by specialists. Many college courses require students to form small collections. There are also amateur entomologists and collectors who keep collections. -Historically, insect collecting has been widespread and was in the Victorian age a very popular educational hobby.",889726,Insect collecting,S -304,304.0,304.0,"Danfoss is a Danish multinational company, based in Denmark, with more than 41,928 employees globally. Danfoss was founded in 1933 by engineer Mads Clausen. - -History -Beginning (1933–1966) -In 1933 Mads Clausen (1905–1966) founded Dansk Køleautomatik- og Apparatfabrik, later in 1946 the company name was changed to Danfoss. The first product was an expansion valve for refrigeration units, it was developed after studying imported valves from the US.In 1941, activities expanded to products for heating. The thermostatic radiator valve was invented by Mads Clausen in 1943, later patented, and in 1952 promoted as an energy saving device.In 1945 about 224 people were employed at the first factory built at and around the farm where he grew up. There was no more room for expansion and a new larger factory was planned.In 1962 the company started production of power electronics, the first product was custom-built rectifiers, later in 1968 production of the VLT Frequency converter began, the first of its kind in the world. -The company also expanded its activities into hydraulics, the first hydraulic component was produced in the factory in Nordborg in 1964.Mads Clausen died in 1966, at 60.",1834182,Danfoss,E -305,305.0,305.0,"Otto Gunther Octavius is a fictional character portrayed by Alfred Molina in Spider-Man 2 (2004) and later in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) film Spider-Man: No Way Home (2021), based on the Marvel Comics character of the same name. Octavius is introduced in Spider-Man 2 as a nuclear physicist and friend and mentor of Peter Parker, whose research into fusion power with his wife Rosie (portrayed by Donna Murphy) is being sponsored by Oscorp's genetic and scientific research division, headed by Harry Osborn. -When Octavius' fusion reactor experiment using tritium becomes unstable, resulting in Rosie's death, the harness of powerful robotic tentacle arms equipped with artificial intelligence (AI) which he was using to safely handle the materials is fused to his body, burning the inhibitor chip keeping the arms from controlling his nervous system. After ending up in the hospital and massacring the surgeons attempting to save Octavius by sawing them off, the arms' AI begin influencing his mind and convince him to steal funds in order to attempt the experiment again, over the course of which crime spree the Daily Bugle dubs him Doctor Octopus, or ""Doc Ock"" for short. Along the way, he comes into conflict with Spider-Man, with Osborn offering to give Octavius the tritium he needs to complete his experiment in exchange for handing Spider-Man over to him. Ultimately, as the experiment begins to destroy New York City, Spider-Man reveals himself as Peter to Octavius after damaging his arms, and inspires him to regain control of them and sacrifice himself to sink the fusion reactor into the East River, where he presumably drowns. -The character returns in Spider-Man: No Way Home, being transported into another universe shortly before his redemption and death, due to a magic spell gone wrong causing a rupture in the multiverse, and ends up clashing with that universe's Spider-Man and his allies.",65281693,Otto Octavius (film character),M -306,306.0,306.0,"BogoMips (from ""bogus"" and MIPS) is a crude measurement of CPU speed made by the Linux kernel when it boots to calibrate an internal busy-loop. An often-quoted definition of the term is ""the number of million times per second a processor can do absolutely nothing"".BogoMips is a value that can be used to verify whether the processor in question is in the proper range of similar processors, i.e. BogoMips represents a processor's clock frequency as well as the potentially present CPU cache. It is not usable for performance comparisons among different CPUs. - -History -In 1993, Lars Wirzenius posted a Usenet message explaining the reasons for its introduction in the Linux kernel on comp.os.linux: - -[...]MIPS is short for Millions of Instructions Per Second. It is a measure for the computation speed of a processor.",160673,BogoMips,T -307,307.0,307.0,"A tumour inducing (Ti) plasmid is a plasmid found in pathogenic species of Agrobacterium, including A. tumefaciens, A. rhizogenes, A. rubi and A. vitis. -Evolutionarily, the Ti plasmid is part of a family of plasmids carried by many species of Alphaproteobacteria.",1707931,Ti plasmid,S -308,308.0,308.0,"A Dyson sphere is a hypothetical megastructure that encompasses a star and captures a large percentage of its solar power output. The concept is a thought experiment that attempts to imagine how a spacefaring civilization would meet its energy requirements once those requirements exceed what can be generated from the home planet's resources alone. Because only a tiny fraction of a star's energy emissions reaches the surface of any orbiting planet, building structures encircling a star would enable a civilization to harvest far more energy. -The first modern imagining of such a structure was by Olaf Stapledon in his science fiction novel Star Maker (1937). The concept was later explored by the physicist Freeman Dyson in his 1960 paper ""Search for Artificial Stellar Sources of Infrared Radiation"". Dyson speculated that such structures would be the logical consequence of the escalating energy needs of a technological civilization and would be a necessity for its long-term survival.",8586,Dyson sphere,T -309,309.0,309.0,"Crysis is a first-person shooter video game series created by Crytek. The series revolves around a group of military protagonists with ""nanosuits"", technologically advanced suits of armor that give them enhanced physical strength, speed, defense, and cloaking abilities. The protagonists face off against hostile North Korean soldiers, heavily armed mercenaries, and a race of technologically advanced aliens known as the Ceph, who arrived on Earth millions of years ago and have recently been awakened. The series consists of three main installments, a standalone spinoff of the first game with a separate multiplayer title, and a compilation. A fourth game, under the working title of Crysis 4, was announced by Crytek on January 26, 2022. - -Gameplay -Characters in Crysis use nanosuits, advanced powered exoskeletons developed by the U.S.",23045626,Crysis,S -310,310.0,310.0,"Infrastructure before 1700 consisted mainly of roads and canals. Canals were used for transportation or for irrigation. Sea navigation was aided by ports and lighthouses. A few advanced cities had aqueducts that serviced public fountains and baths, while fewer had sewers. -The earliest railways were used in mines or to bypass waterfalls, and were pulled by horses or by people. In 1811 John Blenkinsop designed the first successful and practical railway locomotive, and a line was built connecting the Middleton Colliery to Leeds. -The electrical telegraph was first successfully demonstrated on 25 July 1837 between Euston and Camden Town in London.",46186742,History of infrastructure,T -311,311.0,311.0,"A user interface specification (UI specification) is a document that captures the details of the software user interface into a written document. The specification covers all possible actions that an end user may perform and all visual, auditory and other interaction elements. - -Purpose -The UI specification is the main source of implementation information for how the software should work. Beyond implementation, a UI specification should consider usability, localization, and demo limits. A UI spec may also be incorporated by those within the organization responsible for marketing, graphic design, and software testing. As future designers might continue or build on top of existing work, a UI specification should consider forward compatibility constraints in order to assist the implementation team. -The UI specification can be regarded as the document that bridges the gap between the product management functions and implementation.",24572016,User interface specification,T -312,312.0,312.0,"Flore de la Nouvelle-Calédonie is an ongoing multi-volume flora describing the vascular plants of New Caledonia (including the Loyalty Islands, Isles of Pines and Belep islands) in the South-West Pacific. published by the National Museum of Natural History in Paris since 1967. Each species treatment typically includes taxonomic information, morphological description, a line drawing and a distribution map. Originally published as Flore de la Nouvelle-Calédonie et Dépendances, since 2014 it has been renamed shortly Flore de la Nouvelle-Calédonie and is co-published with Institut de Recherche pour le Développement in a fully colored format. -Flore de la Nouvelle-Calédonie currently consists of 27 volumes, covering little over 50% of a total of approximately 3,400 species native to the New Caledonian archipelago. Major botanical families awaiting treatment include Rubiaceae, Cyperaceae, Rutaceae, and Poaceae. - -List of published volumes -Volume 1 (1967) – Sapotaceae by A.",53316084,Flore de la Nouvelle-Calédonie,S -313,313.0,313.0,"The Research, Innovation, and Dissemination Center for Neuromathematics (RIDC NeuroMat, or simply NeuroMat) is a Brazilian research center established in 2013 at the University of São Paulo that is dedicated to integrating mathematical modeling and theoretical neuroscience. Among the core missions of NeuroMat are the creation of a new mathematical system to understanding neural data and the development of neuroscientific open-source computational tools, keeping an active role under the context of open knowledge, open science and scientific dissemination. The research center is headed by Antonio Galves, from USP's Institute of Mathematics and Statistics, and is funded by the São Paulo Research Foundation (FAPESP). As of 2019, the co-principal investigators are Oswaldo Baffa Filho (USP), Pablo A. Ferrari (USP/UBA), Fernando da Paixão (UNICAMP), Antonio Carlos Roque (USP), Jorge Stolfi (UNICAMP), and Cláudia D.",50145611,NeuroMat,M -314,314.0,314.0,"A hybrid system is a dynamical system that exhibits both continuous and discrete dynamic behavior – a system that can both flow (described by a differential equation) and jump (described by a state machine or automaton). Often, the term ""hybrid dynamical system"" is used, to distinguish over hybrid systems such as those that combine neural nets and fuzzy logic, or electrical and mechanical drivelines. A hybrid system has the benefit of encompassing a larger class of systems within its structure, allowing for more flexibility in modeling dynamic phenomena. -In general, the state of a hybrid system is defined by the values of the continuous variables and a discrete mode. The state changes either continuously, according to a flow condition, or discretely according to a control graph. Continuous flow is permitted as long as so-called invariants hold, while discrete transitions can occur as soon as given jump conditions are satisfied.",564719,Hybrid system,M -315,315.0,315.0,"Wire rope spooling technology is the technology to prevent wire rope getting snagged when spooled, especially in multiple layers on a drum. - -History -Ever since the development of wire rope, comprising multiple wire strands, spooling the wire has presented technical challenges. When wrapped in multiple layers, the upper layers have a tendency to crush the lower layers, while the lower layers have a tendency to pinch upper layers. The rubbing of rope against rope also has a tendency to cause wear. -These problems were addressed by Frank L. LeBus Sr., a supplier of drilling equipment to the oilfields of Texas, USA, who in 1938, patented the use of a groove bar on hoisting drums to guide the spooling of rope. Grooved shape steel segments were simply welded or screwed to existing plain steel drums.",38858718,Wire rope spooling technology,E -316,316.0,316.0,"Agronomy is the science and technology of producing and using plants by agriculture for food, fuel, fiber, chemicals, recreation, or land conservation. Agronomy has come to include research of plant genetics, plant physiology, meteorology, and soil science. It is the application of a combination of sciences such as biology, chemistry, economics, ecology, earth science, and genetics. Professionals of agronomy are termed agronomists. - -History -Plant breeding -This topic of agronomy involves selective breeding of plants to produce the best crops for various conditions. Plant breeding has increased crop yields and has improved the nutritional value of numerous crops, including corn, soybeans, and wheat.",186725,Agronomy,S -317,317.0,317.0,"In mathematics, the concept of graph dynamical systems can be used to capture a wide range of processes taking place on graphs or networks. A major theme in the mathematical and computational analysis of GDSs is to relate their structural properties (e.g. the network connectivity) and the global dynamics that result. -The work on GDSs considers finite graphs and finite state spaces. As such, the research typically involves techniques from, e.g., graph theory, combinatorics, algebra, and dynamical systems rather than differential geometry. In principle, one could define and study GDSs over an infinite graph (e.g.",20335837,Graph dynamical system,M -318,318.0,318.0,"Neuromantic is a philosophical concept defined by anthropologist Bradd Shore as the cybernetic frame of mind among excited computer enthusiasts. These emerge as these individuals experience what Michael Heim called ""the all-at-once simultaneity of totalizing presentness"". - -Concept -The neuromantic concept is part of Shore's discourse on the embodied cognitive dimensions of the cultural transformation produced by the emergence of word processing, which he maintained has overcome the spatial limitations of the written text since ""text modules can be combined, reconfigured, reduced, expanded, appended, or deleted from other units at the touch of a finger.""Shore cited that the neuromantic phenomenon was a vision of Martin Heidegger as it elicits passion that is also identified as an impulse unique to the modern world. Shore explains that ""the sense of mastery over language resources that word processing bestows on the experienced user is intimately related to Heidegger's notion of enframing (Bestellen), a subjection of the world to human will that Heidegger saw as a characteristic of all modern technology.""There are sources that claim the concept of neuromantic is not only confined to computer enthusiasts. For instance, there is the so-called neuromantic imagination that inspire architects. Here, the cybernetic frame of mind is fired by the concept of the ""third nature,"" which is occupied by those who inhabit not the actual terrain in which we live, work, and play but the virtual space of media flows that enter the ""unconscious"".",1405792,Neuromantic (philosophy),T -319,319.0,319.0,"Blood of the Vikings was a five-part 2001 BBC Television documentary series that traced the legacy of the Vikings in the British Isles through a genetics survey. - -Production -The series was presented by Julian Richards who has a long-held fascination with the Vikings. - -""Considering their huge impact, there's not a lot of archaeological evidence for them. You also have to question some of the history – it was mostly written by their victims. I'm fascinated by the idea of the genetics project and the idea that we may be able to discover the Viking in all of us."" -Geneticist Professor David Goldstein, from University College London, lead the 15-month study that compared mouth swabs from 2,500 male volunteers from 25 different locations across the country with DNA samples from Scandinavian locals to find out how much Viking heritage remains in the UK. - -""Modern genetics has opened up a powerful new window on the past."" -The study traced the past movements of peoples to discover how many Vikings stayed after the raids. The study of history and archaeology alone could not answer this question. - -""The question is how Viking are the people of the British Isles and where are the most Viking people of the British Isles."" -BBC Two Controller Jane Root described the station's work with UCL as a unique, nationwide project. - -""This is the kind of thing that the BBC does so well; pooling our expertise in TV and online, in science and education in an endeavour that will enable all of us to find out more about our genetic origins."" -The research confirmed that the Vikings did not just raid and retreat to Scandinavia, but settled in Britain for years. They left their genetic pattern in some parts of the UK population.",18558901,Blood of the Vikings,S -320,320.0,320.0,"Vention is a Canadian automation company whose platform combines engineering software and plug-and-play automation components. It supplies parts, designs hardware, and provides e-commerce and 3-D computer-aided design (CAD) software. Vention is headquartered in Montreal, Canada, and has offices in Berlin, Germany, and Boston, Massachusetts. - -Clients -Vention's customers include engineers at more than 3,000 factories owned by companies such as Toyota, General Electric, Tesla, Siemens, and Airbus, as well as Google, Amazon, Boeing and Lockheed. Customers create, design and order custom equipment on Vention's online platform to be used in their production lines, including test benches, robot work stations and assembly lines. The company launched code-free robot programming tools to let users program their robot in the cloud, order the entire robot cell, and deploy it on their manufacturing floor. - -History -In 2016, Vention was founded in Montreal, Canada by Etienne Lacroix, a former General Electric Co.",74324652,Vention,E -321,321.0,321.0,"A Pedersen current is an electric current formed in the direction of the applied electric field when a conductive material with charge carriers is acted upon by an external electric field and an external magnetic field. Pedersen currents emerge in a material where the charge carriers collide with particles in the conductive material at approximately the same frequency as the gyratory frequency induced by the magnetic field. Pedersen currents are associated with a Pedersen conductivity related to the applied magnetic field and the properties of the material. - -History -The first expression for the Pedersen conductivity was formulated by Peder Oluf Pedersen from Denmark in his 1927 work ""The Propagation of Radio Waves along the Surface of the Earth and in the Atmosphere"", where he pointed out that the geomagnetic field means that the conductivity of the ionosphere is anisotropic. - -Physical explanation -When a moving charge carrier in a conductor is under the influence of a magnetic field - - - - - B - - - - {\displaystyle \mathbf {B} } - , the carrier experiences a force perpendicular to the direction of motion and the magnetic field, resulting in a gyratory path, which is circular in the absence of any other external force. When an electric field - - - - - E - - - - {\displaystyle \mathbf {E} } - is applied in addition to the magnetic field and perpendicular to that field, this gyratory motion is driven by the electric field, leading to a net drift in the direction - - - - - E - - × - - B - - - - {\displaystyle \mathbf {E} \times \mathbf {B} } - around the guiding center and a lack of mobility in the direction of the electric field. The charge carrier undergoes a helical motion whereby a charge carrier at rest acquires motion in the direction of the electric field according to Coulomb's law, gains a velocity perpendicular to the magnetic field, and subsequently is pushed in the direction - - - - - v - - × - - B - - - - {\displaystyle \mathbf {v} \times \mathbf {B} } - due to the Lorentz force (as - - - - - v - - - - {\displaystyle \mathbf {v} } - is in the direction of - - - - - E - - - - {\displaystyle \mathbf {E} } - , - - - - - v - - × - - B - - - - {\displaystyle \mathbf {v} \times \mathbf {B} } - is initially in the same direction as - - - - - E - - × - - B - - - - {\displaystyle \mathbf {E} \times \mathbf {B} } - .) The motion will then oscillate backwards against the electric field until it again reaches a velocity of zero in the direction of the electric field, before again being driven by the electric and magnetic fields, forming a helical path.",74371509,Pedersen current,M -322,322.0,322.0,"Hidden innovation or Invisible innovation refers to innovation that is not captured or recognised by traditional indicators such as research and development (R&D) spending or number of patents. The term generally refers to innovation that takes place outside science & technology sectors, which are the primary sectors which invest in formal R&D and patents. For example, although technological innovations are often developed in the oil & gas sector through oil exploration activities, these innovations are unaccounted for in innovation metrics because oil exploration is not counted as formal R&D. Other types of innovation, including social innovation, can be classed as hidden innovation. -Although originally coined in the 90s by Diana Hicks and Sylvan Katz in their research on the hidden research system involving hospital researchers, and Mike Hopkins research on genetic testing within the UK healthcare system, the concept of hidden innovation has most recently been promoted by NESTA, in their ""Innovation Gap"" Report, published October 2006. A later report, called ""Hidden innovation"", further expands on the concept and identifies four types of hidden innovation: - -Innovation that is the same or similar to activities that are measured by traditional indicators, but which is excluded from measurement. -Innovation without a major scientific/technological basis, such as innovation in organizational forms or business models. -Innovation created from the novel combination of existing technologies and processes. -Locally developed, small-scale innovations that take place 'under the radar' and are therefore unrecognised or accounted for. - -Sources -Hospitals: The Hidden Innovation System (1996), Hicks D.M.",11733066,Hidden innovation,T -323,323.0,323.0,"The John Deere Model H tractor was a row-crop tractor produced by John Deere from 1939 to 1947. - -Description and production -The H was introduced in 1939 as a much-scaled-down version of the John Deere Model G. It was a general-purpose row-crop tractor, intended for smaller farms. As with most row-crop tractors, the spacing between the rear wheels could be adjusted to suit row spacings. The front wheels were offered with wide and narrow wheel arrangements, as well as high-crop and single front wheel versions. The tractor was equipped with a two-cylinder side-by-side 15-horsepower (11 kW) engine, of 99.7-cubic-inch (1,634 cc) displacement.",68696365,John Deere Model H,E -324,324.0,324.0,"Computing is any goal-oriented activity requiring, benefiting from, or creating computing machinery. It includes the study and experimentation of algorithmic processes, and development of both hardware and software. Computing has scientific, engineering, mathematical, technological and social aspects. Major computing disciplines include computer engineering, computer science, cybersecurity, data science, information systems, information technology, digital art and software engineering.The term computing is also synonymous with counting and calculating. In earlier times, it was used in reference to the action performed by mechanical computing machines, and before that, to human computers. - -History -The history of computing is longer than the history of computing hardware and includes the history of methods intended for pen and paper (or for chalk and slate) with or without the aid of tables.",5213,Computing,T -325,325.0,325.0,"Thermal runaway describes a process that is accelerated by increased temperature, in turn releasing energy that further increases temperature. Thermal runaway occurs in situations where an increase in temperature changes the conditions in a way that causes a further increase in temperature, often leading to a destructive result. It is a kind of uncontrolled positive feedback. -In chemistry (and chemical engineering), thermal runaway is associated with strongly exothermic reactions that are accelerated by temperature rise. In electrical engineering, thermal runaway is typically associated with increased current flow and power dissipation. Thermal runaway can occur in civil engineering, notably when the heat released by large amounts of curing concrete is not controlled.",2350918,Thermal runaway,T -326,326.0,326.0,"Samuel Christian Hollmann (1669 - 1787) was a German philosopher. Between 1750 and 1776, Hollmann published numerous volumes in the fields of logic and medicine. - -Background -Samuel Christian Hollmann was born in 1696 in Szczecin, Poland. In 1730, Hollmann worked as a supervisor to Anton Wilhelm Amo both during his work at the University of Wittenberg, and a few months later when Hollman was appointed to the newly opened University of Göttingen. Samuel Christian Hollmann was also a professor of logic to Henry Muhlenberg. - -Legacy -In 2003, Martin Stuber described Samuel Christian Hollmann's theory of earthquakes as Aristotelean and unpopular amongst his peers; specifically Stuber stated that ""vague theories of subterranean caverns and explosive materials were... the starting point for precautionary measures suggested in 1756 by Gottingen professor of philosophy, Samuel Christian Hollmann, to prevent further earth quakes.",73283447,Samuel Christian Hollmann,S -327,327.0,327.0,"In mathematics, a Caccioppoli set is a set whose boundary is measurable and has (at least locally) a finite measure. A synonym is set of (locally) finite perimeter. Basically, a set is a Caccioppoli set if its characteristic function is a function of bounded variation. - -History -The basic concept of a Caccioppoli set was first introduced by the Italian mathematician Renato Caccioppoli in the paper (Caccioppoli 1927): considering a plane set or a surface defined on an open set in the plane, he defined their measure or area as the total variation in the sense of Tonelli of their defining functions, i.e. of their parametric equations, provided this quantity was bounded. The measure of the boundary of a set was defined as a functional, precisely a set function, for the first time: also, being defined on open sets, it can be defined on all Borel sets and its value can be approximated by the values it takes on an increasing net of subsets.",8907443,Caccioppoli set,M -328,328.0,328.0,"Sports engineering is a sub-discipline of engineering that applies math and science to develop technology, equipment, and other resources as they pertain to sport. - -Sports engineering was first introduced by Issac Newton’s observation of a tennis ball. In the mid-twentieth century, Howard Head became one of the first engineers to apply engineering principles to improve sports equipment. Starting in 1999, the biannual international conference for sports engineering was established to commemorate achievements in the field. Presently, the journal entitled “Sports Engineering,” details the innovations and research projects that sports engineers are working on.The study of sports engineering requires an understanding of a variety of engineering topics including physics, mechanical engineering, materials science, and biomechanics.",48188462,Sports engineering,E -329,329.0,329.0,"The engineering design process, also known as the engineering method, is a common series of steps that engineers use in creating functional products and processes. The process is highly iterative - parts of the process often need to be repeated many times before another can be entered - though the part(s) that get iterated and the number of such cycles in any given project may vary. -It is a decision making process (often iterative) in which the basic sciences, mathematics, and engineering sciences are applied to convert resources optimally to meet a stated objective. Among the fundamental elements of the design process are the establishment of objectives and criteria, synthesis, analysis, construction, testing and evaluation. - -Common stages of the engineering design process -It's important to understand that there are various framings/articulations of the engineering design process. Different terminology employed may have varying degrees of overlap, which affects what steps get stated explicitly or deemed ""high level"" versus subordinate in any given model. This, of course, applies as much to any particular example steps/sequences given here. -One example framing of the engineering design process delineates the following stages: research, conceptualization, feasibility assessment, establishing design requirements, preliminary design, detailed design, production planning and tool design, and production.",7071096,Engineering design process,E -330,330.0,330.0,"A physicist is a scientist who specializes in the field of physics, which encompasses the interactions of matter and energy at all length and time scales in the physical universe. Physicists generally are interested in the root or ultimate causes of phenomena, and usually frame their understanding in mathematical terms. They work across a wide range of research fields, spanning all length scales: from sub-atomic and particle physics, through biological physics, to cosmological length scales encompassing the universe as a whole. The field generally includes two types of physicists: experimental physicists who specialize in the observation of natural phenomena and the development and analysis of experiments, and theoretical physicists who specialize in mathematical modeling of physical systems to rationalize, explain and predict natural phenomena.Physicists can apply their knowledge towards solving practical problems or to developing new technologies (also known as applied physics or engineering physics). - -History -The study and practice of physics is based on an intellectual ladder of discoveries and insights from ancient times to the present. Many mathematical and physical ideas used today found their earliest expression in the work of ancient civilizations, such as the Babylonian astronomers and Egyptian engineers, the Greek philosophers of science and mathematicians such as Thales of Miletus, Euclid in Ptolemaic Egypt, Archimedes of Syracuse and Aristarchus of Samos.",23269,Physicist,M -331,331.0,331.0,"Algebraic number theory is a branch of number theory that uses the techniques of abstract algebra to study the integers, rational numbers, and their generalizations. Number-theoretic questions are expressed in terms of properties of algebraic objects such as algebraic number fields and their rings of integers, finite fields, and function fields. These properties, such as whether a ring admits unique factorization, the behavior of ideals, and the Galois groups of fields, can resolve questions of primary importance in number theory, like the existence of solutions to Diophantine equations. - -History of algebraic number theory -Diophantus -The beginnings of algebraic number theory can be traced to Diophantine equations, named after the 3rd-century Alexandrian mathematician, Diophantus, who studied them and developed methods for the solution of some kinds of Diophantine equations. A typical Diophantine problem is to find two integers x and y such that their sum, and the sum of their squares, equal two given numbers A and B, respectively: - - - - - A - = - x - + - y - - - - {\displaystyle A=x+y\ } - - - - - - B - = - - x - - 2 - - - + - - y - - 2 - - - . - - - - {\displaystyle B=x^{2}+y^{2}.\ } - Diophantine equations have been studied for thousands of years. For example, the solutions to the quadratic Diophantine equation x2 + y2 = z2 are given by the Pythagorean triples, originally solved by the Babylonians (c. 1800 BC).",174705,Algebraic number theory,M -332,332.0,332.0,"The Hayes-Wheelwright Matrix, also known as the product-process matrix, is a tool to analyze the fit between a chosen product positioning and manufacturing process. -The first dimension of the matrix, the product lifecycle, is a measure of the maturity of the product or market. It ranges from highly customized products with low volumes, to highly standardized products with high volume. The second dimension, the process lifecycle, is a measure of the maturity of the manufacturing process. It ranges from highly manual processes with high unit costs (job shop) to highly automated process with low unit costs (continuous flow). -Companies can occupy any position in the matrix. However, according to the framework, they can only be successful if their product lifecycle stage is consistent with their process lifecycle stage. -It was developed by Robert H.",58818220,Hayes-Wheelwright matrix,T -333,333.0,333.0,"The attitude indicator (AI), formerly known as the gyro horizon or artificial horizon, is a flight instrument that informs the pilot of the aircraft orientation relative to Earth's horizon, and gives an immediate indication of the smallest orientation change. The miniature aircraft and horizon bar mimic the relationship of the aircraft relative to the actual horizon. It is a primary instrument for flight in instrument meteorological conditions.Attitude is always presented to users in the unit degrees (°). However, inner workings such as sensors, data and calculations may use a mix of degrees and radians, as scientists and engineers may prefer to work with radians. - -History -Before the advent of aviation, artificial horizons were used in celestial navigation. Proposals of such devices based on gyroscopes, or spinning tops, date back to the 1740s.",315968,Attitude indicator,T -334,334.0,334.0,"The Crompton Loom Works is an historic industrial complex of the Crompton Corporation at 132-142 Green Street in Worcester, Massachusetts. The factory manufactured looms for textile factories. With its original portion dating to 1860, the complex is one of the oldest surviving industrial sites in the city. The facility was established by George Crompton, whose father William had invented the first power loom for weaving fancy fabrics. The younger Crompton's business would become of the most significant employers in the city, and his innovative looms would revolutionize the textile industry.",21811263,Crompton Loom Works,E -335,335.0,335.0,"The Master Algorithm: How the Quest for the Ultimate Learning Machine Will Remake Our World is a book by Pedro Domingos released in 2015. Domingos wrote the book in order to generate interest from people outside the field. - -Overview -The book outlines five approaches of machine learning: inductive reasoning, connectionism, evolutionary computation, Bayes' theorem and analogical modelling. The author explains these tribes to the reader by referring to more understandable processes of logic, connections made in the brain, natural selection, probability and similarity judgments. Throughout the book, it is suggested that each different tribe has the potential to contribute to a unifying ""master algorithm"". -Towards the end of the book the author pictures a ""master algorithm"" in the near future, where machine learning algorithms asymptotically grow to a perfect understanding of how the world and people in it work. Although the algorithm doesn't yet exist, he briefly reviews his own invention of the Markov logic network. - -In the media -In 2016 Bill Gates recommended the book, alongside Nick Bostrom's Superintelligence, as one of two books everyone should read to understand AI.",47937215,The Master Algorithm,T -336,336.0,336.0,"Garmin is a company that produces consumer, professional aviation, and marine devices that make use of the Global Positioning System for navigational assistance. The following is a list of current and discontinued products produced by Garmin Ltd. - -Automotive -Car products -StreetPilot series (1998–2007) -Garmin's first in-car product series in their GPS products. It was superseded by nüvi. - -The first Garmin StreetPilot was introduced at CES 1998. It had a 240x160 black and white screen and a database of nearby services and attractions, with on-screen routing. A revised model with 240x128 color screen, the StreetPilot ColorMap was introduced soon after, adding information on services available at highway exits.",14040392,List of Garmin products,T -337,337.0,337.0,"William Henry Mitchell (November 13, 1834 – March 14, 1919) was a pioneer of the Washington Territory and Olympia who made big contributions to the city's industrial and business development. He was a member of the Washington State Legislature and the Pioneer's Association of the State of Washington, an Olympian Town Trustee and a joint councilman for Thurston and Lewis counties. -Mitchell was one of the Great American Plains emigrants, among the first to cross the Naches Pass, a member of Washington Territorial Volunteers, and a ranger during the Yakima War. After the war, he served as sheriff and deputy sheriff of Olympia. -During his long career in Olympia, Mitchell owned a grocery store and developed the bakery and butcher businesses, working in the field for over eleven years. He entered the lumber business, investing $20,000 ($531,000 in 2020 dollars) into a sawmill in Tumwater, Washington owning a mill in Olympia. He was engaged in the lumber business for fourteen years.",66224690,William Henry Mitchell,E -338,338.0,338.0,"The Internet of things (IoT) describes devices with sensors, processing ability, software and other technologies that connect and exchange data with other devices and systems over the Internet or other communications networks. The Internet of things encompasses electronics, communication and computer science engineering. Internet of things has been considered a misnomer because devices do not need to be connected to the public internet, they only need to be connected to a network, and be individually addressable.The field has evolved due to the convergence of multiple technologies, including ubiquitous computing, commodity sensors, and increasingly powerful embedded systems, as well as machine learning. Older fields of embedded systems, wireless sensor networks, control systems, automation (including home and building automation), independently and collectively enable the Internet of things. In the consumer market, IoT technology is most synonymous with ""smart home"" products, including devices and appliances (lighting fixtures, thermostats, home security systems, cameras, and other home appliances) that support one or more common ecosystems, and can be controlled via devices associated with that ecosystem, such as smartphones and smart speakers.",12057519,Internet of things,T -339,339.0,339.0,"An artificial organ is a human made organ device or tissue that is implanted or integrated into a human — interfacing with living tissue — to replace a natural organ, to duplicate or augment a specific function or functions so the patient may return to a normal life as soon as possible. The replaced function does not have to be related to life support, but it often is. For example, replacement bones and joints, such as those found in hip replacements, could also be considered artificial organs.Implied by definition, is that the device must not be continuously tethered to a stationary power supply or other stationary resources such as filters or chemical processing units. (Periodic rapid recharging of batteries, refilling of chemicals, and/or cleaning/replacing of filters would exclude a device from being called an artificial organ.) Thus, a dialysis machine, while a very successful and critically important life support device that almost completely replaces the duties of a kidney, is not an artificial organ. - -Purpose -Constructing and installing artificial organs, an extremely research-intensive and expensive process initially, may entail many years of ongoing maintenance services not needed by a natural organ: -providing life support to prevent imminent death while awaiting a transplant (e.g. artificial heart); -dramatically improving the patient's ability for self care (e.g.",17732856,Artificial organ,T -340,340.0,340.0,"Productivity is the efficiency of production of goods or services expressed by some measure. Measurements of productivity are often expressed as a ratio of an aggregate output to a single input or an aggregate input used in a production process, i.e. output per unit of input, typically over a specific period of time. The most common example is the (aggregate) labour productivity measure, one example of which is GDP per worker. There are many different definitions of productivity (including those that are not defined as ratios of output to input) and the choice among them depends on the purpose of the productivity measurement and data availability.",424899,Productivity,E -341,341.0,341.0,"Evolutionary robotics is an embodied approach to Artificial Intelligence (AI) in which robots are automatically designed using Darwinian principles of natural selection. The design of a robot, or a subsystem of a robot such as a neural controller, is optimized against a behavioral goal (e.g. run as fast as possible). Usually, designs are evaluated in simulations as fabricating thousands or millions of designs and testing them in the real world is prohibitively expensive in terms of time, money, and safety. -An evolutionary robotics experiment starts with a population of randomly generated robot designs. The worst performing designs are discarded and replaced with mutations and/or combinations of the better designs.",1050195,Evolutionary robotics,S -342,342.0,342.0,"Structured Financial Messaging System (SFMS) is a secure messaging standard developed to serve as a platform for intra-bank and inter-bank applications. It is an Indian standard similar to SWIFT which is the international messaging system used for financial messaging globally. -SFMS can be used for secure communication within the bank and between banks. The SFMS was launched on December 14, 2001 at IDRBT. It allows the definition of message structures, message formats, and authorization of the same for usage by the financial community. SFMS has a number of features and it is a modularised and web enabled software, with a flexible architecture facilitating centralised or distributed deployment.",29634391,Structured Financial Messaging System,T -343,343.0,343.0,"Synopses of the British Fauna is a series of identification guides, published by The Linnean Society and The Estuarine and Coastal Sciences Association. Each volume in the series provides and in-depth analysis of a group of animals and is designed to bridge the gap between the standard field guide and more specialised monograph or treatise. The series is now published by The Field Studies Council on behalf of The Linnean Society and The Estuarine and Coastal Sciences Association. -The series is designed for use in the field and is kept as user friendly as possible with technical terminology kept to a minimum and a glossary of terms provided, although the complexity of the subject matter makes the books more suitable for the more experienced practitioner. - -History of the series -On 11 March 1943, at a meeting of The Linnean Society in Burlington House, TH Savoy presented his ""Synopsis of the Opiliones"" (Harvestmen). It was so well received that a decision was made there and then to publish it as the first of a series of ""ecological fauna lists"". -Re-launched by Dr Doris Kermack in the mid-1960s, the New Series of Synopses of the British Fauna went from strength to strength.",7777698,Synopses of the British Fauna,S -344,344.0,344.0,"The Tagish Lake meteorite fell at 16:43 UTC on 18 January 2000 in the Tagish Lake area in northwestern British Columbia, Canada. - -History -Fragments of the Tagish Lake meteorite landed upon the Earth on January 18, 2000, at 16:43 UT (08:43 local time in Yukon) after a large meteoroid exploded in the upper atmosphere at altitudes of 50–30 kilometres (31–19 mi) with an estimated total energy release of about 1.7 kilotons of TNT. Following the reported sighting of a fireball in southern Yukon and northern British Columbia, Canada, more than 500 fragments of the meteorite were collected from the lake's frozen surface. Post-event atmospheric photographs of the trail left by the associated fireball and U.S. Department of Defense satellite information yielded the meteor trajectory. Most of the stony, carbonaceous fragments landed on the Taku Arm of the lake, coming to rest on the lake's frozen surface.",3846760,Tagish Lake (meteorite),M -345,345.0,345.0,"The homing endonucleases are a special type of restriction enzymes encoded by introns or inteins. They act on the cellular DNA of the cell that synthesizes them; to be precise, in the opposite allele of the gene that encode them. - -Homing endonucleases -The list includes some of the most studied examples. The following concepts have been detailed: - -Enzyme: Accepted name of the molecule, according to the internationally adopted nomenclature. Bibliographical references. (Further reading: Homing endonuclease § Nomenclature.) -SF (structural family): Any of the established families for this kind of proteins, based in their shared structural motifs: H1: LAGLIDADG family – H2: GIY-YIG family – H3: H-N-H family – H4: His-Cys box family – H5: PD-(D/E)xK – H6: EDxHD.",26080977,List of homing endonuclease cutting sites,S -346,346.0,346.0,"Sciography, also spelled sciagraphy or skiagraphy (Greek: σκιά ""shadow"" and γράφειν graphein, ""write""), is a branch of the science of perspective dealing with the projection of shadows, or the delineation of an object in perspective with its gradations of light and shade. -In architectural drawing, sciography is the study of shades and shadows cast by simple architectural forms on plane surfaces. -In general sciography, the light source is imagined as the sun inclined at 45 degrees to both vertical plane and horizontal plane coming from left hand side. The resultant shadow is then drawn. - -References -Baxandall, Michael (1997). Shadows and Enlightenment. Yale University Press. pp.",23241429,Sciography,S -347,347.0,347.0,"Emerging technologies are technologies whose development, practical applications, or both are still largely unrealized. These technologies are generally new but also include older technologies finding new applications. Emerging technologies are often perceived as capable of changing the status quo. -Emerging technologies are characterized by radical novelty (in application even if not in origins), relatively fast growth, coherence, prominent impact, and uncertainty and ambiguity. In other words, an emerging technology can be defined as ""a radically novel and relatively fast growing technology characterised by a certain degree of coherence persisting over time and with the potential to exert a considerable impact on the socio-economic domain(s) which is observed in terms of the composition of actors, institutions and patterns of interactions among those, along with the associated knowledge production processes. Its most prominent impact, however, lies in the future and so in the emergence phase is still somewhat uncertain and ambiguous.""Emerging technologies include a variety of technologies such as educational technology, information technology, nanotechnology, biotechnology, robotics, and artificial intelligence.New technological fields may result from the technological convergence of different systems evolving towards similar goals.",3889704,Emerging technologies,T -348,348.0,348.0,"A disassembler is a computer program that translates machine language into assembly language—the inverse operation to that of an assembler. Disassembly, the output of a disassembler, is often formatted for human-readability rather than suitability for input to an assembler, making it principally a reverse-engineering tool. Common uses of disassemblers include analyzing high-level programing language compilers output and their optimizations, recovering source code of a program whose original source was lost, malware analysis, modifying software (such as ROM hacking), and software cracking. -A disassembler differs from a decompiler, which targets a high-level language rather than an assembly language. -Assembly language source code generally permits the use of constants and programmer comments. These are usually removed from the assembled machine code by the assembler. If so, a disassembler operating on the machine code would produce disassembly lacking these constants and comments; the disassembled output becomes more difficult for a human to interpret than the original annotated source code.",54390,Disassembler,E -349,349.0,349.0,"Ecological facilitation or probiosis describes species interactions that benefit at least one of the participants and cause harm to neither. Facilitations can be categorized as mutualisms, in which both species benefit, or commensalisms, in which one species benefits and the other is unaffected. This article addresses both the mechanisms of facilitation and the increasing information available concerning the impacts of facilitation on community ecology. - -Categories -There are two basic categories of facilitative interactions: - -Mutualism is an interaction between species that is beneficial to both. A familiar example of a mutualism is the relationship between flowering plants and their pollinators. The plant benefits from the spread of pollen between flowers, while the pollinator receives some form of nourishment, either from nectar or the pollen itself. -Commensalism is an interaction in which one species benefits and the other species is unaffected.",4329538,Ecological facilitation,S -350,350.0,350.0,"The Koch snowflake (also known as the Koch curve, Koch star, or Koch island) is a fractal curve and one of the earliest fractals to have been described. It is based on the Koch curve, which appeared in a 1904 paper titled ""On a Continuous Curve Without Tangents, Constructible from Elementary Geometry"" by the Swedish mathematician Helge von Koch. -The Koch snowflake can be built up iteratively, in a sequence of stages. The first stage is an equilateral triangle, and each successive stage is formed by adding outward bends to each side of the previous stage, making smaller equilateral triangles. The areas enclosed by the successive stages in the construction of the snowflake converge to - - - - - - - 8 - 5 - - - - - - {\displaystyle {\tfrac {8}{5}}} - times the area of the original triangle, while the perimeters of the successive stages increase without bound. Consequently, the snowflake encloses a finite area, but has an infinite perimeter. -The Koch snowflake has been constructed as an example of a continuous curve where drawing a tangent line to any point is impossible.",46959,Koch snowflake,M -351,351.0,351.0,"Escherichia coli O157:H7 is a serotype of the bacterial species Escherichia coli and is one of the Shiga-like toxin–producing types of E. coli. It is a cause of disease, typically foodborne illness, through consumption of contaminated and raw food, including raw milk and undercooked ground beef. Infection with this type of pathogenic bacteria may lead to hemorrhagic diarrhea, and to kidney failure; these have been reported to cause the deaths of children younger than five years of age, of elderly patients, and of patients whose immune systems are otherwise compromised. -Transmission is via the fecal–oral route, and most illness has been through distribution of contaminated raw leaf green vegetables, undercooked meat and raw milk. - -Signs and symptoms -E. coli O157:H7 infection often causes severe, acute hemorrhagic diarrhea (although nonhemorrhagic diarrhea is also possible) and abdominal cramps.",46553,Escherichia coli O157:H7,S -352,352.0,352.0,"Bowers v. Baystate Technologies, 320 F.3d 1317 (Fed. Cir. 2003), was a U.S. Court of Appeals Federal Circuit case involving Harold L.",28754334,"Bowers v. Baystate Technologies, Inc.",E -353,353.0,353.0,"EcoRI (pronounced ""eco R one"") is a restriction endonuclease enzyme isolated from species E. coli. It is a restriction enzyme that cleaves DNA double helices into fragments at specific sites, and is also a part of the restriction modification system. The Eco part of the enzyme's name originates from the species from which it was isolated - ""E"" denotes generic name which is ""Escherichia"" and ""co"" denotes species name, ""coli"" - while the R represents the particular strain, in this case RY13, and the I denotes that it was the first enzyme isolated from this strain.In molecular biology it is used as a restriction enzyme. EcoRI creates 4 nucleotide sticky ends with 5' end overhangs of AATT.",49256303,EcoRI,S -354,354.0,354.0,"In the fields of engineering and construction, resilience is the ability to absorb or avoid damage without suffering complete failure and is an objective of design, maintenance and restoration for buildings and infrastructure, as well as communities. A more comprehensive definition is that it is the ability to respond, absorb, and adapt to, as well as recover in a disruptive event. A resilient structure/system/community is expected to be able to resist to an extreme event with minimal damages and functionality disruptions during the event; after the event, it should be able to rapidly recovery its functionality similar to or even better than the pre-event level. -The concept of resilience originated from engineering and then gradually applied to other fields. It is related to that of vulnerability. Both terms are specific to the event perturbation, meaning that a system/infrastructure/community may be more vulnerable or less resilient to one event than another one.",40050529,Resilience (engineering and construction),E -355,355.0,355.0,"Physics is the natural science of matter, involving the study of matter, its fundamental constituents, its motion and behavior through space and time, and the related entities of energy and force. Physics is one of the most fundamental scientific disciplines, with its main goal being to understand how the universe behaves. A scientist who specializes in the field of physics is called a physicist. -Physics is one of the oldest academic disciplines and, through its inclusion of astronomy, perhaps the oldest. Over much of the past two millennia, physics, chemistry, biology, and certain branches of mathematics were a part of natural philosophy, but during the Scientific Revolution in the 17th century these natural sciences emerged as unique research endeavors in their own right. Physics intersects with many interdisciplinary areas of research, such as biophysics and quantum chemistry, and the boundaries of physics are not rigidly defined.",22939,Physics,M -356,356.0,356.0,"Microfadeometry is a technique that uses tiny spots of intense light to probe and measure color changes in objects of art that are particularly sensitive to light exposure. -This process is completed using a recently designed instrument known as a microfading tester. The data from the test is represented by reflectance spectra. - -History -Light-fastness testing dates back to as early as 1733. In the late 19th century with early art conservation studies, Russell and Abney published Action of Light on Watercolors in 1888 sparking a concern with light and the aging of cultural materials. Microfading, as a technique, was first identified in Paul Whitmore’s lab book entry on September 21, 1994. His work on the topic was later published in 1999. - -Application -Before the creation of this technique, recording light-stability information directly from the objects was nearly impossible.",44219945,Microfadeometry,S -357,357.0,357.0,"Affinity (taxonomy) – mainly in life sciences or natural history – refers to resemblance suggesting a common descent, phylogenetic relationship, or type. The term does, however, have broader application, such as in geology (for example, in descriptive and theoretical works), and similarly in astronomy (for example, see ""Centaur object"" in the context of 2060 Chiron's close affinity with icy comet nuclei.) - -Basis -In taxonomy the basis of any particular type of classification is the way in which objects in the domain resemble each other. A resemblance of a type that seems appropriate to the classification that we propose, we may call an affinity, and when we decide how to classify say, a specimen of rock or butterfly, we justify our decision according to the affinities that we observe. -Other resemblances we dismiss as being out of context or at least non-cogent; for example, in deciding whether to classify a lizard as having closer affinities to a snake than to a table, biologists rely on affinities such as the scales, blood, physiology, vertebral anatomy, and reproductive system as being more relevant than the possession of four ""feet"". - -Application and obstacles -Analysing and determining the proper classification of an organism, a rock, or an astronomic object according to a particular system is often a difficult and treacherous procedure. Problems in such fields of study have tripped up whole generations of workers in recent centuries.",31638583,Affinity (taxonomy),S -358,358.0,358.0,"Over 22,500 species of wildlife have been recorded in North Macedonia. Over 10,000 of these are insects, which include 3,000 beetle species and large numbers of Lepidoptera, flies, and Hymenoptera. Aside from insects, other large arthropod groups include Chelicerata (mostly spiders) and crustaceans. Among vertebrates, more than 300 species of birds recorded, although not all nest in the country. There are over 80 species of both fish and mammals, 32 reptiles, and 14 amphibians. -Over 4,200 plants have been identified, of which more than 3,700 are vascular plants.",64284153,Wildlife of North Macedonia,S -359,359.0,359.0,"A method stub or simply stub in software development is a piece of code used to stand in for some other programming functionality. A stub may simulate the behavior of existing code (such as a procedure on a remote machine; such methods are often called mocks) or be a temporary substitute for yet-to-be-developed code. Stubs are therefore most useful in porting, distributed computing as well as general software development and testing. -An example of a stub in pseudocode might be as follows: - -temperature = ThermometerRead(Outside) -if temperature > 40 then - print ""It is hot!"" -end if - -function ThermometerRead(Source insideOrOutside) - return 28 -end function - -The above pseudocode utilises the function ThermometerRead, which returns a temperature. While ThermometerRead would be intended to read some hardware device, this function currently does not contain the necessary code. So ThermometerRead does not, in essence, simulate any process, yet it does return a legal value, allowing the main program to be at least partially tested.",674329,Method stub,T -360,360.0,360.0,"A biological rule or biological law is a generalized law, principle, or rule of thumb formulated to describe patterns observed in living organisms. Biological rules and laws are often developed as succinct, broadly applicable ways to explain complex phenomena or salient observations about the ecology and biogeographical distributions of plant and animal species around the world, though they have been proposed for or extended to all types of organisms. Many of these regularities of ecology and biogeography are named after the biologists who first described them.From the birth of their science, biologists have sought to explain apparent regularities in observational data. In his biology, Aristotle inferred rules governing differences between live-bearing tetrapods (in modern terms, terrestrial placental mammals). Among his rules were that brood size decreases with adult body mass, while lifespan increases with gestation period and with body mass, and fecundity decreases with lifespan.",50550012,Biological rules,S -361,361.0,361.0,"Text over IP (or ToIP) is a means of providing a real-time text (RTT) service that operates over IP-based networks. It complements Voice over IP (VoIP) and Video over IP. -Real-time text is streaming text that is transmitted as it is produced, allowing text to be used conversationally. Real-time text is defined in ITU-T Multimedia Recommendation F.700 2.1.2.1 . Real-time text is designed for conversational use where people interactively converse with each other. To achieve this, particular user requirements have been specified for the delay of each character and the character loss rate (see F.700 Annex A.3). -Real-time Text over IP can be used: - -in conjunction with voice or video in a multimedia communication or on its own, on fixed or mobile accesses, -by people who want a fast and really interactive means of conversing, -in noisy environments where it may be hard to hear, -in environments where other people are nearby but where communications privacy is required, -to transfer information (e.g., numbers, addresses, etc.) where exactness is necessary, -by people with hearing loss or speech impairments to communicate with non-disabled and deaf or hard of hearing or speech impaired people. -to provide real time captioning of a voice conversation for people with a hearing loss.",6123938,Text over IP,T -362,362.0,362.0,"Space mirrors are satellites that are designed to change the amount of solar radiation that impacts the Earth as a form of climate engineering. The concept was first theorised in 1923 by physicist Hermann Oberth and later developed in the 1980s by other scientists. Space mirrors can be used to increase or decrease the amount of solar energy that reaches a specific point of the earth for various purposes. They have been theorised as a method of solar geoengineering by creating a space sunshade to deflect sunlight and counter global warming.There have been several proposed implementations of the space mirror concept but none have been implemented thus far other than the Znamya project by Russia due to logistical concerns and challenges of deployment. - -General concept -History -The concept of the construction of space mirrors as a method of climate engineering dates to the years 1923,1929, 1957 und 1978 by the physicist Hermann Oberth and the 1980s by other scientists. In 1923, Hermann Oberth first described his space mirrors with a diameter of 100 to 300 km in his book Die Rakete zu den Planetenräumen, which are said to consist of a grid network of individually adjustible facets. -Space mirrors in orbit around the Earth, as designed by Hermann Oberth, are intended to focus sunlight on indiviual regions of the earth’s surface or deflect it into space. -It is therefore not a question of the weakening of the solar radiation on the entire exposed surface of the Earth, as would be the case when considering the establishment of shading areas at Lagrange point between the Sun and the Earth. -These giant mirrors in orbit could be used to illuminate individual cities, as a means of protection against natural disasters, to control weather and climate, to create additional living space for tens of billions of people, Hermann Oberth writes.",27271259,Space mirror (climate engineering),E -363,363.0,363.0,"A set of networks that satisfies given structural characteristics can be treated as a network ensemble. Brought up by Ginestra Bianconi in 2007, the entropy of a network ensemble measures the level of the order or uncertainty of a network ensemble.The entropy is the logarithm of the number of graphs. Entropy can also be defined in one network. Basin entropy is the logarithm of the attractors in one Boolean network.Employing approaches from statistical mechanics, the complexity, uncertainty, and randomness of networks can be described by network ensembles with different types of constraints. - -Gibbs and Shannon entropy -By analogy to statistical mechanics, microcanonical ensembles and canonical ensembles of networks are introduced for the implementation. A partition function Z of an ensemble can be defined as: - -where - - - - - - - F - → - - - - ( - - a - - ) - = - - - - C - → - - - - - - {\displaystyle {\vec {F}}(\mathbf {a} )={\vec {C}}} - is the constraint, and - - - - - a - - i - j - - - - - {\displaystyle a_{ij}} - ( - - - - - a - - i - j - - - ≥ - - 0 - - - - {\displaystyle a_{ij}\geq {0}} - ) are the elements in the adjacency matrix, - - - - - a - - i - j - - - > - 0 - - - {\displaystyle a_{ij}>0} - if and only if there is a link between node i and node j.",63770639,Entropy of network ensembles,M -364,364.0,364.0,"The geologic time scale or geological time scale (GTS) is a representation of time based on the rock record of Earth. It is a system of chronological dating that uses chronostratigraphy (the process of relating strata to time) and geochronology (scientific branch of geology that aims to determine the age of rocks). It is used primarily by Earth scientists (including geologists, paleontologists, geophysicists, geochemists, and paleoclimatologists) to describe the timing and relationships of events in geologic history. The time scale has been developed through the study of rock layers and the observation of their relationships and identifying features such as lithologies, paleomagnetic properties, and fossils. The definition of standardized international units of geologic time is the responsibility of the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS), a constituent body of the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS), whose primary objective is to precisely define global chronostratigraphic units of the International Chronostratigraphic Chart (ICC) that are used to define divisions of geologic time.",12967,Geologic time scale,S -365,365.0,365.0,"Gadu-Gadu (Polish for ""chit-chat""; commonly known as GG or gg) is a Polish instant messaging client using a proprietary protocol. Gadu-Gadu was the most popular IM service in Poland, with over 15 million registered accounts and approximately 6.5 million users online daily. Gadu-Gadu's casual gaming portal had some 500,000 active users at the end of March 2009. Users send up to 300 million messages per day.Gadu-Gadu is financed by the display of advertisements. The developer is based in Koszalin, Poland and the company is wholly owned by a Polish company Fintecom. - -Features -Gadu-Gadu uses its own proprietary protocol.",334779,Gadu-Gadu,T -366,366.0,366.0,"In mathematics, Gowers' theorem, also known as Gowers' Ramsey theorem and Gowers' FINk theorem, is a theorem in Ramsey theory and combinatorics. It is a Ramsey-theoretic result about functions with finite support. Timothy Gowers originally proved the result in 1992, motivated by a problem regarding Banach spaces. The result was subsequently generalised by Bartošová, Kwiatkowska, and Lupini. - -Definitions -The presentation and notation is taken from Todorčević, and is different to that originally given by Gowers. -For a function - - - - f - : - - N - - → - - N - - - - {\displaystyle f\colon \mathbb {N} \to \mathbb {N} } - , the support of - - - - f - - - {\displaystyle f} - is defined - - - - supp - ⁡ - ( - f - ) - = - { - n - : - f - ( - n - ) - ≠ - 0 - } - - - {\displaystyle \operatorname {supp} (f)=\{n:f(n)\neq 0\}} - . Given - - - - k - ∈ - - N - - - - {\displaystyle k\in \mathbb {N} } - , let - - - - - - F - I - N - - - k - - - - - {\displaystyle \mathrm {FIN} _{k}} - be the set - - - - - - - F - I - N - - - k - - - = - - - { - - - f - : - - N - - → - - N - - ∣ - supp - ⁡ - ( - f - ) - - is finite and - - max - ( - range - ⁡ - ( - f - ) - ) - = - k - - - } - - - - - {\displaystyle \mathrm {FIN} _{k}={\big \{}f\colon \mathbb {N} \to \mathbb {N} \mid \operatorname {supp} (f){\text{ is finite and }}\max(\operatorname {range} (f))=k{\big \}}} - If - - - - f - ∈ - - - F - I - N - - - n - - - - - {\displaystyle f\in \mathrm {FIN} _{n}} - , - - - - g - ∈ - - - F - I - N - - - m - - - - - {\displaystyle g\in \mathrm {FIN} _{m}} - have disjoint supports, we define - - - - f - + - g - ∈ - - - F - I - N - - - k - - - - - {\displaystyle f+g\in \mathrm {FIN} _{k}} - to be their pointwise sum, where - - - - k - = - max - { - n - , - m - } - - - {\displaystyle k=\max\{n,m\}} - .",67459232,Gowers' theorem,M -367,367.0,367.0,"The Longwood Medical and Academic Area (also known as Longwood Medical Area, LMA, or simply Longwood) is a medical campus in Boston, Massachusetts. Flanking Longwood Avenue, LMA is adjacent to the Fenway–Kenmore, Audubon Circle, and Mission Hill neighborhoods, as well as the town of Brookline.It is most strongly associated with Harvard Medical School, the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, the Harvard School of Dental Medicine, and other medical facilities such as Harvard's teaching hospitals, but prominent non-Harvard institutions are located there as well. Long known as a global center of research, institutions in the Longwood Medical Area secured over $1.2 billion in NIH funds alone, in FY 2018 which exceeds funding received by 44 states. - -Hospitals and research institutions -Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center -Boston Children's Hospital -Brigham and Women's Hospital -Dana–Farber Cancer Institute -Joslin Diabetes Center -Massachusetts Mental Health Center -New England Baptist Hospital -Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering - -Schools and colleges -Boston Latin School -Emmanuel College -Harvard Medical School -Harvard School of Dental Medicine -Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health -Massachusetts College of Art and Design -Massachusetts College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences -Simmons University -Wentworth Institute of Technology -Boston University Wheelock College of Education & Human Development -Winsor School - -Transportation -LMA is served by two subway stations at opposite ends of Longwood Avenue: -""Longwood"" (on the MBTA Green Line's ""D"" branch) and -""Longwood Medical Area"" (on the ""E"" branch). -Several public bus routes serve the area and commuter rail service is available at nearby Ruggles Station.",2291056,Longwood Medical and Academic Area,S -368,368.0,368.0,"With respect to cultural property, conservation science is the interdisciplinary study of the conservation of art, architecture, technical art history and other cultural works through the use of scientific inquiry. General areas of research include the technology and structure of artistic and historic works. In other words, the materials and techniques from which cultural, artistic and historic objects are made. -There are three broad categories of conservation science with respect to cultural heritage: 1) understanding the materials and techniques used by artists, 2) study of the causes of deterioration, and 3) improving methods/techniques and materials for examination and treatment. Conservation science includes aspects of materials science, chemistry, physics, biology, and engineering, as well as art history and anthropology.",9962115,Conservation science (cultural property),S -369,369.0,369.0,"The Internet of Musical Things (also known as IoMusT) is a research area that aims to bring Internet of Things connectivityto musical and artistic practices. Moreover, it encompasses concepts coming from music computing, ubiquitous music, human-computer interaction, artificial intelligence, augmented reality, virtual reality, gaming, participative art, and new interfaces for musical expression. From a computational perspective, IoMusT refers to local or remote networks embedded with devices capable of generating and/or playing musical content. - -Introduction -The term ""Internet of Things"" (IoT) is extensible to any everyday object connected to the internet, having its capabilities increased by exchanging information with other elements present in the network to achieve a common goal. Thanks to the technological advances that have occurred in the last decades, its use has spread to several areas of performance, assisting in medical analysis, traffic control and home security. When its concepts meet music, the Internet of Music Things (IoMusT) emerges. -The term ""Internet of Musical Things"" also receives numerous classifications, according to the use of certain authors.",73365448,Internet of Musical Things,T -370,370.0,370.0,"DNA‐templated organic synthesis (DTS) is a way to control the reactivity of synthetic molecules by using nature's molarity‐based approach. Historically, DTS was used as a model of prebiotic nucleic acid replication. Now however, it is capable of translating DNA sequences into complex small‐molecule and polymer products of multistep organic synthesis. - -Base Editors -The DNA base editors, developed at Harvard University under David Liu, allow altering the genomic structure of DNA. The base editors include BE3, BE4 and ABE7. -BE3 and its later version, BE4 allow to change the nucleobase C to T and nucleobase G to A. ABE7 allows to change A-T base pairs into G-C base pairs.",59953471,DNA-templated organic synthesis,S -371,371.0,371.0,"In engineering design, a function–means tree (a.k.a. function/means tree or F/M tree) is a method for functional decomposition and concept generation. At the top level, main functions are identified. Under each function, a means (or solution element) is attached. Alternative solution elements can also be attached.",14041062,Function–means tree,E -372,372.0,372.0,"Flight envelope protection is a human machine interface extension of an aircraft's control system that prevents the pilot of an aircraft from making control commands that would force the aircraft to exceed its structural and aerodynamic operating limits. It is used in some form in all modern commercial fly-by-wire aircraft. The professed advantage of flight envelope protection systems is that they restrict a pilot's excessive control inputs, whether in surprise reaction to emergencies or otherwise, from translating into excessive flight control surface movements. Notionally, this allows pilots to react quickly to an emergency while blunting the effect of an excessive control input resulting from ""startle,"" by electronically limiting excessive control surface movements that could over-stress the airframe and endanger the safety of the aircraft.In practice, these limitations have sometimes resulted in unintended human factors errors and accidents of their own. - -Function -Aircraft have a flight envelope that describes its safe performance limits in regard to such things as minimum and maximum operating speeds, and its operating structural strength. Flight envelope protection calculates that flight envelope (and adds a margin of safety) and uses this information to stop pilots from making control inputs that would put the aircraft outside that flight envelope.",20723955,Flight envelope protection,T -373,373.0,373.0,"Restoration ecology is the scientific study supporting the practice of ecological restoration, which is the practice of renewing and restoring degraded, damaged, or destroyed ecosystems and habitats in the environment by active human interruption and action. Ecological restoration can reverse biodiversity loss, combat climate change and support local and global economies.Natural ecosystems provide ecosystem services in the form of resources such as food, fuel, and timber; the purification of air and water; the detoxification and decomposition of wastes; the regulation of climate; the regeneration of soil fertility; and the pollination of crops. These ecosystem processes have been estimated to be worth trillions of dollars annually. There is consensus in the scientific community that the current environmental degradation and destruction of many of Earth's biota are taking place on a ""catastrophically short timescale"". Scientists estimate that the current species extinction rate, or the rate of the Holocene extinction, is 1,000 to 10,000 times higher than the normal, background rate.",1790574,Restoration ecology,S -374,374.0,374.0,"Packet Forwarding Control Protocol (PFCP) is a 3GPP protocol used on the Sx/N4 interface between the control plane and the user plane function, specified in TS 29.244. It is one of the main protocols introduced in the 5G Next Generation Mobile Core Network (aka 5GC), but also used in the 4G/LTE EPC to implement the Control and User Plane Separation (CUPS). PFCP and the associated interfaces seek to formalize the interactions between different types of functional elements used in the Mobile Core Networks as deployed by most operators providing 4G, as well as 5G, services to mobile subscribers. These 2 types of components are: - -The Control Plane (CP) functional elements, handling mostly signaling procedures (e.g. network attachment procedures, management of User-data Plane paths and even delivery of some light-weight services as SMS) -The User-data Plane (UP) functional elements, handling mostly packet forwarding, based on rules set by the CP elements (e.g.",57914571,PFCP,T -375,375.0,375.0,"Proprietary firmware is any firmware that has had its use, private modification, copying, or republishing restricted by the producer. Proprietors may enforce restrictions by technical means, such as by restricting source code access, firmware replacement restrictions (by denying complete tooling that may be necessary in order to recompile and replace the firmware), or by legal means, such as through copyright and patents. Alternatives to proprietary firmware may be free (libre) or open-source. - -Distribution -Proprietary firmware (and especially the microcode) is much more difficult to avoid than proprietary software or even proprietary device drivers, because the firmware is usually very specific to the manufacturer of each device (often being unique for each model), and the programming documentation and complete specifications that would be necessary to create a replacement are often withheld by the hardware manufacturer.Many open-source operating systems reluctantly choose to include proprietary firmware files in their distributions simply to make their device drivers work, because manufacturers try to save money by removing flash memory or EEPROM from their devices, requiring the operating system to upload the firmware each time the device is used. However, in order to do so, the operating system still has to have distribution rights for this proprietary microcode. - -Security concerns -Proprietary firmware poses a significant security risk to the user because of the direct memory access (DMA) architecture of modern computers and the potential for DMA attacks. Theo de Raadt of OpenBSD suggests that wireless firmware are kept proprietary because of poor design quality and firmware defects.",18761238,Proprietary firmware,T -376,376.0,376.0,"Improvisation, often shortened to improv, is the activity of making or doing something not planned beforehand, using whatever can be found. Improvisation in the performing arts is a very spontaneous performance without specific or scripted preparation. The skills of improvisation can apply to many different faculties, across all artistic, scientific, physical, cognitive, academic, and non-academic disciplines; see Applied improvisation. -Improvisation also exists outside the arts. Improvisation in engineering is to solve a problem with the tools and materials immediately at hand. Improvised weapons are often used by guerrillas, insurgents and criminals. - -Engineering -Improvisation in engineering is to solve a problem with the tools and materials immediately at hand.",88772,Improvisation,E -377,377.0,377.0,"In graph theory, the strongly connected components of a directed graph may be found using an algorithm that uses depth-first search in combination with two stacks, one to keep track of the vertices in the current component and the second to keep track of the current search path. Versions of this algorithm have been proposed by Purdom (1970), Munro (1971), Dijkstra (1976), Cheriyan & Mehlhorn (1996), and Gabow (2000); of these, Dijkstra's version was the first to achieve linear time. - -Description -The algorithm performs a depth-first search of the given graph G, maintaining as it does two stacks S and P (in addition to the normal call stack for a recursive function). -Stack S contains all the vertices that have not yet been assigned to a strongly connected component, in the order in which the depth-first search reaches the vertices. -Stack P contains vertices that have not yet been determined to belong to different strongly connected components from each other. It also uses a counter C of the number of vertices reached so far, which it uses to compute the preorder numbers of the vertices. -When the depth-first search reaches a vertex v, the algorithm performs the following steps: - -Set the preorder number of v to C, and increment C. -Push v onto S and also onto P. -For each edge from v to a neighboring vertex w: -If the preorder number of w has not yet been assigned (the edge is a tree edge), recursively search w; -Otherwise, if w has not yet been assigned to a strongly connected component (the edge is a forward/back/cross edge): -Repeatedly pop vertices from P until the top element of P has a preorder number less than or equal to the preorder number of w. -If v is the top element of P: -Pop vertices from S until v has been popped, and assign the popped vertices to a new component. -Pop v from P.The overall algorithm consists of a loop through the vertices of the graph, calling this recursive search on each vertex that does not yet have a preorder number assigned to it. - -Related algorithms -Like this algorithm, Tarjan's strongly connected components algorithm also uses depth first search together with a stack to keep track of vertices that have not yet been assigned to a component, and moves these vertices into a new component when it finishes expanding the final vertex of its component. However, in place of the stack P, Tarjan's algorithm uses a vertex-indexed array of preorder numbers, assigned in the order that vertices are first visited in the depth-first search. The preorder array is used to keep track of when to form a new component. - -Notes -References -Cheriyan, J.; Mehlhorn, K.",12377419,Path-based strong component algorithm,M -378,378.0,378.0,"A quad chart is a form of technical documentation used to briefly describe an invention or other innovation through writing, illustration and/or photographs. Such documents are described as ""quad"" charts because they are divided into four quadrants laid out on a landscape perspective. They are typically one-page only; their succinctness facilitates rapid decision-making. Though shorter, quad charts often serve in a similar capacity to white papers and the two documents are often requested alongside one another. - -History -Quad charts as a genre were developed by the United States Department of Commerce's National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration in an attempt to improve budgeting and planning systems, and became widely used in the Administration's National Weather Service. The genre's development was parallel to that of display boards, also an early tool used by the NWS for staff communication. -In the early 2000s, software was developed to allow automated creation of quad charts as a means of saving time for technical writers who would otherwise spend long periods of time drafting them. - -Significance -Both government agencies and large businesses often require submission of a quad chart on the part of potential contractors as part of the contract bidding process.",38570790,Quad chart,T -379,379.0,379.0,"Immunoelectrophoresis is a general name for a number of biochemical methods for separation and characterization of proteins based on electrophoresis and reaction with antibodies. All variants of immunoelectrophoresis require immunoglobulins, also known as antibodies, reacting with the proteins to be separated or characterized. The methods were developed and used extensively during the second half of the 20th century. In somewhat chronological order: Immunoelectrophoretic analysis (one-dimensional immunoelectrophoresis ad modum Grabar), crossed immunoelectrophoresis (two-dimensional quantitative immunoelectrophoresis ad modum Clarke and Freeman or ad modum Laurell), rocket-immunoelectrophoresis (one-dimensional quantitative immunoelectrophoresis ad modum Laurell), fused rocket immunoelectrophoresis ad modum Svendsen and Harboe, affinity immunoelectrophoresis ad modum Bøg-Hansen. - -Method -Electrophoresis analyzes the M protein in serum and urine. The main two principles of immunoelectrophoresis are zone electrophoresis and immunodiffusion.",2428570,Immunoelectrophoresis,M -380,380.0,380.0,"cis is a mathematical notation defined by cis x = cos x + i sin x, where cos is the cosine function, i is the imaginary unit and sin is the sine function. The notation is less commonly used in mathematics than Euler's formula, eix, which offers an even shorter notation for cos x + i sin x, but cis(x) is widely used as a name for this function in software libraries. - -Overview -The cis notation is a shorthand for the combination of functions on the right-hand side of Euler's formula: - - - - - - e - - i - x - - - = - cos - ⁡ - x - + - i - sin - ⁡ - x - , - - - {\displaystyle e^{ix}=\cos x+i\sin x,} - where i2 = −1. So, - - - - - cis - ⁡ - x - = - cos - ⁡ - x - + - i - sin - ⁡ - x - , - - - {\displaystyle \operatorname {cis} x=\cos x+i\sin x,} - i.e. ""cis"" is an acronym for ""Cos i Sin"". -It connects trigonometric functions with exponential functions in the complex plane via Euler's formula. While the domain of definition is usually - - - - x - ∈ - - R - - - - {\displaystyle x\in \mathbb {R} } - , complex values - - - - z - ∈ - - C - - - - {\displaystyle z\in \mathbb {C} } - are possible as well: - - - - - cis - ⁡ - z - = - cos - ⁡ - z - + - i - sin - ⁡ - z - , - - - {\displaystyle \operatorname {cis} z=\cos z+i\sin z,} - so the cis function can be used to extend Euler's formula to a more general complex version.The function is mostly used as a convenient shorthand notation to simplify some expressions, for example in conjunction with Fourier and Hartley transforms, or when exponential functions shouldn't be used for some reason in math education. -In information technology, the function sees dedicated support in various high-performance math libraries (such as Intel's Math Kernel Library (MKL) or MathCW), available for many compilers, programming languages (including C, C++, Common Lisp, D, Fortran, Haskell, Julia, and Rust), and operating systems (including Windows, Linux, macOS and HP-UX).",25350901,Cis (mathematics),M -381,381.0,381.0,"ENVI-met is a microscale three-dimensional software model for simulating complex urban environments based on the fundamental laws of fluid mechanics (wind field), thermodynamics (temperature calculations) and general atmospheric physics (for example, turbulence prediction). Unlike models that focus on individual aspects such as mean radiant temperature or wind flows and turbulence, ENVI-met is the first software of its kind to simulate all interactions between building and ground surfaces, plants and ambient air. Typical areas of application are architecture, landscape architecture and urban planning. - -In science -In science, ENVI-met is used in an interdisciplinary way to investigate the influences of progressive urbanisation - for example due to land sealing, surface materials used and changed urban topographies - on the urban microclimate and human health, and to enable climate-appropriate planning. - -Company formation -The software model has been continuously developed since 1994 by the German geographer and climatologist Michael Bruse. In 2014, Michael Bruse and Daniela Bruse founded ENVI-met GmbH. Since 2018, the geographer and co-author of the software Helge Simon has been a partner in the company.",71729248,ENVI-met,T -382,382.0,382.0,"Health technology assessment (HTA) is a multidisciplinary process that uses systematic and explicit methods to evaluate the properties and effects of a health technology. Health technology is conceived as any intervention (test, device, medicine, vaccine, procedure, program) at any point in its lifecycle (pre-market, regulatory approval, post-market, disinvestment). HTA aim is to inform ""decision-making in order to promote an equitable, efficient, and high-quality health system"". It has other definitions including ""a method of evidence synthesis that considers evidence regarding clinical effectiveness, safety, cost-effectiveness and, when broadly applied, includes social, ethical, and legal aspects of the use of health technologies. The precise balance of these inputs depends on the purpose of each individual HTA.",22406877,Health technology assessment,T -383,383.0,383.0,"Neontology is a part of biology that, in contrast to paleontology, deals with living (or, more generally, recent) organisms. It is the study of extant taxa (singular: extant taxon): taxa (such as species, genera and families) with members still alive, as opposed to (all) being extinct. For example: - -The moose (Alces alces) is an extant species, and the Irish elk (Megaloceros giganteus) is an extinct species. -In the group of molluscs known as the cephalopods, as of 1987 there were approximately 600 extant species and 7,500 extinct species.A taxon can be classified as extinct if it is broadly agreed or certified that no members of the group are still alive. Conversely, an extinct taxon can be reclassified as extant if there are new discoveries of living species (""Lazarus species""), or if previously known extant species are reclassified as members of the taxon. -Most biologists, zoologists, and botanists are in practice neontologists, and the term neontologist is used largely by paleontologists referring to non-paleontologists.",2436363,Neontology,S -384,384.0,384.0,"Artes mechanicae (mechanical arts) are a medieval concept of ordered practices or skills, often juxtaposed to the traditional seven liberal arts (artes liberales). Also called ""servile"" and ""vulgar"", from antiquity they had been deemed ""unbecoming"" for a free man, as they minister to basic needs. - -Overview -Johannes Scotus Eriugena (9th century) divided them into seven parts: - -vestiaria (tailoring, weaving) -agricultura (agriculture) -architectura (architecture, masonry) -militia and venatoria (warfare and hunting, military education, ""martial arts"") -mercatura (trade) -coquinaria (cooking) -metallaria (blacksmithing, metallurgy)Leonardo Da Vinci developed the mechanical form of painting in which a synthesis of Roman and Greek forms of art was attempted. The paint was manipulated in a number of different ways each driven by ideas surrounding process, materiality and chance encounters. The unique display of forms and colours were brought together by the artist's hand but manipulated though the use of machines or natures forces. -In his Didascalicon, Hugh of St Victor (12th century) includes navigation, medicine and theatrical arts instead of commerce, agriculture and cooking. Hugh's treatment somewhat elevates the mechanical arts as ordained to the improvement of humanity, a promotion which was to represent a growing trend among late medievals.The classification of the artes mechanicae as applied geometry was introduced to Western Europe by Dominicus Gundissalinus (12th century) under the influence of his readings in Arabic scholarship. -In the 19th century, ""mechanic arts"" referred to some of the fields that are now known as engineering.",863862,Artes mechanicae,S -385,385.0,385.0,"Molecular engineering is an emerging field of study concerned with the design and testing of molecular properties, behavior and interactions in order to assemble better materials, systems, and processes for specific functions. This approach, in which observable properties of a macroscopic system are influenced by direct alteration of a molecular structure, falls into the broader category of “bottom-up” design. - -Molecular engineering is highly interdisciplinary by nature, encompassing aspects of chemical engineering, materials science, bioengineering, electrical engineering, physics, mechanical engineering, and chemistry. There is also considerable overlap with nanotechnology, in that both are concerned with the behavior of materials on the scale of nanometers or smaller. Given the highly fundamental nature of molecular interactions, there are a plethora of potential application areas, limited perhaps only by one's imagination and the laws of physics. However, some of the early successes of molecular engineering have come in the fields of immunotherapy, synthetic biology, and printable electronics (see molecular engineering applications). -Molecular engineering is a dynamic and evolving field with complex target problems; breakthroughs require sophisticated and creative engineers who are conversant across disciplines.",177515,Molecular engineering,E -386,386.0,386.0,"A biotransducer is the recognition-transduction component of a biosensor system. It consists of two intimately coupled parts; a bio-recognition layer and a physicochemical transducer, which acting together converts a biochemical signal to an electronic or optical signal. The bio-recognition layer typically contains an enzyme or another binding protein such as antibody. However, oligonucleotide sequences, sub-cellular fragments such as organelles (e.g. mitochondria) and receptor carrying fragments (e.g.",38380954,Biotransducer,S -387,387.0,387.0,"A fenestra (fenestration; PL: fenestrae or fenestrations) is any small opening or pore, commonly used as a term in the biological sciences. It is the Latin word for ""window"", and is used in various fields to describe a pore in an anatomical structure. - -Biological morphology -In morphology, fenestrae are found in cancellous bones, particularly in the skull. In anatomy, the round window and oval window are also known as the fenestra rotunda and the fenestra ovalis. In microanatomy, fenestrae are found in endothelium of fenestrated capillaries, enabling the rapid exchange of molecules between the blood and surrounding tissue. The elastic layer of the tunica intima is a fenestrated membrane.",2730533,Fenestra,S -388,388.0,388.0,"In mathematics, the generalized taxicab number Taxicab(k, j, n) is the smallest number — if it exists — that can be expressed as the sum of j kth positive powers in n different ways. For k = 3 and j = 2, they coincide with taxicab number. - - - - - - T - a - x - i - c - a - b - - ( - 1 - , - 2 - , - 2 - ) - = - 4 - = - 1 - + - 3 - = - 2 - + - 2. - - - {\displaystyle \mathrm {Taxicab} (1,2,2)=4=1+3=2+2.} - - - - - - T - a - x - i - c - a - b - - ( - 2 - , - 2 - , - 2 - ) - = - 50 - = - - 1 - - 2 - - - + - - 7 - - 2 - - - = - - 5 - - 2 - - - + - - 5 - - 2 - - - . - - - {\displaystyle \mathrm {Taxicab} (2,2,2)=50=1^{2}+7^{2}=5^{2}+5^{2}.} - - - - - - T - a - x - i - c - a - b - - ( - 3 - , - 2 - , - 2 - ) - = - 1729 - = - - 1 - - 3 - - - + - - 12 - - 3 - - - = - - 9 - - 3 - - - + - - 10 - - 3 - - - - - {\displaystyle \mathrm {Taxicab} (3,2,2)=1729=1^{3}+12^{3}=9^{3}+10^{3}} - — 1729 (number) by Ramanujan.Euler showed that - - - - - - T - a - x - i - c - a - b - - ( - 4 - , - 2 - , - 2 - ) - = - 635318657 - = - - 59 - - 4 - - - + - - 158 - - 4 - - - = - - 133 - - 4 - - - + - - 134 - - 4 - - - . - - - {\displaystyle \mathrm {Taxicab} (4,2,2)=635318657=59^{4}+158^{4}=133^{4}+134^{4}.} - However, Taxicab(5, 2, n) is not known for any n ≥ 2:No positive integer is known that can be written as the sum of two 5th powers in more than one way, and it is not known whether such a number exists.The largest variable of - - - - - a - - 5 - - - + - - b - - 5 - - - = - - c - - 5 - - - + - - d - - 5 - - - - - {\displaystyle a^{5}+b^{5}=c^{5}+d^{5}} - must be at least 3450. - -See also -Cabtaxi number - -References -Ekl, Randy L. (1998). ""New results in equal sums of like powers"". Math.",678194,Generalized taxicab number,M -389,389.0,389.0,"The genotype of an organism is its complete set of genetic material. Genotype can also be used to refer to the alleles or variants an individual carries in a particular gene or genetic location. The number of alleles an individual can have in a specific gene depends on the number of copies of each chromosome found in that species, also referred to as ploidy. In diploid species like humans, two full sets of chromosomes are present, meaning each individual has two alleles for any given gene. If both alleles are the same, the genotype is referred to as homozygous.",12796,Genotype,S -390,390.0,390.0,"SV40 is an abbreviation for simian vacuolating virus 40 or simian virus 40, a polyomavirus that is found in both monkeys and humans. Like other polyomaviruses, SV40 is a DNA virus that sometimes causes tumors in animals, but most often persists as a latent infection. SV40 has been widely studied as a model eukaryotic virus, leading to many early discoveries in eukaryotic DNA replication and transcription. - -Human disease -The hypothesis that SV40 might cause cancer in humans has been a particularly controversial area of research. It is currently unclear whether SV40 has any role in causing tumors. As a result of these uncertainties, academic opinion remains divided, with some arguing that this hypothesis is not supported by the data and others arguing that some cancers may involve SV40.",767839,SV40,S -391,391.0,391.0,"The International Measurement Confederation (abbreviated IMEKO, from German: Internationale Meßtechnische Konföderation) is a non-governmental federation of metrological organizations. It was founded in 1958 in Budapest, Hungary. - -Structure -IMEKO has member organizations (MOs) in the following countries: Albania, Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Bulgaria, Canada, China, Congo (Democratic Republic), Croatia, the Czech Republic, Egypt, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, India, Italy, Jamaica, Japan, Kazakhstan, Kenya, the Republic of Korea, Nigeria, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Rwanda, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, South Africa, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Thailand, Turkey, Uganda, Ukraine, the United Kingdom, and the United States of America. -IMEKO is entirely staffed by volunteers from its MOs - scientific societies or institutes of the corresponding member countries. They delegate specialists in the different fields of metrology to contribute to the work of IMEKO in the General Council, the boards and the Technical Committees (TCs). The MOs organise IMEKO events (congresses, conferences, workshops, symposia). - -General Council (GC) -The General Council is the governing body, containing one or two delegates from each Member Organization. Sessions are held annually.Technical Board (TB) -The purpose of the Technical Board is to supervise the Technical Committees.",30357324,International Measurement Confederation,S -392,392.0,392.0,"A telescopic handler, also called a lull, telehandler, teleporter, reach forklift, or zoom boom, is a machine widely used in agriculture and industry. It is somewhat like a forklift but has a boom (telescopic cylinder), making it more a crane than a forklift, with the increased versatility of a single telescopic boom that can extend forwards and upwards from the vehicle. The boom can be fitted with different attachments, such as a bucket, pallet forks, muck grab, or winch. - -Uses -In industry, the most common attachment for a telehandler is pallet forks and the most common application is to move loads to and from places unreachable for a conventional forklift. For example, telehandlers have the ability to remove palletised cargo from within a trailer and to place loads on rooftops and other high places. The latter application would otherwise require a crane, which is not always practical or time-efficient. -In agriculture the most common attachment for a telehandler are buckets or bucket grabs, again the most common application is to move loads to and from places unreachable for a 'conventional machine' which in this case is a wheeled loader or backhoe loader.",2266155,Telescopic handler,E -393,393.0,393.0,"A style guide is a set of standards for the writing, formatting, and design of documents. A book-length style guide is often called a style manual or manual of style (MoS or MOS). (Typical examples include the Chicago Manual of Style and the AMA Manual of Style.) A short style guide, of several pages or several dozen pages, is often called a style sheet, although that term also has multiple other meanings. The standards documented in a style guide can be applied either for general use, or be required usage for an individual publication, a particular organization, or a specific field. -A style guide establishes standard style requirements to improve communication by ensuring consistency both within a document, and across multiple documents. Because practices vary, a style guide may set out standards to be used in areas such as punctuation, capitalization, citing sources, formatting of numbers and dates, table appearance and other areas.",16017237,Style guide,T -394,394.0,394.0,"A multiple-effect evaporator, as defined in chemical engineering, is an apparatus for efficiently using the heat from steam to evaporate water. Water is boiled in a sequence of vessels, each held at a lower pressure than the last. Because the boiling temperature of water decreases as pressure decreases, the vapor boiled off in one vessel can be used to heat the next, and only the first vessel (at the highest pressure) requires an external source of heat. While in theory, evaporators may be built with an arbitrarily large number of stages, evaporators with more than four stages are rarely practical except in systems where the liquor is the desired product such as in chemical recovery systems where up to seven effects are used. -The multiple-effect evaporator was invented by an African-American inventor and engineer Norbert Rillieux. Although he may have designed the apparatus during the 1820s and constructed a prototype in 1834, he did not build the first industrially practical evaporator until 1845.",1712357,Multiple-effect evaporator,E -395,395.0,395.0,"Botanical expeditions (sometimes called ""Plant hunting"") are scientific voyages designed to explore the flora of a particular region, either as a specific design or part of a larger expedition. A naturalist or botanist would be responsible for identification, description and collection of specimens. In some cases the plants might be collected by the person in the field, but described and named by a government sponsored scientist at a botanical garden or university. For example, species collected on the Lewis and Clark Expedition were described and named by Frederick Traugott Pursh. -While accounts of plant collection occur in antiquity, a scientific basis occurred during the Renaissance and was associated with the establishment of botanical gardens and the teaching of botany as a discipline. The practice of botanical expeditions reached a peak in the late 18th and during the 19th century with the systematic organisation of plants into taxonomic classifications.",40390498,Botanical expeditions,S -396,396.0,396.0,"AIMStar was a proposed antimatter-catalyzed nuclear pulse propulsion craft that uses clouds of antiprotons to initiate fission and fusion within fuel pellets. A magnetic nozzle derives motive force from the resulting explosions. The design was studied during the 1990s by Penn State University. The craft was designed to reach a distance on the order of 10,000 AU from the Sun, with a travel time of 50 years, and a coasting velocity of approximately 960 km/s after the boost phase (roughly 1/300th of the speed of light). The probe would be able to study the interstellar medium as well as reach Alpha Centauri.",10406837,AIMStar,T -397,397.0,397.0,"Goldstream Dredge No. 8 is a ladder dredge operated by the Fairbanks Exploration Company from 1928 to 1959. It is located on the old Steese Highway between Fairbanks and Fox in the central part of Alaska. -Starting in the 1920s, water was brought to the area through the 90-mile (145 km) Davidson Ditch for gold mining. The Goldstream Dredge No. 8 cut a 4.5-mile (7.2 km) track and produced 7.5 million ounces of gold.The dredge was named a Historic Mechanical Engineering Landmark by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers in 1986.",20941458,Goldstream Dredge No. 8,E -398,398.0,398.0,"Real-time text (RTT) is text transmitted instantly as it is typed or created. Recipients can immediately read the message while it is being written, without waiting. -Real-time text is used for conversational text, in collaboration, and in live captioning. Technologies include TDD/TTY devices for the deaf, live captioning for TV, Text over IP (ToIP), some types of instant messaging, captioning for telephony/video teleconferencing, telecommunications relay services including ip-relay, transcription services including Remote CART, TypeWell, collaborative text editing, streaming text applications, next-generation 9-1-1/1-1-2 emergency service. Obsolete TDD/TTY devices are being replaced by more modern real-time text technologies, including Text over IP, ip-relay, and instant messaging. -During 2012, the Real-Time Text Taskforce (R3TF) designed a standard international symbol to represent real-time text, as well as the alternate name Fast Text to improve public education of the technology. - -Use over instant messaging -While standard instant messaging is not real-time text (messages are sent deliberately when the writer is ready, not transmitted while they are being composed), a real-time text option is found in some instant messaging software, including AOL Instant Messenger's ""Real-Time IM"" feature. Real-time text is also possible over any XMPP compatible chat networks, including those used by Apple iChat, Cisco WebEx, and Google Talk, by using appropriate software that has a real-time text feature.",32335474,Real-time text,T -399,399.0,399.0,"This is a list of people who have made noteworthy contributions to cosmology (the study of the history and large-scale structure of the universe) and their cosmological achievements - -A -Tom Abel (1970–) studied primordial star formation -Roberto Abraham (1965–) studied the shapes of early galaxies -Andreas Albrecht studied the formation of the early universe, cosmic structure, and dark energy -Hannes Alfvén (1908–1995) theorized that galactic magnetic fields could be generated by plasma currents -Ralph A. Alpher (1921–2007) argued that observed proportions of hydrogen and helium in the universe could be explained by the big bang model, predicted cosmic background radiation -Aristarchus of Samos (310–230 BC) early proponent of heliocentrism -Aristotle (circa 384–322 BC) posited a geocentric cosmology that was widely accepted for many centuries -Aryabhata (476–550) described a geocentric model with slow and fast epicycles - -B -Ja'far ibn Muhammad Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi (787–886) conveyed Aristotle's theories from Persia to Europe -James M. Bardeen (1939–2022) studied the mathematics of black holes and of vacua under general relativity -John D. Barrow (1952–2020) popularized the anthropic cosmological principle -Charles L. Bennett (1956–) studied the large-scale structure of the universe by mapping irregularities in microwave background radiation -Orfeu Bertolami (1959–) studied the cosmological constant, inflation, dark energy-dark matter unification and interaction, alternative gravity theories -Somnath Bharadwaj (1964–) studied large-scale structure formation -James Binney (1950–) studied galactic dynamics and supernova disruption of galactic gasses -Martin Bojowald (1973–) studied loop quantum gravity and established loop quantum cosmology -Hermann Bondi (1919–2005) developed the steady-state model -Mustapha Ishak Boushaki (1967–) physicist researcher on Cosmology -Tycho Brahe (1546–1601) promoted a geo-heliocentric system of epicycles -Robert Brandenberger (1956–) formulated the theory of string gas cosmology, with colleague Cumrun Vafa, and developed cosmological perturbation theory - -C -Bernard J.",1053553,List of cosmologists,M -400,400.0,400.0,"A cargo net is a type of net. It is usually square or rectangle, but sometimes round, made of thick rope, with cinch ropes extending from the corners, and in some designs, the edges. It is named for its use in transferring cargo to and from ships. - -Uses -Cargo transfer -In shipping, cargo lift nets are used to load and unload cargo. The net is spread out by stevedores, who load the goods onto it. They then attach the cinches to a crane hook.",31563269,Cargo net,E -401,401.0,401.0,"Microbial biodegradation is the use of bioremediation and biotransformation methods to harness the naturally occurring ability of microbial xenobiotic metabolism to degrade, transform or accumulate environmental pollutants, including hydrocarbons (e.g. oil), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), heterocyclic compounds (such as pyridine or quinoline), pharmaceutical substances, radionuclides and metals. -Interest in the microbial biodegradation of pollutants has intensified in recent years, and recent major methodological breakthroughs have enabled detailed genomic, metagenomic, proteomic, bioinformatic and other high-throughput analyses of environmentally relevant microorganisms, providing new insights into biodegradative pathways and the ability of organisms to adapt to changing environmental conditions. -Biological processes play a major role in the removal of contaminants and take advantage of the catabolic versatility of microorganisms to degrade or convert such compounds. In environmental microbiology, genome-based global studies are increasing the understanding of metabolic and regulatory networks, as well as providing new information on the evolution of degradation pathways and molecular adaptation strategies to changing environmental conditions. - -Aerobic biodegradation of pollutants -The increasing amount of bacterial genomic data provides new opportunities for understanding the genetic and molecular bases of the degradation of organic pollutants. Aromatic compounds are among the most persistent of these pollutants and lessons can be learned from the recent genomic studies of Burkholderia xenovorans LB400 and Rhodococcus sp. strain RHA1, two of the largest bacterial genomes completely sequenced to date.",13475684,Microbial biodegradation,S -402,402.0,402.0,"In electrical engineering, the power factor of an AC power system is defined as the ratio of the real power absorbed by the load to the apparent power flowing in the circuit. Real power is the average of the instantaneous product of voltage and current and represents the capacity of the electricity for performing work. Apparent power is the product of RMS current and voltage. Due to energy stored in the load and returned to the source, or due to a non-linear load that distorts the wave shape of the current drawn from the source, the apparent power may be greater than the real power, so more current flows in the circuit than would be required to transfer real power alone. A power factor magnitude of less than one indicates the voltage and current are not in phase, reducing the average product of the two.",41568,Power factor,E -403,403.0,403.0,"Star Party Sri Lanka, commonly known as the ""Star Party"" is an astronomical observation competition held in Sri Lanka since 2004. It is the longest-running inter-school astronomical observation competition in Sri Lanka. It happens annually at the University of Peradeniya premises typically in the first quarter of the year. However, in some years it was held in the other periods of the year due to various reasons. Star Party is considered the most important event in the Sri Lankan amateur astronomical calendar. - -Observation competition -Star Party night sky observation competition is the main focus event of the entire Star Party.",63019703,Star Party Sri Lanka,M -404,404.0,404.0,"A nature center (or nature centre) is an organization with a visitor center or interpretive center designed to educate people about nature and the environment. Usually located within a protected open space, nature centers often have trails through their property. Some are located within a state or city park, and some have special gardens or an arboretum. Their properties can be characterized as nature preserves and wildlife sanctuaries. Nature centers generally display small live animals, such as reptiles, rodents, insects, or fish.",13360851,Nature center,S -405,405.0,405.0,"In mathematics, a moment problem arises as the result of trying to invert the mapping that takes a measure μ to the sequence of moments - - - - - - m - - n - - - = - - ∫ - - − - ∞ - - - ∞ - - - - x - - n - - - - d - μ - ( - x - ) - - . - - - {\displaystyle m_{n}=\int _{-\infty }^{\infty }x^{n}\,d\mu (x)\,.} - More generally, one may consider - - - - - - m - - n - - - = - - ∫ - - − - ∞ - - - ∞ - - - - M - - n - - - ( - x - ) - - d - μ - ( - x - ) - - . - - - {\displaystyle m_{n}=\int _{-\infty }^{\infty }M_{n}(x)\,d\mu (x)\,.} - for an arbitrary sequence of functions Mn. - -Introduction -In the classical setting, μ is a measure on the real line, and M is the sequence { xn : n = 0, 1, 2, ... }. In this form the question appears in probability theory, asking whether there is a probability measure having specified mean, variance and so on, and whether it is unique. -There are three named classical moment problems: the Hamburger moment problem in which the support of μ is allowed to be the whole real line; the Stieltjes moment problem, for [0, +∞); and the Hausdorff moment problem for a bounded interval, which without loss of generality may be taken as [0, 1]. - -Existence -A sequence of numbers mn is the sequence of moments of a measure μ if and only if a certain positivity condition is fulfilled; namely, the Hankel matrices Hn, - - - - - ( - - H - - n - - - - ) - - i - j - - - = - - m - - i - + - j - - - - , - - - {\displaystyle (H_{n})_{ij}=m_{i+j}\,,} - should be positive semi-definite. This is because a positive-semidefinite Hankel matrix corresponds to a linear functional - - - - Λ - - - {\displaystyle \Lambda } - such that - - - - Λ - ( - - x - - n - - - ) - = - - m - - n - - - - - {\displaystyle \Lambda (x^{n})=m_{n}} - and - - - - Λ - ( - - f - - 2 - - - ) - ≥ - 0 - - - {\displaystyle \Lambda (f^{2})\geq 0} - (non-negative for sum of squares of polynomials). Assume - - - - Λ - - - {\displaystyle \Lambda } - can be extended to - - - - - R - - [ - x - - ] - - ∗ - - - - - {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} [x]^{*}} - .",1244992,Moment problem,M -406,406.0,406.0,"Cel-Sci Corporation (NYSE American: CVM), is a biotechnology company that tests drugs for the treatment of cancer, autoimmune and infectious diseases through the research and development of immunotherapy products. -Cel-Sci's main product is the drug Multikine, an immunotherapeutic agent designed to fight cancer by stimulating the body's immune system. Multikine is currently in Phase III of Clinical Trials with the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Multikine has also been referred to as Leukocyte Interleukin Injection (LI). Multikine was in Phase II testing of patients with head and neck cancer in the early 2000s, in which it demonstrated tumor-reducing ability. In January 2007, the US cleared the Phase 3 trial and Multikine was designated as an orphan drug by the FDA for neoadjuvant therapy of patients with squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck.",63280117,Cel-Sci Corporation,S -407,407.0,407.0,"Final Assembly Schedule, often abbreviated as FAS and sometimes referred to as finishing schedule, is a schedule of end items to finish the product for specific customer orders in a make to order (MTO) or assemble-to-order (ATO) environment. - -Overview -Finishing schedule may involve assembly but also final mixing, cutting, packaging etc. The FAS is prepared after receipt of customer order. FAS schedules the operations required to complete the product from the level where it is stocked (or master-scheduled) to the end-item level. -Final assembly schedule (FAS) entries are needed when end products do not appear in the MPS. These end items are assembled to order or have several customer options that can be combined in various configurations. These products belong to the category of products with variants and options wherein many shippable end-item products are assembled from few standard components (in modular construction and modular design).",24771554,Final assembly schedule,E -408,408.0,408.0,"The Lacassane Company is a land management company, with a goal of sustainable land management using an environmental management scheme that involves a host of tools including holistic management. Located primarily in Jefferson Davis and Cameron parish, with property in Ragley, Louisiana, the company headquarters is in Lake Charles, Louisiana. - -History -Founded in 1929, by eight Lake Charles area businessmen, with land purchased from Jim Gardiner. The company was formed with 2250 common shares of stock with share-holders including, W. P. Weber, H.",43114888,The Lacassane Company,S -409,409.0,409.0,"Space weathering is the type of weathering that occurs to any object exposed to the harsh environment of outer space. Bodies without atmospheres (including the Moon, Mercury, the asteroids, comets, and most of the moons of other planets) take on many weathering processes: - -collisions of galactic cosmic rays and solar cosmic rays, -irradiation, implantation, and sputtering from solar wind particles, and -bombardment by different sizes of meteorites and micrometeorites.Space weathering is important because these processes affect the physical and optical properties of the surface of many planetary bodies. Therefore, it is critical to understand the effects of space weathering in order to properly interpret remotely sensed data. - -History -Much of our knowledge of the space weathering process comes from studies of the lunar samples returned by the Apollo program, particularly the lunar soils (or regolith). The constant flux of high energy particles and micrometeorites, along with larger meteorites, act to comminute, melt, sputter and vaporize components of the lunar soil. -The first products of space weathering that were recognized in lunar soils were ""agglutinates"". These are created when micrometeorites melt a small amount of material, which incorporates surrounding glass and mineral fragments into a glass-welded aggregate ranging in size from a few micrometers to a few millimeters.",4709501,Space weathering,M -410,410.0,410.0,"Ernest Abraham Hart (26 June 1835 – 7 January 1898) was an English medical journalist. He was the editor of The British Medical Journal. - -Biography -Hart was born in London, the son of a Jewish dentist. He was educated at the City of London school, and became a student at St George's hospital. In 1856, he became a member of the Royal College of Surgeons, making a specialty of diseases of the eye. He was appointed ophthalmic surgeon at St Mary's hospital at the age of 28, and occupied various other posts, introducing into ophthalmic practice some modifications since widely adopted.",1334259,Ernest Hart (medical journalist),S -411,411.0,411.0,"From a legal point of view, a contract is an institutional arrangement for the way in which resources flow, which defines the various relationships between the parties to a transaction or limits the rights and obligations of the parties. -From an economic perspective, contract theory studies how economic actors can and do construct contractual arrangements, generally in the presence of information asymmetry. Because of its connections with both agency and incentives, contract theory is often categorized within a field known as law and economics. One prominent application of it is the design of optimal schemes of managerial compensation. In the field of economics, the first formal treatment of this topic was given by Kenneth Arrow in the 1960s. In 2016, Oliver Hart and Bengt R.",296775,Contract theory,M -412,412.0,412.0,"Packaging machinery is used throughout all packaging operations, involving primary packages to distribution packs. This includes many packaging processes: fabrication, cleaning, filling, sealing, combining, labeling, overwrapping, palletizing. - -Overview -Some packaging operations cannot be accomplished without packaging equipment. For example many packages include heat seals to prepare or seal a package. Heat sealers are needed, even in slow labor-intensive operations. -With many industries, the effectiveness of the heat seal is critical to product safety so the heat sealing operation must closely controlled with documented Verification and validation protocols. Food, drug, and medical regulations require consistent seals on packages.",44079782,Packaging machinery,E -413,413.0,413.0,"A wheel is a type of algebra (in the sense of universal algebra) where division is always defined. In particular, division by zero is meaningful. The real numbers can be extended to a wheel, as can any commutative ring. -The term wheel is inspired by the topological picture - - - - ⊙ - - - {\displaystyle \odot } - of the real projective line together with an extra point ⊥ (bottom element) such as - - - - ⊥ - = - 0 - - / - - 0 - - - {\displaystyle \bot =0/0} - .A wheel can be regarded as the equivalent of a commutative ring (and semiring) where addition and multiplication are not a group but respectively a commutative monoid and a commutative monoid with involution. - -Definition -A wheel is an algebraic structure - - - - ( - W - , - 0 - , - 1 - , - + - , - ⋅ - , - - / - - ) - - - {\displaystyle (W,0,1,+,\cdot ,/)} - , in which - - - - - W - - - {\displaystyle W} - is a set, - - - - - - - - 0 - - - {\displaystyle {}0} - and - - - - 1 - - - {\displaystyle 1} - are elements of that set, - - - - - + - - - {\displaystyle +} - and - - - - ⋅ - - - {\displaystyle \cdot } - are binary operations, - - - - - - / - - - - {\displaystyle /} - is a unary operation,and satisfying the following properties: - - - - - + - - - {\displaystyle +} - and - - - - ⋅ - - - {\displaystyle \cdot } - are each commutative and associative, and have - - - - - 0 - - - {\displaystyle \,0} - and - - - - 1 - - - {\displaystyle 1} - as their respective identities. - - - - - - / - - - / - - x - = - x - - - {\displaystyle //x=x} - ( - - - - - / - - - - {\displaystyle /} - is an involution) - - - - - - / - - ( - x - y - ) - = - - / - - x - - / - - y - - - {\displaystyle /(xy)=/x/y} - ( - - - - - / - - - - {\displaystyle /} - is multiplicative) - - - - - ( - x - + - y - ) - z - + - 0 - z - = - x - z - + - y - z - - - {\displaystyle (x+y)z+0z=xz+yz} - - - - - - ( - x - + - y - z - ) - - / - - y - = - x - - / - - y - + - z - + - 0 - y - - - {\displaystyle (x+yz)/y=x/y+z+0y} - - - - - - 0 - ⋅ - 0 - = - 0 - - - {\displaystyle 0\cdot 0=0} - - - - - - ( - x - + - 0 - y - ) - z - = - x - z - + - 0 - y - - - {\displaystyle (x+0y)z=xz+0y} - - - - - - - / - - ( - x - + - 0 - y - ) - = - - / - - x - + - 0 - y - - - {\displaystyle /(x+0y)=/x+0y} - - - - - - 0 - - / - - 0 - + - x - = - 0 - - / - - 0 - - - {\displaystyle 0/0+x=0/0} - -Algebra of wheels -Wheels replace the usual division as a binary operation with multiplication, with a unary operation applied to one argument - - - - - / - - x - - - {\displaystyle /x} - similar (but not identical) to the multiplicative inverse - - - - - x - - − - 1 - - - - - {\displaystyle x^{-1}} - , such that - - - - a - - / - - b - - - {\displaystyle a/b} - becomes shorthand for - - - - a - ⋅ - - / - - b - = - - / - - b - ⋅ - a - - - {\displaystyle a\cdot /b=/b\cdot a} - , but neither - - - - a - ⋅ - - b - - − - 1 - - - - - {\displaystyle a\cdot b^{-1}} - nor - - - - - b - - − - 1 - - - ⋅ - a - - - {\displaystyle b^{-1}\cdot a} - in general, and modifies the rules of algebra such that - - - - - 0 - x - ≠ - 0 - - - {\displaystyle 0x\neq 0} - in the general case - - - - - x - - / - - x - ≠ - 1 - - - {\displaystyle x/x\neq 1} - in the general case, as - - - - - / - - x - - - {\displaystyle /x} - is not the same as the multiplicative inverse of - - - - x - - - {\displaystyle x} - .Other identities that may be derived are - - - - - 0 - x - + - 0 - y - = - 0 - x - y - - - {\displaystyle 0x+0y=0xy} - - - - - - x - - / - - x - = - 1 - + - 0 - x - - / - - x - - - {\displaystyle x/x=1+0x/x} - - - - - - x - − - x - = - 0 - - x - - 2 - - - - - {\displaystyle x-x=0x^{2}} - where the negation - - - - − - x - - - {\displaystyle -x} - is defined by - - - - − - x - = - a - x - - - {\displaystyle -x=ax} - and - - - - x - − - y - = - x - + - ( - − - y - ) - - - {\displaystyle x-y=x+(-y)} - if there is an element - - - - a - - - {\displaystyle a} - such that - - - - 1 - + - a - = - 0 - - - {\displaystyle 1+a=0} - (thus in the general case - - - - x - − - x - ≠ - 0 - - - {\displaystyle x-x\neq 0} - ). -However, for values of - - - - x - - - {\displaystyle x} - satisfying - - - - 0 - x - = - 0 - - - {\displaystyle 0x=0} - and - - - - 0 - - / - - x - = - 0 - - - {\displaystyle 0/x=0} - , we get the usual - - - - - x - - / - - x - = - 1 - - - {\displaystyle x/x=1} - - - - - - x - − - x - = - 0 - - - {\displaystyle x-x=0} - If negation can be defined as below then the subset - - - - { - x - ∣ - 0 - x - = - 0 - } - - - {\displaystyle \{x\mid 0x=0\}} - is a commutative ring, and every commutative ring is such a subset of a wheel. If - - - - x - - - {\displaystyle x} - is an invertible element of the commutative ring then - - - - - x - - − - 1 - - - = - - / - - x - - - {\displaystyle x^{-1}=/x} - . Thus, whenever - - - - - x - - − - 1 - - - - - {\displaystyle x^{-1}} - makes sense, it is equal to - - - - - / - - x - - - {\displaystyle /x} - , but the latter is always defined, even when - - - - x - = - 0 - - - {\displaystyle x=0} - . - -Examples -Wheel of fractions -Let - - - - A - - - {\displaystyle A} - be a commutative ring, and let - - - - S - - - {\displaystyle S} - be a multiplicative submonoid of - - - - A - - - {\displaystyle A} - .",634240,Wheel theory,M -414,414.0,414.0,"Shot peening is a cold working process used to produce a compressive residual stress layer and modify the mechanical properties of metals and composites. It entails striking a surface with shot (round metallic, glass, or ceramic particles) with force sufficient to create plastic deformation.In machining, shot peening is used to strengthen and relieve stress in components like steel automobile crankshafts and connecting rods. In architecture it provides a muted finish to metal. -Shot peening is similar mechanically to sandblasting, though its purpose is not to remove material, but rather it employs the mechanism of plasticity to achieve its goal, with each particle functioning as a ball-peen hammer. - -Details -Peening a surface spreads it plastically, causing changes in the mechanical properties of the surface. Its main application is to avoid the propagation of microcracks in a surface. By putting a material under compressive stress, shot peening prevents such cracks from propagating.Shot peening is often called for in aircraft repairs to relieve tensile stresses built up in the grinding process and replace them with beneficial compressive stresses.",1619127,Shot peening,M -415,415.0,415.0,"In manufacturing and design, a mockup, or mock-up, is a scale or full-size model of a design or device, used for teaching, demonstration, design evaluation, promotion, and other purposes. A mockup may be a prototype if it provides at least part of the functionality of a system and enables testing of a design.Mock-ups are used by designers mainly to acquire feedback from users. Mock-ups address the idea captured in a popular engineering one-liner: ""You can fix it now on the drafting board with an eraser or you can fix it later on the construction site with a sledge hammer"".Mockups are used as design tools virtually everywhere a new product is designed. -Mockups are used in the automotive device industry as part of the product development process, where dimensions, overall impression, and shapes are tested in a wind tunnel experiment. They can also be used to test consumer reaction. - -Military acquisition -Mockups are part of the military acquisition process. Mockups are often used to test human factors and aerodynamics, for example.",74602553,Mockup,T -416,416.0,416.0,"Translational glycobiology or applied glycobiology is the branch of glycobiology and glycochemistry that focuses on developing new pharmaceuticals through glycomics and glycoengineering. Although research in this field presents many difficulties, translational glycobiology presents applications with therapeutic glycoconjugates, with treating various bone diseases, and developing therapeutic cancer vaccines and other targeted therapies. Some mechanisms of action include using the glycan for drug targeting, engineering protein glycosylation for better efficacy, and glycans as drugs themselves. - -Background -Glycans, or polysaccharides, are instrumental in many facets of biology, from decorations on cell membranes being involved in cell signaling and interaction to post-translational modifications on proteins warranting function. Yet even though sugars are the most abundant class of organic molecules found on earth, the study of their structure and function are not as well known as other biological molecules such as proteins and ribonucleic acids. This is partly due to the fact that glycans have no direct biosynthetic template in the genome, as opposed to protein, and thus have not been as effectively elucidated by the age of genomics.",50264946,Translational glycobiology,S -417,417.0,417.0,"Social development theory attempts to explain qualitative changes in the structure and framework of society, that help the society to better realize aims and objectives. Development can be defined in a manner applicable to all societies at all historical periods as an upward ascending movement featuring greater levels of energy, efficiency, quality, productivity, complexity, comprehension, creativity, mastery, enjoyment and accomplishment. Development is a process of social change, not merely a set of policies and programs instituted for some specific results. During the last five centuries this process has picked up in speed and intensity, and during the last five decades has witnessed a marked surge in acceleration.The basic mechanism driving social change is increasing awareness leading to better organization. When society senses new and better opportunities for progress it develops new forms of organization to exploit these new openings successfully.",9667001,Social development theory,T -418,418.0,418.0,"Xtracycle is the name of a company and the name commonly used for the variety of load-carrying bicycle, a longtail or a longbike, that results from use of the company's products: the FreeRadical kit, complete long-frame bicycles and associated accessories. Web forums and blogs often use the shorthand Xtrabike, Xtra, or simply X to refer to either the FreeRadical extension or the entire extended bicycle. An Xtracycle may be constructed by modifying an existing bicycle with a Free Radical extension, or by custom-building an extended-tail bicycle frame. - -Differences from other load-carrying bicycles -While the Xtracycle is based on a standard hardtail diamond frame with 26-inch or 622 mm (700c) wheels, the Xtracycle differs from other load-carrying bicycles in that it does not employ a handlebar basket, panniers, or a bicycle trailer. Baskets are easy to attach and allow stowing of cargo in plain view. Panniers are often watertight or water resistant, and can be easily removed from their racks and carried as luggage.",6920598,Xtracycle,E -419,419.0,419.0,"Transfection is the process of deliberately introducing naked or purified nucleic acids into eukaryotic cells. It may also refer to other methods and cell types, although other terms are often preferred: ""transformation"" is typically used to describe non-viral DNA transfer in bacteria and non-animal eukaryotic cells, including plant cells. In animal cells, transfection is the preferred term as transformation is also used to refer to progression to a cancerous state (carcinogenesis) in these cells. Transduction is often used to describe virus-mediated gene transfer into eukaryotic cells.The word transfection is a portmanteau of trans- and infection. Genetic material (such as supercoiled plasmid DNA or siRNA constructs), may be transfected.",619632,Transfection,S -420,420.0,420.0,"The ISO 22715 standard Cosmetics — Packaging and labelling provides guidelines for manufacturers in the best practices for cosmetic packaging and labelling of all cosmetic products. This standard applies to products that fall under the category of cosmetics that are sold or given away as free samples. ISO 22715 was initially published in April 2006. - -Description -The intent of Standard ISO 22715 is to specify how cosmetic products should be packaged and labeled to maintain a certain level of standards within the cosmetic industry. This standard applies to cosmetic products whether the product is sold or given away. It is one of 26 published standards that are devoted to the cosmetic industry sector.ISO 22715 does not regulate what products are to be considered cosmetic.",52171258,ISO 22715,T -421,421.0,421.0,"A timeline of numerals and arithmetic. - -Before 2000 BC -c. 20,000 BC — Nile Valley, Ishango Bone: suggested, though disputed, as the earliest reference to prime numbers as also a common number. -c. 3400 BC — the Sumerians invent the first so-known numeral system, and a system of weights and measures. -c. 3100 BC — Egypt, earliest known decimal system allows indefinite counting by way of introducing new symbols, [1]. -c. 2800 BC — Indus Valley civilization on the Indian subcontinent, earliest use of decimal ratios in a uniform system of ancient weights and measures, the smallest unit of measurement used is 1.704 millimetres and the smallest unit of mass used is 28 grams. -c.",19374170,Timeline of numerals and arithmetic,M -422,422.0,422.0,"Imagineering (from ""imagination"" and ""engineering"") is the implementation of creative ideas in practical form. The word was registered as a trademark of Disney Enterprises, Inc. in 1990, and forms part of the title of Disney's research and development arm, Walt Disney Imagineering. The word was actually coined by Alcoa around 1940, and appeared widely in numerous publications of several disciplines such as urban design, geography and politics, evolutionary economics, corporate culture and futures studies. - -Earliest usages -During World War II, Alcoa created an internal ""Imagineering"" program to encourage innovative usage of aluminum in order to keep up with demand. A Time magazine ad from February 16, 1942, titled ""The Place They Do Imagineering"" relates the origin: -For a long time we've sought a word to describe what we all work at hard here at Alcoa...",20361587,Imagineering,E -423,423.0,423.0,"BEM™ a derivative of the pulsed eddy current technology (PEC) developed and provided by Australian based company, Rock Solid Pty Ltd . -This patented technology, is broadly used to assess buried pipes and other metallic and non-metallic structures. The pipe condition information is instantly available directly on site. Analysed data can be provided on request in a standard format (see plots below), including conversion of BSI (Broadband Signal Intensity) data into AWT (Apparent Wall Thickness). - -* BEM™ can be applied by manually placing BEM™ sensors to the pipe surface, or by wrapping a multi-sensor blanket around the pipe or via an inline tool incorporating multiple sensors on a device that is manoeuvred through the pipe (see photos below). -* Sensors embedded in antenna of various sizes allow for inspection of pipes from small to large diameters. Using small sensors enables detection of sub-millimetre wall condition trends and localized anomalies. -* BEM™ produces a real-time profile of a pipe enabling rapid assessment of wall conditions on site.",74563075,Draft:Broadband Electro-Magnetic (BEM) NDT method,M -424,424.0,424.0,"A fixture is a work-holding or support device used in the manufacturing industry. Fixtures are used to securely locate (position in a specific location or orientation) and support the work, ensuring that all parts produced using the fixture will maintain conformity and interchangeability. Using a fixture improves the economy of production by allowing smooth operation and quick transition from part to part, reducing the requirement for skilled labor by simplifying how workpieces are mounted, and increasing conformity across a production run. - -Compared with a jig -A fixture differs from a jig in that when a fixture is used, the tool must move relative to the workpiece; a jig moves the piece while the tool remains stationary. - -Purpose -A fixture's primary purpose is to create a secure mounting point for a workpiece, allowing for support during operation and increased accuracy, precision, reliability, and interchangeability in the finished parts. It also serves to reduce working time by allowing quick set-up, and by smoothing the transition from part to part. It frequently reduces the complexity of a process, allowing for unskilled workers to perform it and effectively transferring the skill of the tool maker to the unskilled worker.",5633026,Fixture (tool),E -425,425.0,425.0,"Concealing-Coloration in the Animal Kingdom: An Exposition of the Laws of Disguise Through Color and Pattern; Being a Summary of Abbott H. Thayer’s Discoveries is a book published ostensibly by Gerald H. Thayer in 1909, and revised in 1918, but in fact a collaboration with and completion of his father Abbott Handerson Thayer's major work. -The book, illustrated artistically by Abbott Thayer, sets out the controversial thesis that all animal coloration has the evolutionary purpose of camouflage. Thayer rejected Charles Darwin's theory of sexual selection, arguing in words and paintings that even such conspicuous animal features as the peacock's tail or the brilliant pink of flamingoes or roseate spoonbills were effective as camouflage in the right light. -The book introduced the concepts of disruptive coloration to break up an object's outlines, of masquerade, as when a butterfly mimics a leaf, and especially of countershading, where an animal's tones make it appear flat by concealing its self-shadowing. -The book was criticised by big game hunter and politician Theodore Roosevelt for its central assertion that every aspect of animal coloration is effective as camouflage. Roosevelt's detailed reply attacked the biased choice of examples to suit Abbott Thayer's thesis and the book's reliance on unsubstantiated claims in place of evidence.",37724748,Concealing-Coloration in the Animal Kingdom,S -426,426.0,426.0,"A communications system or communication system is a collection of individual telecommunications networks systems, relay stations, tributary stations, and terminal equipment usually capable of interconnection and interoperation to form an integrated whole. The components of a communications system serve a common purpose, are technically compatible, use common procedures, respond to controls, and operate in union. -Telecommunications is a method of communication (e.g., for sports broadcasting, mass media, journalism, etc.). Communication is the act of conveying intended meanings from one entity or group to another through the use of mutually understood signs and semiotic rules. - -Types -By media -An optical communication system is any form of telecommunication that uses light as the transmission medium. Equipment consists of a transmitter, which encodes a message into an optical signal, a communication channel, which carries the signal to its destination, and a receiver, which reproduces the message from the received optical signal. Fiber-optic communication systems transmit information from one place to another by sending light through an optical fiber.",40925,Communications system,T -427,427.0,427.0,"The Environmental Science Center is a research center at Qatar University and was established in 1980 to promote environmental studies across the state of Qatar with main focus on marine science, atmospheric and biological sciences. For the past 18 years, ESC monitored and studied Hawksbill turtle nesting sites in Qatar. - -History -in 1980 it was named Scientific and Applied Research Center (SARC). -in 2005 it was restructured and renamed Environmental Studies Center (ESC). -in 2015, the business name was changed to Environmental Science Center (ESC) to better reflect the research-driven objectives. - -Research clusters -The ESC has 3 major research clusters that cover areas of strategic importance to Qatar. The clusters are: - -Atmospheric sciences cluster -Earth sciences cluster -Marine sciences cluster with 2 majors:Terrestrial Ecology -Physical and Chemical Oceanography - -UNESCO Chair in marine sciences -The first of its kind in the Arabian Gulf region, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) have announced the establishment of the UNESCO Chair in marine sciences at QU's Environmental Science Center. The chair is aiming to providing sustainable marine environment in the Arabian Gulf and protection of marine ecosystems. - -Inventions -Marine clutch technology. -Mushroom artificial reef technology (mushroom forest). - -Accreditation -The ESC labs have been granted ISO/IEC 17025 by American Association of Laboratory Accreditation (A2LA), affirming their status as world-class facilities operating to best practice. - -Facilities -ESC is the home of wide range of facilities. The most notable one is the mobile labs on board the JANAN Research Vessel.JANAN is a 42.80 m.",73091262,Environmental Science Center,S -428,428.0,428.0,"A shadow board is a type of tool board for organizing a set of tools; the board defines where particular tools should be placed when they are not in use. Shadow boards have the outlines of a work station's tools marked on them, allowing operators to identify quickly which tools are in use or missing. The boards are commonly located near the work station where the tools are used. Shadow boards are often used in the manufacturing environment to improve a facility's lean six sigma capabilities.Shadow boards reduce time spent looking for tools and also reduce losses. They improve work station safety because tools are replaced safely after use, rather than becoming potential hazards. - -See also -Knolling -5S (methodology) -Peg board - -References - -""Shadow Boards"".",55846595,Shadow board,E -429,429.0,429.0,"Methods engineering is a subspecialty of industrial engineering and manufacturing engineering concerned with human integration in industrial production processes. - -Overview -Alternatively it can be described as the design of the productive process in which a person is involved. The task of the Methods engineer is to decide where humans will be utilized in the process of converting raw materials to finished products and how workers can most effectively perform their assigned tasks. The terms operation analysis, work design and simplification, and methods engineering and corporate re-engineering are frequently used interchangeably.Lowering costs and increasing reliability and productivity are the objectives of methods engineering. Methods efficiency engineering focuses on lowering costs through productivity improvement. It investigates the output obtained from each unit of input and the speed of each machine and man.",1399085,Methods engineering,E -430,430.0,430.0,"In commutative algebra, the mathematical study of commutative rings, adic topologies are a family of topologies on the underlying set of a module, generalizing the p-adic topologies on the integers. - -Definition -Let R be a commutative ring and M an R-module. Then each ideal 𝔞 of R determines a topology on M called the 𝔞-adic topology, characterized by the pseudometric The family is a basis for this topology. - -Properties -With respect to the topology, the module operations of addition and scalar multiplication are continuous, so that M becomes a topological module. However, M need not be Hausdorff; it is Hausdorff if and only ifso that d becomes a genuine metric. Related to the usual terminology in topology, where a Hausdorff space is also called separated, in that case, the 𝔞-adic topology is called separated.By Krull's intersection theorem, if R is a Noetherian ring which is an integral domain or a local ring, it holds that - - - - - ⋂ - - n - > - 0 - - - - - - - a - - - - n - - - - = - 0 - - - {\displaystyle \bigcap _{n>0}{{\mathfrak {a}}^{n}}=0} - for any proper ideal 𝔞 of R. Thus under these conditions, for any proper ideal 𝔞 of R and any R-module M, the 𝔞-adic topology on M is separated.",60123,I-adic topology,M -431,431.0,431.0,"The Fulkerson Prize for outstanding papers in the area of discrete mathematics is sponsored jointly by the Mathematical Optimization Society (MOS) and the American Mathematical Society (AMS). Up to three awards of $1,500 each are presented at each (triennial) International Symposium of the MOS. Originally, the prizes were paid out of a memorial fund administered by the AMS that was established by friends of the late Delbert Ray Fulkerson to encourage mathematical excellence in the fields of research exemplified by his work. The prizes are now funded by an endowment administered by MPS. - -Winners -Source: Mathematical Optimization Society - -1979: -Richard M. Karp for classifying many important NP-complete problems. -Kenneth Appel and Wolfgang Haken for the four color theorem. -Paul Seymour for generalizing the max-flow min-cut theorem to matroids. -1982: -D.B.",1425916,Fulkerson Prize,M -432,432.0,432.0,"The Bautz–Morgan classification was developed in 1970 by Laura P. Bautz and William Wilson Morgan to categorize galaxy clusters based on their morphology. It defines three main types: I, II, and III. Intermediate types (I-II, II-III) are also allowed. A type IV was initially proposed, but later redacted before the final paper was published. - -Classification -A type I cluster is dominated by a bright, large, supermassive cD galaxy; for example Abell 2029 and Abell 2199. -A type II cluster contains elliptical galaxies whose brightness relative to the cluster is intermediate to that of type I and type III.",35030959,Bautz–Morgan classification,M -433,433.0,433.0,"Mary Lynn Realff (born 1965) is an American mechanical engineer and materials scientist specializing in the mechanical properties of textiles. She is an associate professor in the School of Materials Science and Engineering at Georgia Tech, and co-director of the Georgia Tech Center for Women, Science, and Technology. Beyond her research on textiles, she is also known for her explorations of group work in engineering education.Realff graduated in 1987 from Georgia Tech, with a bachelor's degree in textile engineering. She earned a Ph.D. from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1994.",70819323,Mary Lynn Realff,E -434,434.0,434.0,"A road roller (sometimes called a roller-compactor, or just roller) is a compactor-type engineering vehicle used to compact soil, gravel, concrete, or asphalt in the construction of roads and foundations. Similar rollers are used also at landfills or in agriculture. -Road rollers are frequently referred to as steamrollers, regardless of their method of propulsion. - -History -The first road rollers were horse-drawn, and were probably borrowed farm implements (see Roller). -Since the effectiveness of a roller depends to a large extent on its weight, self-powered vehicles replaced horse-drawn rollers from the mid-19th century. The first such vehicles were steam rollers. Single-cylinder steam rollers were generally used for base compaction and run with high engine revs with low gearing to promote bounce and vibration from the crankshaft through to the rolls in much the same way as a vibrating roller. The double cylinder or compound steam rollers became popular from around 1910 onwards and were used mainly for the rolling of hot-laid surfaces due to their smoother running engines, but both cylinder types are capable of rolling the finished surface.",2350490,Road roller,E -435,435.0,435.0,"ADME is an abbreviation in pharmacokinetics and pharmacology for ""absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion"", and describes the disposition of a pharmaceutical compound within an organism. The four criteria all influence the drug levels and kinetics of drug exposure to the tissues and hence influence the performance and pharmacological activity of the compound as a drug. Sometimes, liberation and/or toxicity are also considered, yielding LADME, ADMET, or LADMET. - -Components -Absorption/administration -For a compound to reach a tissue, it usually must be taken into the bloodstream – often via mucous surfaces like the digestive tract (intestinal absorption) – before being taken up by the target cells. Factors such as poor compound solubility, gastric emptying time, intestinal transit time, chemical instability in the stomach, and inability to permeate the intestinal wall can all reduce the extent to which a drug is absorbed after oral administration. Absorption critically determines the compound's bioavailability.",826690,ADME,M -436,436.0,436.0,"The Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia (IIT) (in English: Italian Institute of Technology) is a scientific research centre based in Genoa (Italy, EU). -Its main goal is the advancement of science, in Italy and worldwide, through projects and discoveries oriented to applications and technology. Some account IIT as the best Italian scientific research centre.In June 2016, the science journal Nature named Italian Institute of Technology among the list of the top 100 rising stars scientific institutes in the world, that is the ranking of the top 100 institutions which most improved their publication quality scores in the Nature index between 2012 and 2015, on world basis.In November 2016, the Nature Index database named IIT among the list of the top 100 scientific centres running successful international collaborations, on world basis.In February 2017, the scientific evaluation agency Anvur of Italy's Ministry of Education evaluated and ranked the Italian Institute of Technology as the top national scientific research centre for computer science-mathematics, biology, industrial engineering, psychology, and as the second national top for physics. - -Structure and scientific sectors -IIT was established by Italian government in 2003, and it started to work in October 2005. It receives around €90 million per year from the Italian Government. -The founders decided to create it in Genoa because of the presence of the branches of important hi-tech companies such as Siemens, Ericsson, and Ansaldo STS. -Differently from other scientific institutes such as universities or Italian National Research Council (CNR), its scientific research fields are limited to few sectors. -These scientific areas include: - -robotics -drug discovery -neuroscience -nanotechnology -computer vision -optical microscopyIIT mainly collaborates to the local University of Genoa, and also has other affiliated research centres (twelve in Italy and two in Boston, USA). - -Future expansions -IIT is currently constructing a new scientific centre, called Center for Human Technologies, in the GREAT Campus scientific technology park in Genoa Erzelli.The first IIT laboratory in the Genoa Erzelli park opened in November 2016 and is part of the robotics department. Additional novel IIT laboratories were established and inaugurated in July 2019; for these new scientific laboratories, the institute plans to recruit approximately 300 new researchers.The new research facilities will be dedicated to robotics, motion perception, neuroscience, human-robot interaction, computational statistics, neurogenomics, neurodiagnostics, and other scientific areas. - -H4E – Hub For Enterpreneurship -On 13 June 2023, H4E – Hub For Enterpreneurship was inaugurated in the Erzelli headquarters. - -Delivered applications -One of the main goals of IIT is to carry on projects able to produce real-life applications. Therefore, scientific projects are not oriented to reach theoretical discoveries, but rather to deliver new technologies in robotics and nanotechnology. -The most famous application developed and delivered by the Italian Institute of Technology is the humanoid robot iCub.",19970839,Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia,E -437,437.0,437.0,"Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council (BBSRC), part of UK Research and Innovation, is a non-departmental public body (NDPB), and is the largest UK public funder of non-medical bioscience. It predominantly funds scientific research institutes and university research departments in the UK. - -Purpose -Receiving its funding through the science budget of the Department for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy (BEIS), BBSRC's mission is to ""promote and support, by any means, high-quality basic, strategic and applied research and related postgraduate training relating to the understanding and exploitation of biological systems"". - -Structure -BBSRC's head office is at Polaris House in Swindon - the same building as the other councils of UK Research and Innovation, AHRC EPSRC, ESRC, Innovate UK, MRC, NERC, Research England and STFC, as well as the UKSA. Funded by Government, BBSRC invested over £498 million in bioscience in 2017–18. BBSRC also manages the joint Research Councils' Office in Brussels – the UK Research Office (UKRO). - -History -BBSRC was created in 1994, merging the former Agricultural and Food Research Council (AFRC) and taking over the biological science activities of the former Science and Engineering Research Council (SERC).Chairs - -Sir Alistair Grant (1994-1998) -Dr Peter Doyle CBE (1998-2003) -Dr Peter Ringrose (2003-2009) -Prof Sir Tom Blundell FRS (2009–2015) -Prof Sir Gordon Duff (2015–present)Chief executives - -Prof (now Sir) Tom Blundell FRS (1994 -1996) -Prof Ray Baker CBE (1996-2002) -Prof (now Dame) Julia Goodfellow CBE (2002-2007) -Prof Douglas Kell CBE (2008–2013) -Dr Jackie Hunter CBE (from 21 October 2013) -Prof Melanie Welham FRSB (2016-2018)Executive chairs - -Prof Melanie Welham FRSB (2018–present) - -Governance and management -BBSRC is managed by the BBSRC Council consisting of a chair (from 2015, Professor Sir Gordon Duff), an executive chair (Professor Melanie Welham) and from ten to eighteen representatives from UK universities, government and industry. The council approves policies, strategy, budgets and major funding. -A research panel provides expert advice which BBSRC Council draws upon in making decisions.",830651,Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council,S -438,438.0,438.0,"Parson-naturalists were ministers of religion who also studied natural history. The archetypical parson-naturalist was a priest in the Church of England in charge of a country parish, who saw the study of science as an extension of his religious work. The philosophy entailed the belief that God, as the Creator of all things, wanted man to understand his Creations and thus to study them through scientific techniques. They often collected and preserved natural artefacts such as leaves, flowers, birds' eggs, birds, insects, and small mammals to classify and study. Some wrote books or kept nature diaries. - -Parson-naturalists -See also -List of Christian thinkers in science -Science in the Age of Enlightenment - -References -Bibliography -Armstrong, Patrick (2000).",38973180,List of parson-naturalists,S -439,439.0,439.0,"Engineering tolerance is the permissible limit or limits of variation in: - -a physical dimension; -a measured value or physical property of a material, manufactured object, system, or service; -other measured values (such as temperature, humidity, etc.); -in engineering and safety, a physical distance or space (tolerance), as in a truck (lorry), train or boat under a bridge as well as a train in a tunnel (see structure gauge and loading gauge); -in mechanical engineering, the space between a bolt and a nut or a hole, etc.Dimensions, properties, or conditions may have some variation without significantly affecting functioning of systems, machines, structures, etc. A variation beyond the tolerance (for example, a temperature that is too hot or too cold) is said to be noncompliant, rejected, or exceeding the tolerance. - -Considerations when setting tolerances -A primary concern is to determine how wide the tolerances may be without affecting other factors or the outcome of a process. This can be by the use of scientific principles, engineering knowledge, and professional experience. Experimental investigation is very useful to investigate the effects of tolerances: Design of experiments, formal engineering evaluations, etc. -A good set of engineering tolerances in a specification, by itself, does not imply that compliance with those tolerances will be achieved. Actual production of any product (or operation of any system) involves some inherent variation of input and output.",522062,Engineering tolerance,E -440,440.0,440.0,"A gravimetric blender is an item of industrial equipment used in the plastics industry to accurately weigh two or more components and then mix them together prior to processing in an injection molding machine, plastics extrusion, or blow moulding machine. -There are two types of gravimetric blender. -Loss in weight -This type of gravimetric blender measures the ""loss in weight"" from two or more hoppers using a load cell under each hopper. Material is usually dispensed from the hoppers using a screw conveyor. All materials are dispensed together and the rate of dosing from each hopper is controlled to ensure the correct blend is achieved. -Gain in weight (sometimes called a batch blender) -A gain in weight gravimetric blender has two or more hoppers arranged above a weigh-pan. These hoppers contain the components which are to be mixed, at the base of each hopper there is a valve to control the dispensing of material from the component hopper into the weigh-pan. The components are dispensed one at a time into the weigh pan until the target or batch weight is reached.",26751966,Gravimetric blender,E -441,441.0,441.0,"Nanoelectromechanical systems (NEMS) are a class of devices integrating electrical and mechanical functionality on the nanoscale. NEMS form the next logical miniaturization step from so-called microelectromechanical systems, or MEMS devices. NEMS typically integrate transistor-like nanoelectronics with mechanical actuators, pumps, or motors, and may thereby form physical, biological, and chemical sensors. The name derives from typical device dimensions in the nanometer range, leading to low mass, high mechanical resonance frequencies, potentially large quantum mechanical effects such as zero point motion, and a high surface-to-volume ratio useful for surface-based sensing mechanisms. Applications include accelerometers and sensors to detect chemical substances in the air. - -History -Background -As noted by Richard Feynman in his famous talk in 1959, ""There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom,"" there are many potential applications of machines at smaller and smaller sizes; by building and controlling devices at smaller scales, all technology benefits.",908385,Nanoelectromechanical systems,S -442,442.0,442.0,"In engineering, technical peer review is a well defined review process for finding and correcting defects conducted by a team of peers with assigned roles. Technical peer reviews are carried out by peers representing areas of life cycle affected by material being reviewed (usually limited to 6 or fewer people). Technical peer reviews are held within development phases, between milestone reviews, on completed products, or on completed portions of products. A technical peer review may also be called an engineering peer review, a product peer review, a peer review/inspection or an inspection. - -Overview -The purpose of a technical peer review is to remove defects as early as possible in the development process. By removing defects at their origin (e.g., requirements and design documents, test plans and procedures, software code, etc.), technical peer reviews prevent defects from propagating through multiple phases and work products and reduce the overall amount of rework necessary on projects.",21603604,Technical peer review,E -443,443.0,443.0,"The word metagenics uses the prefix meta and the suffix gen. Literally, it means ""the creation of something which creates"". In the context of biotechnology, metagenics is the practice of engineering organisms to create a specific enzyme, protein, or other biochemicals from simpler starting materials. The genetic engineering of E. coli with the specific task of producing human insulin from starting amino acids is an example.",2564540,Metagenics,S -444,444.0,444.0,"EVA was a continuously running benchmark project for assessing the quality and value of protein structure prediction and secondary structure prediction methods. Methods for predicting both secondary structure and tertiary structure - including homology modeling, protein threading, and contact order prediction - were compared to results from each week's newly solved protein structures deposited in the Protein Data Bank. The project aimed to determine the prediction accuracy that would be expected for non-expert users of common, publicly available prediction webservers; this is similar to the related LiveBench project and stands in contrast to the bi-yearly benchmark CASP, which aims to identify the maximum accuracy achievable by prediction experts. - -References -Rost B, Eyrich VA. (2001). EVA: large-scale analysis of secondary structure prediction.",8930508,EVA (benchmark),S -445,445.0,445.0,"This article contains a list of the most studied restriction enzymes whose names start with Bd to Bp inclusive. It contains approximately 100 enzymes. -The following information is given: - -Enzyme: Accepted name of the molecule, according to the internationally adopted nomenclature, and bibliographical references. (Further reading: see the section ""Nomenclature"" in the article ""Restriction enzyme"".) -PDB code: Code used to identify the structure of a protein in the PDB database of protein structures. The 3D atomic structure of a protein provides highly valuable information to understand the intimate details of its mechanism of action. -Source: Organism that naturally produces the enzyme. -Recognition sequence: Sequence of DNA recognized by the enzyme and to which it specifically binds. -Cut: Cutting site and DNA products of the cut. The recognition sequence and the cutting site usually match, but sometimes the cutting site can be dozens of nucleotides away from the recognition site. -Isoschizomers and neoschizomers: An isoschizomer is an enzyme that recognizes the same sequence as another.",27460882,List of restriction enzyme cutting sites: Bd–Bp,S -446,446.0,446.0,"Re-Animated is a television film that aired on Cartoon Network on December 8, 2006. It was the first original production on the genre for the network. It was released on DVD on September 11, 2007, and serves as a pilot for the follow-up series Out of Jimmy's Head, which premiered on September 14, 2007. It was panned by critics upon release. -The film's animation was produced by Renegade Animation, which previously produced Hi Hi Puffy AmiYumi for Cartoon Network. - -Plot -Middle school student Jimmy Roberts is often bullied and belittled by his peers. During his class trip to Gollyworld, an amusement park themed around animated cartoon characters created by the deceased animator Milt Appleday, Jimmy misses out on many of the attractions.",7830482,Re-Animated,S -447,447.0,447.0,"Natural history is a domain of inquiry involving organisms, including animals, fungi, and plants, in their natural environment, leaning more towards observational than experimental methods of study. A person who studies natural history is called a naturalist or natural historian. -Natural history encompasses scientific research but is not limited to it. It involves the systematic study of any category of natural objects or organisms. So while it dates from studies in the ancient Greco-Roman world and the mediaeval Arabic world, through to European Renaissance naturalists working in near isolation, today's natural history is a cross-discipline umbrella of many specialty sciences; e.g., geobiology has a strong multidisciplinary nature. - -Definitions -Before 1900 -The meaning of the English term ""natural history"" (a calque of the Latin historia naturalis) has narrowed progressively with time, while, by contrast, the meaning of the related term ""nature"" has widened (see also History below). -In antiquity, ""natural history"" covered essentially anything connected with nature, or used materials drawn from nature, such as Pliny the Elder's encyclopedia of this title, published c. 77 to 79 AD, which covers astronomy, geography, humans and their technology, medicine, and superstition, as well as animals and plants. -Medieval European academics considered knowledge to have two main divisions: the humanities (primarily what is now known as classics) and divinity, with science studied largely through texts rather than observation or experiment. The study of nature revived in the Renaissance, and quickly became a third branch of academic knowledge, itself divided into descriptive natural history and natural philosophy, the analytical study of nature.",166380,Natural history,S -448,448.0,448.0,"In astronomy, a planisphere () is a star chart analog computing instrument in the form of two adjustable disks that rotate on a common pivot. It can be adjusted to display the visible stars for any time and date. It is an instrument to assist in learning how to recognize stars and constellations. The astrolabe, an instrument that has its origins in Hellenistic astronomy, is a predecessor of the modern planisphere. -The term planisphere contrasts with armillary sphere, where the celestial sphere is represented by a three-dimensional framework of rings. - -Description -A planisphere consists of a circular star chart attached at its center to an opaque circular overlay that has a clear elliptical window or hole so that only a portion of the sky map will be visible in the window or hole area at any given time. The chart and overlay are mounted so that they are free to rotate about a common axis.",360726,Planisphere,M -449,449.0,449.0,"AES47 is a standard which describes a method for transporting AES3 professional digital audio streams over Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) networks. -The Audio Engineering Society (AES) published AES47 in 2002. The method described by AES47 is also published by the International Electrotechnical Commission as IEC 62365. - -Introduction -Many professional audio systems are now combined with telecommunication and IT technologies to provide new functionality, flexibility and connectivity over both local and wide area networks. AES47 was developed to provide a standardised method of transporting the standard digital audio per AES3 over telecommunications networks that provide a quality of service required by many professional low-latency live audio uses. AES47 may be used directly between specialist audio devices or in combination with telecommunication and computer equipment with suitable network interfaces. In both cases, AES47 the same physical structured cable used as standard by the telecommunications networks. -Common network protocols like Ethernet use large packet sizes, which produce a larger minimum latency.",1548726,AES47,E -450,450.0,450.0,"Engineering analysis involves the application of scientific/mathematical analytic principles and processes to reveal the properties and state of a system, device or mechanism under study. -Engineering analysis is decompositional: it proceeds by separating the engineering design into the mechanisms of operation or failure, analyzing or estimating each component of the operation or failure mechanism in isolation, and re-combining the components according to basic physical principles and natural laws. - -Applied/engineering mathematical analysis -Engineering analysis and applied analysis are synonym terms for mathematical analysis/calculus beyond basic differential equations such as applied for various advanced physics & engineering topics (including Fourier analysis, Lagrangian & Hamiltonian mechanics, Laplace transforms, Sturm–Liouville theory, and others) but still can involve mathematical proofs. - -Remote systems -Engineering analysis is the primary method for predicting and handling issues with remote systems such as satellites and rovers. Engineering analysis for remote systems must be ongoing since the health and safety of the remote system can only be affected remotely (and because any failure could have fatal consequences). -The capabilities of engineering analysis therefore must incorporate trending as well as analysis. Trending should be proactive, predictive, comprehensive and automated.",10543101,Engineering analysis,E -451,451.0,451.0,"The Marion Steam Shovel, also known as the Le Roy Steam Shovel, is a historic Model 91 steam shovel manufactured by the Marion Steam Shovel and Dredge Company of Marion, Ohio. It is located on Gulf Road in the Town of Le Roy, New York, United States. -Representative of the type of technology developed in the late 19th century and early 20th century to provide large, inexpensive supplies of crushed stone for the vast American railroad network and later for the road construction, it is believed to be the largest intact steam shovel remaining in the world, and may have been used in the excavation of the Panama Canal. No longer operational, it was moved to its current site in the mid-20th century. It is currently owned by the town. In 2008 it became the first steam shovel listed on the National Register of Historic Places, the only listing in the Town of Le Roy and the easternmost in Genesee County. - -Description -The shovel is located on the north side of Gulf Road, two miles (3.2 km) east-northeast of the village of Le Roy, just opposite the driveway into the Hanson Company's limestone quarry.",24093957,"Marion Steam Shovel (Le Roy, New York)",E -452,452.0,452.0,"A chemically defined medium is a growth medium suitable for the in vitro cell culture of human or animal cells in which all of the chemical components are known. Standard cell culture media commonly consist of a basal medium supplemented with animal serum (such as fetal bovine serum, FBS) as a source of nutrients and other ill-defined factors. The technical disadvantages to using serum include its undefined nature, batch-to-batch variability in composition, and the risk of contamination. -There is a clear distinction between serum-based media and chemically defined media. Serum-based media may contain undefined animal-derived products such as serum (purified from blood), hydrolysates, growth factors, hormones, carrier proteins, and attachment factors. These undefined animal-derived products will contain complex contaminants, such as the lipid content of albumin.",31040311,Chemically defined medium,S -453,453.0,453.0,"Complexity theory and organizations, also called complexity strategy or complex adaptive organizations, is the use of the study of complexity systems in the field of strategic management and organizational studies. It draws from research in the natural sciences that examines uncertainty and non-linearity. Complexity theory emphasizes interactions and the accompanying feedback loops that constantly change systems. While it proposes that systems are unpredictable, they are also constrained by order-generating rules.: 74 Complexity theory has been used in the fields of strategic management and organizational studies. Application areas include understanding how organizations or firms adapt to their environments and how they cope with conditions of uncertainty.",5938019,Complexity theory and organizations,T -454,454.0,454.0,"CSIR Institute of Genomics and Integrative Biology (CSIR-IGIB) is a scientific research institute devoted primarily to biological research. It is a part of Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), India.The institute was founded in 1977 as the Center for Biochemical Technology with a primary focus on biochemical research, but has since shifted its research focus to integrative biology. - -Location -The Institute has two campuses in Delhi. The North Campus is the older of the two campuses and is in the campus of Delhi University, on Mall Road opposite to Jubilee Hall. -The new campus is in South Delhi, on Mathura Road at Sukhdev Vihar. - -History -IGIB was established in 1977 as the Center for Biochemical Technology (CBT). The Functional Genomics Unit was established in 1998 with the focus shifting from chemical to genomics research.",23487367,Institute of Genomics and Integrative Biology,S -455,455.0,455.0,"Agile tooling is the design and fabrication of manufacturing related-tools such as dies, molds, patterns, jigs and fixtures in a configuration that aims to maximise the tools' performance, minimise manufacturing time and cost, and avoid delay in prototyping. A fully functional agile tooling laboratory consists of CNC milling, turning and routing equipment. It can also include additive manufacturing platforms (such as fused filament fabrication, selective laser sintering, Stereolithography, and direct metal laser sintering), hydroforming, vacuum forming, die casting, stamping, injection molding and welding equipment.Agile tooling is similar to rapid tooling, which uses additive manufacturing to make tools or tooling quickly, either directly by making parts that serve as the actual tools or tooling components, such as mold inserts; or indirectly by producing patterns that are in turn used in a secondary process to produce the actual tools. Another similar technique is prototype tooling, where molds, dies and other devices are used to produce prototypes. Rapid manufacturing, and specifically rapid tooling technologies, are earlier in their development than rapid prototyping (RP) technologies, and are often extensions of RP. -The aim of all toolmaking is to catch design errors early in the design process; improve product design better products, reduce product cost, and reduce time to market. - -Users -Hundreds of universities and research centers around the globe are investing in additive manufacturing equipment in order to be positioned to make prototypes and tactile representations of real parts.",52032623,Agile tooling,E -456,456.0,456.0,"In archaeology, geophysical survey is ground-based physical sensing techniques used for archaeological imaging or mapping. Remote sensing and marine surveys are also used in archaeology, but are generally considered separate disciplines. Other terms, such as ""geophysical prospection"" and ""archaeological geophysics"" are generally synonymous. - -Overview -Geophysical survey is used to create maps of subsurface archaeological features. Features are the non-portable part of the archaeological record, whether standing structures or traces of human activities left in the soil. Geophysical instruments can detect buried features when their physical properties contrast measurably with their surroundings.",275496,Geophysical survey (archaeology),S -457,457.0,457.0,"Biological data refers to a compound or information derived from living organisms and their products. A medicinal compound made from living organisms, such as a serum or a vaccine, could be characterized as biological data. Biological data is highly complex when compared with other forms of data. There are many forms of biological data, including text, sequence data, protein structure, genomic data and amino acids, and links among others. - -Biological Data and Bioinformatics -Biological data works closely with Bioinformatics, which is a recent discipline focusing on addressing the need to analyze and interpret vast amounts of genomic data. -In the past few decades, leaps in genomic research have led to massive amounts of biological data. As a result, bioinformatics was created as the convergence of genomics, biotechnology, and information technology, while concentrating on biological data. -Biological Data has also been difficult to define, as bioinformatics is a wide-encompassing field.",65401146,Biological data,S -458,458.0,458.0,"EchoStar Mobile, an Irish company with commercial operations headquartered in the United Kingdom and a data centre based in Griesheim, Germany, is a mobile operator that provides connectivity across Europe through a converged satellite and terrestrial network. EchoStar Mobile is a subsidiary of EchoStar Corporation, a provider of satellite communications devices. - -History -EchoStar Mobile Limited was established in 2008 as Solaris Mobile, a joint venture company between SES and Eutelsat Communications to develop and commercialize the first geostationary satellite systems in Europe for broadcasting video, radio and data to in-vehicle receivers and to mobile devices, such as mobile phones, portable media players and PDAs. In January 2014 all stock in Solaris Mobile was acquired by EchoStar Corporation and in March 2015 the company was renamed EchoStar Mobile.The agreement to set up Solaris Mobile was reached in 2006 with the company formed in 2008. SES and Eutelsat – both successful European satellite operators, providing TV and other services from geostationary satellites to millions of cable and direct-to-home viewers – invested €130m in the venture. The services to be developed included video, radio, multimedia data, interactive services, and voice communications, with the primary aim of delivering mobile television any time, anywhere.",23048878,EchoStar Mobile,T -459,459.0,459.0,"InspecVision Ltd. is a UK engineering company based in Mallusk, Northern Ireland, established in 2003. It is a manufacturing company that produces computer vision inspection systems. The company is one of several local companies created as spinoffs or inspired by research conducted at the Queen's University of Belfast. - -Technology -InspecVision specializes in the design and manufacture of 2D and 3D computer vision based measurement systems for inspection and reverse engineering. The product range includes the Planar 2D, the SurfScan, the Opti-Scan 3D, and the Acuity. -While there are many manufacturers of 3D computer vision systems, these systems utilize either 3D scanning technologies or a moving camera to measure an object or scene.",7177533,InspecVision,E -460,460.0,460.0,"Spinning bees were 18th-century public events where women in the American Colonies produced homespun cloth to help the colonists reduce their dependence on British goods. They emerged in the decade prior to the American Revolution as a way for women to protest British policies and taxation. - -Historical background -Great Britain enforced the 1765 Stamp Act on its American colonies, which taxed official documents throughout the colony. The British Crown viewed these measures as a legitimate way to raise revenue. In contrast, many colonists viewed these acts as tyrannical, arguing that taxation without consent violated their rights as Englishmen. One common way that colonists protested this act of Parliament was through non-importation agreements and boycotts.",52062473,Spinning bee,E -461,461.0,461.0,"The Michigan Life Sciences Corridor (MLSC) is a $1 billion biotechnology initiative in the U.S. state of Michigan. -The MLSC invests in biotech research at four Michigan institutions: the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor; Michigan State University in East Lansing; Wayne State University in Detroit; and the Van Andel Institute in Grand Rapids. -The Michigan Economic Development Corporation administers the program. It began in 1999 with money from the state's settlement with the tobacco industry.",3693303,Michigan Life Sciences Corridor,S -462,462.0,462.0,"Osmond Charles Ollenbach (1869-6 July 1935) was a surveyor with the Survey of India who was also a keen amateur entomologist and naturalist. He travelled across India and Burma as a surveyor with the Great Trigonometrical Survey and made collections of insects with nearly 17000 insect specimens some of which are now in the Natural History Museum, London, and at the Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun, where he worked after retirement as an entomologist. -Ollenbach was born in India and had taken an interest in butterflies from his childhood days in Mussoorie. He retired from the Survey of India in 1922 as a Class I officer. -Ollenbach, O. C. ""Notes on wild dogs in India and Burma."" Jour.",60509084,Osmond Charles Ollenbach,S -463,463.0,463.0,"Electrical resistance surveys (also called earth resistance or resistivity survey) are one of a number of methods used in archaeological geophysics, as well as in engineering geological investigations. In this type of survey electrical resistance meters are used to detect and map subsurface archaeological features and patterning. - -Overview -Electrical resistance meters can be thought of as similar to the Ohmmeters used to test electrical circuits. Archaeological features can be mapped when they are of higher or lower resistivity than their surroundings. A stone foundation might impede the flow of electricity, while the organic deposits within a midden might conduct electricity more easily than surrounding soils. Although generally used in archaeology for planview mapping, resistance methods also have a limited ability to discriminate depth and create vertical profiles (see Electrical resistivity tomography).",22762322,Electrical resistance survey,S -464,464.0,464.0,"Ornelas v. United States, 517 U.S. 690 (1996), was a case decided by the Supreme Court of the United States that held that appellate courts should review probable cause determinations for warrantless searches de novo. - -Factual background -In December 1992, Detective Pautz of the Milwaukee Sheriff's Department was conducting drug interdiction when he noticed a 1981 two door Oldsmobile with California plates. Pautz radioed his dispatcher to check the registration of the car, and he ran the name of the owner, Miguel Ledesma Ornelas, through the Narcotics and Dangerous Drugs Information System (NADDIS). NADDIS reported that Ornelas was a heroin dealer.",30850009,Ornelas v. United States,S -465,465.0,465.0,"Nelson rules are a method in process control of determining whether some measured variable is out of control (unpredictable versus consistent). Rules for detecting ""out-of-control"" or non-random conditions were first postulated by Walter A. Shewhart in the 1920s. The Nelson rules were first published in the October 1984 issue of the Journal of Quality Technology in an article by Lloyd S Nelson.The rules are applied to a control chart on which the magnitude of some variable is plotted against time. The rules are based on the mean value and the standard deviation of the samples. - -The above eight rules apply to a chart of a variable value. -A second chart, the moving range chart, can also be used but only with rules 1, 2, 3 and 4.",2015211,Nelson rules,T -466,466.0,466.0,"Engineering biology is the set of methods for designing, building, and testing engineered biological systems which have been used to manipulate information, construct materials, process chemicals, produce energy, provide food, and help maintain or enhance human health and environment. - -History -Rapid advances in the ability to genetically modify biological organisms have advanced a new engineering discipline, commonly referred to as synthetic biology. This approach seeks to harness the power of living systems for a variety of manufacturing applications, such as advanced therapeutics, sustainable fuels, chemical feedstocks, and advanced materials. To date, research in synthetic biology has typically relied on trial-and-error approaches, which are costly, laborious, and inefficient. - -References -Bibliography -H.R.4521 - America COMPETES Act of 2022https://www.congress.gov/congressional-record/2022/03/17/senate-section/article/S1237-5 - -Schuergers, N., Werlang, C., Ajo-Franklin, C., & Boghossian, A. (2017). A Synthetic Biology Approach to Engineering Living Photovoltaics.",54041957,Engineering biology,T -467,467.0,467.0,"An amplidyne is an obsolete electromechanical amplifier invented prior to World War II by Ernst Alexanderson. It consists of an electric motor driving a DC generator. The signal to be amplified is applied to the generator's field winding, and its output voltage is an amplified copy of the field current. The amplidyne was used in industry in high power servo and control systems, to amplify low power control signals to control powerful electric motors, for example. It is now mostly obsolete. - -How an amplidyne works -An amplidyne comprises an electric motor which turns a generator on the same shaft.",8032763,Amplidyne,T -468,468.0,468.0,"Laser cutting is a technology that uses a laser to vaporize materials, resulting in a cut edge. While typically used for industrial manufacturing applications, it is now used by schools, small businesses, architecture, and hobbyists. Laser cutting works by directing the output of a high-power laser most commonly through optics. The laser optics and CNC (computer numerical control) are used to direct the laser beam to the material. A commercial laser for cutting materials uses a motion control system to follow a CNC or G-code of the pattern to be cut onto the material.",531911,Laser cutting,E -469,469.0,469.0,"Axiomatic Product Development Lifecycle (APDL) (also known as -Transdisciplinary System Development Lifecycle (TSDL), and - Transdisciplinary Product Development Lifecycle (TPDL) -) is a systems engineering product development model -proposed by Bulent Gumus that extends the Axiomatic design (AD) method. APDL covers the whole product lifecycle including early factors that affect the entire cycle such as development testing, input constraints and system components. -APDL provides an iterative and incremental way for a team of transdisciplinary members to approach holistic product development. A practical outcome includes capturing and managing product design knowledge. The APDL model addresses some weak patterns experienced in previous development models regarding quality of the design, requirements management, change management, project management, and communication between stakeholders. Practicing APDL may reduce development time and project cost. - -Overview -APDL adds the Test domain and four new characteristics to Axiomatic design (AD): Input Constraints in the Functional Domain; Systems Components in the Physical Domain; Process Variables tied to System Components instead of Design Parameters; and Customer Needs mapped to Functional Requirements and Input Constraints. -APDL proposes a V-shaped process to develop the Design Parameters and System Components (detailed design).",15369988,Axiomatic product development lifecycle,E -470,470.0,470.0,"In theoretical physics, p-form electrodynamics is a generalization of Maxwell's theory of electromagnetism. - -Ordinary (via. one-form) Abelian electrodynamics -We have a one-form - - - - - A - - - - {\displaystyle \mathbf {A} } - , a gauge symmetry - - - - - - A - - → - - A - - + - d - α - , - - - {\displaystyle \mathbf {A} \rightarrow \mathbf {A} +d\alpha ,} - where - - - - α - - - {\displaystyle \alpha } - is any arbitrary fixed 0-form and - - - - d - - - {\displaystyle d} - is the exterior derivative, and a gauge-invariant vector current - - - - - J - - - - {\displaystyle \mathbf {J} } - with density 1 satisfying the continuity equation - - - - - d - - ⋆ - - - J - - = - 0 - , - - - {\displaystyle d{\star }\mathbf {J} =0,} - where - - - - - ⋆ - - - - {\displaystyle {\star }} - is the Hodge star operator. -Alternatively, we may express - - - - - J - - - - {\displaystyle \mathbf {J} } - as a closed (n − 1)-form, but we do not consider that case here. - - - - - - F - - - - {\displaystyle \mathbf {F} } - is a gauge-invariant 2-form defined as the exterior derivative - - - - - F - - = - d - - A - - - - {\displaystyle \mathbf {F} =d\mathbf {A} } - . - - - - - - F - - - - {\displaystyle \mathbf {F} } - satisfies the equation of motion - - - - - d - - ⋆ - - - F - - = - - ⋆ - - - J - - - - {\displaystyle d{\star }\mathbf {F} ={\star }\mathbf {J} } - (this equation obviously implies the continuity equation). -This can be derived from the action - - - - - S - = - - ∫ - - M - - - - [ - - - - 1 - 2 - - - - F - - ∧ - - ⋆ - - - F - - − - - A - - ∧ - - ⋆ - - - J - - - ] - - , - - - {\displaystyle S=\int _{M}\left[{\frac {1}{2}}\mathbf {F} \wedge {\star }\mathbf {F} -\mathbf {A} \wedge {\star }\mathbf {J} \right],} - where - - - - M - - - {\displaystyle M} - is the spacetime manifold. - -p-form Abelian electrodynamics -We have a p-form - - - - - B - - - - {\displaystyle \mathbf {B} } - , a gauge symmetry - - - - - - B - - → - - B - - + - d - - α - - , - - - {\displaystyle \mathbf {B} \rightarrow \mathbf {B} +d\mathbf {\alpha } ,} - where - - - - α - - - {\displaystyle \alpha } - is any arbitrary fixed (p − 1)-form and - - - - d - - - {\displaystyle d} - is the exterior derivative, and a gauge-invariant p-vector - - - - - J - - - - {\displaystyle \mathbf {J} } - with density 1 satisfying the continuity equation - - - - - d - - ⋆ - - - J - - = - 0 - , - - - {\displaystyle d{\star }\mathbf {J} =0,} - where - - - - - ⋆ - - - - {\displaystyle {\star }} - is the Hodge star operator. -Alternatively, we may express - - - - - J - - - - {\displaystyle \mathbf {J} } - as a closed (n − p)-form. - - - - - - C - - - - {\displaystyle \mathbf {C} } - is a gauge-invariant (p + 1)-form defined as the exterior derivative - - - - - C - - = - d - - B - - - - {\displaystyle \mathbf {C} =d\mathbf {B} } - . - - - - - - B - - - - {\displaystyle \mathbf {B} } - satisfies the equation of motion - - - - - d - - ⋆ - - - C - - = - - ⋆ - - - J - - - - {\displaystyle d{\star }\mathbf {C} ={\star }\mathbf {J} } - (this equation obviously implies the continuity equation). -This can be derived from the action - - - - - S - = - - ∫ - - M - - - - [ - - - - 1 - 2 - - - - C - - ∧ - - ⋆ - - - C - - + - ( - − - 1 - - ) - - p - - - - B - - ∧ - - ⋆ - - - J - - - ] - - - - {\displaystyle S=\int _{M}\left[{\frac {1}{2}}\mathbf {C} \wedge {\star }\mathbf {C} +(-1)^{p}\mathbf {B} \wedge {\star }\mathbf {J} \right]} - where M is the spacetime manifold. -Other sign conventions do exist. -The Kalb–Ramond field is an example with p = 2 in string theory; the Ramond–Ramond fields whose charged sources are D-branes are examples for all values of p. In 11-dimensional supergravity or M-theory, we have a 3-form electrodynamics. - -Non-abelian generalization -Just as we have non-abelian generalizations of electrodynamics, leading to Yang–Mills theories, we also have nonabelian generalizations of p-form electrodynamics. They typically require the use of gerbes. - -References -Henneaux; Teitelboim (1986), ""p-Form electrodynamics"", Foundations of Physics 16 (7): 593-617, doi:10.1007/BF01889624 -Bunster, C.; Henneaux, M. (2011).",3057614,P-form electrodynamics,M -471,471.0,471.0,"An electroactive polymer (EAP) is a polymer that exhibits a change in size or shape when stimulated by an electric field. The most common applications of this type of material are in actuators and sensors. A typical characteristic property of an EAP is that they will undergo a large amount of deformation while sustaining large forces. -The majority of historic actuators are made of ceramic piezoelectric materials. While these materials are able to withstand large forces, they commonly will only deform a fraction of a percent. In the late 1990s, it has been demonstrated that some EAPs can exhibit up to a 380% strain, which is much more than any ceramic actuator.",1490017,Electroactive polymer,S -472,472.0,472.0,"OpenBoard is a free and open-source interactive whiteboard software compatible with any projector and pointing device. -It was originally forked from Open-Sankoré in 2013 with the intention to focus on simplicity and stability. The license was upgraded from LGPL-2.0-only to GPL-3.0-only. Since version 1.3 it is using the more recent QT 5 framework instead of QT version 4. - -History -OpenBoard is a fork of the project based on Open-Sankoré 2,0. Open-Sankoré itself is based on the Uniboard software originally developed at the University of Lausanne (UL), Switzerland. The software started to be developed in 2003 and was first used by the instructors of the UL in October 2003.",50780291,OpenBoard,T -473,473.0,473.0,"Doon is a suburban community and former village which is now a part of the city of Kitchener, Ontario, Canada. Doon was settled around 1800 by German Mennonites from Pennsylvania, and after 1830 by Scottish immigrants. The area is located at the confluence of Schneider Creek and the Grand River. The post office was opened in 1845. A large flour mill, oatmeal mill, distillery and sawmill were built on the Doon River over the following years.",71666595,"Doon, Ontario",E -474,474.0,474.0,"Human uses of bats include economic uses such as bushmeat or in traditional medicine. Bats are also used symbolically in religion, mythology, superstition, and the arts. Perceived medical uses of bats include treating epilepsy in South America, night blindness in China, rheumatism, asthma, chest pain, and fever in South Asia. Bat meat is consumed in Oceania, Australia, Asia, and Africa, with about 13% of all species hunted for food. Other economic uses of bats include using their teeth as currency on the island of Makira. -Bats are widely represented in the arts, with inclusion in epic poems, plays, fables, and comic books.",59344116,Human uses of bats,S -475,475.0,475.0,"The Boeing Everett Factory is an airplane assembly facility built by Boeing in Everett, Washington, United States. It sits at the northeast corner of Paine Field and includes the largest building in the world by volume at 13,385,378 m3 (472,370,319 cu ft) and covers 98.7 acres (39.9 ha). The entire complex spans both sides of State Route 526 (named the Boeing Freeway). The factory was built in 1967 for the Boeing 747 and has since been expanded several times to accommodate new airliners, including the 767, 777, and 787 programs. - -History and operations -Boeing has had a presence in Everett since 1943. In 1966, plans for a factory in the area for the construction of the 747 were first announced after Boeing was awarded a contract worth US$525 million (equivalent to $4735.23 million in 2022) from Pan American World Airways to build 25 of the aircraft.",10380134,Boeing Everett Factory,E -476,476.0,476.0,"Diatomic molecules (from Greek di- 'two') are molecules composed of only two atoms, of the same or different chemical elements. If a diatomic molecule consists of two atoms of the same element, such as hydrogen (H2) or oxygen (O2), then it is said to be homonuclear. Otherwise, if a diatomic molecule consists of two different atoms, such as carbon monoxide (CO) or nitric oxide (NO), the molecule is said to be heteronuclear. The bond in a homonuclear diatomic molecule is non-polar. - -The only chemical elements that form stable homonuclear diatomic molecules at standard temperature and pressure (STP) (or typical laboratory conditions of 1 bar and 25 °C) are the gases hydrogen (H2), nitrogen (N2), oxygen (O2), fluorine (F2), and chlorine (Cl2).The noble gases (helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, and radon) are also gases at STP, but they are monatomic. The homonuclear diatomic gases and noble gases together are called ""elemental gases"" or ""molecular gases"", to distinguish them from other gases that are chemical compounds.At slightly elevated temperatures, the halogens bromine (Br2) and iodine (I2) also form diatomic gases.",7938,Diatomic molecule,M -477,477.0,477.0,"A DNA field-effect transistor (DNAFET) is a field-effect transistor which uses the field-effect due to the partial charges of DNA molecules to function as a biosensor. The structure of DNAFETs is similar to that of MOSFETs, with the exception of the gate structure which, in DNAFETs, is replaced by a layer of immobilized ssDNA (single-stranded DNA) molecules which act as surface receptors. When complementary DNA strands hybridize to the receptors, the charge distribution near the surface changes, which in turn modulates current transport through the semiconductor transducer. -Arrays of DNAFETs can be used for detecting single nucleotide polymorphisms (causing many hereditary diseases) and for DNA sequencing. Their main advantage compared to optical detection methods in common use today is that they do not require labeling of molecules. Furthermore, they work continuously and (near) real-time.",5629357,DNA field-effect transistor,S -478,478.0,478.0,"U-Report is a social messaging tool and data collection system developed by UNICEF to improve citizen engagement, inform leaders, and foster positive change. The program sends SMS polls and alerts to its participants, collecting real-time responses, and subsequently publishes gathered data. Issues polled include health, education, water, sanitation and hygiene, youth unemployment, HIV/AIDS, and disease outbreaks. The program currently has 28 million u-reporters in 95 countries. - -History -In 2007, UNICEF Innovation used RapidSMS to develop U-Report, a platform that would allow anyone to publish real-time information and data analytics in SMS format without the need of a programmer. In May 2011, Uganda became the first country in which UNICEF launched the U-Report mobile initiative, due to its population being, on average, one of the youngest in the world.",58735847,U-Report,T -479,479.0,479.0,"Hack-for-hire operations are services that provide clients with illicit access to information by infiltrating digital systems or networks, typically for a fee. This form of hacking on demand has seen a surge in popularity over recent years, with the trend being attributed to advancements in technology, growing digital connectivity, and increasing demand for corporate espionage and personal data breaches. - -History -The concept of hack-for-hire services can be traced back to the early years of the internet, when hackers were contracted for a variety of reasons, such as to perform penetration tests which was considered “ethical hacking” -. Over time, however, the scope of these operations expanded to include illegal activities, like industrial espionage, personal data breaches, and illicit political interference. - -Operation -Hack-for-hire operations typically involve a client who pays a hacker or a group of hackers to infiltrate a specified digital system or network to gather information. The services offered by these hackers can range from simple password cracking to sophisticated techniques such as phishing, ransomware attacks, or advanced persistent threats (APTs).Hack-for-hire operations often utilize the dark web, an encrypted part of the internet that is not indexed by traditional search engines, to advertise their services and connect with potential clients. Transactions are typically made using cryptocurrencies to maintain anonymity. - -Legality -Hack-for-hire services are typically considered illegal, as they involve unauthorized access to private digital systems and computer networks.",74388553,Hack-for-hire operation,S -480,480.0,480.0,"Conceição Bettencourt works in the field of neuro-epigenetics. She studies the involvement of disrupted molecular pathways and DNA methylation in neurodegenerative diseases using human post-mortem brain tissue. She is research fellow of the Alzheimer's Research UK and co-leads the Genetics and Omics Working Group of the international Deep Dementia Phenotyping (DEMON) network. - -Education and career -She studied Biology and Human Genetics at the University of the Azores, where she conducted her PhD on ""Machado-Joseph disease: from genetic variability to clinical heterogeneity"". She then trained as a postdoc in Spain and the Netherlands. - -Significant publications -Murthy, Megha; Cheng, Yun Yung; Holton, Janice L.; Bettencourt, Conceição (December 2021). ""Neurodegenerative movement disorders: An epigenetics perspective and promise for the future"".",72425395,Conceição Bettencourt,S -481,481.0,481.0,"In complex geometry, the term positive form refers to several classes of real differential forms of Hodge type (p, p). - -(1,1)-forms -Real (p,p)-forms on a complex manifold M are forms which are of type (p,p) and real, that is, lie in the intersection - - - - - Λ - - p - , - p - - - ( - M - ) - ∩ - - Λ - - 2 - p - - - ( - M - , - - - R - - - ) - . - - - {\displaystyle \Lambda ^{p,p}(M)\cap \Lambda ^{2p}(M,{\mathbb {R} }).} - A real (1,1)-form - - - - ω - - - {\displaystyle \omega } - is called semi-positive (sometimes just positive), respectively, positive (or positive definite) if any of the following equivalent conditions holds: - - - - - − - ω - - - {\displaystyle -\omega } - is the imaginary part of a positive semidefinite (respectively, positive definite) Hermitian form. -For some basis - - - - d - - z - - 1 - - - , - . - . - . - d - - z - - n - - - - - {\displaystyle dz_{1},...dz_{n}} - in the space - - - - - Λ - - 1 - , - 0 - - - M - - - {\displaystyle \Lambda ^{1,0}M} - of (1,0)-forms, - - - - - - − - 1 - - - ω - - - {\displaystyle {\sqrt {-1}}\omega } - can be written diagonally, as - - - - - - − - 1 - - - ω - = - - ∑ - - i - - - - α - - i - - - d - - z - - i - - - ∧ - d - - - - - z - ¯ - - - - - i - - - , - - - {\displaystyle {\sqrt {-1}}\omega =\sum _{i}\alpha _{i}dz_{i}\wedge d{\bar {z}}_{i},} - with - - - - - α - - i - - - - - {\displaystyle \alpha _{i}} - real and non-negative (respectively, positive). -For any (1,0)-tangent vector - - - - v - ∈ - - T - - 1 - , - 0 - - - M - - - {\displaystyle v\in T^{1,0}M} - , - - - - − - - - − - 1 - - - ω - ( - v - , - - - - v - ¯ - - - - ) - ≥ - 0 - - - {\displaystyle -{\sqrt {-1}}\omega (v,{\bar {v}})\geq 0} - (respectively, - - - - > - 0 - - - {\displaystyle >0} - ). -For any real tangent vector - - - - v - ∈ - T - M - - - {\displaystyle v\in TM} - , - - - - ω - ( - v - , - I - ( - v - ) - ) - ≥ - 0 - - - {\displaystyle \omega (v,I(v))\geq 0} - (respectively, - - - - > - 0 - - - {\displaystyle >0} - ), where - - - - I - : - - T - M - ↦ - T - M - - - {\displaystyle I:\;TM\mapsto TM} - is the complex structure operator. - -Positive line bundles -In algebraic geometry, positive definite (1,1)-forms arise as curvature forms of ample line bundles (also known as positive line bundles). Let L be a holomorphic Hermitian line bundle on a complex manifold, - - - - - - - - ∂ - ¯ - - - - : - - L - ↦ - L - ⊗ - - Λ - - 0 - , - 1 - - - ( - M - ) - - - {\displaystyle {\bar {\partial }}:\;L\mapsto L\otimes \Lambda ^{0,1}(M)} - its complex structure operator. Then L is equipped with a unique connection preserving the Hermitian structure and satisfying - - - - - - ∇ - - 0 - , - 1 - - - = - - - - ∂ - ¯ - - - - - - {\displaystyle \nabla ^{0,1}={\bar {\partial }}} - .This connection is called the Chern connection. -The curvature - - - - Θ - - - {\displaystyle \Theta } - of the Chern connection is always a -purely imaginary (1,1)-form. A line bundle L is called positive if - - - - - - − - 1 - - - Θ - - - {\displaystyle {\sqrt {-1}}\Theta } - is a positive (1,1)-form. (Note that the de Rham cohomology class of - - - - - - − - 1 - - - Θ - - - {\displaystyle {\sqrt {-1}}\Theta } - is - - - - 2 - π - - - {\displaystyle 2\pi } - times the first Chern class of L.) The Kodaira embedding theorem claims that a positive line bundle is ample, and conversely, any ample line bundle admits a Hermitian metric with - - - - - - − - 1 - - - Θ - - - {\displaystyle {\sqrt {-1}}\Theta } - positive. - -Positivity for (p, p)-forms -Semi-positive (1,1)-forms on M form a convex cone.",10592733,Positive form,E -482,482.0,482.0,"Levi Day Boone (December 6, 1808 – January 24, 1882) served as mayor of Chicago, Illinois (1855–1856) for the American Party (Know-Nothings). - -Early life -Boone was born near Lexington, Kentucky, the seventh son of Squire and Anna Grubbs Boone. Squire Boone, Sr. was Daniel Boone's father and Levi Boone's great-grandfather, making Levi Boone Daniel Boone's great-nephew. Young Levi lost his father at the age of 9 when Squire finally succumbed to wounds he suffered at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend. -Despite the poverty the family was plunged into by the death of Squire Boone, Levi graduated from the medical school of Transylvania University in Lexington, Kentucky in 1829 at the age of 21. He moved to Illinois and eventually established a practice in Hillsboro.",490387,Levi Boone,S -483,483.0,483.0,"Railveyor is a remote controlled, electrically powered light-rail haulage solution for surface and underground applications in the mining and aggregate industries. Railveyor Technologies Global Inc. is a private Sudbury, Canada-based industrial bulk material handling and material haulage company that manufactures and installs Railveyor systems. - -History -Railveyor's light-rail system was first demonstrated by its inventor, Mike Dibble, in conjunction with the Florida Institute of Phosphate Research from 1999-2001. Since then it has been installed commercially by Harmony Gold at its Phakisa Gold Mine in Free State, South Africa. Canadian entrepreneur Risto Laamanen incorporated the business, secured the global distribution rights, and set up a second demonstration and test site with Vale S.A.",41561194,Rail-Veyor,E -484,484.0,484.0,"This is a list of aircraft produced or proposed by the Lockheed Aircraft Corporation from its founding as the Lockheed Aircraft Company in 1926 to its merging with Martin Marietta to form the Lockheed Martin Corporation in 1995. -Ordered by model number, Lockheed gave most of its aircraft astronomical names, from the first Vega to the C-5 Galaxy. Aircraft models listed in italics and with higher numbers – 780 following 80 and preceding 81, for example – are variants or developments of the base model. - -Unmanned Aerial Vehicles -Lockheed Aequare -Lockheed AQM-60 Kingfisher -Lockheed MQM-105 Aquila -Lockheed D-21 -Lockheed X-7 - -See also -Vega Aircraft Corporation -Lockheed Constellation variants - -References -Sources -Breffort, Dominique. Lockheed Constellation: from Excalibur to Starliner Civilian and Military Variants. Paris: Histoire and Collecions, 2006. Print.",3536342,List of Lockheed aircraft,E -485,485.0,485.0,"Old age is the range of ages for persons nearing and surpassing life expectancy. People of old age are also referred to as: old people, elderly, elders, seniors, senior citizens, or older adults.Old age is not a definite biological stage: the chronological age denoted as ""old age"" varies culturally and historically. Some disciplines and domains focus on the aging and the aged, such as the organic processes of aging (senescence), medical studies of the aging process (gerontology), diseases that afflict older adults (geriatrics), technology to support the aging society (gerontechnology), and leisure and sport activities adapted to older people (such as senior sport). -Old people often have limited regenerative abilities and are more susceptible to illness and injury than younger adults. They face social problems related to retirement, loneliness, and ageism.In 2011, the United Nations proposed a human-rights convention to protect old people. - -Definitions -Definitions of old age include official definitions, sub-group definitions, and four dimensions as follows. - -Official definitions -Most developed Western countries set the retirement age around the age of 65; this is also generally considered to mark the transition from middle to old age. Reaching this age is commonly a requirement to become eligible for senior social programs.",229060,Old age,S -486,486.0,486.0,"An original equipment manufacturer (OEM) is generally perceived as a company that produces non-aftermarket parts and equipment that may be marketed by another manufacturer. It is a common industry term recognized and used by many professional organizations such as SAE International, ISO, and others. -However, the term is also used in several other ways, which causes ambiguity. It sometimes means the maker of a system that includes other companies' subsystems, an end-product producer, an automotive part that is manufactured by the same company that produced the original part used in the automobile's assembly, or a value-added reseller. - -Automotive parts -When referring to auto parts, OEM typically refers to the manufacturer of the original equipment, that is, the parts which are then subsequently assembled and installed during the construction of a new vehicle. In contrast, aftermarket parts are those made by companies other than the OEM, which might be installed as replacements or enhancements after the car comes out of the factory. For example, if Ford used Autolite spark plugs, Exide batteries, Bosch fuel injectors, and Ford's own engine blocks and heads when building a car, then car restorers and collectors consider those to be the OEM parts.",69922,Original equipment manufacturer,E -487,487.0,487.0,"The 2021 Frito-Lay strike was a labor strike by employees at the Topeka, Kansas Frito-Lay plant against the company's mandatory overtime policy. The strike began on July 5, 2021 and ended on July 23, 2021. - -Background -Frito-Lay has a contract with the Local 218 chapter of the Bakery, Confectionery, Tobacco Workers and Grain Millers' International Union, which represents Topeka, Kansas. The warehouse employs approximately 700 to 800 workers, 600 of which are members of the BCTGM 218 chapter. Every two years, Frito-Lay and the BCTGM negotiate a contract for employee wages and conditions. The most recent contract negotiations fell through after workers rejected a contract that had been recommended by union leadership and a work stoppage and strike occurred in response. - -Strike -The strike began on July 5, 2021, when approximately 600 members of the Local 218 chapter of the Bakery, Confectionery, Tobacco Workers and Grain Millers' International Union (BCTGM) went on strike.",68253027,2021 Frito-Lay strike,E -488,488.0,488.0,"Renewable energy is energy from renewable resources that are naturally replenished on a human timescale. Renewable resources include sunlight, wind, the movement of water, and geothermal heat. Although most renewable energy sources are sustainable, some are not. For example, some biomass sources are considered unsustainable at current rates of exploitation. Renewable energy is often used for electricity generation, heating and cooling.",25784,Renewable energy,T -489,489.0,489.0,"Civil engineering is a professional engineering discipline that deals with the design, construction, and maintenance of the physical and naturally built environment, including public works such as roads, bridges, canals, dams, airports, sewage systems, pipelines, structural components of buildings, and railways.Civil engineering is traditionally broken into a number of sub-disciplines. It is considered the second-oldest engineering discipline after military engineering, and it is defined to distinguish non-military engineering from military engineering. Civil engineering can take place in the public sector from municipal public works departments through to federal government agencies, and in the private sector from locally based firms to global Fortune 500 companies. - -History -Civil engineering as a discipline -Civil engineering is the application of physical and scientific principles for solving the problems of society, and its history is intricately linked to advances in the understanding of physics and mathematics throughout history. Because civil engineering is a broad profession, including several specialized sub-disciplines, its history is linked to knowledge of structures, materials science, geography, geology, soils, hydrology, environmental science, mechanics, project management, and other fields.Throughout ancient and medieval history most architectural design and construction was carried out by artisans, such as stonemasons and carpenters, rising to the role of master builder. Knowledge was retained in guilds and seldom supplanted by advances.",5762,Civil engineering,E -490,490.0,490.0,"Schneider Electric SE is a French multinational company that specializes in digital automation and energy management. It addresses homes, buildings, data centers, infrastructure and industries, by combining energy technologies, real-time automation, software, and services.Schneider Electric is a Fortune Global 500 company, publicly traded on the Euronext Exchange, and is a component of the Euro Stoxx 50 stock market index. In fiscal year 2022, the company posted revenues of €34.2 billion.Schneider Electric is the parent company of Square D, APC, and others. It is also a research company. - -History -1836–1963 -In 1836, brothers Adolphe and Joseph-Eugene Schneider took over an iron foundry in Le Creusot, France. Two years later, they founded Schneider-Creusot, the company that would eventually become Schneider Electric.",1435073,Schneider Electric,E -491,491.0,491.0,"Rapid tooling (RT) denotes manufacturing on a slim timeline. Some of the main advantages to rapid tooling trades is that it decreases the time and cost of the product. With rapid tools being fast and easily reproducible, it requires less stock for finished tools. These tools will be produced on demand and are available almost immediately. Special tools or tools where no supplier is existing on the market any more can be reproduced without bigger design and production efforts.",49466458,Rapid tooling,E -492,492.0,492.0,"The philosophy of engineering is an emerging discipline that considers what engineering is, what engineers do, and how their work affects society, and thus includes aspects of ethics and aesthetics, as well as the ontology, epistemology, etc. that might be studied in, for example, the philosophy of science or the philosophy of technology. - -History -Engineering is the profession aimed at modifying the natural environment, through the design, manufacture and maintenance of artifacts and technological systems. It might then be contrasted with science, the aim of which is to understand nature. Engineering at its core is about causing change, and therefore management of change is central to engineering practice. The philosophy of engineering is then the consideration of philosophical issues as they apply to engineering.",10158889,Philosophy of engineering,T -493,493.0,493.0,"The Bussard ramjet is a theoretical method of spacecraft propulsion for interstellar travel. A fast moving spacecraft scoops up hydrogen from the interstellar medium using an enormous funnel-shaped magnetic field (ranging from kilometers to many thousands of kilometers in diameter); the hydrogen is compressed until thermonuclear fusion occurs, which provides thrust to counter the drag created by the funnel and energy to power the magnetic field. The Bussard ramjet can thus be seen as a ramjet variant of a fusion rocket.The Bussard ramjet was proposed in 1960 by the physicist Robert W. Bussard.The concept was popularized by Poul Anderson in his novel Tau Zero, Larry Niven in his Known Space series of books, Vernor Vinge in his Zones of Thought series, and Carl Sagan, as referenced in the television series and book Cosmos. - -Feasibility -Since the time of Bussard's original proposal, it has been discovered that the region surrounding the Solar System has a much lower density of hydrogen than was believed at that time (see Local Interstellar Cloud). In 1969, John Ford Fishback made an important contribution, describing the details of the required magnetic field.In 1978, T.",37853,Bussard ramjet,T -494,494.0,494.0,"Dying is the final stage of life which will eventually lead to death. Diagnosing dying is a complex process of clinical decision-making, and most practice checklists facilitating this diagnosis are based on cancer diagnoses. - -Signs of dying -The National Cancer Institute in the United States advises that the presence of some of the following signs may indicate that death is approaching: -Drowsiness, increased sleep, and/or unresponsiveness (caused by changes in the patient's metabolism). -Confusion about time, place, and/or identity of loved ones; restlessness; visions of people and places that are not present; pulling at bed linens or clothing (caused in part by changes in the patient's metabolism). -Decreased socialization and withdrawal (caused by decreased oxygen to the brain, decreased blood flow, and mental preparation for dying). -Decreased need for food and fluids, and loss of appetite (caused by the body's need to conserve energy and its decreasing ability to use food and fluids properly). -Loss of bladder or bowel control (caused by the relaxing of muscles in the pelvic area). -Darkened urine or decreased amount of urine (caused by slowing of kidney function and/or decreased fluid intake). -Skin becoming cool to the touch, particularly the hands and feet; skin may become bluish in color, especially on the underside of the body (caused by decreased circulation to the extremities). -Rattling or gurgling sounds while breathing, which may be loud (death rattle); breathing that is irregular and shallow; decreased number of breaths per minute; breathing that alternates between rapid and slow (caused by congestion from decreased fluid consumption, a buildup of waste products in the body, and/or a decrease in circulation to the organs). -Turning of the head toward a light source (caused by decreasing vision). -Increased difficulty controlling pain (caused by progression of the disease). -Involuntary movements (called myoclonus), increased heart rate, hypertension followed by hypotension, and loss of reflexes in the legs and arms are additional signs that the end of life is near. - -Cultural perspectives on dying -How humans understand and approach the process dying differs across cultures. In some cultures, death is the complete termination of life. In other cultures, death can include altered states of being, like sleep or illness. In some traditions, death marks the transition into a different kind of existence, or involves a cyclic pattern of death and rebirth.",212879,Dying,S -495,495.0,495.0,"Kearney and Trecker founded in 1898 by Edward J. Kearney and Theodore Trecker was a machine manufacturer based in West Allis, Wisconsin. It became one of the largest machine tool suppliers in the world. - -History -The company was founded in 1898 and their first location was above a small shop. They soon became known for created milling machines and precision machine tools. By 1943 they were one of three largest milling machine manufacturers in the United States.In 1965 the company was a leading automated tool maker, and had sales of more than 47 million dollars.",69508284,Kearney and Trecker,E -496,496.0,496.0,"Four Core Genotypes (FCG) mice are laboratory mice produced by genetic engineering that allow biomedical researchers to determine if a sex difference in phenotype is caused by effects of gonadal hormones or sex chromosome genes. The four genotypes include XX and XY mice with ovaries, and XX and XY mice with testes. The comparison of XX and XY mice with the same type of gonad reveals sex differences in phenotypes that are caused by sex chromosome genes. The comparison of mice with different gonads but the same sex chromosomes reveals sex differences in phenotypes that are caused by gonadal hormones. - -Development -The FCG model was created by Paul Burgoyne and Robin Lovell-Badge at the National Institute for Medical Research, London (now Francis Crick Institute). The model involves deleting the testis-determining gene Sry from the Y chromosome, and inserting Sry onto chromosome 3.",74056025,Four Core Genotypes mouse model,S -497,497.0,497.0,"Solid Snake (Japanese: ソリッド・スネーク, Hepburn: Soriddo Sunēku) is a fictional character from the Metal Gear series created by Hideo Kojima and developed and published by Konami. He is depicted as a former Green Beret and highly skilled special operations soldier engaged in solo stealth and espionage missions who is often tasked with destroying models of the bipedal nuclear weapon-armed mecha known as Metal Gear. Controlled by the player, he must act alone, supported via radio by commanding officers and specialists. While his first appearances in the original Metal Gear games were references to Hollywood films, the Metal Gear Solid series has given a consistent design by artist Yoji Shinkawa alongside an established personality while also exploring his relationship with his mentor and father. -During the Metal Gear Solid games, the character has been voiced by voice actor Akio Ōtsuka in the Japanese version and by Canadian screenwriter and actor David Hayter in the English version. He also appears in Super Smash Bros.",372522,Solid Snake,S -498,498.0,498.0,"A Drum handler is a piece of mechanical equipment that is used to securely grip, lift and transport cylindrical modules such as steel drums, barrels, plastic drums and fiber drums. It has spring-loaded metal arms to create a tight and secure grip. This equipment is commonly used in chemical and petroleum industries, as well as industries that require shipping and storing of cylindrical modules. - -In the rubber tire and tube industry, a drum handler may also refer to a worker who primarily removes drums of rubberized fabric wrapped between layers of canvas for separation from the bias cutter and rolls the drums to the tire-building department, returning empty drums and canvas liner for rewinding. - -Description -The drum handler is usually used for handling a standard size 55-gallon drum container. However, there are models that can handle smaller and bigger capacity drums.",32810809,Drum handler,E -499,499.0,499.0,"Contact is a 1997 American science fiction drama film directed by Robert Zemeckis, based on the 1985 novel by Carl Sagan. Sagan and his wife Ann Druyan wrote the story outline for the film. It stars Jodie Foster as Dr. Eleanor ""Ellie"" Arroway, a SETI scientist who finds evidence of extraterrestrial life and is chosen to make first contact. It also stars Matthew McConaughey, James Woods, Tom Skerritt, William Fichtner, John Hurt, Angela Bassett, Rob Lowe, Jake Busey, and David Morse.",422269,Contact (1997 American film),T -500,500.0,500.0,"Tygon® is a brand name for a family of flexible polymer tubing consisting of a variety of materials to be used ""across a range of specialized fluid transfer requirements"". The specific composition of each type is a trade secret. Some variants have multiple layers of different materials. Tygon is a registered trademark of Saint-Gobain Corporation. It is an invented word, owned and used by Saint-Gobain and originated in the late 1930s.",13324152,Tygon tubing,E -501,501.0,501.0,"Technological unemployment is the loss of jobs caused by technological change. It is a key type of structural unemployment. Technological change typically includes the introduction of labour-saving ""mechanical-muscle"" machines or more efficient ""mechanical-mind"" processes (automation), and humans' role in these processes are minimized. Just as horses were gradually made obsolete as transport by the automobile and as labourer by the tractor, humans' jobs have also been affected throughout modern history. Historical examples include artisan weavers reduced to poverty after the introduction of mechanized looms.",32040137,Technological unemployment,T -502,502.0,502.0,"In mathematics, especially differential geometry, the cotangent bundle of a smooth manifold is the vector bundle of all the cotangent spaces at every point in the manifold. It may be described also as the dual bundle to the tangent bundle. This may be generalized to categories with more structure than smooth manifolds, such as complex manifolds, or (in the form of cotangent sheaf) algebraic varieties or schemes. In the smooth case, any Riemannian metric or symplectic form gives an isomorphism between the cotangent bundle and the tangent bundle, but they are not in general isomorphic in other categories. - -Formal definition via diagonal morphism -There are several equivalent ways to define the cotangent bundle. One way is through a diagonal mapping Δ and germs. -Let M be a smooth manifold and let M×M be the Cartesian product of M with itself.",221600,Cotangent bundle,E -503,503.0,503.0,"Jonathan Goodman (born 2 June 1971) is a former professional footballer who played as a forward for Wimbledon, Millwall and Bromley. Born in England, he represented the Republic of Ireland national team at international level. -Following retirement in 2000, Goodman pursued a career as a coach and sports scientist. He was most recently Academy Manager at Milton Keynes Dons. - -Early life -He was born in Walthamstow. - -Playing career -During the 1989–90 season, Goodman played non-league football at the now-defunct Leyton Wingate. At the end of the season he signed, along with the team's manager George Wakeling, for Bromley where he was immediately put on a contract. After playing well in just a handful of pre-season friendlies, he was signed by Millwall for a £34,500 fee in August 1990.",8513510,Jon Goodman,S -504,504.0,504.0,"Ernest Melvin Shull (8 September 1915 – 18 March 2002) was an American missionary with the Church of the Brethren and an amateur lepidopterist and naturalist who worked and lived for many years as a missionary in the Dangs, India. He wrote a book on the butterflies of Indiana and donated his collections to museums in the United States. -Shull was born in Girard, Illinois to William Harrison (1868–1949) and Clara Elizabeth Gibson Shull (1873–1967) and was educated at Manchester College, Indiana and Hartford Seminary, Connecticut, Cornell University and at Ball State University. He then taught at St Francis College, Fort Wayne. In his spare time he took an interest in butterflies, studying those in Indiana from 1931 to 1946 and again after returning from India in 1964. Along with his wife Lois Irene née Netzley (1917-2010, married 1937), he lived in Ahwa and worked in the Dangs Rural Boarding School School in the Surat Dangs, Gujarat from 1946 to 1964.",67944909,Ernest M. Shull,S -505,505.0,505.0,"Tidal downsizing is a hypothetical mechanism for the formation of planets. The process begins with the formation of large clumps of gas, of roughly 10 Jupiter masses, via gravitational instability in the outer parts of the protoplanetary disk. The clumps migrate inward due to gravitational interactions with the gas disk. Solid grains within the clump collide and grow and settle toward the center forming a massive core. The clump is disrupted due to tidal forces or heating from the star when it approaches within a few AU of the star leaving behind a smaller object.",50737844,Tidal downsizing,M -506,506.0,506.0,"Systems management refers to enterprise-wide administration of distributed systems including (and commonly in practice) computer systems. Systems management is strongly influenced by network management initiatives in telecommunications. The application performance management (APM) technologies are now a subset of Systems management. Maximum productivity can be achieved more efficiently through event correlation, system automation and predictive analysis which is now all part of APM.Centralized management has a time and effort trade-off that is related to the size of the company, the expertise of the IT staff, and the amount of technology being used: - -For a small business startup with ten computers, automated centralized processes may take more time to learn how to use and implement than just doing the management work manually on each computer. -A very large business with thousands of similar employee computers may clearly be able to save time and money, by having IT staff learn to do systems management automation. -A small branch office of a large corporation may have access to a central IT staff, with the experience to set up automated management of the systems in the branch office, without need for local staff in the branch office to do the work.Systems management may involve one or more of the following tasks: - -Hardware inventories. -Server availability monitoring and metrics. -Software inventory and installation. -Anti-virus and anti-malware. -User's activities monitoring. -Capacity monitoring. -Security management. -Storage management. -Network capacity and utilization monitoring. -Anti-manipulation management - -Functions -Functional groups are provided according to International Telecommunication Union Telecommunication Standardization Sector (ITU-T) Common management information protocol (X.700) standard. This framework is also known as Fault, Configuration, Accounting, Performance, Security (FCAPS). - -Fault management - -Troubleshooting, error logging and data recoveryConfiguration management -Hardware and software inventory - -As we begin the process of automating the management of our technology, what equipment and resources do we have already? -How can this inventorying information be gathered and updated automatically, without direct hands-on examination of each device, and without hand-documenting with a pen and notepad? -What do we need to upgrade or repair? -What can we consolidate to reduce complexity or reduce energy use? -What resources would be better reused somewhere else? -What commercial software are we using that is improperly licensed, and either needs to be removed or more licenses purchased?ProvisioningWhat software will we need to use in the future? -What training will need to be provided to use the software effectively?Software deploymentWhat steps are necessary to install it on perhaps hundreds or thousands of computers?Package managementHow do we maintain and update the software we are using, possibly through automated update mechanisms?Accounting management - -Billing and statistics gatheringPerformance management - -Software metering -Who is using the software and how often?If the license says only so many copies may be in use at any one time but may be installed in many more places than licensed, then track usage of those licenses. -If the licensed user limit is reached, either prevent more people from using it, or allow overflow and notify accounting that more licenses need to be purchased.Event and metric monitoringHow reliable are the computers and software? -What errors or software bugs are preventing staff from doing their job? -What trends are we seeing for hardware failure and life expectancy?Security management - -Identity management -Policy managementHowever this standard should not be treated as comprehensive, there are obvious omissions.",2726769,Systems management,T -507,507.0,507.0,"Fracture is the separation of an object or material into two or more pieces under the action of stress. The fracture of a solid usually occurs due to the development of certain displacement discontinuity surfaces within the solid. If a displacement develops perpendicular to the surface, it is called a normal tensile crack or simply a crack; if a displacement develops tangentially, it is called a shear crack, slip band or dislocation.Brittle fractures occur without any apparent deformation before fracture. Ductile fractures occur after visible deformation. Fracture strength, or breaking strength, is the stress when a specimen fails or fractures.",261967,Fracture,M -508,508.0,508.0,"Government Institute of Ceramic Technology is statewide institution in Andhra Pradesh. It is located in Gudur in Tirupati Dist. It is established in 1952. Government Institute of Ceramic Technology is an autonomous institute offering Diploma in Ceramic Technology that cater to the changing needs of industry, business and community at large using need based curricular delivered in a dynamic learning environment. AICTE approved full-time programs are offered to candidates selected as per POLYCET conducted by the government of Andhra Pradesh.",53064660,Government Institute of Ceramic Technology,E -509,509.0,509.0,"Belumosudil, sold under the brand name Rezurock among others, is a medication used for the treatment of chronic graft versus host disease (cGvHD). It is in the class of drugs known as serine/threonine kinase inhibitors. Specifically, it is an inhibitor of Rho-associated coiled-coil kinase 2 (ROCK2; ROCK-II). Belumosudil binds to and inhibits the serine/threonine kinase activity of ROCK2. This inhibits ROCK2-mediated signaling pathways which play major roles in pro- and anti-inflammatory immune cell responses.",57976285,Belumosudil,S -510,510.0,510.0,"Mechanical engineering is the study of physical machines that may involve force and movement. It is an engineering branch that combines engineering physics and mathematics principles with materials science, to design, analyze, manufacture, and maintain mechanical systems. It is one of the oldest and broadest of the engineering branches. -Mechanical engineering requires an understanding of core areas including mechanics, dynamics, thermodynamics, materials science, design, structural analysis, and electricity. In addition to these core principles, mechanical engineers use tools such as computer-aided design (CAD), computer-aided manufacturing (CAM), and product lifecycle management to design and analyze manufacturing plants, industrial equipment and machinery, heating and cooling systems, transport systems, aircraft, watercraft, robotics, medical devices, weapons, and others.Mechanical engineering emerged as a field during the Industrial Revolution in Europe in the 18th century; however, its development can be traced back several thousand years around the world. In the 19th century, developments in physics led to the development of mechanical engineering science.",19528,Mechanical engineering,E -511,511.0,511.0,"The advanced reprocessing of spent nuclear fuel is a potential key to achieve a sustainable nuclear fuel cycle and to tackle the heavy burden of nuclear waste management. In particular, the development of such advanced reprocessing systems may save natural resources, reduce waste inventory and enhance the public acceptance of nuclear energy. This strategy relies on the recycling of major actinides (Uranium and Plutonium, and also Thorium in the breeder fuel cycle) and the transmutation of minor actinides (Neptunium, Americium and Curium) in appropriate reactors. In order to fulfill this objective, selective extracting agents need to be designed and developed by investigating their complexation mechanism. - -Managing spent nuclear fuel -The estimated inventory of spent nuclear fuel discharged from nuclear power reactors worldwide up to the end of 2013 is about 370,000 - - - - - t - - H - M - - - - - {\displaystyle t_{HM}} - . To date, about 250,000 - - - - - t - - H - M - - - - - {\displaystyle t_{HM}} - of this inventory is being stored.",64345861,Advanced reprocessing of spent nuclear fuel,E -512,512.0,512.0,"The Northrop Loom was a fully automatic power loom marketed by George Draper and Sons, Hopedale, Massachusetts beginning in 1895. It was named after James Henry Northrop who invented the shuttle-charging mechanism. - -Background -James Henry Northrop, (8 May 1856 - 12 December 1940) was born in Keighley, West Yorkshire in the United Kingdom, where he worked in the textile industry. He emigrated to Boston, Massachusetts in 1881. Northrop worked as a mechanic and foreman, for George Draper and Sons. There he invented a spooler guide.",21258110,Northrop Loom,E -513,513.0,513.0,"The Neil Armstrong Operations and Checkout Building (O&C) (previously known as the Manned Spacecraft Operations Building) is a historic building on Merritt Island, Florida, United States. The five-story structure is in the Industrial Area of NASA's Kennedy Space Center. Its has twin-block facilities that include the crew quarter dormitories for astronauts, suit-up preparations prior to their flights, and the other is a large spacecraft workshop used for manufacturing and checking activities on crewed spacecraft. On January 21, 2000, it was added to the U.S. National Register of Historic Places. - -Apollo program -During planning and construction, it was known as the Operations and Checkout Building.",7243567,Operations and Checkout Building,E -514,514.0,514.0,"Biological exponential growth is the unrestricted growth of a population of organisms, occurring when resources in its habitat are unlimited. Most commonly apparent in species that reproduce quickly and asexually, like bacteria, exponential growth is intuitive from the fact that each organism can divide and produce two copies of itself. Each descendent bacterium can itself divide, again doubling the population size. The bacterium Escherichia coli, under optimal conditions, may divide as often as twice per hour. Left unrestricted, a colony would cover the Earth's surface in less than a day.If, in a hypothetical population of size N, the birth rates (per capita) are represented as b and death rates (per capita) as d, then the increase or decrease in N during a time period t will be - - - - - - - - d - N - - - d - t - - - - = - ( - b - − - d - ) - N - - - {\displaystyle {\frac {dN}{dt}}=(b-d)N} - -(b-d) is called the 'intrinsic rate of natural increase' and is a very important parameter chosen for assessing the impacts of any biotic or abiotic factor on population growth.Resource availability is essential for the unimpeded growth of a population.",13478480,Biological exponential growth,S -515,515.0,515.0,"Brown dwarfs (also called failed stars) are substellar objects that are not massive enough to sustain nuclear fusion of ordinary hydrogen (1H) into helium in their cores, unlike a main-sequence star. Instead, they have a mass between the most massive gas giant planets and the least massive stars, approximately 13 to 80 times that of Jupiter (MJ). However, they can fuse deuterium (2H) and the most massive ones (> 65 MJ) can fuse lithium (7Li).Astronomers classify self-luminous objects by spectral type, a distinction intimately tied to the surface temperature, and brown dwarfs occupy types M, L, T, and Y. As brown dwarfs do not undergo stable hydrogen fusion, they cool down over time, progressively passing through later spectral types as they age. -Despite their name, to the naked eye, brown dwarfs would appear in different colors depending on their temperature. The warmest ones are possibly orange or red, while cooler brown dwarfs would likely appear magenta or black to the human eye.",44401,Brown dwarf,M -516,516.0,516.0,"Structural induction is a proof method that is used in mathematical logic (e.g., in the proof of Łoś' theorem), computer science, graph theory, and some other mathematical fields. It is a generalization of mathematical induction over natural numbers and can be further generalized to arbitrary Noetherian induction. Structural recursion is a recursion method bearing the same relationship to structural induction as ordinary recursion bears to ordinary mathematical induction. -Structural induction is used to prove that some proposition P(x) holds for all x of some sort of recursively defined structure, such as -formulas, lists, or trees. A well-founded partial order is defined on the structures (""subformula"" for formulas, ""sublist"" for lists, and ""subtree"" for trees). The structural induction proof is a proof that the proposition holds for all the minimal structures and that if it holds for the immediate substructures of a certain structure S, then it must hold for S also.",211399,Structural induction,M -517,517.0,517.0,"The Real-time Neutron Monitor Database (or NMDB) is a worldwide network of standardized neutron monitors, used to record variations of the primary cosmic rays. The measurements complement space-based cosmic ray measurements. -Unlike data from satellite experiments, neutron monitor data has never been available in high resolution from many stations in real-time. The data is often only available from the individual stations website, in varying formats, and not in real-time. To overcome this deficit, the European Commission is supporting the Real-time Neutron Monitor Database (NMDB) as an e-Infrastructures project in the Seventh Framework Programme in the Capacities section. Stations that do not have 1-minute resolution will be supported by the development of an affordable standard registration system that will submit the measurements to the database via the internet in real-time.",23679414,Real-time Neutron Monitor Database,T -518,518.0,518.0,"The IBM 2540 is a punched-card computer peripheral manufactured by IBM Corporation for use of System/360 and later computer systems. The 2540 was designed by IBM's Data Processing Division in Rochester, Minnesota, and was introduced in 1965. The 2540 can read punched-cards at 1000 cards per minute (CPM) and punch at 300 CPM. The 2540 is based on the design of the older, slightly slower, 1402. - -Description -The 2540 attaches to a System/360 multiplexer or selector channel through an IBM 2821 Control Unit. A standard 2540 processes standard IBM 80 column punched cards.",7964222,IBM 2540,T -519,519.0,519.0,"The European Technology Assessment Group (ETAG) is a cooperative network of scientific institutions that carries out studies in the field of technology assessment on behalf of the European Parliament. - -History and mission -Since October 2005 a group of European scientific institutes active in the field of technology assessment – with the Institute for Technology Assessment and Systems Analysis (ITAS), Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Germany, as the leading partner – has been providing scientific services for the European Parliament on social, environmental and economic aspects of new technological and scientific developments. -Like many other parliaments in Europe the European Parliament at the end of the 1980s set up an institution for scientific advice regarding complex social, ecological and economic implications of modern technology and scientific research. At the European Parliament the process of consulting is organised by the STOA panel (Scientific Technology Options Assessment), a parliamentary body consisting of 15 Members of Parliament representing several parliamentary committees. In view of the growing importance of European science and technology policy the European Parliament decided to support STOA's activities by establishing permanent co-operation with a group of institutions with relevant expertise in the field of technology assessment. -Starting from May 2009 the European Technology Assessment Group (ETAG) for a second period of three years supports STOA by carrying out TA studies. The focus of ETAG's activities on behalf of the European Parliament will be on studies in the fields of transport, ICT and Information society, nanoscale science and technology, life sciences and human well-being as well as agriculture, food and biotechnology. - -Partners -Apart from being leading institutions in the field of technology assessment in their home countries most members of the group have long-term experience in policy consulting for parliamentary bodies and most of them are members of the European Parliamentary Technology Assessment (EPTA) network. ETAG is made up by the following organisations: - -Institute for Technology Assessment and Systems Analysis (ITAS), Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), which operates the Office of Technology Assessment at the German Parliament -Danish Board of Technology (DBT), which provides consultancy services for the Danish Parliament -Rathenau Instituut, working for the Dutch Parliament -Fraunhofer Institute for Systems and Innovation Research (ISI), supporting ITAS in carrying out TA studies on behalf of the German Parliament -Catalan Foundation for Research and Innovation (FCRI), rendering scientific services for the Parliament of Catalonia -Institute of Technology Assessment (ITA) of the Austrian Academy of Sciences -Technology Centre AS CR, an institute active in TA related research run by the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic -Responsible Technology SAS, a French consultancy devoted to Responsible Research and Innovation (RRI) and Anticipatory Governance - -Projects -The scientific responsibility for each TA study tailored according to the information needs of the European Parliament lies with one of the partners.",31003872,European Technology Assessment Group,T -520,520.0,520.0,"Chemistry is often called the central science because of its role in connecting the physical sciences, which include chemistry, with the life sciences, pharmaceutical sciences and applied sciences such as medicine and engineering. The nature of this relationship is one of the main topics in the philosophy of chemistry and in scientometrics. The phrase was popularized by its use in a textbook by Theodore L. Brown and H. Eugene LeMay, titled Chemistry: The Central Science, which was first published in 1977, with a fifteenth edition published in 2021.The central role of chemistry can be seen in the systematic and hierarchical classification of the sciences by Auguste Comte.",11092324,The central science,M -521,521.0,521.0,"itv.com is the main website of ITV plc, the UK's largest commercial television broadcaster which operates 13 out of 15 regions on the ITV network under the ITV1 brand. The website offers the ITVX streaming service, with sections for ITV News, certain ITV1 programmes and competitions. STV, Which runs the only regions not owned by ITV plc, have their own separate website at stv.tv. - -History -The URL 'www.itv.com' was created on 31 October 1994, but it was registered elsewhere for some years before Carlton and Granada bought the domain name after merging their respective online services, carlton.com and G-Wizz. These companies have since merged to form ITV plc. The original ITV URL was www.itv.co.uk, which now redirects to itv.com.",5528152,Itv.com,T -522,522.0,522.0,"Applied economics is the study as regards the application of economic theory and econometrics in specific settings. As one of the two sets of fields of economics (the other set being the core), it is typically characterized by the application of the core, i.e. economic theory and econometrics to address practical issues in a range of fields including demographic economics, labour economics, business economics, industrial organization, agricultural economics, development economics, education economics, engineering economics, financial economics, health economics, monetary economics, public economics, and economic history. From the perspective of economic development, the purpose of applied economics is to enhance the quality of business practices and national policy making.The process often involves a reduction in the level of abstraction of this core theory. There are a variety of approaches including not only empirical estimation using econometrics, input-output analysis or simulations but also case studies, historical analogy and so-called common sense or the ""vernacular"".",5944849,Applied economics,S -523,523.0,523.0,"In the philosophy of technology, the device paradigm is the way ""technological devices"" are perceived and consumed in modern society, according to Albert Borgmann. It explains the intimate relationship between people, things and technological devices, defining most economic relations and also shapes social and moral relations in general.The concept of the device paradigm is a critical response to Heidegger's notion of Gestell. It has been widely endorsed by philosophers of technology, including Hubert Dreyfus, Andrew Feenberg, and Eric Higgs, as well as environmental philosopher David Strong. - -Devices -For Borgmann, a device is a thing that is used as a means to an end. Therefore, a device is seen as ""the compound of commodity and machinery"" while ""the distinctive pattern of division and connection of its components is the device paradigm."" This term is meant to signify or distinguish between technological devices and ""focal things and practices,"" which matter to people in their everyday affairs.A focal thing is something of ultimate concern and significance, which may be masked by the device paradigm, and must be preserved by its intimate connection with practice. Borgmann used the case of wine to explain this.",2454072,Device paradigm,T -524,524.0,524.0,"The Convention on the Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling, Production and Transfer of Anti-Personnel Mines and on their Destruction of 1997, known informally as the Ottawa Treaty, the Anti-Personnel Mine Ban Convention, or often simply the Mine Ban Treaty, aims at eliminating anti-personnel landmines (APLs) around the world.By August 2022, 164 states had ratified or acceded to the treaty. Major powers, which are also past and current manufacturers of landmines, are not parties to the treaty. These include the United States, China, and Russia. Other non-signatories include India and Pakistan. - -Chronology -1939 -Landmines are first used widely in World War II. - -1977 -During the Geneva Convention, one provision is amended to prohibit the targeting of civilian populations by indiscriminate weapons in wartime. - -1980 -October: The Convention on Prohibitions or Restrictions on the Use of Certain Conventional Weapons Which May Be Deemed to Be Excessively Injurious or to Have Indiscriminate Effects (CCW) is adopted by a United Nations Conference in Geneva. Among the three annexed Protocols the ""Protocol on prohibitions or restrictions on the Use of Mines, Booby-Traps and Other Devices"" (Protocol II) establishes some restrictions on the use of anti-personnel landmines. - -1991 -Six NGOs supporting a ban of landmines begin organizing the International Campaign to Ban Landmines (ICBL), established the following year. - -1992 -October: The Steering committee of the ICBL issues a call for an international ban on the use, production, stockpiling and sale, transfer or export of anti-personnel landmines. - -1993 -9 February: France formally submits a request to the Secretary-General of the UN to convene a Review Conference of the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons (CCW) in accordance with its Article 8 in order to strengthen the provisions in the Convention on the use of anti-personnel landmines. - -The First International NGO Conference on Landmines is held in London, organised by the ICBL and acknowledging Jody Williams as the organization's coordinator.",554969,Ottawa Treaty,T -525,525.0,525.0,"The R. W. Wood Prize is an award endowed by Xerox and given by The Optical Society to an individual that makes an outstanding technical contribution or an invention in the field of optics. The award was established in 1975 in commemoration of Robert W. Wood.Past winners of the award include Margaret Murnane, Marvin Minsky, Carl Wieman, Gérard Mourou, and Theodore H.",55151343,R. W. Wood Prize,M -526,526.0,526.0,"A concrete mixer (also cement mixer) is a device that homogeneously combines cement, aggregate (e.g. sand or gravel), and water to form concrete. A typical concrete mixer uses a revolving drum to mix the components. For smaller volume works, portable concrete mixers are often used so that the concrete can be made at the construction site, giving the workers ample time to use the concrete before it hardens. An alternative to a machine is mixing concrete by hand.",1219747,Concrete mixer,E -527,527.0,527.0,"Edmund Andrews (April 22, 1824 – January 22, 1904) was an American doctor, a pioneer in surgery and medical education of the Western United States. He was one of the founders of the Medical Department of the Northwestern University. - -Biography -Andrews was born in Putney, Vermont, a son of Betsy Lathrop and Rev. Elisha D. Andrews, the Congregational minister of that town. There, and in Rochester, New York, he received his preliminary education.",32975984,Edmund Andrews (surgeon),S -528,528.0,528.0,"Investment-specific technological progress refers to progress that requires investment in new equipment and structures embodying the latest technology in order to realize its benefits. To model the influence of technological change upon production the influence of a technological change upon the specific inputs (i.e. labor and capital) of a production model is assessed in terms of the resulting effect upon the final good of the model (i.e. goods and services). -To realize the benefits of such technological change for production a firm must invest to attain the new technology as a component of production.",5380820,Investment-specific technological progress,T -529,529.0,529.0,"Criminal investigation is an applied science that involves the study of facts that are then used to inform criminal trials. A complete criminal investigation can include searching, interviews, interrogations, evidence collection and preservation, and various methods of investigation. Modern-day criminal investigations commonly employ many modern scientific techniques known collectively as forensic science. -Criminal investigation is an ancient science that may have roots as far back as c. 1700 BCE in the writings of the Code of Hammurabi. In the code, it is suggested that both the accuser and the accused had the right to present evidence they collected.",5236980,Criminal investigation,S -530,530.0,530.0,"I = (PAT) is the mathematical notation of a formula put forward to describe the impact of human activity on the environment. - -I = P × A × TThe expression equates human impact on the environment to a function of three factors: population (P), affluence (A) and technology (T). It is similar in form to the Kaya identity which applies specifically to emissions of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide. -The validity of expressing environmental impact as a simple product of independent factors, and the factors that should be included and their comparative importance, have been the subject of debate among environmentalists. In particular, some have drawn attention to potential inter-relationships among the three factors; and others have wished to stress other factors not included in the formula, such as political and social structures, and the scope for beneficial, as well as harmful, environmental actions. - -History -The equation was developed in 1970 during the course of a debate between Barry Commoner, Paul R. Ehrlich and John Holdren. Commoner argued that environmental impacts in the United States were caused primarily by changes in its production technology following World War II and focused on present-day deteriorating environmental conditions in the United States.",153767,I = PAT,T -531,531.0,531.0,"Allowable Strength Design (ASD) is a term used by the American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) in the 14th Edition of the Manual of Steel Construction. -Allowable Stress Design philosophy was left unsupported by AISC after the 9th edition of the manual which remained an acceptable reference design standard in evolving building codes (e.g. International Building Code by the International Code Council). This presented problems since new research, engineering concepts and design philosophy were ignored in the minimum requirements and references in the aging 9th edition. As a result, structures that were code compliant based on design using the Allowable Stress Design methods may not have been code compliant if reviewed with the Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) requirements - particularly where the LRFD procedures explicitly defined additional analysis which was not explicitly defined in the Allowable Stress Design procedures. -AISC's Allowable Strength Design applies a quasi-safety factor approach to evaluating allowable strength. Ultimate strength of an element or member is determined in the same manner regardless of the load combination method considered (e.g.",15498298,Allowable Strength Design,E -532,532.0,532.0,"In February 2021, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved the Patient Specific Talus Spacer 3D-printed talus implant for humanitarian use. The Patient Specific Talus Spacer is the first in the world and first-of-its-kind implant to replace the talus—the bone in the ankle joint that connects the leg and the foot—for the treatment of avascular necrosis (AVN) of the ankle joint, a serious and progressive condition that causes the death of bone tissue stemming from a lack of blood supply to the area. The implant provides a joint-sparing alternative to other surgical interventions commonly used in late-stage AVN that may disable motion of the ankle joint. - -Medical uses -The Patient Specific Talus Spacer is a 3D printed implant that can be used in talus replacement surgery. The talus spacer is made for each recipient individually, modeled from computed tomography (CT) imaging, and is fitted to a recipient's specific anatomy.",67437363,Patient Specific Talus Spacer,T -533,533.0,533.0,"Technology Intelligence (TI) is an activity that enables companies to identify the technological opportunities and threats that could affect the future growth and survival of their business. It aims to capture and disseminate the technological information needed for strategic planning and decision making. As technology life cycles shorten and business become more globalized having effective TI capabilities is becoming increasingly important.In the United States, Project Socrates identified the exploitation of technology as the most effective foundation for decision making for the complete set of functions within the private and public sectors that determine competitiveness.The Centre for Technology Management has defined 'technology intelligence' as ""the capture and delivery of technological information as part of the process whereby an organisation develops an awareness of technological threats and opportunities.""The Internet has contributed to the growth of data sources for technology intelligence and this is very important for the advancement of technology intelligence. Technology intelligence gives organizations the ability to be aware of technology threats and opportunities. It is important for companies and businesses to be able to identify emerging technologies in form of opportunities and threats and how this can affect their business.",15763075,Technology intelligence,T -534,534.0,534.0,"A carbon nanotube (CNT) is a tube made of carbon with a diameter in the nanometer range (nanoscale). They are one of the allotropes of carbon. -Single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) have diameters around 0.5–2.0 nanometers, about 100,000 times smaller than the width of a human hair. They can be idealized as cutouts from a two-dimensional graphene sheet rolled up to form a hollow cylinder.Multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) consist of nested single-wall carbon nanotubes in a nested, tube-in-tube structure. Double- and triple-walled carbon nanotubes are special cases of MWCNT. -Carbon nanotubes can exhibit remarkable properties, such as exceptional tensile strength and thermal conductivity because of their nanostructure and strength of the bonds between carbon atoms. Some SWCNT structures exhibit high electrical conductivity while others are semiconductors.",5320,Carbon nanotube,T -535,535.0,535.0,"VCX score is a smartphone camera benchmarking score described as ""designed to reflect the user experience regarding the image quality and the performance of a camera in a mobile device"". developed by a non-profit organization - VCX-Forum.VCX scores are used by specialist media and by VCX-Forum members to showcase the benchmarking of smartphones, as well as market photography technology. -VCX scoring methodology has been cited in various published books and independent imaging organizations: - -Book: Camera image quality benchmarking ISBN 978-1-119-05449-8Article in Journal of Electronic Imaging - VCX: An industry initiative to create an objective camera module evaluation for mobile devices. -Article in Journal of Electronic Imaging - VCX Version 2020: Further development of a transparent and objective evaluation scheme for mobile phone cameras. - -Service Provider -VCX-Forum (where VCX is an acronym for Valued Camera eXperience) is an independent, non-governmental, standard-setting organization for image quality measurement and benchmarking (VCX score). Its members are drawn from mobile phone manufacturers, mobile operators, imaging labs, mobile and computer chipset manufacturers, sensor manufacturers, device manufacturers, software companies, equipment providers, and camera & accessory manufacturers amongst others. - -VCX-Score methodology -Tenets -VCX score methodologies are based on the 5 Tenets: - -VCX-Forum test measurements shall ensure the out-of-the-box experience -VCX-Forum shall remain 100% objective -VCX-Forum shall remain open and transparent -VCX-Forum shall employ an independent imaging lab for testing -VCX-Forum shall seek continuous improvement - -Parameters -To ensure the test results accurately reflect the user experience, the image quality is evaluated for five parameters: - -Spatial Resolution -Texture loss – the ability of the device to reproduce low contrast, fine details -Sharpening – the ability of the device to sharpen with minimum distracting artifacts -Noise – the ability of the device to suppress noise while minimizing obfuscation of details -Dynamic range – the ability of the device to capture maximum contrast in a scene -Color Reproduction – the ability of the device to capture colors closely matching the original scene - -Setup -The device under test is mounted on a tripod on rails to keep the reproduction scale constant between devices under test -The entire lab is temperature-controlled to standard room temperature (23°C ± 2°C) -The device under test is expected to: -reproduce reflective test targets like the ""TE42-LL"" (TE42-LL target in A1066 and A 460 (Selfie) in 4:3 and 16:9); -reproduce transmissive TE269B test target (for dynamic range measurements); and -reproduce test charts while mounted on a hand simulation device (a device which simulates the movement of the human hand to measure the motion stabilization apparatus of the device, based on ISO 20954-2). -The device under test is then used to capture a series of images and video in various controlled lighting conditionsA detailed description of the setup and procedure is available as a whitepaper on the VCX-Forum website. as well as in the book, Camera Image Quality Benchmarking, page 318, section 9.4.3 - -Labs and testing -Tests and benchmarks are conducted by independent labs. The test procedure, metrics, and weighting are dictated by the standard developed by VCX-Forum. - -Benchmark publication -VCX scores are published on the VCX-Forum website.",70590809,VCX score,T -536,536.0,536.0,"In mathematics, a Malcev Lie algebra, or Mal'tsev Lie algebra, is a generalization of a rational nilpotent Lie algebra, and Malcev groups are similar. Both were introduced by Quillen (1969, Appendix A3), based on the work of (Mal'cev 1949). - -Definition -According to Papadima & Suciu (2004) a Malcev Lie algebra is a rational Lie algebra - - - - L - - - {\displaystyle L} - together with a complete, descending - - - - - - Q - - - - - {\displaystyle {\mathbb {Q} }} - -vector space filtration - - - - { - - F - - r - - - L - - } - - r - ≥ - 1 - - - - - {\displaystyle \{F_{r}L\}_{r\geq 1}} - , such that: - - - - - - F - - 1 - - - L - = - L - - - {\displaystyle F_{1}L=L} - - - - - - [ - - F - - r - - - L - , - - F - - s - - - L - ] - ⊂ - - F - - r - + - s - - - L - - - {\displaystyle [F_{r}L,F_{s}L]\subset F_{r+s}L} - -the associated graded Lie algebra - - - - - ⊕ - - r - ≥ - 1 - - - - F - - r - - - L - - / - - - F - - r - + - 1 - - - L - - - {\displaystyle \oplus _{r\geq 1}F_{r}L/F_{r+1}L} - is generated by elements of degree one. - -Applications -Relation to Hopf algebras -Quillen (1969, Appendix A3) showed that Malcev Lie algebras and Malcev groups are both equivalent to complete Hopf algebras, i.e., Hopf algebras H endowed with a filtration so that H is isomorphic to - - - - - - lim - ← - - - ⁡ - H - - / - - - F - - n - - - H - - - {\displaystyle \varprojlim H/F_{n}H} - . The functors involved in these equivalences are as follows: a Malcev group G is mapped to the completion (with respect to the augmentation ideal) of its group ring QG, with inverse given by the group of grouplike elements of a Hopf algebra H, essentially those elements 1 + x such that - - - - Δ - ( - x - ) - = - x - ⊗ - x - - - {\displaystyle \Delta (x)=x\otimes x} - . From complete Hopf algebras to Malcev Lie algebras one gets by taking the (completion of) primitive elements, with inverse functor given by the completion of the universal enveloping algebra. -This equivalence of categories was used by Goodwillie (1986) to prove that, after tensoring with Q, relative K-theory K(A, I), for a nilpotent ideal I, is isomorphic to relative cyclic homology HC(A, I). This theorem was a pioneering result in the area of trace methods. - -Hodge theory -Malcev Lie algebras also arise in the theory of mixed Hodge structures. - -References -Goodwillie, Thomas G.",25269133,Malcev Lie algebra,E -537,537.0,537.0,"Gabrielle Roth (February 4, 1941 – October 22, 2012) was an American dancer and musician in the world music and trance dance genres, with a special interest in shamanism. She overcame depression and injury to create the 5Rhythms approach to movement in the late 1970s; there are now hundreds of 5Rhythms teachers worldwide who use her approach in their work. Her vision was to spread dance across the world, using the power of movement to heal body and spirit. -Roth worked at the Kripalu Center for Yoga & Health and at the Omega Institute for Holistic Studies. She founded an experimental theatre company in New York, wrote three books, created over twenty albums of trance dance music with her band The Mirrors, and directed or has been the subject of several videos. - -Early life -Born in San Francisco on February 4, 1941, Roth described being inspired by the dance of Spanish gypsy La Chunga and by seeing the Nigerian National Ballet. She trained in traditional dance methods, suffering from anorexia during her teenage years.",14040013,Gabrielle Roth,S -538,538.0,538.0,"The TOP500 project ranks and details the 500 most powerful non-distributed computer systems in the world. The project was started in 1993 and publishes an updated list of the supercomputers twice a year. The first of these updates always coincides with the International Supercomputing Conference in June, and the second is presented at the ACM/IEEE Supercomputing Conference in November. The project aims to provide a reliable basis for tracking and detecting trends in high-performance computing and bases rankings on HPL benchmarks, a portable implementation of the high-performance LINPACK benchmark written in Fortran for distributed-memory computers. -The 60th TOP500 was published in November 2022. Since June 2022, USA's Frontier is the most powerful supercomputer on TOP500, reaching 1102 petaFlops (1.102 exaFlops) on the LINPACK benchmarks.",11976532,TOP500,T -539,539.0,539.0,"The name electrospray is used for an apparatus that employs electricity to disperse a liquid or for the fine aerosol resulting from this process. High voltage is applied to a liquid supplied through an emitter (usually a glass or metallic capillary). Ideally the liquid reaching the emitter tip forms a Taylor cone, which emits a liquid jet through its apex. Varicose waves on the surface of the jet lead to the formation of small and highly charged liquid droplets, which are radially dispersed due to Coulomb repulsion. - -History -In the late 16th century William Gilbert set out to describe the behaviour of magnetic and electrostatic phenomena. He observed that, in the presence of a charged piece of amber, a drop of water deformed into a cone.",2234210,Electrospray,E -540,540.0,540.0,"Sodium ions (Na+) are necessary in small amounts for some types of plants, but sodium as a nutrient is more generally needed in larger amounts by animals, due to their use of it for generation of nerve impulses and for maintenance of electrolyte balance and fluid balance. In animals, sodium ions are necessary for the aforementioned functions and for heart activity and certain metabolic functions. The health effects of salt reflect what happens when the body has too much or too little sodium. -Characteristic concentrations of sodium in model organisms are: 10 mM in E. coli, 30 mM in budding yeast, 10 mM in mammalian cell and 100 mM in blood plasma. - -Sodium distribution in species -Humans -The minimum physiological requirement for sodium is between 115 and 500 mg per day depending on sweating due to physical activity, and whether the person is adapted to the climate. Sodium chloride is the principal source of sodium in the diet, and is used as seasoning and preservative, such as for pickling and jerky; most of it comes from processed foods.",22615598,Sodium in biology,S -541,541.0,541.0,"Soft chemistry (also known as chimie douce) is a type of chemistry that uses reactions at ambient temperature in open reaction vessels with reactions similar to those occurring in biological systems. - -Aims -The aim of the soft chemistry is to synthesize materials, drawing capacity of living beings - more or less basic - such as diatoms capable of producing glass from silicates dissolved. It is a new branch of materials science that differs from conventional solid-state chemistry and its application to the intense energy to explore the chemical inventiveness of the living world. This specialty emerged in the 1980s around the label of ""chimie douce"", which was first published by the French chemist, Jacques Livage in Le Monde, 26 October 1977. French hits, the term soft chemistry is employed as such in the early twenty-first century in scientific publications, English and others. His mode of synthesis is similar generally for reactions involved in the polymerizations based on organic and the establishment of solutions reactive energy intake without essential polycondensation.",26786438,Soft chemistry,S -542,542.0,542.0,"Environmental engineering is a professional engineering discipline related to environmental science. It encompasses broad scientific topics like chemistry, biology, ecology, geology, hydraulics, hydrology, microbiology, and mathematics to create solutions that will protect and also improve the health of living organisms and improve the quality of the environment. Environmental engineering is a sub-discipline of civil engineering and chemical engineering. While on the part of civil engineering, the Environmental Engineering is focused mainly on Sanitary Engineering.Environmental engineering applies scientific and engineering principles to improve and maintain the environment to protect human health, protect nature's beneficial ecosystems, and improve environmental-related enhancement of the quality of human life. -Environmental engineers devise solutions for wastewater management, water and air pollution control, recycling, waste disposal, and public health. They design municipal water supply and industrial wastewater treatment systems, and design plans to prevent waterborne diseases and improve sanitation in urban, rural and recreational areas.",50702,Environmental engineering,E -543,543.0,543.0,"The Lithium Tokamak Experiment (LTX), and its predecessor, the Current Drive Experiment-Upgrade (CDX-U), are devices dedicated to the study of liquid lithium as a plasma-facing component (PFC) at Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory. - -Benefits of lithium as PFC -One of the ongoing research issues for commercial fusion power development is the choice of material for the plasma-facing portions of the reactor vessel, also known as the first wall. Most reactors operate at the equivalent of a high vacuum and thus demand high-strength materials to resists the inward pressure of the magnets against the empty interior. Typical materials are those used in other chemical and atomic processes, like various steel alloys. -Unfortunately, these same materials have a number of disadvantages when used in fusion reactors. One major problem is that when escaped fusion fuel hits the material it cools, returning to the fuel mass at a lower temperature and cooling the fuel as a whole. This is known as ""recycling"".",34593676,Lithium Tokamak Experiment,T -544,544.0,544.0,"This article contains a list of the most studied restriction enzymes whose names start with S. It contains approximately 130 enzymes. -The following information is given: - -Enzyme: Accepted name of the molecule, according to the internationally adopted nomenclature, and bibliographical references. (Further reading: see the section ""Nomenclature"" in the article ""Restriction enzyme"".) -PDB code: Code used to identify the structure of a protein in the PDB database of protein structures. The 3D atomic structure of a protein provides highly valuable information to understand the intimate details of its mechanism of action. -Source: Organism that naturally produces the enzyme. -Recognition sequence: Sequence of DNA recognized by the enzyme and to which it specifically binds. -Cut: Cutting site and DNA products of the cut. The recognition sequence and the cutting site usually match, but sometimes the cutting site can be dozens of nucleotides away from the recognition site. -Isoschizomers and neoschizomers: An isoschizomer is an enzyme that recognizes the same sequence as another.",27456923,List of restriction enzyme cutting sites: S,S -545,545.0,545.0,"RoboTurb is a welding robot used to repair turbine blades developed at Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina. It is a redundant robot with a flexible rail.The Roboturb project started in 1998 at the Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina initially with the support of the Brazilian Government and the public power utility -company COPEL – Companhia Paranaense de Energia Eletrica. -Three phases followed, and now the project is mainly maintained by another public power utility company FURNAS – Furnas Centrais Eletricas. - -References -External links -RoboTurb Project (2004). The Roboturb Project. In Portuguese Retrieved Dec. 5, 2004. -Robotics Laboratory at UFSC.",1317936,RoboTurb,E -546,546.0,546.0,"The Music Encoding Initiative (MEI) is an open-source effort to create a system for representation of musical documents in a machine-readable structure. MEI closely mirrors work done by text scholars in the Text Encoding Initiative (TEI) and while the two encoding initiatives are not formally related, they share many common characteristics and development practices. The term ""MEI"", like ""TEI"", describes the governing organization and the markup language. The MEI community solicits input and development directions from specialists in various music research communities, including technologists, librarians, historians, and theorists in a common effort to discuss and define best practices for representing a broad range of musical documents and structures. The results of these discussions are then formalized into the MEI schema, a core set of rules for recording physical and intellectual characteristics of music notation documents.",23815973,Music Encoding Initiative,T -547,547.0,547.0,"The Korea Institute for Advancement of Technology (KIAT) is a quasi government-public institute under the Korean Ministry of Trade, Industry and Energy. Formed in May 2009, the main functions of KIAT include analyzing and formulating Korean R&D and industrial policy, acting as an industrial technology innovation funding agency, creating Korea's industrial and technological ecosystem, and fostering international technological cooperation. KIAT has an annual budget of circa one billion dollars, and employs 257 staff. (2012) - -History -KIAT was formed in May 2009 by the merger and consolidation of six previous Korean government and public institutes: ITEP (Korea Institute of Industrial Technology Evaluation and Planning), KOTEF (Korea Industrial Technology Foundation), KTTC (Korea Technology Transfer Center), IITA (Institution for Information Technology Advancement), KMAC (Korea Materials and Components Industry Agency), and KIDP (Korea Institute of Design Promotion). - -KIAT Presidents -Project Funding and grants -In 2012, KIAT distributed circa US$940m in technology project grants and R&D funding. - -Events -KIAT is responsible for organizing numerous annual technology, R&D, and collaboration events. These include the tech+ forum and Eureka day events. - -tech+ forum -The Tech Plus Forum ('tech+ forum') has been held since 2009 in Korea.",38091302,Korea Institute for Advancement of Technology,T -548,548.0,548.0,"The Metal Gear franchise features a large number of characters created by Hideo Kojima and designed by Yoji Shinkawa. Its setting features several soldiers with supernatural powers provided by the new advancements of science. -The series initially follows mercenary Solid Snake given government missions of finding the Metal Gear weapon, resulting in encounters in the original Metal Gear games with Gray Fox and Big Boss in Outer Heaven and Zanzibar Land, as well as the original Metal Gear Solid games working with Otacon and Raiden while opposing Liquid Snake's FOXHOUND, Solidus Snake, the Patriots and Revolver Ocelot. Additionally, the Metal Gear Solid prequels follow Big Boss's past as Naked Snake and legend development via Venom Snake as well as the origins of the various aforementioned organizations. -While the original Metal Gear games had their characters designs modeled after Hollywood actors, the Metal Gear Solid games established a series of consistent designs based on Shinkawa's ideas of what would appeal to gamers. Additionally, several of the characters he designs follow Kojima and the other staff's ideas. Critical reception of the game's cast has been positive as publications praised their personalities and roles within the series. - -Creation and designs -Much as Metal Gear began as a pastiche of action movies of the time, characters were pastiches of contemporary action movie heroes.",1262221,List of Metal Gear characters,S -549,549.0,549.0,"In liquids, the cloud point is the temperature below which a transparent solution undergoes either a liquid-liquid phase separation to form an emulsion or a liquid-solid phase transition to form either a stable sol or a suspension that settles a precipitate. The cloud point is analogous to the 'dew point' at which a gas-liquid phase transition called condensation occurs in water vapour (humid air) to form liquid water (dew or clouds). When the temperature is below 0 °C, the dew point is called the frost point, as water vapour undergoes gas-solid phase transition called deposition, solidification, or freezing. -In the petroleum industry, cloud point refers to the temperature below which paraffin wax in diesel or biowax in biodiesels forms a cloudy appearance. The presence of solidified waxes thickens the oil and clogs fuel filters and injectors in engines.",3313334,Cloud point,S -550,550.0,550.0,"Chemical engineering is an engineering field which deals with the study of operation and design of chemical plants as well as methods of improving production. Chemical engineers develop economical commercial processes to convert raw materials into useful products. Chemical engineering uses principles of chemistry, physics, mathematics, biology, and economics to efficiently use, produce, design, transport and transform energy and materials. The work of chemical engineers can range from the utilization of nanotechnology and nanomaterials in the laboratory to large-scale industrial processes that convert chemicals, raw materials, living cells, microorganisms, and energy into useful forms and products. Chemical engineers are involved in many aspects of plant design and operation, including safety and hazard assessments, process design and analysis, modeling, control engineering, chemical reaction engineering, nuclear engineering, biological engineering, construction specification, and operating instructions. -Chemical engineers typically hold a degree in Chemical Engineering or Process Engineering.",6038,Chemical engineering,E -551,551.0,551.0,"Industrial and production engineering (IPE) is an interdisciplinary engineering discipline that includes manufacturing technology, engineering sciences, management science, and optimization of complex processes, systems, or organizations. It is concerned with the understanding and application of engineering procedures in manufacturing processes and production methods. Industrial engineering dates back all the way to the industrial revolution, initiated in 1700s by Sir Adam Smith, Henry Ford, Eli Whitney, Frank Gilbreth and Lilian Gilbreth, Henry Gantt, F.W. Taylor, etc. After the 1970s, industrial and production engineering developed worldwide and started to widely use automation and robotics.",43282531,Industrial and production engineering,E -552,552.0,552.0,"LEAPER (Leveraging endogenous ADAR for programmable editing of RNA) is a genetic engineering technique in molecular biology by which RNA can be edited. The technique relies on engineered strands of RNA to recruit native ADAR enzymes to swap out different compounds in RNA. Developed by researchers at Peking University in 2019, the technique, some have claimed, is more efficient than the CRISPR gene editing technique. Initial studies have claimed that editing efficiencies of up to 80% can be achieved. - -Synopsis -As opposed to DNA gene editing techniques (e.g., using CRISPR-Cas proteins to make modifications directly to a defective gene), LEAPER targets editing messenger RNA (mRNA) for the same gene which is transcribed into a protein. Post-transcriptional RNA modification typically involves the strategy of converting adenosine-to-inosine (A-to-I) since inosine (I) demonstrably mimics guanosine (G) during translation into a protein.",65074394,LEAPER gene editing,E -553,553.0,553.0,"An induction heater is a key piece of equipment used in all forms of induction heating. Typically an induction heater operates at either medium frequency (MF) or radio frequency (RF) ranges.Four main component systems form the basis of a modern induction heater - -the control system, control panel, or ON / OFF switch; in some cases this system can be absent -the power unit (power inverter) -the work head (transformer) -and the heating coil (inductor) - -How it works -Induction heating is a non contact method of heating a conductive body by utilising a strong magnetic field. Supply (mains) frequency 50 Hz or 60 Hz induction heaters incorporate a coil directly fed from the electricity supply, typically for lower power industrial applications where lower surface temperatures are required. Some specialist induction heaters operate at 400 Hz, the Aerospace power frequency. -Induction heating should not be confused with induction cooking, as the two heating systems are mostly very physically different from each other. Notably, induction heating systems work by applying an alternating magnetic field to a ferrous material to induce an alternating current in the material, so exciting the atoms in the material heating it up. - -Main equipment components -An induction heater typically consists of three elements. - -Power unit -Often referred to as the inverter or generator.",7294919,Induction heater,E -554,554.0,554.0,"The Modular Rifle - Caseless (MR-C), is a mock-up of an assault rifle that was intended to be manufactured and sold to the United States military as a next-generation infantry weapon firing next-generation ammunition. It has not been developed—even in prototype form—and the weapon was never lined-up for the OICW competition or in follow-up rifle competitions held by the US military. On the Crye Associates website, the product is specifically labeled as a ""modular caseless carbine mock-up"". Most information circulating on the rifle is derived from the video game Tom Clancy's Ghost Recon: Advanced Warfighter, and should not be taken as fact. -Designed by Crye Associates, the concept is shown to utilize a bullpup design with an all-sides rail interface system. It is also shown to have a special 40 mm grenade launcher attachment known as the AGL.",4753854,MR-C,T -555,555.0,555.0,"The centenary of the death of the naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace on 7 November 1913 was marked in 2013 with events around the world to celebrate his life and work. The commemorations was co-ordinated by the Natural History Museum, London. -Events between October 2013 and June 2014 were planned by the Natural History Museum and other organisations including the Zoological Society of London, Cardiff University, the University of Alberta, Dorset County Museum, Swansea Museum, Dorset Wildlife Trust, Ness Botanical Gardens (South Wirral), the Royal Society, the Linnean Society, the Harvard Museum of Natural History, the American Museum of Natural History, Hertford Museum and the National Museum of Wales. - -Context -The naturalist, explorer, geographer, anthropologist and biologist Alfred Russel Wallace (born 8 January 1823) died on 7 November 1913. He is principally remembered now for having independently conceived the theory of evolution through natural selection, which prompted Charles Darwin to publish On the Origin of Species. Some of his books such as The Malay Archipelago remain in print; it is considered one of the best accounts of scientific exploration published during the 19th century. Wallace is also remembered for recognizing the presence of a biogeographical boundary, now known as the Wallace Line, that divides the Indonesian archipelago into two distinct parts: a western portion in which the animals are almost entirely of Asian origin, and an eastern portion where the fauna reflect the influence of Australasia. - -Events -The South Kensington Natural History Museum, London, co-ordinating commemorative events for the Wallace centenary worldwide in the 'Wallace100' project, created a website to celebrate Wallace's centenary.",39270850,Alfred Russel Wallace centenary,S -556,556.0,556.0,"Multimedia Broadcast Multicast Services (MBMS) is a point-to-multipoint interface specification for existing 3GPP cellular networks, which is designed to provide efficient delivery of broadcast and multicast services, both within a cell as well as within the core network. For broadcast transmission across multiple cells, it defines transmission via single-frequency network configurations. The specification is referred to as Evolved Multimedia Broadcast Multicast Services (eMBMS) when transmissions are delivered through an LTE (Long Term Evolution) network. eMBMS is also known as LTE Broadcast.Target applications include mobile TV and radio broadcasting, live streaming video services, as well as file delivery and emergency alerts. -Questions remain whether the technology is an optimization tool for the operator or if an operator can generate new revenues with it. Several studies have been published on the domain identifying both cost savings and new revenues. - -Deployments -In 2013, Verizon announced that it would launch eMBMS services in 2014, over its nationwide (United States) LTE networks.",2995702,Multimedia Broadcast Multicast Service,T -557,557.0,557.0,"The workerbot is a trademark, which was developed by the pi4 robotics GmbH to describe an industrial robot, which was modeled with its possibilities of movement and its sensory abilities of a human. -The industrial robot has two arms with seven degrees of freedom. In the arms of force sensors are integrated, enabling the robot to work while the forces occurring measure and similar to humans the gripping process or machining processes to adapt to the forces occurring accordingly. The robot is also equipped with cameras that it can detect its environment and react to it. This industrial robot has been developed within the EU funded project PISA (Flexible Assembly Systems through Workplace-Sharing and Time-Sharing Human-Machine Cooperation). The project consortium consists of the lead company pi4_robotics GmbH and the Fraunhofer IPK, the Universidad Politécnica de Madrid and the company EICAS Automazione S.p.A.",43236287,Workerbot,E -558,558.0,558.0,"The distinction between real value and nominal value occurs in many fields. From a philosophical viewpoint, nominal value represents an accepted condition, which is a goal or an approximation, as opposed to the real value, which is always present. - -Measurement -In manufacturing, a nominal size or trade size is a size ""in name only"" used for identification. The nominal size may not match any dimension of the product, but within the domain of that product the nominal size may correspond to a large number of highly standardized dimensions and tolerances. -Nominal sizes may be well-standardized across an industry, or may be proprietary to one manufacturer. -Applying the nominal size across domains requires understanding of the size systems in both areas; for example, someone wishing to select a drill bit to clear a ""1⁄4-inch screw"" may consult tables to show the proper drill bit size. Someone wishing to calculate the load capacity of a steel beam would have to consult tables to translate the nominal size of the beam into usable dimensions. -When considering the engineering tolerance between a shaft (or bolt) going through a hole in some other part (such as a nut), both the shaft (or bolt) have the same nominal size (also called the basic size), but all the holes are physically larger and all the shafts are physically smaller in order that any shaft (or bolt) of a given nominal size can fit into any hole of the same nominal size. -In measurement, a nominal value is often a value existing in name only; it is assigned as a convenient designation rather than calculated by data analysis or following usual rounding methods. The use of nominal values can be based on de facto standards or some technical standards. -All real measurements have some variation depending on the accuracy and precision of the test method and the measurement uncertainty.",18892315,Real versus nominal value,E -559,559.0,559.0,"This article summarized the comparison of movie cameras. - -35 mm -The 35 mm film gauge has long been the most common gauge in professional usage, and thus enjoys the greatest number of cameras currently available for professional usage. The modern era of 35 mm cameras dates to 1972, when Arri's Arriflex 35BL and Panavision's original Panaflex models emerged as the first self-blimped, lightweight cameras. Another distinguishing characteristic of modern cameras is the adoption of stronger lens mount seatings secured with a breech lock – namely the Arri PL and PV mount, both of which were designs descended from the BNCR mount of Mitchell cameras. - -General -Camera model – specific camera body models and variants, usually officially authorized -Camera line – either the body family (similar bodies) or system family (complementary design) -Manufacturer – company of origin -Introduced – first year of known usage -Weight – usually just the body, but may include accessories as mentioned -MOS/sync – Sync-sound cameras are able to both maintain a constant speed (usually crystal lock) and run quietly enough not to be heard by the sound recordist. MOS cameras do not meet either one or both of these requirements, and are usually used either for applications where camera noise is not a concern, or non-standard camera speeds are required. A camera is also deemed MOS if it cannot hold a constant speed, regardless of its noise levels. -Noise level – measured noise made by the camera, dB(A), with film and at a given distance from the film plane, usually one meter.",8605573,Comparison of movie cameras,T -560,560.0,560.0,"In engineering, a function is interpreted as a specific process, action or task that a system is able to perform. - -In engineering design -In the lifecycle of engineering projects, there are usually distinguished subsequently: Requirements and Functional specification documents. The Requirements usually specifies the most important attributes of the requested system. In the Design specification documents, physical or software processes and systems are frequently the requested functions - -In products -For advertising and marketing of technical products, the number of functions they can perform is often counted and used for promotion. For example a calculator capable of the basic mathematical operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, would be called a ""four-function"" model; when other operations are added, for example for scientific, financial, or statistical calculations, advertisers speak of ""57 scientific functions"", etc. A wristwatch with stopwatch and timer facilities would similarly claim a specified number of functions.",11774223,Function (engineering),E -561,561.0,561.0,"Throughput is rate at which a product is moved through a production process and is consumed by the end-user, usually measured in the form of sales or use statistics. The goal of most organizations is to minimize the investment in inputs as well as operating expenses while increasing throughput of its production systems. Successful organizations which seek to gain market share strive to match throughput to the rate of market demand of its products. - -Overview -In the business management theory of constraints, throughput is the rate at which a system achieves its goal. Oftentimes, this is monetary revenue and is in contrast to output, which is inventory that may be sold or stored in a warehouse. In this case, throughput is measured by revenue received (or not) at the point of sale—exactly the right time.",2995108,Throughput (business),E -562,562.0,562.0,"The trancitor as the combined word of a ""transfer-capacitor"" is to be considered as another active-device category besides the transistor as a ""transfer-resistor"". As observed in the table shown, four kinds of active devices are theoretically deduced. Among them, trancitors are missing to be the third and fourth kinds, whereas transistors, such as bipolar junction transistor (BJT) and field-effect transistor (FET), were already invented as the first and second kinds, respectively. Unlike the transistor switching the current at its output (i.e., current source), the trancitor transfers its input to the voltage output (i.e., voltage source), so an inverse relationship with each other. - -History -The term, trancitor, and its concept were first conceived by Sungsik Lee, a professor at the Department of Electronics Engineering, Pusan National University, South Korea, through his article, entitled A Missing Active Device — Trancitor for a New Paradigm of Electronics, in arXiv uploaded on 30 April 2018, and published on 23 August 2018 in IEEE Access. And the supplementary video was also publicised.",57561917,Trancitor,T -563,563.0,563.0,"A calender is a series of hard pressure rollers used to finish or smooth a sheet of material such as paper, textiles, rubber, or plastics. Calender rolls are also used to form some types of plastic films and to apply coatings. Some calender rolls are heated or cooled as needed. Calenders are sometimes misspelled calendars. - -Etymology -The word ""calender"" itself is a derivation of the word κύλινδρος kylindros, the Greek word that is also the source of the word ""cylinder"". - -History -Calender mills for pressing serge were apparently introduced to the Netherlands by Flemish refugees from the Eighty Years' War.In eighteenth century China, workers called ""calenderers"" in the silk- and cotton-cloth trades used heavy rollers to press and finish cloth. -In 1836, Edwin M. Chaffee, of the Roxbury India Rubber Company, patented a four-roll calender to make rubber sheet.",1313623,Calender,E -564,564.0,564.0,"A robotic vacuum cleaner, sometimes called a robovac or a roomba as a generic trademark, is an autonomous robotic vacuum cleaner which has a limited vacuum floor cleaning system combined with sensors and robotic drives with programmable controllers and cleaning routines. Early designs included manual operation via remote control and a ""self-drive"" mode which allowed the machine to clean autonomously.Marketing materials for robotic vacuums frequently cite low noise, ease of use, and autonomous cleaning as main advantages. The perception that these devices are set-and-forget solutions is widespread but not always correct. Robotic vacuums are usually smaller than traditional upright vacuums, and weigh significantly less than even the lightest canister models. However, a downside to a robotic vacuum cleaner is that it takes an extended amount of time to vacuum an area due to its size.",25503696,Robotic vacuum cleaner,T -565,565.0,565.0,"Error computing, an error code (or a return code) is a numeric or alphanumeric code that indicates the nature of an error and, when possible, why it occurred. Error codes can be reported to end users of software, returned from communication protocols, or used within programs as a method of representing anomalous conditions. - -In consumer products -Error codes are commonly encountered on displays of consumer electronics to users in order to communicate or specify an error. They are commonly reported by consumer electronics when users bring electronics to perform tasks that they cannot do (e.g., dividing by zero), or when the program within a device encounters an anomalous condition. -Error codes reported by consumer electronics are used to help diagnose and repair technical problems. An error code can be communicated to relevant support staff to identify potential fixes, or can simplify research into the cause of an error. -There is no definitive format for error codes, meaning that error codes typically differ from/between products and or companies. - -In computer programming -Error codes in computers can be passed to the system itself, to judge how to respond to the error. Often error codes come synonymous with an exit code or a return value.",30873244,Error code,T -566,566.0,566.0,"The U.S. National Vegetation Classification (NVC or USNVC) is a scheme for classifying the natural and cultural vegetation communities of the United States. The purpose of this standardized vegetation classification system is to facilitate communication between land managers, scientists, and the public when managing, researching, and protecting plant communities. -The non-profit group NatureServe maintains the NVC for the U.S. government. - -See also -British National Vegetation Classification -Vegetation classification - -External links -The U.S. National Vegetation Classification website -""National Vegetation Classification Standard, Version 2"" FGDC-STD-005-2008, Vegetation Subcommittee, Federal Geographic Data Committee, February 2008 -U.S.",4943626,U.S. National Vegetation Classification,S -567,567.0,567.0,"SASA (formerly the Scottish Agricultural Science Agency) is a division of the Scottish Government Agriculture and Rural Delivery Directorate. It provides scientific advice and support on a range of agricultural and environmental topics to the Scottish Government.SASA is based at Gogarbank Farm on the western edge of the City of Edinburgh, where its premises contain a laboratory, a glasshouse and an experimental farm facility. Over 100 scientists and other staff members work at SASA, all of whom are civil servants. - -History -From 1925 to 2006 the Agency and its precursors were based at East Craigs in Edinburgh. The Agency was first formed by the then Board of Agriculture for Scotland. The origins of SASA can be traced back to the opening of a full-time seed testing station in 1914 at 21 Duke Street (now part of Dublin Street), Edinburgh.",10256227,SASA (Scottish Government),S -568,568.0,568.0,"In digital communication or data transmission, - - - - - E - - b - - - - / - - - N - - 0 - - - - - {\displaystyle E_{b}/N_{0}} - (energy per bit to noise power spectral density ratio) is a normalized signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) measure, also known as the ""SNR per bit"". It is especially useful when comparing the bit error rate (BER) performance of different digital modulation schemes without taking bandwidth into account. -As the description implies, - - - - - E - - b - - - - - {\displaystyle E_{b}} - is the signal energy associated with each user data bit; it is equal to the signal power divided by the user bit rate (not the channel symbol rate). If signal power is in watts and bit rate is in bits per second, - - - - - E - - b - - - - - {\displaystyle E_{b}} - is in units of joules (watt-seconds). - - - - - N - - 0 - - - - - {\displaystyle N_{0}} - is the noise spectral density, the noise power in a 1 Hz bandwidth, measured in watts per hertz or joules. -These are the same units as - - - - - E - - b - - - - - {\displaystyle E_{b}} - so the ratio - - - - - E - - b - - - - / - - - N - - 0 - - - - - {\displaystyle E_{b}/N_{0}} - is dimensionless; it is frequently expressed in decibels. - - - - - E - - b - - - - / - - - N - - 0 - - - - - {\displaystyle E_{b}/N_{0}} - directly indicates the power efficiency of the system without regard to modulation type, error correction coding or signal bandwidth (including any use of spread spectrum).",1786306,Eb/N0,E -569,569.0,569.0,"Cell culture or tissue culture is the process by which cells are grown under controlled conditions, generally outside of their natural environment. The term ""tissue culture"" was coined by American pathologist Montrose Thomas Burrows. This technique is also called micropropagation. After the cells of interest have been isolated from living tissue, they can subsequently be maintained under carefully controlled conditions. They need to be kept at body temperature (37 °C) in an incubator.",1106830,Cell culture,S -570,570.0,570.0,"In probability theory, the Brownian tree, or Aldous tree, or Continuum Random Tree (CRT) is a random real tree that can be defined from a Brownian excursion. The Brownian tree was defined and studied by David Aldous in three articles published in 1991 and 1993. This tree has since then been generalized. -This random tree has several equivalent definitions and constructions: using sub-trees generated by finitely many leaves, using a Brownian excursion, Poisson separating a straight line or as a limit of Galton-Watson trees. -Intuitively, the Brownian tree is a binary tree whose nodes (or branching points) are dense in the tree; which is to say that for any distinct two points of the tree, there will always exist a node between them. It is a fractal object which can be approximated with computers or by physical processes with dendritic structures. - -Definitions -The following definitions are different characterisations of a Brownian tree, they are taken from Aldous's three articles. The notions of leaf, node, branch, root are the intuitive notions on a tree (for details, see real trees). - -Finite-dimensional laws -This definition gives the finite-dimensional laws of the subtrees generated by finitely many leaves. -Let us consider the space of all binary trees with - - - - k - - - {\displaystyle k} - leaves numbered from - - - - 1 - - - {\displaystyle 1} - to - - - - k - - - {\displaystyle k} - .",298408,Brownian tree,M -571,571.0,571.0,"Foundations of mathematics is the study of the philosophical and logical and/or algorithmic basis of mathematics, or, in a broader sense, the mathematical investigation of what underlies the philosophical theories concerning the nature of mathematics. In this latter sense, the distinction between foundations of mathematics and philosophy of mathematics turns out to be vague. -Foundations of mathematics can be conceived as the study of the basic mathematical concepts (set, function, geometrical figure, number, etc.) and how they form hierarchies of more complex structures and concepts, especially the fundamentally important structures that form the language of mathematics (formulas, theories and their models giving a meaning to formulas, definitions, proofs, algorithms, etc.) also called metamathematical concepts, with an eye to the philosophical aspects and the unity of mathematics. The search for foundations of mathematics is a central question of the philosophy of mathematics; the abstract nature of mathematical objects presents special philosophical challenges. -The foundations of mathematics as a whole does not aim to contain the foundations of every mathematical topic. -Generally, the foundations of a field of study refers to a more-or-less systematic analysis of its most basic or fundamental concepts, its conceptual unity and its natural ordering or hierarchy of concepts, which may help to connect it with the rest of human knowledge. The development, emergence, and clarification of the foundations can come late in the history of a field, and might not be viewed by everyone as its most interesting part. -Mathematics plays a special role in scientific thought, serving since ancient times as a model of truth and rigor for rational inquiry, and giving tools or even a foundation for other sciences (especially Physics). Mathematics' many developments towards higher abstractions in the 19th century brought new challenges and paradoxes, urging for a deeper and more systematic examination of the nature and criteria of mathematical truth, as well as a unification of the diverse branches of mathematics into a coherent whole. -The systematic search for the foundations of mathematics started at the end of the 19th century and formed a new mathematical discipline called mathematical logic, which later had strong links to theoretical computer science. -It went through a series of crises with paradoxical results, until the discoveries stabilized during the 20th century as a large and coherent body of mathematical knowledge with several aspects or components (set theory, model theory, proof theory, etc.), whose detailed properties and possible variants are still an active research field. -Its high level of technical sophistication inspired many philosophers to conjecture that it can serve as a model or pattern for the foundations of other sciences. - -Historical context -Ancient Greek mathematics -While the practice of mathematics had previously developed in other civilizations, special interest in its theoretical and foundational aspects was clearly evident in the work of the Ancient Greeks. -Early Greek philosophers disputed as to which is more basic, arithmetic or geometry. -Zeno of Elea (490 – c.",169358,Foundations of mathematics,M -572,572.0,572.0,"The Ramberg–Osgood equation was created to describe the non linear relationship between stress and strain—that is, the stress–strain curve—in materials near their yield points. It is especially applicable to metals that harden with plastic deformation (see work hardening), showing a smooth elastic-plastic transition. As it is a phenomenological model, checking the fit of the model with actual experimental data for the particular material of interest is essential. -In its original form, the equation for strain (deformation) is - - - - - ε - = - - - σ - E - - - + - K - - - ( - - - σ - E - - - ) - - - n - - - - - {\displaystyle \varepsilon ={\frac {\sigma }{E}}+K\left({\frac {\sigma }{E}}\right)^{n}} - here - - - - - ε - - - {\displaystyle \varepsilon } - is strain, - - - - - σ - - - {\displaystyle \sigma } - is stress, - - - - - E - - - {\displaystyle E} - is Young's modulus, and - - - - - K - - - {\displaystyle K} - and - - - - n - - - {\displaystyle n} - are constants that depend on the material being considered. In this form K and n are not the same as the constants commonly seen in the Hollomon equation.The equation is essentially assuming the elastic strain portion of the stress-strain curve, - - - - - ε - - e - - - - - {\displaystyle \varepsilon _{e}} - , can be modeled with a line, while the plastic portion, - - - - - ε - - p - - - - - {\displaystyle \varepsilon _{p}} - , can be modeling with a power law. The elastic and plastic components are summed to find the total strain. - - - - - ε - = - - ε - - e - - - + - - ε - - p - - - - - {\displaystyle \varepsilon =\varepsilon _{e}+\varepsilon _{p}} - -The first term on the right side, - - - - - σ - - - / - - - E - - - - - {\displaystyle {\sigma }/{E}\,} - , is equal to the elastic part of the strain, while the second term, - - - - - K - ( - - σ - - - / - - - E - - - ) - - n - - - - - {\displaystyle \ K({\sigma }/{E})^{n}} - , accounts for the plastic part, the parameters - - - - K - - - {\displaystyle K} - and - - - - n - - - {\displaystyle n} - describing the hardening behavior of the material.",5291187,Ramberg–Osgood relationship,M -573,573.0,573.0,"Drinah Banda Nyirenda is a Zambian nutritionist and agricultural scientist.Drinah Nyirenda obtained her BSc in Agricultural Sciences in Zambia. She then did her MSc and PhD at University of California, Davis. She has worked at the University of Zambia for over 26 years. She was the Head of Department of Animal Science, a Professor of Nutrition, and the Dean. In 2011, she promoted the launch of the first BSc in Human Nutrition at the University of Zambia.",70262596,Drinah Nyirenda,S -574,574.0,574.0,"Supplier risk management (SRM) is an evolving discipline in operations management for manufacturers, retailers, financial services companies and government agencies where an organization is dependent on suppliers to achieve business objectives. -The complexity and globally outsourced nature of modern supply chains, combined with the practice of optimization techniques such as lean and just-in-time manufacturing in order to improve efficiency, has increased supply chain vulnerabilities to even minor supply disruptions. While these models have allowed companies to reduce overall costs and expand quickly into new markets, they also expose the company to the risk of a supplier bankruptcy, closing operations, data breach or being acquired. Among the several types of supply disruptions, most severe are those that have a relatively low probability of occurrence with a very high severity of impact when they do occur. While such risks cannot be eliminated, however, its severity can be reduced. - -Objectives -To overcome these challenges, companies mitigate supply chain interruptions and reduce risk with strategies and tactics that address supplier-centric risk at multiple stages in the relationship: - -On boarding: Bringing suppliers into the operation with registration that includes: -A centralized supplier registration portal -Integration of third party performance, financial data and predictive indicators into the supplier profile -Monitoring for stability beyond financial data, including: -Sanctioned countries, criminal and terrorists (i.e. Office of Foreign Assets Control) ties and operational performance -Visibility into potential disruptions caused by geopolitical threats, acts of nature, etc. -Cultivating strategic supplier relationships for the long-term: -Leverage supplier scorecards for continuous improvement -Establish and use benchmarks for measuring supplier performance -Creating a system for collaboration and supplier development -Establish control across the extended enterprise: -Create integrated supplier networks -Extend performance management benchmarks to second and third tier suppliers - -Supplier risk in recession and recovery -In 2008–2009, manufacturers experienced the startling speed at which suppliers can move from stability to shutting down operations.",22878791,Supplier risk management,E -575,575.0,575.0,"Kit-of-parts theory refers to the study and application of object-oriented building techniques, where building components are pre-designed / pre-engineered / pre-fabricated for inclusion in joint-based (linear element), panel-based (planar element), module-based (solid element), and deployable (time element) construction systems. - -Construction -Kit-of-parts construction is a special subset of pre-fabrication that not only attempts to achieve flexibility in assembly and efficiency in manufacture, but also by definition requires a capacity for demountability, disassembly, and reuse. Kit-of-parts structures can be assembled and taken apart in a variety of ways like a construction toy. - -Architecture -Kit-of-parts architecture involves organizing the individual parts and raw material in a building into assemblies of standard easy-to-manufacture components, sized for convenient handling or according to shipping constraints. The construction of the building is carried out on the assembly level as opposed to the raw material level. The architect defines a parts library describing every major assembly in the building. The assemblies are conceived in a systematic way, based on certain rules such as increment, size, or by shape grammar.",3674169,Kit-of-parts,E -576,576.0,576.0,"U2opia Mobile is a mobile technology company which has its headquarters in Singapore. The company’s product Fonetwish enables customers to receive real time updates from social networking sites such as Facebook, Twitter and Google on any handset without access to the internet. It also develops several social applications. - -History -U2opia Mobile was founded by Sumesh Menon and Ankit Nautiyal in 2010. In October 2017, U2opia Mobile launched Reycreo, a platform geared to help game discovery and adoption in frontier markets. - -Operations -U2opia Mobile currently has offices in Dubai, Gurgaon, and San Francisco along with their headquarters in Singapore. It has over 150 employees and was backed by the private equity investment firm Matrix Partners in 2011.",43796470,U2opia Mobile,T -577,577.0,577.0,"Strategic environmental assessment (SEA) is a systematic decision support process, aiming to ensure that environmental and possibly other sustainability aspects are considered effectively in policy, plan and program making. In this context, following Fischer (2007) SEA may be seen as: - -a structured, rigorous, participative, open and transparent environmental impact assessment (EIA) based process, applied particularly to plans and programmes, prepared by public planning authorities and at times private bodies, -a participative, open and transparent, possibly non-EIA-based process, applied in a more flexible manner to policies, prepared by public planning authorities and at times private bodies, -a flexible non-EIA based process, applied to legislative proposals and other policies, plans and programmes in political/cabinet decision-making.Effective SEA works within a structured and tiered decision framework, aiming to support more effective and efficient decision-making for sustainable development and improved governance by providing for a substantive focus regarding questions, issues and alternatives to be considered in policy, plan and programme (PPP) making. -SEA is an evidence-based instrument, aiming to add scientific rigour to PPP making, by using suitable assessment methods and techniques. Ahmed and Sanchez Triana (2008) developed an approach to the design and implementation of public policies that follows a continuous process rather than as a discrete intervention. - -History -The European Union Directive on Environmental Impact Assessments (85/337/EEC,also known as the EIA Directive) only applied to certain projects. This was seen as deficient as it only dealt with specific effects at the local level whereas many environmentally damaging decisions had already been made at a more strategic level (for example the fact that new infrastructure may generate an increased demand for travel). -The concept of strategic assessments originated from regional development / land use planning in the developed world. In 1981 the U.S.",43401368,Strategic environmental assessment,T -578,578.0,578.0,"Carrier-grade NAT (CGN or CGNAT), also known as large-scale NAT (LSN), is a type of network address translation (NAT) used by ISPs in IPv4 network design. With CGNAT, end sites, in particular residential networks, are configured with private network addresses that are translated to public IPv4 addresses by middlebox network address translator devices embedded in the network operator's network, permitting the sharing of small pools of public addresses among many end users. This shifts the NAT function and configuration thereof from the customer premises to the Internet service provider network (though ""conventional"" NAT on the customer premises will often be used additionally). -Carrier-grade NAT is often used for mitigating IPv4 address exhaustion.One use scenario of CGN has been labeled as NAT444, because some customer connections to Internet services on the public Internet would pass through three different IPv4 addressing domains: the customer's own private network, the carrier's private network and the public Internet. -Another CGN scenario is Dual-Stack Lite, in which the carrier's network uses IPv6 and thus only two IPv4 addressing domains are needed. -CGNAT techniques were first used in 2000 to accommodate the immediate need for large numbers of IPv4 addresses in General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) deployments of mobile networks. Estimated CGNAT deployments increased from 1200 in 2014 to 3400 in 2016, with 28.85% of the studied deployments appearing to be in mobile operator networks. - -Shared address space -If an ISP deploys a CGN, and uses RFC 1918 address space to number customer gateways, the risk of address collision, and therefore routing failures, arises when the customer network already uses an RFC 1918 address space. -This prompted some ISPs to develop a policy within the American Registry for Internet Numbers (ARIN) to allocate new private address space for CGNs, but ARIN deferred to the IETF before implementing the policy indicating that the matter was not a typical allocation issue but a reservation of addresses for technical purposes (per RFC 2860). -IETF published RFC 6598, detailing a shared address space for use in ISP CGN deployments that can handle the same network prefixes occurring both on inbound and outbound interfaces. ARIN returned address space to the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) for this allocation.",27254903,Carrier-grade NAT,T -579,579.0,579.0,"Zimbra Collaboration, formerly known as the Zimbra Collaboration Suite (ZCS) before 2019, is a collaborative software suite that includes an email server and a web client. -Zimbra was initially developed by LiquidSys, which changed their name to Zimbra, Inc. on 26 July 2005. The Zimbra Collaboration Suite was first released in 2005. The company was subsequently purchased by Yahoo! on September 17, 2007, and later sold to VMware on January 12, 2010. In July 2013, it was sold by VMware to Telligent Systems which changed its name to Zimbra, Inc.",2732586,Zimbra,T -580,580.0,580.0,"OpenStructures is an open source modular construction model based on a shared geometrical grid, called the OS grid. It was conceived by designer Thomas Lommée, and first demonstrated at the Z33, a house for contemporary art. According to Lommee, the OpenStructures project explores the possibility of a modular system where ""everyone designs for everyone."" OpenStructures is developing a database where anyone can share designs which are in turn available for download by the public. Each component design in the OS system will feature previously designed OS parts that were used to create it. In addition, each part will feature component designs that can be made from it. -The OpenStructures model includes large and small scale manufacturers as well as craftsmen.",44879482,OpenStructures,E -581,581.0,581.0,"Megascale engineering (or macro-engineering) is a form of exploratory engineering concerned with the construction of structures on an enormous scale. Typically these structures are at least 1,000 km (620 mi) in length—in other words, at least one megameter, hence the name. Such large-scale structures are termed megastructures. -In addition to large-scale structures, megascale engineering is also defined as including the transformation of entire planets into a human-habitable environment, a process known as terraforming or planetary engineering. This might also include transformation of the surface conditions, changes in the planetary orbit, and structures in orbit intended to modify the energy balance. -Astroengineering is the extension of megascale engineering to megastructures on a stellar scale or larger, such as Dyson spheres, Ringworlds, and Alderson disks. -Several megascale structure concepts such as Dyson spheres, Dyson swarms, and Matrioshka brains would likely be built upon space-based solar power satellites. Other planetary engineering or interstellar transportation concepts would likely require space-based solar power satellites and the accompanying space logistics infrastructure for their power or construction. -Megascale engineering often plays a major part in the plot of science fiction movies and books.",1065499,Megascale engineering,T -582,582.0,582.0,"Military sociology is a subfield within sociology. It corresponds closely to C. Wright Mills's summons to connect the individual world to broader social structures. Military sociology aims toward the systematic study of the military as a social group rather than as a military organization. This highly specialized sub-discipline examines issues related to service personnel as a distinct group with coerced collective action based on shared interests linked to survival in vocation and combat, with purposes and values that are more defined and narrow than within civil society.",18431120,Military sociology,S -583,583.0,583.0,"In mathematical physics, the Dirac delta distribution (δ distribution), also known as the unit impulse, is a generalized function or distribution over the real numbers, whose value is zero everywhere except at zero, and whose integral over the entire real line is equal to one.The current understanding of the unit impulse is as a linear functional that maps every continuous function (e.g., - - - - f - ( - x - ) - - - {\displaystyle f(x)} - ) to its value at zero of its domain ( - - - - f - ( - 0 - ) - - - {\displaystyle f(0)} - ), or as the weak limit of a sequence of bump functions (e.g., - - - - δ - ( - x - ) - = - - lim - - b - → - 0 - - - - - 1 - - - | - - b - - | - - - - π - - - - - - - e - - − - ( - x - - / - - b - - ) - - 2 - - - - - - - {\displaystyle \delta (x)=\lim _{b\to 0}{\frac {1}{|b|{\sqrt {\pi }}}}e^{-(x/b)^{2}}} - ), which are zero over most of the real line, with a tall spike at the origin. Bump functions are thus sometimes called ""approximate"" or ""nascent"" delta distributions. -The delta function was introduced by physicist Paul Dirac as a tool for the normalization of state vectors. It also has uses in probability theory and signal processing. Its validity was disputed until Laurent Schwartz developed the theory of distributions where it is defined as a linear form acting on functions. -The Kronecker delta function, which is usually defined on a discrete domain and takes values 0 and 1, is the discrete analog of the Dirac delta function. - -Motivation and overview -The graph of the Dirac delta is usually thought of as following the whole x-axis and the positive y-axis.: 174  The Dirac delta is used to model a tall narrow spike function (an impulse), and other similar abstractions such as a point charge, point mass or electron point. For example, to calculate the dynamics of a billiard ball being struck, one can approximate the force of the impact by a Dirac delta.",4753149,Dirac delta function,M -584,584.0,584.0,"EPANET (Environmental Protection Agency Network Evaluation Tool) is a public domain, water distribution system modeling software package developed by the United States Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) Water Supply and Water Resources Division. It performs extended-period simulation of hydraulic and water-quality behavior within pressurized pipe networks and is designed to be ""a research tool that improves our understanding of the movement and fate of drinking-water constituents within distribution systems"". EPANET first appeared in 1993.EPANET 2 is available both as a standalone program and as an open-source toolkit (Application Programming Interface in C). Its computational engine is used by many software companies that developed more powerful, proprietary packages, often GIS-centric. The EPANET "".inp"" input file format, which represents network topology, water consumption, and control rules, is supported by many free and commercial modeling packages.",27838362,EPANET,E -585,585.0,585.0,"In multilinear algebra, a reshaping of tensors is any bijection between the set of indices of an order- - - - - M - - - {\displaystyle M} - tensor and the set of indices of an order- - - - - L - - - {\displaystyle L} - tensor, where - - - - L - < - M - - - {\displaystyle L - 0 - - - {\displaystyle \alpha >0} - and suppose:Every graph on - - - - n - - - {\displaystyle n} - vertices with at least - - - - - - - α - - n - - 2 - - - - 2 - - - - - {\displaystyle {\frac {\alpha n^{2}}{2}}} - edges contains a subset - - - - U - - - {\displaystyle U} - of vertices with - - - - - | - - U - - | - - ≥ - u - - - {\displaystyle |U|\geq u} - such that for all - - - - S - ⊂ - U - - - {\displaystyle S\subset U} - with - - - - - | - - S - - | - - = - r - - - {\displaystyle |S|=r} - , - - - - S - - - {\displaystyle S} - has at least - - - - m - - - {\displaystyle m} - common neighbors. - -Proof -The basic idea is to choose the set of vertices randomly. However, instead of choosing each vertex uniformly at random, the procedure randomly chooses a list of - - - - t - - - {\displaystyle t} - vertices first and then chooses common neighbors as the set of vertices. The hope is that in this way, the chosen set would be more likely to have more common neighbors. -Formally, let - - - - T - - - {\displaystyle T} - be a list of - - - - t - - - {\displaystyle t} - vertices chosen uniformly at random from - - - - V - ( - G - ) - - - {\displaystyle V(G)} - with replacement (allowing repetition).",62112877,Dependent random choice,M -588,588.0,588.0,"In electronic systems, power supply rejection ratio (PSRR), also supply-voltage rejection ratio (kSVR; SVR), is a term widely used to describe the capability of an electronic circuit to suppress any power supply variations to its output signal. -In the specifications of operational amplifiers, the PSRR is defined as the ratio of the change in supply voltage to the equivalent (differential) output voltage it produces, often expressed in decibels. An ideal op-amp would have infinite PSRR, as the device should have no change to the output voltage with any changes to the power supply voltage. The output voltage will depend on the feedback circuit, as is the case of regular input offset voltages. But testing is not confined to DC (zero frequency); often an operational amplifier will also have its PSRR given at various frequencies (in which case the ratio is one of RMS amplitudes of sinewaves present at a power supply compared with the output, with gain taken into account). Unwanted oscillation, including motorboating, can occur when an amplifying stage is too sensitive to signals fed via the power supply from a later power amplifier stage. -Some manufacturers specify PSRR in terms of the offset voltage it causes at the amplifiers inputs; others specify it in terms of the output; there is no industry standard for this issue.",10799951,Power supply rejection ratio,E -589,589.0,589.0,"Remote service software is used by equipment manufacturers to remotely monitor, access and repair products in use at customer sites. It is a secure, auditable gateway for service teams to troubleshoot problems, perform proactive maintenance, assist with user operations and monitor performance. This technology is typically implemented in mission-critical environments like hospitals or IT data centers – where equipment downtime is intolerable. - -Benefits -Remote service software helps to: - -Increase uptime, improve performance and extend the life of a device -Control service costs by deploying patches and upgrades remotely, and ensure a first-time fix when an onsite visit is required -Streamline administration of pay-per-use models, with automated usage monitoring -Focus highly trained service teams on preventative maintenance, by diagnosing and repairing issues before they cause system failure -Increase customer satisfaction and loyaltyManufacturers are using aftermarket service a competitive differentiator. Remote service software provides a platform for manufacturers to offer and meet stringent service level agreements (SLAs) without increasing the size of their service team. - -increase in network - -Key characteristics of remote service software -Proactive: Remote monitoring of devices in use allows service teams to detect potential issues before they escalate, degrade performance or cause a system failure. This early warning system is a key component to issue avoidance and ability to meet more stringent key performance indicator (KPIs) in SLAs.",17989579,Remote service software,T -590,590.0,590.0,"ALC-0159 is a PEG/lipid conjugate (i.e. PEGylated lipid), specifically, it is the N,N-dimyristylamide of 2-hydroxyacetic acid, O-pegylated to a PEG chain mass of about 2 kilodaltons (corresponding to about 45-46 ethylene oxide units per molecule of N,N-dimyristyl hydroxyacetamide). It is a non-ionic surfactant by its nature. It has been deployed in the Pfizer-BioNTech SARS-CoV-2 mRNA vaccine (0.05 mg per dose) that contains the active ingredient tozinameran. - -See also -Pfizer–BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine nanoparticle ingredientsALC-0315 -1,2-distearoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine -CholesterolOthersPolyethoxylated tallow amine - -References - -Assessment report, Comirnaty, Common name: COVID-19 mRNA vaccine (nucleoside-modified); Procedure No. EMEA/H/C/005735/0000 - gives structural formula for the compound (p.",66164061,ALC-0159,S -591,591.0,591.0,"The history of rail transport began in the BCE times. It can be divided into several discrete periods defined by the principal means of track material and motive power used. - -Ancient systems -The Post Track, a prehistoric causeway in the valley of the River Brue in the Somerset Levels, England, is one of the oldest known constructed trackways and dates from around 3838 BC, making it some 30 years older than the Sweet Track from the same area. Various sections have been designated as scheduled monuments.Evidence indicates that there was a 6 to 8.5 km long Diolkos paved trackway, which transported boats across the Isthmus of Corinth in Greece from around 600 BC. Wheeled vehicles pulled by men and animals ran in grooves in limestone, which provided the track element, preventing the wagons from leaving the intended route. The Diolkos was in use for over 650 years, until at least the 1st century AD.",211919,History of rail transport,M -592,592.0,592.0,"PowerFleet (formerly I.D. Systems, Inc.) is an American company headquartered in Woodcliff Lake, New Jersey, with offices located around the globe and a technology innovation center in Israel. The company is a global provider of wireless IoT and M2M solutions for securing, controlling, tracking, and managing high-value enterprise assets such as industrial trucks, tractor trailers, intermodal shipping containers, cargo, and vehicle and truck fleets. - -Overview -PowerFleet was formed on October 3, 2019 when I.D. Systems acquired Pointer Telocation Ltd. and their subsidiary brand Cellocator, and subsequently rebranded the new company as PowerFleet Inc.PowerFleet provides a technology suite that delivers telematics, asset tracking, freight visibility, and driver behavior reporting and modification. - -History -I.D.",40037692,PowerFleet,T -593,593.0,593.0,"Military engineering is loosely defined as the art, science, and practice of designing and building military works and maintaining lines of military transport and military communications. Military engineers are also responsible for logistics behind military tactics. Modern military engineering differs from civil engineering. In the 20th and 21st centuries, military engineering also includes CBRN defense and other engineering disciplines such as mechanical and electrical engineering techniques.According to NATO, ""military engineering is that engineer activity undertaken, regardless of component or service, to shape the physical operating environment. Military engineering incorporates support to maneuver and to the force as a whole, including military engineering functions such as engineer support to force protection, counter-improvised explosive devices, environmental protection, engineer intelligence and military search.",100034,Military engineering,E -594,594.0,594.0,"A liver support system or diachysis is a type of therapeutic device to assist in performing the functions of the liver. Such systems focus either on removing the accumulating toxins (liver dialysis), or providing additional replacement of the metabolic functions of the liver through the inclusion of hepatocytes to the device (bioartificial liver device). This system is in trial to help people with acute liver failure (ALF) or acute-on-chronic liver failure.The primary functions of the liver include removing toxic substances from the blood, manufacturing blood proteins, storing energy in the form of glycogen, and secreting bile. The hepatocytes that perform these tasks can be killed or impaired by disease, resulting in acute liver failure (ALF) which can be seen in person with previously diseased liver or a healthy one. - -Etymology -The word diachysis derives from the Greek word, διάχυσησ, which means ""Diffusion"" -The word dialysis derives from the Greek word, διάλυσις, which means ""Dissolution"" - -Liver failure -In hyperacute and acute liver failure, the clinical picture develops rapidly with progressive encephalopathy and multiorgan dysfunction such as hyperdynamic circulation, coagulopathy, acute kidney injury and respiratory insufficiency, severe metabolic alterations, and cerebral edema that can lead to brain death. In these cases the mortality without liver transplantation (LTx) ranges between 40-80%.",8999379,Liver support system,S -595,595.0,595.0,"Redshift is a techno-economic theory suggesting hypersegmentation of information technology markets based on whether individual computing needs are over or under-served by Moore's law, which predicts the doubling of computing transistors (and therefore roughly computing power) every two years. The theory, -proposed and named by New Enterprise Associates partner and former Sun Microsystems CTO Greg Papadopoulos, categorized a series of high growth markets (redshifting) while predicting slower GDP-driven growth in traditional computing markets (blueshifting). Papadopoulos predicted the result will be a fundamental redesign of components comprising computing systems. - -Hypergrowth market segments (redshifting) -According to the Redshift theory, applications ""redshift"" when they grow dramatically faster than Moore's Law allows, growing quickly in their absolute number of systems. In these markets, customers are running out of datacenter real-estate, power and cooling infrastructure. According to Dell Senior Vice President Brad Anderson, “Businesses requiring hyperscale computing environments – where infrastructure deployments are measured by up to millions of servers, storage and networking equipment – are changing the way they approach IT.”While various Redshift proponents offer minor alterations on the original presentation, “Redshifting” generally includes: - -ΣBW (Sum-of-Bandwidth) -These are companies that drive heavy Internet traffic.",10721277,Redshift (theory),T -596,596.0,596.0,"A fallout shelter is an enclosed space specially designated to protect occupants from radioactive debris or fallout resulting from a nuclear explosion. Many such shelters were constructed as civil defense measures during the Cold War. -During a nuclear explosion, matter vaporized in the resulting fireball is exposed to neutrons from the explosion, absorbs them, and becomes radioactive. When this material condenses in the rain, it forms dust and light sandy materials that resemble ground pumice. The fallout emits alpha and beta particles, as well as gamma rays. -Much of this highly radioactive material falls to Earth, subjecting anything within the line of sight to radiation, becoming a significant hazard. A fallout shelter is designed to allow its occupants to minimize exposure to harmful fallout until radioactivity has decayed to a safer level, over a few weeks or months. - -History -North America -During the Cold War, many countries built fallout shelters for high-ranking government officials and crucial military facilities, such as Project Greek Island and the Cheyenne Mountain nuclear bunker in the United States and Canada's Emergency Government Headquarters.",11493,Fallout shelter,T -597,597.0,597.0,"Sports science is a discipline that studies how the healthy human body works during exercise, and how sport and physical activity promote health and performance from cellular to whole body perspectives. The study of sports science traditionally incorporates areas of physiology (exercise physiology), psychology (sport psychology), anatomy, biomechanics (sports biomechanics), biochemistry, and kinesiology. Sports scientists and performance consultants are growing in demand and employment numbers, with the ever-increasing focus within the sporting world on achieving the best results possible. Through the scientific study of sports, researchers have developed a greater understanding of how the human body reacts to exercise, training, different environments, and many other stimuli. - -Origins of exercise physiology -Sports science can trace its origins to ancient Greece. The noted ancient Greek physician Galen (131–201) wrote 87 detailed essays about improving health (proper nutrition), aerobic fitness, and strengthening muscles.New ideas upon the working and functioning of the human body emerged during the Renaissance as anatomists and physicians challenged the previously known theories.",1118651,Sports science,S -598,598.0,598.0,"Evolution has been an important theme in fiction, including speculative evolution in science fiction, since the late 19th century, though it began before Charles Darwin's time, and reflects progressionist and Lamarckist views as well as Darwin's. Darwinian evolution is pervasive in literature, whether taken optimistically in terms of how humanity may evolve towards perfection, or pessimistically in terms of the dire consequences of the interaction of human nature and the struggle for survival. Other themes include the replacement of humanity, either by other species or by intelligent machines. - -Context -Charles Darwin's evolution by natural selection, as set out in his 1859 On the Origin of Species, is the dominant theory in modern biology, but it is accompanied as a philosophy and in fiction by two earlier evolutionary theories, progressionism (orthogenesis) and Lamarckism. Progressionism is the view that evolution is progress towards some goal of perfection, and that it is in some way directed towards that goal. Lamarckism, a philosophy that long predates Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck, is the view that evolution is guided by the inheritance of characteristics acquired by use or disuse during an animal's lifetime. - -Progressionism -Ideas of progress and evolution were popular, long before Darwinism, in the 18th century, leading to Nicolas-Edme Rétif's allegorical 1781 story La découverte Australe par un homme volant (The Southern Hemisphere Discovery by a Flying Man).The evolutionary biologist Kayla M.",57977652,Evolution in fiction,S -599,599.0,599.0,"In mathematics, higher category theory is the part of category theory at a higher order, which means that some equalities are replaced by explicit arrows in order to be able to explicitly study the structure behind those equalities. Higher category theory is often applied in algebraic topology (especially in homotopy theory), where one studies algebraic invariants of spaces, such as their fundamental weak ∞-groupoid. - -Strict higher categories -An ordinary category has objects and morphisms, which are called 1-morphisms in the context of higher category theory. A 2-category generalizes this by also including 2-morphisms between the 1-morphisms. Continuing this up to n-morphisms between (n − 1)-morphisms gives an n-category. -Just as the category known as Cat, which is the category of small categories and functors is actually a 2-category with natural transformations as its 2-morphisms, the category n-Cat of (small) n-categories is actually an (n + 1)-category. -An n-category is defined by induction on n by: - -A 0-category is a set, -An (n + 1)-category is a category enriched over the category n-Cat.So a 1-category is just a (locally small) category. -The monoidal structure of Set is the one given by the cartesian product as tensor and a singleton as unit. In fact any category with finite products can be given a monoidal structure.",5274013,Higher category theory,M -600,600.0,600.0,"This article is about the discovery and development of 5α-reductase inhibitors (5-ARIs), also known as dihydrotestosterone (DHT) blockers. - -Development of 5α-reductase inhibitors -These are two types of 5-ARIs, categorized as steroidal and nonsteroidal 5-ARIs. - -Steroidal 5α-reductase inhibitors -Steroid 5α-reductase is a membrane-associated enzyme in an oxidoreductase family and has an important role in biological actions towards steroid metabolism. If the steroid 5α-reductase is overexpressed it causes overproduction of DHT that can lead to androgenic disorders in humans.The 5α-reductase isozymes possess a similar steroidal catalytic site. The only available information about the 5α-reductase isozymes is their primary sequence estimated from c-DNAs and that affects the design of the novel inhibitors. The crystal structure of the 5α-reductase isozymes is not known because the nature of the 5α-reductase enzyme is so unstable during purification. The first 5-ARIs were designed by modifying the structure of natural substrates, including the substitution of one carbon atom of the rings of the steroids by a heteroatom such as nitrogen thereby forming azasteroids.",56124204,Discovery and development of 5α-reductase inhibitors,S -601,601.0,601.0,"Synbiotics refer to food ingredients or dietary supplements combining probiotics and prebiotics in a form of synergism, hence synbiotics. The synbiotic concept was first introduced as ""mixtures of probiotics and prebiotics that beneficially affect the host by improving the survival and implantation of live microbial dietary supplements in the gastrointestinal tract, by selectively stimulating the growth and/or by activating the metabolism of one or a limited number of health-promoting bacteria, thus improving host welfare"". As of 2018, the research on this concept is preliminary, with no high-quality evidence from clinical research that such benefits exist. -Synbiotics may be complementary synbiotics, where each component is independently chosen for its potential effect on host health, or synergistic synbiotics, where the prebiotic component is chosen to support the activity of the chosen probiotic. Research is evaluating if synbiotics can be optimized, (known as 'optibiotics') which are purported to enhance the growth and health benefits of existing probiotics.Probiotics are live bacteria which are intended to colonize the large intestine, although as of 2018, there is no evidence that adding dietary bacteria to healthy people has any added effect. A prebiotic is a food or dietary supplement product that may induce the growth or activity of beneficial microorganisms.",6396920,Synbiotics,S -602,602.0,602.0,"A chain of events is a number of actions and their effects that are contiguous and linked together that results in a particular outcome. In the physical sciences, chain reactions are a primary example. - -Determinism -Determinism is the philosophical proposition that every event, including human cognition and behaviour, decision and action, is causally determined by an unbroken chain of events. With numerous historical debates, many philosophical positions on the subject of determinism exist from traditions throughout the world. - -In value theory -In value theory, it is the amount of cause and effects of the chain of events before generating intrinsic value that separates high and low grades of instrumental value. The chain of events duration is the time it takes to reach the terminal event. In value theory this is generally the intrinsic value (also called terminal value).",17257716,Chain of events,M -603,603.0,603.0,"In mathematics, the study of interchange of limiting operations is one of the major concerns of mathematical analysis, in that two given limiting operations, say L and M, cannot be assumed to give the same result when applied in either order. One of the historical sources for this theory is the study of trigonometric series. - -Formulation -In symbols, the assumption - -LM = ML,where the left-hand side means that M is applied first, then L, and vice versa on the right-hand side, is not a valid equation between mathematical operators, under all circumstances and for all operands. An algebraist would say that the operations do not commute. The approach taken in analysis is somewhat different. Conclusions that assume limiting operations do 'commute' are called formal.",7204363,Interchange of limiting operations,M -604,604.0,604.0,"The Semiconductor Chip Protection Act of 1984 (or SCPA) is an act of the US Congress that makes the layouts of integrated circuits legally protected upon registration, and hence illegal to copy without permission. It is an integrated circuit layout design protection law. - -Background -Prior to 1984, it was not necessarily illegal to produce a competing chip with an identical layout. As the legislative history for the SCPA explained, patent and copyright protection for chip layouts, chip topographies, was largely unavailable. This led to considerable complaint by American chip manufacturers—notably, Intel, which, along with the Semiconductor Industry Association (SIA), took the lead in seeking remedial legislation—against what they termed ""chip piracy."" During the hearings that led to enactment of the SCPA, chip industry representatives asserted that a pirate could copy a chip design for $100,000 in 3 to 5 months that had cost its original manufacturer upwards of $1 million to design. - -Enactment of US and other national legislation -In 1984 the United States enacted the Semiconductor Chip Protection Act of 1984 (the SCPA) to protect the topography of semiconductor chips. The SCPA is found in title 17, U.S.",20539698,Semiconductor Chip Protection Act of 1984,E -605,605.0,605.0,"SwellRT was a free and open-source backend-as-a-service and API focused to ease development of apps featuring real-time collaboration. It supported the building of mobile and web apps, and aims to facilitate interoperability and federation. - -History -Origins -SwellRT has its origins in the work done within the GRASIA research team at the Universidad Complutense de Madrid, as part of the EU-funded project P2Pvalue (2013–2016), in a team led by Samer Hassan. In 2014, the developer Pablo Ojanguren took the lead in forking Apache Wave, dropping several components, re-engineering it, and building a ""Wave API"" to build applications on top. In 2015, such Wave API became a standalone product named SwellRT. - -Impact on Apache Wave project -In 2016, several discussions took place within the Apache Wave community, aiming to tackle the stagnation and crisis state of the project. The Apache Software Foundation mentor of Apache Wave, Upayavira, was concerned on the project stagnation, but framed SwellRT as Wave's potential savior:Once more Wave is on the brink of retirement.",52393372,SwellRT,T -606,606.0,606.0,"Project manufacturing is an operation designed to produce large, expensive, specialized products such as custom homes, defense weapons such as aircraft carriers and submarines, and aerospace products such as passenger planes, and the Space Shuttle. -Project manufacturing is highly flexible, because each project is usually significantly different from the one before it, even if the project’s size and expense and high degree of customization, project manufacturing can take an extremely long time to complete. -Project Manufacturing is an operation designed to produce unique but similar products. It takes advantage of common manufacturing requirements (and therefore efficiencies), while allowing for customization into “unique” combinations. Unique orders may be managed like a project. The more components of that order that are common to other unique orders the more they may be manufactured – taking advantage of manufacturing methodology.",1724021,Project manufacturing,E -607,607.0,607.0,"FinTS (Financial Transaction Services), formerly known as HBCI (Home Banking Computer Interface), is a bank-independent protocol for online banking, developed and used by German banks. -HBCI was originally designed by Germany's three banking ""pillar"" networks, namely the Sparkassen-Finanzgruppe, German Cooperative Financial Group, and Association of German Banks. The result of this effort was an open protocol specification, which is publicly available. The standardisation effort was necessary to replace the huge number of deprecated homemade software clients and servers (some of them still using BTX emulation). -While IFX (Interactive Financial Exchange), OFX (Open Financial Exchange) and SET (Secure Electronic Transaction) are tailored for the North American market, HBCI is designed to meet the requirements of the European market. -The FinTS-specification is publicly available on a website run by the ZKA (Central Credit Committee). - -Features -Support for online-banking using PIN/TAN one time passwords. -Support for online-banking with SWIFT. -DES and RSA encryption and signatures. -Making use of XML and SOAP for data-exchange, encryption and signatures. -Implemented on top of HTTP, HTTPS and SMTP as communication layer. -Multibanking: The software clients are designed to support accounts on multiple banking companies. -Platform Independence: The specification allows software development for various types of clients. -Storage of the encryption keys on an external physical device (smart card) for improved security. -Possibility to use so called ""Secoder"" smart card readers to allow the user to cross check the transaction data on a secure device before signing it to uncover manipulations caused by malware. To use Secoder, the bank as well as the home banking software have to support the Secoder protocol extension of FinTS.HBCI has been superseded by its successor FinTS, and as of 2011, 2000 financial institutions in Germany are supporting FinTS. - -Versions -HBCI 2.2 PIN/TAN -HBCI 2.2 PIN/TAN (or HBCI+) is an extension to HBCI that added a security method based on PINs and TANs, which had already been in use with BTX and web banking. - -FinTS 3.0 -For version 3.0, which formally introduced the PIN/TAN method, the specification was renamed to FinTS, whereas the original DSA- and RSA-based security method retained the name HBCI. - -FinTS 4.0 -In version 4.0, the basic message syntax was switched over to XML. Further, the number of roundtrips necessary was reduced, allowing asynchronous communication (e.g.",1337272,FinTS,T -608,608.0,608.0,"In chemical engineering, a vapor–liquid separator is a device used to separate a vapor–liquid mixture into its constituent phases. It can be a vertical or horizontal vessel, and can act as a 2-phase or 3-phase separator. -A vapor–liquid separator may also be referred to as a flash drum, breakpot, knock-out drum or knock-out pot, compressor suction drum, suction scrubber or compressor inlet drum, or vent scrubber. When used to remove suspended water droplets from streams of air, it is often called a demister. - -Method of operation -In vapor-liquid separators gravity is utilized to cause the denser fluid (liquid) to settle to the bottom of the vessel where it is withdrawn, less dense fluid (vapor) is withdrawn from the top of the vessel.In low gravity environments such as a space station, a common liquid separator will not function because gravity is not usable as a separation mechanism. In this case, centrifugal force needs to be utilised in a spinning centrifugal separator to drive liquid towards the outer edge of the chamber for removal.",13320206,Vapor–liquid separator,E -609,609.0,609.0,"Isogrid is a type of partially hollowed-out structure formed usually from a single metal plate (or face sheet) with triangular integral stiffening ribs (often called stringers). It was patented by McDonnell Douglas (now part of Boeing). -It is extremely light and stiff. Compared to other materials, it is expensive to manufacture, and so it is restricted to spaceflight applications and some particularly critical parts of more general aerospace use. - -Theory and design -Isogrid structures are related to sandwich-structured composite panels; both can be modeled using sandwich theory, which describes structures with separated, stiff face sheets and a lighter interconnecting layer. Isogrids are manufactured from single sheets of material and with large-scale triangular openings, and an open pattern to the flanges, compared to closed sheets and foam or honeycomb structures for the sandwich-composite structures. -Isogrid structures are constituted by a thin skin reinforced with a lattice structure. Such structures are adopted in the aeronautical industry since they present both structural resistance and lightness.The triangular pattern is very efficient because it retains rigidity while saving material and therefore weight.",6249276,Isogrid,T -610,610.0,610.0,"ZooMumba was a free-to-play zoo simulator developed and published by Bigpoint where players took up the responsibility of creating and maintaining a zoo. Players started with an empty piece of land to transform into a successful zoo. Players had a variety of objects and tools at their disposal to transform the empty piece of land into one of the world’s best zoos. As of July 2018, there were over 17,150,000 registered users of the game, and it was available in 26 different languages. - -Gameplay -The color palette for ZooMumba was very bright and vibrant so that it gave off a fun and family oriented art style. Much of the interactivity in the game revolved around the upkeep of your animals and zoo, making sure that the animals were well taken care of and that your zoo was kept clean.",29644872,ZooMumba,T -611,611.0,611.0,"Prefabrication is the practice of assembling components of a structure in a factory or other manufacturing site, and transporting complete assemblies or sub-assemblies to the construction site where the structure is to be located. Some researchers refer it to “various materials joined together to form a component of the final installation procedure“. The most commonly cited definition is by Goodier and Gibb in 2007, which described the process of manufacturing and preassembly of a certain number of building components, modules, and elements before their shipment and installation on construction sites.The term prefabrication also applies to the manufacturing of things other than structures at a fixed site. It is frequently used when fabrication of a section of a machine or any movable structure is shifted from the main manufacturing site to another location, and the section is supplied assembled and ready to fit. It is not generally used to refer to electrical or electronic components of a machine, or mechanical parts such as pumps, gearboxes and compressors which are usually supplied as separate items, but to sections of the body of the machine which in the past were fabricated with the whole machine.",970599,Prefabrication,E -612,612.0,612.0,"Technology is the application of knowledge for achieving practical goals in a reproducible way. The word technology can also mean the products resulting from such efforts,: 117  including both tangible tools such as utensils or machines, and intangible ones such as software. Technology plays a critical role in science, engineering, and everyday life. -Technological advancements have led to significant changes in society. The earliest known technology is the stone tool, used during prehistoric times, followed by the control of fire, which contributed to the growth of the human brain and the development of language during the Ice Age. The invention of the wheel in the Bronze Age allowed greater travel and the creation of more complex machines.",29816,Technology,M -613,613.0,613.0,"Solventogenesis is the biochemical production of solvents (usually acetone and butanol) by Clostridium species. It is the second phase of ABE fermentation. - -Process -Solventogenic Clostridium species have a biphasic metabolism composed of an acidogenic phase and a solventogenic phase. During acidogenesis, these bacteria are able to convert several carbon sources into organic acids, commonly butyrate and acetate. As acid accumulates, cells begin to assimilate the organic acids to solvents. In Clostridium acetobutylicum, a model solventogenic Clostridium species, a combination of low pH and high undisociated butyrate, referred to as the ""pH-acid effect"", triggers the metabolic shift from acidogenesis to solventogenesis. - -Products -Acetone, butanol, and ethanol are the most common products of solventogenesis.",60069189,Solventogenesis,S -614,614.0,614.0,"In biology, a taxon (back-formation from taxonomy; PL: taxa) is a group of one or more populations of an organism or organisms seen by taxonomists to form a unit. Although neither is required, a taxon is usually known by a particular name and given a particular ranking, especially if and when it is accepted or becomes established. It is very common, however, for taxonomists to remain at odds over what belongs to a taxon and the criteria used for inclusion. If a taxon is given a formal scientific name, its use is then governed by one of the nomenclature codes specifying which scientific name is correct for a particular grouping. -Initial attempts at classifying and ordering organisms (plants and animals) were set forth in Carl Linnaeus's system in Systema Naturae, 10th edition (1758), as well as an unpublished work by Bernard and Antoine Laurent de Jussieu. The idea of a unit-based system of biological classification was first made widely available in 1805 in the introduction of Jean-Baptiste Lamarck's Flore françoise, and Augustin Pyramus de Candolle's Principes élémentaires de botanique.",199556,Taxon,S -615,615.0,615.0,"A bioactive terrarium (or vivarium) is a terrarium for housing one or more terrestrial animal species that includes live plants and populations of small invertebrates and microorganisms to consume and break down the waste products of the primary species. In a functional bioactive terrarium, the waste products will be broken down by these detritivores, reducing or eliminating the need for cage cleaning. Bioactive vivariums are used by zoos and hobbyists to house reptiles and amphibians in an aesthetically pleasing and enriched environment. - -Enclosure -Any terrarium can be made bioactive by addition of the appropriate substrate, plants, and detritivores. Bioactive enclosures are often maintained as display terraria constructed of PVC, wood, glass and/or acrylic. Bioactive enclosures in laboratory ""rack"" style caging are uncommon. - -Cleanup crew -Waste products of the primary species are consumed by a variety of detritivores, referred to as the ""cleanup crew"" by hobbyists.",55931886,Bioactive terrarium,S -616,616.0,616.0,"In engineering and machining, an allowance is a planned deviation between an exact dimension and a nominal or theoretical dimension, or between an intermediate-stage dimension and an intended final dimension. The unifying abstract concept is that a certain amount of difference allows for some known factor of compensation or interference. For example, an area of excess metal may be left because it is needed to complete subsequent machining. Common cases are listed below. An allowance, which is a planned deviation from an ideal, is contrasted with a tolerance, which accounts for expected but unplanned deviations. -Allowance is basically the size difference between components that work together.",17464907,Allowance (engineering),E -617,617.0,617.0,"The Westinghouse Licensing Corporation (now named Wilmerding Licensing Corporation) was a Delaware General Corporation Law organized subsidiary that was founded in 1998 by Westinghouse-CBS (the renamed original Westinghouse) in managing the intellectual property assets relating to the Westinghouse trademarks produced from 1886 until 1996. The Westinghouse name and trademarks were purchased from ViacomCBS in 2021 by a new company Westinghouse Electric Corporation.Westinghouse Licensing had its headquarters in New York City. - -History -All traces of the Westinghouse name go back to the original company's roots starting in 1886 when George Westinghouse founded the company in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. -After the original Westinghouse acquired CBS Inc., it set about transforming itself from a diversified conglomerate with strong industrial roots into a media giant. Starting in 1996, it began selling off many of its non-media assets. -In 1997, Westinghouse acquired Infinity Broadcasting Corporation and was reorganized as the first CBS Corporation, taking on the name of the broadcasting network. -In 1999, CBS Corporation sold all of its nuclear businesses to BNFL and Westinghouse, thus jettisoning its last significant non-media assets. Soon after, BNFL gained license rights on the Westinghouse trademarks and used them to reorganize its newly acquired nuclear assets as Westinghouse Electric Company LLC. Those companies were later sold to the Toshiba Group in 2007, then Brookfield Business Partners in 2018. - -Licensing of the brand -Beginning in 1998, Westinghouse Licensing had licensed the famous brand for use on a multitude of products, some of which were in similar categories to those sold by the historic version of the company.",3564707,Westinghouse Licensing Corporation,T -618,618.0,618.0,"Engineering drawing abbreviations and symbols are used to communicate and detail the characteristics of an engineering drawing. This list includes abbreviations common to the vocabulary of people who work with engineering drawings in the manufacture and inspection of parts and assemblies. -Technical standards exist to provide glossaries of abbreviations, acronyms, and symbols that may be found on engineering drawings. Many corporations have such standards, which define some terms and symbols specific to them; on the national and international level, ASME standard Y14.38 is one of the standards. -Australia utilises the Technical Drawing standards AS1100.101 (General Principals), AS1100-201 (Mechanical Engineering Drawing) and AS1100-301 (Structural Engineering Drawing). - -See also -List of geometric dimensioning and tolerancing symbols - -References -Bibliography -Sources cited -ASME (1997), Y14.35M–1997: Revision of engineering drawings and associated documents, ASME, archived from the original on 2013-04-14. -ASME (2007), Y14.38–2007: Abbreviations and acronyms for use on drawings and related documents, ASME. -French, Thomas E.; Vierck, Charles J.; et al. (1953), A manual of engineering drawing for students and draftsmen (8th ed.), New York, New York, USA: McGraw-Hill, LCCN 52013455. Throughout, but especially pp.",18536062,Engineering drawing abbreviations and symbols,E -619,619.0,619.0,"eBPF (sometimes referred to by the acronym BPF, standing for Berkeley Packet Filter) is a technology that can run sandboxed programs in a privileged context such as the operating system kernel. It is used to safely and efficiently extend the capabilities of the kernel at runtime without requiring to change kernel source code or load kernel modules. Safety is provided through an in-kernel verifier which performs static code analysis and rejects programs which crash, hang or otherwise interfere with the kernel negatively. Examples of programs that are automatically rejected are programs without strong exit guarantees (i.e. for/while loops without exit conditions) and programs dereferencing pointers without safety-checks.",71706441,EBPF,T -620,620.0,620.0,"Archaeocytes (from Greek archaios ""beginning"" and kytos ""hollow vessel"") or amoebocytes are amoeboid cells found in sponges. They are totipotent and have varied functions depending on the species. -The structure of these cells match to that of the stem cells as of containing high cytoplasmic content that helps the cells to morph according to their function. - -Location -Archaeocytes are along with other specialized sponge cells including collencytes and structural elements called spicules. They move about within the mesohyl with amoeba-like movements performing a number of important functions. - -Functions -Cellular differentiation is an essential function of the archaeocyte. All specialized cells within the sponge have its origins with the archaeocyte. This is especially important in reproduction as the sex cells of the sponge in sexual reproduction are formed from these amoeboid cells.",9716795,Archaeocyte,S -621,621.0,621.0,"Code First Girls is a social enterprise that provides free coding courses to women and non-binary people across the UK, Ireland, the USA, Switzerland and the Netherlands. The organization helps companies recruit more women into the tech sector by connecting them with newly trained female developers. Their community of coders, instructors, and mentors is one of the largest in the UK. According to the organisation, as of 2022 they've trained over 50,000 women.The organisation's stated goal is to ""promote gender diversity and female participation in the technology sector by offering free courses for students and professional women who are wanting to re-train."" They also support businesses to train staff and encourage levelling-up for female staff within organisations.As of 2020, Code First Girls is reported to have provided in excess of £10 million worth of free coding courses to more than 18,000 women since 2013.In 2017, Code First Girls announced the launch of the ""Code First: Girls 20:20 campaign"" with the aim to ""train 20,000 women to code for free by the end of 2020"". As of 2018, Code First: Girls have announced ""2020 campaign partnerships"" with the following companies: Bank of America Merrill Lynch; Goldman Sachs; KKR; Trainline; and OVH.",51956589,Code First Girls,T -622,622.0,622.0,"In the field of bioinformatics, a sequence database is a type of biological database that is composed of a large collection of computerized (""digital"") nucleic acid sequences, protein sequences, or other polymer sequences stored on a computer. The UniProt database is an example of a protein sequence database. As of 2013 it contained over 40 million sequences and is growing at an exponential rate. Historically, sequences were published in paper form, but as the number of sequences grew, this storage method became unsustainable. - -Search -Searching in a sequence database involves looking for similarities between a genomic/protein sequence and a query string and, finding the sequence in the database that ""best"" matches the target sequence (based on criteria which vary depending on the search method). The number of matches/hits is used to formulate a score that determines the similarity between the sequence query and the sequences in the sequence database.",366847,Sequence database,S -623,623.0,623.0,"Gunnar Asgeir Sadolin (5 February 1874 – 17 March 1955) was a Danish businessman. - -Early life -Sadolin was born in Valløby, the son of parish priest Ole Jørgen Sadolin (1826–1908) and Louise Suzette Emilie Marcussen (1838–1906). -Sadolin passed the preliminary exams at the University of Copenhagen in 1890 and then worked for half a year in a mechanical workshop. He had aspirations to become an artist and therefore studied at Copenhagen Technical School, the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts and Kristian Zahrtmann's art school in 1890–96. -He was considered a promising student but temporary visual impairment led him into the theoretical and practical study of dyes. Burial finds in Egypt had recently brought attention to encaustic paintings, and this inspired him to conduct a series experiments successful with wax-based dyes. -In 1907, he established a small business, Gunnar A. Sadolins Farvefabrik (paint factory), with funding from his brothers Frode Sadolin and Jørgen Theophilus Sadolin and the physician Olav Høgsbro, who each invested DKK 100 in the venture. The production took place in a single room in Fasangården with Sadolin's fiancé and later wife as the only employee.",59714213,Gunnar Asgeir Sadolin,E -624,624.0,624.0,"In bioinformatics EcoCyc is a biological database for the bacterium Escherichia coli K-12. The EcoCyc project performs literature-based curation of the E. coli genome, and of E. coli transcriptional regulation, transporters, and metabolic pathways. EcoCyc contains written summaries of E.",8894085,EcoCyc,S -625,625.0,625.0,"2012 is a 2009 American science fiction disaster film directed by Roland Emmerich. It was produced by Harald Kloser, Mark Gordon, and Larry J. Franco, and written by Kloser and Emmerich. The film stars John Cusack, Amanda Peet, Chiwetel Ejiofor, Oliver Platt, Thandiwe Newton (credited as Thandie Newton), Danny Glover, and Woody Harrelson. Based on the 2012 phenomenon, its plot follows geologist Adrian Helmsley (Ejiofor) and novelist Jackson Curtis (Cusack) as they struggle to survive an eschatological sequence of events including earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, megatsunamis, and a global flood, all of which were imagined by subscribers to the hypothesis. -Filming, planned for Los Angeles, began in Vancouver in early August 2008 and wrapped up in mid-October 2008.",55805081,2012 (film),M -626,626.0,626.0,"Power Plant Engineering or Power Plant Engineering (English: Power Plant Engineering) abbreviated as TPTL is a branch of the field of Energy engineering , and is defined as the engineering and technology required for the production of an electric power station. Technique is focused on power generation for industry and community, not just for household electricity production. This field is a discipline field using the theoretical basis of mechanical engineering and electrical. The engineering aspects of power generation have developed with technology and are becoming more and more complicated. The introduction of nuclear technology and other existing technology advances have made it possible for power to be created in more ways and on a larger scale than was previously possible.",57164504,Power plant engineering,E -627,627.0,627.0,"A natural product is a natural compound or substance produced by a living organism—that is, found in nature. In the broadest sense, natural products include any substance produced by life. Natural products can also be prepared by chemical synthesis (both semisynthesis and total synthesis) and have played a central role in the development of the field of organic chemistry by providing challenging synthetic targets. The term natural product has also been extended for commercial purposes to refer to cosmetics, dietary supplements, and foods produced from natural sources without added artificial ingredients.Within the field of organic chemistry, the definition of natural products is usually restricted to organic compounds isolated from natural sources that are produced by the pathways of primary or secondary metabolism. Within the field of medicinal chemistry, the definition is often further restricted to secondary metabolites.",1209760,Natural product,M -628,628.0,628.0,"The Ursa Major (lit. Great Bear) at Black Thunder Coal Mine, Wyoming, is the largest dragline excavator currently in use in North America and the third largest ever built. It is a Bucyrus-Erie 2570WS model and cost US$50 million. The Ursa Major was one of five large walking draglines operated at Black Thunder, with the next two largest in the dragline fleet being Thor, a B-E 1570W - which has a 97.5-metre (320 ft) boom and a 69-cubic-metre (2,400 cu ft) bucket - and Walking Stick, a B-E 1300W with a 92-metre (302 ft) boom and a 34-cubic-metre (1,200 cu ft) bucket.Its bucket is 160 cubic yards (120 m3), and it has a 360-foot (110 m) boom. It weighs 14.7 million pounds (6,700 t). - -History -Shortly before the scrapping of Big Muskie in 1999, the largest dragline ever built, construction of another ultraheavy dragline excavator commenced.",22878918,Ursa Major (excavator),E -629,629.0,629.0,"The Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT) is a multilateral treaty to ban nuclear weapons test explosions and any other nuclear explosions, for both civilian and military purposes, in all environments. It was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on 10 September 1996, but has not entered into force, as eight specific nations have not ratified the treaty. - -History -The movement for international control of nuclear weapons began in 1945, with a call from Canada and the United Kingdom for a conference on the subject. In June 1946, Bernard Baruch, an emissary of President Harry S. Truman, proposed the Baruch Plan before the United Nations Atomic Energy Commission, which called for an international system of controls on the production of atomic energy. The plan, which would serve as the basis for U.S.",7851,Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty,T -630,630.0,630.0,"Applied ecology is a sub-field within ecology that considers the application of the science of ecology to real-world (usually management) questions. It is also described as a scientific field that focuses on the application of concepts, theories, models, or methods of fundamental ecology to environmental problems. - -Concept -Applied ecology is an integrated treatment of the ecological, social, and biotechnological aspects of natural resource conservation and management. Applied ecology typically focuses on geomorphology, soils, and plant communities as the underpinnings for vegetation and wildlife (both game and non-game) management. -Applied ecology includes all disciplines that are related to human activities so that it does not only cover agriculture, forestry and fisheries but also global change. It has two study categories. The first involves the outputs or those fields that address the use and management of the environment, particularly for its ecosystem services and exploitable resources.",1254336,Applied ecology,S -631,631.0,631.0,"A mezzanine (; or in Italian, a mezzanino) is an intermediate floor in a building which is partly open to the double-height ceilinged floor below, or which does not extend over the whole floorspace of the building, a loft with non-sloped walls. However, the term is often used loosely for the floor above the ground floor, especially where a very high-ceilinged original ground floor has been split horizontally into two floors. -Mezzanines may serve a wide variety of functions. Industrial mezzanines, such as those used in warehouses, may be temporary or semi-permanent structures. -In Royal Italian architecture, mezzanino also means a chamber created by partitioning that does not go up all the way to the arch vaulting or ceiling; these were historically common in Italy and France, for example in the palaces for the nobility at the Quirinal Palace. - -Definition -A mezzanine is an intermediate floor (or floors) in a building which is open to the floor below. It is placed halfway (mezzo means 'half' in Italian) up the wall on a floor which has a ceiling at least twice as high as a floor with minimum height. A mezzanine does not count as one of the floors in a building, and generally does not count in determining maximum floorspace.",325156,Mezzanine,E -632,632.0,632.0,"Smart Mobility Architecture (SMARC) is a computer hardware standard for computer-on-modules (COMs). -SMARC modules are specifically designed for the development of extremely compact low-power systems, such as mobile devices. - -Specification -The SMARC hardware specification V1.0 was published by the Standardization Group for Embedded Technologies (SGET). SGET had its first meeting in 2012, headed by Engelbert Hörmannsdorfer. -The specification is freely available as a download on the SGET website. -Generally, SMARC modules are based on ARM architecture processors, they can, however, also be fitted with other low-power system on a chip (SoC) architectures, like, for example, ones based on x86 processors. Typically, SMARC modules’ power requirement is in the range of a few watts.Computer-on-modules integrate the core function of a bootable computer, as well as additional circuitry, including DRAM, boot-flash, voltage distribution, Ethernet and display transmitter. The modules are deployed together with an application-specific carrier board, whose size and form can be defined to meet customer-specific requirements. The carrier board executes the required interfaces and can integrate, if required, any further functionalities, such as audio codecs, touch controller, wireless communication interfaces, etc. -The SMARC specification outlines both the dimensions of the module and the positioning of the anchor points as well as the connector to the carrier board and the executed interfaces with the pin-out.",39383574,Smart Mobility Architecture,T -633,633.0,633.0,"Sequential dynamical systems (SDSs) are a class of graph dynamical systems. They are discrete dynamical systems which generalize many aspects of for example classical cellular automata, and they provide a framework for studying asynchronous processes over graphs. The analysis of SDSs uses techniques from combinatorics, abstract algebra, graph theory, dynamical systems and probability theory. - -Definition -An SDS is constructed from the following components: - -A finite graph Y with vertex set v[Y] = {1,2, ... , n}. Depending on the context the graph can be directed or undirected. -A state xv for each vertex i of Y taken from a finite set K.",17590530,Sequential dynamical system,M -634,634.0,634.0,"An electric light, lamp, or light bulb is an electrical component that produces light. It is the most common form of artificial lighting. Lamps usually have a base made of ceramic, metal, glass, or plastic, which secures the lamp in the socket of a light fixture, which is often called a ""lamp"" as well. The electrical connection to the socket may be made with a screw-thread base, two metal pins, two metal caps or a bayonet mount. -The three main categories of electric lights are incandescent lamps, which produce light by a filament heated white-hot by electric current, gas-discharge lamps, which produce light by means of an electric arc through a gas, such as fluorescent lamps, and LED lamps, which produce light by a flow of electrons across a band gap in a semiconductor. -Before electric lighting became common in the early 20th century, people used candles, gas lights, oil lamps, and fires. Vasily Vladimirovich Petrov developed the first persistent electric arc in 1802, and English chemist Humphry Davy gave a practical demonstration of an arc light in 1806.",9656,Electric light,E -635,635.0,635.0,"In video games and other games, the passage of time must be handled in a way that players find fair and easy to understand. This is usually done in one of the two ways: real-time and turn-based. - -Real-time -Real-time games have game time progress continuously according to the game clock. One example of such a game is the sandbox game Terraria, where one day-night cycle of 24 hours is equal to 24 minutes in real time. Players perform actions simultaneously as opposed to in sequential units or turns. Players must perform actions with the consideration that their opponents are actively working against them in real time, and may act at any moment.",14459449,Timekeeping in games,T -636,636.0,636.0,"The global spread of the printing press began with the invention of the printing press with movable type by Johannes Gutenberg in Mainz, Germany c. 1439. Western printing technology was adopted in all world regions by the end of the 19th century, displacing the manuscript and block printing. -In the Western world, the operation of a press became synonymous with the enterprise of publishing and lent its name to a new branch of media, the ""press"" (see List of the oldest newspapers). - -Spread of the Gutenberg press -Germany -Gutenberg's first major print work was the 42-line Bible in Latin, printed probably between 1452 and 1454 in the German city of Mainz. After Gutenberg lost a lawsuit against his investor, Johann Fust, Fust put Gutenberg's employee Peter Schöffer in charge of the print shop. Thereupon Gutenberg established a new one with the financial backing of another money lender. With Gutenberg's monopoly revoked, and the technology no longer secret, printing spread throughout Germany and beyond, diffused first by emigrating German printers, but soon also by foreign apprentices. - -Europe -In rapid succession, printing presses were set up in Central and Western Europe.",7695885,Global spread of the printing press,T -637,637.0,637.0,"Kumospace is a virtual office and virtual events software and eponymous company that develops and maintains it, based in New York City, NY, United States. - -Software workflow -Users can log in as guests without providing an email address. After selecting an avatar, they enter a stylized, video game-like simulation of a physical office with chairs, coffee tables, water coolers, and conference rooms. The platform offers team-building analogs, such as games, music, and drinks (in a virtual bar).Kumospace has ten rooms, each with a challenge you can solve with your team. Over time, Kumospace plans to expand the range of games embedded in the virtual environment.Virtual office spaces come in different sizes and are designed for 30 people. - -Academic research -The software has been the subject of academic papers in USA, Indonesia, Germany, Vietnam and other countries. - -Review -In his 2022 book Jody N. Polleck compares KumoSpace to Zoom, as the main disruptive technologies in communication sphere. - -Financing and chronology -The founders of Kumospace are two friends — Yang Mou and Martin Brett.",73909730,KumoSpace,T -638,638.0,638.0,"Force control refers to the control of the force with which a machine or the manipulator of a robot acts on an object or its environment. By controlling the contact force, damage to the machine as well as to the objects to be processed and injuries when handling people can be prevented. In manufacturing tasks, it can compensate for errors and reduce wear by maintaining a uniform contact force. Force control achieves more consistent results than position control, which is also used in machine control. Force control can be used as an alternative to the usual motion control, but is usually used in a complementary way, in the form of hybrid control concepts.",74609356,Force control,M -639,639.0,639.0,"The Portland Press Excellence in Science Award was an annual award instituted in 1964 to recognize notable research in any branch of biochemistry undertaken in the UK or Republic of Ireland. It was initially called the CIBA Medal and Prize, then the Novartis Medal and Prize. The prize consists of a medal and a £3000 cash award. The winner is invited to present a lecture at a Society conference and submit an article to one of the Society's publications. Notable recipients include the Nobel laureates John E.",58351058,Portland Press Excellence in Science Award,S -640,640.0,640.0,"The Implementation Rules are regulations of the PRC, which set the framework of the valid product standards. For each product group there is a specific implementation rule, which is set by the Chinese authorities. - -Content of the Implementation Rules -The Implementation Rules include 12 or 13 chapters, which determine the scope of the product certification. The following table provides an overview of the most common contents of the Implementation Rules: - -Scope -Terms and definitions -Standards for certification -Certification pattern -Individual product units -Certification commission -Certification procedure -Certificates -Approval procedure -Certification logo -Fees -Responsibilities -Certification rules - -Update of the Implementation Rules -In 2014, the Implementation Rules have been updated, so that from 2015 some changes have come into effect. For example, some product groups, which were previously grouped under one Implementation Rule, are now divided and subject to some different Implementation Rules. Furthermore, new products have been added, which are now subject to the mandatory certification.",47111027,Implementation Rule,T -641,641.0,641.0,"In structural engineering and material science, fast fracture is a phenomenon in which a flaw (such as a crack) in a material expands quickly, and leads to catastrophic failure of the material. It proceeds in high speed and requires a relatively small amount of accumulated strain energy, making it a dangerous failure mode. - -Flaw -Stress acting on a material when fast fracture occurs is less than the material's yield stress. A very representative example of this is what happens when poking a blown up balloon with a needle, that is, fast fracture of the balloon's material. The energy in the balloon comes from the compressed gas inside it and the energy stored in the rubber membrane itself. The introduction of the flaw, which in this case is the pin prick, would lead to the explosion as the membrane fails by fast fracture.",1021118,Fast fracture,M -642,642.0,642.0,"In computer programming, a magic number is any of the following: - -A unique value with unexplained meaning or multiple occurrences which could (preferably) be replaced with a named constant -A constant numerical or text value used to identify a file format or protocol; for files, see List of file signatures -A distinctive unique value that is unlikely to be mistaken for other meanings (e.g., Globally Unique Identifiers) - -Unnamed numerical constants -The term magic number or magic constant refers to the anti-pattern of using numbers directly in source code. This has been referred to as breaking one of the oldest rules of programming, dating back to the COBOL, FORTRAN and PL/1 manuals of the 1960s. The use of unnamed magic numbers in code obscures the developers' intent in choosing that number, increases opportunities for subtle errors (e.g. is every digit correct in 3.14159265358979323846 and is this equal to 3.14159?) and makes it more difficult for the program to be adapted and extended in the future. Replacing all significant magic numbers with named constants (also called explanatory variables) makes programs easier to read, understand and maintain.Names chosen to be meaningful in the context of the program can result in code that is more easily understood by a maintainer who is not the original author (or even by the original author after a period of time).",352996,Magic number (programming),T -643,643.0,643.0,"Natural history specimen dealers had an important role in the development of science in the 18th, 19th and early 20th centuries. They supplied the rapidly growing, both in size and number, museums and educational establishments and private collectors whose collections, either in entirety or parts finally entered museums. -Most sold not just zoological, botanical and geological specimens but also -equipment and books. Many also sold archaeological and ethnographic items. They purchased -specimens from professional and amateur collectors, sometimes collected themselves as well as acting as agents for the sale of -collections. Many were based in mercantile centres notably Amsterdam, Hamburg, and London or -in major cities.",33802674,List of natural history dealers,S -644,644.0,644.0,"In aesthetics, the uncanny valley (Japanese: 不気味の谷, Hepburn: bukimi no tani) is a hypothesized relation between an object's degree of resemblance to a human being and the emotional response to the object. The concept suggests that humanoid objects that imperfectly resemble actual human beings provoke uncanny or strangely familiar feelings of uneasiness and revulsion in observers. ""Valley"" denotes a dip in the human observer's affinity for the replica—a relation that otherwise increases with the replica's human likeness. -Examples of the phenomenon exist among robotics, 3D computer animations and lifelike dolls. The rising prevalence of technologies e.g., virtual reality, augmented reality, and photorealistic computer animation has propagated discussions and citations of the ""valley""; such conversation has enhanced the construct's verisimilitude. The uncanny valley hypothesis predicts that an entity appearing almost human will risk eliciting cold, eerie feelings in viewers. - -Etymology -Robotics professor Masahiro Mori first introduced the concept in 1970 from his book titled Bukimi No Tani (不気味の谷), phrasing it as bukimi no tani genshō (不気味の谷現象, lit. 'uncanny valley phenomenon').",430976,Uncanny valley,T -645,645.0,645.0,"Emanuel Shultz (July 25, 1819 – November 5, 1912) was a shoemaker, merchant, manufacturer, banker and a member of the United States House of Representatives from Ohio for a single term from 1881 to 1883 - -Early life and career -Emanuel Shultz was born in Berks County, Pennsylvania, the son of George and Mary (Vinyard) Shultz. He attended the public schools until he was eleven years old when his father died. He was compelled to leave school and depend on diligent self-study and was soon apprenticed to the trade of shoemaking. In 1838, he moved to Miamisburg, Ohio, where he engaged five to fifteen journeymen to make boots and shoes. -Shultz married Sarah Beck, of Miamisburg, on July 23, 1840. They had three daughters.",5296167,Emanuel Shultz,E -646,646.0,646.0,"Process manufacturing is a branch of manufacturing that is associated with formulas and manufacturing recipes, and can be contrasted with discrete manufacturing, which is concerned with discrete units, bills of materials and the assembly of components. Process manufacturing is also referred to as a 'process industry' which is defined as an industry, such as the chemical or petrochemical industry, that is concerned with the processing of bulk resources into other products.Process manufacturing is common in the food, beverage, chemical, pharmaceutical, nutraceutical, consumer packaged goods, cannabis, and biotechnology industries. In process manufacturing, the relevant factors are ingredients, not parts; formulas, not bills of materials; and bulk materials rather than individual units. Although there is invariably cross-over between the two branches of manufacturing, the major contents of the finished product and the majority of the resource intensity of the production process generally allow manufacturing systems to be classified as one or the other. For example, a bottle of juice is a discrete item, but juice is process manufactured.",12199703,Process manufacturing,E -647,647.0,647.0,"The Bristol Naturalists' Society is an organisation whose objectives include the promotion of the study of natural history, particularly that of the Bristol area, and the conservation of the fauna, flora, and geological sites of Britain. It was founded in 1862 and celebrated its 150th anniversary in 2012. - -Early history -The Bristol Naturalists' Society was established on 8 May 1862. The purpose of the organisation is to promote natural science through a schedule of regular meetings during which scientific subjects are addressed and associated items may be exhibited. Other goals have included the amassing of a library of books connected to natural science, as well as the publication of the Proceedings of the society. Monthly meetings of the general membership are held from October to May at University College, Bristol, the predecessor to the University of Bristol.",36561596,Bristol Naturalists' Society,S -648,648.0,648.0,"The University of Maryland hosted a 1995 conference to examine and discuss the relationship between genetics and crime. It took place from September 22 to 24 at the Aspen Institute in Queenstown, Maryland. It was originally planned for 1992, but was effectively cancelled after the original proposal was met with fierce backlash and accusations of racism. - -Background -Originally planned 1992 conference -In 1992, UMD professor David Wasserman set out to organize a meeting to discuss the potential genetic bases for criminal behavior. The originally planned conference was entitled ""Genetic Factors in Crime: Findings, Uses and Implications"", and was scheduled to be held on the University of Maryland's College Park campus on October 9, 1992. It was to be funded by a $78,000 grant from the National Institutes of Health (NIH).When the planned conference became known to the public, it faced swift backlash and condemnation from civil rights activists, as well as from Peter Breggin, a prominent critic of psychiatry.",58042232,1995 University of Maryland conference on crime and genetics,S -649,649.0,649.0,"Carbon nanofoam is an allotrope of carbon discovered in 1997 by Andrei V. Rode and co-workers at the Australian National University in Canberra. It consists of a cluster-assembly of carbon atoms strung together in a loose three-dimensional web. The fractal-like bond structure consists of sp2 graphite-like clusters connected by sp3 bonds. The sp3 bonds are located mostly on the surface of the structure and make up 15% to 45% of the material, making its framework similar to diamond-like carbon films.",739628,Carbon nanofoam,E -650,650.0,650.0,"Biological constraints are factors which make populations resistant to evolutionary change. One proposed definition of constraint is ""A property of a trait that, although possibly adaptive in the environment in which it originally evolved, acts to place limits on the production of new phenotypic variants."" Constraint has played an important role in the development of such ideas as homology and body plans. - -Types of constraint -Any aspect of an organism that has not changed over a certain period of time could be considered to provide evidence for ""constraint"" of some sort. To make the concept more useful, it is therefore necessary to divide it into smaller units. First, one can consider the pattern of constraint as evidenced by phylogenetic analysis and the use of phylogenetic comparative methods; this is often termed phylogenetic inertia, or phylogenetic constraint. It refers to the tendency of related taxa sharing traits based on phylogeny.",6920635,Biological constraints,S -651,651.0,651.0,"Hypercolor was a line of clothing, mainly T-shirts and shorts, that changed color with heat.They were manufactured by Generra Sportswear Company of Seattle and marketed in the United States as Generra Hypercolor or Generra Hypergrafix and elsewhere as Global Hypercolor. They contained a thermochromic pigment made by Matsui Shikiso Chemical of Japan, that changed between two colors—one when cold, one when warm. The shirts were produced with several color change choices beginning in 1991. The effect could easily be permanently damaged, particularly when the clothing was washed in hotter than recommended water, ironed, bleached, or tumble-dried.Generra Sportswear Co. had originally been founded as a men's sportswear distributor and importer in Seattle in 1980.",1064401,Hypercolor,M -652,652.0,652.0,"Historia Naturalis Brasiliae (English: Brazilian Natural History), originally written in Latin, is the first scientific work on the natural history of Brazil, written by Dutch naturalist Willem Piso and containing research done by the German scientist Georg Marcgraf, published in 1648. The work includes observations made by the German naturalist H. Gralitzio, in addition to humanist Johannes de Laet. It was dedicated to Johan Maurits, Count of Nassau, who was the patron of the project during the period of Dutch rule in Brazil.Though referring to Brazil generally throughout the text, the authors' research was of the coastal strip of the Northeast, occupied by the Dutch West India Company. It is based on Marcgraf and Piso's time in Brazil, starting in 1637.",25214567,Historia Naturalis Brasiliae,S -653,653.0,653.0,"Uniface is a low-code development and deployment platform for enterprise applications that can run in a large range of runtime environments, including mobile, mainframe, web, Service-oriented architecture (SOA), Windows, Java EE, and .NET. Uniface is used to create mission-critical applications. -Uniface applications are database- and platform-independent. Uniface provides an integration framework that enables Uniface applications to integrate with all major DBMS products such as Oracle, Microsoft SQL Server, MySQL and IBM Db2. In addition, Uniface also supports file systems such as RMS (HP OpenVMS), Sequential files, operating system text files and a wide range of other technologies, such as IBM mainframe-based products (CICS, IMS), web services, SMTP, POP email, LDAP directories, .NET, ActiveX, Component Object Model (COM), C(++) programs, and Java. Uniface operates under Microsoft Windows, various flavors of Unix, Linux, CentOS and IBM i. -Uniface can be used in complex systems that maintain critical enterprise data supporting mission-critical business processes such as point-of sale and web-based online shopping, financial transactions, salary administration, and inventory control.",2905637,Uniface (programming language),T -654,654.0,654.0,"In mathematics, computer science and network science, network theory is a part of graph theory. It defines networks as graphs where the nodes or edges possess attributes. Network theory analyses these networks over the symmetric relations or asymmetric relations between their (discrete) components. -Network theory has applications in many disciplines, including statistical physics, particle physics, computer science, electrical engineering, biology, archaeology, linguistics, economics, finance, operations research, climatology, ecology, public health, sociology, psychology, and neuroscience. Applications of network theory include logistical networks, the World Wide Web, Internet, gene regulatory networks, metabolic networks, social networks, epistemological networks, etc.; see List of network theory topics for more examples. -Euler's solution of the Seven Bridges of Königsberg problem is considered to be the first true proof in the theory of networks. - -Network optimization -Network problems that involve finding an optimal way of doing something are studied as combinatorial optimization. Examples include network flow, shortest path problem, transport problem, transshipment problem, location problem, matching problem, assignment problem, packing problem, routing problem, critical path analysis, and program evaluation and review technique. - -Network analysis -Electric network analysis -The analysis of electric power systems could be conducted using network theory from two main points of view: - -An abstract perspective (i.e., as a graph consists from nodes and edges), regardless of the electric power aspects (e.g., transmission line impedances).",766409,Network theory,M -655,655.0,655.0,"Survivability is the ability to remain alive or continue to exist. The term has more specific meaning in certain contexts. - -Ecological -Following disruptive forces such as flood, fire, disease, war, or climate change some species of flora, fauna, and local life forms are likely to survive more successfully than others because of consequent changes to their surrounding biophysical conditions. - -Engineering -In engineering, survivability is the quantified ability of a system, subsystem, equipment, process, or procedure to continue to function during and after a natural or man-made disturbance; for example a nuclear electromagnetic pulse from the detonation of a nuclear weapon. -For a given application, survivability must be qualified by specifying the range of conditions over which the entity will survive, the minimum acceptable level or post-disturbance functionality, and the maximum acceptable downtime. - -Military -In the military environment, survivability can be defined as the ability to remain mission capable after a single engagement. Engineers working in survivability are often responsible for improving four main system elements: -Detectability - the inability to avoid being aurally and visually detected as well as detected by radar (by an observer). -Susceptibility - the inability to avoid being hit (by a weapon). -Vulnerability - the inability to withstand the hit. -Recoverability - longer-term post-hit effects, damage control, and firefighting, capability restoration, or (in extremis) escape and evacuation.The European Survivability Workshop introduced the concept of ""Mission Survivability"" whilst retaining the three core areas above, either pertaining to the ""survivability"" of a platform through a complete mission, or the ""survivability"" of the mission itself (i.e. probability of mission success). Recent studies have also introduced the concept of ""Force Survivability"" which relates to the ability of a force rather than an individual platform to remain ""mission capable"". -There is no clear prioritisation of the three elements; this will depend on the characteristics and role of the platform.",41764,Survivability,E -656,656.0,656.0,"An artificial womb or artificial uterus is a device that would allow for extracorporeal pregnancy by growing a fetus outside the body of an organism that would normally carry the fetus to term. -An artificial uterus, as a replacement organ, would have many applications. It could be used to assist male or female couples in the development of a fetus. This can potentially be performed as a switch from a natural uterus to an artificial uterus, thereby moving the threshold of fetal viability to a much earlier stage of pregnancy. In this sense, it can be regarded as a neonatal incubator with very extended functions. It could also be used for the initiation of fetal development.",1473331,Artificial womb,T -657,657.0,657.0,"A continual improvement process, also often called a continuous improvement process (abbreviated as CIP or CI), is an ongoing effort to improve products, services, or processes. These efforts can seek ""incremental"" improvement over time or ""breakthrough"" improvement all at once. Delivery (customer valued) processes are constantly evaluated and improved in the light of their efficiency, effectiveness and flexibility. -Some see continual improvement processes as a meta-process for most management systems (such as business process management, quality management, project management, and program management). W. Edwards Deming, a pioneer of the field, saw it as part of the 'system' whereby feedback from the process and customer were evaluated against organisational goals.",13984693,Continual improvement process,E -658,658.0,658.0,"High throughput biology (or high throughput cell biology) is the use of automation equipment with classical cell biology techniques to address biological questions that are otherwise unattainable using conventional methods. It may incorporate techniques from optics, chemistry, biology or image analysis to permit rapid, highly parallel research into how cells function, interact with each other and how pathogens exploit them in disease.High throughput cell biology has many definitions, but is most commonly defined by the search for active compounds in natural materials like in medicinal plants. This is also known as high throughput screening (HTS) and is how most drug discoveries are made today, many cancer drugs, antibiotics, or viral antagonists have been discovered using HTS. The process of HTS also tests substances for potentially harmful chemicals that could be potential human health risks. HTS generally involves hundreds of samples of cells with the model disease and hundreds of different compounds being tested from a specific source.",18101603,High throughput biology,S -659,659.0,659.0,"Vicalloy is a family of cobalt-iron-vanadium wrought ferromagnetic alloys which have high coercivity and are used to make permanent magnets and other magnetic components. Vicalloy is precipitation hardened and can be formed by a number of cold working techniques. It is commonly used in electromechanical device applications, such as Wiegand wires because it shows a large Wiegand effect. -It consists of 52% cobalt, 10% vanadium, trace amounts of elements such as carbon and manganese, and balance (~37%) iron.Its magnetic maximum energy product BHmax is 1 MGOe when cast and as high as 3.5 MGOe when appropriately cold worked.'Vicalloy' was used in hysteresis motors both in solid and laminated form (for higher frequency applications) by Vactric Ltd and Walter Jones Ltd - neither company still exist- using material produced and processed by Telcon Ltd (now owned by Carpenter Technology Corporation) from about 2008. 'Electrical Times' published an article 'Magnetic Alloys for Hysteresis Motors' by D.R. Driver on 10 August 1967 which includes some magnetic characteristics of Vicalloy and P6 alloy.",2027605,Vicalloy,M -660,660.0,660.0,"Climate engineering (also called geoengineering) is a term used for both carbon dioxide removal and solar radiation management, also called solar geoengineering, when applied at a planetary scale.: 6–11  However, they have very different geophysical characteristics which is why the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change no longer uses this overarching term.: 6–11  Carbon dioxide removal approaches are part of climate change mitigation. Solar geoengineering involves reflecting some sunlight (solar radiation) back to space. All forms of geoengineering are not a standalone solution to climate change, but need to be coupled with other forms of climate change mitigation. Another approach to geoengineering is to increase the Earth's thermal emittance through passive radiative cooling.Carbon dioxide removal is defined as ""Anthropogenic activities removing carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere and durably storing it in geological, terrestrial, or ocean reservoirs, or in products. It includes existing and potential anthropogenic enhancement of biological or geochemical CO2 sinks and direct air carbon dioxide capture and storage, but excludes natural CO2 uptake not directly caused by human activities.""Some types of climate engineering are highly controversial due to the large uncertainties around effectiveness, side effects and unforeseen consequences.",1038280,Climate engineering,E -661,661.0,661.0,"In standardization, a profile is a subset internal to a specification. Aspects of a complex technical specification may necessarily have more than one interpretation, and there are probably many optional features. These aspects constitute a profile of the standard. Two implementations engineered from the same description may not interoperate due to having a different profile of the standard. Vendors can even ignore features that they view as unimportant, yet prevail in the long run.",5195650,Profile (engineering),E -662,662.0,662.0,"Synthetic biology (SynBio) is a multidisciplinary field of science that focuses on living systems and organisms, and it applies engineering principles to develop new biological parts, devices, and systems or to redesign existing systems found in nature.It is a branch of science that encompasses a broad range of methodologies from various disciplines, such as biotechnology, biomaterials, material science/engineering, genetic engineering, molecular biology, molecular engineering, systems biology, membrane science, biophysics, chemical and biological engineering, electrical and computer engineering, control engineering and evolutionary biology. -It includes designing and constructing biological modules, biological systems, and biological machines, or re-designing existing biological systems for useful purposes.Additionally, it is the branch of science that focuses on the new abilities of engineering into existing organisms to redesign them for useful purposes.In order to produce predictable and robust systems with novel functionalities that do not already exist in nature, it is also necessary to apply the engineering paradigm of systems design to biological systems. According to the European Commission, this possibly involves a molecular assembler based on biomolecular systems such as the ribosome. - -History -1910: First identifiable use of the term synthetic biology in Stéphane Leduc's publication Théorie physico-chimique de la vie et générations spontanées. He also noted this term in another publication, La Biologie Synthétique in 1912.1944: Canadian-American scientist Oswald Avery shows that DNA is the material of which genes and chromosomes are made. This becomes the bedrock on which all subsequent genetic research is built.1953: Francis Crick and James Watson publish the structure of the DNA in Nature. -1961: Jacob and Monod postulate cellular regulation by molecular networks from their study of the lac operon in E. coli and envisioned the ability to assemble new systems from molecular components.1973: First molecular cloning and amplification of DNA in a plasmid is published in P.N.A.S.",841429,Synthetic biology,S -663,663.0,663.0,"In statistics, Halton sequences are sequences used to generate points in space for numerical methods such as Monte Carlo simulations. Although these sequences are deterministic, they are of low discrepancy, that is, appear to be random for many purposes. They were first introduced in 1960 and are an example of a quasi-random number sequence. They generalize the one-dimensional van der Corput sequences. - -Example of Halton sequence used to generate points in (0, 1) × (0, 1) in R2 -The Halton sequence is constructed according to a deterministic method that uses coprime numbers as its bases. As a simple example, let's take one dimension of the Halton sequence to be based on 2 and the other on 3.",631188,Halton sequence,M -664,664.0,664.0,"Home Assistant is free and open-source software for home automation designed to be a central control system for smart home devices with a focus on local control and privacy. It can be accessed through a web-based user interface by using companion apps for Android and iOS, or by voice commands via a supported virtual assistant such as Google Assistant or Amazon Alexa. -After the Home Assistant software application is installed as a computer appliance, it will act as a central control system for home automation, commonly referred to as a smart home hub, that has the purpose of controlling IoT connectivity technology devices, software, applications and services which are supported by modular integration components, including native integration components for wireless communication protocols such as Bluetooth, Zigbee, and Z-Wave (used to create local personal area networks with small low-power digital radios), as well as having support for controlling both open and proprietary ecosystems if they provide public access via example an Open API or MQTT for third-party integrations over the local area network or the Internet. -Information from all devices and their attributes (entities) that the Home Assistant software application sees can be used and controlled from within scripts trigger automation using scheduling and ""blueprint"" subroutines, e.g. for controlling lighting, climate, entertainment systems and home appliances. - -History -The project was started as a Python application by Paulus Schoutsen in September 2013 and first published publicly on GitHub in November 2013.In July 2017, a managed operating system called Hass.io was initially introduced to make it easier to use Home Assistant on single-board computers like the Raspberry Pi series. Its bundled ""supervisor"" management system allowed users to manage, backup, update the local installation and introduced the option to extend the functionality of the software with add-ons.An optional subscription service was introduced in December 2017 to solve the complexities associated with secured remote access, as well as linking to Amazon Alexa and Google Assistant.",64087649,Home Assistant,T -665,665.0,665.0,"Protein precipitation is widely used in downstream processing of biological products in order to concentrate proteins and purify them from various contaminants. For example, in the biotechnology industry protein precipitation is used to eliminate contaminants commonly contained in blood. The underlying mechanism of precipitation is to alter the solvation potential of the solvent, more specifically, by lowering the solubility of the solute by addition of a reagent. - -General principles -The solubility of proteins in aqueous buffers depends on the distribution of hydrophilic and hydrophobic amino acid residues on the protein's surface. Hydrophobic residues predominantly occur in the globular protein core, but some exist in patches on the surface. Proteins that have high hydrophobic amino acid content on the surface have low solubility in an aqueous solvent.",8253098,Protein precipitation,S -666,666.0,666.0,"Digital image correlation analyses have applications in material property characterization, displacement measurement, and strain mapping. As such, DIC is becoming an increasingly popular tool when evaluating the thermo-mechanical behavior of electronic components and systems. - -CTE measurements and glass transition temperature identification -The most common application of DIC in the electronics industry is the measurement of coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE). Because it is a non-contact, full-field surface technique, DIC is ideal for measuring the effective CTE of printed circuit boards (PCB) and individual surfaces of electronic components. It is especially useful for characterizing the properties of complex integrated circuits, as the combined thermal expansion effects of the substrate, molding compound, and die make effective CTE difficult to estimate at the substrate surface with other experimental methods. DIC techniques can be used to calculate average in-plane strain as a function of temperature over an area of interest during a thermal profile.",55524455,Digital image correlation for electronics,T -667,667.0,667.0,"This article contains a list of the most studied restriction enzymes whose names start with Ba to Bc inclusive. It contains approximately 120 enzymes. -The following information is given: - -Enzyme: Accepted name of the molecule, according to the internationally adopted nomenclature, and bibliographical references. (Further reading: see the section ""Nomenclature"" in the article ""Restriction enzyme"".) -PDB code: Code used to identify the structure of a protein in the PDB database of protein structures. The 3D atomic structure of a protein provides highly valuable information to understand the intimate details of its mechanism of action. -Source: Organism that naturally produces the enzyme. -Recognition sequence: Sequence of DNA recognized by the enzyme and to which it specifically binds. -Cut: Cutting site and DNA products of the cut. The recognition sequence and the cutting site usually match, but sometimes the cutting site can be dozens of nucleotides away from the recognition site. -Isoschizomers and neoschizomers: An isoschizomer is an enzyme that recognizes the same sequence as another.",27456286,List of restriction enzyme cutting sites: Ba–Bc,S -668,668.0,668.0,"DAPNET (Decentralised Amateur Paging Network) is a free global paging network created and maintained by amateur radio enthusiasts. Messages can be received on commercially available pagers that support the POCSAG protocol and tuned to the appropriate frequency. - -History -The project was originally called FunkrufMaster and was created in Germany by the initiative of the staff of the RWTH Aachen University. In 2016, the name was changed to Funkrufmaster 2.0 and then to DAPNET. As of March 2018, over 90 transmitters were already in permanent operation, and the coverage area included parts of Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium, and Switzerland. - -Technical specifications -The recommended frequency for DAPNET is 439.9875 MHz, which is 12.5 kHz below the upper limit of the 70-cm amateur radio band. The transmitters are networked, some via HAMNET, some via the Internet.",74409878,DAPNET,T -669,669.0,669.0,"A report card, or just report in British English, Progress Report , Achievement Report, communicates a student's performance academically. In most places, the report card is issued by the school to the student or the student's parents once to four times yearly. A typical report card uses a grading scale to determine the quality of a student's school work. Report cards are now frequently issued in automated form by computers and may be mailed to. Traditional school report cards contained a section for teachers to record individual comments about the student's work and behavior.",8954630,Report card,T -670,670.0,670.0,"A modular vehicle is one in which substantial components of the vehicle are interchangeable. This modularity is intended to make repairs and maintenance easier, or to allow the vehicle to be reconfigured to suit different functions. -Another application of modular vehicle design is to enable the exchange of batteries in an electric vehicle. -In a modular electric vehicle, the power system, wheels and suspension can be contained in a single module or chassis. When the batteries need recharging, the vehicle's body is lifted off and placed onto a fresh power module. By using this Modular Vehicle system, the vehicle's batteries do not have to be removed or reinstalled, and their connections remain intact. - -History of the modern modular vehicle -The world's first road-licensed quick-change modular electric vehicle, based on a patent awarded to Dr Gordon E Dower in 2000, was shown at the World Electric Vehicle Association 2003 Electric Vehicle Symposium EVS-20 in Long Beach, California, USA. -Dower described the vehicle's two parts as its motorized deck, shortened to Modek, and its ""containing module"" or Ridon.",36701390,Modular vehicle,E -671,671.0,671.0,"The Biefeld–Brown effect is an electrical phenomenon that produces an ionic wind that transfers its momentum to surrounding neutral particles. It describes a force observed on an asymmetric capacitor when high voltage is applied to the capacitor's electrodes. Once suitably charged up to high DC potentials, a thrust at the negative terminal, pushing it away from the positive terminal, is generated. The effect was named by inventor Thomas Townsend Brown who claimed that he did a series of experiments with professor of astronomy Paul Alfred Biefeld, a former teacher of Brown whom Brown claimed was his mentor and co-experimenter at Denison University in Ohio.The use of an asymmetric capacitor, with the negative electrode being larger than the positive electrode, allowed for more thrust to be produced in the direction from the low-flux to the high-flux region compared to a conventional capacitor. These asymmetric capacitors became known as Asymmetrical Capacitor Thrusters (ACT).",184495,Biefeld–Brown effect,T -672,672.0,672.0,"The history of General Motors (GM), one of the world's largest car and truck manufacturers, dates back more than a century and involves a vast scope of industrial activity around the world, mostly focused on motorized transportation and the engineering and manufacturing that make it possible. Founded in 1908 as a holding company in Flint, Michigan, as of 2012 it employed approximately 209,000 people around the world. With global headquarters at the Renaissance Center in Detroit, Michigan, United States, General Motors manufactures cars and trucks in 35 countries. In 2008, 8.35 million GM cars and trucks were sold globally under various brands. Current auto brands are Buick, Cadillac, Chevrolet, GMC, Baojun, and Wuling.",10561838,History of General Motors,E -673,673.0,673.0,"Operational design domain (ODD) is a term for a set of operating conditions for an automated system, often used in the field of autonomous vehicles. These operating conditions include environmental, geographical and time of day constraints, traffic and roadway characteristics. The ODD is used by manufacturers to indicate where their product will operate safely.The concept of ODD indicates that autonomated systems have limitations and that they should operate within predefined restrictions to ensure safety and performance. Defining an ODD is important for developers and regulators to establish clear expectations and communicate the intended operating conditions of automated systems. -Beyond self-driving cars, ODD is also used for autonomous ships, autonomous trains, agricultural robots, and other robots. - -ODD in standards -Structure of ODD -A report by US Department of Transportation subdivides an ODD description into six top-level categories and further immediate subcategories. The top-level categories are the physical infrastructure, operational constraints, objects, connectivity, environemental conditions and zones.",74007634,Operational design domain,T -674,674.0,674.0,"An Artificial Lateral Line (ALL) is a biomimetic lateral line system. A lateral line is a system of sensory organs in aquatic animals such as fish, that serves to detect movement, vibration, and pressure gradients in their environment. An artificial lateral line is an artificial biomimetic array of distinct mechanosensory transducers that, similarly, permits the formation of a spatial-temporal image of the sources in immediate vicinity based on hydrodynamic signatures; the purpose is to assist in obstacle avoidance and object tracking. The biomimetic lateral line system has the potential to improve navigation in underwater vehicles when vision is partially or fully compromised. Underwater navigation is challenging due to the rapid attenuation of radio frequency and Global Positioning System signals.",62170643,Artificial lateral line,S -675,675.0,675.0,"This glossary of statistics and probability is a list of definitions of terms and concepts used in the mathematical sciences of statistics and probability, their sub-disciplines, and related fields. For additional related terms, see Glossary of mathematics and Glossary of experimental design. - -A -admissible decision rule - -algebra of random variables - -alternative hypothesis - -analysis of variance - -atomic event -Another name for elementary event. - -B -bar chart - -Bayes' theorem - -Bayes estimator - -Bayes factor - -Bayesian inference - -bias -1. Any feature of a sample that is not representative of the larger population. -2. The difference between the expected value of an estimator and the true value. - -binary data -Data that can take only two values, usually represented by the binary digits 0 and 1. - -binomial distribution - -bivariate analysis -A type of quantitative statistical analysis in which exactly two variables are analyzed, for the purpose of determining the empirical relationship between them. Contrast multivariate analysis. - -blocking -In experimental design, the arranging of experimental units in groups (""blocks"") that are similar to one another.",2142850,Glossary of probability and statistics,M -676,676.0,676.0,"Nano tape, also called gecko tape; marketed under the name Alien Tape, is a synthetic adhesive tape consisting of arrays of carbon nanotubes transferred onto a backing material of flexible polymer tape. These arrays are called synthetic setae and mimic the nanostructures found on the toes of a gecko; this is an example of biomimicry. The adhesion is achieved not with chemical adhesives, but via van der Waals forces, which are weak electric forces generated between two atoms or molecules that are very close to each other. - -Explanation -Geckos show a remarkable ability to climb smooth vertical surfaces at high speeds, exhibiting both strong attachment and easy rapid removal, or shear adhesion, of their feet.On a gecko's foot, micrometer-sized elastic hairs called setae are split into nanometer-sized structures called spatulas. The shear adhesion is achieved by forming and breaking van der Waals forces between these microscopic structures and the substrate.Nano tapes mimic these structures with carbon nanotube bundles, which simulate setae, and individual nanotubes, which simulate spatulas, to achieve macroscopic shear adhesion and to translate the weak van der Waals interactions into high shear forces. The shear adhesion allows the tape to be easily peeled off, in the manner a gecko lifts its foot.",67352502,Nano tape,S -677,677.0,677.0,"Radioactivity is generally used in life sciences for highly sensitive and direct measurements of biological phenomena, and for visualizing the location of biomolecules radiolabelled with a radioisotope. -All atoms exist as stable or unstable isotopes and the latter decay at a given half-life ranging from attoseconds to billions of years; radioisotopes useful to biological and experimental systems have half-lives ranging from minutes to months. In the case of the hydrogen isotope tritium (half-life = 12.3 years) and carbon-14 (half-life = 5,730 years), these isotopes derive their importance from all organic life containing hydrogen and carbon and therefore can be used to study countless living processes, reactions, and phenomena. Most short lived isotopes are produced in cyclotrons, linear particle accelerators, or nuclear reactors and their relatively short half-lives give them high maximum theoretical specific activities which is useful for detection in biological systems. - -Radiolabeling is a technique used to track the passage of a molecule that incorporates a radioisotope through a reaction, metabolic pathway, cell, tissue, organism, or biological system. The reactant is 'labeled' by replacing specific atoms by their isotope. Replacing an atom with its own radioisotope is an intrinsic label that does not alter the structure of the molecule.",8355163,Radioactivity in the life sciences,S -678,678.0,678.0,"Evinacumab, sold under the brand name Evkeeza, is a monoclonal antibody medication for the treatment of homozygous familial hypercholesterolemia (HoFH).Common side effects include nasopharyngitis (cold), influenza-like illness, dizziness, rhinorrhea (runny nose), and nausea. Serious hypersensitivity (allergic) reactions have occurred in the Evkeeza clinical trials.Evinacumab binds to the angiopoietin-like protein 3 (ANGPTL3). ANGPTL3 slows the function of certain enzymes that break down fats in the body. Evinacumab blocks ANGPTL3, allowing faster break down of fats that lead to high cholesterol. Evinacumab was approved for medical use in the United States in February 2021.",46661780,Evinacumab,S -679,679.0,679.0,"A113 is a studio code and its variants are an inside joke and Easter egg in media developed by alumni of California Institute of the Arts, referring to the classroom used by graphic design and character animation students. - -History -Students who have used the classroom include John Lasseter, Tim Burton, Michael Peraza, and Brad Bird. It has appeared in other Disney movies and almost every Pixar movie.Brad Bird first used it for a license plate number in the ""Family Dog"" episode of Amazing Stories: ""I put it into every single one of my films, including my Simpsons episodes—it's sort of my version of caricaturist Al Hirschfeld's 'Nina'."" It also appears in South Park, Aqua Teen Hunger Force, Family Guy, American Dad!, Doctor Who and the SPA Studios animated film Klaus (2019). The first Disney movie Bird used it in was The Brave Little Toaster (1987), in which he worked on as an animator. It can be seen as The Master's apartment address when Toaster and his friends knock on the door. - -See also -List of Pixar film references -List of filmmaker's signatures -42 – The Answer to the Ultimate Question of Life, the Universe, and Everything, first used by Douglas Adams in The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy, often used as an in-joke. -Goroawase, a common Japanese language stylistic recourse in which numerical codes representing words are created with syllables that can be used to pronounce each numeral. - -References -Bibliography -Pixar (2017-09-29). ""Pixar Did You Know: A113 - Disney•Pixar"".",873352,A113,T -680,680.0,680.0,"Directed assembly of micro- and nano-structures are methods of mass-producing micro to nano devices and materials. Directed assembly allows the accurate control of assembly of micro and nano particles to form even the most intricate and highly functional devices or materials. - -Directed self-assembly -Directed self-assembly (DSA) is a type of directed assembly which utilizes block co-polymer morphology to create lines, space and hole patterns, facilitating for a more accurate control of the feature shapes. Then it uses surface interactions as well as polymer thermodynamics to finalize the formation of the final pattern shapes. To control the surface interactions enabling sub-10 nm resolution, a team consisting of Massachusetts Institute of Technology, University of Chicago, and Argonne National Laboratory developed a way to use vapor-phase deposited polymeric top layer on the block co-polymer film in 2017.The DSA is not a standalone process, but rather is integrated with traditional manufacturing processes in order to mass-produce micro and nano structures at a lower cost. Directed self-assembly is mostly used in the semiconductor and hard drive industries.",49261105,Directed assembly of micro- and nano-structures,E -681,681.0,681.0,"In computer science and discrete mathematics, an inversion in a sequence is a pair of elements that are out of their natural order. - -Definitions -Inversion -Let - - - - π - - - {\displaystyle \pi } - be a permutation. -There is an inversion of - - - - π - - - {\displaystyle \pi } - between - - - - i - - - {\displaystyle i} - and - - - - j - - - {\displaystyle j} - if - - - - i - < - j - - - {\displaystyle i - π - ( - j - ) - - - {\displaystyle \pi (i)>\pi (j)} - . The inversion is indicated by an ordered pair containing either the places - - - - ( - i - , - j - ) - - - {\displaystyle (i,j)} - or the elements - - - - - - ( - - - π - ( - i - ) - , - π - ( - j - ) - - - ) - - - - - {\displaystyle {\bigl (}\pi (i),\pi (j){\bigr )}} - .The inversion set is the set of all inversions. A permutation's inversion set using place-based notation is the same as the inverse permutation's inversion set using element-based notation with the two components of each ordered pair exchanged. Likewise, a permutation's inversion set using element-based notation is the same as the inverse permutation's inversion set using place-based notation with the two components of each ordered pair exchanged.Inversions are usually defined for permutations, but may also be defined for sequences:Let - - - - S - - - {\displaystyle S} - be a sequence (or multiset permutation).",21473801,Inversion (discrete mathematics),M -682,682.0,682.0,"In IETF specifications, a Uniform Resource Characteristic (URC) is a string of characters representing the metadata of a Uniform Resource Identifier (URI), a string identifying a Web resource. URC metadata was envisioned to include sufficient information to support persistent identifiers, such as mapping a Uniform Resource Name (URN) to a current Uniform Resource Locator (URL). URCs were proposed as a specification in the mid-1990s, but were never adopted. -The use of a URC would allow the location of a Web resource to be obtained from its standard name, via the use of a resolving service. It was also to be possible to obtain a URC from a URN by the use of a resolving service. The design goals of URCs were that they should be simple to use, easy to extend, and compatible with a wide range of technological systems.",9888705,Uniform Resource Characteristic,T -683,683.0,683.0,"Vehicular automation involves the use of mechatronics, artificial intelligence, and multi-agent systems to assist the operator of a vehicle (car, aircraft, watercraft, or otherwise). These features and the vehicles employing them may be labeled as intelligent or smart. A vehicle using automation for difficult tasks, especially navigation, to ease but not entirely replace human input, may be referred to as semi-autonomous, whereas a vehicle relying solely on automation is called robotic or autonomous.Both of these types are instantiated in today's various self-driving cars, unmanned surface vehicles, autonomous trains, advanced airliner autopilots, drone aircraft, and planetary rovers, as well as guided rockets and missiles. After the invention of the integrated circuit, the sophistication of automation technology increased. Manufacturers and researchers subsequently added a variety of automated functions to automobiles and other vehicles.",5071866,Vehicular automation,E -684,684.0,684.0,"A million service units (MSU) is a measurement of the amount of processing work a computer can perform in one hour. The term is most commonly associated with IBM mainframes. It reflects how IBM rates the machine in terms of charging capacity. The technical measure of processing power on IBM mainframes, however, are Service Units per second (or SU/sec). -One “service unit” originally related to an actual hardware performance measurement (a specific model’s instruction performance). However, that relationship disappeared many years ago as hardware and software evolved.",2505273,Million service units,T -685,685.0,685.0,"Vieques (; Spanish pronunciation: [ˈbjekes]), officially Isla de Vieques, is an island and municipality of Puerto Rico, in the northeastern Caribbean, part of an island grouping sometimes known as the Spanish Virgin Islands. Vieques is part of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, and retains strong influences from 400 years of Spanish presence in the island. -Vieques lies about 8 miles (13 km) east of the Puerto Rican mainland, and measures about 20 miles (32 km) long by 4.5 miles (7 km) wide. Its most populated barrio is the town of Isabel Segunda (sometimes written ""Isabel II""), the administrative center located on the northern side of the island. The population of Vieques was 8,249 at the 2020 Census. -The island's name is a Spanish spelling of a Taíno word said to mean ""small island"" or ""small land"". It also has the nickname Isla Nena, usually translated as ""Little Girl Island"", alluding to its perception as Puerto Rico's little sister.",83529,"Vieques, Puerto Rico",S -686,686.0,686.0,"A machine shop or engineering workshop is a room, building, or company where machining, a form of subtractive manufacturing, is done. In a machine shop, machinists use machine tools and cutting tools to make parts, usually of metal or plastic (but sometimes of other materials such as glass or wood). A machine shop can be a small business (such as a job shop) or a portion of a factory, whether a toolroom or a production area for manufacturing. The building construction and the layout of the place and equipment vary, and are specific to the shop; for instance, the flooring in one shop may be concrete, or even compacted dirt, and another shop may have asphalt floors. A shop may be air-conditioned or not; but in other shops it may be necessary to maintain a controlled climate.",3683130,Machine shop,E -687,687.0,687.0,"Comet Man (Stephen Beckley) is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The character first appeared in Comet Man #1, dated February 1987. - -Creation -The character was created partly due to wide public interest in the passing of Halley's Comet. It was the first comics work of Bill Mumy, who had achieved fame as a child actor, playing Will Robinson in sci-fi series Lost in Space, and his friend Miguel Ferrer - a fellow actor soon to have a major career breakthrough due to a prominent role in RoboCop. Mumy and Ferrer wanted to craft a character harking back to the Golden Age of Comic Books, and started off as a fictional comic title in a script in a proposed episode of The Twilight Zone. After meeting Marvel editor-in-chief Jim Shooter at San Diego Comic-Con they decided to try out the character as a comic; Comico also showed an interest in the project before a deal was signed with Marvel.",3416576,Comet Man,M -688,688.0,688.0,"John Frederick William Birney (known as Ewan Birney) (born 6 December 1972) is joint director of EMBL's European Bioinformatics Institute (EMBL-EBI), in Hinxton, Cambridgeshire and deputy director general of the European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL). He also serves as non-executive director of Genomics England, chair of the Global Alliance for Genomics and Health (GA4GH) and honorary professor of bioinformatics at the University of Cambridge. Birney has made significant contributions to genomics, through his development of innovative bioinformatics and computational biology tools. He previously served as an associate faculty member at the Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute. - -Education -Birney was educated at Eton College as an Oppidan Scholar. Before going to university, Birney completed a gap year internship at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory supervised by James Watson and Adrian Krainer.Birney completed his Bachelor of Arts degree in Biochemistry at the University of Oxford in 1996, where he was an undergraduate student at Balliol College, Oxford.",4262395,Ewan Birney,S -689,689.0,689.0,"Micronization is the process of reducing the average diameter of a solid material's particles. Traditional techniques for micronization focus on mechanical means, such as milling and grinding. Modern techniques make use of the properties of supercritical fluids and manipulate the principles of solubility. -The term micronization usually refers to the reduction of average particle diameters to the micrometer range, but can also describe further reduction to the nanometer scale. Common applications include the production of active chemical ingredients, foodstuff ingredients, and pharmaceuticals. These chemicals need to be micronized to increase efficacy. - -Traditional techniques -Traditional micronization techniques are based on friction to reduce particle size.",1213271,Micronization,E -690,690.0,690.0,"This article describes the technical specifications of the OpenDocument office document standard, as developed by the OASIS industry consortium. A variety of organizations developed the standard publicly and make it publicly accessible, meaning it can be implemented by anyone without restriction. The OpenDocument format aims to provide an open alternative to proprietary document formats. - -Document representation -The OpenDocument format supports the following two ways of document representation: - -As a collection of several sub-documents within a package, each of which stores part of the complete document. This is the common representation of OpenDocument documents. It uses filename extensions such as .odt, .ott, .ods, .odp ...",3452561,OpenDocument technical specification,M -691,691.0,691.0,"Fish vary greatly in size. The whale shark and basking shark exceed all other fish by a considerable margin in weight and length. Fish are a paraphyletic group that describes aquatic vertebrates while excluding tetrapods, and the bony fish that often represent the group are more closely related to cetaceans such as whales, than to the cartilaginous fish such as sharks and rays. As such, cross group comparisons on this page only serve a colloquial purpose. - -Largest extant fish -Jawless fish (Agnatha) -Hagfish (Myxini)The hagfish, which are not taxonomically true fish, are among the most primitive extant vertebrates. There is only one order and family in this animal class.",41365652,List of largest fish,S -692,692.0,692.0,"Tumor homing bacteria is a group of facultative or obligate anaerobic bacteria (capable of producing ATP when oxygen is absent or is destroyed in normal oxygen levels) that are able to target cancerous cells in the body, suppress tumor growth and survive in the body for a long time even after the infection. When this type of bacteria is administered into the body it migrates to the cancerous tissues and starts to grow, then deploys distinct mechanisms to destroy solid tumors. Each bacteria species uses a different process to eliminate the tumor. Some common tumor homing bacteria include Salmonella, Clostridium, Bifidobacterium, Listeria, and Streptococcus. The earliest research of this type of bacteria was highlighted in 1813 when scientists began observing that patients that had gas gangrene, an infection caused by the bacteria Clostridium, were able to have tumor regressions. - -Tumor Inhibition Mechanisms -Different strains of tumor homing bacteria in distinct environments use unique or similar processes to inhibit or destroy tumor growth. - -Unique Mechanisms -Salmonella bacteria kill tumor cells by uncontrolled bacterial multiplication that can lead to the bursting of cancerous cells.",63604103,Tumor-homing bacteria,S -693,693.0,693.0,"Real-time kinematic positioning (RTK) is the application of surveying to correct for common errors in current satellite navigation (GNSS) systems. It uses measurements of the phase of the signal's carrier wave in addition to the information content of the signal and relies on a single reference station or interpolated virtual station to provide real-time corrections, providing up to centimetre-level accuracy (see DGPS). With reference to GPS in particular, the system is commonly referred to as carrier-phase enhancement, or CPGPS. It has applications in land surveying, hydrographic surveying, and in unmanned aerial vehicle navigation. - -Background -The distance between a satellite navigation receiver and a satellite can be calculated from the time it takes for a signal to travel from the satellite to the receiver. To calculate the delay, the receiver must align a pseudorandom binary sequence contained in the signal to an internally generated pseudorandom binary sequence.",2412341,Real-time kinematic positioning,T -694,694.0,694.0,"The Hyperion Cantos is a series of science fiction novels by Dan Simmons. The title was originally used for the collection of the first pair of books in the series, Hyperion and The Fall of Hyperion, and later came to refer to the overall storyline, including Endymion, The Rise of Endymion, and a number of short stories. More narrowly, inside the fictional storyline, after the first volume, the Hyperion Cantos is an epic poem written by the character Martin Silenus covering in verse form the events of the first two books.Of the four novels, Hyperion received the Hugo and Locus Awards in 1990; The Fall of Hyperion won the Locus and British Science Fiction Association Awards in 1991; and The Rise of Endymion received the Locus Award in 1998. All four novels were also nominated for various science fiction awards. - -Works -Hyperion -First published in 1989, Hyperion has the structure of a frame story, similar to Geoffrey Chaucer's Canterbury Tales and Giovanni Boccaccio's Decameron. The story weaves the interlocking tales of a diverse group of travelers sent on a pilgrimage to the Time Tombs on Hyperion.",228995,Hyperion Cantos,T -695,695.0,695.0,"In the oil and gas industry, coiled tubing refers to a long metal pipe, normally 1 to 3.25 in (25 to 83 mm) in diameter which is supplied spooled on a large reel. It is used for interventions in oil and gas wells and sometimes as production tubing in depleted gas wells. Coiled tubing is often used to carry out operations similar to wirelining. The main benefits over wireline are the ability to pump chemicals through the coil and the ability to push it into the hole rather than relying on gravity. Pumping can be fairly self-contained, almost a closed system, since the tube is continuous instead of jointed pipe.",10067187,Coiled tubing,E -696,696.0,696.0,"In the mathematical field of order theory, an ultrafilter on a given partially ordered set (or ""poset"") - - - - P - - - {\displaystyle P} - is a certain subset of - - - - P - , - - - {\displaystyle P,} - namely a maximal filter on - - - - P - ; - - - {\displaystyle P;} - that is, a proper filter on - - - - P - - - {\displaystyle P} - that cannot be enlarged to a bigger proper filter on - - - - P - . - - - {\displaystyle P.} - -If - - - - X - - - {\displaystyle X} - is an arbitrary set, its power set - - - - ℘ - ( - X - ) - , - - - {\displaystyle \wp (X),} - ordered by set inclusion, is always a Boolean algebra and hence a poset, and ultrafilters on - - - - ℘ - ( - X - ) - - - {\displaystyle \wp (X)} - are usually called ultrafilter on the set - - - - X - - - {\displaystyle X} - . An ultrafilter on a set - - - - X - - - {\displaystyle X} - may be considered as a finitely additive measure on - - - - X - - - {\displaystyle X} - . In this view, every subset of - - - - X - - - {\displaystyle X} - is either considered ""almost everything"" (has measure 1) or ""almost nothing"" (has measure 0), depending on whether it belongs to the given ultrafilter or not.Ultrafilters have many applications in set theory, model theory, topology: 186  and combinatorics. - -Ultrafilters on partial orders -In order theory, an ultrafilter is a subset of a partially ordered set that is maximal among all proper filters. This implies that any filter that properly contains an ultrafilter has to be equal to the whole poset. -Formally, if - - - - P - - - {\displaystyle P} - is a set, partially ordered by - - - - - ≤ - - - - {\displaystyle \,\leq \,} - then - -a subset - - - - F - ⊆ - P - - - {\displaystyle F\subseteq P} - is called a filter on - - - - P - - - {\displaystyle P} - if - - - - - F - - - {\displaystyle F} - is nonempty, -for every - - - - x - , - y - ∈ - F - , - - - {\displaystyle x,y\in F,} - there exists some element - - - - z - ∈ - F - - - {\displaystyle z\in F} - such that - - - - z - ≤ - x - - - {\displaystyle z\leq x} - and - - - - z - ≤ - y - , - - - {\displaystyle z\leq y,} - and -for every - - - - x - ∈ - F - - - {\displaystyle x\in F} - and - - - - y - ∈ - P - , - - - {\displaystyle y\in P,} - - - - - x - ≤ - y - - - {\displaystyle x\leq y} - implies that - - - - y - - - {\displaystyle y} - is in - - - - F - - - {\displaystyle F} - too; -a proper subset - - - - U - - - {\displaystyle U} - of - - - - P - - - {\displaystyle P} - is called an ultrafilter on - - - - P - - - {\displaystyle P} - if - - - - - U - - - {\displaystyle U} - is a filter on - - - - P - , - - - {\displaystyle P,} - and -there is no proper filter - - - - F - - - {\displaystyle F} - on - - - - P - - - {\displaystyle P} - that properly extends - - - - U - - - {\displaystyle U} - (that is, such that - - - - U - - - {\displaystyle U} - is a proper subset of - - - - F - - - {\displaystyle F} - ). - -Types and existence of ultrafilters -Every ultrafilter falls into exactly one of two categories: principal or free. A principal (or fixed, or trivial) ultrafilter is a filter containing a least element.",31911,Ultrafilter,M -697,697.0,697.0,"Internal set theory (IST) is a mathematical theory of sets developed by Edward Nelson that provides an axiomatic basis for a portion of the nonstandard analysis introduced by Abraham Robinson. Instead of adding new elements to the real numbers, Nelson's approach modifies the axiomatic foundations through syntactic enrichment. Thus, the axioms introduce a new term, ""standard"", which can be used to make discriminations not possible under the conventional ZFC axioms for sets. Thus, IST is an enrichment of ZFC: all axioms of ZFC are satisfied for all classical predicates, while the new unary predicate ""standard"" satisfies three additional axioms I, S, and T. In particular, suitable nonstandard elements within the set of real numbers can be shown to have properties that correspond to the properties of infinitesimal and unlimited elements. -Nelson's formulation is made more accessible for the lay-mathematician by leaving out many of the complexities of meta-mathematical logic that were initially required to justify rigorously the consistency of number systems containing infinitesimal elements. - -Intuitive justification -Whilst IST has a perfectly formal axiomatic scheme, described below, an intuitive justification of the meaning of the term standard is desirable.",865686,Internal set theory,M -698,698.0,698.0,"Tal Danino is a synthetic biologist and Associate Professor of Biomedical Engineering at Columbia University. - -Education -Danino graduated from the University of California, Los Angeles with Bachelor of Science degrees in physics, mathematics and chemistry. He received a Master of Science and Doctor of Philosophy in bioengineering from the University of California, San Diego, and completed postdoctoral training at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. - -Research -Danino’s research focuses on the design and characterization of dynamic gene circuits in microbes with applications such as cancer diagnostics and therapeutics, summarized in a 2015 TED talk.For his PhD thesis, he worked in Jeff Hasty's laboratory at UCSD, where he created synchronized oscillations in bacterial populations through synthetic biological circuits that combined positive and negative feedback with a fluorescent reporter. The resulting paper and corresponding video were published in Nature in 2010.As a postdoctoral scientist at MIT, he worked in Sangeeta Bhatia's laboratory at the Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, where he used probiotics to colonize tumors and detect their presence in urine via a color-changing molecule, resulting in a publication in Science Translational Medicine in 2015. Here he also characterized an engineered strain of S. typhimurium for the sustained release of cancer therapeutics, which was published in Nature in 2016.Since 2016, Danino runs the Synthetic Biological Systems Laboratory at Columbia University, which focuses on using Synthetic Biology to engineer living medicines.",53754274,Tal Danino,S -699,699.0,699.0,"The mercury probe is an electrical probing device to make rapid, non-destructive contact to a sample for electrical characterization. Its primary application is semiconductor measurements where otherwise time-consuming metallizations or photolithographic processing are required to make contact to a sample. These processing steps usually take hours and have to be avoided where possible to reduce device processing times. -The mercury probe applies mercury contacts of well-defined areas to a flat sample. The nature of the mercury-sample contacts and the instrumentation connected to the mercury probe define the application. If the mercury-sample contact is ohmic (non-rectifying) then current-voltage instrumentation can be used to measure resistance, leakage currents, or current-voltage characteristics.",11124301,Mercury probe,E -700,700.0,700.0,"Mining in the engineering discipline is the extraction of minerals from underneath, open pit, above, or on the ground. Mining engineering is associated with many other disciplines, such as mineral processing, exploration, excavation, geology, and metallurgy, geotechnical engineering and surveying. A mining engineer may manage any phase of mining operations, from exploration and discovery of the mineral resources, through feasibility study, mine design, development of plans, production and operations to mine closure. -With the process of mineral extraction, some amount of waste and uneconomic material are generated, which are the primary source of pollution in the vicinity of mines. Mining activities, by their nature, cause a disturbance of the natural environment in and around which the minerals are located. Mining engineers must therefore be concerned not only with the production and processing of mineral commodities but also with the mitigation of damage to the environment both during and after mining as a result of the change in the mining area.",488361,Mining engineering,E -701,701.0,701.0,"Tisotumab vedotin, sold under the brand name Tivdak, is an antibody-drug conjugate used to treat cervical cancer. It is a combination of tisotumab, a monoclonal antibody against tissue factor, and monomethyl auristatin E (MMAE), a potent inhibitor of cell division. It is administered by infusion into a vein.Tisotumab vedotin was approved for medical use in the United States in September 2021. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration considers it to be a first-in-class medication. - -Adverse effects -In the United States, Tivdak carries a black box warning for ocular toxicity, which occurs in up to 60% of treated patients.",68778849,Tisotumab vedotin,S -702,702.0,702.0,"The Inverse Symbolic Calculator is an online number checker established July 18, 1995 by Peter Benjamin Borwein, Jonathan Michael Borwein and Simon Plouffe of the Canadian Centre for Experimental and Constructive Mathematics (Burnaby, Canada). A user will input a number and the Calculator will use an algorithm to search for and calculate closed-form expressions or suitable functions that have roots near this number. Hence, the calculator is of great importance for those working in numerical areas of experimental mathematics. -The ISC contains 54 million mathematical constants. Plouffe's Inverter (opened in 1998) contains 214 million. A newer version of the tables with 3.702 billion entries (as of June 19, 2010) exists. -In 2016, Plouffe released a portable version of Plouffe's Inverter containing 3 billion entries. - -Literature -John Conway, Richard K.",9087019,Inverse Symbolic Calculator,M -703,703.0,703.0,"The assembly line feeding problem (abbr. ALFP) describes a problem in operations management concerned with finding the optimal way of feeding parts to assembly stations. For this, various cost elements may be taken into account and every part is assigned to a policy, i.e., a way of feeding parts to an assembly line. The most common policies are: - -Line stocking (also: line side stocking, pallet to work-station, etc) -Boxed-supply (also: Kanban, batch supply, etc.) -Sequencing -Stationary kitting (also: indirect supply, trolley to workstation) -Traveling kitting (also: indirect supply, kit to assembly line)These policies differ with respect to the way parts are brought to the line as well as in the way parts are handled before they are brought to the line. E.g., in line stocking, parts are brought to the line directly in the way they are stored in the warehouse.",61287985,Assembly line feeding problem,E -704,704.0,704.0,"In differential geometry and general relativity, the Bach tensor is a trace-free tensor of rank 2 which is conformally invariant in dimension n = 4. Before 1968, it was the only known conformally invariant tensor that is algebraically independent of the Weyl tensor. In abstract indices the Bach tensor is given by - - - - - - B - - a - b - - - = - - P - - c - d - - - - - - - - - - W - - a - - - - - c - - - - - b - - - - - d - - - + - - ∇ - - c - - - - ∇ - - c - - - - P - - a - b - - - − - - ∇ - - c - - - - ∇ - - a - - - - P - - b - c - - - - - {\displaystyle B_{ab}=P_{cd}{{{W_{a}}^{c}}_{b}}^{d}+\nabla ^{c}\nabla _{c}P_{ab}-\nabla ^{c}\nabla _{a}P_{bc}} - where - - - - W - - - {\displaystyle W} - is the Weyl tensor, and - - - - P - - - {\displaystyle P} - the Schouten tensor given in terms of the Ricci tensor - - - - - R - - a - b - - - - - {\displaystyle R_{ab}} - and scalar curvature - - - - R - - - {\displaystyle R} - by - - - - - - P - - a - b - - - = - - - 1 - - n - − - 2 - - - - - ( - - - R - - a - b - - - − - - - R - - 2 - ( - n - − - 1 - ) - - - - - g - - a - b - - - - ) - - . - - - {\displaystyle P_{ab}={\frac {1}{n-2}}\left(R_{ab}-{\frac {R}{2(n-1)}}g_{ab}\right).} - -See also -Cotton tensor -Obstruction tensor - -References -Further reading -Arthur L. Besse, Einstein Manifolds. Springer-Verlag, 2007.",5784784,Bach tensor,E -705,705.0,705.0,"Univalent foundations are an approach to the foundations of mathematics in which mathematical structures are built out of objects called types. Types in univalent foundations do not correspond exactly to anything in set-theoretic foundations, but they may be thought of as spaces, with equal types corresponding to homotopy equivalent spaces and with equal elements of a type corresponding to points of a space connected by a path. Univalent foundations are inspired both by the old Platonic ideas of Hermann Grassmann and Georg Cantor and by ""categorical"" mathematics in the style of Alexander Grothendieck. Univalent foundations depart from (although also compatible with) the use of classical predicate logic as the underlying formal deduction system, replacing it, at the moment, with a version of Martin-Löf type theory. The development of univalent foundations is closely related to the development of homotopy type theory. -Univalent foundations are compatible with structuralism, if an appropriate (i.e., categorical) notion of mathematical structure is adopted. - -History -The main ideas of univalent foundations were formulated by Vladimir Voevodsky during the years 2006 to 2009.",44554214,Univalent foundations,M -706,706.0,706.0,"Lean manufacturing is a production method aimed primarily at reducing times within the production system as well as response times from suppliers and to customers. It is closely related to another concept called just-in-time manufacturing (JIT manufacturing in short). Just-in-time manufacturing tries to match production to demand by only supplying goods which have been ordered and focuses on efficiency, productivity (with a commitment to continuous improvement) and reduction of ""wastes"" for the producer and supplier of goods. Lean manufacturing adopts the just-in-time approach and additionally focuses on reducing cycle, flow and throughput times by further eliminating activities which do not add any value for the customer. Lean manufacturing also involves people who work outside of the manufacturing process, such as in marketing and customer service.",218445,Lean manufacturing,E -707,707.0,707.0,"The Beijing–Tianjin intercity railway (simplified Chinese: 京津城际铁路; traditional Chinese: 京津城際鐵路; pinyin: Jīng-Jīn chéngjì tiělù) is a Chinese high-speed railway that runs 117 kilometres (72.7 mi) line between Beijing and Tianjin. Designed for passenger traffic only, the Chinese government built the line to accommodate trains traveling at a maximum speed of 350 km/h (217 mph), and currently carries CRH high-speed trains running speeds up to 350 km/h (217 mph) since August 2018.When the line opened on August 1, 2008, it set the record for the fastest conventional train service in the world by top speed, and reduced travel time between the two largest cities in northern China from 70 to 30 minutes. A second phase of construction extended this line from Tianjin to Yujiapu railway station in the Binhai New Area was opened on September 20, 2015.The line is projected to approach operating capacity in the first half of 2016. Anticipating this, a second parallel line, the Beijing–Binhai intercity railway, commenced construction on December 29, 2015. It will run from Beijing Sub-Center railway station to Binhai railway station via Baodi and Tianjin Binhai International Airport, along a new route to the northeast of the Beijing–Tianjin ICR. - -Route and stations -Beijing to Tianjin -From Beijing South railway station, the line runs in a southeasterly direction, following the Beijing–Tianjin–Tanggu Expressway to Tianjin.",2173296,Beijing–Tianjin intercity railway,T -708,708.0,708.0,"A single-ended recuperative (SER) burner is a type of gas burner used in high-temperature industrial kilns and furnaces. These burners are used where indirect heating is required, e.g. where the products of combustion are not allowed to combine with the atmosphere of the furnace. The typical design is a tubular (pipe) shape with convoluted pathways on the interior, closed on the end pointed into the furnace. A gas burner fires a flame down the center of these pathways, and the hot combustion gases are then forced to change direction and travel along the shell of the tube, heating it to incandescent temperatures and allowing efficient transfer of thermal energy to the furnace interior.",23363551,Single-ended recuperative burner,E -709,709.0,709.0,"Dutch elm disease (DED) is caused by a member of the sac fungi (Ascomycota) affecting elm trees, and is spread by elm bark beetles. Believed to be originally native to Asia, the disease was accidentally introduced into America, Europe, and New Zealand. In these regions it has devastated native populations of elms that did not have resistance to the disease. The name ""Dutch elm disease"" refers to its identification in 1921 and later in the Netherlands by Dutch phytopathologists Bea Schwarz and Christine Buisman, who both worked with professor Johanna Westerdijk. The disease affects species in the genera Ulmus and Zelkova, therefore it is not specific to the Dutch elm hybrid. - -Overview -Dutch elm disease (DED) is caused by ascomycete microfungi.",173098,Dutch elm disease,S -710,710.0,710.0,"Software categories are groups of software. They allow software to be understood in terms of those categories, instead of the particularities of each package. Different classification schemes consider different aspects of software. - -Computer software -Computer software can be put into categories based on common function, type, or field of use. There are three broad classifications: - -Application software is the general designation of computer programs for performing tasks. Application software may be general-purpose (word processing, web browsers, etc.) or have a specific purpose (accounting, truck scheduling, etc.).",30888839,Software categories,T -711,711.0,711.0,"A Bubbler cylinder is a component of a unit for the metal organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD). They are devices that are used for conveying electronic grade metalorganic compounds from a liquid or solid precursor into a usable vapor. - -Apparatus -The container of the Bubblers is similar to the construction of a gas washing bottle and used for the protected storage of metalorganic compounds to exclude air (oxygen, moisture). The bubbler has a supply pipe and a sampling tube. The inlet tube ends just before the bottom of the tube. In this tube, an inert gas is introduced, which bubbles through the liquid chemical; a solid chemical will sublime.",28690297,Bubbler cylinder,E -712,712.0,712.0,"The Energy Technology Engineering Center (ETEC), was a government-owned, contractor-operated complex of industrial facilities located within the 2,850-acre (11.5 km2) Santa Susana Field Laboratory (SSFL), Ventura County, California. The ETEC specialized in non-nuclear testing of components which were designed to transfer heat from a nuclear reactor using liquid metals instead of water or gas. The center operated from 1966 to 1998. The ETEC site has been closed and is now undergoing building removal and environmental remediation by the U.S. Department of Energy. - -History -In 1966, ETEC began as the Liquid Metals Engineering Center (LMEC).",19837606,Energy Technology Engineering Center,T -713,713.0,713.0,"Predictive engineering analytics (PEA) is a development approach for the manufacturing industry that helps with the design of complex products (for example, products that include smart systems). It concerns the introduction of new software tools, the integration between those, and a refinement of simulation and testing processes to improve collaboration between analysis teams that handle different applications. This is combined with intelligent reporting and data analytics. The objective is to let simulation drive the design, to predict product behavior rather than to react on issues which may arise, and to install a process that lets design continue after product delivery. - -Industry needs -In a classic development approach, manufacturers deliver discrete product generations. Before bringing those to market, they use extensive verification and validation processes, usually by combining several simulation and testing technologies.",50399682,Predictive engineering analytics,E -714,714.0,714.0,"The Sanhe Tile Kiln (traditional Chinese: 三和瓦窯; simplified Chinese: 三和瓦窑; pinyin: Zhōngdōu Tángróng Zhuānyáochǎng) is a former tile manufacturing factory in Dashu District, Kaohsiung, Taiwan. - -History -The original building of the factory was established in 1918. The building used to be the Shunanhao Tile Kiln. It has even since undergone name changing twice, such as Yuan Shun-an Tile Kiln. In 1975, it was renamed to Sanhe Tile Kiln. In 2001, parts of the building was registered as historical site by the government. - -Community Craft -Rise and Decline -Dashu is located along the Gaoping River, with convenient access to water and fine clay without impurities, making it suitable for brick and tile firing.",49668183,Sanhe Tile Kiln,E -715,715.0,715.0,"Fredrik Rosing Bull (25 December 1882 – 7 June 1925) was a Norwegian scientist, information technology pioneer, known for his work on improved punched card machines. -Bull was born in Kristiania (Oslo, Norway). In 1907 he finished his studies in civil engineering at the Technical School of Kristiania (Kristiania Tekniske Skole). In 1916 he was hired as a technical inspector for the insurance company Storebrand, where he developed an interest for punched card machines technology and began developing one of his own. In 1919 he obtained a patent for the machine, and in 1921 he prepared a team that took over the implementation of the machine at the company where Bull worked at that time, Storebrand. This team provided several new ideas for improving the Bull machine, rendering it superior to Hollerith's device - the precursor to the IBM punched card machine - in use at that time.",1702592,Fredrik Rosing Bull,T -716,716.0,716.0,"In structural engineering, the open web steel joist (OWSJ) is a lightweight steel truss consisting, in the standard form, of parallel chords and a triangulated web system, proportioned to span between bearing points. -The main function of an OWSJ is to provide direct support for roof or floor deck and to transfer the load imposed on the deck to the structural frame i.e. beam and column. -In order to accurately design an OWSJ, engineers consider the joist span between bearing points, joist spacing, slope, live loads, dead loads, collateral loads, seismic loads, wind uplift, deflection criteria and maximum joist depth allowed. Many steel joist manufacturers supply economical load tables in order to allow designers to select the most efficient joist sizes for their projects. -While OWSJs can be adapted to suit a wide variety of architectural applications, the greatest economy will be realized when utilizing standard details, which may vary from one joist manufacturer to another. Some other shapes, in addition to the parallel top and bottom chord, are single slope, double slope, arch, gable and scissor configurations. These shapes may not be available from all joist manufacturers, and are usually supplied at a premium cost that reflects the complexity required. - -The manufacture of OWSJ in North America is overseen by the Steel Joist Institute (SJI).",17206404,Open web steel joist,E -717,717.0,717.0,"Amine gas treating, also known as amine scrubbing, gas sweetening and acid gas removal, refers to a group of processes that use aqueous solutions of various alkylamines (commonly referred to simply as amines) to remove hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and carbon dioxide (CO2) from gases. It is a common unit process used in refineries, and is also used in petrochemical plants, natural gas processing plants and other industries. -Processes within oil refineries or chemical processing plants that remove Hydrogen Sulfide are referred to as ""sweetening"" processes because the odor of the processed products is improved by the absence of ""sour"" hydrogen sulfide. An alternative to the use of amines involves membrane technology. However, membrane separation is less attractive due to the relatively high capital and operating costs as well as other technical factors.Many different amines are used in gas treating: - -Diethanolamine (DEA) -Monoethanolamine (MEA) -Methyldiethanolamine (MDEA) -Diisopropanolamine (DIPA) -Aminoethoxyethanol (Diglycolamine) (DGA)The most commonly used amines in industrial plants are the alkanolamines DEA, MEA, and MDEA. These amines are also used in many oil refineries to remove sour gases from liquid hydrocarbons such as liquified petroleum gas (LPG). - -Description of a typical amine treater -Gases containing H2S or both H2S and CO2 are commonly referred to as sour gases or acid gases in the hydrocarbon processing industries. -The chemistry involved in the amine treating of such gases varies somewhat with the particular amine being used.",1925126,Amine gas treating,S -718,718.0,718.0,"Invader Zim is an American comic book series created by Jhonen Vasquez and published by Oni Press. It serves as a continuation to the animated television series of the same name that originally aired on Nickelodeon. -In February 2015, Oni Press announced that a comic book series based on the show, in collaboration with Jhonen Vasquez and Nickelodeon, was being released as the continuation of the series. Vasquez said about the show: ""I'm always confused when people say how much they miss Invader Zim because the show never stopped running in my head, and then I remember everyone else isn't in my head"". A pre-issue #0 was released on May 23, 2015 as a zine and foreshadow to the comic book series. The first issue was released on July 8, 2015, launching a monthly run that continued until issue #50.On February 11, 2020, it was announced that the monthly Invader Zim comic would end with issue #50, released in March 2020, and a new comic series titled Invader Zim Quarterly would begin April 2020, releasing on a quarterly schedule.",53781189,Invader Zim (comics),S -719,719.0,719.0,"VisSim is a visual block diagram program for simulation of dynamical systems and model-based design of embedded systems, with its own visual language. It is developed by Visual Solutions of Westford, Massachusetts. Visual Solutions was acquired by Altair in August 2014 and its products have been rebranded as Altair Embed as a part of Altair's Model Based Development Suite. With Embed, you can develop virtual prototypes of dynamic systems. Models are built by sliding blocks into the work area and wiring them together with the mouse.",3545503,VisSim,T -720,720.0,720.0,"High viscosity mixers are mixers designed for mixing materials with laminar mixing processes because the ingredients have such high viscosities that a turbulent mixing phase cannot be obtained at all or cannot be obtained without a high amount of heat. The process can be used for high viscosity liquid to liquid mixing or for paste mixing combining liquid and solid ingredients. Some products that may require laminar mixing in a high viscosity mixer include putties, chewing gum, and soaps. The end product usually starts at several hundred thousand centipoise and can reach as high as several million centipoise. -Typical mixers used for this purpose are of the Double Arm, Double Planetary or Planetary Disperser design.",25571663,High viscosity mixer,E -721,721.0,721.0,"Orchestrated objective reduction (Orch OR) is a theory which postulates that consciousness originates at the quantum level inside neurons, rather than the conventional view that it is a product of connections between neurons. The mechanism is held to be a quantum process called objective reduction that is orchestrated by cellular structures called microtubules. It is proposed that the theory may answer the hard problem of consciousness and provide a mechanism for free will. The hypothesis was first put forward in the early 1990s by Nobel laureate for physics, Roger Penrose, and anaesthesiologist and psychologist Stuart Hameroff. The hypothesis combines approaches from molecular biology, neuroscience, pharmacology, philosophy, quantum information theory, and quantum gravity.While mainstream theories assert that consciousness emerges as the complexity of the computations performed by cerebral neurons increases, Orch OR posits that consciousness is based on non-computable quantum processing performed by qubits formed collectively on cellular microtubules, a process significantly amplified in the neurons.",712245,Orchestrated objective reduction,S -722,722.0,722.0,"The Samsung Gear 360 is the first 360 degree camera by Samsung Electronics. It was released as a part of the Samsung Gear family of devices. It uses two cameras to take 360° photos and videos. -There are two models: - -The original model released in 2016, the SM-C200, a sphere. -The updated model released in 2017, the SM-R210, a smaller sphere with integral handle. - -History -On April 29, 2016, Samsung released the Gear 360 in Korea and Singapore. It is compatible with the Samsung Galaxy S6 and later. Critics have praised the ease-of-use and small form factor.In April 2017, an updated version of the Samsung Gear 360 was released.",50914729,Samsung Gear 360,S -723,723.0,723.0,"Biorobotics is an interdisciplinary science that combines the fields of biomedical engineering, cybernetics, and robotics to develop new technologies that integrate biology with mechanical systems to develop more efficient communication, alter genetic information, and create machines that imitate biological systems. - -Cybernetics -Cybernetics focuses on the communication and system of living organisms and machines that can be applied and combined with multiple fields of study such as biology, mathematics, computer science, engineering, and much more.This discipline falls under the branch of biorobotics because of its combined field of study between biological bodies and mechanical systems. Studying these two systems allow for advanced analysis on the functions and processes of each system as well as the interactions between them. - -History -Cybernetic theory is a concept that has existed for centuries, dating back to the era of Plato where he applied the term to refer to the ""governance of people"". The term cybernetique is seen in the mid 1800s used by physicist André-Marie Ampère. The term cybernetics was popularized in the late 1940s to refer to a discipline that touched on, but was separate, from established disciplines, such as electrical engineering, mathematics, and biology. - -Science -Cybernetics is often misunderstood because of the breadth of disciplines it covers. In the early 20th century, it was coined as an interdisciplinary field of study that combines biology, science, network theory, and engineering.",1006293,Biorobotics,S -724,724.0,724.0,"Remanence or remanent magnetization or residual magnetism is the magnetization left behind in a ferromagnetic material (such as iron) after an external magnetic field is removed. Colloquially, when a magnet is ""magnetized"", it has remanence. The remanence of magnetic materials provides the magnetic memory in magnetic storage devices, and is used as a source of information on the past Earth's magnetic field in paleomagnetism. The word remanence is from remanent + -ence, meaning ""that which remains"".The equivalent term residual magnetization is generally used in engineering applications. In transformers, electric motors and generators a large residual magnetization is not desirable (see also electrical steel) as it is an unwanted contamination, for example a magnetization remaining in an electromagnet after the current in the coil is turned off.",264582,Remanence,E -725,725.0,725.0,"Bionics or biologically inspired engineering is the application of biological methods and systems found in nature to the study and design of engineering systems and modern technology.The word bionic, coined by Jack E. Steele in August 1958, is a portmanteau from biology and electronics which was popularized by the 1970s U.S. television series The Six Million Dollar Man and The Bionic Woman, both based on the novel Cyborg by Martin Caidin. All three stories feature humans given various superhuman powers by their electromechanical implants. -According to proponents of bionic technology, the transfer of technology between lifeforms and manufactured objects is desirable because evolutionary pressure typically forces living organisms—fauna and flora—to become optimized and efficient. For example, dirt- and water-repellent paint (coating) was inspired by the hydrophobic properties of the lotus flower plant (the lotus effect).The term ""biomimetic"" is preferred for references to chemical reactions, such as reactions that, in nature, involve biological macromolecules (e.g., enzymes or nucleic acids) whose chemistry can be replicated in vitro using much smaller molecules.Examples of bionics in engineering include the hulls of boats imitating the thick skin of dolphins or sonar, radar, and medical ultrasound imaging imitating animal echolocation. -In the field of computer science, the study of bionics has produced artificial neurons, artificial neural networks, and swarm intelligence.",946929,Bionics,E -726,726.0,726.0,"Thermal printing (or direct thermal printing) is a digital printing process which produces a printed image by passing paper with a thermochromic coating, commonly known as thermal paper, over a print head consisting of tiny electrically heated elements. The coating turns black in the areas where it is heated, producing an image.Most thermal printers are monochrome (black and white) although some two-color designs exist. -Thermal transfer printing is a different method, using plain paper with a heat-sensitive ribbon instead of heat-sensitive paper, but using similar print heads. - -Design -A thermal printer typically contains at least these components: - -Thermal head: Produces heat to create an image on the paper -Platen: A rubber roller which moves the paper -Spring: Applies pressure to hold the paper and printhead togetherThermal paper is impregnated with a solid-state mixture of a dye and a suitable matrix, for example, a fluoran leuco dye and an octadecylphosphonic acid. When the matrix is heated above its melting point, the dye reacts with the acid, shifts to its colored form, and the changed form is then conserved in metastable state when the matrix solidifies back quickly enough, a process known as thermochromism. -This process is usually monochrome, but some two-color designs exist, which can print both black and an additional color (often red) by applying heat at two different temperatures.In order to print, the thermal paper is inserted between the thermal head and the platen and pressed against the head. The printer sends an electric current to the heating elements of the thermal head. The heat generated activates the paper's thermochromic layer, causing it to turn a certain color (for example, black). -Thermal print heads can have a resolution of up to 1,200 dots per inch (dpi).",743007,Thermal printing,S -727,727.0,727.0,"An atmosphere (from Ancient Greek ἀτμός (atmós) 'vapour, steam', and σφαῖρα (sphaîra) 'sphere') is a layer of gas or layers of gases that envelop a planet, and is held in place by the gravity of the planetary body. A planet retains an atmosphere when the gravity is great and the temperature of the atmosphere is low. A stellar atmosphere is the outer region of a star, which includes the layers above the opaque photosphere; stars of low temperature might have outer atmospheres containing compound molecules. -The atmosphere of Earth is composed of nitrogen (78 %), oxygen (21 %), argon (0.9 %), carbon dioxide (0.04 %) and trace gases. Most organisms use oxygen for respiration; lightning and bacteria perform nitrogen fixation to produce ammonia that is used to make nucleotides and amino acids; plants, algae, and cyanobacteria use carbon dioxide for photosynthesis. The layered composition of the atmosphere minimises the harmful effects of sunlight, ultraviolet radiation, solar wind, and cosmic rays to protect organisms from genetic damage.",12437729,Atmosphere,M -728,728.0,728.0,"A biomimetic antifouling coating is a treatment that prevents the accumulation of marine organisms on a surface. Typical antifouling coatings are not biomimetic but are based on synthetic chemical compounds that can have deleterious effects on the environment. Prime examples are tributyltin compounds, which are components in paints to prevent biofouling of ship hulls. Although highly effective at combatting the accumulation of barnacles and other problematic organisms, organotin-containing paints are damaging to many organisms and have been shown to interrupt marine food chains.Biomimetic antifouling coatings are highly lucrative because of their low environmental impact and demonstrated success. Some properties of a biomimetic antifouling coating can be predicted from the contact angles obtained from the Wenzel equation, and the calculated ERI.",31615192,Biomimetic antifouling coating,E -729,729.0,729.0,"Bonsu Eco Park, formerly Bunso Arboretum, is located in the Eastern Region of Ghana, south of the town of Bunso. It was founded in 1935 by two British men but later developed into a recreational park by Ghanaians in collaboration with the Ministry of Tourism Ghana. The site has over 600 species of trees used for used for various medicinal purposes. The Bunso Eco Park is a dense forest endowed with many medicinal plants, herbs and wild animals. The arboretum has within its enclave over 600 species of plants, 105 species of birds, 57 species of snakes, 300 species of butterflies, assorted fruits including; grapes, passion and the star fruit. - -Location -The arboretum is situated 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) off the Bunso junction on the Accra–Kumasi highway. - -Facilities -The arboretum contains different species of flowers and trees.",73464846,Bunso Eco Park,S -730,730.0,730.0,"In decision theory, the expected value of perfect information (EVPI) is the price that one would be willing to pay in order to gain access to perfect information. A common discipline that uses the EVPI concept is health economics. In that context and when looking at a decision of whether to adopt a new treatment technology, there is always some degree of uncertainty surrounding the decision, because there is always a chance that the decision turns out to be wrong. The expected value of perfect information analysis tries to measure the expected cost of that uncertainty, which “can be interpreted as the expected value of perfect information (EVPI), since perfect information can eliminate the possibility of making the wrong decision” at least from a theoretical perspective. - -Equation -The problem is modeled with a payoff matrix Rij in which the row index i describes a choice that must be made by the player, while the column index j describes a random variable that the player does not yet have knowledge of, that has probability pj of being in state j. If the player is to choose i without knowing the value of j, the best choice is the one that maximizes the expected monetary value: - - - - - - - EMV - - - = - - max - - i - - - - ∑ - - j - - - - p - - j - - - - R - - i - j - - - - - {\displaystyle {\mbox{EMV}}=\max _{i}\sum _{j}p_{j}R_{ij}} - where - - - - - - ∑ - - j - - - - p - - j - - - - R - - i - j - - - - - {\displaystyle \sum _{j}p_{j}R_{ij}} - is the expected payoff for action i i.e.",2596700,Expected value of perfect information,M -731,731.0,731.0,"Neer dose, literally meaning water dosa in Tulu is a crêpe prepared from rice batter. Neer dosa is a delicacy from Tulu Nadu and part of Mangalorean cuisine. - -Overview -Neer is the word for water in Tulu.Unlike other dosas neer dosa is known for its simple preparation method and lack of fermentation. Usually neer dosa is served with coconut chutney, sambar, saagu and non vegetarian curries like chicken, mutton, fish and egg curry. - -Ingredients -Even though many variations exist for Neer Dosa batter, the two basic ingredients common to all of them are just soaked rice (or rice flour) and salt. - -Preparation -There is no requirement for fermentation of the rice in order to prepare Neer dosa. The rice needs to be soaked for at least 2 hours. After a quick wash and a drain the rice needs to be ground by adding water in order to get very fine batter.",6437062,Neer dosa,S -732,732.0,732.0,"The Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association (also known as TEMA) is an association of fabricators of shell and tube type heat exchangers. TEMA has established and maintains a set of construction standards for heat exchangers, known as the TEMA Standard. TEMA also produces software for evaluation of flow-induced vibration and of flexible shell elements (expansion joints). TEMA was founded in 1939, and is based in Tarrytown, New York. The association meets regularly to revise and update the standards, respond to inquiries, and discuss topics related to the industry. - -The TEMA Standard -The current edition of the TEMA Standard is the Tenth Edition, published in 2019.",57042704,Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association,E -733,733.0,733.0,"Technology scouting is an element of technology management in which - -(1) emerging technologies are identified, -(2) technology related information is channeled into an organization, and -(3) supports the acquisition of technologies.It is a starting point of a long term and interactive matching process between external technologies and internal requirements of an existing organization for strategic purposes. This matching may also be aided by technology roadmapping. Technology scouting is also known to be part of competitive intelligence, which firms apply as a tool of competitive strategy. It can also be regarded as a method of technology forecasting or in the broader context also an element of corporate foresight. Technology scouting may also be applied as an element of an open innovation approach.",26031935,Technology scouting,T -734,734.0,734.0,"Intersex is a general term for an organism that has sex characteristics that intermediate between male and female. The term intersex typically applies to members of gonochoric species that are usually sterile. Mammals (including humans) are solely gonochoric. It is not to be confused with the term hermaphrodite.Intersexuality has been reported in mammals, fishes, nematodes, and crustaceans. - -Mammals -Intersex can also occur in non-human mammals such as pigs, with it being estimated that 0.1% to 1.4% of pigs are intersex. In Vanuatu, Narave pigs are sacred intersex pigs that are found on Malo Island.",68200445,Intersex (biology),S -735,735.0,735.0,"Thermally stimulated depolarization current (TSDC) is a scientific technique used to measure dielectric properties of materials. It can be used to measure the thermally stimulated depolarization of molecules within a material. One method of doing so is to place the material between two electrodes, cool the material in the presence of an external electric field, remove the field once a desired temperature has been reached, and measure the current between the electrodes as the material warms. The external electric field must be applied at a sufficiently high temperature to allow the molecular dipoles time to align with the field. Because the dielectric relaxation time increases exponentially on cooling, the polarization caused by their alignment with the field gets ""frozen-in"".",46431058,Thermally stimulated depolarization current,M -736,736.0,736.0,"Project commissioning is the process of ensuring that all systems and components of a building or industrial plant are designed, installed, tested, operated, and maintained according to the owner's or final client's operational requirements. A commissioning process may be applied not only to new projects but also to existing units and systems subject to expansion, renovation or revamping. In practice, the commissioning process is the integrated application of a set of engineering techniques and procedures to check, inspect and test every operational component of the project: from individual functions (such as instruments and equipment) up to complex amalgamations (such as modules, subsystems and systems). -Commissioning activities in the broader sense applicable to all phases of the project from the basic and detailed design, procurement, construction and assembly until the final handover of the unit to the owner, sometimes including an assisted operation phase. - -Objective and impact -The main objective of commissioning is to effect the safe and orderly handover of the unit from the constructor to the owner, guaranteeing its operability in terms of performance, reliability, safety and information traceability. Additionally, when executed in a planned and effective way, commissioning normally represents an essential factor for the fulfillment of schedule, costs, safety and quality requirements of the project. - -Commissioning management systems -For complex projects, the large volume and complexity of commissioning data, together with the need to guarantee adequate information traceability, normally leads to the use of powerful IT tools, known as commissioning management systems, to allow effective planning and monitoring of the commissioning activities. - -Independent discipline -There is currently no formal education or university degree which addresses the training or certification of a Project Commissioning Engineer. Various short and online training courses are available, but they are designed for qualified engineers.",22946554,Project commissioning,E -737,737.0,737.0,"High voltage electricity refers to electrical potential large enough to cause injury or damage. In certain industries, high voltage refers to voltage above a certain threshold. Equipment and conductors that carry high voltage warrant special safety requirements and procedures. -High voltage is used in electrical power distribution, in cathode ray tubes, to generate X-rays and particle beams, to produce electrical arcs, for ignition, in photomultiplier tubes, and in high-power amplifier vacuum tubes, as well as other industrial, military and scientific applications. - -Definition -The numerical definition of high voltage depends on context. Two factors considered in classifying a voltage as high voltage are the possibility of causing a spark in air, and the danger of electric shock by contact or proximity. -The International Electrotechnical Commission and its national counterparts (IET, IEEE, VDE, etc.) define high voltage as above 1000 V for alternating current, and at least 1500 V for direct current.In the United States, the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) establishes nominal voltage ratings for 60 Hz electric power systems over 100 V.",1205325,High voltage,T -738,738.0,738.0,"This is a list of the mammal species recorded in Bahrain. Of the seven mammal species in Bahrain, two are considered vulnerable.The following tags are used to highlight each species' conservation status as assessed by the International Union for Conservation of Nature: - -Order: Sirenia (manatees and dugongs) -Sirenia is an order of fully aquatic, herbivorous mammals that inhabit rivers, estuaries, coastal marine waters, swamps, and marine wetlands. All four species are endangered. - -Family: Dugongidae -Genus: Dugong -Dugong, D. dugon VU - -Order: Lagomorpha (rabbits and hares) -While they may appear to be rodents, rabbits and hares belong in their own family, the lagomorphs. - -Family: Leporidae -Genus: Lepus -Cape hare, L. capensis LC - -Order: Chiroptera (bats) -The bats' most distinguishing feature is that their forelimbs are developed as wings, making them the only mammals capable of flight.",11366884,List of mammals of Bahrain,S -739,739.0,739.0,"The anthroposphere (sometimes also referred as the technosphere) is that part of the environment that is made or modified by humans for use in human activities and human habitats. It is one of the Earth's spheres. The term was first used by nineteenth-century Austrian geologist Eduard Suess. The contemporary concept of the technosphere was first proposed as a concept by American geologist and engineer Peter Haff, of Duke University. It has been estimated that as of 2016 the total weight of the anthroposphere - that is, human generated structures and systems - was 30 trillion tons.The anthroposphere can be viewed as a human-generated equivalent to the biosphere, which is why some authorities consider it synonymous with the noosphere.",7371134,Anthroposphere,T -740,740.0,740.0,"Basic English (a backronym for British American Scientific International and Commercial English) is a controlled language based on standard English, but with a greatly simplified vocabulary and grammar. It was created by the linguist and philosopher Charles Kay Ogden as an international auxiliary language, and as an aid for teaching English as a second language. It was presented in Ogden's 1930 book Basic English: A General Introduction with Rules and Grammar. -The first work on Basic English was written by two Englishmen, Ivor Richards of Harvard University and Charles Kay Ogden of the University of Cambridge in England. The design of Basic English drew heavily on the semiotic theory put forward by Ogden and Richards in their 1923 book The Meaning of Meaning.Ogden's Basic, and the concept of a simplified English, gained its greatest publicity just after the Allied victory in World War II as a means for world peace.",4934,Basic English,T -741,741.0,741.0,"A trickling filter is a type of wastewater treatment system. It consists of a fixed bed of rocks, coke, gravel, slag, polyurethane foam, sphagnum peat moss, ceramic, or plastic media over which sewage or other wastewater flows downward and causes a layer of microbial slime (biofilm) to grow, covering the bed of media. Aerobic conditions are maintained by splashing, diffusion, and either by forced-air flowing through the bed or natural convection of air if the filter medium is porous. The treatment of sewage or other wastewater with trickling filters is among the oldest and most well characterized treatment technologies. -The fundamental components of a complete trickling filter system are: - -a bed of filter medium upon which a layer of microbial slime is promoted and developed; -an enclosure or a container which houses the bed of filter medium; -a system for distributing the flow of wastewater over the filter medium; and -a system for removing and disposing of any sludge from the treated effluent.The terms trickle filter, trickling biofilter, biofilter, biological filter and biological trickling filter are often used to refer to a trickling filter. These systems have also been described as roughing filters, intermittent filters, packed media bed filters, alternative septic systems, percolating filters, attached growth processes, and fixed film processes. - -Process description -Typically, settled sewage flow enters at a high level and flows through the primary settlement tank.",12915657,Trickling filter,E -742,742.0,742.0,"LaSalle's invariance principle (also known as the invariance principle, Barbashin-Krasovskii-LaSalle principle, or Krasovskii-LaSalle principle) is a criterion for the asymptotic stability of an autonomous (possibly nonlinear) dynamical system. - -Global version -Suppose a system is represented as - - - - - - - - - x - - ˙ - - - - = - f - - ( - - x - - ) - - - - {\displaystyle {\dot {\mathbf {x} }}=f\left(\mathbf {x} \right)} - where - - - - - x - - - - {\displaystyle \mathbf {x} } - is the vector of variables, with - - - - - f - - ( - - 0 - - ) - - = - - 0 - - . - - - {\displaystyle f\left(\mathbf {0} \right)=\mathbf {0} .} - If a - - - - - C - - 1 - - - - - {\displaystyle C^{1}} - (see Smoothness) function - - - - V - ( - - x - - ) - - - {\displaystyle V(\mathbf {x} )} - can be found such that - - - - - - - - V - ˙ - - - - ( - - x - - ) - ≤ - 0 - - - {\displaystyle {\dot {V}}(\mathbf {x} )\leq 0} - for all - - - - - x - - - - {\displaystyle \mathbf {x} } - (negative semidefinite),then the set of accumulation points of any trajectory is contained in - - - - - - I - - - - - {\displaystyle {\mathcal {I}}} - where - - - - - - I - - - - - {\displaystyle {\mathcal {I}}} - is the union of complete trajectories contained entirely in the set - - - - { - - x - - : - - - - V - ˙ - - - - ( - - x - - ) - = - 0 - } - - - {\displaystyle \{\mathbf {x} :{\dot {V}}(\mathbf {x} )=0\}} - . -If we additionally have that the function - - - - V - - - {\displaystyle V} - is positive definite, i.e. - - - - - V - ( - - x - - ) - > - 0 - - - {\displaystyle V(\mathbf {x} )>0} - , for all - - - - - x - - ≠ - - 0 - - - - {\displaystyle \mathbf {x} \neq \mathbf {0} } - - - - - - V - ( - - 0 - - ) - = - 0 - - - {\displaystyle V(\mathbf {0} )=0} - and if - - - - - - I - - - - - {\displaystyle {\mathcal {I}}} - contains no trajectory of the system except the trivial trajectory - - - - - x - - ( - t - ) - = - - 0 - - - - {\displaystyle \mathbf {x} (t)=\mathbf {0} } - for - - - - t - ≥ - 0 - - - {\displaystyle t\geq 0} - , then the origin is asymptotically stable. -Furthermore, if - - - - V - - - {\displaystyle V} - is radially unbounded, i.e. - - - - - V - ( - - x - - ) - → - ∞ - - - {\displaystyle V(\mathbf {x} )\to \infty } - , as - - - - ‖ - - x - - ‖ - → - ∞ - - - {\displaystyle \Vert \mathbf {x} \Vert \to \infty } - then the origin is globally asymptotically stable. - -Local version -If - - - - - V - ( - - x - - ) - > - 0 - - - {\displaystyle V(\mathbf {x} )>0} - , when - - - - - x - - ≠ - - 0 - - - - {\displaystyle \mathbf {x} \neq \mathbf {0} } - - - - - - - - - V - ˙ - - - - ( - - x - - ) - ≤ - 0 - - - {\displaystyle {\dot {V}}(\mathbf {x} )\leq 0} - hold only for - - - - - x - - - - {\displaystyle \mathbf {x} } - in some neighborhood - - - - D - - - {\displaystyle D} - of the origin, and the set - - - - - { - - - - V - ˙ - - - - ( - - x - - ) - = - 0 - } - ∩ - D - - - {\displaystyle \{{\dot {V}}(\mathbf {x} )=0\}\cap D} - does not contain any trajectories of the system besides the trajectory - - - - - x - - ( - t - ) - = - - 0 - - , - t - ≥ - 0 - - - {\displaystyle \mathbf {x} (t)=\mathbf {0} ,t\geq 0} - , then the local version of the invariance principle states that the origin is locally asymptotically stable. - -Relation to Lyapunov theory -If - - - - - - - V - ˙ - - - - ( - - x - - ) - - - {\displaystyle {\dot {V}}(\mathbf {x} )} - is negative definite, then the global asymptotic stability of the origin is a consequence of Lyapunov's second theorem. The invariance principle gives a criterion for asymptotic stability in the case when - - - - - - - V - ˙ - - - - ( - - x - - ) - - - {\displaystyle {\dot {V}}(\mathbf {x} )} - is only negative semidefinite. - -Examples -Simple example -Example taken from.Consider the vector field - - - - ( - - - - x - ˙ - - - - , - - - - y - ˙ - - - - ) - = - ( - − - y - − - - x - - 3 - - - , - - x - - 5 - - - ) - - - {\displaystyle ({\dot {x}},{\dot {y}})=(-y-x^{3},x^{5})} - in the plane. The function - - - - V - ( - x - , - y - ) - = - - x - - 6 - - - + - 3 - - y - - 2 - - - - - {\displaystyle V(x,y)=x^{6}+3y^{2}} - satisfies - - - - - - - V - ˙ - - - - = - − - 6 - - x - - 8 - - - - - {\displaystyle {\dot {V}}=-6x^{8}} - , and is radially unbounded, showing that the origin is globally asymptotically stable. - -Pendulum with friction -This section will apply the invariance principle to establish the local asymptotic stability of a simple system, the pendulum with friction. This system can be modeled with the differential equation - - - - - m - l - - - - θ - ¨ - - - - = - − - m - g - sin - ⁡ - θ - − - k - l - - - - θ - ˙ - - - - - - {\displaystyle ml{\ddot {\theta }}=-mg\sin \theta -kl{\dot {\theta }}} - where - - - - θ - - - {\displaystyle \theta } - is the angle the pendulum makes with the vertical normal, - - - - m - - - {\displaystyle m} - is the mass of the pendulum, - - - - l - - - {\displaystyle l} - is the length of the pendulum, - - - - k - - - {\displaystyle k} - is the friction coefficient, and g is acceleration due to gravity. -This, in turn, can be written as the system of equations - - - - - - - - - x - ˙ - - - - - 1 - - - = - - x - - 2 - - - - - {\displaystyle {\dot {x}}_{1}=x_{2}} - - - - - - - - - x - ˙ - - - - - 2 - - - = - − - - - g - l - - - sin - ⁡ - - x - - 1 - - - − - - - k - m - - - - x - - 2 - - - - - {\displaystyle {\dot {x}}_{2}=-{\frac {g}{l}}\sin x_{1}-{\frac {k}{m}}x_{2}} - Using the invariance principle, it can be shown that all trajectories that begin in a ball of certain size around the origin - - - - - x - - 1 - - - = - - x - - 2 - - - = - 0 - - - {\displaystyle x_{1}=x_{2}=0} - asymptotically converge to the origin.",4021739,LaSalle's invariance principle,M -743,743.0,743.0,"A palletizer or palletiser is a machine which provides automatic means for stacking cases of goods or products onto a pallet. -Manually placing boxes on pallets can be time consuming and expensive; it can also put unusual stress on workers. The first mechanized palletizer was designed, built, and installed in 1948 by a company formerly known as Lamson Corp. -There are specific types of palletizers including the row-forming which were introduced in the early 1950s. In row-forming palletizing applications loads are arranged on a row forming area and then moved onto a different area where layer forming takes place. This process repeats until a full layer of goods and products are configured to be placed on a pallet. -The in-line palletizer was developed in the 1970s when higher speeds were needed for palletizing. This palletizer type utilizes a continuous motion flow divider that guides the goods into the desired area on the layer forming platform. -Robotic palletizers were introduced in the early 1980s and have an end of arm tool (end effector) to grab the product from a conveyor or layer table and position it onto a pallet.",25137369,Palletizer,E -744,744.0,744.0,"In engineering, a design choice is a possible solution to a problem. Given a design task and a governing set of criteria (design specifications), several conceptual designs may be drafted. Each of these preliminary concepts is a potential design choice. Many never advance beyond the preliminary phase; those that are developed to the point at which they could be applied become the pool from which the final selection is made. This process stems from the principle that there is usually no uniquely right way of accomplishing any task.",237141,Design choice,E -745,745.0,745.0,"Tick–tock was a production model adopted in 2007 by chip manufacturer Intel. Under this model, every microarchitecture change (tock) was followed by a die shrink of the process technology (tick). It was replaced by the process–architecture–optimization model, which was announced in 2016 and is like a tick–tock cycle followed by an optimization phase. As a general engineering model, tick–tock is a model that refreshes one side of a binary system each release cycle. - -History -Every ""tick"" represented a shrinking of the process technology of the previous microarchitecture (sometimes introducing new instructions, as with Broadwell, released in late 2014) and every ""tock"" designated a new microarchitecture. These occurred roughly every year to 18 months.",15286988,Tick–tock model,T -746,746.0,746.0,"The Librem 5 is a smartphone manufactured by Purism that is part of their Librem line of products. The phone is designed with the goal of using free software whenever possible, includes PureOS, a Linux operating system, by default, and as of 2021 is the only smartphone recommended by the Free Software Foundation. Like other Librem products, the Librem 5 focuses on privacy and freedom, and includes features like hardware kill switches, and easily-replaceable components. Its name, with a numerical ""5"", refers to its screen size, and not a release version. After an announcement on 24 August 2017, the distribution of developer kits and limited pre-release models occurred throughout 2019 and most of 2020.",61906365,Librem 5,E -747,747.0,747.0,"PENTTBOM is the codename for the Federal Bureau of Investigation's probe into the September 11 attacks of 2001, the largest criminal inquiry in the FBI's history. Its name stands for ""Pentagon/Twin Towers Bombing Investigation"". The investigation was launched on September 11, 2001, and involved 4,000 special agents and 3,000 professional employees. - -Identifying the hijackers -The FBI was able to identify the 19 hijackers within a matter of days as few suspects made any effort to conceal their names on flight, credit card, and other records. - -Identical letters -Three of the hijackers carried copies of an identical handwritten letter (in Arabic) that was found in three separate locations: the first, in a suitcase of hijacker Mohamed Atta that did not make the connection to American Airlines Flight 11 that crashed into the North Tower of the World Trade Center; the second, in a vehicle parked at Washington Dulles International Airport that belonged to hijacker Nawaf al-Hazmi; and the third at the crash site of United Airlines Flight 93 in Shanksville, Pennsylvania. -According to the testimony before the House Intelligence Subcommittee on Terrorism and Homeland Defense on October 3, 2001 given by J. T. Caruso—the Deputy Assistant Director of the FBI's Counterterrorism Division, ""translations of the letter indicate an alarming willingness to die on the part of the hijackers."" - -Passports recovered -According to testimony by Susan Ginsberg, a staff member of the National Commission on Terrorist attacks upon the United States, in the January 26, 2004, Public Hearing: -Four of the hijackers' passports have survived in whole or in part.",2491936,PENTTBOM,S -748,748.0,748.0,"This is a comprehensive list of Grid computing infrastructure projects. - -Grid computing infrastructure projects -BREIN uses the Semantic Web and multi-agent systems to build simple and reliable grid systems for business, with a focus on engineering and logistics management. -A-Ware is developing a stable, supported, commercially exploitable, high quality technology to give easy access to grid resources. -AssessGrid addresses obstacles to wide adoption of grid technologies by bringing risk management and assessment to this field, enabling use of grid computing in business and society. -Cohesion Platform – A Java-based modular peer-to-peer multi-application desktop grid computing platform for irregularly structured problems developed at the University of Tübingen (Germany) -The European Grid Infrastructure (EGI) – A series of projects funded by the European Commission which links over 70 institutions in 27 European countries to form a multi-science computing grid infrastructure for the European Research Area, letting researchers share computer resources -GridCOMP provides an advanced component platform for an effective invisible grid. -GridECON takes a user-oriented perspective and creates solutions to grid challenges to promote widespread use of grids. -neuGRID develops a new user-friendly grid-based research e-infrastructure enabling the European neuroscience community to perform research needed for the pressing study of degenerative brain diseases, for example, Alzheimer's disease. -OurGrid aims to deliver grid technology that can be used today by current users to solve present problems. To achieve this goal, it uses a different trade-off compared to most grid projects: it forfeits supporting arbitrary applications in favor of supporting only bag-of-tasks applications. -ScottNet NCG – A distributed neural computing grid. A private commercial effort in continuous operation since 1995. This system performs a series of functions including data synchronization amongst databases, mainframe systems, and other data repositories. E-commerce transaction processing, automated research and data retrieval, content analysis, web site monitoring, scripted and dynamic user emulation, shipping and fulfillment API integration and management, RSS and NNTP monitoring and analysis, real time security enforcement, and backup/restore functions. -BEinGRID Business Experiments in Grid. -Legion – A grid computing platform developed at the University of Virginia. - -Open-source grid computing infrastructure projects -These projects attempt to make large physical computation infrastructures available for researchers to use: - -3G Bridge An open-source core job bridging component between different grid infrastructures. -Berkeley NOW Project. -Debian Cluster Components. -DiaGrid grid computing network centered at Purdue University. -NESSI-GRID. -OMII-Europe – An EU-funded project established to source key software components that can interoperate across several heterogeneous grid middleware platforms. -OMII-UK Provide free open source software and support to enable a sustained future for the UK e-research community. -Open Science Grid. -SARA Computing and Networking Services in Netherlands. -Storage@home Distributed storage infrastructure developed to solve the problem of backing up and sharing petabytes of scientific results using a distributed model of volunteer managed hosts.",71621594,List of grid computing projects,M -749,749.0,749.0,"Str8ts is a logic-based number-placement puzzle, invented by Jeff Widderich in 2008. It is distinct from, but shares some properties and rules with Sudoku. The name is derived from the poker straight. The puzzle is published in a number of newspapers internationally, in two book collections, and in downloadable apps. It was featured on the Canadian television show Dragons' Den on November 24, 2010. - -History -A hand made prototype of Str8ts which used black cells and the new rule of straights in compartments was invented by Canadian puzzle designer Jeff Widderich in 2007.",29402723,Str8ts,M -750,750.0,750.0,"Biostasis or Cryptobiosis is the ability of an organism to tolerate environmental changes without having to actively adapt to them. Biostasis is found in organisms that live in habitats that likely encounter unfavorable living conditions, such as drought, freezing temperatures, change in pH levels, pressure, or temperature. Insects undergo a type of dormancy to survive these conditions, called diapause. Diapause may be obligatory for these insects to survive. The insect may also be able to undergo change prior to the arrival of the initiating event. - -Microorganisms -Biostasis in this context is also synonymous for viable but nonculturable state.",42940,Biostasis,S -751,751.0,751.0,"Applied and Environmental Microbiology is a biweekly peer-reviewed scientific journal published by the American Society for Microbiology. It was established in 1953 as Applied Microbiology and obtained its current name in 1975. Articles older than six months are available free of cost from the website, however, the newly published articles within six months are available to subscribers only. According to the Journal Citation Reports, the journal has a 2022 impact factor of 4.4. The journal has been ranked as one of the top 100 journals over the past 100 years in the fields of biology and medicine.",9791889,Applied and Environmental Microbiology,S -752,752.0,752.0,"Bioresilience refers to the ability of a whole species or an individual of a species to adapt to change. Initially the term applied to changes in the natural environment, but increasingly it is also used for adaptation to anthropogenically induced change. - -History -Alexander von Humboldt was the first to note the resilience of life forms with increasing altitude and the accompanying decreasing prevalence in numbers, and he documented this in the 18th century on the slopes of the volcano Chimborazo.Understanding of bioresilience evolved from research led by The Mountain Institute when establishing two of the national parks that surround Mount Everest, Makalu-Barun National Park in Nepal, and Qomolangma National Nature Preserve in the Tibet Autonomous Region of China. The research documented greater biodiversity at Everest's base than higher up. There were progressively fewer documented species as the mountain ascended into higher biomes, from subtropical to temperate to alpine to Arctic-like. These fewer species, though, had greater biologic robustness correlating directly with increasing bioresilience. - -Current research -Monitoring of bioresilience, beginning in the Everest ecosystem but expanding to other mountain ecologies globally is being carried out by the Biomeridian Project at Future Generations University.The concept of bioresilience has also been applied to human health to explain aging or chronic diseases decrease the ability of the body to adapt; in such cases, the system becomes rigid and unable to cross different life demands.",58685900,Bioresilience,S -753,753.0,753.0,"Docomo Pacific is a wholly owned subsidiary of Japanese mobile phone operator NTT Docomo headquartered in Tamuning, Guam. It is the largest provider of mobile, television, internet and telephone services to the United States territories of Guam and the Northern Mariana Islands. -The company was formed through the merger of cell phone carriers Guamcell Communications and HafaTel and was acquired in December 2006 by NTT Docomo, a spin-off of Japanese communication company Nippon Telegraph and Telephone. In October 2008, Docomo Pacific was the first company on Guam to introduce a HSDPA network. In November 2011, Docomo Pacific launched 4G HSPA+ service on Guam followed by the launch of advanced 4G LTE service in October 2012.In May 2013, Docomo Pacific acquired cable company MCV Broadband (Marianas Cable Vision Broadband) from Seaport Capital, an investment company based in New York City. - -Incidents -March 17, 2023 -A cyberattack (they had mentioned cybersecurity) occurred early in the morning causing Docomo's call hotline center, website, internet services knocked out. -Immediate failsafe protocols were initiated by Docomo's cyber security technicians shut down the affected servers and to isolate the intrusion. -During the downtime of the call center and the internet, people on facebook from Guam complained about what was happening. People complained about the stuff that happened.",9183354,Docomo Pacific,T -754,754.0,754.0,"Postponement is a business strategy employed in manufacturing and supply chain management which maximizes possible benefit and minimizes risk by delaying further investment into a product or service until the last possible moment, or where a manufacturer produces a generic product, which can be modified at a later stage before the final distribution to the customer. An example of such a strategy is Dell Computers' build-to-order online store. One of the earliest references to the concept was in a paper by Walter Zinn and Donald J. Bowersox in the Journal of Business Logistics in 1988, which highlighted five types: labelling, packaging, assembly, manufacturing and time postponements. -One of the most modern definitions today is the following, suggested by Christopher (2005):Postponement refers to the process by which the commitment of a product to its final form or location is delayed for as long as possible. -A successful example of postponement – delayed differentiation – is the use of ""vanilla boxes"". Semi-finished computers are stored in advance of seeing the actual demand for the finished products.",7093932,Postponement,E -755,755.0,755.0,"Depending on the supplier, track technology has been variously termed a smart conveyance system, intelligent track system, industrial transport system, independent cart technology, smart carriage technology, linear or extended or flexible transport system, or simply a conveyor or conveyance platform. They are also referred to as linear motors or long stator linear motors, reflecting the underlying technology of the track (stator) and shuttles (platen, equivalent to the rotor in a conventional rotary electric motor). Shuttles have also been called carriers, movers, platforms and pallets. - -List of commercially available track systems -The following is a list of commercially available track systems by product name: - -SuperTrak CONVEYANCETM from ATS Automation Tooling Systems -ACOPOStrak from B&R Industrial Automation -ActiveMover from Bosch Rexroth -iTRAK from Rockwell Automation -LCM100 and LCM100-X from Yamaha -Linear Motion System -Linear Transfer System -MagneMover LITE from Rockwell Automation -Multi Carrier System -Quickstick and Quickstick HT from Rockwell Automation -SuperTrak from B&R -XTS from Beckhoff - -Technology adoption and maturity -ATS Automation was the first to utilize linear motor based conveyance with its SuperTrak CONVEYANCETM technology. The first commercial system was shipped in 2002. -According to Packaging World magazine in a January 2018 article, adoption of the technology continues to grow with a third generation of the technology reaching maturity. The article cites freedom from mechanical constraints, shortening changeovers and smaller machine footprints as reasons. -Track technology itself is not new.",64760108,Track technology,T -756,756.0,756.0,"Systems geology emphasizes the nature of geology as a system – that is, as a set of interacting parts that function as a whole. The systems approach involves study of the linkages or interfaces between the component objects and processes at all levels of detail in order to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the solid Earth. A long-term objective is to provide computational support throughout the cycles of investigation, integrating observation and experiment with modeling and theory, each reinforcing the other. The overall complexity suggests that systems geology must be based on the wider emerging cyberinfrastructure, and should aim to harmonize geological information with Earth system science within the context of the e-science vision of a comprehensive global knowledge system (see Linked Data, Semantic Web). - -Background -Systems geology can be seen as an integral part of the science of earth systems, ""encompassing all components of the Earth system – air, life, rock and water – to gain a new and more comprehensive understanding of the world as we know it"". Much of the background was set out in Solid-Earth Science and Society in 1993.",38507261,Systems geology,S -757,757.0,757.0,"Surface modification is the act of modifying the surface of a material by bringing physical, chemical or biological characteristics different from the ones originally found on the surface of a material.This modification is usually made to solid materials, but it is possible to find examples of the modification to the surface of specific liquids. -The modification can be done by different methods with a view to altering a wide range of characteristics of the surface, such as: roughness, hydrophilicity, surface charge, surface energy, biocompatibility and reactivity. - -Surface engineering -Surface engineering is the sub-discipline of materials science which deals with the surface of solid matter. It has applications to chemistry, mechanical engineering, and electrical engineering (particularly in relation to semiconductor manufacturing). -Solids are composed of a bulk material covered by a surface. The surface which bounds the bulk material is called the Surface phase. It acts as an interface to the surrounding environment. The bulk material in a solid is called the Bulk phase. -The surface phase of a solid interacts with the surrounding environment.",486525,Surface modification,E -758,758.0,758.0,"William Henry Dallinger FRS (5 July 1839 – 7 November 1909) was a British minister in the Wesleyan Methodist Church. He was also an accomplished scientist, being the first to study the complete lifecycle of unicellular organisms under the microscope and studying the adaptation of such organisms to temperature.He made numerous contributions to microscopy, and was president of the Quekett Microscopical Club from 1889 to 1892. Dallinger was awarded three honorary doctorates, the Ll.D. from Victoria College, Toronto in 1884, the D.Sc. from Dublin in 1892, and the D.L.C.",795842,William Dallinger,S -759,759.0,759.0,"An arbitrarily varying channel (AVC) is a communication channel model used in coding theory, and was first introduced by Blackwell, Breiman, and Thomasian. This particular channel has unknown parameters that can change over time and these changes may not have a uniform pattern during the transmission of a codeword. - - - - - n - - - - {\displaystyle \textstyle n} - uses of this channel can be described using a stochastic matrix - - - - - - W - - n - - - : - - X - - n - - - × - - - - {\displaystyle \textstyle W^{n}:X^{n}\times } - - - - - - - S - - n - - - → - - Y - - n - - - - - - {\displaystyle \textstyle S^{n}\rightarrow Y^{n}} - , where - - - - - X - - - - {\displaystyle \textstyle X} - is the input alphabet, - - - - - Y - - - - {\displaystyle \textstyle Y} - is the output alphabet, and - - - - - - W - - n - - - ( - y - - | - - x - , - s - ) - - - - {\displaystyle \textstyle W^{n}(y|x,s)} - is the probability over a given set of states - - - - - S - - - - {\displaystyle \textstyle S} - , that the transmitted input - - - - - x - = - ( - - x - - 1 - - - , - … - , - - x - - n - - - ) - - - - {\displaystyle \textstyle x=(x_{1},\ldots ,x_{n})} - leads to the received output - - - - - y - = - ( - - y - - 1 - - - , - … - , - - y - - n - - - ) - - - - {\displaystyle \textstyle y=(y_{1},\ldots ,y_{n})} - . The state - - - - - - s - - i - - - - - - {\displaystyle \textstyle s_{i}} - in set - - - - - S - - - - {\displaystyle \textstyle S} - can vary arbitrarily at each time unit - - - - - i - - - - {\displaystyle \textstyle i} - . This channel was developed as an alternative to Shannon's Binary Symmetric Channel (BSC), where the entire nature of the channel is known, to be more realistic to actual network channel situations. - -Capacities and associated proofs -Capacity of deterministic AVCs -An AVC's capacity can vary depending on the certain parameters. - - - - - - R - - - - {\displaystyle \textstyle R} - is an achievable rate for a deterministic AVC code if it is larger than - - - - - 0 - - - - {\displaystyle \textstyle 0} - , and if for every positive - - - - - ε - - - - {\displaystyle \textstyle \varepsilon } - and - - - - - δ - - - - {\displaystyle \textstyle \delta } - , and very large - - - - - n - - - - {\displaystyle \textstyle n} - , length- - - - - - n - - - - {\displaystyle \textstyle n} - block codes exist that satisfy the following equations: - - - - - - - 1 - n - - - log - ⁡ - N - > - R - − - δ - - - - {\displaystyle \textstyle {\frac {1}{n}}\log N>R-\delta } - and - - - - - - max - - s - ∈ - - S - - n - - - - - - - - e - ¯ - - - - ( - s - ) - ≤ - ε - - - - {\displaystyle \displaystyle \max _{s\in S^{n}}{\bar {e}}(s)\leq \varepsilon } - , where - - - - - N - - - - {\displaystyle \textstyle N} - is the highest value in - - - - - Y - - - - {\displaystyle \textstyle Y} - and where - - - - - - - - e - ¯ - - - - ( - s - ) - - - - {\displaystyle \textstyle {\bar {e}}(s)} - is the average probability of error for a state sequence - - - - - s - - - - {\displaystyle \textstyle s} - .",27240507,Arbitrarily varying channel,M -760,760.0,760.0,"The International Grenfell Association (IGA) is an organization founded by Sir Wilfred Grenfell to provide health care, education, religious services, and rehabilitation and other social activities to the fisherman and coastal communities in northern Newfoundland and the coast of Labrador. -Before 1892 there were no medical facilities or personnel along the coast of Labrador aside from a Moravian Mission that provided basic medical care and an occasional doctor that the Newfoundland government sent on a mail ship. Grenfell undertook a medical expedition in 1892 on the hospital ship the Albert. He saw medical and living conditions that appalled him, including settlements that had been wiped out by diphtheria. In response, he developed a network of regional hospitals and nursing stations. The first hospitals were built at Battle Harbour in 1893 and Indian Harbour in 1894.",10476826,International Grenfell Association,S -761,761.0,761.0,"The Chapin Mine Steam Pump Engine, also known as The Cornish Pump, is a steam-driven pump located at the corner of Kent Street and Kimberly Avenue in Iron Mountain, Michigan, USA. It is the largest reciprocating steam-driven engine ever built in the United States. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1981 and designated a Michigan State Historic Site in 1958. - -History -Iron ore was discovered in what is now the Iron Mountain area in 1878. Development was rapid: Iron Mountain was platted in 1879 and the Chapin Mine Company was formed the same year. The Chapin Mine proved to be the most productive in the Menominee Range, but part of the ore body was underneath a cedar swamp and water seepage proved to be an ongoing problem.",34625782,Chapin Mine Steam Pump Engine,E -762,762.0,762.0,"Elmer Drew Merrill (October 15, 1876 – February 25, 1956) was an American botanist and taxonomist. He spent more than twenty years in the Philippines where he became a recognized authority on the flora of the Asia-Pacific region. Through the course of his career he authored nearly 500 publications, described approximately 3,000 new plant species, and amassed over one million herbarium specimens. In addition to his scientific work he was an accomplished administrator, college dean, university professor and editor of scientific journals. - -Early life -Merrill and his twin brother, Dana T. Merrill, were born and raised in the small village of East Auburn, Maine.",5637152,Elmer Drew Merrill,S -763,763.0,763.0,"A rapid antigen test (RAT), sometimes called a rapid antigen detection test (RADT), antigen rapid test (ART), or loosely just a rapid test, is a rapid diagnostic test suitable for point-of-care testing that directly detects the presence or absence of an antigen. RATs are a type of lateral flow test detecting antigens, rather than antibodies (antibody tests) or nucleic acid (nucleic acid tests). Rapid tests generally give a result in 5 to 30 minutes, require minimal training or infrastructure, and have significant cost advantages. Rapid antigen tests for the detection of SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID-19, have been commonly used during the COVID-19 pandemic. -For many years, an early and major class of RATs—the rapid strep tests for streptococci—were so often the referent when RATs or RADTs were mentioned that the two latter terms were often loosely treated as synonymous with those.",44425759,Rapid antigen test,S -764,764.0,764.0,"In computing, the motherboard form factor is the specification of a motherboard – the dimensions, power supply type, location of mounting holes, number of ports on the back panel, etc. Specifically, in the IBM PC compatible industry, standard form factors ensure that parts are interchangeable across competing vendors and generations of technology, while in enterprise computing, form factors ensure that server modules fit into existing rackmount systems. Traditionally, the most significant specification is for that of the motherboard, which generally dictates the overall size of the case. Small form factors have been developed and implemented. - -Overview of form factors -A PC motherboard is the main circuit board within a typical desktop computer, laptop or server. Its main functions are as follows: - -To serve as a central backbone to which all other modular parts such as CPU, RAM, and hard drives can be attached as required to create a computer -To be interchangeable (in most cases) with different components (in particular CPU and expansion cards) for the purposes of customization and upgrading -To distribute power to other circuit boards -To electronically co-ordinate and interface the operation of the componentsAs new generations of components have been developed, the standards of motherboards have changed too.",12066647,Motherboard form factor,T -765,765.0,765.0,"Do-it-yourself biology (DIY biology, DIY bio) is a biotechnological social movement in which individuals, communities, and small organizations study biology and life science using the same methods as traditional research institutions. DIY biology is primarily undertaken by individuals with limited research training from academia or corporations, who then mentor and oversee other DIY biologists with little or no formal training. This may be done as a hobby, as a not-for-profit endeavor for community learning and open-science innovation, or for profit, to start a business. -Other terms are also associated with the do-it-yourself biology community. The terms biohacking and wetware hacking emphasize the connection to hacker culture and the hacker ethic. The term hacker is used in the original sense of finding new and clever ways to do things.",22562859,Do-it-yourself biology,S -766,766.0,766.0,"PSR B1919+21 is a pulsar with a period of 1.3373 seconds and a pulse width of 0.04 seconds. Discovered by Jocelyn Bell Burnell on 28 November 1967, it is the first discovered radio pulsar. The power and regularity of the signals were briefly thought to resemble an extraterrestrial beacon, leading the source to be nicknamed LGM, later LGM-1 (for ""little green men"").The original designation of this pulsar was CP 1919, which stands for Cambridge Pulsar at RA 19h 19m . It is also known as PSR J1921+2153 and is located in the constellation of Vulpecula. - -Discovery -In 1967, a radio signal was detected using the Interplanetary Scintillation Array of the Mullard Radio Astronomy Observatory in Cambridge, UK, by Jocelyn Bell Burnell. The signal had a 1.337302088331-second period (not in 1967, but in 1991) and 0.04-second pulsewidth.",1000060,PSR B1919+21,M -767,767.0,767.0,"ABC iview is a video on demand and catch-up TV service run by the Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Currently iview video content can only be viewed by users in Australia. As of 2016, ABC iview attracts around 50 million plays monthly and accounts for around half of the total time streamed by Australian TV video services. - -History -After running for several months in beta form under the name ""ABC Playback"", the service became available as a Flash website in July 2008. This was the next step after the video podcasting of ABC TV programs since July 2006. -The iview Flash website was redesigned in 2009 and 2010, to cater for a large increase in content. -An iOS app for iPads was launched in December 2010, followed by a mobile version for iPhone in June 2012.",19403267,ABC iview,M -768,768.0,768.0,"Kate Marvel is a climate scientist and science writer based in New York City. She is a senior scientist at Project Drawdown and was formerly an associate research scientist at NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies and Columbia Engineering's Department of Applied Physics and Mathematics. - -Education and early career -Marvel attended the University of California at Berkeley, where she received her Bachelor of Arts degree in physics and astronomy in 2003. She received her PhD in 2008 in theoretical physics from University of Cambridge as a Gates Scholar and member of Trinity College. Following her PhD, she shifted her focus to climate science and energy as a Postdoctoral Science Fellow at the Center for International Security and Cooperation at Stanford University and at the Carnegie Institution for Science in the Department of Global Ecology. She continued that trajectory as a postdoctoral fellow at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory before joining the research faculty at NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies and Columbia University.",57806752,Kate Marvel,E -769,769.0,769.0,"Bowman v. Monsanto Co., 569 U.S. 278 (2013), was a United States Supreme Court patent decision in which the Court unanimously affirmed the decision of the Federal Circuit that the patent exhaustion doctrine does not permit a farmer to plant and grow saved, patented seeds without the patent owner's permission. The case arose after Vernon Hugh Bowman, an Indiana farmer, bought transgenic soybean crop seeds from a local grain elevator for his second crop of the season. Monsanto originally sold the seed from which these soybeans were grown to farmers under a limited use license that prohibited the farmer-buyer from using the seeds for more than a single season or from saving any seed produced from the crop for replanting.",39381155,Bowman v. Monsanto Co.,S -770,770.0,770.0,"In computer programming, a compile and go system, compile, load, and go system, assemble and go system, or load and go system -is a programming language processor in which the compilation, assembly, or link steps are not separated from program execution. The intermediate forms of the program are generally kept in primary memory, and not saved to the file system.Examples of compile-and-go systems are WATFOR, PL/C, and Dartmouth BASIC. An example of load-and-go systems is the loader Anthony J. Barr wrote for the University Computing Corporation in 1968 that was replaced in the market by the IBM OS/360 loader in 1972. These OS/360 loaders performed many of the functions of the Linkage Editor but placed the linked program in memory rather than creating an executable on disk.",35117434,Compile and go system,T -771,771.0,771.0,"Concurrent engineering (CE) or concurrent design and manufacturing is a work methodology emphasizing the parallelization of tasks (i.e. performing tasks concurrently), which is sometimes called simultaneous engineering or integrated product development (IPD) using an integrated product team approach. It refers to an approach used in product development in which functions of design engineering, manufacturing engineering, and other functions are integrated to reduce the time required to bring a new product to market. -By completing the design and manufacturing stages at the same time, products are produced in less time while lowering cost. Although concurrent design and manufacturing requires extensive communication and coordination between disciplines, the benefits can increase the profit of a business and lead to a sustainable environment for product development. Concurrent design and manufacturing can lead to a competitive advantage over other businesses as the product may be produced and marketed in less time.",49257187,Concurrent engineering,E -772,772.0,772.0,"Marketing engineering is currently defined as ""a systematic approach to harness data and knowledge to drive effective marketing decision making and implementation through a technology-enabled and model-supported decision process"". - -History -The term marketing engineering can be traced back to Lilien et al. in ""The Age of Marketing Engineering"" published in 1998; in this article the authors define marketing engineering as the use of computer decision models for making marketing decisions. Marketing managers typically use ""conceptual marketing"", that is they develop a mental model of the decision situation based on past experience, intuition and reasoning. That approach has its limitations though: experience is unique to every individual, there is no objective way of choosing between the best judgments of multiple individuals in such a situation and furthermore judgment can be influenced by the person's position in the firm's hierarchy. In the same year Lilien G.",51806669,Marketing engineering,E -773,773.0,773.0,"In chemical engineering and related fields, a unit operation is a basic step in a process. Unit operations involve a physical change or chemical transformation such as separation, crystallization, evaporation, filtration, polymerization, isomerization, and other reactions. For example, in milk processing, the following unit operations are involved: homogenization, pasteurization, and packaging. These unit operations are connected to create the overall process. A process may require many unit operations to obtain the desired product from the starting materials, or feedstocks. - -History -Historically, the different chemical industries were regarded as different industrial processes and with different principles.",1072236,Unit operation,E -774,774.0,774.0,"Transition management is a governance approach that aims to facilitate and accelerate sustainability transitions through a participatory process of visioning, learning and experimenting. In its application, transition management seeks to bring together multiple viewpoints and multiple approaches in a 'transition arena'. Participants are invited to structure their shared problems with the current system and develop shared visions and goals which are then tested for practicality through the use of experimentation, learning and reflexivity. The model is often discussed in reference to sustainable development and the possible use of the model as a method for change. -Key principles to transition management as a form of governance: -seeks to widen participation by taking a multi-actor approach in order to encompass societal values and beliefs -takes a long-term perspective (between 1-3 generations) creating a basket of visions in which short-term objectives can be identified -focused on learning at the niche level, experiments are used to identify how successful a particular pathway could be and uses the concept of ""Learn by doing, doing by learning"" -a systems thinking approach which identifies that problems will span multiple domains, levels and actors. - -History -There have been numerous societal transitions in the past, studied examples include the transition from horse-drawn carriage to motorised cars and the change from physical telegraphy to the electric telephone. There are a number of theories that muse over how transition management evolved into being.",31793449,Transition management (governance),T -775,775.0,775.0,"Atomic engineering may be considered a superset of nuclear engineering, which is the branch of engineering that seeks ""to harness the energy released from nuclear reactions"" via ""the application of nuclear energy in a variety of settings, including nuclear power plants, submarine propulsion systems, medical diagnostic equipment such as MRI machines, food production, nuclear weapons and radioactive-waste disposal facilities."" - -Origin -The term ""Atomic engineering"" appears to have been first used in 1946 by Theodore von Kármán: ""And now it seems we are at the threshold of the new atomic age. I do not know whether or not this is true, but certainly, we shall have 'atomic engineering' in the fields of power and transportation. Are we prepared for the problems involved?""Atomic engineering may be a superset of nuclear engineering, due to the historical usage of terms like Atoms for Peace , International Atomic Energy Agency, 'atomic engineer', etc.. -An inclusive definition is: ""exploiting the atomic characters of matter for engineering applications."" For example, an atomic clock and potential applications of ultra-cold atom belong to atomic engineering. The atomic character could be the atomic spin (e.g. in Nuclear magnetic resonance and quantum computing applications), atomic position (e.g.",49496204,Atomic engineering,E -776,776.0,776.0,"The University of Michigan Herbarium is the herbarium of the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor, Michigan, in the United States. One of the most-extensive botanical collections in the world, the herbarium has some 1.7 million specimens of vascular plants, algae, bryophytes, fungi, and lichens, and is a valuable resource for teaching and research in biology and botany. The herbarium includes many rare and extinct species. - -Administration -Formerly an independent unit of the University of Michigan College of Literature, Science, and the Arts (LSA), the herbarium is now part of the Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology within LSA. The herbarium is located at 3600 Varsity Drive in Ann Arbor.The Herbarium funds one Graduate Museum Assistant annually. It also has since 1977 awarded the annual Kenneth L.",38799794,University of Michigan Herbarium,S -777,777.0,777.0,"Overlay architecture, or Overlay, is ""event architecture"", such as the temporary elements that are added to more permanent buildings to enable the operation of major sporting events or festivals. These elements provide additional facilities for the duration of an event and are generally of a lightweight construction, as they are often removed afterwards. - -Use -The role of overlay is extensive and can cover all aspects of a major event, starting with the ""back of house"" user groups, including staff, operations, officials, broadcast, media, hospitality, VIPs and the athletes themselves. These groups all require physical facilities to provide accreditation, accommodation, segregation and wayfinding, which need to be separated from, but connected to, the spectators at the ""front of house"", to preserve the magic and mystery of the event experience. -It is important that the overlay design is integrated into the masterplan of major events at an early stage, in order that the flow of people through the site can be effectively managed and sufficient space provided for the various overlay facilities. -The overlay design also has a significant role in helping to define the overall environment of a major event. By taking a design-inclusive approach and considering the cultural and design aspects alongside the commercial and functional requirements, memorable places and spaces can be created out of simple components and hired commodities. - -Overlay categories -Overlay can be categorised in three main ways: - -Existing facilities: the overlay consists of temporary elements being added to an existing space to accommodate the specific needs of an event (e.g.",31152898,Overlay architecture,S -778,778.0,778.0,"Koolvac was a robotic vacuum cleaner sold in the U.S. by former iRobot distributor Koolatron, owned by Canadian Urus Industrial Corp. iRobot filed a lawsuit against Koolatron, claiming that Koolvac was an unauthorized copy of their Roomba model. iRobot won the court case and Koolatron was prohibited from further sales of Koolvacs within the United States. All unsold units had to be destroyed or exported out of the U.S.",8474913,Koolvac,T -779,779.0,779.0,"NAIL-MS (short for nucleic acid isotope labeling coupled mass spectrometry) is a technique based on mass spectrometry used for the investigation of nucleic acids and its modifications. It enables a variety of experiment designs to study the underlying mechanism of RNA biology in vivo. For example, the dynamic behaviour of nucleic acids in living cells, especially of RNA modifications, can be followed in more detail. - -Theory -NAIL-MS is used to study RNA modification mechanisms. Therefore, cells in culture are first fed with stable isotope labeled nutrients and the cells incorporate these into their biomolecules. After purification of the nucleic acids, most often RNA, analysis is done by mass spectrometry.",63409943,NAIL-MS,S -780,780.0,780.0,"The Bowen ratio is used to describe the type of heat transfer for a surface that has moisture. Heat transfer can either occur as sensible heat (differences in temperature without evapotranspiration) or latent heat (the energy required during a change of state, without a change in temperature). The Bowen ratio is generally used to calculate heat lost (or gained) in a substance; it is the ratio of energy fluxes from one state to another by sensible heat and latent heating respectively. -The ratio was named by Harald Sverdrup after Ira Sprague Bowen (1898–1973), an astrophysicist whose theoretical work on evaporation to air from water bodies made first use of it, and it is used most commonly in meteorology and hydrology. - -Formulation -The Bowen ratio is calculated by the equation: - - - - - B - = - - - - Q - - h - - - - Q - - e - - - - - - - {\displaystyle B={\frac {Q_{h}}{Q_{e}}}} - , where - - - - - Q - - h - - - - - {\displaystyle Q_{h}} - is sensible heating and - - - - - Q - - e - - - - - {\displaystyle Q_{e}} - is latent heating.In this context, when the magnitude of - - - - B - - - {\displaystyle B} - is less than one, a greater proportion of the available energy at the surface is passed to the atmosphere as latent heat than as sensible heat, and the converse is true for values of - - - - B - - - {\displaystyle B} - greater than one. As - - - - - - Q - - e - - - → - 0 - - - - {\displaystyle {Q_{e}\rightarrow 0}} - , however, - - - - B - - - {\displaystyle B} - becomes unbounded making the Bowen ratio a poor choice of variable for use in formulae, especially for arid surfaces. For this reason the evaporative fraction is sometimes a more appropriate choice of variable representing the relative contributions of the turbulent energy fluxes to the surface energy budget. -The Bowen ratio is related to the evaporative fraction, - - - - E - F - - - {\displaystyle EF} - , through the equation, - - - - - - E - F - = - - - - Q - - e - - - - - Q - - e - - - + - - Q - - h - - - - - - = - - - 1 - - 1 - + - B - - - - - - - {\displaystyle {EF={\frac {Q_{e}}{Q_{e}+Q_{h}}}={\frac {1}{1+B}}}} - .The Bowen ratio is an indicator of the type of surface.",224300,Bowen ratio,E -781,781.0,781.0,"Exercise medicine is a branch of medicine that deals with physical fitness and the prevention and treatment of injuries and illness with exercise. In some countries, Sport and Exercise Medicine (SEM) is a recognized medical specialty (with similar training and standards to other medical specialties). Exercise medicine is therefore an emerging physician (non-surgical) specialty, but there is also a belief that exercise is treatment of such fundamental benefit that it should be incorporated into all medical specialties. Allied health practitioners also can specialize in exercise such as exercise physiologists, physiotherapists, athletic trainers and podiatrists.Whereas the signature treatment of the specialty of surgery is operative procedures, and the signature treatment of most medical (physician) specialties is the prescription of pharmaceuticals, the signature treatment of Sport and Exercise Medicine is exercise prescription. SEM physician consultations are generally lengthy (over 30 minutes) and 74% involve prescription of exercise, with exercise prescription being the most common treatment. - -Evidence for the efficacy of exercise as a medical treatment -There is an enormous amount of evidence proving that exercise (when prescribed as a medical treatment) is effective at preventing and treating most of the major chronic diseases, including cancer, cardiovascular diseases, arthritis, osteoporosis, back pain, diabetes, depression and other mental illnesses and falls in the elderly. -Exercise has been shown to reduce all-cause mortality in a large number of primary studies and meta-analyses. - -Exercise and cardiovascular disease -There are multiple ways in which exercise can reduce cardiovascular disease and mortality, including through lowering blood pressure and lowering LDL cholesterol levels.",70451707,Exercise medicine,S -782,782.0,782.0,"Chip formation is part of the process of cutting materials by mechanical means, using tools such as saws, lathes and milling cutters. -The formal study of chip formation was encouraged around World War II and shortly afterwards, with increases in the use of faster and more powerful cutting machines, particularly for metal cutting with the new high speed steel cutters. Pioneering work in this field was carried out by Kivima (1952) and Franz (1958).Chip formation is usually described according to a three-way model developed by Franz. This model is best known within the field of machine tool design, although it is also used when an application area, such as woodworking, requires a vocabulary to describe chip formation in more detail than is usually attempted. - -Chip classification -The first three chip types are the original characterisation, by Dr. Norman Franz. The type of chip that forms depends on many factors, of both tool and material.",32534667,Chip formation,E -783,783.0,783.0,"The chemical state of a chemical element is due to its electronic, chemical and physical properties as it exists in combination with itself or a group of one or more other elements. A chemical state is often defined as an ""oxidation state"" when referring to metal cations. When referring to organic materials, a chemical state is usually defined as a chemical group, which is a group of several elements bonded together. Material scientists, solid state physicists, analytical chemists, surface scientists and spectroscopists describe or characterize the chemical, physical and/or electronic nature of the surface or the bulk regions of a material as having or existing as one or more chemical states. - -Overview -The chemical state set comprises and encompasses these subordinate groups and entities: chemical species, functional group, anion, cation, oxidation state, chemical compound and elemental forms of an element. -This term or phrase is commonly used when interpreting data from analytical techniques such as: - -Auger electron spectroscopy (AES) -Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS, EDX) -Infrared spectroscopy (IR, FT-IR, ATR) -Liquid chromatography (LC, HPLC) -Mass spectrometry (MS, ToF-SIMS, D-SIMS) -Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR, H-NMR, C-NMR, X-NMR) -Photoemission spectroscopy (PES, UPS) -Raman spectroscopy (FT-Raman) -Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy (UV-Vis) -X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS, ESCA) -Wavelength dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (WDX, WDS) - -Significance -The chemical state of a group of elements, can be similar to, but not identical to, the chemical state of another similar group of elements because the two groups have different ratios of the same elements and exhibit different chemical, electronic, and physical properties that can be detected by various spectroscopic techniques. -A chemical state can exist on or inside the surface of a solid state material and can often, but not always, be isolated or separated from the other chemical species found on the surface of that material. Surface scientists, spectroscopists, chemical analysts, and material scientists frequently describe the chemical nature of the chemical species, functional group, anion, or cation detected on the surface and near the surface of a solid state material as its chemical state. -To understand how a chemical state differs from an oxidation state, anion, or cation, compare sodium fluoride (NaF) to polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE, Teflon).",5736171,Chemical state,M -784,784.0,784.0,"In computability theory, the Ackermann function, named after Wilhelm Ackermann, is one of the simplest and earliest-discovered examples of a total computable function that is not primitive recursive. All primitive recursive functions are total and computable, but the Ackermann function illustrates that not all total computable functions are primitive recursive. -After Ackermann's publication of his function (which had three non-negative integer arguments), many authors modified it to suit various purposes, so that today ""the Ackermann function"" may refer to any of numerous variants of the original function. One common version is the two-argument Ackermann–Péter function developed by Rózsa Péter and Raphael Robinson. Its value grows very rapidly; for example, - - - - A - ⁡ - ( - 4 - , - 2 - ) - - - {\displaystyle \operatorname {A} (4,2)} - results in - - - - - 2 - - 65536 - - - − - 3 - - - {\displaystyle 2^{65536}-3} - , an integer of 19,729 decimal digits. - -History -In the late 1920s, the mathematicians Gabriel Sudan and Wilhelm Ackermann, students of David Hilbert, were studying the foundations of computation. Both Sudan and Ackermann are credited with discovering total computable functions (termed simply ""recursive"" in some references) that are not primitive recursive.",2925,Ackermann function,M -785,785.0,785.0,"A production packer is a standard component of the completion hardware of oil or gas wells used to provide a seal between the outside of the production tubing and the inside of the casing, liner, or wellbore wall. -Based on their primary use, packers can be divided into two main categories: production packers and service packers. Production packers are those that remain in the well during well production. Service packers are used temporarily during well service activities such as cement squeezing, acidizing, fracturing and well testing. -It is usually run in close to the bottom end of the production tubing and set at a point above the top perforations or sand screens. In wells with multiple reservoir zones, packers are used to isolate the perforations for each zone. In these situations, a sliding sleeve would be used to select which zone to produce.",10368163,Production packer,E -786,786.0,786.0,"High availability software is software used to ensure that systems are running and available most of the time. High availability is a high percentage of time that the system is functioning. It can be formally defined as (1 – (down time/ total time))*100%. Although the minimum required availability varies by task, systems typically attempt to achieve 99.999% (5-nines) availability. This characteristic is weaker than fault tolerance, which typically seeks to provide 100% availability, albeit with significant price and performance penalties. -High availability software is measured by its performance when a subsystem fails, its ability to resume service in a state close to the state of the system at the time of the original failure, and its ability to perform other service-affecting tasks (such as software upgrade or configuration changes) in a manner that eliminates or minimizes down time.",45297613,High availability software,T -787,787.0,787.0,"The Goldreich-Kylafis (GK) effect is a quantum mechanical effect with applications in Astrophysics. The theoretical background of the work was published by Peter Goldreich and his at the time postdoc Nick Kylafis in a series of two papers in The Astrophysical Journal. -The GK effect predicts that, under special conditions, the spectral lines emitted by interstellar molecules should be linearly polarized and the linear polarization vector should reveal the magnetic field direction in the molecular cloud. Even a μG magnetic field is enough for this effect. The lines arise from rotational transitions of molecules, say J=1 to J=0, where J is the rotational quantum number. If the magnetic sublevels of the J=1 level are equally populated, as it is usually the case, then the line is unpolarized.",52913121,Goldreich-Kylafis effect,M -788,788.0,788.0,"Davangere benne dose or Butter Dose is a type of dosa which traces its origin from the city of Davanagere in Karnataka, India. The term ""benne dose"" in English language simply corresponds to butter dose. It is prepared by addition of generous amount of butter while preparing the normal dosa, and accompanied by coconut chutney. Its batter is very different comprising a mixture of rice, dal, puffed rice, etc. and is prepared on wood fired pan.",32712181,Benne dose,E -789,789.0,789.0,"In philosophy and sociology, a biofact is a being that is both an artifact and living being, or both natural and artificial. This being has been created by purposive human action but exists by processes of growth. The word is a neologism coined from the combination of the words bios and artifact. -There are sources who cite some creations of genetic engineering as examples of biofacts. - -History -Biofact was introduced as early as 2001 by the German philosopher Nicole C. Karafyllis although her book Biofakte published in 2003 is commonly used as reference for the introduction of the term. According to Karafyllis, the word biofact first appeared in a German article (entitled 'Biofakt und Artefakt') in 1943, written by the Austrian protozoologist Bruno M.",17970466,Biofact (philosophy),T -790,790.0,790.0,"Phytochemistry is the study of phytochemicals, which are chemicals derived from plants. Phytochemists strive to describe the structures of the large number of secondary metabolites found in plants, the functions of these compounds in human and plant biology, and the biosynthesis of these compounds. Plants synthesize phytochemicals for many reasons, including to protect themselves against insect attacks and plant diseases. The compounds found in plants are of many kinds, but most can be grouped into four major biosynthetic classes: alkaloids, phenylpropanoids, polyketides, and terpenoids. -Phytochemistry can be considered a subfield of botany or chemistry. Activities can be led in botanical gardens or in the wild with the aid of ethnobotany.",1246630,Phytochemistry,M -791,791.0,791.0,"Hypothetical technology is technology that does not exist yet, but that could exist in the future. This article presents examples of technologies that have been hypothesized or proposed, but that have not been developed yet. An example of hypothetical technology is teleportation. - -Artificial general intelligence -Artificial general intelligence (AGI) is a hypothetical artificial intelligence that demonstrates a human-like ability to learn. AGI is a machine which could do all human activities with the efficiency of a machine. It is a primary goal of artificial intelligence research and a common topic among science fiction writers and futurists.",42361206,Hypothetical technology,T -792,792.0,792.0,"Discrete calculus or the calculus of discrete functions, is the mathematical study of incremental change, in the same way that geometry is the study of shape and algebra is the study of generalizations of arithmetic operations. The word calculus is a Latin word, meaning originally ""small pebble""; as such pebbles were used for calculation, the meaning of the word has evolved and today usually means a method of computation. Meanwhile, calculus, originally called infinitesimal calculus or ""the calculus of infinitesimals"", is the study of continuous change. -Discrete calculus has two entry points, differential calculus and integral calculus. Differential calculus concerns incremental rates of change and the slopes of piece-wise linear curves. Integral calculus concerns accumulation of quantities and the areas under piece-wise constant curves.",61660335,Discrete calculus,M -793,793.0,793.0,"The Jordanian Highlands is a mountain range in Jordan. It extends north and south through the western portion of the country, between the Red Sea-Dead Sea depression to the west and a plateau to the east. The highlands are home to most of Jordan's population and large cities. - -Geography -The Jordanian Highlands extend about 300 km north to south. The highlands are bounded on the north by the deeply-incised Yarmouk River valley, which forms part of the border between Jordan and Syria. They extend to south to Jordan's border with Saudi Arabia.",66749370,Jordanian Highlands,S -794,794.0,794.0,"In nano-optics, a plasmonic lens generally refers to a lens for surface plasmon polaritons (SPPs), i.e. a device that redirects SPPs to converge towards a single focal point. Because SPPs can have very small wavelength, they can converge into a very small and very intense spot, much smaller than the free space wavelength and the diffraction limit.A simple example of a plasmonic lens is a series of concentric rings on a metal film. Any light that hits the film from free space at a 90 degree angle, known as the normal, will get coupled into a SPP (this part works like a diffraction grating coupler), and that SPP will be heading towards the center of the circles, which is the focal point. Another example is a tapered ""dimple"".In 2007, a novel, or technologically new, plasmonic lenses and waveguide by modulating light a mesoscale dielectric structure on a metallic film with arrayed nano-slits, which have constant depth but variant widths.",39950774,Plasmonic lens,S -795,795.0,795.0,"The Terminal Man is a 1974 American horror science fiction film directed by Mike Hodges, based on the 1972 novel of the same name by Michael Crichton. Starring George Segal, the film centers on the danger of mind control and the power of computers. - -Plot -Harry Benson, an intelligent (IQ 144) computer scientist in his 30s, suffers from epilepsy. He often has seizures that induce blackouts, after which he awakens to unfamiliar surroundings with indications of violent behavior on his part. He also suffers from delusions that computers will rise up against humans. -Benson suffers from Acute Disinhibitory Lesion syndrome and consents to an experimental psychosurgical procedure known as ""Stage Three"". Stage Three requires surgeons to implant electrodes in his brain, which will detect the onset of a seizure and then use an electrical impulse to stop it.",5209597,The Terminal Man (film),M -796,796.0,796.0,"The five-second rule, sometimes known as the three-second rule, is a food hygiene myth that states a defined time window where it is safe to pick up food (or sometimes cutlery) after it has been dropped on the floor or on the ground and thus exposed to contamination. -There appears to be no scientific consensus on the general applicability of the rule, and its origin is unclear. It probably originated succeeding germ theory in the late 19th century. The first known mention of the rule in print is in the 1995 novel Wanted: Rowing Coach. - -Research -The five-second rule has received some scholarly attention. It has been studied as both a public health recommendation and a sociological effect. - -University of Illinois -In 2003, Jillian Clarke of the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign found in a survey that 56% of men and 70% of women surveyed, were familiar with the five-second rule. She also determined that a variety of foods were significantly contaminated by even brief exposure to a tile inoculated with E.",254058,Five-second rule,S -797,797.0,797.0,"Monozukuri, or alternatively spelled Monodzukuri, literally means 'production' or 'making of things' in Japanese and is the Japanese term for 'manufacturing'. The broader meaning encompasses a synthesis of technological prowess, know-how and spirit of Japan's manufacturing practices. The spirit includes a sincere attitude towards production with pride, skill and dedication and the pursuit of innovation and perfection. It is currently a buzzword in Japan and many Japanese people believe that monozukuri has led Japan to a dominant position in the world market. - -Overview -The Japanese word monozukuri (ものづくり) is a combination of 'mono' meaning thing and 'zukuri' meaning the act of making. It simply means craftsmanship or manufacturing and has come to be used as a buzzword in industry and mass media to embody the Japanese spirit and history of manufacturing.",56708890,Monozukuri,E -798,798.0,798.0,"The white-throated caracara or Darwin's caracara (Phalcoboenus albogularis) is a species of bird of prey in the family Falconidae, the falcons and caracaras. It is found in Argentina and Chile. - -Taxonomy and systematics -The white-throated caracara is a member of order Falconiformes, which different taxonomic systems assign 65 or 66 species; 10, 11 or 12 genera; and two or three subfamilies. The caracaras contributes the most to the differences. The American Ornithological Society, the International Ornithological Committee, and BirdLife International's Handbook of the Birds of the World place the white-throated caracara in genus Phalcoboenus. The Clements taxonomy places it in genus Daptrius.",12423660,White-throated caracara,S -799,799.0,799.0,"A treadwheel crane (Latin: magna rota) is a wooden, human powered hoisting and lowering device. It was primarily used during the Roman period and the Middle Ages in the building of castles and cathedrals. The often heavy charge is lifted as the individual inside the treadwheel crane walks. The rope attached to a pulley is turned onto a spindle by the rotation of the wheel thus allowing the device to hoist or lower the affixed pallet. - -History -Ancient Rome -The Roman Polyspaston crane, from Ancient Greek πολύσπαστον (polúspaston, “compound pulley”), when worked by four men at both sides of the winch, could lift 3000 kg. In case the winch was replaced by a treadwheel, the maximum load even doubled to 6000 kg at only half the crew, since the treadwheel possesses a much bigger mechanical advantage due to its larger diameter.",24864939,Treadwheel crane,T -800,800.0,800.0,"Technology readiness levels (TRLs) are a method for estimating the maturity of technologies during the acquisition phase of a program. TRLs enable consistent and uniform discussions of technical maturity across different types of technology. TRL is determined during a technology readiness assessment (TRA) that examines program concepts, technology requirements, and demonstrated technology capabilities. TRLs are based on a scale from 1 to 9 with 9 being the most mature technology.TRL was developed at NASA during the 1970s. The US Department of Defense has used the scale for procurement since the early 2000s.",58306941,Technology readiness level,T -801,801.0,801.0,"Selective microfluidics-based ligand enrichment followed by sequencing (SMiLE-seq) is a technique developed for the rapid identification of DNA binding specificities and affinities of full length monomeric and dimeric transcription factors in a fast and semi-high-throughput fashion. -SMiLE-seq works by loading in vitro transcribed and translated “bait” transcription factors into a microfluidic device in combination with DNA molecules. Bound transcription factor-DNA complexes are then isolated from the device, which is followed by sequencing and sequence data analysis to characterize binding motifs. Specialized software is used to determine the DNA binding properties of monomeric or dimeric transcription factors to help predict their in vivo DNA binding activity. -SMiLE-seq combines three critical functions that makes it unique from existing techniques: (1) The use of capillary pumps to optimize the loading of samples, (2) Trapping molecular interactions on the surface of the microfluidic device through immunocapture of target transcription factors, (3) Enabling the selection of DNA that is specifically bound to transcription factors from a pool of random DNA sequences. - -Background -Elucidating the regulatory mechanisms used to govern essential cellular processes is one of the most intensely studied branches of science.",53367602,SMiLE-Seq,S -802,802.0,802.0,"The Irish Naturalist was a scientific journal that was published in Dublin, Ireland, from April 1892 until December 1924. - -History -The journal owed its establishment to the efforts of several leading Dublin naturalists, notably George H. Carpenter and R. M. Barrington. The first editors were Carpenter and Robert Lloyd Praeger, of the National Library of Ireland.",23483399,The Irish Naturalist,S -803,803.0,803.0,"This page describes exoplanet orbital and physical parameters. - -Orbital parameters -Most known extrasolar planet candidates have been discovered using indirect methods and therefore only some of their physical and orbital parameters can be determined. For example, out of the six independent parameters that define an orbit, the radial-velocity method can determine four: semi-major axis, eccentricity, longitude of periastron, and time of periastron. Two parameters remain unknown: inclination and longitude of the ascending node. - -Distance from star and orbital period -There are exoplanets that are much closer to their parent star than any planet in the Solar System is to the Sun, and there are also exoplanets that are much further from their star. Mercury, the closest planet to the Sun at 0.4 astronomical units (AU), takes 88 days for an orbit, but the smallest known orbits of exoplanets have orbital periods of only a few hours, see Ultra-short period planet. The Kepler-11 system has five of its planets in smaller orbits than Mercury's.",15032003,Exoplanet orbital and physical parameters,M -804,804.0,804.0,"FOUP (an acronym for Front Opening Unified Pod or Front Opening Universal Pod) is a specialized plastic carrier designed to hold silicon wafers securely and safely in a controlled environment, and to allow the wafers to be transferred between machines for processing or measurement.FOUPs began to appear along with the first 300mm wafer processing tools in the mid 1990s. The size of the wafers and their comparative lack of rigidity meant that SMIF pods were not a viable form factor. FOUP standards were developed by SEMI and SEMI members to ensure that FOUPs and all equipment that interacts with FOUPs work together seamlessly. Transitioning from a SMIF pod to a FOUP design, the removable cassette used to hold wafers was replaced by fixed wafer columns. The door was relocated from a bottom orientation to a front orientation, where automated handling equipment can access the wafers.",4503954,FOUP,E -805,805.0,805.0,"Closed-loop manufacturing (abbreviated CLM) is a closed-loop process of manufacturing and measuring (checking) in the manufacturing machine. The pre-stage to this is inspection in manufacturing. The idea is to reduce costs and improve the quality and accuracy of the produced parts. - -General procedure -Closed-loop manufacturing can be done in different ways dependent on the manufacturing technique and on the accuracy requirements. - -Planning the sequence (iterations) -Producing nearly the target value on the part -Measuring the real value -Calculating the residual (stop if residual is smaller than needed accuracy) -Manufacturing the residual -Repeat from Step 3 - -Suitable manufacturing techniques -CLM is very suitable for electrical discharge machining. Milling or turning is also suitable for CLM. - -Suitable measuring techniques -In machining measurement techniques have to fulfill special needs. In particular optical techniques have the advantage that they do not touch the part.",42541439,Closed-loop manufacturing,E -806,806.0,806.0,"A road maintenance depot is a depot used by road maintenance agencies for storing works equipment and organising maintenance operations. Road maintenance depots can range in size from small sheds storing just a few pieces of equipment, to vast buildings housing computer and closed-circuit television systems, allowing operators to monitor conditions across the road network. -Road maintenance depots carry gear for a number of tasks, including road works, snow removal, planting of road verge and central reservations and storm drain maintenance. Most depots will have limited accommodation facilities for staff who are on-call, particularly during heavy winter storms, when travel between the worker's home and the depot may be restricted. Road maintenance depots also include garages and repair shops for the fleets of vehicles stored within, and large depots keep supplies of fuel and road salt for drivers. - -Operations -Depots carry a wide range of vehicles to cover most eventualities, depending on the location of the depot; small urban depots carry street sweeper vehicles and small gully emptiers, while larger rural and motorway-based depots hold fleets of winter service vehicles and engineering vehicles, and often tow trucks and breakdown vehicles for rescuing broken down or stranded equipment. Other vehicles commonly kept at depots include lawnmowers, sprayers and road markers. -Along with garages, most depots also have either salt barns or brine tanks, to store de-icing agents for use in winter months, and filling stations to refuel vehicles, especially those that use red diesel, which is not available at public filling stations.",12400999,Road maintenance depot,E -807,807.0,807.0,"The Sputnik crisis was a period of public fear and anxiety in Western nations about the perceived technological gap between the United States and Soviet Union caused by the Soviets' launch of Sputnik 1, the world's first artificial satellite. The crisis was a significant event in the Cold War that triggered the creation of NASA and the Space Race between the two superpowers. The satellite was launched on October 4, 1957, from the Baikonur Cosmodrome. This created a crisis reaction in national newspapers such as The New York Times, which mentioned the satellite in 279 articles between October 6, 1957, and October 31, 1957 (more than 11 articles per day). - -Background -In the early 1950s, Lockheed U-2 spy plane flights over the Soviet Union provided intelligence that the US held the advantage in nuclear capability. However, an education gap was identified when studies conducted between 1955 and 1961 reported that the Soviet Union was training two to three times as many scientists per year as the US.",203452,Sputnik crisis,T -808,808.0,808.0,"Günter Ropohl (14 June 1939 in Cologne, Germany – 28 January 2017) was a German philosopher of technology. - -Biography -Günter Ropohl studied mechanical engineering and philosophy at Stuttgart University, where he was a scholar of the philosopher Max Bense. After his PhD (Dr.-Ing.) in 1970, he wrote his Habilitation thesis in Philosophy und Sociology at Karlsruhe University 1978 under the supervision of Hans Lenk. His work dealt with the systems theory of ""Technik"" (engl. technique), leading to the concept of general technology. -In 1979, Ropohl became professor at the Universität Karlsruhe (TH).",32274109,Günter Ropohl,T -809,809.0,809.0,"Form liners are the liners used in the preparation of designs on concrete walls. The use of form liners often results in more attractive walls for highways, neighborhoods, beaches and parks. Form liners come in many different shapes and designs, and can produce a variety of different results on concrete. -The process typically begins with a determination that an aesthetically interesting barrier is needed. Then concept drawings are made by the design team and presented for approval. Once the design is accepted by the surrounding neighborhood and building team, the drawings evolve into sculptured creations.",17750835,Form liner,E -810,810.0,810.0,"The smallpox virus retention debate has been going on among scientists and health officials since the smallpox virus was declared eradicated by the World Health Organization (WHO) in 1980. The debate centers on whether or not the last two known remnants of the Variola virus known to cause smallpox, which are kept in tightly controlled government laboratories in the United States and Russia, should finally and irreversibly be destroyed. Advocates of final destruction maintain that there is no longer any valid rationale for retaining the samples, which pose the hazard of escaping the laboratories, while opponents of destruction maintain that the samples may still be of value to scientific research, especially since variants of the smallpox virus may still exist in the natural world and thus present the possibility of the disease re-emerging in the future or being used as a bio-weapon. - -Background -The last cases of smallpox occurred in an outbreak of two cases, one of which was fatal, in Birmingham, United Kingdom, in 1978. A medical photographer, Janet Parker, contracted the disease at the University of Birmingham Medical School and died on September 11, 1978. In light of this incident, all known stocks of the smallpox virus were destroyed or transferred to one of two World Health Organization reference laboratories which had BSL-4 facilities—the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in the United States and the State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology VECTOR in Koltsovo, Russia.",42326285,Smallpox virus retention debate,S -811,811.0,811.0,"Marketing assistance loans are nonrecourse loans made available to producers of loan commodities (wheat, corn, grain sorghum, barley oats, upland and extra-long staple (ELS) cotton, rice, soybeans, other oilseeds, honey, wool, mohair, dry peas, lentils, and small chickpeas) under the 2002 farm bill (P.L. 101-171, Sec. 1201-1205). The new law largely continued the commodity loan programs as they were under previous law. Loan rate caps are specified in the law.",23652807,Marketing assistance loans,S -812,812.0,812.0,"Monsanto Co. v. Rohm and Haas Co., 456 F.2d 592 (3d Cir. 1972), is a 1972 decision of the United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit interpreting what conduct amounts to fraudulent procurement of a patent. -This case is one of the early decisions following the US Supreme Court's 1964 decision in Walker Process v. Food Machinery holding fraud on the US Patent Office as potentially violating the Sherman Antitrust Act, and one of the first (if not the first) to hold that failure to disclose material information to the Patent Office was fraudulent. - -Background -Monsanto procured U.S.",47704844,Monsanto Co. v. Rohm and Haas Co.,T -813,813.0,813.0,"A turboexpander, also referred to as a turbo-expander or an expansion turbine, is a centrifugal or axial-flow turbine, through which a high-pressure gas is expanded to produce work that is often used to drive a compressor or generator.Because work is extracted from the expanding high-pressure gas, the expansion is approximated by an isentropic process (i.e., a constant-entropy process), and the low-pressure exhaust gas from the turbine is at a very low temperature, −150 °C or less, depending upon the operating pressure and gas properties. Partial liquefaction of the expanded gas is not uncommon. -Turboexpanders are widely used as sources of refrigeration in industrial processes such as the extraction of ethane and natural-gas liquids (NGLs) from natural gas, the liquefaction of gases (such as oxygen, nitrogen, helium, argon and krypton) and other low-temperature processes. -Turboexpanders currently in operation range in size from about 750 W to about 7.5 MW (1 hp to about 10,000 hp). - -Applications -Although turboexpanders are commonly used in low-temperature processes, they are used in many other applications. This section discusses one of the low-temperature processes, as well as some of the other applications. - -Extracting hydrocarbon liquids from natural gas -Raw natural gas consists primarily of methane (CH4), the shortest and lightest hydrocarbon molecule, along with various amounts of heavier hydrocarbon gases such as ethane (C2H6), propane (C3H8), normal butane (n-C4H10), isobutane (i-C4H10), pentanes and even higher-molecular-mass hydrocarbons. The raw gas also contains various amounts of acid gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2), hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and mercaptans such as methanethiol (CH3SH) and ethanethiol (C2H5SH). -When processed into finished by-products (see Natural-gas processing), these heavier hydrocarbons are collectively referred to as NGL (natural-gas liquids). The extraction of the NGL often involves a turboexpander and a low-temperature distillation column (called a demethanizer) as shown in the figure.",5672534,Turboexpander,E -814,814.0,814.0,"The Buell dryer, also known as the ""turbo shelf"" dryer, is an indirect heated industrial dryer once widely used in the Cornwall and Devon china clay mining industry. The Buell dryer was introduced to the china clay industry by English Clays Lovering Pochin & Co. Ltd for their china clay drying plants in Cornwall and Devon, as part of the mechanization and modernization of the industry, which up to that point had been using the same primitive processing methods for almost 100 years. - -History -The industry's first attempt to mechanize its drying process, an oil-fired rotary dryer installed at Rockhill near Stenalees in 1939, had been halted before it could be commissioned by the outbreak of war, with the Board of Trade exercising its wartime powers to place restrictions on the industry, rationing in particular the use of oil and steel. To circumvent these restrictions, in 1944 a Buell dryer was purchased second hand from a Fluorspar mine in Derbyshire, and was installed in an existing building at ECLP's Drinnick site in Nanpean, heated by exhaust steam from Drinnick power plant. As such, it became the first operating mechanical dryer in the Cornish china clay industry, despite not being the first to be constructed. -A 1948 Board Of Trade Working Party report into the China Clay industry concluded restrictions on the industry should be relaxed to allow mechanization to begin.",1577354,Buell dryer,E -815,815.0,815.0,"Municipal or urban engineering applies the tools of science, art and engineering in an urban environment. -Municipal engineering is concerned with municipal infrastructure. This involves specifying, designing, constructing, and maintaining streets, sidewalks, water supply networks, sewers, street lighting, municipal solid waste management and disposal, storage depots for various bulk materials used for maintenance and public works (salt, sand, etc.), public parks and cycling infrastructure. -In the case of underground utility networks, it may also include the civil portion (conduits and access chambers) of the local distribution networks of electrical and telecommunications services. It can also include the optimizing of garbage collection and bus service networks. Some of these disciplines overlap with other civil engineering specialties, however municipal engineering focuses on the coordination of these infrastructure networks and services, as they are often built simultaneously (for a given street or development project), and managed by the same municipal authority. - -History -Modern municipal engineering finds its origins in the 19th-century United Kingdom, following the Industrial Revolution and the growth of large industrial cities. The threat to urban populations from epidemics of waterborne diseases such as cholera and typhus led to the development of a profession devoted to ""sanitary science"" that later became ""municipal engineering"".A key figure of the so-called ""public health movement"" was Edwin Chadwick, author of the parliamentary report, published in 1842.Early British legislation included: - -Burgh Police Act 1833 - powers of paving, lighting, cleansing, watching, supplying with water and improving their communities. -Municipal Corporations Act 1835 -Public Health Act 1866 – formation of drainage boards -Public Health Act 1875 known at the time as the Great Public Health ActThis legislation provided local authorities with powers to undertake municipal engineering projects and to appoint borough surveyors (later known as ""municipal engineers"").In the U.K, the Association of Municipal Engineers, (subsequently named Institution of Municipal Engineers), was established in 1874 under the encouragement of the Institution of Civil Engineers, to address the issue of the application of sanitary science.",1905304,Municipal or urban engineering,E -816,816.0,816.0,"Non-recurring engineering (NRE) cost refers to the one-time cost to research, design, develop and test a new product or product enhancement. When budgeting for a new product, NRE must be considered to analyze if a new product will be profitable. Even though a company will pay for NRE on a project only once, NRE costs can be prohibitively high and the product will need to sell well enough to produce a return on the initial investment. NRE is unlike production costs, which must be paid constantly to maintain production of a product. It is a form of fixed cost in economics terms.",1165697,Non-recurring engineering,E -817,817.0,817.0,"Home economics, also called domestic science or family and consumer sciences (often shortened to FCS or FACS), is a subject concerning human development, personal and family finances, consumer issues, housing and interior design, nutrition and food preparation, as well as textiles and apparel. Much less common today, it was, and is, most commonly taught in secondary school or high school. -Home economics courses are offered around the world and across multiple educational levels. Historically, the purpose of these courses was to professionalize housework, to provide intellectual fulfillment for women, to emphasize the value of ""women's work"" in society, and to prepare them for the traditional roles of sexes. Family and consumer sciences are taught as an elective or required course in secondary education, as a continuing education course in institutions, and at the primary level. -Beginning in Scotland in the 1850s, it was a woman-dominated course, teaching women to be homemakers with sewing being the lead skill.",50649,Home economics,S -818,818.0,818.0,"Self-healing materials are artificial or synthetically created substances that have the built-in ability to automatically repair damages to themselves without any external diagnosis of the problem or human intervention. Generally, materials will degrade over time due to fatigue, environmental conditions, or damage incurred during operation. Cracks and other types of damage on a microscopic level have been shown to change thermal, electrical, and acoustical properties of materials, and the propagation of cracks can lead to eventual failure of the material. In general, cracks are hard to detect at an early stage, and manual intervention is required for periodic inspections and repairs. In contrast, self-healing materials counter degradation through the initiation of a repair mechanism that responds to the micro-damage.: 1–2  Some self-healing materials are classed as smart structures, and can adapt to various environmental conditions according to their sensing and actuation properties.: 145 Although the most common types of self-healing materials are polymers or elastomers, self-healing covers all classes of materials, including metals, ceramics, and cementitious materials.",5824713,Self-healing material,T -819,819.0,819.0,"The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to forensic science: -Forensic science – application of a broad spectrum of sciences to answer questions of interest to a legal system. This may be in matters relating to criminal law, civil law and regulatory laws. it may also relate to non-litigious matters. The term is often shortened to forensics. - -Nature of forensic science -General forensics topics include: - -Crime – breach of rules or laws for which some governing authority (via mechanisms such as legal systems) can ultimately prescribe a conviction. -Crime scene – location where an illegal act took place, and comprises the area from which most of the physical evidence is retrieved by trained law enforcement personnel, crime scene investigators (CSIs) or in rare circumstances, forensic scientists. -Mortuary investigations -laboratory examinations -CSI effect – phenomenon of popular television shows such as the CSI franchise raising the public's expectations of forensic science, stemming from the ""dramatic license"" taken by the shows' writers in which they exaggerate the abilities of forensic science, and this is of particular concern in the courtroom setting, where many prosecutors feel pressured to deliver more forensic evidence. - -Forensic methodologies -Crime Scene Investigation: crime scene is the most fruitful source to gather forensic evidence (19) -Forensic accounting – study and interpretation of accounting evidence. -Forensic animation – -Forensic anthropology – application of physical anthropology for personnel identification in a legal setting, usually for the recovery and identification of skeletonized human remains. -Forensic facial reconstruction – Skull-face photo superimposition. skull suture identification with ante mortem skull x-rays -Forensic archaeology – application of a combination of archaeological techniques and forensic science, typically in law enforcement. -Forensic arts – artistic techniques used in the identification, apprehension, or conviction of wanted persons. -Forensic astronomy – determines past celestial constellations for forensic purposes, using methods from astronomy. -Bloodstain pattern analysis – draws on the scientific disciplines of biology, chemistry, mathematics and physics to ascertain the details and sequence of events of a crime, including the area of origin of an impact pattern, and movement of persons or objects after bloodshed, etc. -Forensic botany – study of plant life in order to gain information regarding possible crimes. -Forensic chemistry – study of detection and identification of illicit drugs, accelerants used in arson cases, explosive and gunshot residue. -Computational forensics – quantitative approach involving computer-based modeling, computer simulation, analysis, and recognition in studying and solving problems posed in various forensic disciplines.",7985728,Outline of forensic science,S -820,820.0,820.0,"Earthquake engineering is an interdisciplinary branch of engineering that designs and analyzes structures, such as buildings and bridges, with earthquakes in mind. Its overall goal is to make such structures more resistant to earthquakes. An earthquake (or seismic) engineer aims to construct structures that will not be damaged in minor shaking and will avoid serious damage or collapse in a major earthquake. -A properly engineered structure does not necessarily have to be extremely strong or expensive. It has to be properly designed to withstand the seismic effects while sustaining an acceptable level of damage. - -Definition -Earthquake engineering is a scientific field concerned with protecting society, the natural environment, and the man-made environment from earthquakes by limiting the seismic risk to socio-economically acceptable levels.",2111048,Earthquake engineering,E -821,821.0,821.0,"Oscar Robert Kambly also known as Oskar Kambly (né Kambli; /kɑːmbləə/; kamb-lee born 29 March 1887 – 13 December 1957) was a Swiss businessman, biscuit manufacturer and founder of Kambly, a Swiss biscuit manufacturer, in 1910. He was also a co-founder of soft cheese manufacturer E. Baer & Co in Küssnacht am Rigi in 1922 (today part of Lactalis) and owner of the Blausee AG, operating company of a historic hotel and farm, since 1925. - -Early life and education -Kambly was born on 29 March 1887 into a modest family in the Kanderbrück section of Frutigen, Switzerland to Johann Karl Kambli (1846-1919) and Anna Margaritha (née Stoller; b. 1848). His paternal grandparents, originally from Zürich, emigrated to Cernay, Haut-Rhin in the Alsace region of France at the beginning of the 19th century due to religious persecution for being Anabaptist.",73780987,Oscar Kambly,E -822,822.0,822.0,"2degrees is a New Zealand telecommunications provider. Its mobile network launched on 4 August 2009 after nine years of planning. 2degrees offers prepaid and pay-monthly mobile services, as well as fixed-line phone and broadband services. 2degrees is the third-largest wireless carrier in New Zealand, with 1.3 million subscribers as of July 2015.It has spent over NZ$550 million building its mobile network, which as of 2016 covers Ashburton, Auckland, Christchurch, Dunedin, Hamilton, Hastings, Invercargill, Levin, Napier, Nelson, New Plymouth, Oamaru, Palmerston North, Queenstown, Rotorua, Taupo, Tauranga, Timaru, Wanganui, Wellington and Whangarei. The network works with UMTS-900 and UMTS-2100, and LTE Band 3, 8 and 28 mobiles.",22758286,2degrees,T -823,823.0,823.0,"Experimental Mathematics is a quarterly scientific journal of mathematics published by A K Peters, Ltd. until 2010, now by Taylor & Francis. The journal publishes papers in experimental mathematics, broadly construed. The journal's mission statement describes its scope as follows: ""Experimental Mathematics publishes original papers featuring formal results inspired by experimentation, conjectures suggested by experiments, and data supporting significant hypotheses."" As of 2023 the editor-in-chief is Alexander Kasprzyk (University of Nottingham). - -History -Experimental Mathematics was established in 1992 by David Epstein, Silvio Levy, and Klaus Peters. Experimental Mathematics was the first mathematical research journal to concentrate on experimental mathematics and to explicitly acknowledge its importance for mathematics as a general research field.",18797498,Experimental Mathematics (journal),M -824,824.0,824.0,"In computing, title is a command in various command-line interpreters (shells) on Microsoft Windows and ReactOS that changes the title for the graphical terminal emulator window. The command is also used within DFS and ADFS to change the title of the disc in the current drive. - -Overview -In case of Microsoft Windows it is a shell builtin of the command-line interpreter cmd.exe. The command is available in Windows 2000 and later. -It is compatible with Windows Console and Windows Terminal. -The default window title is defined in the %COMSPEC% environment variable. However, since the Windows Console title can also be defined in the program shortcut, the title is usually set to ""Command Prompt"". -The command is also available in the Command Processor Shell of Windows Embedded CE and in the Take Command Console.Although the OS/2 command shell is closely related to the Windows Command Prompt, the title command is not available in the OS/2 version of cmd.exe. The default title of the OS/2 shell window is ""OS/2 Window"".",19402429,Title (command),T -825,825.0,825.0,"A modesty panel is something added to various items such as clothes or furniture for the purpose of concealment. In particular it refers to a thin board of wood or metal that is attached to the front of a desk, drafting table, electronic organ, or similar item, to shield legs, ankles, or feet from view. This is also known as a modesty board. - -Furniture -The panel provides privacy for the person seated at the desk or organ, as it covers the upper part of the legs. This privacy role is particularly useful in cases where the desk or organ is positioned in front of a class or hall. The modesty panel may also provide structural support for the four legs of the desk or organ, it may also be used as a place for affixing electric cabling, computer cabling, or electrical extension boxes. -Early modesty panels were often used in Quaker meeting houses and other churches of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, growing in popularity during the Victorian era.",14231194,Modesty panel,E -826,826.0,826.0,"AI-assisted virtualization software is a type of technology that combines the principles of virtualization with advanced artificial intelligence (AI) algorithms. This fusion is designed to allow more efficient, dynamic, and intelligent management of virtual environments and resources. This novel technology has been employed in a range of industries, including cloud computing, healthcare, data centers, and network infrastructure, to optimize performance, resource allocation, and security protocols. - -History -The initial concept of virtualization dates back to the 1960s, with the advent of mainframe computers. It wasn't until the early 2000s, however, when companies like VMware and Microsoft made it mainstream. The integration of AI into this established technology is a much more recent development, evolving with the rapid advancements in AI research and applications over the last decade.",73897657,AI-assisted virtualization software,T -827,827.0,827.0,"A Time/Utility Function (TUF), née Time/Value Function, specifies the application-specific utility that an action (e.g., computational task, mechanical movement) yields depending on its completion time. TUFs and their utility interpretations (semantics), scales, and values are derived from application domain-specific subject matter knowledge. An example (but not the only) interpretation of utility is an action's relative importance, which otherwise is independent of its timeliness. The traditional deadline represented as a TUF is a special case—a downward step of utility from 1 to 0 at the deadline time—e.g., timeliness without importance. A TUF is more general—it has a critical time, with application-specific shapes and utility values on each side, after which it does not increase.",15735043,Time-utility function,T -828,828.0,828.0,"Dippin' Dots is an ice cream snack invented by Curt Jones in 1988. The confection is created by flash freezing ice cream mix in liquid nitrogen. The snack is made by Dippin' Dots, Inc., headquartered in Paducah, Kentucky. Dippin' Dots are sold in 14 countries, including Honduras and Luxembourg.Because the product requires storage at temperatures below −40 °C (−40 °F), it is not sold in most grocery stores, as most cannot meet such extreme cooling requirements.Dippin' Dots are sold in individual servings at franchised outlets. Many are in stadiums, arenas, shopping malls, and in vending machines, though there are also locations at aquariums, zoos, museums and theme parks. - -History -Dippin' Dots was founded in New Grand Chain, Illinois, in 1988.",1460045,Dippin' Dots,S -829,829.0,829.0,"In mathematics, a partially ordered set P is said to have Knaster's condition upwards (sometimes property (K)) if any uncountable subset A of P has an upwards-linked uncountable subset. An analogous definition applies to Knaster's condition downwards. -The property is named after Polish mathematician Bronisław Knaster. -Knaster's condition implies the countable chain condition (ccc), and it is sometimes used in conjunction with a weaker form of Martin's axiom, where the ccc requirement is replaced with Knaster's condition. Not unlike ccc, Knaster's condition is also sometimes used as a property of a topological space, in which case it means that the topology (as in, the family of all open sets) with inclusion satisfies the condition. -Furthermore, assuming MA( - - - - - ω - - 1 - - - - - {\displaystyle \omega _{1}} - ), ccc implies Knaster's condition, making the two equivalent. - -References -Fremlin, David H. (1984). Consequences of Martin's axiom.",32926406,Knaster's condition,M -830,830.0,830.0,"Georgia O'Keeffe made a number of Red Canna paintings of the canna lily plant, first in watercolor, such as a red canna flower bouquet painted in 1915, but primarily abstract paintings of close-up images in oil. O'Keeffe said that she made the paintings to reflect the way she herself saw flowers, although others have called her depictions erotic, and compared them to female genitalia. O'Keeffe said they had misconstrued her intentions for doing her flower paintings: ""Well – I made you take time to look at what I saw and when you took time to really notice my flower you hung all your own associations with flowers on my flower and you write about my flower as if I think and see what you think and see of the flower – and I don't.""O'Keeffe was aware of the sexual implications in her work, but male art reviewers' misinterpretations of these references reinforced a sexual perception of her work that was diametrically opposed to her original goal. She expressed herself through the use of vibrant colors like red, yellow, and orange. - -Overview -A gardener, O'Keeffe was often inspired to make a dozen or more paintings of a specific flower. She became interested in brilliant colors and billowy petals of the canna lilies when she visited Lake George, New York in 1918 with Alfred Stieglitz.",52866499,Red Canna (paintings),S -831,831.0,831.0,"In abstract algebra, a branch of mathematics, an Archimedean group is a linearly ordered group for which the Archimedean property holds: every two positive group elements are bounded by integer multiples of each other. The set R of real numbers together with the operation of addition and the usual ordering relation between pairs of numbers is an Archimedean group. By a result of Otto Hölder, every Archimedean group is isomorphic to a subgroup of this group. The name ""Archimedean"" comes from Otto Stolz, who named the Archimedean property after its appearance in the works of Archimedes. - -Definition -An additive group consists of a set of elements, an associative addition operation that combines pairs of elements and returns a single element, -an identity element (or zero element) whose sum with any other element is the other element, and an additive inverse operation such that the sum of any element and its inverse is zero. -A group is a linearly ordered group when, in addition, its elements can be linearly ordered in a way that is compatible with the group operation: for all elements x, y, and z, if x ≤ y then x + z ≤ y + z and z + x ≤ z + y. -The notation na (where n is a natural number) stands for the group sum of n copies of a. -An Archimedean group (G, +, ≤) is a linearly ordered group subject to the following additional condition, the Archimedean property: For every a and b in G which are greater than 0, it is possible to find a natural number n for which the inequality b ≤ na holds.An equivalent definition is that an Archimedean group is a linearly ordered group without any bounded cyclic subgroups: there does not exist a cyclic subgroup S and an element x with x greater than all elements in S. It is straightforward to see that this is equivalent to the other definition: the Archimedean property for a pair of elements a and b is just the statement that the cyclic subgroup generated by a is not bounded by b. - -Examples of Archimedean groups -The sets of the integers, the rational numbers, and the real numbers, together with the operation of addition and the usual ordering (≤), are Archimedean groups.",264169,Archimedean group,M -832,832.0,832.0,"In mathematics, a topos (US: , UK: ; plural topoi or , or toposes) is a category that behaves like the category of sheaves of sets on a topological space (or more generally: on a site). Topoi behave much like the category of sets and possess a notion of localization; they are a direct generalization of point-set topology. The Grothendieck topoi find applications in algebraic geometry; the more general elementary topoi are used in logic. -The mathematical field that studies topoi is called topos theory. - -Grothendieck topos (topos in geometry) -Since the introduction of sheaves into mathematics in the 1940s, a major theme has been to study a space by studying sheaves on a space. This idea was expounded by Alexander Grothendieck by introducing the notion of a ""topos"". The main utility of this notion is in the abundance of situations in mathematics where topological heuristics are very effective, but an honest topological space is lacking; it is sometimes possible to find a topos formalizing the heuristic.",21391464,Topos,M -833,833.0,833.0,"The Himalayan snowcock (Tetraogallus himalayensis) is a snowcock in the pheasant family Phasianidae found across the Himalayan ranges and parts of the adjoining Pamir range of Asia. It is found on alpine pastures and on steep rocky cliffs where they will dive down the hill slopes to escape. It overlaps with the slightly smaller Tibetan snowcock in parts of its wide range. The populations from different areas show variations in the colouration and about five subspecies have been designated. They were introduced in the mountains of Nevada in the United States in the 1960s and a wild population has established in the Ruby Mountains. - -Description -The Himalayan snowcock is a large grey partridge-like bird, 55–74 cm (22–29 in) in length and weighing 2–3.1 kg (4.4–6.8 lb).",6790060,Himalayan snowcock,S -834,834.0,834.0,"MicroTCA (short for Micro Telecommunications Computing Architecture, also: μTCA) is a modular, open standard, created and maintained by the PCI Industrial Computer Manufacturers Group (PICMG). It provides the electrical, mechanical, thermal and management specifications to create a switched fabric computer system, using Advanced Mezzanine Cards (AMC), connected directly to a backplane. MicroTCA is a descendant of the AdvancedTCA standard. - -History -The rapid expansion of mobile telecommunications and their associated services (such as text messages) at the beginning of the millennium increased the demand of processing power in telecommunication systems. The existing ""carrier grade"" (see RAS) computing architectures where not fit to house the high performance processors of the time. In order to answer those demands, about 100 companies worked together in PICMG, resulting in the Advanced Telecommunications Architecture (AdvancedTCA, ATCA), published in 2002. -After the introduction of AdvancedTCA, a standard was developed, to cater towards smaller telecommunications systems at the edge of the network.",54735866,MicroTCA,T -835,835.0,835.0,"Fort Riley is a United States Army installation located in North Central Kansas, on the Kansas River, also known as the Kaw, between Junction City and Manhattan. The Fort Riley Military Reservation covers 101,733 acres (41,170 ha) in Geary and Riley counties. The portion of the fort that contains housing development is part of the Fort Riley census-designated place, with a residential population of 7,761 as of the 2010 census. The fort has a daytime population of nearly 25,000. The ZIP Code is 66442. - -Namesake -Fort Riley is named in honor of Major General Bennet C.",159291,Fort Riley,T -836,836.0,836.0,"The CALS Table Model is a standard for representing tables in SGML/XML. It was developed as part of the CALS DOD initiative. - -History and Rationale -The CALS Table Model was developed by the Continuous Acquisition and Life-cycle Support (CALS) Industry Steering Group Electronic Publishing Committee (EPC). -The EPC subcommittee, of which Harvey Bingham was co-chair and a major contributor, designed the CALS Table Model in 1989–1990. The EPC was made up of industry and military service representatives. Some represented traditional military document printing agencies. Others represented electronic publishing organizations.",7147618,CALS Table Model,T -837,837.0,837.0,"Ultrasonic antifouling is a technology that uses high frequency sound (ultrasound) to prevent or reduce biofouling on underwater structures, surfaces, and medium. Ultrasound is just high frequency sound (which humans can not hear). Ultrasound has the same physical properties as human-audible sound. The method has two primary forms: sub-cavitation intensity and cavitation intensity. Sub-cavitation methods create high frequency vibrations, whilst cavitation methods cause more destructive microscopic pressure changes.",43680654,Ultrasonic antifouling,M -838,838.0,838.0,"In integrated circuit manufacturing, photolithography or optical lithography is a general term used for techniques that use light to produce minutely patterned thin films of suitable materials over a substrate, such as a silicon wafer, to protect selected areas of it during subsequent etching, deposition, or implantation operations. Typically, ultraviolet light is used to transfer a geometric design from an optical mask to a light-sensitive chemical (photoresist) coated on the substrate. The photoresist either breaks down or hardens where it is exposed to light. The patterned film is then created by removing the softer parts of the coating with appropriate solvents, also known in this case as developers. -Conventional photoresists typically consists of three components: resin, sensitizer, and solvent. -Photolithography processes can be classified according to the type of light used, such as ultraviolet, deep ultraviolet, extreme ultraviolet, or X-ray. The wavelength of light used determines the minimum feature size that can be formed in the photoresist. -Photolithography is a subclass of microlithography, the general term for processes that generate patterned thin films.",23748,Photolithography,M -839,839.0,839.0,"CNC plunge milling, also called z-axis milling, is a CNC milling process. In this process, the feed is provided linearly along the tool axis while doing CNC processing. - -Plunge milling is effective for the rough machining process of complex shape or free form shapes like impeller parts. In multi axis plunge milling, the optimization of plunge cutter section selection and generating the tool path for free form surface is very important to improve the efficiency and effectiveness.In plunge milling, after each plunge the milling cutter is offset by some value and then the material surface is removed in the form of lunula. The material removal rate is computed by area of lunula and the feed rate.",45687154,CNC plunge milling,E -840,840.0,840.0,"Allegra Fuller Snyder (August 28, 1927 – July 11, 2021) was an American dance ethnologist (ethnochoreologist), choreographer, professor, and author specializing in dance and culture. Her research focused on dances among Native American nations, particularly the Yaqui, and on dance among several ethnic groups in Africa and Asia. She was Professor Emerita of dance ethnology from the University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA). - -Family -Snyder was the daughter of noted architect and inventor Buckminster Fuller and his wife Anne Hewlett. - -Career -Snyder pioneered the field of Dance Ethnography, and defined a dance ethnologist as ""...one who is concerned with studying the process of dance in culture."" She went on to state that ""This field of investigation has been the major focus of my life and work for the last thirty-plus years."" She was Director of the Graduate Program in Dance Ethnology at UCLA, as well as chairing the Department of Dance. She retired in 1991. She has previously taught at the California Institute of the Arts, and Naropa University. - -Documentaries -Snyder also directed several documentaries on dance practices around the world. - -Publications -Securing Our Dance Heritage: Issues in the Documentation and Preservation of Dance., 1999, Council on Library and Information Resources -‘Filmed in ""Holly-Vision"": Hollywood Images of World Dance,’ chapter in Looking Out: Perspectives on Dance and Criticism in a Multicultural World., David Gere, ed.",45617765,Allegra Fuller Snyder,S -841,841.0,841.0,"This comparison of orbital launch systems lists the attributes of all individual rocket configurations designed to reach orbit. A first list contains rockets that are operational or in development as of 2022; a second list includes all retired rockets. For the simple list of all conventional launcher families, see: Comparison of orbital launchers families. For the list of predominantly solid-fueled orbital launch systems, see: Comparison of solid-fueled orbital launch systems. -Spacecraft propulsion is any method used to accelerate spacecraft and artificial satellites. Orbital launch systems are rockets and other systems capable of placing payloads into or beyond Earth orbit.",14192567,Comparison of orbital launch systems,T -842,842.0,842.0,"The philosophy of artificial intelligence is a branch of the philosophy of mind and the philosophy of computer science that explores artificial intelligence and its implications for knowledge and understanding of intelligence, ethics, consciousness, epistemology, and free will. Furthermore, the technology is concerned with the creation of artificial animals or artificial people (or, at least, artificial creatures; see artificial life) so the discipline is of considerable interest to philosophers. These factors contributed to the emergence of the philosophy of artificial intelligence. -The philosophy of artificial intelligence attempts to answer such questions as follows: -Can a machine act intelligently? Can it solve any problem that a person would solve by thinking? -Are human intelligence and machine intelligence the same? Is the human brain essentially a computer? -Can a machine have a mind, mental states, and consciousness in the same sense that a human being can? Can it feel how things are?Questions like these reflect the divergent interests of AI researchers, cognitive scientists and philosophers respectively. The scientific answers to these questions depend on the definition of ""intelligence"" and ""consciousness"" and exactly which ""machines"" are under discussion. -Important propositions in the philosophy of AI include some of the following: - -Turing's ""polite convention"": If a machine behaves as intelligently as a human being, then it is as intelligent as a human being. -The Dartmouth proposal: ""Every aspect of learning or any other feature of intelligence can be so precisely described that a machine can be made to simulate it."" -Allen Newell and Herbert A.",2958015,Philosophy of artificial intelligence,T -843,843.0,843.0,"A synodic day (or synodic rotation period or solar day) is the period for a celestial object to rotate once in relation to the star it is orbiting, and is the basis of solar time. -The synodic day is distinguished from the sidereal day, which is one complete rotation in relation to distant stars, which is the basis of sidereal time. This is different from the duration of a synodic day because the revolution of the body around its parent star would cause a single ""day"" to pass relative to a star, even if the body itself did not rotate. - -Earth's synodic day -Earth's synodic day is the time it takes for the Sun to pass over the same meridian (a line of longitude) on consecutive days, whereas a sidereal day is the time it takes for a given distant star to pass over a meridian on consecutive days. For example, in the Northern Hemisphere, a synodic day could be measured as the time taken for the Sun to move from exactly true south (i.e. its highest declination) on one day to exactly south again on the next day (or exactly true north in the Southern Hemisphere). -For Earth, the synodic day is not constant, and changes over the course of the year due to the eccentricity of Earth's orbit around the Sun and the axial tilt of the Earth. The longest and shortest synodic days' durations differ by about 51 seconds.",596277,Synodic day,M -844,844.0,844.0,"In mathematics, particularly in set theory, Fodor's lemma states the following: -If - - - - κ - - - {\displaystyle \kappa } - is a regular, uncountable cardinal, - - - - S - - - {\displaystyle S} - is a stationary subset of - - - - κ - - - {\displaystyle \kappa } - , and - - - - f - : - S - → - κ - - - {\displaystyle f:S\rightarrow \kappa } - is regressive (that is, - - - - f - ( - α - ) - < - α - - - {\displaystyle f(\alpha )<\alpha } - for any - - - - α - ∈ - S - - - {\displaystyle \alpha \in S} - , - - - - α - ≠ - 0 - - - {\displaystyle \alpha \neq 0} - ) then there is some - - - - γ - - - {\displaystyle \gamma } - and some stationary - - - - - S - - 0 - - - ⊆ - S - - - {\displaystyle S_{0}\subseteq S} - such that - - - - f - ( - α - ) - = - γ - - - {\displaystyle f(\alpha )=\gamma } - for any - - - - α - ∈ - - S - - 0 - - - - - {\displaystyle \alpha \in S_{0}} - . In modern parlance, the nonstationary ideal is normal. -The lemma was first proved by the Hungarian set theorist, Géza Fodor in 1956. It is sometimes also called ""The Pressing Down Lemma"". - -Proof -We can assume that - - - - 0 - ∉ - S - - - {\displaystyle 0\notin S} - (by removing 0, if necessary). -If Fodor's lemma is false, for every - - - - α - < - κ - - - {\displaystyle \alpha <\kappa } - there is some club set - - - - - C - - α - - - - - {\displaystyle C_{\alpha }} - such that - - - - - C - - α - - - ∩ - - f - - − - 1 - - - ( - α - ) - = - ∅ - - - {\displaystyle C_{\alpha }\cap f^{-1}(\alpha )=\emptyset } - . Let - - - - C - = - - Δ - - α - < - κ - - - - C - - α - - - - - {\displaystyle C=\Delta _{\alpha <\kappa }C_{\alpha }} - . The club sets are closed under diagonal intersection, so - - - - C - - - {\displaystyle C} - is also club and therefore there is some - - - - α - ∈ - S - ∩ - C - - - {\displaystyle \alpha \in S\cap C} - .",1679022,Fodor's lemma,M -845,845.0,845.0,"Fixed repeating schedule is a key element of the Toyota Production System and lean manufacturing. As its name suggests it is a production schedule which is 'unchanging' and repeated perhaps daily or over a longer period such as two weeks or month. If it can be implemented, economies of repetition start to become evident and suppliers and customers can be assured in their own activity scheduling. What impedes this being implemented is the uncertainty of demand and supply. Therefore whilst the scheduling becomes simple, the activities to make the scheduling possible become more complex.",10323156,Fixed repeating schedule,E -846,846.0,846.0,"Plant collecting is the acquisition of plant specimens for the purposes of research, cultivation, or as a hobby. Plant specimens may be kept alive, but are more commonly dried and pressed to preserve the quality of the specimen. Plant collecting is an ancient practice with records of a Chinese botanist collecting roses over 5000 years ago.Herbaria are collections of preserved plants samples and their associated data for scientific purposes. The largest herbarium in the world exist at the Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, in Paris, France. Plant samples in herbaria typically include a reference sheet with information about the plant and details of collection.",4576518,Plant collecting,S -847,847.0,847.0,"Industrial engineering is an engineering profession that is concerned with the optimization of complex processes, systems, or organizations by developing, improving and implementing integrated systems of people, money, knowledge, information and equipment. Industrial engineering is central to manufacturing operations.Industrial engineers use specialized knowledge and skills in the mathematical, physical and social sciences, together with the principles and methods of engineering analysis and design, to specify, predict, and evaluate the results obtained from systems and processes. There are several industrial engineering principles followed in the manufacturing industry to ensure the effective flow of the systems, processes and operations.This includes: - -Lean Manufacturing -Six Sigma -Information Systems -Process Capability -Define, Measure, Analyze, Improve and Control (DMAIC).These principles allow the creation of new systems, processes or situations for the useful coordination of labor, materials and machines and also improve the quality and productivity of systems, physical or social. Depending on the subspecialties involved, industrial engineering may also overlap with, operations research, systems engineering, manufacturing engineering, production engineering, supply chain engineering, management science, management engineering, financial engineering, ergonomics or human factors engineering, safety engineering, logistics engineering or others, depending on the viewpoint or motives of the user. - -History -Origins -Industrial engineering -There is a general consensus among historians that the roots of the industrial engineering profession date back to the Industrial Revolution. The technologies that helped mechanize traditional manual operations in the textile industry including the flying shuttle, the spinning jenny, and perhaps most importantly the steam engine generated economies of scale that made mass production in centralized locations attractive for the first time.",23535218,Industrial engineering,E -848,848.0,848.0,"The Real-time Control System (RCS) is a software system developed by NIST based on the Real-time Control System Reference Model Architecture, that implements a generic Hierarchical control system. The RCS Software Library is an archive of free C++, Java and Ada code, scripts, tools, makefiles, and documentation developed to aid programmers of software to be used in real-time control systems (especially those using the Reference Model Architecture for Intelligent Systems Design). - -Introduction -RCS has been used in automated manufacturing, robotics, and automated vehicle research at NIST. The software consists of a C++ library and GUI and configuration tools written in a variety of software languages. The Software Library is offering the following RCS tools: -RCS Java-based Diagnostics Tool : A tool written as a java applet that allows programmers to see the status and send commands to any RCS module. -RCS Java-based Diagnostics Tool Instructions : Instructions on how to build applications for use with the diagnostics tool. -RCS-Design Tool : A tool written as a java applet that allows programmers to create RCS applications graphically and generates source code. -RCS-Design Tool Instructions : Instructions on how to build applications with the RCS-Design tool. -RCS Data Plotter : A Java applet which plots data on a cartesian or polar graph, read either in real-time or from a text file. -Socket Interface to NML : Describes how to connect to an NML server using sockets directly. This information should also be useful for other languages where the C++ NML client interface is not available. -RCS Posemath Library : A library of classes for representing positions, rotations, and translations in a variety of coordinate systems and the functions to add/subtract/multiply/divide/convert them.",15291863,Real-time Control System Software,T -849,849.0,849.0,"Nutritional epidemiology examines dietary and nutritional factors in relation to disease occurrence at a population level. Nutritional epidemiology is a relatively new field of medical research that studies the relationship between nutrition and health. It is a young discipline in epidemiology that is continuing to grow in relevance to present-day health concerns. Diet and physical activity are difficult to measure accurately, which may partly explain why nutrition has received less attention than other risk factors for disease in epidemiology. Nutritional epidemiology uses knowledge from nutritional science to aid in the understanding of human nutrition and the explanation of basic underlying mechanisms.",29718054,Nutritional epidemiology,S -850,850.0,850.0,"HipChat was a web service for internal private online chat and instant messaging. As well as one-on-one and group/topic chat, it also featured cloud-based file storage, video calling, searchable message-history and inline-image viewing. The software was available to download onto computers running Windows, Mac or Linux, as well as Android and iOS smartphones and tablets. Since 2014, HipChat used a freemium model, as much of the service was free with some additional features requiring organizations to pay per month. HipChat was launched in 2010 and acquired by Atlassian in 2012.",27089910,HipChat,T -851,851.0,851.0,"Innovate UK is the United Kingdom's innovation agency, which provides money and support to organisations to make new products and services. It is a non-departmental public body operating at arm's length from the Government as part of the United Kingdom Research and Innovation organisation. - -History -Innovate UK has its roots as an advisory body – the Technology Strategy Board – established in 2004, within the Department of Trade and Industry (DTI), before becoming an independent body in July 2007 after the reorganisation of the DTI into the Department for Innovation, Universities and Skills (DIUS) and the Department for Business, Enterprise and Regulatory Reform (BERR) under Gordon Brown's government. -The original Technology Strategy Board had its roots in the Innovation Review published by the DTI in December 2003, and the Lambert Review. This reconfigured the major funding mechanism as the Collaborative Research and Development Technology Programme, transformed the pre-existing Faraday Partnerships into Knowledge Transfer Networks, renamed the Teaching Company Scheme as Knowledge Transfer Partnerships and set up an Advisory Board made up of 12 people from business, venture capital and regional government. These changes all took place in 2004, with the Advisory Board being appointed in October of that year. -In the 2006 budget, Gordon Brown announced the intention to set up the Technology Strategy Board as a ""non-departmental public body"" operating at ""arm's length"" from the UK Government. It was decided to locate the new organisation in Swindon, and to recruit a team primarily with business experience. -In August 2014, the organisation adopted the name Innovate UK, and began a transition to use the new name in all its communications.",14723179,Innovate UK,T -852,852.0,852.0,"Direct development is a concept in biology. It refers to forms of growth to adulthood that do not involve metamorphosis. An animal undergoes direct development if the immature organism resembles a small adult rather than having a distinct larval form. A frog that hatches out of its egg as a small frog undergoes direct development. A frog that hatches out of its egg as a tadpole does not. -Direct development is the opposite of complete metamorphosis.",38701470,Direct development,S -853,853.0,853.0,"Smart manufacturing is a broad category of manufacturing that employs computer-integrated manufacturing, high levels of adaptability and rapid design changes, digital information technology, and more flexible technical workforce training. Other goals sometimes include fast changes in production levels based on demand, optimization of the supply chain, efficient production and recyclability. In this concept, as smart factory has interoperable systems, multi-scale dynamic modelling and simulation, intelligent automation, strong cyber security, and networked sensors. -The broad definition of smart manufacturing covers many different technologies. Some of the key technologies in the smart manufacturing movement include big data processing capabilities, industrial connectivity devices and services, and advanced robotics. - -Big data processing -Smart manufacturing utilizes big data analytics, to refine complicated processes and manage supply chains. Big data analytics refers to a method for gathering and understanding large data sets in terms of what are known as the three V's, velocity, variety and volume.",49260321,Smart manufacturing,E -854,854.0,854.0,"Aqueous biphasic systems (ABS) or aqueous two-phase systems (ATPS) are clean alternatives for traditional organic-water solvent extraction systems. -ABS are formed when either two polymers, one polymer and one kosmotropic salt, or two salts (one chaotropic salt and the other a kosmotropic salt) are mixed at appropriate concentrations or at a particular temperature. The two phases are mostly composed of water and non volatile components, thus eliminating volatile organic compounds. They have been used for many years in biotechnological applications as non-denaturing and benign separation media. Recently, it has been found that ATPS can be used for separations of metal ions like mercury and cobalt, carbon nanotubes, environmental remediation, metallurgical applications and as a reaction media. - -Introduction -In 1896, Beijerinck first noted an 'incompatibility' in solutions of agar, a water-soluble polymer, with soluble starch or gelatine. Upon mixing, they separated into two immiscible phases. -Subsequent investigation led to the determination of many other aqueous biphasic systems, of which the polyethylene glycol (PEG) - dextran system is the most extensively studied.",2733362,Aqueous two-phase system,E -855,855.0,855.0,"A steam locomotive is a locomotive that provides the force to move itself and other vehicles by means of the expansion of steam.: 80  It is fuelled by burning combustible material (usually coal, oil or, rarely, wood) to heat water in the locomotive's boiler to the point where it becomes gaseous and its volume increases 1,700 times. Functionally, it is a steam engine on wheels. -In most locomotives, the steam is admitted alternately to each end of its cylinders in which pistons are mechanically connected to the locomotive's main wheels. Fuel and water supplies are usually carried with the locomotive, either on the locomotive itself or in a tender coupled to it. Variations in this general design include electrically-powered boilers, turbines in place of pistons, and using steam generated externally. -Steam locomotives were first developed in the United Kingdom during the early 19th century and used for railway transport until the middle of the 20th century. Richard Trevithick built the first steam locomotive known to have hauled a load over a distance at Pen-y-darren in 1804, although he produced an earlier locomotive for trial at Coalbrookdale in 1802.",196788,Steam locomotive,T -856,856.0,856.0,"Rensch's rule is a biological rule on allometrics, concerning the relationship between the extent of sexual size dimorphism and which sex is larger. Across species within a lineage, size dimorphism increases with increasing body size when the male is the larger sex, and decreases with increasing average body size when the female is the larger sex. The rule was proposed by the evolutionary biologist Bernhard Rensch in 1950.After controlling for confounding factors such as evolutionary history, an increase in average body size makes the difference in body size larger if the species has larger males, and smaller if it has larger females. Some studies propose that this is due to sexual bimaturism, which causes male traits to diverge faster and develop for a longer period of time. The correlation between sexual size dimorphism and body size is hypothesized to be a result of an increase in male-male competition in larger species, a result of limited environmental resources, fuelling aggression between males over access to breeding territories and mating partners.Phylogenetic lineages that appear to follow this rule include primates, pinnipeds, and artiodactyls.This rule has rarely been tested on parasites.",11321984,Rensch's rule,S -857,857.0,857.0,"The open metering system of the Open Metering System Group e.V. stands for a manufacturer- and media-independent standardization for Meter-Bus (M-Bus) based communication between utility meters (electricity, gas, water, thermal energy), submetering (cold/hot water, thermal energy, heat cost allocators), and systems in the field of smart meters. - -Background -In response to Directive 2006/32/EC on energy end-use efficiency and energy services of the European Union (in particular Article 13 of the Directive), several German multi-utility-companies (public utility offering more than only one type of supply like electricity, gas, water and district heating) joined and asked international manufacturers of meters intended for billing to create a common standard. The goal was to have meters with standardized communication interfaces and systems in the future. On the manufacturer side, members of the technical associations FIGAWA (German Association for Gas and Water), KNX and ZVEI (German Electrical and Electronics Industry Association) came together and, on the basis of the European Meter-Bus standard (EN 13757 Part 1 to Part 7), and the Dutch NTA 8130, have made joint specifications that guarantee manufacturer-independent interoperability. - -The Open Metering System Specification -Several working groups – first in the Open Metering System initiative, since 2015 within the Open Metering System Group e. V.",29614205,Open metering system,S -858,858.0,858.0,"Space tethers are long cables which can be used for propulsion, momentum exchange, stabilization and attitude control, or maintaining the relative positions of the components of a large dispersed satellite/spacecraft sensor system. Depending on the mission objectives and altitude, spaceflight using this form of spacecraft propulsion is theorized to be significantly less expensive than spaceflight using rocket engines. - -Main techniques -Tether satellites might be used for various purposes, including research into tether propulsion, tidal stabilization and orbital plasma dynamics. Five main techniques for employing space tethers are in development: -Electrodynamic tethers -Electrodynamic tethers are primarily used for propulsion. These are conducting tethers that carry a current that can generate either thrust or drag from a planetary magnetic field, in much the same way as an electric motor does. - -Momentum exchange tethers -These can be either rotating tethers, or non-rotating tethers, that capture an arriving spacecraft and then release it at a later time into a different orbit with a different velocity. Momentum exchange tethers can be used for orbital maneuvering, or as part of a planetary-surface-to-orbit / orbit-to-escape-velocity space transportation system. - -Tethered formation flying -This is typically a non-conductive tether that accurately maintains a set distance between multiple space vehicles flying in formation. - -Electric sail -A form of solar wind sail with electrically charged tethers that will be pushed by the momentum of solar wind ions. - -Universal Orbital Support System -A concept for suspending an object from a tether orbiting in space. -Many uses for space tethers have been proposed, including deployment as space elevators, as skyhooks, and for doing propellant-free orbital transfers. - -History -Konstantin Tsiolkovsky (1857–1935) once proposed a tower so tall that it reached into space, so that it would be held there by the rotation of Earth.",31392778,Space tether,T -859,859.0,859.0,"The Alberta Hail Project was a research project sponsored by the Alberta Research Council and Environment Canada to study hailstorm physics and dynamics in order to design and test means for suppressing hail. It ran from 1956 until 1985. The main instrument in this research was an S-band circularly polarized weather radar located at the Red Deer Industrial Airport in central Alberta, Canada. -A vast amount of data were collected from several other platforms to conduct research into precipitation mechanisms, severe storm development, hail suppression, hydrology and microwave propagation. Numerous researchers have used the dataset and during the period 1990 to 1994, 23 publications appeared in journals and conferences, as well as 4 scientific reports were prepared.",21950576,Alberta Hail Project,E -860,860.0,860.0,"The NTERA-2 (also designated NTERA2/D1, NTERA2, or NT2) cell line is a clonally derived, pluripotent human embryonal carcinoma cell line. - -Characteristics -NTERA-2 cells exhibit biochemical and developmental properties similar to the cells of the early embryo, and can be used to study the early stages of human neurogenesis. The cells exhibit a high nucleo-cytoplasmic ratio, prominent nucleoli, and the expression of the glycolipid antigen SSEA-3. They also express nestin and vimentin, which are found in neuroepithelial precursor cells, as well as microtubule-associated proteins expressed in human neuroepithelium. NTERA-2 cells also accumulate cytoplasmic glycogen. - -Differentiation -NTERA-2 cells differentiate when exposed to retinoic acid and lose expression of SSEA-3. Differentiation produces neurons via asymmetric cell division, and these cells form interconnected axon networks and express tetanus toxin receptors and neurofilament proteins.",42569187,NTERA-2,S -861,861.0,861.0,"Vintage musical equipment is older music gear, including instruments, amplifiers and speakers, sound recording equipment and effects pedals, sought after, maintained and used by record producers, audio engineers and musicians who are interested in historical music genres. While any piece of equipment of sufficient age can be considered vintage, in the 2010s the term is typically applied to instruments and gear from the 1970s and earlier. Guitars, amps, pedals, electric keyboards, sound recording equipment (e.g., reel to reel tape decks and microphones) from the 1950s to 1970s are particularly sought. Musical equipment from the 1940s and prior eras is often expensive, and sought out mainly by museums or collectors. -Older gear is often known for its unique tonal or sound-shaping qualities. The cost of vintage gear may be higher than the reissued model or its 2010s-era equivalent, depending on the rarity of the item, how high the demand is for it, and the condition. - -Guitars -As early as the 1970s, musicians began to recognize the value of older instruments from the 1940s and 1950s.",39915658,Vintage musical equipment,T -862,862.0,862.0,"In statistics, in particular in the design of experiments, a multi-valued treatment is a treatment that can take on more than two values. It is related to the dose-response model in the medical literature. - -Description -Generally speaking, treatment levels may be finite or infinite as well as ordinal or cardinal, which leads to a large collection of possible treatment effects to be studied in applications. One example is the effect of different levels of program participation (e.g. full-time and part-time) in a job training program.Assume there exists a finite collection of multi-valued treatment status - - - - T - = - { - 0 - , - 1 - , - 2 - , - … - , - J - , - } - - - {\displaystyle T=\{0,1,2,\ldots ,J,\}} - with J some fixed integer. As in the potential outcomes framework, denote - - - - Y - ( - j - ) - ⊂ - R - - - {\displaystyle Y(j)\subset R} - the collection of potential outcomes under the treatment J, and - - - - Y - = - - - ∑ - - j - = - 0 - - - J - - - - - D - - j - - - Y - ( - j - ) - - - - - {\displaystyle Y=\textstyle \sum _{j=0}^{J}\displaystyle D_{j}Y(j)} - denotes the observed outcome and - - - - - D - - j - - - - - {\displaystyle D_{j}} - is an indicator that equals 1 when the treatment equals j and 0 when it does not equal j, leading to a fundamental problem of causal inference.",54248486,Multivalued treatment,E -863,863.0,863.0,"greenpois0n is a name shared by a series of iOS jailbreaking tools developed by Chronic Dev Team (sometimes called the greenpois0n team) that use exploits to remove software restrictions on iPhones, iPads, iPod Touches, and Apple TVs. Greenpois0n's initial release in October 2010 jailbroke iOS 4.1, and its second version in February 2011 jailbroke iOS 4.2.1 as well as iOS 4.2.6 on CDMA iPhones. The second generation of the tool, greenpois0n Absinthe, was developed with iPhone Dev Team members and jailbroke iOS 5.0.1 in January 2012 (providing the first jailbreak of the iPhone 4S), and a second version jailbroke iOS 5.1.1 in May 2012 (providing the first jailbreak of the third generation iPad).Jailbreaking enables root access to the iOS operating system, allowing the installation of applications and customizations that are unavailable through the official App Store for iOS. Jailbreaking voids the device's warranty, and Apple releases iOS updates to make jailbreaking more difficult. - -greenpois0n for iOS 3/4 -On October 12, 2010, Chronic Dev Team released Greenpois0n, a desktop-based tool for jailbreaking iOS 4.1 on iPhone 4, iPhone 3GS, iPod Touch third and fourth generation, and iPhone OS 3.2.2 on the iPad 1. During its development, Apple released the second generation Apple TV, and Greenpois0n's developers reported that it could jailbreak the Apple TV as well.",29048960,Greenpois0n,T -864,864.0,864.0,"In fair division problems, spite is a phenomenon that occurs when a player's value of an allocation decreases when one or more other players' valuation increases. Thus, other things being equal, a player exhibiting spite will prefer an allocation in which other players receive less than more (if more of the good is desirable). -In this language, spite is difficult to analyze because one has to assess two sets of preferences. For example, in the divide and choose method, a spiteful player would have to make a trade-off between depriving his opponent of cake, and getting more himself. -Within the field of sociobiology, spite is used to describe those social behaviors that have a negative impact on both the actor and recipient(s). Spite can be favored by kin selection when: (a) it leads to an indirect benefit to some third party that is sufficiently related to the actor (Wilsonian spite); or (b) when it is directed primarily at negatively related individuals (Hamiltonian spite). Negative relatedness occurs when two individuals are less related than average. - -In game theory -The iterated prisoner's dilemma provides an example where players may ""punish"" each other for failing to cooperate in previous rounds, even if doing so would cause negative consequences for both players.",2265351,Spite (game theory),M -865,865.0,865.0,"Density gradient is a spatial variation in density over an area. The term is used in the natural sciences to describe varying density of matter, but can apply to any quantity whose density can be measured. - -Aerodynamics -In the study of supersonic flight, Schlieren photography observes the density gradient of air as it interacts with aircraft. -Also in the field of Computational Fluid Dynamics, Density gradient is used to observe the acoustic waves, shock waves or expansion waves in the flow field. - -Water -A steep density gradient in a body of water can have the effect of trapping energy and preventing convection, such a gradient is employed in solar ponds. In the case of salt water, sharp gradients can lead to stratification of different concentrations of salinity. This is called a Halocline. - -Biology -In the life sciences, a special technique called density gradient separation is used for isolating and purifying cells, viruses and subcellular particles. Variations of this include Isopycnic centrifugation, Differential centrifugation, and Sucrose gradient centrifugation.",4469544,Density gradient,M -866,866.0,866.0,"Allion Healthcare (Nasdaq: ALLI) was the parent company of MOMSpharmacy based in Melville, New York primarily known for providing mail order HIV medications to patients who are primarily on Medicaid or the AIDS Drug Assistance Program (ADAP). -Among the offerings is the MOMSPak in which the drugs are packed together in dated individual packages to make the multi-drug regimen easier.The company reported having 15,610 patients in 2007. -The company has distribution centers in New York, California, Florida, New Jersey, and Washington. - -History -The company was founded in 1983 as The Care Group and changed its name to Allion in 1999 after emerging from bankruptcy.The company has an agreement with Roche Laboratories for pricing discounts in exchange for providing blind patient data on Fuzeon medication. In November 2007 Company signed an exclusive distribution agreement with Galea Life Sciences for Nutraplete, the first therapeutic dietary supplement designed specifically for people living with HIV/AIDS.The company was listed on NASDAQ on the ticker symbol ALLI. On January 13, 2010, the company closed on being acquired by the private equity firm HIG Capital for $6.60/share in a deal valued at $278 million. - -2012 indictment -On April 4, 2012, the New York Attorney General Eric T. Schneiderman charged four people associated with the company in a Money Laundering & Bribery Scheme claiming the company sold blackmarket drugs ""of unknown origin and potency, and in some cases, drugs that were mislabeled or potentially expired."" According to the complaint: To date none of such has been proven. -In September 2008, Glenn Schabel, the supervising pharmacist and compliance officer for Allion, began ordering in excess of $274 million worth of alleged black market HIV medications from various licensed wholesalers over a 4 year period as directed by executive management. The Attorney General claimed such medications were obtained by various illegal means and the batches may have included unused pills that had previously been dispensed to individuals, medications stolen from manufacturers, or drugs that had expired, even though they were provided in legitimate manufacturers bottles.",18277696,Allion Healthcare,S -867,867.0,867.0,"Fluorescent Black is a comics story published between 2008 and 2010 in Heavy Metal Magazine. It is one of the more popular series published in the magazine and is strikingly different in tone and style from many of the other stories Heavy Metal publishes. - -Publication history -The story appeared in three parts in Heavy Metal magazine vol. 32 #6 (September 2008), vol. 33 #6 (September 2009) and vol. 34 #6 (September 2010) - -Setting -The novel takes place in the year 2085 in the area surrounding Singapore and the Malaysian Peninsula.",27716531,Fluorescent Black (comics),S -868,868.0,868.0,"Phone cloning is the copying of identity from one cellular device to another. - -AMPS cloning -Analogue mobile telephones were notorious for their lack of security. Casual listeners easily heard conversations as plain narrowband FM; eavesdroppers with specialized equipment readily intercepted handset Electronic Serial Numbers (ESN) and Mobile Directory Numbers (MDN or CTN, the Cellular Telephone Number) over the air. The intercepted ESN/MDN pairs would be cloned onto another handset and used in other regions for making calls. Due to widespread fraud, some carriers required a PIN before making calls or used a system of radio fingerprinting to detect the clones. - -CDMA cloning -Code-Division Multiple Access (CDMA) mobile telephone cloning involves gaining access to the device's embedded file system /nvm/num directory via specialized software or placing a modified EEPROM into the target mobile telephone, allowing the Electronic Serial Number (ESN) and/or Mobile Equipment Identifier (MEID) of the mobile phone to be changed. To obtain the MEID of your phone, simply open your phone's dialler and type *#06# to get its MEID number.",8580596,Phone cloning,T -869,869.0,869.0,"Manufacturing cost is the sum of costs of all resources consumed in the process of making a product. The manufacturing cost is classified into three categories: direct materials cost, direct labor cost and manufacturing overhead. It is a factor in total delivery cost. - -Direct materials cost -Direct materials are the raw materials that become a part of the finished product. Manufacturing adds value to raw materials by applying a chain of operations to maintain a deliverable product. There are many operations that can be applied to raw materials such as welding, cutting and painting.",30504788,Manufacturing cost,E -870,870.0,870.0,"A nucleogenic isotope, or nuclide, is one that is produced by a natural terrestrial nuclear reaction, other than a reaction beginning with cosmic rays (the latter nuclides by convention are called by the different term cosmogenic). The nuclear reaction that produces nucleogenic nuclides is usually interaction with an alpha particle or the capture of fission or thermal neutrons. Some nucleogenic isotopes are stable and others are radioactive. - -Example -An example of a nucleogenic nuclide is neon-21 produced from neon-20 that absorbs a thermal neutron (though some neon-21 is also primordial). Other nucleogenic reactions that produce heavy neon isotopes are (fast neutron capture, alpha emission) reactions, starting with magnesium-24 and magnesium-25, respectively. The source of the neutrons in these reactions is often secondary neutrons produced by alpha radiation from natural uranium and thorium in rock. - -Types -Because nucleogenic isotopes have been produced later than the birth of the solar system (and the nucleosynthetic events that preceded it), nucleogenic isotopes, by definition, are not primordial nuclides.",8559787,Nucleogenic,S -871,871.0,871.0,"In telecommunications, a proprietary protocol is a communications protocol owned by a single organization or individual. - -Intellectual property rights and enforcement -Ownership by a single organization gives the owner the ability to place restrictions on the use of the protocol and to change the protocol unilaterally. Specifications for proprietary protocols may or may not be published, and implementations are not freely distributed. Proprietors may enforce restrictions through control of the intellectual property rights, for example through enforcement of patent rights, and by keeping the protocol specification a trade secret. Some proprietary protocols strictly limit the right to create an implementation; others are widely implemented by entities that do not control the intellectual property but subject to restrictions the owner of the intellectual property may seek to impose. - -Examples -The Skype protocol is a proprietary protocol.The Venturi Transport Protocol (VTP) is a patented proprietary protocol that is designed to replace TCP transparently in order to overcome perceived inefficiencies related to wireless data transport. -Microsoft Exchange Server protocols are proprietary open access protocols. The rights to develop and release protocols are held by Microsoft, but all technical details are free for access and implementation.Microsoft developed a proprietary extension to the Kerberos network authentication protocol for the Windows 2000 operating system.",20222518,Proprietary protocol,E -872,872.0,872.0,"The Flora Europaea is a 5-volume encyclopedia of plants, published between 1964 and 1993 by Cambridge University Press. The aim was to describe all the national Floras of Europe in a single, authoritative publication to help readers identify any wild or widely cultivated plant in Europe to the subspecies level. It also provides information on geographical distribution, habitat preference, and chromosome number, where known. -The Flora was released in CD form in 2001, and the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh have made an index to the plant names available online. - -History -The idea of a pan-European Flora was first mooted at the 8th International Congress of Botany in Paris in 1954. In 1957, Britain's Science and Engineering Research Council provided grants to fund a secretariat of three people, and Volume 1 was published in 1964. More volumes were issued in the following years, culminating in 1980 with the monocots of Volume 5.",2025236,Flora Europaea,S -873,873.0,873.0,"Metop (Meteorological Operational satellite) is a series of three polar-orbiting meteorological satellites developed by the European Space Agency (ESA) and operated by the European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites (EUMETSAT). The satellites form the space segment component of the overall EUMETSAT Polar System (EPS), which in turn is the European half of the EUMETSAT / NOAA Initial Joint Polar System (IJPS). The satellites carry a payload comprising 11 scientific instruments and two which support Cospas-Sarsat Search and Rescue services. In order to provide data continuity between Metop and NOAA Polar Operational Environmental Satellites (POES), several instruments are carried on both fleets of satellites. -Metop-A, launched on 19 October 2006, is Europe's first polar orbiting satellite used for operational meteorology. With respect to its primary mission of providing data for Numerical Weather Prediction, studies have shown that Metop-A data are measured as having the largest impact of any individual satellite platform on reducing 24-hour forecasting errors, and accounts for about 25% of the total impact on global forecast error reduction across all data sources.Each of the three satellites were originally intended to be operated sequentially, however good performance of the Metop-A and Metop-B satellites mean there was a period of all three satellite operating.",7629370,MetOp,S -874,874.0,874.0,"In aerodynamics, the flight envelope, service envelope, or performance envelope of an aircraft or spacecraft refers to the capabilities of a design in terms of airspeed and load factor or atmospheric density, often simplified to altitude. The term is somewhat loosely applied, and can also refer to other measurements such as maneuverability. When a plane is pushed, for instance by diving it at high speeds, it is said to be flown ""outside the envelope"", something considered rather dangerous. -Flight envelope is one of a number of related terms that are all used in a similar fashion. It is perhaps the most common term because it is the oldest, first being used in the early days of test flying. It is closely related to more modern terms known as extra power and a doghouse plot which are different ways of describing a flight envelope.",2336592,Flight envelope,E -875,875.0,875.0,"Electrical resistivity (also called volume resistivity or specific electrical resistance) is a fundamental specific property of a material that measures its electrical resistance or how strongly it resists electric current. A low resistivity indicates a material that readily allows electric current. Resistivity is commonly represented by the Greek letter ρ (rho). The SI unit of electrical resistivity is the ohm-metre (Ω⋅m). For example, if a 1 m3 solid cube of material has sheet contacts on two opposite faces, and the resistance between these contacts is 1 Ω, then the resistivity of the material is 1 Ω⋅m. -Electrical conductivity (or specific conductance) is the reciprocal of electrical resistivity.",61580,Electrical resistivity and conductivity,M -876,876.0,876.0,"2M1207, 2M1207A or 2MASSW J12073346–3932539 is a brown dwarf located in the constellation Centaurus; a companion object, 2M1207b, may be the first extrasolar planetary-mass companion to be directly imaged, and is the first discovered orbiting a brown dwarf.2M1207 was discovered during the course of the 2MASS infrared sky survey: hence the ""2M"" in its name, followed by its celestial coordinates. With a fairly early (for a brown dwarf) spectral type of M8, it is very young, and probably a member of the TW Hydrae association. Its estimated mass is around 25 Jupiter masses. The companion, 2M1207b, is estimated to have a mass of 5–6 Jupiter masses. Still glowing red hot, it will shrink to a size slightly smaller than Jupiter as it cools over the next few billion years. -An initial photometric estimate for the distance to 2M1207 was 70 parsecs.",1087648,2M1207,M -877,877.0,877.0,"Lundbeck Seattle Biopharmaceuticals is a pharmaceutical development company based in Bothell, Washington. Formerly known as Alder Biopharmaceuticals, it specializes in therapeutic monoclonal antibodies. -In May 2014, Alder went public. In early 2018, the company made a public stock offering, aiming to raise US$250 million. The company identifies, develops, and manufactures antibody therapeutics to alleviate human suffering in cancer, pain, cardiovascular, and autoimmune and inflammatory disease areas.As of September 2019, the Alder Biopharmaceuticals shares have increased with 83% in price, following the company's acquisition by the Denmark-based H.",52777355,Lundbeck Seattle Biopharmaceuticals,S -878,878.0,878.0,"SMIF (Standard Mechanical Interface) is an isolation technology developed in the 1980s by a group known as the ""micronauts"" at Hewlett-Packard in Palo Alto. The system is used in semiconductor wafer fabrication and cleanroom environments. It is a SEMI standard. - -Development -The core development team was led by Ulrich Kaempf as engineering manager, under the direction of Mihir Parikh. The core team that developed the technology was driven by Barclay Tullis, who held most of the patents, with Dave Thrasher, who later joined the Silicon Valley Group, and Thomas Atchison, a member of the technical staff under direction of Barclay Tullis. Mihir later provided the technology to SEMI, and then licensed a copy for himself, and spun out Asyst Technologies to provide the technology commercially.",1979659,SMIF (interface),E -879,879.0,879.0,"High-availability Seamless Redundancy (HSR) is a network protocol for Ethernet that provides seamless failover against failure of any single network component. PRP and HSR are independent of the application-protocol and can be used by most Industrial Ethernet protocols in the IEC 61784 suite. HSR does not cover the failure of end nodes, but redundant nodes can be connected via HSR. -HSR nodes have two ports and act as a bridge, which allows arranging them into a ring or meshed structure without dedicated switches. This is in contrast to the companion standard Parallel Redundancy Protocol (PRP), with which HSR shares the operating principle. PRP and HSR are standardized by the IEC 62439-3:2016.PRP and HSR are suited for applications that request high availability and short switchover time.",27787709,High-availability Seamless Redundancy,E -880,880.0,880.0,"Archaeological science, also known as archaeometry, consists of the application of scientific techniques to the analysis of archaeological materials and sites. It is related to methodologies of archaeology. Martinón-Torres and Killick distinguish ‘scientific archaeology’ (as an epistemology) from ‘archaeological science’ (the application of specific techniques to archaeological materials). Martinón-Torres and Killick claim that ‘archaeological science’ has promoted the development of high-level theory in archaeology. However, Smith rejects both concepts of archaeological science because neither emphasize falsification or a search for causality.In the United Kingdom, the Natural and Environmental Research Council provides funding for archaeometry separate from the funding provided for archaeology. - -Types of archaeological science -Archaeological science can be divided into the following areas: -physical and chemical dating methods which provide archaeologists with absolute and relative chronologies -artifact studies -environmental approaches which provide information on past landscapes, climates, flora, and fauna; as well as the diet, nutrition, health, and pathology of people -mathematical methods for data treatment (including computer-based methods) -remote-sensing and geophysical-survey techniques for buried features -conservation sciences, involving the study of decay processes and the development of new methods of conservationTechniques such as lithic analysis, archaeometallurgy, paleoethnobotany, palynology and zooarchaeology also form sub-disciplines of archaeological science. - -Dating techniques -Archaeological science has particular value when it can provide absolute dates for archaeological strata and artifacts.",912551,Archaeological science,S -881,881.0,881.0,"Stargate Atlantis is a Canadian-American science fiction television series created by Brad Wright and Robert C. Cooper as a spin off from its sister show, Stargate SG-1. The series resumes the story of the ""Lost City"" and ""New Order"" episodes of SG-1, where a military team led by Colonel (now Brigadier General) Jack O'Neill, Dr. Daniel Jackson, Major (now Lt. Colonel) Samantha Carter and the Jaffa Teal'c, use an ancient alien artifact called the Stargate to travel to different planets to explore and find new technology.",2540983,List of Stargate Atlantis episodes,T -882,882.0,882.0,"Unibuddy is an EdTech company that provides a student engagement platform for higher education institutions. The platform allows prospective and current students to connect with student ambassadors and alumni from the same or similar courses, providing a peer-to-peer support network enabling prospective students to learn about life at a particular university, including course information, accommodation, and student life. Unibuddy was founded in 2015 by Kimeshan Naidoo and Diego Fanara and is headquartered in London, United Kingdom. - -Products -Unibuddy's main product is Chat, a student engagement platform that enables higher education institutions to connect prospective and current students with student ambassadors and alumni. The platform includes features such as one-to-one messaging, group chat, and video calling, as well as a range of tools for student ambassadors to manage their interactions with prospective students. In 2022, Unibuddy focussed on its newest Community product to help higher education institutions create belonging and to help students connect with each other over common interests. - -Partnerships -Unibuddy has partnerships with over 600 higher education institutions around the world, including the University of Cambridge, NYU, Imperial College London and Arizona State University.",72512142,Unibuddy,T -883,883.0,883.0,"Siddhānta Śiromaṇi (Sanskrit: सिद्धान्त शिरोमणि for ""Crown of treatises"") is the major treatise of Indian mathematician Bhāskara II. He wrote the Siddhānta Śiromaṇi in 1150 when he was 36 years old. The work is composed in Sanskrit Language in 1450 verses. - -Parts -Līlāvatī -The name of the book comes from his daughter, Līlāvatī. It is the first volume of the Siddhānta Śiromaṇi. The book contains thirteen chapters, 278 verses, mainly arithmetic and measurement. - -Bījagaṇita -It is the second volume of Siddhānta Śiromaṇi.",33459997,Siddhānta Shiromani,M -884,884.0,884.0,"Paul Moody (May 23, 1779 – July 5, 1831) was a U.S. textile machinery inventor born in Byfield, Massachusetts (Town of Newbury). He is often credited with developing and perfecting the first power loom in America, which launched the first successful integrated cotton mill at Waltham, Massachusetts, in 1814, under the leadership of Francis Cabot Lowell and his associates. - -Early life -Paul Moody was born May 24, 1779, at Byfield, Massachusetts, the son of Paul Moody and one of nine children.Although Moody's academic education was limited, at age sixteen he learned the weaver's craft, and soon became an expert. He later went to work at a nail factory of Jacob Perkins, first in Byfield and later in Amesbury, Massachusetts, when the company moved. In 1812 he worked for Kendrick and Worthen, makers of carding machinery.On July 13, 1800 (one source says September 1798), he married Susan Morrill of Amesbury.",837647,Paul Moody (inventor),E -885,885.0,885.0,"The Gate of Angels is a 1990 historical novel by the British author Penelope Fitzgerald. It is set in 1912 at a fictional Cambridge college, St Angelicus. The novel was shortlisted for the Booker prize. - -Plot -Fred Fairly, a Junior Fellow of St Angelicus ('Angels'), a fictional Cambridge college, is a physicist whose research focuses on the exciting modern field of quantum theory. As Fred cycles along the Guestingley Road in the dark, an unlit farmer's cart pulls out of a gateway into his path, causing him to crash into a stranger - a young woman by the name of Daisy Saunders. Both are knocked unconscious, and are taken in by the wife of Professor Wrayburn who lives nearby.",45556839,The Gate of Angels,M -886,886.0,886.0,"The merits of digital versus film photography were considered by photographers and filmmakers in the early 21st century after consumer digital cameras became widely available. Digital photography and digital cinematography have both advantages and disadvantages relative to still film and motion picture film photography. In the 21st century, photography came to be predominantly digital, but traditional photochemical methods continue to serve many users and applications. - -Image quality -Spatial resolution -The visual quality of a digital photograph can be evaluated in several ways. The pixel count of an image is related to its spatial resolution and is often used as a figure of merit. The quantity of picture elements (pixels) in the image sensor is usually counted in millions and called ""megapixels"".",8481634,Comparison of digital and film photography,T -887,887.0,887.0,"Federico Capasso (born 1949, Rome, Italy), a prominent applied physicist, was one of the inventors of the quantum cascade laser during his work at Bell Laboratories. He is currently on the faculty of Harvard University. He has co-authored over 450 papers, edited four volumes, and holds over 60 US patents. - -Biography -Federico Capasso received the Doctor of Physics degree, summa cum laude, from the University of Rome, Italy, in 1973 and after doing research in fiber optics at Fondazione Bordoni in Rome, joined Bell Labs in 1976. In 1984, he was made a distinguished member of technical staff and in 1997 a Bell Labs Fellow. In addition to his research activity, Capasso has held several management positions at Bell Labs, including head of the quantum phenomena and device research department and the semiconductor physics research department (1987��2000) and vice president of physical research (2000–2002).",4167561,Federico Capasso,M -888,888.0,888.0,"Thrifty phenotype refers to the correlation between low birth weight of neonates and the increased risk of developing metabolic syndromes later in life, including type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular diseases. Although early life undernutrition is thought to be the key driving factor to the hypothesis, other environmental factors have been explored for their role in susceptibility, such as physical inactivity. Genes may also play a role in susceptibility of these diseases, as they may make individuals predisposed to factors that lead to increased disease risk. - -Historical overview -The term Thrifty Phenotype was first coined by Charles Nicholas Hales and David Barker in a study published in 1992. In their study, the authors reviewed the literature up to and addressed five central questions regarding role of different factors in type 2 diabetes on which they based their hypothesis. These questions included the following: - -The role of beta cell deficiency in type 2 diabetes. -The extent to which beta cell deficiency contributes to insulin intolerance. -The role of major nutritional elements in fetal growth. -The role of abnormal amino acid supply in growth limited neonates. -The role of malnutrition in irreversibly defective beta cell growth.From the review of the existing literature, they posited that poor nutritional status in fetal and early neonatal stages could hamper the development and proper functioning of the pancreatic beta cells by impacting structural features of islet anatomy, which could consequently make the individual more susceptible to the development of type 2 diabetes in later life.",1740374,Thrifty phenotype,S -889,889.0,889.0,"Wageningen UR (University & Research centre) has constructed AlgaePARC (Algae Production And Research Centre) at the Wageningen Campus. The goal of AlgaePARC is to fill the gap between fundamental research on algae and full-scale algae production facilities. This will be done by setting up flexible pilot scale facilities to perform applied research and obtain direct practical experience. It is a joined initiative of BioProcess Engineering and Food & Biobased Research of the Wageningen University. -AlgaePARC facility -AlgaePARC uses four different photobioreactors comprising 24 m2 ground surface: an open pond, two types of tubular reactors and a plastic film bioreactor, and a number of smaller systems for the testing of new technologies. This facility is unique, because it is the first facility in which the productivity of four different production systems can be compared during the year under identical conditions.",28808092,AlgaePARC,S -890,890.0,890.0,"Electronic Business using eXtensible Markup Language, commonly known as e-business XML, or ebXML (pronounced ee-bee-ex-em-el, [i'bi,eks,em'el]) as it is typically referred to, is a family of XML based standards sponsored by OASIS and UN/CEFACT whose mission is to provide an open, XML-based infrastructure that enables the global use of electronic business information in an interoperable, secure, and consistent manner by all trading partners. -The ebXML architecture is a unique set of concepts; part theoretical and part implemented in the existing ebXML standards work. -The ebXML work stemmed from earlier work on ooEDI (object oriented EDI), UML / UMM, XML markup technologies and the X12 EDI ""Future Vision"" work sponsored by ANSI X12 EDI. -The melding of these components began in the original ebXML work and the theoretical discussion continues today. Other work relates, such as the Object Management Group work and the OASIS BCM (Business-Centric Methodology) standard (2006). - -Conceptual overview of ebXML architecture -While the ebXML standards adopted by ISO and OASIS seek to provide formal XML-enabled mechanisms that can be implemented directly, the ebXML architecture is on concepts and methodologies that can be more broadly applied to allow practitioners to better implement e-business solutions. -A particular instance is the Core Components Technical Specification (CCTS) work that continues within UN/CEFACT, whereas its cousin - UBL - Universal Business Language - specification is used within OASIS that implements specific XML transactions by applying the principles of CCTS to typical supply chain transactions such as invoice, purchase order, ship notice and so on. - -History -ebXML was started in 1999 as a joint initiative between the United Nations Centre for Trade facilitation and Electronic Business (UN/CEFACT) and Organization for the Advancement of Structured Information Standards (OASIS). A joint coordinating committee composed of representatives from each of the two organizations led the effort. Quarterly meetings of the working groups were held between November 1999 and May 2001. At the final plenary a Memorandum of Understanding was signed by the two organizations, splitting up responsibility for the various specifications but continuing oversight by the joint coordinating committee. -The original project envisioned five layers of data specification, including XML standards for: - -Business processes, -Collaboration protocol agreements, -Core data components, -Messaging, -Registries and repositoriesAll work was completed based on a normative requirements document and the ebXML Technical Architecture Specification. -After completion of the 6 specifications by the two organizations, 5 parts of the work were submitted to ISO TC 154 for approval.",30873555,EbXML,T -891,891.0,891.0,"Advanced Functional Fabrics of America (AFFOA) is a public-private partnership led by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. The partnership was created as a component of the Manufacturing USA research network in April 2016 (then known as the National Network for Manufacturing Innovation), and received $75 million in 2016 from United States Department of Defense as Revolutionary Fibers and Textiles Manufacturing Innovation Hub to study smart fabric for warfighters. The members are 32 universities, 16 industry members, 72 manufacturing entities, and 26 startup incubators. Corporate members include American apparel companies Nike and New Balance, and medical device manufacturer Medtronic.The AFFOA is expected to conduct research in Internet of Things and wearable computing. The U.S.",52767944,Advanced Functional Fabrics of America,E -892,892.0,892.0,"A genetic screen or mutagenesis screen is an experimental technique used to identify and select individuals who possess a phenotype of interest in a mutagenized population. Hence a genetic screen is a type of phenotypic screen. Genetic screens can provide important information on gene function as well as the molecular events that underlie a biological process or pathway. While genome projects have identified an extensive inventory of genes in many different organisms, genetic screens can provide valuable insight as to how those genes function. - -Basic screening -Forward genetics (or a forward genetic screen) starts with a phenotype and then attempts to identify the causative mutation and thus gene(s) responsible for the phenotype. For instance, the famous screen by Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard and Eric Wieschaus mutagenized fruit flies and then set out to find the genes causing the observed mutant phenotypes.Successful forward genetic screens often require a defined genetic background and a simple experimental procedure.",340952,Genetic screen,S -893,893.0,893.0,"The Nordlandshest/Lyngshest also known as the ""Nordland/Lyngen horse"", ""nordland horse"" or ""Lyngen horse"", is a horse breed originating in Norway. It is the smallest of the three Norwegian national horse breeds. It originated in Lyngen, but was given the name Nordlandshest in 1968 by breeders in that area. The name change was hotly disputed by breeders in Lyngen and surrounding areas, but a compromise was later reached, and today the official name of the breed is both Nordlandshest and Lyngshest. - -Breed characteristics -The Nordlandshest/Lyngshest is a small and sturdy horse with drive and eagerness to work. It is surefooted and very strong relative to its size.",4797152,Nordlandshest/Lyngshest,S -894,894.0,894.0,"A tool is an object that can extend an individual's ability to modify features of the surrounding environment or help them accomplish a particular task. Although many animals use simple tools, only human beings, whose use of stone tools dates back hundreds of millennia, have been observed using tools to make other tools. -Early human tools, made of such materials as stone, bone, and wood, were used for the preparation of food, hunting, the manufacture of weapons, and the working of materials to produce clothing and useful artifacts and crafts such as pottery, along with the construction of housing, businesses, infrastructure, and transportation. The development of metalworking made additional types of tools possible. Harnessing energy sources, such as animal power, wind, or steam, allowed increasingly complex tools to produce an even larger range of items, with the Industrial Revolution marking an inflection point in the use of tools.",30677,Tool,E -895,895.0,895.0,"A smokestack industry is a basic, usually cyclical, manufacturing industry. The factories stereotypically used in such industries that have flue gas stacks, hence the name, and produce a high volume of pollution. During the earliest era of electric power development, coal fired electric stations in urban areas were common prior to the use of Alternating current for lighting as Direct current electricity could only travel short distances.Example industries include: - -Iron and steelworks -Automotive industry -Chemical industry -Electric industrySmokestacks are large industrial chimneys used in the process of combusting mostly fossil fuels in furnaces with the goal of producing steam to drive generators for electricity, for the smelting ores, or as a separation or refinery process. The carefully constructed circular stacks were used to both increase the flow of combustible air but also isolate exhaust gases, carbon dioxide and pollutants from ground level releases during ever larger industrial activities. The difference in temperature between the bottom inside and outside of the stack helped to increase the rate air flow through the furnace known as the stack effect. - -History -Smokestacks were first used during industrial revolution between the 18th century and 19th centuries and were known to foul the airs in most larger cities but were most noted in large industrial centers like Manchester England or Pittsburgh Pennsylvania.",14352573,Smokestack industry,E -896,896.0,896.0,The clipped tag is a radio frequency identification (RFID) tag designed to enhance consumer privacy. RFID is an identification technology in which information stored in semiconductor chips contained in RFID tags is communicated by means of radio waves to RFID readers. The most simple passive RFID tags do not have batteries or transmitters. They get their energy from the field of the reader. They transfer their information to the reader by modulating the signal that is reflected back to the reader by the tag.,7096353,Clipped tag,E -897,897.0,897.0,"The Cornell box is a test aimed at determining the accuracy of rendering software by comparing the rendered scene with an actual photograph of the same scene, and has become a commonly used 3D test model. It was created by Cindy M. Goral, Kenneth E. Torrance, Donald P. Greenberg, and Bennett Battaile at the Cornell University Program of Computer Graphics for their paper Modeling the Interaction of Light Between Diffuse Surfaces published and presented at SIGGRAPH'84.A physical model of the box is created and photographed with a CCD camera.",292029,Cornell box,T -898,898.0,898.0,"A tolerance interval (TI) is a statistical interval within which, with some confidence level, a specified sampled proportion of a population falls. ""More specifically, a 100×p%/100×(1−α) tolerance interval provides limits within which at least a certain proportion (p) of the population falls with a given level of confidence (1−α)."" ""A (p, 1−α) tolerance interval (TI) based on a sample is constructed so that it would include at least a proportion p of the sampled population with confidence 1−α; such a TI is usually referred to as p-content − (1−α) coverage TI."" ""A (p, 1−α) upper tolerance limit (TL) is simply a 1−α upper confidence limit for the 100 p percentile of the population."" - -Calculation -One-sided normal tolerance intervals have an exact solution in terms of the sample mean and sample variance based on the noncentral t-distribution. -Two-sided normal tolerance intervals can be obtained based on the noncentral chi-squared distribution. - -Relation to other intervals -""In the parameters-known case, a 95% tolerance interval and a 95% prediction interval are the same."" If we knew a population's exact parameters, we would be able to compute a range within which a certain proportion of the population falls. For example, if we know a population is normally distributed with mean - - - - μ - - - {\displaystyle \mu } - and standard deviation - - - - σ - - - {\displaystyle \sigma } - , then the interval - - - - μ - ± - 1.96 - σ - - - {\displaystyle \mu \pm 1.96\sigma } - includes 95% of the population (1.96 is the z-score for 95% coverage of a normally distributed population). -However, if we have only a sample from the population, we know only the sample mean - - - - - - - μ - ^ - - - - - - {\displaystyle {\hat {\mu }}} - and sample standard deviation - - - - - - - σ - ^ - - - - - - {\displaystyle {\hat {\sigma }}} - , which are only estimates of the true parameters. In that case, - - - - - - - μ - ^ - - - - ± - 1.96 - - - - σ - ^ - - - - - - {\displaystyle {\hat {\mu }}\pm 1.96{\hat {\sigma }}} - will not necessarily include 95% of the population, due to variance in these estimates.",833690,Tolerance interval,E -899,899.0,899.0,"The T-failure criterion is a set of material failure criteria that can be used to predict both brittle and ductile failure.These criteria were designed as a replacement for the von Mises yield criterion which predicts the unphysical result that pure hydrostatic tensile loading of metals never leads to failure. The T-criteria use the volumetric stress in addition to the deviatoric stress used by the von Mises criterion and are similar to the Drucker Prager yield criterion. T-criteria have been designed on the basis of energy considerations and the observation that the reversible elastic energy density storage process has a limit which can be used to determine when a material has failed. - -Description -Only in the case of pure shear does the strain energy density stored in the material and calculated by the area under the - - - - - - - σ - ¯ - - - - - - {\displaystyle {\bar {\sigma }}} - - - - - - - - - ϵ - ¯ - - - - - - {\displaystyle {\bar {\epsilon }}} - curve, represent the total amount of energy stored. In all other cases, there is a divergence between the actual and calculated stored energy in the material, which is maximum in the case of pure hydrostatic loading, where, according to the von Mises criterion, no energy is stored. This paradox is resolved if a second constitutive equation is introduced, that relates hydrostatic pressure p with the volume change - - - - Θ - - - {\displaystyle \Theta } - .",9062245,T-criterion,E -900,900.0,900.0,"Anthony Frank Marchington (2 December 1955 – 16 October 2011) was an English biotechnology entrepreneur and businessman, famous as the co-founder of Oxford Molecular, and the former owner of the famous Class A3 4472 Flying Scotsman locomotive. - -Early life -Born in Buxton, Derbyshire, he was brought up on the family farm in Buxworth. He passed his motorcycle test at the age of 16, having learned to ride his father's 1914 Bradbury motorcycle and sidecar combination. -He attended New Mills Grammar School. -He gained his bachelor's degree, master's and D.Phil. at Brasenose College, Oxford. - -Association with Walter Hooper -While at Oxford, Marchington befriended and later lodged with American Walter Hooper, the last personal secretary of the writer C.S. Lewis.",30499956,Tony Marchington,S -901,901.0,901.0,"Astronomical rings (Latin: annuli astronomici), also known as Gemma's rings, are an early astronomical instrument. The instrument consists of three rings, representing the celestial equator, declination, and the meridian. -It can be used as a sun dial to tell time, if the approximate latitude and season is known, or to tell latitude, if the time is known or observed (at solar noon). It may be considered to be a simplified, portable armillary sphere, or a more complex form of astrolabe. - -History -Parts of the instrument go back to instruments made and used by ancient Greek astronomers. Gemma Frisius combined several of the instruments into a small, portable, astronomical-ring instrument. He first published the design in 1534, and in Petrus Apianus's Cosmographia in 1539.",23646085,Astronomical rings,T -902,902.0,902.0,"SOLiD (Sequencing by Oligonucleotide Ligation and Detection) is a next-generation DNA sequencing technology developed by Life Technologies and has been commercially available since 2006. This next generation technology generates 108 - 109 small sequence reads at one time. It uses 2 base encoding to decode the raw data generated by the sequencing platform into sequence data. -This method should not be confused with ""sequencing by synthesis,"" a principle used by Roche-454 pyrosequencing (introduced in 2005, generating millions of 200-400bp reads in 2009), and the Solexa system (now owned by Illumina) (introduced in 2006, generating hundreds of millions of 50-100bp reads in 2009) -These methods have reduced the cost from $0.01/base in 2004 to nearly $0.0001/base in 2006 and increased the sequencing capacity from 1,000,000 bases/machine/day in 2004 to more than 5,000,000,000 bases/machine/day in 2009. Over 30 publications exist describing its use first for nucleosome positioning from Valouev et al., transcriptional profiling or strand sensitive RNA-Seq with Cloonan et al., single cell transcriptional profiling with Tang et al. and ultimately human resequencing with McKernan et al.The method used by this machine (sequencing-by-ligation) has been reported to have some issue sequencing palindromic sequences. - -Chemistry -A library of DNA fragments is prepared from the sample to be sequenced, and is used to prepare clonal bead populations.",15236363,ABI Solid Sequencing,S -903,903.0,903.0,"Invasion genetics is the area of study within biology that examines evolutionary processes in the context of biological invasions. Invasion genetics considers how genetic and demographic factors affect the success of a species introduced outside of its native range, and how the mechanisms of evolution, such as natural selection, mutation, and genetic drift, operate in these populations. Researchers exploring these questions draw upon theory and approaches from a range of biological disciplines, including population genetics, evolutionary ecology, population biology, and phylogeography. -Invasion genetics, due to its focus on the biology of introduced species, is useful for identifying potential invasive species and developing practices for managing biological invasions. It is distinguished from the broader study of invasive species because it is less directly concerned with the impacts of biological invasions, such as environmental or economic harm. In addition to applications for invasive species management, insights gained from invasion genetics also contribute to a broader understanding of evolutionary processes such as genetic drift and adaptive evolution. - -History -Descriptions of invasive species -Charles Elton formed the basis for examining biological invasions as a unified issue in his 1958 monograph, The Ecology of Invasions by Animals and Plants, drawing together case studies of species introductions.",63048872,Invasion genetics,S -904,904.0,904.0,"The laws and policies regarding stem cell research in the People's Republic of China are relatively relaxed in comparison to that of other nations. The reason for this is due to different traditional and cultural views in relation to that of the West. - -Laws and regulations -China has one of the most unrestrictive embryonic stem cell research policies in the world. In recent years, seeing the research opportunities that China's lax regulations provide, many expatriate Chinese scientists from the West are returning to China to establish stem cell research centers and laboratories there.As a result of the increased interest in this field of research, in 2003, the People's Republic of China Ministry of Science and Technology and Ministry of Health issued official ethical guidelines for human embryonic stem cell research in its territories. The guidelines strictly forbid any research aimed at human reproductive cloning and require that the embryos used for stem cell research come only from: - -Spared gamete or blastocyst after in vitro fertilization (IVF) procedures; -Fetal cells from accidental spontaneous or voluntarily selected abortions; -Blastocyst or parthenogenetic split blastocyst obtained by somatic cell nuclear transfer technology; or -Germ cells voluntarily donated.American scientific journals Science and Nature have both reported in recent years that China's stem cell programs hold potential, and in 2004 a delegation from Britain's Department of Trade and Industry concluded more emphatically that Chinese research in the field was already world-class. Funding for stem cell research by the Chinese government is extremely limited compared to Western nations, with the Chinese Ministry of Science and Technology planning to devote between US$33 million and US$132 million on stem cell research during the next 5 years.",22511846,Stem cell laws and policy in China,S -905,905.0,905.0,"The tip-speed ratio, λ, or TSR for wind turbines is the ratio between the tangential speed of the tip of a blade and the actual speed of the wind, - - - - v - - - {\displaystyle v} - . The tip-speed ratio is related to efficiency, with the optimum varying with blade design. Higher tip speeds result in higher noise levels and require stronger blades due to larger centrifugal forces. - - - - - λ - = - - - - tip speed of blade - - - wind speed - - - - - - {\displaystyle \lambda ={\frac {\mbox{tip speed of blade}}{\mbox{wind speed}}}} - The tip speed of the blade can be calculated as - - - - ω - - - {\displaystyle \omega } - times R, where - - - - ω - - - {\displaystyle \omega } - is the rotational speed of the rotor in radians/second, and R is the rotor radius in metres. Therefore, we can also write: - - - - - λ - = - - - - ω - - R - - - v - - - - - {\displaystyle \lambda ={\frac {\omega {\text{R}}}{v}}} - where - - - - v - - - {\displaystyle v} - is the wind speed in metres/second at the height of the blade hub. - -Cp–λ curves -The power coefficient, - - - - - C - - p - - - - - {\displaystyle C_{p}} - is a quantity that expresses what fraction of the power in the wind is being extracted by the wind turbine. It is generally assumed to be a function of both tip-speed ratio and pitch angle.",9885419,Tip-speed ratio,E -906,906.0,906.0,"A ship model basin is a basin or tank used to carry out hydrodynamic tests with ship models, for the purpose of designing a new (full sized) ship, or refining the design of a ship to improve the ship's performance at sea. It can also refer to the organization (often a company) that owns and operates such a facility. -An engineering firm acts as a contractor to the relevant shipyards, and provides hydrodynamic model tests and numerical calculations to support the design and development of ships and offshore structures. - -History -The eminent English engineer William Froude published a series of influential papers on ship designs for maximising stability in the 1860s. The Institution of Naval Architects eventually commissioned him to identify the most efficient hull shape. He validated his theoretical models with extensive empirical testing, using scale models for the different hull dimensions. He established a formula (now known as the Froude number) by which the results of small-scale tests could be used to predict the behaviour of full-sized hulls.",614515,Ship model basin,M -907,907.0,907.0,"This is a list of encyclopedias as well as encyclopedic and biographical dictionaries published on the subject of biology in any language. - -Entries are in the English language unless specifically stated as otherwise. - -General biology -Becher, Anne, Joseph Richey. American environmental leaders: From colonial times to the present. Grey House, 2008. ISBN 9781592371198. -Butcher, Russell D., Stephen E. Adair, Lynn A.",44707607,Bibliography of encyclopedias: biology,S -908,908.0,908.0,"Extraterrestrial material refers to natural objects now on Earth that originated in outer space. Such materials include cosmic dust and meteorites, as well as samples brought to Earth by sample return missions from the Moon, asteroids and comets, as well as solar wind particles. -Extraterrestrial materials are of value to science as they preserve the primitive composition of the gas and dust from which the Sun and the Solar System formed. - -Categories -Extraterrestrial material for study on earth can be classified into a few broad categories, namely: - -Meteorites too large to vaporize on atmospheric entry but small enough to leave fragments lying on the ground, among which are included likely specimens from the asteroid and Kuiper belts as well as from the moon and from Mars. -Moon rocks brought to Earth by robotic and crewed lunar missions. -Cosmic dust collected on Earth, in the Earth's stratosphere, and in low Earth orbit which likely include particles from the present day interplanetary dust cloud, as well as from comets. -Specimens collected by sample-return missions from comets, asteroids, solar wind, which include ""stardust particles"" from the present-day interstellar medium. -Presolar grains (extracted from meteorites and interplanetary dust particles) that predate the formation of the Solar System. These are the most pristine and valuable samples. - -Collected on Earth -Examples of extraterrestrial material collected on Earth include cosmic dust and meteorites. Some of the meteorites found on Earth had their origin in another Solar System object such as the Moon, Martian meteorites, and the HED meteorite from Vesta. Another example is the Japanese Tanpopo mission that collected dust from low Earth orbit. -In 2019, researchers found interstellar dust in Antarctica which they relate to the Local Interstellar Cloud.",15739592,Extraterrestrial materials,S -909,909.0,909.0,"A vacuum truck, vacuum tanker, vactor truck, vactor, vac-con truck, vac-con is a tank truck that has a pump and a tank. The pump is designed to pneumatically suck liquids, sludges, slurries, or the like from a location (often underground) into the tank of the truck. The objective is to enable transport of the liquid material via road to another location. Vacuum trucks transport the collected material to a treatment or disposal site, for example a sewage treatment plant. -A common material to be transported is septage (or more broadly: fecal sludge) which is human excreta mixed with water, e.g. from septic tanks and pit latrines.",23853763,Vacuum truck,E -910,910.0,910.0,"The Canny edge detector is an edge detection operator that uses a multi-stage algorithm to detect a wide range of edges in images. It was developed by John F. Canny in 1986. Canny also produced a computational theory of edge detection explaining why the technique works. - -Development -Canny edge detection is a technique to extract useful structural information from different vision objects and dramatically reduce the amount of data to be processed. It has been widely applied in various computer vision systems.",476817,Canny edge detector,E -911,911.0,911.0,"Aspen Technology, Inc., known as AspenTech, is a provider of software and services for the process industries headquartered in Bedford, Massachusetts. AspenTech has 35 offices globally. - -History -Founded in 1981, AspenTech was born out of a joint research project between the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and US Department of Energy—called the Advanced System for Process Engineering (ASPEN) Project.On July 15, 2004, AspenTech was required by the Federal Trade Commission to make divestitures in regard to an anti-trust ruling against its acquisition of HyproTech. This included divestment of batch and continuous simulation systems and integrated engineering software business (AXSYS). In the same year, a class action lawsuit was filed against Aspen Technology and its certain officers over issuance of misleading statements and improper revenue recognition.On November 24, 2004, the company restated results for the fiscal years ended June 2000 through June 2004 after its audit committee discovered the company improperly accounted for certain software licenses. -On March 15, 2005, the company announced that the Audit Committee of the Company's Board of Directors had completed its previously announced financial review and the company had restated its financials for each of the fiscal years ended June 30, 2000 through June 30, 2004. The company's former CEO, David McQuillin, was sentenced in 2007 to 6 months' house arrest and 3 years' probation after pleading guilty to falsifying revenue figures.Aspen Technology was delisted from the NASDAQ on February 19, 2008 for failing to meet the financial transparency guidelines of the NASDAQ exchange.",16934880,Aspen Technology,E -912,912.0,912.0,"Planetary engineering is the development and application of technology for the purpose of influencing the environment of a planet. Planetary engineering encompasses a variety of methods such as terraforming, seeding, and geoengineering. -Widely discussed in the scientific community, terraforming refers to the alteration of other planets to create a habitable environment for terrestrial life. Seeding refers to the introduction of life from Earth to habitable planets. Geoengineering refers to the engineering of a planet's climate, and has already been applied on Earth. Each of these methods are composed of varying approaches and possess differing levels of feasibility and ethical concern. - -Terraforming -Terraforming is the process of modifying the atmosphere, temperature, surface topography or ecology of a planet, moon, or other body in order to replicate the environment of Earth. - -Technologies -A common object of discussion on potential terraforming is the planet Mars.",1038273,Planetary engineering,E -913,913.0,913.0,"CRISPR gene editing (pronounced ""crisper"") is a genetic engineering technique in molecular biology by which the genomes of living organisms may be modified. It is based on a simplified version of the bacterial CRISPR-Cas9 antiviral defense system. By delivering the Cas9 nuclease complexed with a synthetic guide RNA (gRNA) into a cell, the cell's genome can be cut at a desired location, allowing existing genes to be removed and/or new ones added in vivo.The technique is considered highly significant in biotechnology and medicine as it enables editing genomes in vivo very precisely, cheaply, and easily. It can be used in the creation of new medicines, agricultural products, and genetically modified organisms, or as a means of controlling pathogens and pests. It also has possibilities in the treatment of inherited genetic diseases as well as diseases arising from somatic mutations such as cancer.",59990826,CRISPR gene editing,S -914,914.0,914.0,"A sight glass or water gauge is a type of level sensor, a transparent tube through which the operator of a tank or boiler can observe the level of liquid contained within. - -Liquid in tanks -Simple sight glasses may be just a plastic or glass tube connected to the bottom of the tank at one end and the top of the tank at the other. The level of liquid in the sight glass will be the same as the level of liquid in the tank. Today, however, sophisticated float switches have replaced sight glasses in many such applications. - -Steam boilers -If the liquid is hazardous or under pressure, more sophisticated arrangements must be made. In the case of a boiler, the pressure of the water below and the steam above is equal, so any change in the water level will be seen in the gauge. The transparent tube (the “glass” itself) may be mostly enclosed within a metal or toughened glass shroud to prevent it from being damaged through scratching or impact and offering protection to the operators in the case of breakage.",4160674,Sight glass,T -915,915.0,915.0,"A service account or application account is a digital identity used by an application software or service to interact with other applications or the operating system. They are often used for machine to machine communication (M2M), for example for application programming interfaces (API). The service account may be a privileged identity within the context of the application. - -Updating passwords -Local service accounts can interact with various components of the operating system, which makes coordination of password changes difficult. In practice this causes passwords for service accounts to rarely be changed, which poses a considerable security risk for an organization.Some types of service accounts do not have a password. - -Wide access -Service accounts are often used by applications for access to databases, running batch jobs or scripts, or for accessing other applications. Such privileged identities often have extensive access to an organization's underlying data stores laying in applications or databases.Passwords for such accounts are often built and saved in plain textfiles, which is a vulnerability which may be replicated across several servers to provide fault tolerance for applications.",72673511,Service account,T -916,916.0,916.0,"James Clark (born 23 February 1964) is a software engineer and creator of various open-source software including groff, expat and several XML specifications. - -Education and early life -Clark was born in London and educated at Charterhouse School and Merton College, Oxford where he studied Mathematics and Philosophy. - -Career -Clark has lived in Bangkok, Thailand since 1995, and is permanent Thai resident. He owns a company called Thai Open Source Software Center, which provides him a legal framework for his open-source activities. Clark is the author and creator of groff, as well as an XML editing mode for GNU Emacs. - -Work on XML -Clark served as technical lead of the working group that developed XML—notably contributing the self-closing, empty element tag syntax, and the name XML. His contributions to XML are cited in dozens of books on the subject. Clark is the author or co-author of a number of influential specifications and implementations, including: - -DSSSL: An SGML transformation and styling language. -Expat: An open-source XML parser. -XSLT: XSL Transformations, a part of the XSL family.",460690,James Clark (programmer),T -917,917.0,917.0,"Sci-Hub is a shadow library website that provides free access to millions of research papers, without regard to copyright, by bypassing publishers' paywalls in various ways. It does not provide access to books. Sci-Hub was founded in Kazakhstan by Alexandra Elbakyan in 2011, in response to the high cost of research papers behind paywalls (see Serials crisis). The site is extensively used worldwide. In September 2019, the site's operator(s) said that it served approximately 400,000 requests per day.",48077208,Sci-Hub,T -918,918.0,918.0,"In biochemistry, an Eadie–Hofstee plot (or Eadie–Hofstee diagram) is a graphical representation of the Michaelis–Menten equation in enzyme kinetics. It has been known by various different names, including Eadie plot, Hofstee plot and Augustinsson plot. Attribution to Woolf is often omitted, because although Haldane and Stern credited Woolf with the underlying equation, it was just one of the three linear transformations of the Michaelis–Menten equation that they initially introduced. However, Haldane indicated latter that Woolf had indeed found the three linear forms: ""In 1932, Dr. Kurt Stern published a German translation of my book ""Enzymes"", with numerous additions to the English text.",544919,Eadie–Hofstee diagram,S -919,919.0,919.0,"Thomas Linn Dinwoodie (born November 15, 1954) is a cleantech entrepreneur, inventor, and founder of SunPower Corporation Systems (formerly PowerLight Corporation). He holds a long-standing interest in accelerating the transition to clean energy and other climate-sustaining practices. Dinwoodie is also an architect. - -Early business initiatives -From 1978 to 1983, Dinwoodie was a research assistant at the MIT Energy Laboratory, where he authored numerous papers on the economics and policy of distributed solar and wind generation, as well as flywheel energy storage.In 1981, Dinwoodie was awarded a contract from the U.S. DOE for development of an ultra-low-cost, polymer solar thermal collector.He was founder, president and CEO of TDEnergy, a wind power developer in the U.S. Northeast, from 1982 to 1988.",50611173,Tom Dinwoodie,T -920,920.0,920.0,"Microcracks in rock, also known as microfractures and cracks, are spaces in rock with the longest length of 1000 μm and the other two dimensions of 10 μm. In general, the ratio of width to length of microcracks is between 10−3 to 10−5.Due to the scale, microcracks are observed using microscope to obtain their basic characteristics. Microcrack formation provides insights into the strength and deformation behavior of rocks. Experimental and numerical results both play an important role in studying microcracks, especially their kinematics and dynamics. Microcracks in rock have been studied to understand geologic problems such as the early stage of earthquakes and fault formation.",62020761,Microcracks in rock,M -921,921.0,921.0,"Steering ratio refers to the ratio between the turn of the steering wheel (in degrees) or handlebars and the turn of the wheels (in degrees).The steering ratio is the ratio of the number of degrees of turn of the steering wheel to the number of degrees the wheel(s) turn as a result. In motorcycles, delta tricycles and bicycles, the steering ratio is always 1:1, because the steering wheel is fixed to the front wheel. A steering ratio of x:y means that a turn of the steering wheel x degree(s) causes the wheel(s) to turn y degree(s). In most passenger cars, the ratio is between 12:1 and 20:1. For example, if one complete turn of the steering wheel, 360 degrees, causes the inner & outer wheel to turn 30 and 45 degrees respectively, the ratio is then 360:75 = 4.8:1 ~ 5:1 -A higher steering ratio means that the steering wheel is turned more to get the wheels turning, but it will be easier to turn the steering wheel.",4042270,Steering ratio,E -922,922.0,922.0,"The blanketing effect (also referred to as line blanketing or the line-blanketing effect) is the enhancement of the red or infrared regions of a stellar spectrum at the expense of the other regions, with an overall diminishing effect on the whole spectrum. The term originates in a 1928 article by astrophysicist Edward Arthur Milne, where it was used to describe the effects that the astronomical metals in a star's outer regions had on that star's spectrum. The name arose because the absorption lines act as a ""blanket"", causing the continuum temperature of the spectrum to rise over what it would have been if these lines were not present.Astronomical metals, which produce most of a star's spectral absorption lines, absorb a fraction of the star's radiant energy (a phenomenon known as the blocking effect) and then re-emit it at a lower frequency as part of the backwarming effect. The combination of both these effects results in the position of stars in a color-color diagram to shift towards redder areas as the proportion of metals in them increases. The blanketing effect is thus highly dependent on the metallicity index of a star, which indicates the fraction of elements other than hydrogen and helium that compose it. - -References -External links -""Line-Blanketing Effects on the uvbyβ Photometric System""; McNamara, D.",36197961,Blanketing effect,M -923,923.0,923.0,"In open pit mining operations, people and equipment are constantly at the base of a steep, man-made slope (the highwall or pit-wall). Instances where this slope fails resulting in a rock or earthfall can result in loss of life, injuries and damage or destruction of equipment (see mining). It has been found that, over the last few hours preceding a slope failure, there is nearly always a small movement, or alteration in the movement pattern in the rock face of that section. -The system is intended to monitor mine slopes to detect this movement and generate a warning of impending failure (slope stability), so that personnel and equipment may be removed prior to the failure. The radar element provides very accurate, real-time, all weather slope movement measurements with sub millimetre detection ability, and is able to provide an alarm if the detected movement reaches a predetermined level, thereby permitting evacuation of the unstable area, and enhancing safety. -All radar measurements are fully geo-referenced to an accuracy that allows easy integration with standard digital terrain mapping (DTM) tools. -A second function of the Movement and Surveying Radar is to determine the absolute range to the electromagnetic reflective centroid of an area on a body of material or geographical feature. This functionality, combined with the accurately surveyed position of the measurement origin of the Movement and Surveying Radar and the positioning system’s angular measurement information, may be used to generate survey data of geographical features such as mine walls and rubble dumps.",21604965,Movement and Surveying Radar,E -924,924.0,924.0,"Concepts and Techniques in Modern Geography, abbreviated CATMOG, is a series of 59 short publications, each focused on an individual method or theory in geography. - -Background and impact -Concepts and Techniques in Modern Geography were produced by the Study Group in Quantitative Methods of the Institute of British Geographers. Each CATMOG publication was written on an individual topic in geography rather than a series of broad topics like traditional textbooks. This à la carte approach allowed only purchasing publications on topics of interest, keeping each CATMOG relatively cheap and accessible, lowering student costs with early copies sold for around $2.00. The first of these publications was published in 1975, and the last in 1996. Each was written by someone working professionally with its topic.",71522673,Concepts and Techniques in Modern Geography,T -925,925.0,925.0,"TOI-700 is a red dwarf 101.4 light-years away from Earth located in the Dorado constellation that hosts TOI-700 d, the first Earth-sized exoplanet in the habitable zone discovered by Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite (TESS). - -Nomenclature and history -The acronym ""TOI"" refers to stars and exoplanets studied by TESS, and is short for: ""Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite Object of Interest"". - -Stellar characteristics -TOI-700 is a red dwarf of spectral class M (much redder, cooler, and dimmer than the sun) that is 40% the mass, 40% the radius and 55% of the temperature of the Sun. The star is bright with low levels of stellar activity. Over the 11 sectors observed with TESS, the star does not show a single white-light flare. The low rotation rate is also an indicator of low stellar activity. - -Planetary system -Four exoplanets have been detected by TESS to be orbiting the host star TOI-700. All four exoplanets may be tidally locked to TOI-700.Three papers describe the validation of the planetary system, the follow-up observations of TOI-700 d with the Spitzer Space Telescope and the characterization of TOI-700 d.The composition of planets b and d is more likely rocky and the composition of planet c is more likely similar to that of Neptune.The two inner planets might have grown faster and accreted significant gaseous envelopes, but the outer planet formed more slowly and accreted less gas.",62766227,TOI-700,M -926,926.0,926.0,"The Vicarious Hypothesis, or hypothesis vicaria, was a planetary hypothesis proposed by Johannes Kepler to describe the motion of Mars. The hypothesis adopted the circular orbit and equant of Ptolemy's planetary model as well as the heliocentrism of the Copernican model. Calculations using the Vicarious Hypothesis did not support a circular orbit for Mars, leading Kepler to propose elliptical orbits as one of three laws of planetary motion in Astronomia Nova. - -History -In 1600, Johannes Kepler met and began working with Tycho Brahe at Benátky, a town north of Prague where Brahe's new observatory was being built. Brahe assigned Kepler the task of modeling the motion of Mars using only data that Brahe had collected himself. Upon the death of Brahe in 1601, all of Brahe's data was willed to Kepler.",62081079,Vicarious Hypothesis,M -927,927.0,927.0,"A safety valve is a valve that acts as a fail-safe. An example of safety valve is a pressure relief valve (PRV), which automatically releases a substance from a boiler, pressure vessel, or other system, when the pressure or temperature exceeds preset limits. Pilot-operated relief valves are a specialized type of pressure safety valve. A leak tight, lower cost, single emergency use option would be a rupture disk. -Safety valves were first developed for use on steam boilers during the Industrial Revolution. Early boilers operating without them were prone to explosion unless carefully operated. -Vacuum safety valves (or combined pressure/vacuum safety valves) are used to prevent a tank from collapsing while it is being emptied, or when cold rinse water is used after hot CIP (clean-in-place) or SIP (sterilization-in-place) procedures.",304612,Safety valve,E -928,928.0,928.0,"Architectural engineering or architecture engineering, also known as building engineering, is an engineering discipline that deals with the engineering systems - such as structural, mechanical, electrical, lighting, environmental, climate control, telecommunications, security, and other technologies used in buildings. -From reduction of greenhouse gas emissions to the construction of resilient buildings, architectural engineers are at the forefront of addressing several major challenges of the 21st century. They apply the latest scientific knowledge and technologies to the design of buildings. Architectural engineering as a relatively new licensed profession emerged in the 20th century as a result of the rapid technological developments. Architectural engineers are at the forefront of two major historical opportunities that today's world is immersed in: (1) that of rapidly advancing computer-technology, and (2) the parallel revolution arising from the need to create a sustainable planet.Distinguished from architecture as an art and science of the building processs design, architectural engineering is the art and science of engineering and construction as practiced in respect of buildings systems. - -Related engineering and design fields -Structural Engineering -Structural engineering involves the analysis and design of the built environment (buildings, bridges, equipment supports, towers and walls). Those concentrating on buildings are sometimes informally referred to as ""building engineers"".",19278728,Architectural engineering,E -929,929.0,929.0,"The homing endonucleases are a collection of endonucleases encoded either as freestanding genes within introns, as fusions with host proteins, or as self-splicing inteins. They catalyze the hydrolysis of genomic DNA within the cells that synthesize them, but do so at very few, or even singular, locations. Repair of the hydrolyzed DNA by the host cell frequently results in the gene encoding the homing endonuclease having been copied into the cleavage site, hence the term 'homing' to describe the movement of these genes. Homing endonucleases can thereby transmit their genes horizontally within a host population, increasing their allele frequency at greater than Mendelian rates. - -Origin and mechanism -Although the origin and function of homing endonucleases is still being researched, the most established hypothesis considers them as selfish genetic elements, similar to transposons, because they facilitate the perpetuation of the genetic elements that encode them independent of providing a functional attribute to the host organism. -Homing endonuclease recognition sequences are long enough to occur randomly only with a very low probability (approximately once every 7×109 bp), and are normally found in one or very few instances per genome. Generally, owing to the homing mechanism, the gene encoding the endonuclease (the HEG, ""homing endonuclease gene"") is located within the recognition sequence which the enzyme cuts, thus interrupting the homing endonuclease recognition sequence and limiting DNA cutting only to sites that do not (yet) carry the HEG. -Prior to transmission, one allele carries the gene (HEG+) while the other does not (HEG−), and is therefore susceptible to being cut by the enzyme.",10443283,Homing endonuclease,S -930,930.0,930.0,"Twine is a stand-alone device that uses sensors to detect parts of its environment and that connects to a Wi-Fi network to communicate. Rules loaded into the Twine can test for sensor conditions and, based on logic, send messages through email or SMS, make an HTTP request, or light a LED. It can act as a data logger. -The device was created by Supermechanical in the US from funding raised on Kickstarter. Their original goal was for $35,000 yet they raised $556,541 from 3,966 backers on January 3, 2012. The product successfully shipped in November 2012.",37792009,Twine (device),T -931,931.0,931.0,"The United Fishermen and Allied Workers' Union was established in 1945 in British Columbia through the merger of the United Fishermen's Federal Union and the Fish, Cannery and Reduction Plant and Allied Workers Union. It represents fishermen, shoreworkers, and workers in fish processing and transport, and fought for improved wages and working conditions in the industry as well as the imposition of fishing quotas and licensing requirements. The union survived raiding wars with the British Columbia Gillnetters Association in 1952 and the Seafarers' International Union in 1953. Suspected of being under communist influence, it was suspended by the Trades and Labour Congress of Canada in 1953 and refused admittance to the Canadian Labour Congress until 1972. For example, a longtime president of the UFAWU, Homer Stevens, ran as the Communist Party candidate in the Burnaby-Richmond-Delta riding in the 1970s.",15843930,United Fishermen and Allied Workers' Union,E -932,932.0,932.0,"Squalene is an organic compound. It is a triterpenoid with the formula C30H50. It is a colourless oil, although impure samples appear yellow. It was originally obtained from shark liver oil (hence its name, as Squalus is a genus of sharks). An estimated 12% of bodily squalene in humans is found in sebum.",1005946,Squalene,S -933,933.0,933.0,"Makoto Furutani-Seiki is a Japanese molecular biologist who is a Professor of Systems Biochemistry in the School of Medicine at Yamaguchi University, Japan. - -Education -Furutani-Seiki was educated at the Yamaguchi University School of Medicine, Japan where he was awarded Doctor of Medicine (M.D) in 1985. He completed his postgraduate study at the Department of Immunology, Graduate School of Medicine, University of Tokyo, Japan where he was awarded a Ph.D in Immunology supervised by Tomio Tada in 1989. - -Career and research -Furutani-Seiki started his career in 1992, as a postdoc in Janni Nusslein-Volhard's lab at Max-Planck-Institute in Tübingen, he conducted a genome-wide mutagenesis screen using medaka fish as a group leader of the Kondoh Differentiation Signalling ERATO project.In 2007, he moved to University of Bath, UK, Centre for Regenerative Medicine as a Medical Research Council Senior Research Fellow and continues his research at Yamaguchi University School of Medicine, Japan.Furutani-Seiki research study investigates the molecular mechanisms of mechono-homeostasis in which extracellular mechanical cues are integrated with cell differentiation and proliferation to maintain tissue, organ and body form.As part of his contribution to the field of Science, Furutani-Seiki discovered a single gene whose product is essential for the body and organs to keep their 3D shape and withstand external forces such as gravity. The gene was discovered through the analysis of a medaka fish mutant with a unique flattened phenotype which was identified by the combination of the mutagenesis screen in zebrafish with another screen in medaka fish. His work further investigates the single cell lineage and regionalisation of cell populations during medaka neurulation.Furutani-Seiki led an international team of researchers from the University of Bath, UK Centre for Regenerative Medicine that identified a gene that helps the body resist gravity and demonstrated what happens when the system goes wrong. As of June 2018, he held a visiting associate professorship in Bath's Department of Biology and Biochemistry. - -Awards and honours -Furutani-Seiki is an alumnus of Kavli Frontiers of Science and a member of the editorial board of Regenerative Medicine.",71302651,Makoto Furutani-Seiki,S -934,934.0,934.0,"Dragon silk is a material created by Kraig Biocraft Laboratories of Ann Arbor, Michigan from genetically modified silkworms to create body armor. Dragon silk combines the elasticity and strength of spider silk. It has the tensile strength as high as 1.79 gigapascals (as much as 37%) and the elasticity above 38% exceeding the maximum reported features of the spider silk. It is reported that dragon silk is more flexible than the Monster silk and stronger than the ""Big Red, recombinant spider silk designed for increased strength. - -Properties -Mechanical properties -Dragon silk has properties higher than that of any other fiber ever noticed. - -Tensile Strength -In comparison, Dragon silk's tensile strength is higher than that of steel(450-2000 MPa's). In a report it is said that the strength of Dragon silk is as high as 1.79 GPa's which is 37% higher than the widely reported spider silk.",51082660,Dragon silk,S -935,935.0,935.0,"Petkovšek's algorithm (also Hyper) is a computer algebra algorithm that computes a basis of hypergeometric terms solution of its input linear recurrence equation with polynomial coefficients. Equivalently, it computes a first order right factor of linear difference operators with polynomial coefficients. This algorithm was developed by Marko Petkovšek in his PhD-thesis 1992. The algorithm is implemented in all the major computer algebra systems. - -Gosper-Petkovšek representation -Let - - - - - K - - - - {\textstyle \mathbb {K} } - be a field of characteristic zero. A nonzero sequence - - - - y - ( - n - ) - - - {\textstyle y(n)} - is called hypergeometric if the ratio of two consecutive terms is rational, i.e.",39388567,Petkovšek's algorithm,M -936,936.0,936.0,"Visual Expert is a static code analysis tool, extracting design and technical information from software source code by reverse-engineering, used by programmers for software maintenance, modernization or optimization. -It is designed to parse several programming languages at the same time (PL/SQL, Transact-SQL, PowerBuilder...) and analyze cross-language dependencies, in addition to each language's source code. -Visual Expert checks source code against hundreds of code inspection rules for vulnerability assessment, bug fix, and maintenance issues. - -Features -Cross-references exploration: Impact Analysis, E/R diagrams, call graphs, CRUD matrix, dependency graphs. -Software documentation: a documentation generator produces technical documentation and low-level design descriptions. -Inspect the code to detect bugs, security vulnerabilities and maintainability issues. Native integration with Jenkins. -Reports on duplicate code, unused objects and methods and naming conventions. Calculates software metrics and source lines of code. -Code comparison: finds differences between several versions of the same code. -Performance analysis: identifies code parts that slow down the application because of their syntax - it extracts statistics about code execution from the database and combines it with the static analysis of the code. - -Usage -Visual Expert is used in several contexts: - -Change impact analysis: evaluating the consequences of a change in the code or in a database. Avoiding negative side effects when evolving a system. -Static Application Security Testing (SAST): detecting and removing security issues. -Continuous Integration / Continuous Inspection : adding a static code analysis job in a CI/CD workflow to automatically verify the quality and security of a new build when it is released. -Program comprehension: helping programmers understand and maintain existing code, or modernize legacy systems. Transferring knowledge of the code, from one programmer to another. -Software sizing: calculating the size of an application, or a piece of code, in order to estimate development efforts. -Code review: improving the code by finding and removing code smells, dead code, code causing poor performances or violations of coding conventions. - -Limitations -As a static code analyzer, Visual Expert is limited to the programming languages supported by its code parsers - Oracle PL/SQL, SQL Server Transact-SQL, PowerBuilder. -A preliminary reverse engineering is required.",54077164,Visual Expert,T -937,937.0,937.0,"Military meteorology is meteorology applied to military purposes, by armed forces or other agencies. It is one of the most common fields of employment for meteorologists. -World War II brought great advances in meteorology as large-scale military land, sea, and air campaigns were highly dependent on weather, particularly forecasts provided by the Royal Navy, Met Office and USAAF for the Normandy landing and strategic bombing. -University meteorology departments grew rapidly as the military services sent cadets to be trained as weather officers. Wartime technological developments such as radar also proved to be valuable meteorological observing systems. More recently, the use of satellites in space has contributed extensively to military meteorology. -Military meteorologists currently operate with a wide variety of military units, from aircraft carriers to special forces. - -Military meteorology in the United States -United States Navy/Marine Corps -Chain of command -Naval Meteorology and Oceanography Command -Fleet Numerical Meteorology and Oceanography Center - -Enlisted -Enlisted meteorology and oceanography forecasters are called aerographer's mates. - -Officer -Naval meteorology and oceanography officers are restricted line officers in the Information Dominance Corps. - -Notable military meteorologists -Capt Homer A. McCrerey, USNA Class of 1942, fleet meteorologist and oceanographer (FNMOC) (1967–1972) -Gp Capt James Martin Stagg, military meteorologist for Operation Overlord 1944 - -See also -U.S.",6230269,Military meteorology,S -938,938.0,938.0,"Lifting bosses or handling bosses are protrusions intentionally left on stones by masons to facilitate maneuvering the blocks with ropes and levers.They are an important feature of ancient and classical construction, and were often not cut away, despite having fulfilled their purpose. Sometimes this was the result of a cost-saving measure or a construction halt. Other times bosses were left as a stylistic element, and even if dressed back, a remnant of them was kept to make their existence obvious. - -See also -Boss (architecture) -Bossage - -References -Further reading -Clarke, Somers; Engelbach, R. (1990). ""Handling the Blocks"".",74121818,Lifting boss,E -939,939.0,939.0,"Terraforming or terraformation (""Earth-shaping"") is the hypothetical process of deliberately modifying the atmosphere, temperature, surface topography or ecology of a planet, moon, or other body to be similar to the environment of Earth to make it habitable for humans to live on. -The concept of terraforming developed from both science fiction and actual science. Carl Sagan, an astronomer, proposed the planetary engineering of Venus in 1961, which is considered one of the first accounts of the concept. The term was coined by Jack Williamson in a science-fiction short story (""Collision Orbit"") published in 1942 in Astounding Science Fiction, although terraforming in popular culture may predate this work. -Even if the environment of a planet could be altered deliberately, the feasibility of creating an unconstrained planetary environment that mimics Earth on another planet has yet to be verified. While Venus, Earth, Mars, and even the Moon have been studied in relation to the subject, Mars is usually considered to be the most likely candidate for terraforming. Much study has been done concerning the possibility of heating the planet and altering its atmosphere, and NASA has even hosted debates on the subject.",29824,Terraforming,E -940,940.0,940.0,"A medication (also called medicament, medicine, pharmaceutical drug, medicinal drug or simply drug) is a drug used to diagnose, cure, treat, or prevent disease. Drug therapy (pharmacotherapy) is an important part of the medical field and relies on the science of pharmacology for continual advancement and on pharmacy for appropriate management. -Drugs are classified in many ways. One of the key divisions is by level of control, which distinguishes prescription drugs (those that a pharmacist dispenses only on the order of a physician, physician assistant, or qualified nurse) from over-the-counter drugs (those that consumers can order for themselves). Another key distinction is between traditional small molecule drugs, usually derived from chemical synthesis, and biopharmaceuticals, which include recombinant proteins, vaccines, blood products used therapeutically (such as IVIG), gene therapy, monoclonal antibodies and cell therapy (for instance, stem cell therapies). Other ways to classify medicines are by mode of action, route of administration, biological system affected, or therapeutic effects.",180121,Medication,E -941,941.0,941.0,"Alexandru T. Balaban (born April 2, 1931 in Timișoara) is a Romanian chemist who made significant contributions to the fields of organic chemistry, theoretical chemistry, mathematical chemistry, and chemical graph theory. - -Early life and education -Balaban was born in Timișoara, in the western part of Romania. His parents (Teodor and Florica Balaban) paid a lot of attention to Balaban's education, strongly encouraging his fascination with chemistry. In 1935 his family moved to Bucharest, where Balaban attended elementary school. After World War II, in 1945 they moved to Petroșani, where he finished high school.",30542378,Alexandru Balaban,M -942,942.0,942.0,"The Casa de la Apicultura (translation: Beekeeping House) is a museum in Boal, Asturias, Spain. It is the home of a collection relating to apiculture, which is a traditional activity in this part of Asturias. -The museum is housed in a former rural school, built by the Sociedad de Instrucción Naturales del Concejo de Boal, a society founded in Havana, Cuba, in 1911. The school was built in the mid-1930s and restored for this new role. It has two purposes: a cultural focus, as well as training and information for the region's beekeepers. The collection and exhibits, cataloged and inventoried, are primarily concerned with traditional beekeeping.",24993342,Casa de la Apicultura,S -943,943.0,943.0,"Cyberwarfare is the use of cyber attacks against an enemy state, causing comparable harm to actual warfare and/or disrupting vital computer systems. Some intended outcomes could be espionage, sabotage, propaganda, manipulation or economic warfare. -There is significant debate among experts regarding the definition of cyberwarfare, and even if such a thing exists. One view is that the term is a misnomer since no cyber attacks to date could be described as a war. An alternative view is that it is a suitable label for cyber attacks which cause physical damage to people and objects in the real world.Many countries including the United States, United Kingdom, Russia, China, Israel, Iran, and North Korea have active cyber capabilities for offensive and defensive operations. As states explore the use of cyber operations and combine capabilities, the likelihood of physical confrontation and violence playing out as a result of, or part of, a cyber operation is increased.",47240777,Cyberwarfare,T -944,944.0,944.0,"Robert Littlejohn (1756-1818) was a Scottish gardener, amateur naturalist and an artist who settled in what is now the island state of Tasmania in Australia. In 1813, he built a brick house that he named Montrose House. It is the third oldest residence in Tasmania and is listed on the Tasmanian Heritage Register. - -Personal life -Robert Littlejohn was born in Scotland, where he received a liberal education. Littlejohn died on 26 October 1818. - -Tasmania -Littlejohn travelled with David Collins on the Ocean from 1803 to 1804, when he arrived at Port Phillip and then River Derwent in Van Diemen's Land (Tasmania). With him was his servant Thomas Littlefield.",71966806,Robert Littlejohn (gardener),S -945,945.0,945.0,"PubGene AS is a bioinformatics company located in Oslo, Norway and is the daughter company of PubGene Inc. -In 2001, PubGene founders demonstrated one of the first -applications of text mining to research in biomedicine (i.e., biomedical text mining). They went on to create the PubGene public search engine, exemplifying the approach they pioneered by presenting biomedical terms as graphical networks based on their co-occurrence in MEDLINE texts. The PubGene search engine has since been discontinued and incorporated into a commercial product. Co-occurrence networks provide a visual overview of possible relationships between terms and facilitate medical literature retrieval for relevant sets of articles implied by the network display. Commercial applications of the technology are available.Original development of PubGene technologies was undertaken in collaboration between the Norwegian Cancer Hospital (Radiumhospitalet) and the Norwegian University of Science and Technology.",17292901,PubGene,S -946,946.0,946.0,"In mathematics, nuclear operators are an important class of linear operators introduced by Alexander Grothendieck in his doctoral dissertation. Nuclear operators are intimately tied to the projective tensor product of two topological vector spaces (TVSs). - -Preliminaries and notation -Throughout let X,Y, and Z be topological vector spaces (TVSs) and L : X → Y be a linear operator (no assumption of continuity is made unless otherwise stated). - -The projective tensor product of two locally convex TVSs X and Y is denoted by - - - - X - - ⊗ - - π - - - Y - - - {\displaystyle X\otimes _{\pi }Y} - and the completion of this space will be denoted by - - - - X - - - - - ⊗ - ^ - - - - - π - - - Y - - - {\displaystyle X{\widehat {\otimes }}_{\pi }Y} - . -L : X → Y is a topological homomorphism or homomorphism, if it is linear, continuous, and - - - - L - : - X - → - Im - ⁡ - L - - - {\displaystyle L:X\to \operatorname {Im} L} - is an open map, where - - - - Im - ⁡ - L - - - {\displaystyle \operatorname {Im} L} - , the image of L, has the subspace topology induced by Y. -If S is a subspace of X then both the quotient map X → X/S and the canonical injection S → X are homomorphisms. -The set of continuous linear maps X → Z (resp. continuous bilinear maps - - - - X - × - Y - → - Z - - - {\displaystyle X\times Y\to Z} - ) will be denoted by L(X, Z) (resp. B(X, Y; Z)) where if Z is the underlying scalar field then we may instead write L(X) (resp. B(X, Y)). -Any linear map - - - - L - : - X - → - Y - - - {\displaystyle L:X\to Y} - can be canonically decomposed as follows: - - - - X - → - X - - / - - ker - ⁡ - L - - - → - - - L - - 0 - - - - - - Im - ⁡ - L - → - Y - - - {\displaystyle X\to X/\ker L\;\xrightarrow {L_{0}} \;\operatorname {Im} L\to Y} - where - - - - - L - - 0 - - - - ( - - x - + - ker - ⁡ - L - - ) - - := - L - ( - x - ) - - - {\displaystyle L_{0}\left(x+\ker L\right):=L(x)} - defines a bijection called the canonical bijection associated with L. -X* or - - - - - X - ′ - - - - {\displaystyle X'} - will denote the continuous dual space of X. -To increase the clarity of the exposition, we use the common convention of writing elements of - - - - - X - ′ - - - - {\displaystyle X'} - with a prime following the symbol (e.g.",63684284,Nuclear operator,E -947,947.0,947.0,"Critical design uses design fiction and speculative design proposals to challenge assumptions and conceptions about the role objects play in everyday life. Critical design plays a similar role to product design, but does not emphasize an object's commercial purpose or physical utility. It is mainly used to share a critical perspective or inspire debate, while increasing awareness of social, cultural, or ethical issues in the eyes of the public. Critical design was popularized by Anthony Dunne and Fiona Raby through their firm, Dunne & Raby. -Critical design can make aspects of the future physically present to provoke a reaction. ""Critical design is critical thought translated into materiality.",2987487,Critical design,T -948,948.0,948.0,"The University of Science and Technology of China (USTC) is a public research university in Hefei, Anhui, China. Under direct leadership of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, the university is co-funded by the Academy, the Ministry of Education of China, and the Anhui Provincial Government. Because of its dominant leadership position and reputation in Science & Engineering research, USTC is often being described as “Caltech of China” or ""China's Caltech"".The university was founded in Beijing by the Chinese Academy of Sciences in September 1958. In the beginning of 1970, the university moved to Hefei during the Cultural Revolution. The university was founded with the mission of addressing urgent needs to improve China's economy, defense infrastructure, and science and technology education.",919458,University of Science and Technology of China,T -949,949.0,949.0,"Austin Powers: The Spy Who Shagged Me is a 1999 American spy comedy film directed by Jay Roach. It is the second installment in the Austin Powers film series, after International Man of Mystery. It stars franchise co-producer and writer Mike Myers as Austin Powers, Dr. Evil and Fat Bastard. The film also stars Heather Graham, Michael York, Robert Wagner, Seth Green, Mindy Sterling, Rob Lowe, and Elizabeth Hurley.",241603,Austin Powers: The Spy Who Shagged Me,S -950,950.0,950.0,"A bacteriophage (), also known informally as a phage (), is a duplodnaviria virus that infects and replicates within bacteria and archaea. The term was derived from ""bacteria"" and the Greek φαγεῖν (phagein), meaning ""to devour"". Bacteriophages are composed of proteins that encapsulate a DNA or RNA genome, and may have structures that are either simple or elaborate. Their genomes may encode as few as four genes (e.g. MS2) and as many as hundreds of genes.",4185,Bacteriophage,S -951,951.0,951.0,"Application Response Measurement (ARM) is an open standard published by the Open Group for monitoring and diagnosing performance bottlenecks within complex enterprise applications that use loosely-coupled designs or service-oriented architectures. -It includes an API for C and Java that allows timing information associated with each step in processing a transaction to be logged to a remote server for later analysis. - -History -Version 1 of ARM was developed jointly by Tivoli Software and Hewlett-Packard in 1996. Version 2 was developed by an industry partnership (the ARM Working Group) and became available in December 1997 as an open standard approved by the Open Group. ARM 4.0 was released in 2003 and revised in 2004. -As of 2007, ARM 4.1 version 1 is the latest version of the ARM standard. - -Introduction -Current application design tends to be more complex and distributed over networks. This leads to new challenges in today's development and -monitoring tools to provide application developers, system- and application administrators with the information they need. -Within distributed applications it is not easy to estimate if the application performs well. The following issues help in the -evaluation of distributed applications: - -Are business transactions succeeding and, if not, what is the cause of failure? -What is the response time of a transaction? -Where are the bottlenecks, which sub-transaction could cause a bottleneck? -Which and how many transactions are executed in an application? -How to tune an application or its environment to perform better?ARM helps answer these questions.",5747099,Application Response Measurement,T -952,952.0,952.0,"In mathematics, the arguments of the maxima (abbreviated arg max or argmax) are the points, or elements, of the domain of some function at which the function values are maximized. In contrast to global maxima, which refers to the largest outputs of a function, arg max refers to the inputs, or arguments, at which the function outputs are as large as possible. - -Definition -Given an arbitrary set - - - - X - - - {\displaystyle X} - , a totally ordered set - - - - Y - - - {\displaystyle Y} - , and a function, - - - - f - : - X - → - Y - - - {\displaystyle f\colon X\to Y} - , the - - - - argmax - - - {\displaystyle \operatorname {argmax} } - over some subset - - - - S - - - {\displaystyle S} - of - - - - X - - - {\displaystyle X} - is defined by - - - - - - argmax - - S - - - ⁡ - f - := - - - - a - r - g - - m - a - x - - - x - ∈ - S - - - - - f - ( - x - ) - := - { - x - ∈ - S - - : - - f - ( - s - ) - ≤ - f - ( - x - ) - - for all - - s - ∈ - S - } - . - - - {\displaystyle \operatorname {argmax} _{S}f:={\underset {x\in S}{\operatorname {arg\,max} }}\,f(x):=\{x\in S~:~f(s)\leq f(x){\text{ for all }}s\in S\}.} - If - - - - S - = - X - - - {\displaystyle S=X} - or - - - - S - - - {\displaystyle S} - is clear from the context, then - - - - S - - - {\displaystyle S} - is often left out, as in - - - - - - - a - r - g - - m - a - x - - x - - - - f - ( - x - ) - := - { - x - - : - - f - ( - s - ) - ≤ - f - ( - x - ) - - for all - - s - ∈ - X - } - . - - - {\displaystyle {\underset {x}{\operatorname {arg\,max} }}\,f(x):=\{x~:~f(s)\leq f(x){\text{ for all }}s\in X\}.} - In other words, - - - - argmax - - - {\displaystyle \operatorname {argmax} } - is the set of points - - - - x - - - {\displaystyle x} - for which - - - - f - ( - x - ) - - - {\displaystyle f(x)} - attains the function's largest value (if it exists). - - - - Argmax - - - {\displaystyle \operatorname {Argmax} } - may be the empty set, a singleton, or contain multiple elements. -In the fields of convex analysis and variational analysis, a slightly different definition is used in the special case where - - - - Y - = - [ - − - ∞ - , - ∞ - ] - = - - R - - ∪ - { - ± - ∞ - } - - - {\displaystyle Y=[-\infty ,\infty ]=\mathbb {R} \cup \{\pm \infty \}} - are the extended real numbers. In this case, if - - - - f - - - {\displaystyle f} - is identically equal to - - - - ∞ - - - {\displaystyle \infty } - on - - - - S - - - {\displaystyle S} - then - - - - - argmax - - S - - - ⁡ - f - := - ∅ - - - {\displaystyle \operatorname {argmax} _{S}f:=\varnothing } - (that is, - - - - - argmax - - S - - - ⁡ - ∞ - := - ∅ - - - {\displaystyle \operatorname {argmax} _{S}\infty :=\varnothing } - ) and otherwise - - - - - argmax - - S - - - ⁡ - f - - - {\displaystyle \operatorname {argmax} _{S}f} - is defined as above, where in this case - - - - - argmax - - S - - - ⁡ - f - - - {\displaystyle \operatorname {argmax} _{S}f} - can also be written as: - - - - - - argmax - - S - - - ⁡ - f - := - - { - - x - ∈ - S - - : - - f - ( - x - ) - = - sup - - - - - - S - - - f - - } - - - - {\displaystyle \operatorname {argmax} _{S}f:=\left\{x\in S~:~f(x)=\sup {}_{S}f\right\}} - where it is emphasized that this equality involving - - - - sup - - - - - - S - - - f - - - {\displaystyle \sup {}_{S}f} - holds only when - - - - f - - - {\displaystyle f} - is not identically - - - - ∞ - - - {\displaystyle \infty } - on - - - - S - - - {\displaystyle S} - . - -Arg min -The notion of - - - - argmin - - - {\displaystyle \operatorname {argmin} } - (or - - - - - a - r - g - - m - i - n - - - - {\displaystyle \operatorname {arg\,min} } - ), which stands for argument of the minimum, is defined analogously.",348004,Arg max,M -953,953.0,953.0,"This article contains a list of the most studied restriction enzymes whose names start with O to R inclusive. It contains approximately 130 enzymes. -The following information is given: - -Enzyme: Accepted name of the molecule, according to the internationally adopted nomenclature, and bibliographical references. (Further reading: see the section ""Nomenclature"" in the article ""Restriction enzyme"".) -PDB code: Code used to identify the structure of a protein in the PDB database of protein structures. The 3D atomic structure of a protein provides highly valuable information to understand the intimate details of its mechanism of action. -Source: Organism that naturally produces the enzyme. -Recognition sequence: Sequence of DNA recognized by the enzyme and to which it specifically binds. -Cut: Cutting site and DNA products of the cut. The recognition sequence and the cutting site usually match, but sometimes the cutting site can be dozens of nucleotides away from the recognition site. -Isoschizomers and neoschizomers: An isoschizomer is an enzyme that recognizes the same sequence as another.",27458835,List of restriction enzyme cutting sites: O–R,S -954,954.0,954.0,"The scale cube is a technology model that indicates three methods (or approaches) by which technology platforms may be scaled to meet increasing levels of demand upon the system in question. The three approaches defined by the model include scaling through replication or cloning (the “X axis”), scaling through segmentation along service boundaries or dissimilar components (the “Y axis”) and segmentation or partitioning along similar components (the “Z axis”). - -History -The model was first published in a book in the first edition of The Art of Scalability. -The authors claim first publishing of the model online in 2007 in their company blog. -Subsequent versions of the model were published in the first edition of Scalability Rules in 2011, the second edition of The Art of Scalability in 2015 and the second edition of Scalability Rules in 2016. - -Model overview -The X axis of the model describes scaling a technology solution through multiple instances of the same component through cloning of a service or replication of a data set. Web and application servers performing the same function may exist behind a load balancer for scaling a solution. Data persistence systems such as a database may be replicated for higher transaction throughput. -The Y axis of the model describes scaling a technology solution by separating a monolithic application into services using action words (verbs), or separating “dissimilar” things. Data may be separated by nouns.",61037921,Scale cube,E -955,955.0,955.0,"The Hall effect is the production of a potential difference (the Hall voltage) across an electrical conductor that is transverse to an electric current in the conductor and to an applied magnetic field perpendicular to the current. It was discovered by Edwin Hall in 1879.The Hall coefficient is defined as the ratio of the induced electric field to the product of the current density and the applied magnetic field. It is a characteristic of the material from which the conductor is made, since its value depends on the type, number, and properties of the charge carriers that constitute the current. - -Discovery -The modern theory of electromagnetism was systematized by James Clerk Maxwell in the paper ""On Physical Lines of Force"", which was published in four parts between 1861 and 1862. While Maxwell's paper established a solid mathematical basis for electromagnetic theory, the detailed mechanisms of the theory were still being explored. One such question was about the details of the interaction between magnets and electric current, including whether magnetic fields interacted with the conductors or the electric current itself.",14307,Hall effect,M -956,956.0,956.0,"Computer-Aided Design (CAD) is the use of computers (or workstations) to aid in the creation, modification, analysis, or optimization of a design.: 3  This software is used to increase the productivity of the designer, improve the quality of design, improve communications through documentation, and to create a database for manufacturing.: 4  Designs made through CAD software are helpful in protecting products and inventions when used in patent applications. CAD output is often in the form of electronic files for print, machining, or other manufacturing operations. The terms computer-aided drafting (CAD) and computer-aided design and drafting (CADD) are also used.Its use in designing electronic systems is known as electronic design automation (EDA). In mechanical design it is known as mechanical design automation (MDA), which includes the process of creating a technical drawing with the use of computer software.CAD software for mechanical design uses either vector-based graphics to depict the objects of traditional drafting, or may also produce raster graphics showing the overall appearance of designed objects. However, it involves more than just shapes.",37315,Computer-aided design,E -957,957.0,957.0,"Artificial nails, also known as fake nails, false nails, acrylic nails, nail extensions or nail enhancements, are extensions placed over fingernails as fashion accessories. Many artificial nail designs attempt to mimic the appearance of real fingernails as closely as possible, while others may deliberately stray in favor of an artistic look. -Artificial nails require regular upkeep; it is recommended that they are attended to, on average, every two weeks, however they may last over one month. Nonetheless, their versatility in terms of shape, size, design and comparatively high durability are some advantages they hold over other types of manicures. - -Types -Artificial nails are an extension, not a replacement, of natural nails. There are two main approaches to creating artificial nails—tips and forms: - -tips are heavyweight ""nail""-shaped plastic plates glued on the end of the natural nail, or glued on top of the entire nailbed if it is a full cover tip or ""press-on"", and can have gel, dip or acrylic added on top; -forms are shaped sheets with a sticky edge that is effectively attached to the tip of the finger and wrapped around the entirety of the nail to form an extension, for more creative control over what shape the artificial nail will beAtop these, either acrylic, hard gel, or any combination of both may be applied. Tips are available in many different designs, ranging from solid colors like gel or regular nail polish to graphic designs such as animal prints and metallic colors.",21347855,Artificial nails,T -958,958.0,958.0,"BirdWatch Ireland (BWI) is a voluntary conservation organisation devoted to the conservation and protection of wild birds and their habitats in Ireland. It was formerly known as the Irish Wildbird Conservancy (IWC). Irish Wildbird Conservancy was founded in 1968, among others by Major Robert (Robin) Ruttledge, an Irish ornithologist who became its first president.BWI has over 15,000 active members and supporters, and a network of 30 branches actively promoting the importance of birds and habitats, and general conservation issues. It publishes the annual journal Irish Birds and the quarterly magazine Wings. It manages a number of nature reserves including Little Skellig.BirdWatch Ireland is a member of the Irish Environmental Network, the Sustainable Water Network (SWAN), Environmental (Ecological) NGOs Core Funding Ltd (EENGO), Working and Educating for Biodiversity (WEB) and the Irish Uplands Forum (IUF).",496124,BirdWatch Ireland,S -959,959.0,959.0,"AXIOM is an open hardware and free software digital cinema camera family of devices being developed by a DIY community around the apertus° project.The community’s second generation camera, AXIOM Beta Compact, is presently in development. - -History -In 2006 Oscar Spierenburg, a Dutch film director, noticed a discussion taking place on DVInfo.net entitled “3 channel 36 bit 1280 X 720 low $ camera”, inside which Elphel cameras, which are typically used in scientific applications, had been mentioned. -In the same year a discussion thread entitled ""High Definition with Elphel model 333 camera"" was posted on the DVInfo.net forum, whereupon the forum’s members discussed how best to adapt Elphel open hardware camera devices for use in film production. Sebastian Pichelhofer discovered this thread in 2008 and assisted with the project by developing an Elphel camera internal hard-disk recorder user interface. -By early 2009, and because over the course of three years upwards of 1000 posts had been submitted to this thread, the community realised that it was going to be difficult to maintain a full overview of the project in this way, and consequently a dedicated website was established. All of the decision making and naming/logo design was decided upon by the community. -After having done some contracting work with Elphel, Pichelhofer focused full-time on the project across 2011 and in July 2012 the plan to create an AXIOM camera hardware prototype from scratch, and thereby overcome some of the limitations that were found to be inherent with Elphel hardware at the time (mainly due to Elphel Inc. having shifted the company's core business focus towards development of a panoramic camera solution), was announced at the Libre Software Meeting in Geneva. This prototype became known as AXIOM Alpha and was intended to gather feedback from typical shooting scenarios with a view to incorporating ideas into a future, more modular, kit version of the camera aimed at developers and early adopters (AXIOM Beta I Developer Kit). -Shortly after development on the AXIOM Alpha began, a nonprofit organization was established to provide legal shelter for the community, and an apertus° company was registered by Spierenburg in order to facilitate responsibilities that had been neglected up to this point, e.g.",43335396,AXIOM (camera),E -960,960.0,960.0,"Food models (shokuhin sampuru), also known as fake foods or food samples are a model or replica of a food item made from plastic, wax, resin or similar material. These models are commonly used in restaurant street displays in Japan to represent the dishes available inside. - -Use by Japanese restaurants -In Japan, shokuhin sampuru (食品サンプル), taken from the English ""sample"", are widespread. In the late Edo period, in the 1800s, food sellers displayed a plate of real food each day in lieu of a written menu. During the early Shōwa period, in the late 1920s, Japanese artisans and candle makers developed food models that made it easy for patrons to order without the use of menus, which were not common in Japan at that time. Paraffin was used to create these until the mid-1980s, but because its colors faded when exposed to heat or sunlight, manufacturers later switched to polyvinyl chloride, which is ""nearly eternal"".The plastic models are mostly handmade from polyvinyl chloride and sculpted to look like the actual dishes.",19653203,Food model,T -961,961.0,961.0,"Procyanidins are members of the proanthocyanidin (or condensed tannins) class of flavonoids. They are oligomeric compounds, formed from catechin and epicatechin molecules. They yield cyanidin when depolymerized under oxidative conditions. -See the box below entitled ""Types of procyanidins"" for links to articles on the various types. - -Distribution in plants -Procyanidins, including the lesser bioactive / bioavailable polymers (4 or more catechines), represent a group of condensed flavan-3-ols that can be found in many plants, most notably apples, maritime pine bark, cinnamon, aronia fruit, cocoa beans, grape seed, grape skin, and red wines of Vitis vinifera (the common grape). However, bilberry, cranberry, black currant, green tea, black tea, and other plants also contain these flavonoids. Procyanidins can also be isolated from Quercus petraea and Q.",8599683,Procyanidin,M -962,962.0,962.0,"The Journal of Dietary Supplements is a quarterly peer-reviewed scientific journal that covers research in any area involving dietary supplements. It is abstracted and indexed in CABI, Academic Search Complete, Biological Abstracts, PubMed/MEDLINE, EMBASE, BIOSIS Previews, and the Emerging Sources Citation Index. The journal was established in 1996 as the Journal of Nutraceuticals, Functional & Medical Foods and was published by Haworth Press. It changed to its present title in 2004 and has been published since 2008 by Taylor & Francis. - -Editors-in-chief -The following persons are or have been Editor-in-chief: - -1996-2004: Nancy M. Childs -2005-2006: Shawn M.",26426868,Journal of Dietary Supplements,S -963,963.0,963.0,"Epsilon Telescopii, Latinized from ε Telescopii, is a solitary, orange-hued star in the southern constellation of Telescopium. It is visible to the naked eye with an apparent visual magnitude of +4.53. Based upon an annual parallax shift of 7.80 mas as seen from Earth, it is located roughly 410 light years from the Sun, give or take 20 light years. -This an evolved K-type giant with a stellar classification of K0 III. It displays an infrared excess, suggesting the presence of an orbiting disk of dust. The star is radiating 293 times the Sun's luminosity from its photosphere at an effective temperature of 4,996 K.",2695424,Epsilon Telescopii,M -964,964.0,964.0,"Impalefection is a method of gene delivery using nanomaterials, such as carbon nanofibers, carbon nanotubes, nanowires. Needle-like nanostructures are synthesized perpendicular to the surface of a substrate. Plasmid DNA containing the gene, and intended for intracellular delivery, is attached to the nanostructure surface. A chip with arrays of these needles is then pressed against cells or tissue. Cells that are impaled by nanostructures can express the delivered gene(s). -As one of the types of transfection, the term is derived from two words – impalement and infection. - -Applications -One of the features of impalefection is spatially resolved gene delivery that holds potential for such tissue engineering approaches in wound healing as gene activated matrix technology.",6520671,Impalefection,S -965,965.0,965.0,"Destructive distillation is a chemical process in which decomposition of unprocessed material is achieved by heating it to a high temperature; the term generally applies to processing of organic material in the absence of air or in the presence of limited amounts of oxygen or other reagents, catalysts, or solvents, such as steam or phenols. It is an application of pyrolysis. The process breaks up or 'cracks' large molecules. Coke, coal gas, gaseous carbon, coal tar, ammonia liquor, and coal oil are examples of commercial products historically produced by the destructive distillation of coal. - -Destructive distillation of any particular inorganic feedstock produces only a small range of products as a rule, but destructive distillation of many organic materials commonly produces very many compounds, often hundreds, although not all products of any particular process are of commercial importance. The distillate are generally lower molecular weight.",1501800,Destructive distillation,M -966,966.0,966.0,"The Horsfall–Barratt scale is a system used in plant pathology to assess plant diseases where each plant is assigned a numerical value according to the percentage of leaf area showing disease symptoms. The Horsfall–Barratt scale was designed by James G. Horsfall and R.W. Barratt to compensate for human error (and logarithmic laws of perception) in estimating the amount of disease present. The scale is as follows: - -The scale is often used in modified form with index values from 0–11 or with different numbers of index points. - -References -Further reading -Bock, C.",9461497,Horsfall–Barratt scale,S -967,967.0,967.0,"In mathematics, an infinitesimal transformation is a limiting form of small transformation. For example one may talk about an infinitesimal rotation of a rigid body, in three-dimensional space. This is conventionally represented by a 3×3 skew-symmetric matrix A. It is not the matrix of an actual rotation in space; but for small real values of a parameter ε the transformation - - - - - T - = - I - + - ε - A - - - {\displaystyle T=I+\varepsilon A} - is a small rotation, up to quantities of order ε2. - -History -A comprehensive theory of infinitesimal transformations was first given by Sophus Lie. This was at the heart of his work, on what are now called Lie groups and their accompanying Lie algebras; and the identification of their role in geometry and especially the theory of differential equations.",658068,Infinitesimal transformation,M -968,968.0,968.0,"The Mobile Station Roaming Number (MSRN) is an E.164-defined telephone number used to route telephone calls in a mobile network from a GMSC (Gateway Mobile Switching Centre) to the target MAC id (c61fc003db4659a8). It can also be defined as a directory number temporarily assigned to a mobile for a mobile terminated call. A MSRN is assigned for every mobile terminated call, not only the calls where the terminating MS lives on a different MSC than the originating MS. Although this seems unnecessary since many vendors' VLR's are integrated with the MSC, the GSM specification indicates that the MSC and VLR (Visitor Location Register) do not need to reside on the same switch. They are considered two different nodes as they have their own routing addresses.",1903500,Mobile Station Roaming Number,T -969,969.0,969.0,"The Gauja Formation is a Middle Devonian fossil locality in Estonia and Latvia. It is named after the Gauja River, where it is exposed along the banks. - -Description -The Gauja Formation has a maximum thickness of 80 m (260 ft). It is composed of weakly to moderately cemented layers of fine-grained to very fine-grained sandstone. The layer is predominantly light to yellowish-gray in color, but can be pinkish brown or variegated. It is mostly composed of quartzose arenites.",33165859,Gauja Formation,S -970,970.0,970.0,"Combat effectiveness is the capacity or performance of a military force to succeed in undertaking an operation, mission or objective. Determining optimal combat effectiveness is crucial in the armed forces, whether they are deployed on land, air or sea. Combat effectiveness is an aspect of military effectiveness and can be attributed to the strength of combat support including the quality and quantity of logistics, weapons and equipment as well as military tactics, the psychological states of soldiers, level of influence of leaders, skill and motivation that can arise from nationalism to survival are all capable of contributing to success on the battlefield. - -Quantitative measures -Philip Hayward proposes a measure for combat effectiveness, concentrating on the ""probability of success"" in a combat environment in relation to factors such as manpower and military stratagem. Combat effectiveness can be represented as a real and continuous function, - - - - F - ( - x - ) - ≧ - F - ( - y - ) - - - {\displaystyle F(x)\geqq F(y)} - where - - - - x - - - {\displaystyle x} - and - - - - y - - - {\displaystyle y} - are two distinct military units. He analyses the measure against three main factors: capabilities—the quality and quantity of human and material resources of both friendly and enemy forces; environment—weather and terrain; and missions—region to hold in the specified objective and the latest time to do it while minimising the costs of achieving the objective.",60912275,Combat effectiveness,S -971,971.0,971.0,"The Internet of Military Things (IoMT) is a class of Internet of things for combat operations and warfare. It is a complex network of interconnected entities, or ""things"", in the military domain that continually communicate with each other to coordinate, learn, and interact with the physical environment to accomplish a broad range of activities in a more efficient and informed manner. The concept of IoMT is largely driven by the idea that future military battles will be dominated by machine intelligence and cyber warfare and will likely take place in urban environments. By creating a miniature ecosystem of smart technology capable of distilling sensory information and autonomously governing multiple tasks at once, the IoMT is conceptually designed to offload much of the physical and mental burden that warfighters encounter in a combat setting.Over time, several different terms have been introduced to describe the use of IoT technology for reconnaissance, environment surveillance, unmanned warfare and other combat purposes. These terms include the Military Internet of Things (MIoT), the Internet of Battle Things, and the Internet of Battlefield Things (IoBT). - -Overview -The Internet of Military Things encompasses a large range of devices that possess intelligent physical sensing, learning, and actuation capabilities through virtual or cyber interfaces that are integrated into systems.",62209510,Internet of Military Things,T -972,972.0,972.0,"A banana peel, called banana skin in British English, is the outer covering of the banana fruit. Banana peels are used as food for animals, an ingredient in cooking, in water purification, for manufacturing of several biochemical products as well as for jokes and comical situations. - -There are several methods to remove a peel from a banana. - -Use -Bananas are a popular fruit consumed worldwide with a yearly production of over 165 million tonnes in 2011. Once the peel is removed, the fruit can be eaten raw or cooked and the peel is generally discarded. Because of this removal of the banana peel, a significant amount of organic waste is generated.Banana peels are sometimes used as feedstock for cattle, goats, pigs, monkeys, poultry, rabbits, fish, zebras and several other species, typically on small farms in regions where bananas are grown. There are some concerns over the impact of tannins contained in the peels on animals that consume them.The nutritional value of banana peel depends on the stage of maturity and the cultivar; for example plantain peels contain less fibre than dessert banana peels, and lignin content increases with ripening (from 7 to 15% dry matter).",11979055,Banana peel,S -973,973.0,973.0,"The AN/PVS-17 Miniature Night Sight (MNS) is a compact, lightweight and high performance night vision weapon sight in wide use by the United States Special Forces and United States Marine Corps (USMC). The AN/PVS-17 is a Generation III Night Vision Device and uses the OMNI IV MX 10160 3rd generation image intensifier tube and can also be used as a handheld observation device. The designation AN/PVS translates to Army/Navy Portable Visual Search, according to Joint Electronics Type Designation System guidelines. -According to the Armed Forces History Museum, the PVS-17 intensifies images for night vision sight and fits easily on a variety of weapons. The PVS-17 operates submerged in depths up to 66 ft. - -Variants -There are generally 2 variants of AN/PVS 17s; the A/B variant and the C variant. In general, the 17A/B is intended to be mounted on rifles like the M16/M4, and the 17C is mounted on support weapons like 5.56mm M249 Squad Automatic Weapons (SAW) and 7.62mm M240B/G General Purpose Machine Guns. - -History -PVS-17s were regarded as one of the successful systems that reached U.S.",48171848,AN/PVS-17,S -974,974.0,974.0,"The Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology (POST) is the Parliament of the United Kingdom's in-house source of independent, balanced and accessible analysis of public policy issues related to science and technology. POST serves both Houses of Parliament (the House of Commons and the House of Lords). -It strives to ensure that MPs and Peers can have confidence in its analyses should they wish to cite them in debate. These principles are reflected in the structure of POST’s Board with members from the Commons and Lords together with distinguished scientists and engineers from the wider world. - -History -Since 1939, a group of MPs and peers interested in science and technology, through the first parliamentary ""All Party Group"", the UK Parliamentary and Scientific Committee (P&S), had encouraged UK Parliamentarians to explore the implications of scientific developments for society and public policy. As the UK economy became more dependent on technological progress, and the varied effects of technology (especially on the environment) became more apparent, it was felt that UK Parliament needed its own resources on such issues. Parliamentarians not only required access to knowledge and insights into the implications of technology for their constituents and society, but also needed to exercise their scrutiny functions over UK government legislation and administration.",4208984,Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology,T -975,975.0,975.0,"The new manufacturing economy (NME) describes the role of advanced manufacturing in the rise of the New Economy. The term describes manufacturing enabled by digital technologies, advanced systems and processes and a highly trained and knowledgeable workforce. The new manufacturing economy integrates networks, 3D printers and other proficiencies into business strategies to further develop manufacturing practices.Thomas Friedman references Lawrence F. Katz that hubs of ""universities, high-tech manufacturers, software/service providers and highly nimble start-ups"" are a needed economic development strategy. This is very similar to NME thoughts even though that exact term is not used. - -The Pillars of the new manufacturing economy -Technology -Focus on geographic expansion, information technology and internet commerce are on the rise for industrial manufacturing companies according to the PricewaterhouseCoopers Q4 2010 Manufacturing Barometer.",30870002,New manufacturing economy,E -976,976.0,976.0,"This comparison of programming languages compares the features of language syntax (format) for over 50 computer programming languages. - -Expressions -Programming language expressions can be broadly classified into four syntax structures: - -prefix notationLisp (* (+ 2 3) (expt 4 5))infix notationFortran (2 + 3) * (4 ** 5)suffix, postfix, or Reverse Polish notationForth 2 3 + 4 5 ** *math-like notationTUTOR (2 + 3)(45) $$ note implicit multiply operator - -Statements -When a programming languages has statements, they typically have conventions for: - -statement separators; -statement terminators; and -line continuationA statement separator demarcates the boundary between two separate statements. A statement terminator defines the end of an individual statement. Languages that interpret the end of line to be the end of a statement are called ""line-oriented"" languages. -""Line continuation"" is a convention in line-oriented languages where the newline character could potentially be misinterpreted as a statement terminator. In such languages, it allows a single statement to span more than just one line. - -Line continuation -Line continuation is generally done as part of lexical analysis: a newline normally results in a token being added to the token stream, unless line continuation is detected. - -Whitespace – Languages that do not need continuationsAda – Lines terminate with semicolon -C# – Lines terminate with semicolon -JavaScript – Lines terminate with semicolon (which may be inferred) -Lua -OCamlAmpersand as last character of lineFortran 90, Fortran 95, Fortran 2003, Fortran 2008Backslash as last character of linebash and other Unix shells -C and C++ preprocessor -Mathematica and Wolfram Language -Python -Ruby -JavaScript – only within single- or double-quoted stringsBacktick as last character of linePowerShellHyphen as last character of lineSQL*PlusUnderscore as last character of lineAutoIt -Cobra -Visual Basic -XojoEllipsis (as three periods–not one special character)MATLAB: The ellipsis token need not be the last characters on the line, but any following it will be ignored. (In essence, it begins a comment that extends through (i.e.",7703418,Comparison of programming languages (syntax),T -977,977.0,977.0,"Gerontechnology, also called gerotechnology, is an inter- and multidisciplinary academic and professional field combining gerontology and technology. Sustainability of an aging society depends upon our effectiveness in creating technological environments, including assistive technology and inclusive design, for innovative and independent living and social participation of older adults in any state of health, comfort and safety. In short, gerontechnology concerns matching technological environments to health, housing, mobility, communication, leisure and work of older people. Gerontechnology is most frequently identified as a subset of HealthTech and is more commonly referred to as AgeTech in Europe and the United States. Research outcomes form the basis for designers, builders, engineers, manufacturers, and those in the health professions (nursing, medicine, gerontology, geriatrics, environmental psychology, developmental psychology, etc.), to provide an optimum living environment for the widest range of ages. - -Description -Gerontechnology is considered an adjunct to the promotion of human health and well-being.",6079418,Gerontechnology,M -978,978.0,978.0,"Document automation (also known as document assembly or document management) is the design of systems and workflows that assist in the creation of electronic documents. These include logic-based systems that use segments of pre-existing text and/or data to assemble a new document. This process is increasingly used within certain industries to assemble legal documents, contracts and letters. Document automation systems can also be used to automate all conditional text, variable text, and data contained within a set of documents. -Automation systems allow companies to minimize data entry, reduce the time spent proofreading and reduce the risks associated with human error. Additional benefits include: time and financial savings due to decreased paper handling, document loading, storage, distribution, postage/shipping, faxes, telephone, labor and waste. - -Document assembly -The basic functions are to replace the cumbersome manual filling in of repetitive documents with template-based systems where the user answers software-driven interview questions or data entry screen.",18025626,Document automation,M -979,979.0,979.0,"The following is a list of astronomers, astrophysicists and other notable people who have made contributions to the field of astronomy. They may have won major prizes or awards, developed or invented widely used techniques or technologies within astronomy, or are directors of major observatories or heads of space-based telescope projects. - -Notable astronomers -In alphabetical order: - -A -Aryabhata (India, 476–550) -Marc Aaronson (USA, 1950–1987) -George Ogden Abell (USA, 1927–1983) -Hiroshi Abe (Japan, 1958–) -Antonio Abetti (Italy, 1846–1928) -Giorgio Abetti (Italy, 1882–1982) -Charles Greeley Abbot (USA, 1872–1973) -Charles Hitchcock Adams (USA, 1868–1951) -John Couch Adams (UK, 1819–1892) -Walter Sydney Adams (USA, 1876–1956) -Saul Adelman (USA, 1944–) -Petrus Alphonsi (Spain, 1062–1110) -Agrippa (Greece, fl. ca. 92) -Paul Oswald Ahnert (Germany, 1897–1989) -Eva Ahnert-Rohlfs (Germany, 1912–1954) -George Biddell Airy (UK, 1801–1892) -Robert Aitken, (USA, 1864–1951) -Makio Akiyama (Japan, 1950–) -Al Battani (Iraq, 850–929) -Albategnius (see Al-Batani) -Vladimir Aleksandrovich Albitzky (Russia, 1891–1952) -Albumasar (Persia 787–886) -George Alcock (UK, 1913–2000) -Harold Alden (USA, 1890–1964) -Hannes Alfvén (Sweden, 1908–1995) -Lawrence H. Aller (USA, 1913–2003) -Abd Al-Rahman Al Sufi (Persia, 903–986) -Viktor Amazaspovich Ambartsumian, (Armenia, 1912–1996) -John August Anderson (USA, 1876–1959) -Wilhelm Anderson (Estonia, 1880–1940) -Marie Henri Andoyer (France, 1862–1929) -Andronicus of Cyrrhus (Greece, fl.",80155,List of astronomers,S -980,980.0,980.0,"St. Matthew's University (SMU) is a private for-profit offshore medical school located in Grand Cayman, Cayman Islands in the Caribbean. SMU has a School of Medicine and a School of Veterinary Medicine, which confer M.D. and D.V.M. degrees, respectively.",5195602,St. Matthew's University,S -981,981.0,981.0,"A crackme (often abbreviated by cm) is a small program designed to test a programmer's reverse engineering skills.They are programmed by other reversers as a legal way to crack software, since no intellectual property is being infringed upon. -Crackmes, reversemes and keygenmes generally have similar protection schemes and algorithms to those found in proprietary software. However, due to the wide use of packers/protectors in commercial software, many crackmes are actually more difficult as the algorithm is harder to find and track than in commercial software. - -Keygenme -A keygenme is specifically designed for the reverser to not only find the protection algorithm used in the application, but also write a small keygen for it in the programming language of their choice. -Most keygenmes, when properly manipulated, can be self-keygenning. For example, when checking, they might generate the corresponding key and simply compare the expected and entered keys. This makes it easy to copy the key generation algorithm. -Often anti-debugging and anti-disassemble routines are used to confuse debuggers or make the disassembly useless. Code-obfuscation is also used to make the reversing even harder. - -References -External links -tdhack.com - Includes cryptographic riddles, hackmes and software applications to crack for both Windows and Linux.",2758056,Crackme,E -982,982.0,982.0,"DNA-encoded chemical libraries (DECL) is a technology for the synthesis and screening on an unprecedented scale of collections of small molecule compounds. DECL is used in medicinal chemistry to bridge the fields of combinatorial chemistry and molecular biology. The aim of DECL technology is to accelerate the drug discovery process and in particular early phase discovery activities such as target validation and hit identification. -DECL technology involves the conjugation of chemical compounds or building blocks to short DNA fragments that serve as identification bar codes and in some cases also direct and control the chemical synthesis. The technique enables the mass creation and interrogation of libraries via affinity selection, typically on an immobilized protein target. A homogeneous method for screening DNA-encoded libraries (DELs) has recently been developed which uses water-in-oil emulsion technology to isolate, count and identify individual ligand-target complexes in a single-tube approach.",22810768,DNA-encoded chemical library,M -983,983.0,983.0,"Heinrich Scholz (German: [ʃɔlts]; 17 December 1884 – 30 December 1956) was a German logician, philosopher, and Protestant theologian. He was a peer of Alan Turing who mentioned Scholz when writing with regard to the reception of ""On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem"": ""I have had two letters asking for reprints, one from Braithwaite at King's and one from a professor [sic] in Germany... They seemed very much interested in the paper. [...] I was disappointed by its reception here."" -Scholz had an extraordinary career (he was considered an outstanding scientist of national importance) but was not considered a brilliant logician, for example on the same level as Gottlob Frege or Rudolf Carnap. He provided a suitable academic environment for his students to thrive.",66660581,Heinrich Scholz,M -984,984.0,984.0,"Mathematical beauty is the aesthetic pleasure derived from the abstractness, purity, simplicity, depth or orderliness of mathematics. Mathematicians may express this pleasure by describing mathematics (or, at least, some aspect of mathematics) as beautiful or describe mathematics as an art form, (a position taken by G. H. Hardy) or, at a minimum, as a creative activity. -Comparisons are made with music and poetry. - -In method -Mathematicians describe an especially pleasing method of proof as elegant. Depending on context, this may mean: - -A proof that uses a minimum of additional assumptions or previous results. -A proof that is unusually succinct. -A proof that derives a result in a surprising way (e.g., from an apparently unrelated theorem or a collection of theorems). -A proof that is based on new and original insights. -A method of proof that can be easily generalized to solve a family of similar problems.In the search for an elegant proof, mathematicians often look for different independent ways to prove a result—as the first proof that is found can often be improved.",18974136,Mathematical beauty,M -985,985.0,985.0,"Dr. Seth Brundle, also known as Brundlefly, is a fictional character and the anti-villain protagonist turned main antagonist in David Cronenberg's 1986 remake of The Fly. He is played by Jeff Goldblum. Brundle was the third of Goldblum's ""nerdy scientist"" roles (a character type he played previously in The Adventures of Buckaroo Banzai Across the 8th Dimension and Invasion of the Body Snatchers, and later played in The Race for the Double Helix, Jurassic Park, Independence Day, The Lost World: Jurassic Park and Jurassic World Dominion), and is one of his most famous roles to date.The character of Brundle was played by Daniel Okulitch in Howard Shore's 2008 opera The Fly in its premiere at the Théâtre du Châtelet in Paris. - -Fictional biography -Invention of the telepods -Seth Brundle mastered molecular physics at the age of 20, and devoted his life to developing a teleportation system, due to his severe motion sickness, to allow himself to travel places without getting sick. Brundle dedicated his life to his invention, and adopted personality traits similar to Albert Einstein, such as owning 5 pairs of the exact same set of clothing to save mental energy deciding what to wear.",61972444,Seth Brundle,M -986,986.0,986.0,"In continuum mechanics the flow velocity in fluid dynamics, also macroscopic velocity in statistical mechanics, or drift velocity in electromagnetism, is a vector field used to mathematically describe the motion of a continuum. The length of the flow velocity vector is the flow speed and is a scalar. -It is also called velocity field; when evaluated along a line, it is called a velocity profile (as in, e.g., law of the wall). - -Definition -The flow velocity u of a fluid is a vector field - - - - - - u - - = - - u - - ( - - x - - , - t - ) - , - - - {\displaystyle \mathbf {u} =\mathbf {u} (\mathbf {x} ,t),} - which gives the velocity of an element of fluid at a position - - - - - x - - - - - {\displaystyle \mathbf {x} \,} - and time - - - - t - . - - - - {\displaystyle t.\,} - -The flow speed q is the length of the flow velocity vector - - - - - q - = - ‖ - - u - - ‖ - - - {\displaystyle q=\|\mathbf {u} \|} - and is a scalar field. - -Uses -The flow velocity of a fluid effectively describes everything about the motion of a fluid. Many physical properties of a fluid can be expressed mathematically in terms of the flow velocity. Some common examples follow: - -Steady flow -The flow of a fluid is said to be steady if - - - - - u - - - - {\displaystyle \mathbf {u} } - does not vary with time. That is if - - - - - - - - ∂ - - u - - - - ∂ - t - - - - = - 0. - - - {\displaystyle {\frac {\partial \mathbf {u} }{\partial t}}=0.} - -Incompressible flow -If a fluid is incompressible the divergence of - - - - - u - - - - {\displaystyle \mathbf {u} } - is zero: - - - - - ∇ - ⋅ - - u - - = - 0. - - - {\displaystyle \nabla \cdot \mathbf {u} =0.} - That is, if - - - - - u - - - - {\displaystyle \mathbf {u} } - is a solenoidal vector field. - -Irrotational flow -A flow is irrotational if the curl of - - - - - u - - - - {\displaystyle \mathbf {u} } - is zero: - - - - - ∇ - × - - u - - = - 0. - - - {\displaystyle \nabla \times \mathbf {u} =0.} - That is, if - - - - - u - - - - {\displaystyle \mathbf {u} } - is an irrotational vector field. -A flow in a simply-connected domain which is irrotational can be described as a potential flow, through the use of a velocity potential - - - - Φ - , - - - {\displaystyle \Phi ,} - with - - - - - u - - = - ∇ - Φ - . - - - {\displaystyle \mathbf {u} =\nabla \Phi .} - If the flow is both irrotational and incompressible, the Laplacian of the velocity potential must be zero: - - - - Δ - Φ - = - 0. - - - {\displaystyle \Delta \Phi =0.} - -Vorticity -The vorticity, - - - - ω - - - {\displaystyle \omega } - , of a flow can be defined in terms of its flow velocity by - - - - - ω - = - ∇ - × - - u - - . - - - {\displaystyle \omega =\nabla \times \mathbf {u} .} - If the vorticity is zero, the flow is irrotational. - -The velocity potential -If an irrotational flow occupies a simply-connected fluid region then there exists a scalar field - - - - ϕ - - - {\displaystyle \phi } - such that - - - - - - u - - = - ∇ - - ϕ - - . - - - {\displaystyle \mathbf {u} =\nabla \mathbf {\phi } .} - The scalar field - - - - ϕ - - - {\displaystyle \phi } - is called the velocity potential for the flow.",11885926,Flow velocity,M -987,987.0,987.0,"August Hirt (28 April 1898 – 2 June 1945) was an anatomist with Swiss and German nationality who served as a chairman at the Reich University in Strasbourg during World War II. He performed experiments with mustard gas on inmates at the Natzweiler-Struthof concentration camp and played a lead role in the murders of 86 people at Natzweiler-Struthof for the Jewish skull collection. The skeletons of his victims were meant to become specimens at the Institute of anatomy in Strasbourg, but completion of the project was stopped by the progress of the war. He was an SS-Hauptsturmführer (captain) and in 1944, an SS-Sturmbannführer (major). - -World War I, post-war education and joining the Nazi party -Hirt was the son of a Swiss business man. In 1914, he volunteered, while still a high school student, to fight in World War I on the German side.",3381436,August Hirt,T -988,988.0,988.0,"Geomatics is defined in the ISO/TC 211 series of standards as the ""discipline concerned with the collection, distribution, storage, analysis, processing, presentation of geographic data or geographic information"". Under another definition, it consists of products, services and tools involved in the collection, integration and management of geographic (geospatial) data. It is also known as geomatic(s) engineering (geodesy and geoinformatics engineering or geospatial engineering). Surveying engineering was the widely used name for geomatic(s) engineering in the past. - -History and etymology -The term was proposed in French (""géomatique"") at the end of the 1960s by scientist Bernard Dubuisson to reflect at the time recent changes in the jobs of surveyor and photogrammetrist. The term was first employed in a French Ministry of Public Works memorandum dated 1 June 1971 instituting a ""standing committee of geomatics"" in the government.The term was popularised in English by French-Canadian surveyor Michel Paradis in his The little Geodesist that could article, in 1981 and in a keynote address at the centennial congress of the Canadian Institute of Surveying (now known as the Canadian Institute of Geomatics) in April 1982.",1021524,Geomatics,E -989,989.0,989.0,"Avionics Full-Duplex Switched Ethernet (AFDX), also ARINC 664, is a data network, patented by international aircraft manufacturer Airbus, for safety-critical applications that utilizes dedicated bandwidth while providing deterministic quality of service (QoS). AFDX is a worldwide registered trademark by Airbus. The AFDX data network is based on Ethernet technology using commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) components. The AFDX data network is a specific implementation of ARINC Specification 664 Part 7, a profiled version of an IEEE 802.3 network per parts 1 & 2, which defines how commercial off-the-shelf networking components will be used for future generation Aircraft Data Networks (ADN). The six primary aspects of an AFDX data network include full duplex, redundancy, determinism, high speed performance, switched and profiled network. - -History -Many commercial aircraft use the ARINC 429 standard developed in 1977 for safety-critical applications.",3112664,Avionics Full-Duplex Switched Ethernet,E -990,990.0,990.0,"LabelMe is a project created by the MIT Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory (CSAIL) which provides a dataset of digital images with annotations. The dataset is dynamic, free to use, and open to public contribution. The most applicable use of LabelMe is in computer vision research. As of October 31, 2010, LabelMe has 187,240 images, 62,197 annotated images, and 658,992 labeled objects. - -Motivation -The motivation behind creating LabelMe comes from the history of publicly available data for computer vision researchers. Most available data was tailored to a specific research group's problems and caused new researchers to have to collect additional data to solve their own problems.",14622989,LabelMe,E -991,991.0,991.0,"IMS VDEX, which stands for IMS Vocabulary Definition Exchange, in data management, is a mark-up language – or grammar – for controlled vocabularies developed by IMS Global as an open specification, with the Final Specification being approved in February 2004. -IMS VDEX allows the exchange and expression of simple machine-readable lists of human language terms, along with information that may assist a human in understanding the meaning of the various terms, i.e. a flat list of values, a hierarchical tree of values, a thesaurus, a taxonomy, a glossary or a dictionary. -Structural a vocabulary has an identifier, title and a list of terms. Each term has a unique key, titles and (optional) descriptions. A term may have nested terms, thus a hierarchical structure can be created. It is possible to define relationships between terms and add custom metadata to terms. -IMS VDEX support multilinguality.",5446251,IMS VDEX,T -992,992.0,992.0,"Fatigue describes a state of tiredness (which is not sleepiness) or exhaustion. In general usage, fatigue often follows prolonged physical or mental activity. When fatigue occurs independently of physical or mental exertion, or does not resolve after rest or sleep, it may have other causes, such as a medical condition.Fatigue (in a medical context) is complex and its cause is often unknown. Fatigue is associated with a wide variety of conditions including autoimmune disease, organ failure, chronic pain conditions, mood disorders, heart disease, infectious diseases and post-infectious disease states.Fatigue (in the general usage sense of normal tiredness) can include both physical and mental fatigue. Physical fatigue results from muscle fatigue brought about by intense physical activity.",235562,Fatigue,S -993,993.0,993.0,"Limbitless Solutions is a 501(c)(3) non-profit organization founded in the United States that uses additive manufacturing (3D printing) to create accessible, yet affordable personalized bionics and prosthetic partial arms for children with limb deltas The organization says their bionic arms are manufactured for under $400, 1% of the standard production cost. Headquartered on the University of Central Florida campus in Orlando, Florida, the organization was founded by a team of engineering students, led by CEO and Executive Director Albert Manero. - -History -The idea of Limbitless Solutions came to life in 2014 after a team of engineering students at the University of Central Florida led an initiative to provide bionic 3D printed limbs to children. In their free time, the students took advantage of a donated Stratasys Dimension 3D printer in the engineering manufacturing lab on campus to create an affordable prosthetic that displayed their ideas of art and engineering all into one. Their method was the first of its kind and minimized the cost and time of traditional prosthetic manufacturing processes like CNC milling. The first 3D printed arm the students created was run with off-the-shelf servos and batteries which are activated by the electromyography muscle energy on the child's limb.",50569286,Limbitless Solutions,E -994,994.0,994.0,"Industrial microbiology is a branch of biotechnology that applies microbial sciences to create industrial products in mass quantities, often using microbial cell factories. There are multiple ways to manipulate a microorganism in order to increase maximum product yields. Introduction of mutations into an organism may be accomplished by introducing them to mutagens. Another way to increase production is by gene amplification, this is done by the use of plasmids, and vectors. The plasmids and/ or vectors are used to incorporate multiple copies of a specific gene that would allow more enzymes to be produced that eventually cause more product yield.",52893218,Industrial microbiology,S -995,995.0,995.0,"Astrochicken is the name given to a thought experiment expounded by theoretical physicist Freeman Dyson. An Astrochicken is a small, one-kilogram spacecraft, a self-replicating automaton that could explore space more efficiently than a crewed craft could due to its innovative mix of technology. - -Description -In his book Disturbing the Universe (1979), Dyson contemplated how humanity could build a small, self-replicating automaton that could explore space more efficiently than a crewed craft could. He attributed the general idea to John von Neumann, based on a lecture von Neumann gave in 1948 titled The General and Logical Theory of Automata. Dyson expanded on von Neumann's automata theories and added a biological component to them. -Astrochicken, Dyson explained, would be a one-kilogram spacecraft unlike any before it. It would be a creation of the intersection of biology, artificial intelligence and modern microelectronics—a blend of organic and electronic components.",1183312,Astrochicken,T -996,996.0,996.0,"CoCalc (formerly called SageMathCloud) is a web-based cloud computing (SaaS) and course management platform for computational mathematics. It supports editing of Sage worksheets, LaTeX documents and Jupyter notebooks. CoCalc runs an Ubuntu Linux environment that can be interacted with through a terminal, additionally giving access to most of the capabilities of Linux.CoCalc offers both free and paid accounts. Subscriptions starting at $14/month provide internet access and more storage and computing resources. One subscription can be used to increase quotas for one project used by multiple accounts.",42734157,CoCalc,T -997,997.0,997.0,"Smooth infinitesimal analysis is a modern reformulation of the calculus in terms of infinitesimals. Based on the ideas of F. W. Lawvere and employing the methods of category theory, it views all functions as being continuous and incapable of being expressed in terms of discrete entities. As a theory, it is a subset of synthetic differential geometry. -The nilsquare or nilpotent infinitesimals are numbers ε where ε² = 0 is true, but ε = 0 need not be true at the same time. - -Overview -This approach departs from the classical logic used in conventional mathematics by denying the law of the excluded middle, e.g., NOT (a ≠ b) does not imply a = b.",3869419,Smooth infinitesimal analysis,M -998,998.0,998.0,"Irving John Good (9 December 1916 – 5 April 2009) -was a British mathematician who worked as a cryptologist at Bletchley Park with Alan Turing. After the Second World War, Good continued to work with Turing on the design of computers and Bayesian statistics at the University of Manchester. Good moved to the United States where he was professor at Virginia Tech. -He was born Isadore Jacob Gudak to a Polish Jewish family in London. He later anglicised his name to Irving John Good and signed his publications ""I. J.",404404,I. J. Good,T -999,999.0,999.0,"Forensic engineering has been defined as ""the investigation of failures—ranging from serviceability to catastrophic—which may lead to legal activity, including both civil and criminal"". It includes the investigation of materials, products, structures or components that fail or do not operate or function as intended, causing personal injury, damage to property or economic loss. The consequences of failure may give rise to action under either criminal or civil law including but not limited to health and safety legislation, the laws of contract and/or product liability and the laws of tort. The field also deals with retracing processes and procedures leading to accidents in operation of vehicles or machinery. Generally, the purpose of a forensic engineering investigation is to locate cause or causes of failure with a view to improve performance or life of a component, or to assist a court in determining the facts of an accident.",69817,Forensic engineering,E -1000,1000.0,,"Protocol engineering is the application of systematic methods to the development of communication protocols. It uses many of the principles of software engineering, but it is specific to the development of distributed systems. - -History -When the first experimental and commercial computer networks were developed in the 1970s, the concept of protocols was not yet well developed. These were the first distributed systems. In the context of the newly adopted layered protocol architecture (see OSI model), the definition of the protocol of a specific layer should be such that any entity implementing that specification in one computer would be compatible with any other computer containing an entity implementing the same specification, and their interactions should be such that the desired communication service would be obtained. On the other hand, the protocol specification should be abstract enough to allow different choices for the implementation on different computers.",58454314,Protocol engineering,E -1001,1001.0,,"The Gart der Gesundheit (Early German for Latin hortus sanitatis) was edited in 1485. It was written by Johann Wonnecke von Kaub and was one of the first printed herbals in German. It was often reprinted until the 18th century. The Gart der Gesundheit is an important late medieval work concerning the knowledge of natural history, especially that of medicinal plants. In 435 chapters 382 plants, 25 drugs from the animal kingdom and 28 minerals are described and illustrated.",54013976,Gart der Gesundheit,S -1002,1002.0,,"The Wildflower Society of Western Australia (Inc.) (WSWA) is a member of the Australian Native Plants Society (Australia) (ANPSA(A)). In each of the other states of Australia, there is a region of the ANPS(A) (each with slightly differing names) and they share many of the aims of the WSWA. - -Objectives -The objectives of the WSWA are: -(a) To encourage the conservation and preservation of Western Australian flora by, among other things, supporting efforts to strengthen laws and regulations for the conservation of Western Australian flora, encouraging enforcement of laws and regulations and making submissions on the preservation of Western Australian flora to government and other organisations. -(b) To raise public awareness about the value of, and need to conserve, bushland. -(c) The Society will establish and maintain a public fund to be called The Wildflower Society Bushland Conservation Fund for the specific purpose of supporting the environmental objects/purposes of the Wildflower Society of Western Australia (Inc.). The Fund is established to receive all gifts of money or property for this purpose and any money received because of such gifts must be credited to its bank account. The Fund must not receive any other money or property into its account and it must comply with subdivision 30-E of the Income Tax Assessment Act 1997. -(d) To promote the cultivation of Western Australian flora in home gardens and public areas. -(e) To promote the study of Western Australian flora and to keep records of information on growing methods and the performance of such plants under cultivation. -(f) To support the establishment and operation of Branches within the state of Western Australia. - -Fund -The Society has a fund for the: - -conservation of bushland; -raising public awareness of bushland; -called The Wildflower Society Bushland Conservation Fund. - -History -Interest in the flora of Western Australia (WA) began not long after European settlement in 1829. On 26 January 1884 the Natural History Society petitioned the state government 'to set apart a reserve for protection of the indigenous fauna and flora' and in February 1894 the Pinjarra Reserve was gazetted.",22462572,Wildflower Society of Western Australia,S -1003,1003.0,,"Theodorus Janssonius van Almeloveen (24 July 1657 – 28 July 1712) (Theodoor Jansson) was a Dutch physician, and the learned editor of various classical and medical works. He was born at Mijdrecht, near Utrecht, where his father was minister of the reformed church. His mother, Mary Jansson, was related to the celebrated printer of Amsterdam, Jan Jansson.After studying at Utrecht University under various eminent men, such as Johann Georg Graevius for belles lettres, de Vries for philosophy, Johann Leusden for theology, Johannes Munniks and Jacob Vallan (1637–1720), for medicine, etc., he determined to give up his father's profession, for which he had been intended, and devote himself to medicine. He became doctor of medicine at Utrecht in 1681.In 1687, he settled at Gouda, where he married. He founded a learned society there in 1692.",7011092,Theodorus Janssonius van Almeloveen,S -1004,1004.0,,"A certificate of analysis (COA) is a formal laboratory-prepared document that details the results of (and sometimes the specifications and analytical methods for) one or more laboratory analyses, signed—manually or electronically—by an authorized representative of the entity conducting the analyses. This document gives assurances to the recipient that the analyzed item is what it is designated to be, or has the features advertised by the producer. The design and content of a COA may be based upon a set of requirements identified by the lab, by regulatory-driven requirements, and/or by standards developed by standard developing organizations. The COA is used in a wide variety of industries, including but not limited to the agriculture, chemical, clinical research, food and beverage, and pharmaceutical industries. - -Use in various industries -The COA is typically used in industries where the quality of a produced good is of significant importance and the COA recipient needs assurances of that quality. By extension, this often means regulations, standards, and/or guidelines are in place to better ensure analyses are approved and reported correctly.",63679051,Certificate of analysis,E -1005,1005.0,,"Pico de São Tomé is the highest mountain in São Tomé and Príncipe at 2,024 m (6,640 ft) elevation. It lies just west of the centre of São Tomé Island, in the Parque Natural Obô de São Tomé and in the Lembá District. The second highest point, Pico de Ana Chaves (1,630 m (5,348 ft)), lies about 3 km to its south east. The town Santa Catarina is 8 km to the west. - -Description -The entire island of São Tomé is a massive shield volcano which rises from the floor of the Atlantic Ocean, over 3,000 m (10,000 ft) below sea level. It formed along the Cameroon line, a linear rift zone extending from Cameroon southwest into the Atlantic Ocean.",1724303,Pico de São Tomé,S -1006,1006.0,,"Telomere-binding proteins (also known as TERF, TRBF, TRF) function to bind telomeric DNA in various species. In particular, telomere-binding protein refers to TTAGGG repeat binding factor-1 (TERF1) and TTAGGG repeat binding factor-2 (TERF2). Telomere sequences in humans are composed of TTAGGG sequences which provide protection and replication of chromosome ends to prevent degradation. Telomere-binding proteins can generate a T-loop to protect chromosome ends. TRFs are double-stranded proteins which are known to induce bending, looping, and pairing of DNA which aids in the formation of T-loops.",29893768,Telomere-binding protein,S -1007,1007.0,,"Adobe Authorware (previously Macromedia Authorware, originally Authorware) was an elearning authoring tool with its own interpreted, flowchart-based, graphical programming language. Authorware was used for creating interactive elearning programs that could integrate a range of multimedia content, particularly electronic educational technology (also called e-learning) applications. The flowchart model differentiated Authorware from other authoring tools, such as Adobe Flash and Adobe Director, which rely on a visual stage, time-line and script structure. - -History -Authorware was originally produced by Authorware Inc., founded in 1987 by Dr Michael Allen. Allen had contributed to the development of the PLATO computer-assisted instruction system during the 1970s that was developed jointly by the University of Illinois and Control Data Corporation. CDC, where Allen was Director of Advanced Instructional Systems R&D, invested heavily in the development of an expansive library of interactive ""courseware"" to run on the PLATO system. -PLATO courseware was developed in a unique programming language called TUTOR, which provided structures unique to learning interactions, such as answer judging and branching.",286954,Adobe Authorware,T -1008,1008.0,,"Random walk closeness centrality is a measure of centrality in a network, which describes the average speed with which randomly walking processes reach a node from other nodes of the network. It is similar to the closeness centrality except that the farness is measured by the expected length of a random walk rather than by the shortest path. -The concept was first proposed by White and Smyth (2003) under the name Markov centrality. - -Intuition -Consider a network with a finite number of nodes and a random walk process that starts in a certain node and proceeds from node to node along the edges. From each node, it chooses randomly the edge to be followed. In an unweighted network, the probability of choosing a certain edge is equal across all available edges, while in a weighted network it is proportional to the edge weights. -A node is considered to be close to other nodes, if the random walk process initiated from any node of the network arrives to this particular node in relatively few steps on average. - -Definition -Consider a weighted network – either directed or undirected – with n nodes denoted by j=1, …, n; and a random walk process on this network with a transition matrix M. The - - - - - m - - i - j - - - - - {\displaystyle m_{ij}} - element of M describes the probability of the random walker that has reached node i, proceeds directly to node j.",35889132,Random walk closeness centrality,M -1009,1009.0,,"Philosophia Botanica (""Botanical Philosophy"", ed. 1, Stockholm & Amsterdam, 1751.) was published by the Swedish naturalist and physician Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778) who greatly influenced the development of botanical taxonomy and systematics in the 18th and 19th centuries. It is ""the first textbook of descriptive systematic botany and botanical Latin"". It also contains Linnaeus's first published description of his binomial nomenclature. -Philosophia Botanica represents a maturing of Linnaeus's thinking on botany and its theoretical foundations, being an elaboration of ideas first published in his Fundamenta Botanica (1736) and Critica Botanica (1737), and set out in a similar way as a series of stark and uncompromising principles (aphorismen). The book also establishes a basic botanical terminology. -The following principle §79 demonstrates the style of presentation and Linnaeus's method of introducing his ideas. - -§ 79 The parts of the plant are the root (radix), the leafy shoot (herba) and the organs of reproduction (fructificatio), that the leafy shoot consists of the stem (truncus), the leaves (folia), accessory parts (fulcra, according to § 84 stipules, bracts, spines, prickles, tendrils, glands and hairs) and hibernating organs (hibernacula, according to § 85 bulbs and buds), and that the organs of reproduction comprise the calyx, corolla, stamens, pistil, pericarp and receptacle. -A detailed analysis of the work is given in Frans Stafleu's Linnaeus and the Linnaeans, pp.",12070901,Philosophia Botanica,S -1010,1010.0,,"Graping is a phenomenon marked by the appearance of unreflowed solder particles on top of the solder mass. The solder that is partially coalesced looks like a cluster of grapes which is where the phenomenon’s name is derived. - -Causes -Graping occurrence has continued to increase since it was first identified in 2006. The viscosity of the flux decreases as the temperature of the reflow oven increases. Lead-free reflow soldering temperatures are higher which results in more graping. Graping is also caused by increased surface oxidation.",30892032,Graping,T -1011,1011.0,,"The International Organization for Standardization (ISO, ) is an international standard development organization composed of representatives from the national standards organizations of member countries. Membership requirements are given in Article 3 of the ISO Statutes.ISO was founded on 23 February 1947, and (as of November 2022) it has published over 24,500 international standards covering almost all aspects of technology and manufacturing. It has 811 Technical committees and sub committees to take care of standards development. The organization develops and publishes standardization in all technical and nontechnical fields other than electrical and electronic engineering, which is handled by the IEC. It is headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland, and works in 167 countries as of 2023.",14934,International Organization for Standardization,T -1012,1012.0,,"Techno-economic assessment or techno-economic analysis (abbreviated TEA) is a method of analyzing the economic performance of an industrial process, product, or service. It typically uses software modeling to estimate capital cost, operating cost, and revenue based on technical and financial input parameters. One desired outcome is to summarize results in a concise and visually coherent form, using visualization tools such as tornado diagrams and sensitivity analysis graphs. -At present, TEA is most commonly used to analyze technologies in the chemical, bioprocess, petroleum, energy, and similar industries. This article focuses on these areas of application.... - -Use cases -TEA can be used for studying new technologies or optimizing existing ones. Ideally, a techno-economic model represents the best current understanding of the system being modeled.",58702452,Techno-economic assessment,T -1013,1013.0,,"The expressways (高速道路, kōsoku-dōro, lit. ""high-speed road"", also jidōsha-dō (自動車道), lit. ""automobile road"", ""freeway"", ""expressway"", or ""motorway"") of Japan make up a large network of controlled-access toll expressways. - -History -Following World War II, Japan's economic revival led to a massive increase in personal automobile use. However the existing road system was inadequate to deal with the increased demand; in 1956 only 23% of national highways were paved, which included only two thirds of the main Tokyo-Osaka road (National Route 1).In April 1956 the Japan Highway Public Corporation (JH) was established by the national government with the task of constructing and managing a nationwide network of expressways. In 1957 permission was given to the corporation to commence construction of the Meishin Expressway linking Nagoya and Kobe, the first section of which opened to traffic in 1963.In addition to the national expressway network administered by JH, the government established additional corporations to construct and manage expressways in urban areas.",1429361,Expressways of Japan,T -1014,1014.0,,"The Baade-Wesselink method is a method for determining the distance of a Cepheid variable star suggested by Walter Baade in 1926 and further developed by Adriaan Wesselink in 1946. In the original method the color of the star at various points during its period of variation is used to determine its surface brightness. Then, knowing the apparent magnitude at these points in time the angular diameter can be calculated. Measurements are also taken of the radial velocity using Doppler spectroscopy. This allows one to determine the speed at which the front surface of the star moves toward or away from us at various points in the cycle.",59836665,Baade-Wesselink method,M -1015,1015.0,,"Shotgun surgery is an antipattern in software development and occurs where a developer adds features to an application codebase which span a multiplicity of implementors or implementations in a single change. This is common practice in many programming scenarios, as a great amount of programming effort is usually expended on adding new features to increase the value of programming assets. As a consequence, these new features may require adding code in several places simultaneously where the code itself looks very similar and may only have slight variations. Owing to the fast-paced nature of commercial software development, there may not be sufficient time to remodel (or refactor) a system to support the new features trivially. As a consequence, the practice of copy-and-paste programming is prevalent; the code is written in a single place then simply copied to all other places where that implementation is required (with any required changes applied in-place). -This practice is generally frowned on by the refactoring community as a direct violation of the Once and Only Once principle – ultimately any change to the new functionality may require widespread changes.",17897132,Shotgun surgery,T -1016,1016.0,,"Systems theory is the transdisciplinary study of systems, i.e. cohesive groups of interrelated, interdependent components that can be natural or human-made. Every system has causal boundaries, is influenced by its context, defined by its structure, function and role, and expressed through its relations with other systems. A system is ""more than the sum of its parts"" by expressing synergy or emergent behavior.Changing one component of a system may affect other components or the whole system. It may be possible to predict these changes in patterns of behavior.",29238,Systems theory,S -1017,1017.0,,"The Yukon Ice Patches are a series of dozens of ice patches in the southern Yukon discovered in 1997, which have preserved hundreds of archaeological artifacts, with some more than 9,000 years old. The first ice patch was discovered on the mountain Thandlät, west of the Kusawa Lake campground which is 60 km (37 mi) west of Whitehorse, Yukon. The Yukon Ice Patch Project began shortly afterwards with a partnership between archaeologists in partnership with six Yukon First Nations, on whose traditional territory the ice patches were found. They include the Carcross/Tagish First Nation, the Kwanlin Dün First Nation, the Ta’an Kwäch’än Council, the Champagne and Aishihik First Nations, the Kluane First Nation, and the Teslin Tlingit Council. - -Ice patches -Cryologists describe how ice patches, such the rare Yukon alpine region ice patches, differ from glaciers. The latter are constantly moving; they gradually build up mass over time until they reach a certain size, when they slowly flow downhill.",55949736,Yukon Ice Patches,M -1018,1018.0,,"Verilog, standardized as IEEE 1364, is a hardware description language (HDL) used to model electronic systems. It is most commonly used in the design and verification of digital circuits at the register-transfer level of abstraction. It is also used in the verification of analog circuits and mixed-signal circuits, as well as in the design of genetic circuits. In 2009, the Verilog standard (IEEE 1364-2005) was merged into the SystemVerilog standard, creating IEEE Standard 1800-2009. Since then, Verilog is officially part of the SystemVerilog language.",63863,Verilog,E -1019,1019.0,,"A constellation is an area on the celestial sphere in which a group of visible stars forms a perceived pattern or outline, typically representing an animal, mythological subject, or inanimate object.The origins of the earliest constellations likely go back to prehistory. People used them to relate stories of their beliefs, experiences, creation, or mythology. Different cultures and countries invented their own constellations, some of which lasted into the early 20th century before today's constellations were internationally recognized. The recognition of constellations has changed significantly over time. Many changed in size or shape.",5267,Constellation,M -1020,1020.0,,"According to the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), a runway is a ""defined rectangular area on a land aerodrome prepared for the landing and takeoff of aircraft"". Runways may be a human-made surface (often asphalt, concrete, or a mixture of both) or a natural surface (grass, dirt, gravel, ice, sand or salt). Runways, taxiways and ramps, are sometimes referred to as ""tarmac"", though very few runways are built using tarmac. Takeoff and landing areas defined on the surface of water for seaplanes are generally referred to as waterways. Runway lengths are now commonly given in meters worldwide, except in North America where feet are commonly used. - -History -In 1916, in a World War I war effort context, the first concrete-paved runway was built in Clermont-Ferrand in France, allowing local company Michelin to manufacture Bréguet Aviation military aircraft.In January 1919, aviation pioneer Orville Wright underlined the need for ""distinctly marked and carefully prepared landing places, [but] the preparing of the surface of reasonably flat ground [is] an expensive undertaking [and] there would also be a continuous expense for the upkeep."" - -Headings -For fixed-wing aircraft, it is advantageous to perform takeoffs and landings into the wind to reduce takeoff or landing roll and reduce the ground speed needed to attain flying speed.",165094,Runway,E -1021,1021.0,,"Biology is the scientific study of life. It is a natural science with a broad scope but has several unifying themes that tie it together as a single, coherent field. For instance, all organisms are made up of cells that process hereditary information encoded in genes, which can be transmitted to future generations. Another major theme is evolution, which explains the unity and diversity of life. Energy processing is also important to life as it allows organisms to move, grow, and reproduce.",9127632,Biology,S -1022,1022.0,,"In solid mechanics, a stress concentration (also called a stress raiser or a stress riser or notch sensitivity) is a location in an object where the stress is significantly greater than the surrounding region. Stress concentrations occur when there are irregularities in the geometry or material of a structural component that cause an interruption to the flow of stress. This arises from such details as holes, grooves, notches and fillets. Stress concentrations may also occur from accidental damage such as nicks and scratches. -The degree of concentration of a discontinuity under typically tensile loads can be expressed as a non-dimensional stress concentration factor - - - - - K - - t - - - - - {\displaystyle K_{t}} - , which is the ratio of the highest stress to the nominal far field stress. For a circular hole in an infinite plate, - - - - - K - - t - - - = - 3 - - - {\displaystyle K_{t}=3} - .",681185,Stress concentration,E -1023,1023.0,,"Regulatory science is the scientific and technical foundations upon which regulations are based in various industries – particularly those involving health or safety. Regulatory bodies employing such principles in the United States include, for example, the FDA for food and medical products, the EPA for the environment, and the OSHA for work safety. -""Regulatory science"" is contrasted with regulatory affairs and regulatory law, which refer to the administrative or legal aspects of regulation, in that the former is focused on the regulations' scientific underpinnings and concerns – rather than the regulations' promulgation, implementation, compliance, or enforcement. - -History -Probably the first investigator who recognized the nature of regulatory science was Alvin Weinberg, who described the scientific process used to evaluate effects of ionizing radiation as trans science. The origin of the term regulatory science is unknown. It was probably coined sometimes in the late 1970s in an undated memorandum prepared by A. Alan Moghissi, who was describing scientific issues that the newly formed US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) was facing.",30272334,Regulatory science,S -1024,1024.0,,"In object-oriented programming, an object diagram in the Unified Modeling Language (UML) is a diagram that shows a complete or partial view of the structure of a modeled system at a specific time. - -Overview -In the Unified Modeling Language (UML), an object diagram focuses on some particular set of objects and attributes, and the links between these instances. A correlated set of object diagrams provides insight into how an arbitrary view of a system is expected to evolve over time. Early UML specifications described object diagrams as such: -""An object diagram is a graph of instances, including objects and data values. A static object diagram is an instance of a class diagram; it shows a snapshot of the detailed state of a system at a point in time. The use of object diagrams is fairly limited, namely to show examples of data structure."" -The latest UML 2.5 specification does not explicitly define object diagrams, but provides a notation for instances of classifiers.Object diagrams and class diagrams are closely related and use almost identical notation.",6379557,Object diagram,T -1025,1025.0,,"Microsoft XML Core Services (MSXML) are set of services that allow applications written in JScript, VBScript, and Microsoft development tools to build Windows-native XML-based applications. It supports XML 1.0, DOM, SAX, an XSLT 1.0 processor, XML schema support including XSD and XDR, as well as other XML-related technologies. - -Overview -All MSXML products are similar in that they are exposed programmatically as OLE Automation (a subset of COM) components. Developers can program against MSXML components from C, C++ or from Active Scripting languages such as JScript and VBScript. Managed .NET Interop with MSXML COM components is not supported nor recommended.As with all COM components, an MSXML object is programmatically instantiated by CLSID or ProgID. Each version of MSXML exposes its own set of CLSID's and ProgIDs.",5127900,MSXML,T -1026,1026.0,,"A statite (from the words static and satellite) is a hypothetical type of artificial satellite that employs a solar sail to continuously modify its orbit in ways that gravity alone would not allow. Typically, a statite would use the solar sail to ""hover"" in a location that would not otherwise be available as a stable geosynchronous orbit. Statites have been proposed that would remain in fixed locations high over Earth's poles, using reflected sunlight to counteract the gravity pulling them down. Statites might also employ their sails to change the shape or velocity of more conventional orbits, depending upon the purpose of the particular statite. -The concept of the statite was invented independently and at about the same time by Robert L. Forward (who coined the term ""statite"") and Colin McInnes, who used the term ""halo orbit"" (not to be confused with the type of halo orbit discovered by Robert Farquhar).",29417,Statite,T -1027,1027.0,,"ASTM International, formerly known as American Society for Testing and Materials, is an international standards organization that develops and publishes voluntary consensus technical standards for a wide range of materials, products, systems, and services. Some 12,575 ASTM voluntary consensus standards operate globally. The organization's headquarters is in West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania, about 5 mi (8.0 km) northwest of Philadelphia. -It was founded in 1902 as the American Section of the International Association for Testing Materials (see also International Organization for Standardization). - -History -A group of scientists and engineers, led by Charles Dudley, formed ASTM in 1898 to address the frequent rail breaks affecting the fast-growing railroad industry. The group developed a standard for the steel used to fabricate rails. Originally called the ""American Society for Testing Materials"" in 1902, it became the ""American Society for Testing And Materials"" in 1961.",852442,ASTM International,T -1028,1028.0,,"Superslow processes are processes in which values change so little that their capture is very difficult because of their smallness in comparison with the measurement error. - -Applications -Most of the time, the superslow processes lie beyond the scope of investigation due to the reason of their superslowness. Multiple gaps can be easily detected in biology, astronomy, physics, mechanics, economics, linguistics, ecology, gerontology, etc. -Biology: Traditional scientific research in this area was focused on the describing some brain reactions.Mathematics: In mathematics, when the fluid flows through thin and long tubes it forms stagnation zones where the flow becomes almost immobile. If the ratio of tube length to its diameter is large, then the potential function and stream function are almost invariable on very extended areas. The situation seems uninteresting, but if we remember that these minor changes occur in the extra-long intervals, we see here a series of first-class tasks that require the development of special mathematical methods.Mathematics: Apriori information regarding the stagnation zones contributes to optimization of the computational process by replacing the unknown functions with the corresponding constants in such zones. Sometimes this makes it possible to significantly reduce the amount of computation, for example in approximate calculation of conformal mappings of strongly elongated rectangles.Economic Geography: The obtained results are particularly useful for applications in economic geography.",24822937,Superslow process,S -1029,1029.0,,"Operations research (British English: operational research) (U.S. Air Force Specialty Code: Operations Analysis), often shortened to the initialism OR, is a discipline that deals with the development and application of analytical methods to improve decision-making. The term management science is occasionally used as a synonym.Employing techniques from other mathematical sciences, such as modeling, statistics, and optimization, operations research arrives at optimal or near-optimal solutions to decision-making problems. Because of its emphasis on practical applications, operations research has overlapped with many other disciplines, notably industrial engineering. Operations research is often concerned with determining the extreme values of some real-world objective: the maximum (of profit, performance, or yield) or minimum (of loss, risk, or cost).",43476,Operations research,E -1030,1030.0,,"Gala is an apple cultivar with a sweet, mild flavour, a crisp but not hard texture, and a striped or mottled orange or reddish appearance. Originating from New Zealand in the 1930s, similar to most named apples, it is clonally propagated. In 2018, it surpassed Red Delicious as the apple cultivar with the highest production in the United States, according to the US Apple Association. It was the first time in over 50 years that any cultivar was produced more than Red Delicious. - -Appearance and flavour -Gala apples are non-uniform in colour, usually vertically striped or mottled, with overall orange colour. They are sweet, fine textured, and aromatic, and in addition to being eaten raw and cooked are especially suitable for creating sauces. -Density 0.86 g/cc -Sugar 13.5% -Acidity 4.2 grams/ litre -Vitamin C 0-5 mg / 100 gram - -History -The first Gala apple tree was one of many seedlings resulting from a cross between a Golden Delicious and a Kidd's Orange Red planted in New Zealand in the 1930s by orchardist J.H.",2566958,Gala (apple),S -1031,1031.0,,"Hydrothermal carbonization (HTC) (also referred to as ""aqueous carbonization at elevated temperature and pressure"") is a chemical process for the conversion of organic compounds to structured carbons. It can be used to make a wide variety of nanostructured carbons, simple production of brown coal substitute, synthesis gas, liquid petroleum precursors and humus from biomass with release of energy. Technically the process imitates, within a few hours, the brown coal formation process (German ""Inkohlung"" literally ""coalification"") which takes place in nature over enormously longer geological time periods of 50,000 to 50 million years. It was investigated by Friedrich Bergius and first described in 1913. - -Motivation -The carbon efficiency of most processes to convert organic matter to fuel is relatively low. I.e.",24454005,Hydrothermal carbonization,S -1032,1032.0,,"Synchronous and asynchronous transmissions are two different methods of transmission synchronization. Synchronous transmissions are synchronized by an external clock, while asynchronous transmissions are synchronized by special signals along the transmission medium. - -The need for synchronization -Whenever an electronic device transmits digital (and sometimes analogue) data to another, there must be a certain rhythm established between the two devices, i.e., the receiving device must have some way of, within the context of the fluctuating signal that it's receiving, determining where each unit of data begins and where it ends. - -Methods of synchronization -There are two ways to synchronize the two ends of the communication. -The synchronous signalling methods use two different signals. -A pulse on one signal indicates when another bit of information is ready on the other signal. -The asynchronous signalling methods use only one signal. -The receiver uses transitions on that signal to figure out the transmitter bit rate (""autobaud"") and timing, and set a local clock to the proper timing, typically using a phase-locked loop (PLL) to synchronize with the transmission rate. -A pulse from the local clock indicates when another bit is ready. - -Synchronous transmission -In synchronous communications, the stream of data to be transferred is encoded as fluctuating voltage levels in one wire (the 'DATA'), and a periodic pulse of voltage on a separate wire (called the ""CLOCK"" or ""STROBE"") which tells the receiver ""the current DATA bit is 'valid' at this moment in time"". -Practically all parallel communications protocols use synchronous transmission. For example, in a computer, address information is transmitted synchronously—the address bits over the address bus, and the read or write strobes of the control bus. - -A logical one is indicated when there are two transitions in the same time frame as a zero. In the Manchester coding a transition from low to high indicates a one and a transition from high to low indicates a zero. When there are successive ones or zeros, an opposite transition is required on the edge of the time frame to prepare for the next transition and signal. - -Asynchronous transmission -The most common asynchronous signalling, asynchronous start-stop signalling, uses a near-constant 'bit' timing (+/- 5% local oscillator required at both ends of the connection).",1206180,Comparison of synchronous and asynchronous signalling,T -1033,1033.0,,"Immersion into virtual reality (VR) is a perception of being physically present in a non-physical world. The perception is created by surrounding the user of the VR system in images, sound or other stimuli that provide an engrossing total environment. - -Etymology -The name is a metaphoric use of the experience of submersion applied to representation, fiction or simulation. Immersion can also be defined as the state of consciousness where a ""visitor"" (Maurice Benayoun) or ""immersant"" (Char Davies)'s awareness of physical self is transformed by being surrounded in an artificial environment; used for describing partial or complete suspension of disbelief, enabling action or reaction to stimulations encountered in a virtual or artistic environment. The greater the suspension of disbelief, the greater the degree of presence achieved. - -Types -According to Ernest W. Adams, immersion can be separated into three main categories: - -Tactical immersion: Tactical immersion is experienced when performing tactile operations that involve skill.",10499965,Immersion (virtual reality),T -1034,1034.0,,"Gene therapy is a medical technology which aims to produce a therapeutic effect through the manipulation of gene expression or through altering the biological properties of living cells.The first attempt at modifying human DNA was performed in 1980, by Martin Cline, but the first successful nuclear gene transfer in humans, approved by the National Institutes of Health, was performed in May 1989. The first therapeutic use of gene transfer as well as the first direct insertion of human DNA into the nuclear genome was performed by French Anderson in a trial starting in September 1990. Between 1989 and December 2018, over 2,900 clinical trials were conducted, with more than half of them in phase I. In 2003, Gendicine became the first gene therapy to receive regulatory approval. Since that time, further gene therapy drugs were approved, such as Glybera (2012), Strimvelis (2016), Kymriah (2017), Luxturna (2017), Onpattro (2018), Zolgensma (2019), Abecma (2021), Adstiladrin, Roctavian and Hemgenix (all 2022).",12891,Gene therapy,S -1035,1035.0,,"Bei Zeng (Chinese: 曾蓓) is a quantum information theorist at the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, where she is a professor of physics, and director of the IAS Center for Quantum Technologies. As well as quantum information, her research interests include quantum computing and quantum error correction. - -Education and career -Zeng is a 2002 graduate of Tsinghua University, where she studied physics and mathematics. After earning a master's degree at Tsinghua University in 2004, she completed a Ph.D. in physics in 2009 at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Her dissertation, Quantum operations and codes beyond the Stabilizer-Clifford framework, was supervised by Isaac Chuang.She became a postdoctoral researcher at the University of Waterloo, affiliated both with the Institute for Quantum Computing and the Department of Combinatorics & Optimization, before becoming an assistant professor at the University of Guelph in 2010, rising through the academic ranks there to become full professor in 2018.",69349750,Bei Zeng,M -1036,1036.0,,"163 (one hundred [and] sixty-three) is the natural number following 162 and preceding 164. - -In mathematics -163 is a strong prime in the sense that it is greater than the arithmetic mean of its two neighboring primes. -163 is a lucky prime and a fortunate number.163 is a strictly non-palindromic number, since it is not palindromic in any base between base 2 and base 161. -Given 163, the Mertens function returns 0, it is the fourth prime with this property, the first three such primes are 2, 101 and 149.As approximations, - - - - π - ≈ - - - - 2 - - 9 - - - 163 - - - ≈ - 3.1411... - - - {\displaystyle \pi \approx {2^{9} \over 163}\approx 3.1411...} - , and - - - - e - ≈ - - - 163 - - 3 - ⋅ - 4 - ⋅ - 5 - - - - ≈ - 2.7166 - … - - - {\displaystyle e\approx {163 \over 3\cdot 4\cdot 5}\approx 2.7166\dots } - -163 is a permutable prime in base 12, which it is written as 117, the permutations of its digits are 171 and 711, the two numbers in base 12 are 229 and 1021 in base 10, both of which are prime. -The function - - - - f - ( - n - ) - = - - n - - 2 - - - − - n - + - 41 - - - {\displaystyle f(n)=n^{2}-n+41} - gives prime values for all values of - - - - n - - - {\displaystyle n} - between 0 and 39, while for - - - - n - < - 3000 - - - {\displaystyle n<3000} - approximately half of all values are prime. 163 appears as a result of solving - - - - f - ( - n - ) - = - 0 - - - {\displaystyle f(n)=0} - , which gives - - - - n - = - ( - − - 1 - + - - - − - 163 - - - ) - - / - - 2 - - - {\displaystyle n=(-1+{\sqrt {-163}})/2} - . -163 is a Heegner number, the largest of the nine such numbers. That is, the ring of integers of the field - - - - - Q - - ( - - - − - a - - - ) - - - {\displaystyle \mathbb {Q} ({\sqrt {-a}})} - has unique factorization for - - - - a - = - 163 - - - {\displaystyle a=163} - . The only other such integers are - - - - - a - = - 1 - , - 2 - , - 3 - , - 7 - , - 11 - , - 19 - , - 43 - , - 67 - - - {\displaystyle a=1,2,3,7,11,19,43,67} - . (sequence A003173 in the OEIS) -163 is the number of linearly Z-independent McKay-Thompson series for the monster group, which also represent their collective maximum dimensional representation.",867612,163 (number),M -1037,1037.0,,"Metal–insulator–metal (MIM) diode is a type of nonlinear device very similar to a semiconductor diode and capable of very fast operation. Depending on the geometry and the material used for fabrication, the operation mechanisms are governed either by quantum tunnelling or thermal activation.In 1948, Torrey et al. stated that ""It should be possible to make metal–insulator–metal rectifiers with much smaller spreading resistances than metal–semiconductor rectifiers have, consequently giving greater rectification efficiency at high frequencies."" But due to fabrication difficulties, two decades passed before the first device could be successfully created. Some of the very first MIM diodes to be fabricated came from Bell Labs in the late 1960s and early 1970s Brinkman et al. demonstrated the first zero-bias MIM tunneling diode with significant responsivity.",45057474,Metal–insulator–metal,T -1038,1038.0,,"Glass with embedded metal and sulfides (GEMS) are tiny spheroids in cosmic dust particles with bulk compositions that are approximately chondritic. They form the building blocks of anhydrous interplanetary dust particles (IDPs) in general, and cometary IDPs, in particular. Their compositions, mineralogy and petrography appear to have been shaped by exposure to ionizing radiation. Since the exposure occurred prior to the accretion of cometary IDPs, and therefore comets themselves, GEMS are likely either solar nebula or presolar interstellar grains. The properties of GEMS (size, shape, mineralogy) bear a strong resemblance to those of interstellar silicate grains as inferred from astronomical observations. - -References -Bradley, John; Ireland, Trevor I (1996).",2179144,Glass with embedded metal and sulfides,M -1039,1039.0,,"A retinal implant is a visual prosthesis for restoration of sight to patients blinded by retinal degeneration. The system is meant to partially restore useful vision to those who have lost their photoreceptors due to retinal diseases such as retinitis pigmentosa (RP) or age-related macular degeneration (AMD). Retinal implants are being developed by a number of private companies and research institutions, and three types are in clinical trials: epiretinal (on the retina), subretinal (behind the retina), and suprachoroidal (between the choroid and the sclera). The implants introduce visual information into the retina by electrically stimulating the surviving retinal neurons. So far, elicited percepts had rather low resolution, and may be suitable for light perception and recognition of simple objects. - -History -Foerster was the first to discover that electrical stimulation of the occipital cortex could be used to create visual percepts, phosphenes.",3242434,Retinal implant,S -1040,1040.0,,"With regard to a mobile network operator (MNO, or operator), the term dumb pipe, or dumb network, refers to a simple network that, with a high enough bandwidth to transfer bytes between the customer's device and the Internet without the need to prioritize content, can afford to be completely neutral with regard to the services and applications the customer accesses. The use of the term ""dumb"" refers to the fact that the network operator does not affect the customer's accessibility of the Internet such as by either limiting the available services or applications to its own proprietary portal (like a walled garden) or offer additional capabilities and services beyond simple connectivity (like a smart pipe, the term with which it contrasts). A dumb pipe primarily provides simple bandwidth and network speeds greater than the maximum network loads expected thus avoiding the need to discriminate between data types. -Among the commonly understood operational models for a MNO are the dumb pipe, the smart pipe, and the walled garden. - -Description -A dumb network is marked by using intelligent devices (i.e. PCs) at the periphery that make use of a network that does not interfere with or manage an application's operation / communication. The dumb network concept is the natural outcome of the end to end principle.",15376280,Dumb pipe,T -1041,1041.0,,"Charles Volney Dyer (June 12, 1808 – April 24, 1878) was a prominent Chicago abolitionist and Stationmaster on the Underground Railroad. - -Early life -Charles was born in Clarendon, Vermont on June 12, 1808, the ninth of the ten children of Daniel and Susannah Olin Dyer. A precocious child, he was sent at age 15 to the Castleton Academy to prepare for college. He then attended Middlebury College's medical department, from which he graduated on December 9, 1830.He established a practice in Newark, Wayne County Vermont in February 1831. - -Chicago years -Ambition led him to Chicago, then a small, but rapidly growing town, in August 1835. He became Surgeon for the garrison at Ft. Dearborn soon thereafter.",26259666,Charles V. Dyer,S -1042,1042.0,,"In economics, a good is said to be rivalrous or a rival if its consumption by one consumer prevents simultaneous consumption by other consumers, or if consumption by one party reduces the ability of another party to consume it. A good is considered non-rivalrous or non-rival if, for any level of production, the cost of providing it to a marginal (additional) individual is zero. A good is ""anti-rivalrous"" and ""inclusive"" if each person benefits more when other people consume it. -A good can be placed along a continuum from rivalrous through non-rivalrous to anti-rivalrous. The distinction between rivalrous and non-rivalrous is sometimes referred to as jointness of supply or subtractable or non-subtractable.",584118,Rivalry (economics),T -1043,1043.0,,"Fordism is an industrial engineering and manufacturing system that serves as the basis of modern social and labor-economic systems that support industrialized, standardized mass production and mass consumption. The concept is named after Henry Ford. It is used in social, economic, and management theory about production, working conditions, consumption, and related phenomena, especially regarding the 20th century. It describes an ideology of advanced capitalism centered around the American socioeconomic systems in place in the post-war economic boom. - -Overview -Fordism is ""the eponymous manufacturing system designed to produce standardized, low-cost goods and afford its workers decent enough wages to buy them."" It has also been described as ""a model of economic expansion and technological progress based on mass production: the manufacture of standardized products in huge volumes using special purpose machinery and unskilled labor."" Although Fordism was a method used to improve productivity in the automotive industry, the principle could be applied to any kind of manufacturing process. Major success stemmed from three major principles: - -The standardization of the product (nothing is handmade, but everything is made through machines and molds by unskilled workers) -The employment of assembly lines, which use special-purpose tools and/or equipment to allow unskilled workers to contribute to the finished product -Workers are paid higher ""living"" wages so that they can afford to purchase the products they makeThe principles, coupled with a technological revolution during Henry Ford's time, allowed for his revolutionary form of labor to flourish.",387109,Fordism,E -1044,1044.0,,"The Regional Planetary Image Facilities (RPIFs) are planetary image and data libraries located throughout the United States and abroad that are funded by the host institutions. They once had funding from NASA A network of these facilities was established in 1977 to maintain photographic and digital data as well as mission documentation. Each facility's general holding contains images and maps of planets and their satellites taken by solar system exploration spacecraft. These planetary image facilities are often open to the public. The facilities are primarily reference centers for browsing, studying, and selecting lunar and planetary photographic and cartographic materials.",11295737,Regional Planetary Image Facility,M -1045,1045.0,,"In mathematics, especially in geometry and topology, an ambient space is the space surrounding a mathematical object along with the object itself. For example, a 1-dimensional line - - - - ( - l - ) - - - {\displaystyle (l)} - may be studied in isolation —in which case the ambient space of - - - - l - - - {\displaystyle l} - is - - - - l - - - {\displaystyle l} - , or it may be studied as an object embedded in 2-dimensional Euclidean space - - - - ( - - - R - - - 2 - - - ) - - - {\displaystyle (\mathbb {R} ^{2})} - —in which case the ambient space of - - - - l - - - {\displaystyle l} - is - - - - - - R - - - 2 - - - - - {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{2}} - , or as an object embedded in 2-dimensional hyperbolic space - - - - ( - - - H - - - 2 - - - ) - - - {\displaystyle (\mathbb {H} ^{2})} - —in which case the ambient space of - - - - l - - - {\displaystyle l} - is - - - - - - H - - - 2 - - - - - {\displaystyle \mathbb {H} ^{2}} - . To see why this makes a difference, consider the statement ""Parallel lines never intersect."" This is true if the ambient space is - - - - - - R - - - 2 - - - - - {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{2}} - , but false if the ambient space is - - - - - - H - - - 2 - - - - - {\displaystyle \mathbb {H} ^{2}} - , because the geometric properties of - - - - - - R - - - 2 - - - - - {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{2}} - are different from the geometric properties of - - - - - - H - - - 2 - - - - - {\displaystyle \mathbb {H} ^{2}} - . All spaces are subsets of their ambient space. - -See also -Configuration space -Geometric space -Manifold and ambient manifold -Submanifolds and Hypersurfaces -Riemannian manifolds -Ricci curvature -Differential form - -References -Further reading -Schilders, W. H.",2854628,Ambient space (mathematics),M -1046,1046.0,,"Shiftphone is a modular, easy-to-repair smartphone brand created by the company SHIFT in Germany. The company emphasizes fair trade and ecology, similar to Fairphone. Instead of tantalum capacitors made from coltan, ceramic capacitors are used for their manufacturing. So far, eleven model series have been released. The most recent release was the SHIFT6mq (successor of the Shift6m) in June 2020.",57142185,Shiftphone,E -1047,1047.0,,"In architecture, spatial design, literary theory, and film theory—affective atmosphere (colloquially called atmosphere) refers to the mood, situation, or sensorial qualities of a space. Spaces containing atmosphere are shaped through subjective and intersubjective interactions with the qualia of the architecture. Atmosphere (or projected affect) is linked with anthropology, architectural theory, critical theory, cultural geography, phenomenology of architecture, and pragmatism. - -Overview -Atmosphere is an immediate form of physical perception, and is recognised through emotional sensibility. Architects and designers use the notion of atmosphere to argue that architecture and space is designed and built for people to use and experience. - -[Architectural atmospheres are] this singular density and mood, this feeling of presence, well-being, harmony, beauty...under whose spell I experience what I otherwise would not experience in precisely this way. -Vitruvius noted that since the human body is the measure of architecture, it is also that which determines atmospheric qualities. It is the human body that emanates the structural qualities of architecture.",33081680,Atmosphere (architecture and spatial design),S -1048,1048.0,,"The qurchis or qorchis (Persian: قورچی, romanized: qūṛčī) were the royal bodyguard of the Safavid shah. The head of the qurchis was known as the qurchi-bashi. - -History -The qurchis were theoretically enlisted from the Qizilbash tribes and were paid by money taken from the royal treasury. The qurchis lived off the land handouts and fees that were given to them by the shah. During the early Safavid period, the qurchis were all from the same tribe, but that later changed. They numbered 3,000 under the Ismail I at the Battle of Chaldiran, but were reduced to 1,700 after the battle, and then later to 1,000, after Ismail had ""done away with 700 of them."" They numbered 5,000 under Tahmasp I (r.",53801981,Qurchi (royal bodyguard),S -1049,1049.0,,"The Boston Library Consortium (BLC) is a library consortium based in the Boston area with 26 member institutions across New England. - -Membership -The Boston Library Consortium is an academic consortium of twenty-six institutions: sixteen in Massachusetts, five in Connecticut, one in New Hampshire, one in Rhode Island, and two in Vermont. The Internet Archive is an affiliate member. Member institutions represent a mix of liberal arts colleges, research universities, public and private institutions, and special libraries. New members may join the BLC if they are based in the northeastern United States and their application is approved by a two-thirds vote of the board of directors. The BLC is funded through membership assessments. - -Members -Current members include the following institutions: - -History -The BLC was founded in 1970 and officially incorporated in 1977, consisting originally of five institutions.",58051675,Boston Library Consortium,S -1050,1050.0,,"The rule of mutual exclusion in molecular spectroscopy relates the observation of molecular vibrations to molecular symmetry. It states that no normal modes can be both Infrared and Raman active in a molecule that possesses a centre of symmetry. This is a powerful application of group theory to vibrational spectroscopy, and allows one to easily detect the presence of this symmetry element by comparison of the IR and Raman spectra generated by the same molecule.The rule arises because in a centrosymmetric point group, IR active modes, which must transform according to the same irreducible representation generated by one of the components of the dipole moment vector (x, y or z), must be of ungerade (u) symmetry, i.e. their character under inversion is -1, while Raman active modes, which transform according to the symmetry of the polarizability tensor (product of two coordinates), must be of gerade (g) symmetry since their character under inversion is +1. Thus, in the character table there is no irreducible representation that spans both IR and Raman active modes, and so there is no overlap between the two spectra.This does not mean that a vibrational mode which is not Raman active must be IR active: in fact, it is still possible that a mode of a particular symmetry is neither Raman nor IR active.",35895516,Rule of mutual exclusion,M -1051,1051.0,,"Theodore John Kaczynski ( kə-ZIN-skee; May 22, 1942 – June 10, 2023), also known as the Unabomber ( YOO-nə-bom-ər), was an American mathematician and domestic terrorist. He was a mathematics prodigy, but abandoned his academic career in 1969 to pursue a primitive lifestyle. Between 1978 and 1995, Kaczynski murdered three individuals and injured 23 others in a nationwide mail bombing campaign against people he believed to be advancing modern technology and the destruction of the natural environment. He authored Industrial Society and Its Future, a 35,000-word manifesto and social critique opposing industrialization, rejecting leftism, and advocating a nature-centered form of anarchism.In 1971, Kaczynski moved to a remote cabin without electricity or running water near Lincoln, Montana, where he lived as a recluse while learning survival skills to become self-sufficient. After witnessing the destruction of the wilderness surrounding his cabin, he concluded that living in nature was becoming impossible and resolved to fight industrialization and its destruction of nature through terrorism.",18621887,Ted Kaczynski,T -1052,1052.0,,"A wide variety of different wireless data technologies exist, some in direct competition with one another, others designed for specific applications. Wireless technologies can be evaluated by a variety of different metrics of which some are described in this entry. -Standards can be grouped as follows in increasing range order: -Personal area network (PAN) systems are intended for short range communication between devices typically controlled by a single person. Some examples include wireless headsets for mobile phones or wireless heart rate sensors communicating with a wrist watch. Some of these technologies include standards such as ANT UWB, Bluetooth, Zigbee, and Wireless USB. -Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN / WSAN) are, generically, networks of low-power, low-cost devices that interconnect wirelessly to collect, exchange, and sometimes act-on data collected from their physical environments - ""sensor networks"". Nodes typically connect in a star or mesh topology.",8638682,Comparison of wireless data standards,T -1053,1053.0,,"Atmospheric lidar is a class of instruments that uses laser light to study atmospheric properties from the ground up to the top of the atmosphere. Such instruments have been used to study, among other, atmospheric gases, aerosols, clouds, and temperature. - -History -The basic concepts to study the atmosphere using light were developed before World War II. In 1930, E.H. Synge proposed to study the density of the upper atmosphere using a searchlight beam -. In the following years, searchlight beams were used to study cloud altitude using both scanning and pulsed light.",46736055,Atmospheric lidar,S -1054,1054.0,,"The Large Ultraviolet Optical Infrared Surveyor, commonly known as LUVOIR (), is a multi-wavelength space telescope concept being developed by NASA under the leadership of a Science and Technology Definition Team. It is one of four large astrophysics space mission concepts studied in preparation for the National Academy of Sciences 2020 Astronomy and Astrophysics Decadal Survey.While LUVOIR is a concept for a general-purpose observatory, it has the key science goal of characterizing a wide range of exoplanets, including those that might be habitable. An additional goal is to enable a broad range of astrophysics, from the reionization epoch, through galaxy formation and evolution, to star and planet formation. Powerful imaging and spectroscopy observations of Solar System bodies would also be possible. LUVOIR would be a Large Strategic Science Mission and was considered for a development start sometime in the 2020s.",52350237,Large Ultraviolet Optical Infrared Surveyor,M -1055,1055.0,,"Sir (Laurence) Dudley Stamp, CBE, DSc, D. Litt, LLD, Ekon D, DSc Nat ((1898-03-09)9 March 1898 – (1966-08-08)8 August 1966), was professor of geography at Rangoon and London, and one of the internationally best known British geographers of the 20th century. -Educated at King's College London, he specialised in the study of geology and geography and taught at the universities of Rangoon (1923–26) and London (1926–45). From 1936 to 1944 he directed the compilation and publication of the report of the Land Utilisation Survey of Britain. He worked on many official enquiries into the use of land and planning. - -Early life and education -Stamp was born in Catford, London, in 1898, the seventh child of a shopkeeper; his elder brother Josiah became the banker Lord Stamp of Shortlands. He attended University School, Rochester (1910–13), where he joined the Rochester and District Natural History Society.",16303147,Dudley Stamp,S -1056,1056.0,,"Druware, also known as DRU Holland cookware and Royal Dru, was a line of porcelain-enamel-coated cast-iron cookware made by the De Koninklijke Diepenbrock & Reigers of Ulft (DRU) company in Achterhoek, Netherlands. - -Imports to the United States -The pots and pans were popular in the United States during the middle of the 20th century, after Robert Evans began importing the cookware from The Netherlands, with gross annual sales of $1.5 million in 1956, and nearly $2 million in 1957. -""American housewives have been snapping up the Evans-designed green, blue and yellow 'cook-and-serve' vessels faster than many stores can keep them in stock. Known as Royal Dru, the cookware is the adaptation of a 200-year-old Dutch process of fusing iron to enamel so that it won't crack or chip from heat or rough handling."" -In 1960, DRU incorporated a wholly-owned subsidiary in Cambridge, Massachusetts, to manage distribution. - -Popularity -The most popular line of Druware came in pastel shades of Delft Blue, Tulip Yellow, and Key Largo Green, and was recognizable for the hand-painted tulip, windmill, and fleur-de-lis decorations on the sides and lids of each piece. A flame orange color, as well as ""Holiday White"" (white enamel, with the signature tulip design in blue) and an all-white color ""that resembles china"" were also produced. -Despite Druware's popularity with home cooks, venerable chef James Beard was less impressed. ""I use the old lines of cast iron -- Griswold, Wagner -- not all this prettied stuff. I had a Druware pot simply split from the heat a day or two ago."" - -Cessation of production -After natural gas became popular in the Netherlands in the 1960s, DRU ceased the production of cookware, and began producing fireplaces, wall heaters, and wood stoves. - -Influence -Druware was the design inspiration for Dutch Ovenware, a line of pottery produced by Cameron Clay Products, of Cameron, West Virginia. - -References -Further reading -Rodermond, Jacco; Bourgondiën, Karel (2004).",38001613,Druware,E -1057,1057.0,,"Mimer SQL is a proprietary SQL-based relational database management system produced by the Swedish company Mimer Information Technology AB (Mimer AB), formerly known as Upright Database Technology AB. It was originally developed as a research project at the Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden in the 1970s before being developed into a commercial product.The database has been deployed in a wide range of application situations, including the National Health Service Pulse blood transfusion service in the UK, Volvo Cars production line in Sweden and automotive dealers in Australia. It has sometimes been one of the limited options available in realtime critical applications and resource restricted situations such as mobile devices. - -History -Mimer SQL originated from a project from the ITC service center supporting Uppsala University and some other institutions to leverage the relational database capabilities proposed by Codd and others. The initial release in about 1975 was designated RAPID and was written in IBM assembler language. The name was changed to Mimer in 1977 to avoid a trademark issue.",181718,Mimer SQL,T -1058,1058.0,,"The StarLink corn recalls occurred in the autumn of 2000, when over 300 food products were found to contain a genetically modified corn that had not been approved for human consumption. It was the first-ever recall of a genetically modified food. The anti-GMO activist coalition Genetically Engineered Food Alert, which detected and first reported the contamination, was critical of the FDA for not doing its job. The recall of Taco Bell-branded taco shells, manufactured by Kraft Foods and sold in supermarkets, was the most publicized of the recalls. One settlement resulted in $60 million going to Taco Bell franchisees for lost sales due to the damage to the Taco Bell brand. - -StarLink corn -StarLink is a brand of genetically modified maize containing two modifications: a gene for resistance to glufosinate, and a variant of the Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) protein called Cry9C.",40144224,StarLink corn recall,E -1059,1059.0,,"In aviation, hot and high is a condition of low air density due to high ambient temperature and high airport elevation. Air density decreases with increasing temperature and altitude. The lower air density reduces the power output from the aircraft's engine and also requires a higher true airspeed before the aircraft can become airborne. Aviators gauge air density by calculating the density altitude.An airport may be especially hot or high, without the other condition being present. Temperature and pressure altitude can change from one hour to the next.",1127349,Hot and high,E -1060,1060.0,,"Engineering physics, or engineering science, refers to the study of the combined disciplines of physics, mathematics, chemistry, biology, and engineering, particularly computer, nuclear, electrical, electronic, aerospace, materials or mechanical engineering. By focusing on the scientific method as a rigorous basis, it seeks ways to apply, design, and develop new solutions in engineering. - -Overview -Unlike traditional engineering disciplines, engineering science/physics is not necessarily confined to a particular branch of science, engineering or physics. Instead, engineering science/physics is meant to provide a more thorough grounding in applied physics for a selected specialty such as optics, quantum physics, materials science, applied mechanics, electronics, nanotechnology, microfabrication, microelectronics, computing, photonics, mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, nuclear engineering, biophysics, control theory, aerodynamics, energy, solid-state physics, etc. It is the discipline devoted to creating and optimizing engineering solutions through enhanced understanding and integrated application of mathematical, scientific, statistical, and engineering principles. The discipline is also meant for cross-functionality and bridges the gap between theoretical science and practical engineering with emphasis in research and development, design, and analysis. -It is notable that in many languages the term for ""engineering physics"" would be directly translated into English as ""technical physics"".",740540,Engineering physics,S -1061,1061.0,,"Elsevier BIOBASE is a bibliographic database covering all topics pertaining to biological research throughout the world. It was established in the 1950s in print format as Current Awareness in Biological Sciences. Temporal coverage is from 1994 to the present. The database has over 4.1 million records as of December 2008. More than 300,000 records are added annually and 84% contain an abstract.",32069686,Elsevier Biobase,S -1062,1062.0,,"The Criminal Investigation Task Force (CITF) is an organization created in early 2002 by the United States Department of Defense to conduct investigations of detainees captured in the War on Terrorism. It was envisioned that certain captured individuals would be tried by a military tribunal for war crimes and/or acts of terrorism. -CITF was initially activated in February 2002 under a mandate from the Secretary of Defense addressed to the Secretary of the Army. The Secretary of the Army formally tasked the US Army Criminal Investigation Command (CID), and CID activated the Criminal Investigation Task Force solely for the purpose of conducting criminal investigations against suspected terrorists detained by US forces. Under the Secretary of Defense directive, the Army was directed to maximize the capabilities of all the Services, and therefore coordinated with the US Air Force and US Navy to assist. The CITF included members from four of five of the branches of the U.S.",4799837,Criminal Investigation Task Force,S -1063,1063.0,,"A dragline excavator is a piece of heavy equipment used in civil engineering and surface mining. -Draglines fall into two broad categories: those that are based on standard, lifting cranes, and the heavy units which have to be built on-site. Most crawler cranes, with an added winch drum on the front, can act as a dragline. These units (like other cranes) are designed to be dismantled and transported over the road on flatbed trailers. Draglines used in civil engineering are almost always of this smaller, crane type. These are used for road, port construction, pond and canal dredging, and as pile driving rigs.",571674,Dragline excavator,E -1064,1064.0,,"Nusinersen, marketed as Spinraza, is a medication used in treating spinal muscular atrophy (SMA), a rare neuromuscular disorder. In December 2016, it became the first approved drug used in treating this disorder. -Since the condition it treats is so rare, Nusinersen has so-called ""orphan drug"" designation in the United States and the European Union. - -Medical uses -The drug is used to treat spinal muscular atrophy associated with a mutation in the SMN1 gene. It is administered directly to the central nervous system (CNS) using intrathecal injection.In clinical trials, the drug halted the disease progression. In around 60% of infants affected by type 1 spinal muscular atrophy, it improves motor function. - -Side effects -People treated with nusinersen had an increased risk of upper and lower respiratory infections and congestion, ear infections, constipation, pulmonary aspiration, teething, and scoliosis. There is a risk that growth of infants and children might be stunted.",50540012,Nusinersen,S -1065,1065.0,,"In mathematics, a subset - - - - B - ⊆ - A - - - {\displaystyle B\subseteq A} - of a preordered set - - - - ( - A - , - ≤ - ) - - - {\displaystyle (A,\leq )} - is said to be cofinal or frequent in - - - - A - - - {\displaystyle A} - if for every - - - - a - ∈ - A - , - - - {\displaystyle a\in A,} - it is possible to find an element - - - - b - - - {\displaystyle b} - in - - - - B - - - {\displaystyle B} - that is ""larger than - - - - a - - - {\displaystyle a} - "" (explicitly, ""larger than - - - - a - - - {\displaystyle a} - "" means - - - - a - ≤ - b - - - {\displaystyle a\leq b} - ). -Cofinal subsets are very important in the theory of directed sets and nets, where “cofinal subnet” is the appropriate generalization of ""subsequence"". They are also important in order theory, including the theory of cardinal numbers, where the minimum possible cardinality of a cofinal subset of - - - - A - - - {\displaystyle A} - is referred to as the cofinality of - - - - A - . - - - {\displaystyle A.} - -Definitions -Let - - - - - ≤ - - - - {\displaystyle \,\leq \,} - be a homogeneous binary relation on a set - - - - A - . - - - {\displaystyle A.} - -A subset - - - - B - ⊆ - A - - - {\displaystyle B\subseteq A} - is said to be cofinal or frequent with respect to - - - - - ≤ - - - - {\displaystyle \,\leq \,} - if it satisfies the following condition: - -For every - - - - a - ∈ - A - , - - - {\displaystyle a\in A,} - there exists some - - - - b - ∈ - B - - - {\displaystyle b\in B} - that - - - - a - ≤ - b - . - - - {\displaystyle a\leq b.} - A subset that is not frequent is called infrequent. -This definition is most commonly applied when - - - - ( - A - , - ≤ - ) - - - {\displaystyle (A,\leq )} - is a directed set, which is a preordered set with additional properties. - -Final functionsA map - - - - f - : - X - → - A - - - {\displaystyle f:X\to A} - between two directed sets is said to be final if the image - - - - f - ( - X - ) - - - {\displaystyle f(X)} - of - - - - f - - - {\displaystyle f} - is a cofinal subset of - - - - A - . - - - {\displaystyle A.} - - -Coinitial subsetsA subset - - - - B - ⊆ - A - - - {\displaystyle B\subseteq A} - is said to be coinitial (or dense in the sense of forcing) if it satisfies the following condition: - -For every - - - - a - ∈ - A - , - - - {\displaystyle a\in A,} - there exists some - - - - b - ∈ - B - - - {\displaystyle b\in B} - such that - - - - b - ≤ - a - . - - - {\displaystyle b\leq a.} - This is the order-theoretic dual to the notion of cofinal subset.",1633290,Cofinal (mathematics),M -1066,1066.0,,"Suffering risks, known as s-risks for short, are future events with the potential capacity to produce a huge amount of suffering. These events may generate more suffering than has ever existed on Earth, in the entirety of its existence. In contrast to existential risks, suffering risks don't necessarily involve death.Sources of possible s-risks include embodied artificial intelligence and superintelligence, as well as space colonization, which could potentially lead to ""constant and catastrophic wars"" and an immense increase in wild animal suffering by introducing wild animals, who ""generally lead short, miserable lives full of sometimes the most brutal suffering"", to other planets, either intentionally, or inadvertently.Steven Umbrello, an AI ethics researcher has warned that biological computing may make system design more prone to s-risks. - -References -Further reading -Baumann, Tobias (2022). Avoiding the Worst: How to Prevent a Moral Catastrophe. Independently published.",66704693,Suffering risks,T -1067,1067.0,,"Foundations of geometry is the study of geometries as axiomatic systems. There are several sets of axioms which give rise to Euclidean geometry or to non-Euclidean geometries. These are fundamental to the study and of historical importance, but there are a great many modern geometries that are not Euclidean which can be studied from this viewpoint. The term axiomatic geometry can be applied to any geometry that is developed from an axiom system, but is often used to mean Euclidean geometry studied from this point of view. The completeness and independence of general axiomatic systems are important mathematical considerations, but there are also issues to do with the teaching of geometry which come into play. - -Axiomatic systems -Based on ancient Greek methods, an axiomatic system is a formal description of a way to establish the mathematical truth that flows from a fixed set of assumptions.",21317755,Foundations of geometry,M -1068,1068.0,,"The following are examples of orders of magnitude for different lengths. - -Overview -Detailed list -To help compare different orders of magnitude, the following list describes various lengths between - - - - 1.6 - × - - 10 - - − - 35 - - - - - {\displaystyle 1.6\times 10^{-35}} - metres and - - - - - 10 - - - 10 - - - 10 - - 122 - - - - - - - - - {\displaystyle 10^{10^{10^{122}}}} - metres. - -Subatomic scale -Atomic to cellular scale -Cellular to human scale -Human to astronomical scale -Astronomical scale -1 quectometre and less -The quectometre (SI symbol: qm) is a unit of length in the metric system equal to 10−30 metres. -To help compare different orders of magnitude, this section lists lengths shorter than 10−30 m (1 qm). - -1.6 × 10−5 quectometres (1.6 × 10−35 metres) – the Planck length (Measures of distance shorter than this do not make physical sense, according to current theories of physics.) -1 qm – 1 quectometre, the smallest named subdivision of the metre in the SI base unit of length, one nonillionth of a metre. - -1 rontometre -The rontometre (SI symbol: rm) is a unit of length in the metric system equal to 10−27 metres. - -1 rm – 1 rontometre, a subdivision of the metre in the SI base unit of length, one octillionth of a metre. - -10 rontometres -10 rm – the length of one side of a square whose area is one shed, a unit of target cross section used in nuclear physics - -1 yoctometre -The yoctometre (SI symbol: ym) is a unit of length in the metric system equal to 10−24 metres. - -2 ym – the effective cross-section radius of 1 MeV neutrinos as measured by Clyde Cowan and Frederick Reines - -1 zeptometre -The zeptometre (SI symbol: zm) is a unit of length in the metric system equal to 10−21 metres. -To help compare different orders of magnitude, this section lists lengths between 10−21 m and 10−20 m (1 zm and 10 zm). - -2 zm – the upper bound for the width of a cosmic string in string theory. -2 zm – radius of effective cross section for a 20 GeV neutrino scattering off a nucleon -7 zm – radius of effective cross section for a 250 GeV neutrino scattering off a nucleon - -10 zeptometres -To help compare different orders of magnitude, this section lists lengths between 10−20 m and 10−19 m (10 zm and 100 zm). - -100 zeptometres -To help compare different orders of magnitude, this section lists lengths between 10−19 m and 10−18 m (100 zm and 1 am). - -177 zm – de Broglie wavelength of protons at the Large Hadron Collider (7 TeV as of 2010) - -1 attometre -The attometre (SI symbol: am) is a unit of length in the metric system equal to 10−18 metres.",13439524,Orders of magnitude (length),S -1069,1069.0,,"Blu Tack is a reusable putty-like pressure-sensitive adhesive produced by Bostik, commonly used to attach lightweight objects (such as posters or sheets of paper) to walls, doors or other dry surfaces. Traditionally blue, it is also available in other colours. Generic versions of the product are also available from other manufacturers. The spelling now used is without a hyphen.The composition is described as a synthetic rubber compound without hazardous properties under normal conditions. It can be swallowed without harm and is not carcinogenic.",4749,Blu Tack,E -1070,1070.0,,"eTrice is a CASE-Tool for the development of real-time software. It is an official Eclipse project.The software architecture tooling eTrice is implementing the domain specific language Real-Time Object-Oriented Modeling ROOM. It provides code generators for C, C++ and Java. Each release is accompanied with tutorials and a training is provided.Since ObjecTime Developer went out of support, eTrice is the only remaining implementation of ROOM. - -Literature -Bran Selic, Garth Gullekson, Paul T. Ward: Real-Time Object-Oriented Modeling.",56981810,ETrice,T -1071,1071.0,,"Instructions per second (IPS) is a measure of a computer's processor speed. For complex instruction set computers (CISCs), different instructions take different amounts of time, so the value measured depends on the instruction mix; even for comparing processors in the same family the IPS measurement can be problematic. Many reported IPS values have represented ""peak"" execution rates on artificial instruction sequences with few branches and no cache contention, whereas realistic workloads typically lead to significantly lower IPS values. Memory hierarchy also greatly affects processor performance, an issue barely considered in IPS calculations. Because of these problems, synthetic benchmarks such as Dhrystone are now generally used to estimate computer performance in commonly used applications, and raw IPS has fallen into disuse. -The term is commonly used in association with a metric prefix (k, M, G, T, P, or E) to form kilo instructions per second (kIPS), million instructions per second (MIPS), and billion instructions per second (GIPS) and so on.",20684,Instructions per second,T -1072,1072.0,,"A confined space is a space with limited entry and egress and not suitable for human inhabitants. An example is the interior of a storage tank, occasionally entered by maintenance workers but not intended for human occupancy. Hazards in a confined space often include harmful dust or gases, asphyxiation, submersion in liquids or free-flowing granular solids (for example, grain bins), electrocution, or entrapment. -Confined space accidents are of particular concern in occupational safety and health due to the hazards that they pose to the victim and subsequently to a rescue team. Confined space training outlines the skills and protocols for safe entry to confined spaces, and includes precautions such as locking and tagging out connecting piping, testing of breathable air quality, forced ventilation, observation of workers in the space, and a predetermined rescue plan with appropriate safety harnesses and other rescue equipment standing by. - -Description -Although the definition of a confined space varies between jurisdictions, it is generally recognized as a space that: - -has limited or restricted means of entry or exit; -is large enough for a person to enter to perform tasks; -is not designed or configured for continuous occupancy;A utility tunnel, the inside of a boiler (only accessible when the boiler is off), the inside of a fluid storage tank, a septic tank that has contained sewage, and a small underground electrical vault are all examples of confined spaces. Ships and other vessels commonly have confined spaces due to the need for compartmentalized watertight construction.",1364297,Confined space,T -1073,1073.0,,"Certolizumab pegol, sold under the brand name Cimzia, is a biopharmaceutical medication for the treatment of Crohn's disease, rheumatoid arthritis, psoriatic arthritis and ankylosing spondylitis. It is a fragment of a monoclonal antibody specific to tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) and is manufactured by UCB.It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. - -Medical uses -Crohn's Disease -On April 22, 2008, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved Cimzia for the treatment of Crohn's disease in people who did not respond sufficiently or adequately to standard therapy.Rheumatoid arthritis -On June 26, 2009, the Committee for Medicinal Products for Human Use (CHMP) of the European Medicines Agency (EMA) issued a positive opinion recommending that the European Commission grant a marketing authorisation for Cimzia for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis only - the CHMP refused approval for the treatment of Crohn's disease. The marketing authorisation was granted to UCB Pharma SA on October 1, 2009.Psoriatic arthritis -On September 27, 2013, the U.S. FDA approved Cimzia for the treatment of adult patients with active psoriatic arthritis. - -Method of action -Certolizumab pegol is a monoclonal antibody directed against tumor necrosis factor alpha.",6352441,Certolizumab pegol,S -1074,1074.0,,"A proteolysis targeting chimera (PROTAC) is a heterobifunctional molecule composed of two active domains and a linker, capable of removing specific unwanted proteins. Rather than acting as a conventional enzyme inhibitor, a PROTAC works by inducing selective intracellular proteolysis. PROTACs consist of two covalently linked protein-binding molecules: one capable of engaging an E3 ubiquitin ligase, and another that binds to a target protein meant for degradation. Recruitment of the E3 ligase to the target protein results in ubiquitination and subsequent degradation of the target protein via the proteasome. Because PROTACs need only to bind their targets with high selectivity (rather than inhibit the target protein's enzymatic activity), there are currently many efforts to retool previously ineffective inhibitor molecules as PROTACs for next-generation drugs.Initially described by Kathleen Sakamoto, Craig Crews and Ray Deshaies in 2001, the PROTAC technology has been applied by a number of drug discovery labs using various E3 ligases, including pVHL, CRBN, Mdm2, beta-TrCP1, DCAF15, DCAF16, RNF114, and c-IAP1.",50532084,Proteolysis targeting chimera,S -1075,1075.0,,"Modular design, or modularity in design, is a design principle that subdivides a system into smaller parts called modules (such as modular process skids), which can be independently created, modified, replaced, or exchanged with other modules or between different systems. - -Overview -A modular design can be characterized by functional partitioning into discrete scalable and reusable modules, rigorous use of well-defined modular interfaces, and making use of industry standards for interfaces. In this context modularity is at the component level, and has a single dimension, component slottability. A modular system with this limited modularity is generally known as a platform system that uses modular components. Examples are car platforms or the USB port in computer engineering platforms. -In design theory this is distinct from a modular system which has higher dimensional modularity and degrees of freedom.",2577605,Modular design,E -1076,1076.0,,"Taguchi methods (Japanese: タグチメソッド) are statistical methods, sometimes called robust design methods, developed by Genichi Taguchi to improve the quality of manufactured goods, and more recently also applied to engineering, biotechnology, marketing and advertising. Professional statisticians have welcomed the goals and improvements brought about by Taguchi methods, particularly by Taguchi's development of designs for studying variation, but have criticized the inefficiency of some of Taguchi's proposals.Taguchi's work includes three principal contributions to statistics: - -A specific loss function -The philosophy of off-line quality control; and -Innovations in the design of experiments. - -Loss functions -Loss functions in the statistical theory -Traditionally, statistical methods have relied on mean-unbiased estimators of treatment effects: Under the conditions of the Gauss–Markov theorem, least squares estimators have minimum variance among all mean-unbiased linear estimators. The emphasis on comparisons of means also draws (limiting) comfort from the law of large numbers, according to which the sample means converge to the true mean. Fisher's textbook on the design of experiments emphasized comparisons of treatment means. -However, loss functions were avoided by Ronald A. Fisher. - -Taguchi's use of loss functions -Taguchi knew statistical theory mainly from the followers of Ronald A.",442079,Taguchi methods,E -1077,1077.0,,"Biosemiotics (from the Greek βίος bios, ""life"" and σημειωτικός sēmeiōtikos, ""observant of signs"") is a field of semiotics and biology that studies the prelinguistic meaning-making, biological interpretation processes, production of signs and codes and communication processes in the biological realm.Biosemiotics integrates the findings of biology and semiotics and proposes a paradigmatic shift in the scientific view of life, in which semiosis (sign process, including meaning and interpretation) is one of its immanent and intrinsic features. The term biosemiotic was first used by Friedrich S. Rothschild in 1962, but Thomas Sebeok and Thure von Uexküll have implemented the term and field. The field, which challenges normative views of biology, is generally divided between theoretical and applied biosemiotics. -Insights from biosemiotics have also been adopted in the humanities and social sciences, including human-animal studies, human-plant studies and cybersemiotics. - -Definition -Biosemiotics is biology interpreted as a sign systems study, or, to elaborate, a study of - -signification, communication and habit formation of living processes -semiosis (creating and changing sign relations) in living nature -the biological basis of all signs and sign interpretation - -Main branches -According to the basic types of semiosis under study, biosemiotics can be divided into - -vegetative semiotics (also endosemiotics, or phytosemiotics), the study of semiosis at the cellular and molecular level (including the translation processes related to genome and the organic form or phenotype); vegetative semiosis occurs in all organisms at their cellular and tissue level; vegetative semiotics includes prokaryote semiotics, sign-mediated interactions in bacteria communities such as quorum sensing and quorum quenching. -zoosemiotics or animal semiotics, or the study of animal forms of knowing; animal semiosis occurs in the organisms with neuromuscular system, also includes anthroposemiotics, the study of semiotic behavior in humans.According to the dominant aspect of semiosis under study, the following labels have been used: biopragmatics, biosemantics, and biosyntactics. - -History -Apart from Charles Sanders Peirce (1839–1914) and Charles W. Morris (1903–1979), early pioneers of biosemiotics were Jakob von Uexküll (1864–1944), Heini Hediger (1908–1992), Giorgio Prodi (1928–1987), Marcel Florkin (1900–1979) and Friedrich S.",551722,Biosemiotics,S -1078,1078.0,,"Lean enterprise is a practice focused on value creation for the end customer with minimal waste and processes. The term has historically been associated with lean manufacturing and Six Sigma (or Lean Six Sigma) due to lean principles being popularized by Toyota in the automobile manufacturing industry and subsequently the electronics and internet software industries. - -Principles and variants -Principles for lean enterprise derive from lean manufacturing and Six Sigma principles: -There are five principles, originating from lean manufacturing, outlined by James Womack and Daniel Jones -Value: Understand clearly what value the customer wants for the product or service. -Value Stream: The entire flow of a product's or service's life cycle. In other words, from raw materials, production of the product or service, customer delivery, customer use, and final disposal. -Flow: Keep the value stream moving. If it's not moving, it's creating waste and less value for the customer. -Pull: Do not make anything until the customer orders it. -Perfection: Systematically and continuously remove root causes of poor quality from production processes.There are key lean enterprise principles originating from Lean Six Sigma principles. These principles focus on eliminating 8 varieties of waste (Muda) and form the acronym Downtime: -Defects -Overproduction -Waiting -Non-Utilized Talent -Transportation -Inventory -Motion -Extra-ProcessingThese 8 varieties of waste are derivative from the original 7 wastes as defined in the Toyota Production System (TPS).",26802549,Lean enterprise,E -1079,1079.0,,"The Fullerian Chairs at the Royal Institution in London, England, were established by John 'Mad Jack' Fuller. - -Fullerian Professors of Chemistry -1833 Michael Faraday -1868 William Odling -1874 John Hall Gladstone -1877 James Dewar -1923 William Henry Bragg -1942 Henry H. Dale -1946 Eric Keightley Rideal -1950 Edward Neville da Costa Andrade -1953 William Lawrence Bragg -1966 George Porter -1988 John Meurig Thomas -1994 Peter Day - -References -Bibliography -""Fullerian Professors of Chemistry"". The Royal Institution of Great Britain. 2012. Archived from the original on 10 June 2012.",26925896,Fullerian Professor of Chemistry,M -1080,1080.0,,"AptarGroup, Inc., also known as Aptar, is a United States-based global manufacturer of consumer dispensing packaging and drug delivery devices. The group has manufacturing operations in 18 countries. - -History -The company began as Werner Die & Stamping in Cary, Illinois, in 1946 and later incorporated as AptarGroup in 1992. Aptar originally developed spray valves and pumps for consumer and household products. The company later began producing nasal administration and pulmonary drug delivery devices such as nasal spray systems and metered-dose inhaler valves. Biotech and pharmaceutical companies use Aptar's different Unidose and Bidose devices for the single or two-shot intranasal delivery of different medicines.In 2016, Aptar announced that it provided the delivery system for Adapt Pharma's Narcan.",61519578,AptarGroup,E -1081,1081.0,,"The Piano Concerto for the Left Hand in D major was composed by Maurice Ravel between 1929 and 1930, concurrently with his Piano Concerto in G major. It was commissioned by the Austrian pianist Paul Wittgenstein, who lost his right arm during World War I. The Concerto had its premiere on 5 January 1932, with Wittgenstein as soloist performing with the Vienna Symphony Orchestra. - -Composition and premiere -The piece was commissioned by Paul Wittgenstein, a concert pianist who had lost his right arm in the First World War. -In preparing for composition, Ravel studied several pieces written for one-handed piano, including Camille Saint-Saëns's Six Études pour la main gauche (Six Études for the Left Hand) (Op. 135), Leopold Godowsky's transcription for the left hand of Frédéric Chopin's Etudes (Opp. 10 and 25), Carl Czerny's Ecole de la main gauche (School of the Left Hand) (Op.",1386547,Piano Concerto for the Left Hand (Ravel),S -1082,1082.0,,"The Sony Watchman is a line of portable pocket televisions trademarked and produced by Sony. The line was introduced in 1982 and discontinued in 2000. -Its name came from a portmanteau formed of ""Watch"" (watching television) and ""man"" from Sony's Walkman personal cassette audio players. There were more than 65 models of the Watchman made before its discontinuation. As the models progressed, display size increased and new features were added. Due to the switch to digital broadcasting, most models of the Sony Watchman can no longer be used to receive live television broadcasts, without the use of a digital converter box. - -FD-210 -The initial model was introduced in 1982 as the FD-210, which had a black & white five-centimeter (2"") Cathode-ray tube display.",3459188,Sony Watchman,T -1083,1083.0,,"Nooter Eriksen, also known as Nooter/Eriksen or N/E, is a supplier of heat recovery steam generators (boiler technology), which are mostly found in combined cycle gas turbine power stations (CCGTs). These are also found in combined heat and power (CHP) systems, which tend to have a much smaller power output than CCGT stations. Nooter Eriksen is a subsidiary of CIC Group, also owning Nooter Construction, the Wyatt Group. - -History -Nooter Corporation was established in 1896. Nooter/Eriksen Cogeneration Systems was established in 1987 when Eriksen Engineering (headed by Vernon Eriksen) was taken over by the Nooter Corporation. Vernon Eriksen had joined Econotherm Corporation in 1985, which became Eriksen Engineering. -In the 1990s the market for heat-recovery steam generators for combined cycle gas turbines started.",35786293,Nooter/Eriksen,E -1084,1084.0,,"Ectopic recombination is an atypical form of recombination in which a crossing over takes place between two homologous DNA sequences located at non-allelic chromosomal positions. Such recombination often results in dramatic chromosomal rearrangement, which is generally harmful to the organism. Some research, however, has suggested that ectopic recombination can result in mutated chromosomes that benefit the organism. Ectopic recombination can occur during both meiosis and mitosis, although it is more likely occur during meiosis. It occurs relatively frequently—in at least one yeast species (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) the frequency of ectopic recombination is roughly on par with that of allelic (or traditional) recombination.",24039902,Ectopic recombination,S -1085,1085.0,,"A datasheet, data sheet, or spec sheet is a document that summarizes the performance and other characteristics of a product, machine, component (e.g., an electronic component), material, subsystem (e.g., a power supply), or software in sufficient detail that allows a buyer to understand what the product is and a design engineer to understand the role of the component in the overall system. Typically, a datasheet is created by the manufacturer and begins with an introductory page describing the rest of the document, followed by listings of specific characteristics, with further information on the connectivity of the devices. In cases where there is relevant source code to include, it is usually attached near the end of the document or separated into another file. Datasheets are created, stored, and distributed via product information management or product data management systems. -Depending on the specific purpose, a datasheet may offer an average value, a typical value, a typical range, engineering tolerances, or a nominal value. The type and source of data are usually stated on the datasheet. -A datasheet is usually used for commercial or technical communication to describe the characteristics of an item or product.",300595,Datasheet,E -1086,1086.0,,"Venom Snake (ヴェノム・スネーク, Venomu Sunēku), also known as Punished Snake (パニッシュド・スネーク, Panishudo Sunēku), is a fictional character from Konami's Metal Gear video game series. Created by Hideo Kojima and designed by Yoji Shinkawa, he is most notably the protagonist in the 2015 game Metal Gear Solid V: The Phantom Pain. He is performed via voice acting and performance capture by Akio Ōtsuka in the Japanese version and by Kiefer Sutherland in the English version. -The leader of the Diamond Dogs mercenary unit who returns to the battlefield after waking up from a nine-year coma with his left arm prosthetic and a piece of shrapnel embedded into the right side of his forehead, he is initially introduced in-game as Big Boss but he is actually a former physician and combat medic who underwent facial reconstruction and subliminal brainwashing to serve as a body double and is also revealed (via retcon) to be the man killed by Solid Snake in the original 1987 game. -Venom Snake's role as a doppelgänger for Big Boss in The Phantom Pain received mixed opinions from critics, with some finding the decision fitting in the context of the series, while others thought it negated the emotional crux of the game's story or failed to provide closure. Sutherland's performance garnered praise from critics, although some were bemused by his relative lack of dialogue. - -Appearances -Metal Gear Solid V -Venom Snake (ヴェノム・スネーク, Venomu Sunēku) makes a minor appearance in Metal Gear Solid V: Ground Zeroes as an unnamed combat medic and then throughout Metal Gear Solid V: The Phantom Pain as the player character also known as Punished Snake (パニッシュド・スネーク, Panishudo Sunēku). In the 1970s, his original identity (whose face is partially obscured when he's on-screen) was employed by the Militaires Sans Frontières private forces.",49787847,Venom Snake,S -1087,1087.0,,"Deoxyribonucleic acid ( (listen); DNA) is a polymer composed of two polynucleotide chains that coil around each other to form a double helix. The polymer carries genetic instructions for the development, functioning, growth and reproduction of all known organisms and many viruses. DNA and ribonucleic acid (RNA) are nucleic acids. Alongside proteins, lipids and complex carbohydrates (polysaccharides), nucleic acids are one of the four major types of macromolecules that are essential for all known forms of life. -The two DNA strands are known as polynucleotides as they are composed of simpler monomeric units called nucleotides. Each nucleotide is composed of one of four nitrogen-containing nucleobases (cytosine [C], guanine [G], adenine [A] or thymine [T]), a sugar called deoxyribose, and a phosphate group.",7955,DNA,S -1088,1088.0,,"A kodecyte (ko•de•cyte) is a living cell that has been modified (koded) by the incorporation of one or more function-spacer-lipid constructs (FSL constructs) to gain a new or novel biological, chemical or technological function. The cell is modified by the lipid tail of the FSL construct incorporating into the bilipid membrane of the cell. -All kodecytes retain their normal vitality and functionality while gaining the new function of the inserted FSL constructs. The combination of dispersibility in biocompatible media, spontaneous incorporation into cell membranes, and apparent low toxicity, makes FSL constructs suitable as research tools and for the development of new diagnostic and therapeutic applications. - -The technology -Kode FSL constructs consist of three components; a functional moiety (F), a spacer (S) and a lipid (L). - -Function groups on FSL constructs that can be used to create kodecytes include saccharides (including ABO blood group-related determinants, sialic acids, hyaluronin polysaccharides), fluorophores, biotin, and a range of peptides. -Although kodecytes are created by modifying natural cells, they are different from natural cells. For example, FSL constructs, influenced by the composition of the lipid tail, are laterally mobile in the membrane and some FSL constructs may also cluster due to the characteristics of the functional group (F). As FSL constructs are anchored in the membrane via a lipid tail (L) it is believed they do not participate in signal transduction, but may be designed to act as agonists or antagonists of the initial binding event.",24135147,Kodecyte,S -1089,1089.0,,"Perry Rhodan is a West German/German space opera franchise, named after its hero. It commenced in 1961 and has been ongoing for decades, written by an ever-changing team of authors. Having sold approximately two billion copies (in novella format) worldwide (including over one billion in Germany alone), it is the most successful science fiction book series ever written. The first billion of worldwide sales was celebrated in 1986. The series has spun off into comic books, audio dramas, video games and the like.",376870,Perry Rhodan,S -1090,1090.0,,"Roko's basilisk is a thought experiment which states that an otherwise benevolent artificial superintelligence (AI) in the future would be incentivized to create a virtual reality simulation to torture anyone who knew of its potential existence but did not directly contribute to its advancement or development, in order to incentivise said advancement. It originated in a 2010 post at discussion board LessWrong, a technical forum focused on analytical rational enquiry. The thought experiment's name derives from the poster of the article (Roko) and the basilisk, a mythical creature capable of destroying enemies with its stare. -While the theory was initially dismissed as nothing but conjecture or speculation by many LessWrong users, LessWrong co-founder Eliezer Yudkowsky reported users who described symptoms such as nightmares and mental breakdowns upon reading the theory, due to its stipulation that knowing about the theory and its basilisk made one vulnerable to the basilisk itself. This led to discussion of the basilisk on the site to be banned for five years. However, these reports were later dismissed as being exaggerations or inconsequential, and the theory itself was dismissed as nonsense, including by Yudkowsky himself.",70371803,Roko's basilisk,T -1091,1091.0,,"Darwinism is a theory of biological evolution developed by the English naturalist Charles Darwin (1809–1882) and others, stating that all species of organisms arise and develop through the natural selection of small, inherited variations that increase the individual's ability to compete, survive, and reproduce. Also called Darwinian theory, it originally included the broad concepts of transmutation of species or of evolution which gained general scientific acceptance after Darwin published On the Origin of Species in 1859, including concepts which predated Darwin's theories. English biologist Thomas Henry Huxley coined the term Darwinism in April 1860. - -Terminology -Darwinism subsequently referred to the specific concepts of natural selection, the Weismann barrier, or the central dogma of molecular biology. Though the term usually refers strictly to biological evolution, creationists have appropriated it to refer to the origin of life or to cosmic evolution, that are distinct to biological evolution. It is therefore considered the belief and acceptance of Darwin's and of his predecessors' work, in place of other concepts, including divine design and extraterrestrial origins.English biologist Thomas Henry Huxley coined the term Darwinism in April 1860.",8411,Darwinism,S -1092,1092.0,,"Rajesh ""Raj"" Ramayan Koothrappali, PhD is a fictional character on the CBS television series The Big Bang Theory, portrayed by British actor Kunal Nayyar. He is one of four characters in the show, alongside Howard Wolowitz, Sheldon Cooper, and Leonard Hofstadter, to appear in every episode of The Big Bang Theory. Raj is based on a computer programmer that the show's co-creator, Bill Prady, knew back when he was a programmer. - -Character biography -Raj is Howard's best friend. They have what Nayyar calls a ""bromance"". -Raj works as an astrophysicist in the Physics Department at Caltech. It was revealed in ""The Monster Isolation"" that Raj did at least part of his higher education at the University of Cambridge, where he discovered his interest in astrophysics. -He had selective mutism, which did not allow him to talk to women outside of his family unless he was under the influence of alcohol (or medication), until the season 6 finale. -Rajesh, who is normally called Raj or just by his surname Koothrappali, is from New Delhi, India and of Malayali descent.",19617684,Raj Koothrappali,M -1093,1093.0,,"The American Naturalist is the monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal of the American Society of Naturalists, whose purpose is ""to advance and to diffuse knowledge of organic evolution and other broad biological principles so as to enhance the conceptual unification of the biological sciences."" It was established in 1867 and is published by the University of Chicago Press. The journal covers research in ecology, evolutionary biology, population, and integrative biology. As of 2018, the editor-in-chief is Daniel I. Bolnick. According to the Journal Citation Reports, the journal had a 2020 impact factor of 3.926. - -History -The journal was founded by Alpheus Hyatt, Edward S.",149247,The American Naturalist,S -1094,1094.0,,"Wreck Racing is a Georgia Tech automotive competition team, based in the Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering. The team is composed of undergraduate and graduate students from the various schools within Georgia Tech and is based in the Student Competition Center on the North edge of Tech's Atlanta campus. The team's main focus is in the design, fabrication, testing, and racing of production-based sports cars. Wreck Racing primarily competes in the Grassroots Motorsports Annual Challenge, but also has competed in local SCCA and BMWCCA events. - -History -The Wreck Racing team was founded by Andrew Sullivan and Andy Powell, both Tech Alumni, and has been an officially chartered student organization since 2005. Since the team was founded, membership has grown rapidly, and the team currently has approximately 50 active members. - -Competition -Since 2005 Wreck Racing has competed in twelve annual GRM $20XX events and has competed with six separate vehicles including a 1980s VW GTI, a turbocharged E30 chassis BMW, a V8-powered Mazda Miata, a 2JZ MG Midget, a mid-engine Honda Insight, and a V8 swapped BMW E28.",31677473,Wreck Racing,E -1095,1095.0,,"Insect pheromones are neurotransmitters that serve the chemical communication between individuals of an insect species. They thus differ from kairomones, in other words, neurotransmitters that transmit information to non-species organisms. Insects produce pheromones in special glands and release them into the environment. In the pheromone receptors of the sensory cells of the recipient, they produce a nerve stimulus even in very low concentrations, which ultimately leads to a behavioral response. Intraspecific communication of insects via these substances takes place in a variety of ways and serves, among other things, to find sexual partner, to maintain harmony in a colony of socially living insects, to mark territories or to find nest sites and food sources. -In 1959, the German biochemist and Nobel Prize winner Adolf Butenandt identified and synthesized the unsaturated fatty alcohol bombycol, the sex pheromone of the domestic silk moth (Bombyx mori), as the first known insect pheromone.",74600482,Insect pheromones,S -1096,1096.0,,"A term graph is a representation of an expression in a formal language as a generalized graph whose vertices are terms. Term graphs are a more powerful form of representation than expression trees because they can represent not only common subexpressions (i.e. they can take the structure of a directed acyclic graph) but also cyclic/recursive subexpressions (cyclic digraphs). -Abstract syntax trees cannot represent shared subexpressions since each tree node can only have one parent; this simplicity comes at the cost of efficiency due to redundant duplicate computations of identical terms. For this reason term graphs are often used as an intermediate language at a subsequent compilation stage to abstract syntax tree construction via parsing.",39548916,Term graph,M -1097,1097.0,,"The most widespread standard for configuring multiple hard disk drives is RAID (Redundant Array of Inexpensive/Independent Disks), which comes in a number of standard configurations and non-standard configurations. Non-RAID drive architectures also exist, and are referred to by acronyms with tongue-in-cheek similarity to RAID: - -JBOD (derived from ""just a bunch of disks""): described multiple hard disk drives operated as individual independent hard disk drives. -SPAN or BIG: A method of combining the free space on multiple hard disk drives from ""JBoD"" to create a spanned volume. Such a concatenation is sometimes also called BIG/SPAN. A SPAN or BIG is generally a spanned volume only, as it often contains mismatched types and sizes of hard disk drives. -MAID (derived from ""massive array of idle drives""): an architecture using hundreds to thousands of hard disk drives for providing nearline storage of data, primarily designed for ""Write Once, Read Occasionally"" (WORO) applications, in which increased storage density and decreased cost are traded for increased latency and decreased redundancy. - -JBOD -JBOD (abbreviated from ""Just a Bunch Of Disks""/""Just a Bunch Of Drives"") is an architecture using multiple hard drives exposed as individual devices. Hard drives may be treated independently or may be combined into one or more logical volumes using a volume manager like LVM or mdadm, or a device-spanning filesystem like btrfs; such volumes are usually called ""spanned"" or ""linear | SPAN | BIG"".",24496221,Non-RAID drive architectures,S -1098,1098.0,,"The technology life-cycle (TLC) describes the commercial gain of a product through the expense of research and development phase, and the financial return during its ""vital life"". Some technologies, such as steel, paper or cement manufacturing, have a long lifespan (with minor variations in technology incorporated with time) while in other cases, such as electronic or pharmaceutical products, the lifespan may be quite short.The TLC associated with a product or technological service is different from product life-cycle (PLC) dealt with in product life-cycle management. The latter is concerned with the life of a product in the marketplace with respect to timing of introduction, marketing measures, and business costs. The technology underlying the product (for example, that of a uniquely flavoured tea) may be quite marginal but the process of creating and managing its life as a branded product will be very different. -The technology life cycle is concerned with the time and cost of developing the technology, the timeline of recovering cost, and modes of making the technology yield a profit proportionate to the costs and risks involved. The TLC may, further, be protected during its cycle with patents and trademarks seeking to lengthen the cycle and to maximize the profit from it. -The product of the technology may be a commodity such as polyethylene plastic or a sophisticated product like the integrated circuits used in a smartphone. -The development of a competitive product or process can have a major effect on the lifespan of the technology, making it shorter.",10518546,Technology life cycle,T -1099,1099.0,,"""The Magic Cauldron"" is an essay by Eric S. Raymond on the open-source economic model. It can be read freely online and was published in his book 1999 book, The Cathedral and Bazaar. - -Contents -The essay analyzes the economic models that Raymond believes can sustain an open-source project in four steps: -It first analyzes what the author sees as classical myths about the cost refund in software development and tries to present a game-theory based model of the supposed stability of open-source cooperation. -Secondly, it presents nine theoretical models that would work for sustainable open-source development: two non-profit, seven for-profit. -Thirdly it states a theory to decide when it is economically interesting for software to remain closed. -Finally, it examines some mechanisms that, according to Raymond, the market invented to fund for-profit open-source development (like patronage system and task markets). - -Publication -Raymond, Eric S. (2001). ""The Magic Cauldron"".",24538247,The Magic Cauldron (essay),T -1100,1100.0,,"Real-time gross settlement (RTGS) systems are specialist funds transfer systems where the transfer of money or securities takes place from one bank to any other bank on a ""real-time"" and on a ""gross"" basis. Settlement in ""real time"" means a payment transaction is not subjected to any waiting period, with transactions being settled as soon as they are processed. ""Gross settlement"" means the transaction is settled on a one-to-one basis, without bundling or netting with any other transaction. ""Settlement"" means that once processed, payments are final and irrevocable. - -History -As of 1985, three central banks implemented RTGS systems, while by the end of 2005, RTGS systems had been implemented by 90 central banks.The first system that had the attributes of an RTGS system was the US Fedwire system which was launched in 1970. This was based on a previous method of transferring funds electronically between US federal reserve banks via telegraph.",839887,Real-time gross settlement,T -1101,1101.0,,"There have been many toilet-related injuries and deaths throughout history and in urban legends. - -Accidental injuries -Infants and toddlers have fallen into toilet bowls and drowned. Safety devices exist to help prevent such accidents. Injuries to adults include bruised buttocks and tail bones, as well as dislocated hips from unexpectedly sitting on the toilet bowl rim because the seat is up or loose. Injuries can also be caused by pinching due to splits in plastic seats or by splinters from wooden seats, or if the toilet itself collapses under the weight of the user. Older high-tank cast-iron cisterns have been known to detach from the wall when the chain is pulled to flush, causing injuries to the user.",3035321,Toilet-related injuries and deaths,T -1102,1102.0,,"Technological determinism is a reductionist theory that assumes that a society's technology progresses by following its own internal logic of efficiency, while determining the development of the social structure and cultural values. The term is believed to have originated from Thorstein Veblen (1857–1929), an American sociologist and economist. The most radical technological determinist in the United States in the 20th century was most likely Clarence Ayres who was a follower of Thorstein Veblen and John Dewey. William Ogburn was also known for his radical technological determinism and his theory on cultural lag. -The first major elaboration of a technological determinist view of socioeconomic development came from the German philosopher and economist Karl Marx, who argued that changes in technology, and specifically productive technology, are the primary influence on human social relations and organizational structure, and that social relations and cultural practices ultimately revolve around the technological and economic base of a given society. Marx's position has become embedded in contemporary society, where the idea that fast-changing technologies alter human lives is pervasive.",40626873,Technological determinism,M -1103,1103.0,,"ARIAD Pharmaceuticals, Inc. was an American oncology company, now part of Takeda Oncology, which was founded in 1991 by Harvey J. Berger, M.D. and headquartered in Cambridge, Massachusetts. ARIAD engaged in the discovery, development, and commercialization of medicines for cancer patients. -ARIAD’s most prominent drug discoveries include Iclusig, designed for patients with all forms of Philadelphia chromosome-positive [Ph+] chronic myeloid leukemia (CML) or Ph+ acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) who are resistant to or unable to tolerate other tyrosine kinase inhibitors, and brigatinib, a lung cancer drug which has completed its registration trial in ALK fusion driven non-small cell lung cancer as of June 2016 and was approved in the U.S.",20737471,ARIAD Pharmaceuticals,S -1104,1104.0,,"Lithium perchlorate is the inorganic compound with the formula LiClO4. This white or colourless crystalline salt is noteworthy for its high solubility in many solvents. It exists both in anhydrous form and as a trihydrate. - -Applications -Inorganic chemistry -Lithium perchlorate is used as a source of oxygen in some chemical oxygen generators. It decomposes at about 400 °C, yielding lithium chloride and oxygen: -LiClO4 → LiCl + 2 O2Over 60% of the mass of the lithium perchlorate is released as oxygen. It has both the highest oxygen to weight and oxygen to volume ratio of all practical perchlorate salts, and higher oxygen to volume ratio than liquid oxygen.Lithium perchlorate is used as an oxidizer in solid rocket propellants, and to produce red colored flame in pyrotechnic compositions. - -Organic chemistry -LiClO4 is highly soluble in organic solvents, even diethyl ether.",2172095,Lithium perchlorate,E -1105,1105.0,,"In mathematics, the Farey sequence of order n is the sequence of completely reduced fractions, either between 0 and 1, or without this restriction, which when in lowest terms have denominators less than or equal to n, arranged in order of increasing size. -With the restricted definition, each Farey sequence starts with the value 0, denoted by the fraction 0/1, and ends with the value 1, denoted by the fraction 1/1 (although some authors omit these terms). -A Farey sequence is sometimes called a Farey series, which is not strictly correct, because the terms are not summed. - -Examples -The Farey sequences of orders 1 to 8 are : - -F1 = { 0/1, 1/1 } -F2 = { 0/1, 1/2, 1/1 } -F3 = { 0/1, 1/3, 1/2, 2/3, 1/1 } -F4 = { 0/1, 1/4, 1/3, 1/2, 2/3, 3/4, 1/1 } -F5 = { 0/1, 1/5, 1/4, 1/3, 2/5, 1/2, 3/5, 2/3, 3/4, 4/5, 1/1 } -F6 = { 0/1, 1/6, 1/5, 1/4, 1/3, 2/5, 1/2, 3/5, 2/3, 3/4, 4/5, 5/6, 1/1 } -F7 = { 0/1, 1/7, 1/6, 1/5, 1/4, 2/7, 1/3, 2/5, 3/7, 1/2, 4/7, 3/5, 2/3, 5/7, 3/4, 4/5, 5/6, 6/7, 1/1 } -F8 = { 0/1, 1/8, 1/7, 1/6, 1/5, 1/4, 2/7, 1/3, 3/8, 2/5, 3/7, 1/2, 4/7, 3/5, 5/8, 2/3, 5/7, 3/4, 4/5, 5/6, 6/7, 7/8, 1/1 } - -Farey sunburst -Plotting the numerators versus the denominators of a Farey sequence gives a shape like the one to the right, shown for F6. -Reflecting this shape around the diagonal and main axes generates the Farey sunburst, shown below. The Farey sunburst of order n connects the visible integer grid points from the origin in the square of side 2n, centered at the origin. Using Pick's theorem, the area of the sunburst is 4(|Fn|−1), where |Fn| is the number of fractions in Fn. - -History -The history of 'Farey series' is very curious — Hardy & Wright (1979)... once again the man whose name was given to a mathematical relation was not the original discoverer so far as the records go. — Beiler (1964)Farey sequences are named after the British geologist John Farey, Sr., whose letter about these sequences was published in the Philosophical Magazine in 1816.",350164,Farey sequence,M -1106,1106.0,,"Edward Allworthy Armstrong (8 October 1900 – 19 December 1978) was a British ornithologist and Church of England clergyman. -Edward Allworthy Armstrong was born at Corlea, Lowwood, Belfast on 8 October 1900, the younger child and only son of Hamilton Armstrong, manufacturer's agent, and his wife, Mary Elizabeth Susan. He was educated at the Royal Belfast Academical Institution and then at Queen's University, Belfast, studying science in his first year then switching to philosophy, obtaining a BA (hons) in 1921. In preparation for ordination in the Anglican Church he then studied theology at Ridley Hall, Cambridge. He later studied anthropology and Chinese at Hong Kong University and obtained an MA in the history and philosophy of religion and in Chinese studies from Leeds University. As a young priest he travelled widely, serving in parishes in Doncaster, Ipswich, Hong Kong, and Leeds before settling in Cambridge in 1943 where he lived for the rest of his life. -He married Eunice Joan Uttley in 1940, and had two sons.",18147281,Edward Allworthy Armstrong,S -1107,1107.0,,"Preben Maegaard (September 25, 1935 – March 25, 2021), was a Danish renewable energy pioneer, author and expert. Since the oil crisis in 1974 he worked for the transition from fossil fuels to renewable energy. -Preben Maegaard was co-founder of the Nordic Folkecenter for Renewable Energy, established in 1983, and its director 1984 till 2013 (www.folkecenter.net). - -Work -Preben Maegaard works locally, nationally and internationally at the organisational, political and technological levels within broad spectrum of renewable energy technologies. -From 1979 to 1984 Preben Maegaard was chairman of the Danish Renewable Energy Association (OVE), since 1991, vice-president of Eurosolar (the European Renewable Energy Association) and in 2006, appointed senior vice-president. Since 1992 he has been co-ordinator of the European Solar Prize in Denmark and member of the European Solar Prize Jury. In 1995 he became Member of Senate, UTER, Technical University, Havana.",14320541,Preben Maegaard,E -1108,1108.0,,"In electromagnetics, an antenna's gain is a key performance parameter which combines the antenna's directivity and radiation efficiency. The term power gain has been deprecated by IEEE. In a transmitting antenna, the gain describes how well the antenna converts input power into radio waves headed in a specified direction. In a receiving antenna, the gain describes how well the antenna converts radio waves arriving from a specified direction into electrical power. When no direction is specified, gain is understood to refer to the peak value of the gain, the gain in the direction of the antenna's main lobe.",49693,Gain (antenna),E -1109,1109.0,,"Very short patch (VSP) repair is a DNA repair system that removes GT mismatches created by the deamination of 5-methylcytosine to thymine. This system exists because the glycosylases which normally target deaminated bases cannot target thymine (it being one of the regular four bases in DNA). -The components of the system are MutS, which binds to the GT mismatch, the VSR endonuclease, which cuts the DNA, and MutL, which recruits the UvrD helicase. -VSR (very short patch repair) endonucleases occur in a variety of bacteria. They work by cutting, or rather, making a nick in DNA if the base pair is mutated or damaged. - -Function -Mutations in the base pairs of DNA can be harmful to the organism. In particular, C to T mutations occur quite often due to methylation of cytosine. Hence, the VSR endonucleases have a function to protect the cell from damage caused by mutated DNA. - -Mechanism -VSR recognises a TG mismatched base pair, generated after spontaneous deamination of methylated cytosines, and it creates a nick on a single strand by cleaving the phosphate backbone on the 5' side of the thymine.",26945617,Very short patch repair,S -1110,1110.0,,"Environmental archaeology is a sub-field of archaeology which emerged in 1970s and is the science of reconstructing the relationships between past societies and the environments they lived in. The field represents an archaeological-palaeoecological approach to studying the palaeoenvironment through the methods of human palaeoecology. Reconstructing past environments and past peoples' relationships and interactions with the landscapes they inhabited provides archaeologists with insights into the origin and evolution of anthropogenic environments, and prehistoric adaptations and economic practices.Environmental archaeology is commonly divided into three sub-fields: - -archaeobotany (the study of plant remains) -zooarchaeology (the study of faunal remains) -geoarchaeology (the study of geological processes and their relationship to the archaeological record)Environmental archaeology often involves studying plant and animal remains in order to investigate which plant and animal species were present at the time of prehistoric habitations, and how past societies managed them. It may also involve studying the physical environment and how similar or different it was in the past compared to the present day. An important component of such analyses represents the study of site formation processes.",982249,Environmental archaeology,S -1111,1111.0,,"In mathematics, a tame topology is a hypothetical topology proposed by Alexander Grothendieck in his research program Esquisse d’un programme under the French name topologie modérée (moderate topology). It is a topology in which the theory of dévissage can be applied to stratified structures such as semialgebraic or semianalytic sets.Some authors consider an o-minimal structure to be a candidate for realizing tame topology in the real case. There are also some other suggestions. - -See also -Thom's first isotopy lemma - -References -A'Campo, Norbert; Ji, Lizhen; Papadopoulos, Athanase (2016). ""On Grothendieck's tame topology"". Handbook of Teichmüller Theory, Volume VI.",71402929,Tame topology,M -1112,1112.0,,"The magnetosheath is the region of space between the magnetopause and the bow shock of a planet's magnetosphere. The regularly organized magnetic field generated by the planet becomes weak and irregular in the magnetosheath due to interaction with the incoming solar wind, and is incapable of fully deflecting the highly charged particles. The density of the particles in this region is considerably lower than what is found beyond the bow shock, but greater than within the magnetopause, and can be considered a transitory state. -Scientific research into the exact nature of the magnetosheath has been limited due to a longstanding misconception that it was a simple byproduct of the bow shock/magnetopause interaction and had no inherently important properties of its own. Recent studies indicate, however, that the magnetosheath is a dynamic region of turbulent plasma flow that may play an important role in the structure of the bow shock and the magnetopause, and may help to dictate the flow of energetic particles across those boundaries. Kinetic plasma instabilities may cause further complexity by generating plasma waves and energetic particle beams in the magnetosheath and foreshock regions.The Earth's magnetosheath typically occupies the region of space approximately 10 Earth radii on the upwind (Sun-facing) side of the planet, extending significantly farther out on the downwind side due to the pressure of the solar wind.",1693080,Magnetosheath,M -1113,1113.0,,"Least-squares spectral analysis (LSSA) is a method of estimating a frequency spectrum based on a least-squares fit of sinusoids to data samples, similar to Fourier analysis. Fourier analysis, the most used spectral method in science, generally boosts long-periodic noise in the long and gapped records; LSSA mitigates such problems. Unlike in Fourier analysis, data need not be equally spaced to use LSSA. -Developed in 1969 and 1971, LSSA is also known as the Vaníček method and the Gauss-Vaniček method after Petr Vaníček, and as the Lomb method or the Lomb–Scargle periodogram, based on the simplifications first by Nicholas R. Lomb and then by Jeffrey D. Scargle. - -Historical background -The close connections between Fourier analysis, the periodogram, and the least-squares fitting of sinusoids have been known for a long time.",13609399,Least-squares spectral analysis,M -1114,1114.0,,"A gadget is a mechanical device or any ingenious article. Gadgets are sometimes referred to as gizmos. - -History -The etymology of the word is disputed. The word first appears as reference to an 18th-century tool in glassmaking that was developed as a spring pontil. As stated in the glass dictionary published by the Corning Museum of Glass, a gadget is a metal rod with a spring clip that grips the foot of a vessel and so avoids the use of a pontil. Gadgets were first used in the late 18th century.",533170,Gadget,T -1115,1115.0,,"Product ecosystem theory is an emerging theory that describes how the design of manufactured products evolves over time and draws parallels with how species evolve within a natural ecosystem. Fundamental to this theory is that manufactured product lines respond to external threats and opportunities in much the same way that species respond to threats and opportunities. Competition and other environmental pressures may cause a species to become extinct. An example of the parallel in consumer products is the way in which the typewriter became displaced (or extinct) due to pressures from the personal computer. -Products lines can be seen to incrementally change and branch over time following the principle of phyletic gradualism.",43272706,Product ecosystem theory,E -1116,1116.0,,"The Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research was founded in Müncheberg, Germany in 1928 as part of the Kaiser-Wilhelm-Gesellschaft. The founding director, Erwin Baur, initiated breeding programmes with fruits and berries, and basic research on Antirrhinum majus and the domestication of lupins. After the Second World War, the institute moved west to Voldagsen, and was relocated to new buildings on the present site in Cologne in 1955. -·The modern era of the Institute began in 1978 with the appointment of Jeff Schell and the development of plant transformation technologies and plant molecular genetics. The focus on molecular genetics was extended in 1980 with the appointment of Heinz Saedler.",6746982,Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research,S -1117,1117.0,,"Real-time locating systems (RTLS), also known as real-time tracking systems, are used to automatically identify and track the location of objects or people in real time, usually within a building or other contained area. Wireless RTLS tags are attached to objects or worn by people, and in most RTLS, fixed reference points receive wireless signals from tags to determine their location. Examples of real-time locating systems include tracking automobiles through an assembly line, locating pallets of merchandise in a warehouse, or finding medical equipment in a hospital. -The physical layer of RTLS technology is often radio frequency (RF) communication. Some systems use optical (usually infrared) or acoustic (usually ultrasound) technology with, or in place of RF, RTLS tags. And fixed reference points can be transmitters, receivers, or both resulting in numerous possible technology combinations. -RTLS are a form of local positioning system and do not usually refer to GPS or to mobile phone tracking.",22845262,Real-time locating system,T -1118,1118.0,,"Paper composite panels are a phenolic resin/cellulose composite material made from partially recycled paper and phenolic resin. Multiple layers of paper are soaked in phenolic resin, then molded and baked into net shape in a heated form or press. Originally distributed as a commercial kitchen surface in the 1950s, it has recently been adapted for use in skateboard parks as well as various other applications, such as residential counters, cabinetry, fiberglass cores, guitar fingerboards, signage, exterior wall cladding, and a variety of architectural applications. - -Composition -There are several manufacturers in North America who use a different composition of materials to form the final product. One composition is cellulose fiber and phenolic resin (a type of polymer) which is combined and baked for a smooth hard surface. The natural fibers are made from plant, animal and mineral sources.",3289793,Paper composite panels,E -1119,1119.0,,"Anthropology is the study of human societal and cultural development in the past, present, and future with a number of facets that are categorized into five different fields. These fields include: Biological (Physical) Anthropology, Cultural (socio-cultural) Anthropology, Linguistic Anthropology (Linguistics), Archaeology, and Applied anthropology. Applied anthropology is the analysis of human interaction with the purpose of solving practical problems that affect and arise throughout time between cultures and societies. Applied Anthropologists use many different methods to conduct research on agriculture, health and medicine, housing, social services, political-economic development, displacement and resettlement, business and industry, education, nutrition, environment, and aging. Applied Anthropology research methods are: 1.) policy research, 2.) evaluation research, 3.) cultural intervention, 4.) activist (action) research, 5.) participatory action research (PAR). - -Background/history -Applied anthropology was first established in the 19th century in Europe and continued to expand to other cultures around the world.",65980939,Applied Anthropology Research Methods,S -1120,1120.0,,"Burnishing is the plastic deformation of a surface due to sliding contact with another object. It smooths the surface and makes it shinier. Burnishing may occur on any sliding surface if the contact stress locally exceeds the yield strength of the material. The phenomenon can occur both unintentionally as a failure mode, and intentionally as part of a metalworking or manufacturing process. It is a squeezing operation under cold working. - -Failure mode (unintentionally) -The action of a hardened ball against a softer, flat plate illustrates the process of burnishing.",17549172,Burnishing (metal),E -1121,1121.0,,"A documentalist is a professional, trained in documentation science and specializing in assisting researchers in their search for scientific and technical documentation. With the development of bibliographical databases such as MEDLINE, documentalists were professionals who searched such databases on the behalf of users. -When the field of documentation changed its name to information science, the terms information specialist or information professional often replaced the term documentalist. - -See also -Archivist -Information scientist -Information professional -Librarian - -Literature -Bowles, M. D. (1999). The information wars: Two cultures and the conflict in information retrieval, 1945-1999.",8099232,Documentalist,S -1122,1122.0,,"Thermophyte (Greek thérmos = warmth, heat + phyton = plant) is an organism which is tolerant or thriving at high temperatures. These organisms are categorized according to ecological valences at high temperatures, including biological extremely. Such organisms included the hot-spring taxa also.A large amount of thermophytes are algae, more specifically blue-green algae, also referred to as cyanobacteria. This type of algae thrives in hot conditions ranging anywhere from 50 to 70 degrees Celsius, which other plants and organisms cannot survive in. Thermophytes are able to survive extreme temperatures as their cells contain an “unorganized nucleus”. -As the name suggests, thermophytes are found in high temperatures.",52841665,Thermophyte,S -1123,1123.0,,"Science fiction prototyping (SFP) refers to the idea of using science fiction to describe and explore the implications of futuristic technologies and the social structures enabled by them. Similar terms are design fiction, speculative design, and critical design. - -History and progress -The idea was introduced by Brian David Johnson in 2010 who, at the time, was a futurist at Intel working on the challenge his company faced anticipating the market needs for integrated circuits at the end of their 7–10 years design and production cycle. The roots for Science Fiction Prototyping can be traced back to two papers, the first by Callaghan et-al “Pervasive Computing and Urban Development: Issues for the individual and Society”, presented at the 2004 United Nations World Urban Forum which used short stories as a means to convey potential future threats of technology to society and the second, by Egerton et-al ""Using Multiple Personas In Service Robots To Improve Exploration Strategies When Mapping New Environments"" describing multiple personas and irrational thinking for humanoid robots which inspired Brian David Johnson to write the first Science Fiction Prototype, Nebulous Mechanisms, which went on to become a series of stories that eventually morphed into Intel's 21st Century Robot project. Together Johnson, Callaghan and Egerton formed the Creative Science Foundation as a vehicle to promote and support the use of Science Fiction Prototyping and its derivatives. The first public Science Fiction Prototyping event was Creative Science 2010 (not to be confused with Creation Science), held in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia on 19 July 2010.",42519513,Science fiction prototyping,T -1124,1124.0,,"German rearmament (Aufrüstung, German pronunciation: [ˈaʊ̯fˌʀʏstʊŋ]) was a policy and practice of rearmament carried out by Germany from 1918 to 1939, in violation of the Treaty of Versailles which required German disarmament after WWI to prevent it starting another war. It began on a small, secret, and informal basis shortly after the treaty was signed, but was openly and massively expanded after the Nazi Party came to power in 1933. -Despite its scale, German re-armament remained a largely covert operation, carried out using front organizations such as glider clubs for training pilots and sporting clubs, and Nazi SA militia groups for teaching infantry combat techniques. Front companies like MEFO were set up to finance the rearmament by placing massive orders with Krupp, Siemens, Gutehofnungshütte, and Rheinmetall for weapons forbidden by the Treaty of Versailles. -Carl von Ossietzky exposed the reality of the German rearmament in 1931 and his disclosures won him the 1935 Nobel Peace Prize but he was imprisoned and tortured by the Nazis, dying of tuberculosis in 1938. Ossietzky's disclosures triggered the re-armament policy in Great Britain, which escalated after Adolf Hitler withdrew Germany from the League of Nations and World Disarmament Conference in 1933.Despite warnings by Ossietzky, Winston Churchill and others, successive governments across Europe failed to effectively recognize, cooperate, and respond to the potential danger posed by Germany's re-armament. Outside Germany, a global disarmament movement was popular after World War I and Europe's democracies continued to elect governments that supported disarmament even as Germany pursued rearmament.",20777175,German rearmament,T -1125,1125.0,,"The Graph500 is a rating of supercomputer systems, focused on data-intensive loads. The project was announced on International Supercomputing Conference in June 2010. The first list was published at the ACM/IEEE Supercomputing Conference in November 2010. New versions of the list are published twice a year. The main performance metric used to rank the supercomputers is GTEPS (giga- traversed edges per second). -Richard Murphy from Sandia National Laboratories, says that ""The Graph500's goal is to promote awareness of complex data problems"", instead of focusing on computer benchmarks like HPL (High Performance Linpack), which TOP500 is based on.Despite its name, there were several hundreds of systems in the rating, growing up to 174 in June 2014.The algorithm and implementation that won the championship is published in the paper titled ""Extreme scale breadth-first search on supercomputers"".There is also list Green Graph 500, which uses same performance metric, but sorts list according to performance per Watt, like Green 500 works with TOP500 (HPL). - -Benchmark -The benchmark used in Graph500 stresses the communication subsystem of the system, instead of counting double precision floating-point.",37562767,Graph500,T -1126,1126.0,,"An artificial general intelligence (AGI) is a hypothetical type of intelligent agent. If realized, an AGI could learn to accomplish any intellectual task that human beings or animals can perform. Alternatively, AGI has been defined as an autonomous system that surpasses human capabilities in the majority of economically valuable tasks. Creating AGI is a primary goal of some artificial intelligence research and of companies such as OpenAI, DeepMind, and Anthropic. AGI is a common topic in science fiction and futures studies. -The timeline for AGI development remains a subject of ongoing debate among researchers and experts.",586357,Artificial general intelligence,T -1127,1127.0,,"Particle deposition is the spontaneous attachment of particles to surfaces. The particles in question are normally colloidal particles, while the surfaces involved may be planar, curved, or may represent particles much larger in size than the depositing ones (e.g., sand grains). Deposition processes may be triggered by appropriate hydrodynamic flow conditions and favorable particle-surface interactions. Depositing particles may just form a monolayer which further inhibits additional particle deposition, and thereby one refers to surface blocking. Initially attached particles may also serve as seeds for further particle deposition, which leads to the formation of thicker particle deposits, and this process is termed as surface ripening or fouling.",35696465,Particle deposition,M -1128,1128.0,,"Joseph Patrick Slattery, CM (21 May 1866 – 31 March 1931) was an Irish-born physicist, radiologist, Catholic priest, pioneer in the field of radiography in Australia and credited with the first use of fluoroscopy in Australia. -Born in 1866 in Waterford, Ireland, he traveled to Australia as a deacon in 1888, where he was ordained a priest by Cardinal Moran. As a member of the Vincentian Congregation, he and several of his confreres took over the running of St Stanislaus' at Bathurst from the diocesan clergy. Appointed to the position of professor and taught science, including physics and chemistry. Slattery had a keen interest in the new technology of wireless radio and was the first to install a wireless set west of the Blue Mountains.",48493491,Joseph Patrick Slattery,T -1129,1129.0,,"In computational geometry, a constrained Delaunay triangulation is a generalization of the Delaunay triangulation that forces certain required segments into the triangulation as edges, unlike the Delaunay triangulation itself which is based purely on the position of a given set of vertices without regard to how they should be connected by edges. It can be computed efficiently and has applications in geographic information systems and in mesh generation. - -Definition -The input to the constrained Delaunay triangulation problem is a planar straight-line graph, a set of points and non-crossing line segments in the plane. -The constrained Delaunay triangulation of this input is a triangulation of its convex hull, including all of the input segments as edges, and using only the vertices of the input. For every additional edge - - - - e - - - {\displaystyle e} - added to this input to make it into a triangulation, there should exist a circle through the endpoints of - - - - e - - - {\displaystyle e} - , such that any vertex interior to the circle is blocked from visibility from at least one endpoint of - - - - e - - - {\displaystyle e} - by a segment of the input. This generalizes the defining property of two-dimensional Delaunay triangulations of points, that each edge have a circle through its two endpoints containing no other vertices. A triangulation satisfying these properties always exists.Jonathan Shewchuk has generalized this definition to constrained Delaunay triangulations of three-dimensional inputs, systems of points and non-crossing segments and triangles in three-dimensional space; however, not every input of this type has a constrained Delaunay triangulation according to his generalized definition. - -Algorithms -Several algorithms for computing constrained Delaunay triangulations of planar straight-line graphs in time - - - - O - ( - n - log - ⁡ - n - ) - - - {\displaystyle O(n\log n)} - are known.",29638267,Constrained Delaunay triangulation,E -1130,1130.0,,"In order-theoretic mathematics, a series-parallel partial order is a partially ordered set built up from smaller series-parallel partial orders by two simple composition operations.The series-parallel partial orders may be characterized as the N-free finite partial orders; they have order dimension at most two. They include weak orders and the reachability relationship in directed trees and directed series–parallel graphs. The comparability graphs of series-parallel partial orders are cographs.Series-parallel partial orders have been applied in job shop scheduling, machine learning of event sequencing in time series data, transmission sequencing of multimedia data, and throughput maximization in dataflow programming.Series-parallel partial orders have also been called multitrees; however, that name is ambiguous: multitrees also refer to partial orders with no four-element diamond suborder and to other structures formed from multiple trees. - -Definition -Consider P and Q, two partially ordered sets. The series composition of P and Q, written P; Q, P * Q, or P ⧀ Q,is the partially ordered set whose elements are the disjoint union of the elements of P and Q. In P; Q, two elements x and y that both belong to P or that both belong to Q have the same order relation that they do in P or Q respectively.",28826384,Series-parallel partial order,M -1131,1131.0,,"Open manufacturing, also known as open production, maker manufacturing, and with the slogan ""Design Global, Manufacture Local"" is a new model of socioeconomic production in which physical objects are produced in an open, collaborative and distributed manner and based on open design and open source principles. -Open manufacturing combines the following elements of a production process: new open production tools and methods (such as 3D printers), new value-based movements (such as the maker movement), new institutions and networks for manufacturing and production (such as FabLabs), and open source methods, software and protocols. Open manufacturing may also include digital modeling and fabrication and computer numeric control (CNC) of the machines used for production through open source software and open source hardware. -The philosophy of open manufacturing is close to the open-source movement, but aims at the development of physical products rather than software. The term is linked to the notion of democratizing technology as embodied in the maker culture, the DIY ethic, the open source appropriate technology movement, the Fablab-network and other rooms for grassroot innovation such as hackerspaces. - -Principles -The openness of ""open manufacturing"" may relate to the nature of the product (open design), to the nature of the production machines and methods (e.g. open source 3D-printers, open source CNC), to the process of production and innovation (commons-based peer production / collaborative / distributed manufacturing), or to new forms of value creation (network-based bottom-up or hybrid versus business-centric top down). Jeremy Rifkin argues, that open production through 3D-printing ""will eventually and inevitably reduce marginal costs to near zero, eliminate profit, and make property exchange in markets unnecessary for many (though not all) products"". - -Socioeconomic implications -The following points are seen as key implications of open manufacturing: -a democratization of (the means of) production, -a decentralization of production and local value creation (global cooperation – local manufacturing), -the possibility to produce high quality prototypes and products in small quantities at moderate (to increasingly low) prices, -the closing of the gap between the formal and informal sector and opportunities for bottom-up open innovation, and -a transition from consumer to producer for manufactured goods.In the context of socioeconomic development, open manufacturing has been described as a path towards a more sustainable industrialization on a global scale, that promotes ""social sustainability"" and provides the opportunity to shift to a ""collaboration-oriented industrialization driven by stakeholders from countries with different development status connected in a global value creation at eye level"".For developing countries, open production could notably lead to products more adapted to local problems and local markets and reduce dependencies on foreign goods, as vital products could be manufactured locally.",52433684,Open manufacturing,E -1132,1132.0,,"Vulnerability refers to ""the quality or state of being exposed to the possibility of being attacked or harmed, either physically or emotionally.""A window of vulnerability (WOV) is a time frame within which defensive measures are diminished, compromised, or lacking.The understanding of social and environmental vulnerability, as a methodological approach, involves the analysis of the risks and assets of disadvantaged groups, such as the elderly. The approach of vulnerability in itself brings great expectations of social policy and gerontological planning. Types of vulnerability include social, cognitive, environmental, emotional or military. -In relation to hazards and disasters, vulnerability is a concept that links the relationship that people have with their environment to social forces and institutions and the cultural values that sustain and contest them. ""The concept of vulnerability expresses the multi-dimensionality of disasters by focusing attention on the totality of relationships in a given social situation which constitute a condition that, in combination with environmental forces, produces a disaster"". It is also the extent to which changes could harm a system, or to which the community can be affected by the impact of a hazard or exposed to the possibility of being attacked or harmed, either physically or emotionally. -Within the body of literature related to vulnerability, one major research stream includes the methodology behind said research, namely measuring and assessing indicators of vulnerability.",36648147,Vulnerability,M -1133,1133.0,,"In mathematics, a Noetherian topological space, named for Emmy Noether, is a topological space in which closed subsets satisfy the descending chain condition. Equivalently, we could say that the open subsets satisfy the ascending chain condition, since they are the complements of the closed subsets. The Noetherian property of a topological space can also be seen as a strong compactness condition, namely that every open subset of such a space is compact, and in fact it is equivalent to the seemingly stronger statement that every subset is compact. - -Definition -A topological space - - - - X - - - {\displaystyle X} - is called Noetherian if it satisfies the descending chain condition for closed subsets: for any sequence - - - - - - Y - - 1 - - - ⊇ - - Y - - 2 - - - ⊇ - ⋯ - - - {\displaystyle Y_{1}\supseteq Y_{2}\supseteq \cdots } - of closed subsets - - - - - Y - - i - - - - - {\displaystyle Y_{i}} - of - - - - X - - - {\displaystyle X} - , there is an integer - - - - m - - - {\displaystyle m} - such that - - - - - Y - - m - - - = - - Y - - m - + - 1 - - - = - ⋯ - . - - - {\displaystyle Y_{m}=Y_{m+1}=\cdots .} - -Properties -A topological space - - - - X - - - {\displaystyle X} - is Noetherian if and only if every subspace of - - - - X - - - {\displaystyle X} - is compact (i.e., - - - - X - - - {\displaystyle X} - is hereditarily compact), and if and only if every open subset of - - - - X - - - {\displaystyle X} - is compact. -Every subspace of a Noetherian space is Noetherian. -The continuous image of a Noetherian space is Noetherian. -A finite union of Noetherian subspaces of a topological space is Noetherian. -Every Hausdorff Noetherian space is finite with the discrete topology.Proof: Every subset of X is compact in a Hausdorff space, hence closed. So X has the discrete topology, and being compact, it must be finite.Every Noetherian space X has a finite number of irreducible components. If the irreducible components are - - - - - X - - 1 - - - , - . - . - . - , - - X - - n - - - - - {\displaystyle X_{1},...,X_{n}} - , then - - - - X - = - - X - - 1 - - - ∪ - ⋯ - ∪ - - X - - n - - - - - {\displaystyle X=X_{1}\cup \cdots \cup X_{n}} - , and none of the components - - - - - X - - i - - - - - {\displaystyle X_{i}} - is contained in the union of the other components. - -From algebraic geometry -Many examples of Noetherian topological spaces come from algebraic geometry, where for the Zariski topology an irreducible set has the intuitive property that any closed proper subset has smaller dimension.",2936080,Noetherian topological space,M -1134,1134.0,,"Philippine Wireless Inc., doing business as PocketBell, was a telecommunications company which was the first to introduce pagers in the Philippines. - -History -Philippine Wireless Inc. introduced PocketBell in the 1970s, becoming the first company to make pagers commercially available in the Philippines. From the 1970s until the mid-1980s, it virtually maintained a monopoly in the pager industry in the country. After the 1986 People Power Revolution which deposed President Ferdinand Marcos and installed Corazon Aquino as the new head of state, certain sectors of the Philippine economy was liberalized including telecommunications which allowed the entry of new companies in the pager industry. As much as 10 companies competed with Philippine Wireless at the peak of the pager industry in the country.A shareholder dispute within the Philippine Wireless in the 1990s which ended to the Santiago family gaining control of the company but this allowed PocketBell's competitors to break its monopoly.",2868835,PocketBell,T -1135,1135.0,,"In structural biology, as well as in virtually all sciences that produce three-dimensional data, the Fourier shell correlation (FSC) measures the normalised cross-correlation coefficient between two 3-dimensional volumes over corresponding shells in Fourier space (i.e., as a function of spatial frequency). The FSC is the three-dimensional extension of the two-dimensional Fourier ring correlation (FRC); also known as: spatial frequency correlation function. - -Calculation -F - S - C - ( - r - ) - = - - - - - ∑ - - - r - - i - - - ∈ - r - - - - - F - - 1 - - - ( - - r - - i - - - ) - ⋅ - - F - - 2 - - - ( - - r - - i - - - - ) - - ∗ - - - - - - - - - - ∑ - - - r - - i - - - ∈ - r - - - - - - | - - - F - - 1 - - - ( - - r - - i - - - ) - - | - - - 2 - - - - ⋅ - - ∑ - - - r - - i - - - ∈ - r - - - - - - | - - - F - - 2 - - - ( - - r - - i - - - ) - - | - - - 2 - - - - - - 2 - - - - - - - - - {\displaystyle FSC(r)={\frac {\displaystyle \sum _{r_{i}\in r}{F_{1}(r_{i})\cdot F_{2}(r_{i})^{\ast }}}{\displaystyle {\sqrt[{2}]{\sum _{r_{i}\in r}{\left|F_{1}(r_{i})\right|^{2}}\cdot \sum _{r_{i}\in r}{\left|F_{2}(r_{i})\right|^{2}}}}}}} - where - - - - - F - - 1 - - - - - {\displaystyle F_{1}} - is the complex structure Factor for volume 1, - - - - - F - - 2 - - - ∗ - - - - - {\displaystyle F_{2}^{\ast }} - is the complex conjugate of the structure Factor for volume 2, and - - - - - r - - i - - - - - {\displaystyle r_{i}} - is the individual voxel element at radius - - - - r - - - {\displaystyle r} - . In this form, the FSC takes two three-dimensional data sets and converts them into a one-dimensional array. -The FSC originated in cryo-electron microscopy and gradually proliferated to other fields. To measure the FSC, two independently determined 3D volumes are required. In cryo-electron microscopy, the two volumes are the result of two three-dimensional reconstructions, each based on half of the available data set.",21464095,Fourier shell correlation,M -1136,1136.0,,"Overengineering (or over-engineering) is the act of designing a product or providing a solution to a problem in an elaborate or complicated manner, where a simpler solution can be demonstrated to exist with the same efficiency and effectiveness as that of the original design.Overengineering is often identified with design changes that increase a factor of safety, add functionality, or overcome perceived design flaws that most users would accept. It can be desirable when safety or performance is critical (e.g. in aerospace vehicles and luxury road vehicles), or when extremely broad functionality is required (e.g. diagnostic and medical tools, power users of products), but it is generally criticized in terms of value engineering as wasteful of resources such as materials, time and money. NASA listed excessive features as one of the top 10 risks of failure for development projects, and Mercedes-Benz developed and removed 600 non-essential features from their cars due to malfunctions, lack of usability and customer complaints.As a design philosophy, it is the opposite of the minimalist ethos of ""less is more"" (or: “worse is better”) and a disobedience of the KISS principle. -Overengineering generally occurs in high-end products or specialized markets.",13816853,Overengineering,E -1137,1137.0,,"Megan and Morag, two domestic sheep, were the first mammals to have been successfully cloned from differentiated cells. They are not to be confused with Dolly the sheep which was the first animal to be successfully cloned from an adult somatic cell or Polly the sheep which was the first cloned and transgenic animal. Megan and Morag, like Dolly and Polly, were cloned at the Roslin Institute in Edinburgh, Scotland in 1995. - -Background -The team at the Roslin Institute were seeking a way to modify the genetic constitution of sheep and cattle more effectively than the hit and miss method that was the only method and had sort of aids available at the time – microinjection. In microinjection, DNA is injected into the pronuclei of fertilized oocytes. However, only a small proportion of the animals will integrate the injected DNA into their genome and in the rare cases that they do integrate this new genetic information, the pattern of expression of the injected piece of DNA's gene, due to the random integration, is very variable. -The team choose to combine two approaches – microinjection and embryonic stem cells.",12054042,Megan and Morag,S -1138,1138.0,,"Season cracking is a form of stress-corrosion cracking of brass cartridge cases originally reported from British forces in India. During the monsoon season, military activity was temporarily reduced, and ammunition was stored in stables until the dry weather returned. Many brass cartridges were subsequently found to be cracked, especially where the case was crimped to the bullet. It was not until 1921 that the phenomenon was explained by Moor, Beckinsale and Mallinson: ammonia from horse urine, combined with the residual stress in the cold-drawn metal of the cartridges, was responsible for the cracking. -Season cracking is characterised by deep brittle cracks which penetrate into affected components. If the cracks reach a critical size, the component can suddenly fracture, sometimes with disastrous results.",15668833,Season cracking,E -1139,1139.0,,"Nuclear chemistry is the sub-field of chemistry dealing with radioactivity, nuclear processes, and transformations in the nuclei of atoms, such as nuclear transmutation and nuclear properties. -It is the chemistry of radioactive elements such as the actinides, radium and radon together with the chemistry associated with equipment (such as nuclear reactors) which are designed to perform nuclear processes. This includes the corrosion of surfaces and the behavior under conditions of both normal and abnormal operation (such as during an accident). An important area is the behavior of objects and materials after being placed into a nuclear waste storage or disposal site. -It includes the study of the chemical effects resulting from the absorption of radiation within living animals, plants, and other materials. The radiation chemistry controls much of radiation biology as radiation has an effect on living things at the molecular scale. To explain it another way, the radiation alters the biochemicals within an organism, the alteration of the bio-molecules then changes the chemistry which occurs within the organism; this change in chemistry then can lead to a biological outcome.",242001,Nuclear chemistry,M -1140,1140.0,,"Ambulance Services in Hong Kong are provided by the Hong Kong Fire Services, in co-operation with two other voluntary organisations, the Auxiliary Medical Service and the Hong Kong St. John Ambulance. -Public hospitals have charged HK$100 for treatment at accident and emergency departments since 2002. About 2.2 million use the service each year. Waiting time varies between one hour and more than five hours. In 2017 it was decided to increase the cost to HK$180 with an expansion of the fee waiver mechanism.",19469225,Emergency medical services in Hong Kong,S -1141,1141.0,,"A point release (also a dot release, or hotfix) is a patch release of a software project, especially one intended to fix bugs or do small cleanups rather than add significant features. Often, there are too many bugs to be fixed in a single major or minor release, creating a need for a point release. - -Definition -The term ""point release"" refers to a common method of software versioning in which a major version is followed by a decimal point and a minor version. When a new minor version is released, the number after the decimal point is incremented, e.g. from 7.0 to 7.1, or from 2.4.9 to 2.4.10. The incrementing of the number after the ""point"" led to this phenomenon being called a ""point release"". - -Scope -In a point release, the changes to the software project are typically minor.",3977488,Point release,T -1142,1142.0,,"Lynx is a multiple rocket launcher developed and manufactured by Israel Military Industries (IMI) and used by Israel Defense Forces and other countries.It can be configured to carry a variety of rockets in two sealed pod containers: 40 (2 pods x 20 rockets each) 122mm Grad rockets; or 26 (2x13) 160mm LAR-160 or ACCULAR rockets; or eight (2x4) 306mm EXTRA rockets; two (2x1) 330mm Delilah missiles or four (2x2) 370mm Predator Hawk tactical ballistic missiles.After the acquisition of Israel Military Industries by Elbit Systems in 2018, an upgraded and modernized version of the Lynx was developed, called the PULS (Precise & Universal Launching System). -The Defense Technology Institute (DTI) of Thailand is partnering with Elbit Systems to develop a Thai version of the PULS called D-11A.In January 2023 Denmark announced it is negotiating the acquisition of 8 PULS systems for Royal Danish Army.In March 2023, the Dutch Ministry of Defence announced that it would acquire 20 PULS systems for the Royal Netherlands Army with the first systems to be delivered in the same year.The contract worth 305 million dollars was signed on May 18.On 5 May 2023, it is reported that Spain was evaluating K239 Chunmoo, Astros II and PULS systems, but no decision regarding a potential order of one of these systems had been made. - -Missile options of the PULS -Operators -Israel -Israeli Ground Forces - Under the name of Lahav. Azerbaijan -Azerbaijani Land Forces – 6 Lynx MRLS and 50 EXTRA rockets was acquired and then used in the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh War. Denmark -Royal Danish Army – 2 PULS MLRS (Total 8 on order, Contract signed on March 2, 2023) - Kazakhstan -18 Lynx ordered in 2008, delivered in 2008-09. - Rwanda -5 ordered in 2007 in service since 2008 - -Future operators -NetherlandsRoyal Netherlands Army – 20 PULS MLRS on order on Scania Gryphus chassis with armored cabins. Contract worth 305 million dollars was signed on May 18, 2023, 4 vehicles to be delivered in 2023. - -Potential operators -SpainSpanish Army – Spain is currently evaluating K239 Chunmoo, Astros II and PULS systems, but the decision regarding a potential order of one of these systems has not been made.",55723353,Lynx (multiple rocket launcher),E -1143,1143.0,,"Cost engineering is ""the engineering practice devoted to the management of project cost, involving such activities as estimating, cost control, cost forecasting, investment appraisal and risk analysis"". ""Cost Engineers budget, plan and monitor investment projects. They seek the optimum balance between cost, quality and time requirements.""Skills and knowledge of cost engineers are similar to those of quantity surveyors. In many industries, cost engineering is synonymous with project controls. As the title ""engineer"" has legal requirements in many jurisdictions (i.e.",14283013,Cost engineering,E -1144,1144.0,,"Engineering management is the application of the practice of management to the practice of engineering. -Engineering management is a career that brings together the technological problem-solving ability of engineering and the organizational, administrative, legal and planning abilities of management in order to oversee the operational performance of complex engineering-driven enterprises. A Master of Engineering Management (MEM) is sometimes compared to a Master of Business Administration (MBA) for professionals seeking a graduate degree as a qualifying credential for a career in engineering management. - -History -Stevens Institute of Technology is believed to have the oldest engineering management department, established as the School of Business Engineering in 1908. This was later called the Bachelor of Engineering in Engineering Management (BEEM) program and moved into the School of Systems and Enterprises. Syracuse University established the first graduate engineering management degree in the United States, which was first offered in 1957. In 1967 the first university department explicitly titled ""Engineering Management"" was founded at the Missouri University of Science and Technology (Missouri S&T, formerly the University of Missouri-Rolla, formerly Missouri School of Mines).",551388,Engineering management,E -1145,1145.0,,"Somatic fusion, also called protoplast fusion, is a type of genetic modification in plants by which two distinct species of plants are fused together to form a new hybrid plant with the characteristics of both, a somatic hybrid. Hybrids have been produced either between different varieties of the same species (e.g. between non-flowering potato plants and flowering potato plants) or between two different species (e.g. between wheat Triticum and rye Secale to produce Triticale). -Uses of somatic fusion include making potato plants resistant to potato leaf roll disease. Through somatic fusion, the crop potato plant Solanum tuberosum – the yield of which is severely reduced by a viral disease transmitted on by the aphid vector – is fused with the wild, non-tuber-bearing potato Solanum brevidens, which is resistant to the disease.",20727645,Somatic fusion,S -1146,1146.0,,"Naval architecture, or naval engineering, is an engineering discipline incorporating elements of mechanical, electrical, electronic, software and safety engineering as applied to the engineering design process, shipbuilding, maintenance, and operation of marine vessels and structures. Naval architecture involves basic and applied research, design, development, design evaluation (classification) and calculations during all stages of the life of a marine vehicle. Preliminary design of the vessel, its detailed design, construction, trials, operation and maintenance, launching and dry-docking are the main activities involved. Ship design calculations are also required for ships being modified (by means of conversion, rebuilding, modernization, or repair). Naval architecture also involves formulation of safety regulations and damage-control rules and the approval and certification of ship designs to meet statutory and non-statutory requirements. - -Main subjects -The word ""vessel"" includes every description of watercraft, mainly ships and boats, but also including non-displacement craft, WIG craft and seaplanes, used or capable of being used as a means of transportation on water.",76653,Naval architecture,E -1147,1147.0,,"In mathematics and mathematical physics, raising and lowering indices are operations on tensors which change their type. Raising and lowering indices are a form of index manipulation in tensor expressions. - -Vectors, covectors and the metric -Mathematical formulation -Mathematically vectors are elements of a vector space - - - - V - - - {\displaystyle V} - over a field - - - - K - - - {\displaystyle K} - , and for use in physics - - - - V - - - {\displaystyle V} - is usually defined with - - - - K - = - - R - - - - {\displaystyle K=\mathbb {R} } - or - - - - - C - - - - {\displaystyle \mathbb {C} } - . Concretely, if the dimension - - - - n - = - - dim - - ( - V - ) - - - {\displaystyle n={\text{dim}}(V)} - of - - - - V - - - {\displaystyle V} - is finite, then, after making a choice of basis, we can view such vector spaces as - - - - - - R - - - n - - - - - {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{n}} - or - - - - - - C - - - n - - - - - {\displaystyle \mathbb {C} ^{n}} - . -The dual space is the space of linear functionals mapping - - - - V - → - K - - - {\displaystyle V\rightarrow K} - . Concretely, in matrix notation these can be thought of as row vectors, which give a number when applied to column vectors. We denote this by - - - - - V - - ∗ - - - := - - Hom - - ( - V - , - K - ) - - - {\displaystyle V^{*}:={\text{Hom}}(V,K)} - , so that - - - - α - ∈ - - V - - ∗ - - - - - {\displaystyle \alpha \in V^{*}} - is a linear map - - - - α - : - V - → - K - - - {\displaystyle \alpha :V\rightarrow K} - . -Then under a choice of basis - - - - { - - e - - i - - - } - - - {\displaystyle \{e_{i}\}} - , we can view vectors - - - - v - ∈ - V - - - {\displaystyle v\in V} - as an - - - - - K - - n - - - - - {\displaystyle K^{n}} - vector with components - - - - - v - - i - - - - - {\displaystyle v^{i}} - (vectors are taken by convention to have indices up).",11325244,Raising and lowering indices,E -1148,1148.0,,"The Southeastern Iberian shrubs and woodlands is a Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub ecoregion in southwestern Europe. It lies southwestern coastal Spain, along the Mediterranean Sea. - -Geography -The ecoregion covers coastal low plains, hills, and badlands close to Spain's southeastern coast. -The ecoregion's geology is complex, made up mostly of sedimentary rocks like marl, gypsum, limestone, conglomerate, sandstone and consolidated dunes, together with coastal outcrops of volcanic rock like Cabo de Gata. The region is geologically active, with faults, earthquakes, recently uplifted areas.The seashore includes both coastal dunes and lagoons and areas of rocky coast. -The cities of Almería and Cartagena are in the ecoregion. - -Climate -The ecoregion has a Mediterranean climate, with rainfall mostly in the winter months, and a yearly summer drought. The ecoregion is hotter and drier than neighboring ecoregions, and known as 'thermo-Mediterranean'. Annual rainfall ranges from 200 to 250 mm.",63902668,Southeastern Iberian shrubs and woodlands,S -1149,1149.0,,"In mathematics, hyperbolic functions are analogues of the ordinary trigonometric functions, but defined using the hyperbola rather than the circle. Just as the points (cos t, sin t) form a circle with a unit radius, the points (cosh t, sinh t) form the right half of the unit hyperbola. Also, similarly to how the derivatives of sin(t) and cos(t) are cos(t) and –sin(t) respectively, the derivatives of sinh(t) and cosh(t) are cosh(t) and +sinh(t) respectively. -Hyperbolic functions occur in the calculations of angles and distances in hyperbolic geometry. They also occur in the solutions of many linear differential equations (such as the equation defining a catenary), cubic equations, and Laplace's equation in Cartesian coordinates. Laplace's equations are important in many areas of physics, including electromagnetic theory, heat transfer, fluid dynamics, and special relativity. -The basic hyperbolic functions are: -hyperbolic sine ""sinh"" (), -hyperbolic cosine ""cosh"" (),from which are derived: -hyperbolic tangent ""tanh"" (), -hyperbolic cosecant ""csch"" or ""cosech"" () -hyperbolic secant ""sech"" (), -hyperbolic cotangent ""coth"" (),corresponding to the derived trigonometric functions. -The inverse hyperbolic functions are: - -area hyperbolic sine ""arsinh"" (also denoted ""sinh−1"", ""asinh"" or sometimes ""arcsinh"") -area hyperbolic cosine ""arcosh"" (also denoted ""cosh−1"", ""acosh"" or sometimes ""arccosh"") -and so on.The hyperbolic functions take a real argument called a hyperbolic angle.",49133809,Hyperbolic functions,M -1150,1150.0,,"The Albany Museum, South Africa is situated in Grahamstown in South Africa, is affiliated to Rhodes University and dates back to 1855, making it the second oldest museum in South Africa. - -The natural history and geology collections of the Eastern Province Literary, Scientific and Medical Society were used as its nucleus. The herbarium is staffed by the South African National Biodiversity Institute and has material dating back to 1812, collected by William John Burchell, and a collection of 240 specimens donated by Constance Georgina Adams in 1919, as well as geological material gathered by Andrew Geddes Bain and W. G. Atherstone. It also houses a large collection of invertebrate, vertebrate and tetrapod fossils (some of which are from the world renowned Waterloo Farm lagerstätte), and palaeolithic stone tools discovered by Thomas Holden Bowker (1808–1885) near the Great Fish River. -The Museum currently is spread over seven buildings housing the Natural Sciences Museum, the History Museum, the Observatory Museum, Fort Selwyn, the Old Provost military prison, Drostdy Arch and the Old Priest's House. -The first curator was B.",20092916,"Albany Museum, South Africa",S -1151,1151.0,,"The Edinburgh Multi-Access System (EMAS) was a mainframe computer operating system at the University of Edinburgh. The system went online in 1971.EMAS was a powerful and efficient general purpose multi-user system which coped with many of the computing needs of the University of Edinburgh and the University of Kent (the only other site outside Edinburgh to adopt the operating system). - -History -Originally running on the ICL System 4/75 mainframe (based on the design of the IBM 360) it was later reimplemented on the ICL 2900 series of mainframes (as EMAS 2900 or EMAS-2) where it ran in service until the mid-1980s. Near the end of its life, the refactored version was back-ported (as EMAS-3) to the Amdahl 470 mainframe clone, and thence to the IBM System/370-XA architecture (the latter with help from the University of Kent, although they never actually ran EMAS-3). The National Advanced System (NAS) VL80 IBM mainframe clone followed later. The final EMAS system (the Edinburgh VL80) was decommissioned in July 1992. -The University of Kent system went live in December 1979, and ran on the least powerful machine in the ICL 2900 range - an ICL 2960, with 2 MB of memory, executing about 290k instructions per second.",460144,Edinburgh Multiple Access System,T -1152,1152.0,,"The International Organization of Legal Metrology (French: Organisation Internationale de Métrologie Légale - OIML), is an intergovernmental organisation that was created in 1955 to promote the global harmonisation of the legal metrology procedures that underpin and facilitate international trade. -Such harmonisation ensures that certification of measuring devices in one country is compatible with certification in another, thereby facilitating trade in the measuring devices and in products that rely on the measuring devices. Such products include weighing devices, taxi meters, speedometers, agricultural measuring devices such as cereal moisture meters, health related devices such as exhaust measurements and alcohol content of drinks. -Since its establishment, the OIML has developed a number of guidelines to assist its Members, particularly developing nations, to draw up appropriate legislation concerning metrology across all facets of society and guidelines on certification and calibration requirements of new products, particularly where such calibration has a legal impact such as in trade, health care and taxation. -The OIML works closely with other international organisations such as the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM) and International Organization for Standardization (ISO) to ensure compatibility between each organisation's work. The OIML has no legal authority to impose solutions on its Members, but its Recommendations are often used by Member States as part of their own national legislation. -As of March 2022, 62 countries had signed up as Member States and a further 63 as Corresponding (non-voting) Members including all the G20, EU and BRICS countries. Between them, the OIML Members cover 86 % of the world's population and 96 % of its economy. -The Headquarters of the OIML is located in Paris, France. - -Definition of ""legal metrology"" -The definition of ""legal metrology"" varies amongst jurisdictions, reflecting the extent to which metrology is bound into the jurisdiction's own legal and regulatory code. The OIML, in their publication International Vocabulary of Terms in Legal Metrology defined ""legal metrology"" as ...",2393428,International Organization of Legal Metrology,E -1153,1153.0,,"Wind engineering is a subset of mechanical engineering, structural engineering, meteorology, and applied physics that analyzes the effects of wind in the natural and the built environment and studies the possible damage, inconvenience or benefits which may result from wind. In the field of engineering it includes strong winds, which may cause discomfort, as well as extreme winds, such as in a tornado, hurricane or heavy storm, which may cause widespread destruction. In the fields of wind energy and air pollution it also includes low and moderate winds as these are relevant to electricity production and dispersion of contaminants. -Wind engineering draws upon meteorology, fluid dynamics, mechanics, geographic information systems, and a number of specialist engineering disciplines, including aerodynamics and structural dynamics. The tools used include atmospheric models, atmospheric boundary layer wind tunnels, and computational fluid dynamics models. -Wind engineering involves, among other topics: - -Wind impact on structures (buildings, bridges, towers) -Wind comfort near buildings -Effects of wind on the ventilation system in a building -Wind climate for wind energy -Air pollution near buildingsWind engineering may be considered by structural engineers to be closely related to earthquake engineering and explosion protection. -Some sports stadiums such as Candlestick Park and Arthur Ashe Stadium are known for their strong, sometimes swirly winds, which affect the playing conditions. - -History -Wind engineering as a separate discipline can be traced to the UK in the 1960s, when informal meetings were held at the National Physical Laboratory, the Building Research Establishment, and elsewhere. The term ""wind engineering"" was first coined in 1970.",10042977,Wind engineering,E -1154,1154.0,,"New eugenics, also known as liberal eugenics (a term coined by bioethicist Nicholas Agar), advocates enhancing human characteristics and capacities through the use of reproductive technology and human genetic engineering. Those who advocate new eugenics generally think selecting or altering embryos should be left to the preferences of parents, rather than forbidden (or left to the preferences of the state). ""New"" eugenics purports to distinguish itself from the forms of eugenics practiced and advocated in the 20th century, which fell into disrepute after World War II. - -History -New eugenics is distinguished from previous versions of eugenics by its emphasis on informed parental choice rather than coercive governmental control.Eugenics is sometimes broken into the categories of positive eugenics (encouraging reproduction among the designated ""fit"") and negative eugenics (discouraging reproduction among those designated ""unfit""). Another distinction is between coercive eugenics and non-coercive eugenics. According to Edwin Black, many positive eugenic programs were advocated and pursued during the early 20th century, but the negative programs were responsible for the compulsory sterilization of hundreds of thousands of persons in many countries, and were contained in much of the rhetoric of Nazi eugenic policies of racial hygiene and genocide.",1115424,New eugenics,T -1155,1155.0,,"This is a list of acronyms found in the context of energy issues. - -A -AAQS—Ambient Air Quality Standards (environment) (US) -AAU—Assigned amount units (measurement) -ABT—Availability based tariff (electricity) -ABF—Aquatic Base Flow (Hydropower) (electricity) -AC—Alternating current -ACA—Annual Charge Adjustment (electricity) -ACE—Area Control Error (electricity) -ACEEE—American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy -ACRS—Accelerated Cost Recovery System (finance) -ADITC—Accumulated Deferred Investment Tax Credit (policy) -ADR—Asset Depreciation Range (finance) -AEP—American Electric Power (electricity) -AESO—Alberta Electric System Operator -AFE—Authority for Expenditure or Authorization for Expenditure -AFUDC—allowance for funds used during construction -AFV—Alternative fuel vehicle -AGA—American Gas Association -AGC—Automatic generation control -AGD—Associated Gas Distributors (US) -AIEE—American Institute of Electrical Engineers -AIMA—Agricultural Impact Mitigation Agreement (US) -ALJ—Administrative law judge -AMBO—Armenia, Macedonia, Bulgaria Oil pipeline -AMI—Advanced metering infrastructure -AMR—Automated meter reading also known as Automatic Meter Reading -AMRA—Automatic Meter Reading Association -ANGTA—Alaskan Natural Gas Transportation Act of 1977 to build the Alaska gas pipeline -ANGTS—Alaskan Natural Gas Transportation System -ANSI—American National Standards Institute -AOS—Authorized Overrun Service -APA—Administrative Procedure Act -—Alaska Power Administration -APE—Area of potential effect (electricity) -API—American Petroleum Institute (oil) -APPA—American Public Power Association (electricity) -APR—Actual peak reduction (e.g. in demand response systems) (electricity) -AQCR—Air Quality Control Region (US) (environment) -ARA—(in shipping) ports of Amsterdam – Rotterdam – Antwerp (oil) -ARR—Auction Revenue Rights (electricity) -ASCC—Alaskan System Coordination Council -ASE—Alliance to Save Energy -ASTM—American Society for Testing and Materials -ATC—Available transfer capability -AVR—Automatic Voltage Regulator (electricity) - -B -BA—Balancing Authority -BA—Biological Assessment -BACT—Best Available Control Technology -BBL/D—Barrel per day -BBL/SD—Barrel per day, on stream days -BBL—barrel (42 gallons) -—Balgzand Bacton Line (BBL Pipeline) -BCD—Barrel per day, on calendar days -BCF—billion cubic feet -BCP—Blackstart Capability Plan -BES—Bulk electric system (Electricity transmission) -BfP—Bureau Fédéral du Plan (Belgium). (Has responsibilities over economic, social and environmental policy -bhp—Brake horsepower -BIA—Bureau of Indian Affairs (US) -BIPV—Building Integrated Photo Voltaic -bl—Barrel -BLM—Bureau of Land Management of United States Department of the Interior -BLS—Bureau of Labor Statistics of United States Department of Labor -BOE—Barrel of oil equivalent (international) -BPA—Bonneville Power Administration (US) -BPL—Broadband over power line -BPS—Bulk Power System (Electricity transmission) -BTMG—Behind The Meter Generation -BTU—British thermal unit(s) -BTX—from BTX process, a mixture of benzene, toluene, and xylene (oil) -BuRec—United States Bureau of Reclamation (government) -BWR—Boiling water reactor (nuclear) - -C -C&I—Commercial and industrial customers (Electricity transmission) -CA—Carbon Abatement- increasing carbon-neutrality -—Control area (EU) – The portion of the generation and transmission system controlled by a single transmission system operator. (See also TSO). -CAA—Clean Air Act (US) -CAEM—Center for the Advancement of Energy Markets (US) -CAES—Compressed Air Energy Storage -CAFE—Corporate Average Fuel Economy standards (US) -CAISO—California Independent System Operator Corporation, a regional transmission organization. (US) -CAP—Capacity market programs -—Climate Action Plan -CAPM—Capital asset pricing model -CARB—California Air Resources Board -CBL—Customer Baseline Load -CBM—Capacity Benefit Margin -CBOB—Conventional Gasoline Blendstock for Oxygenate Blending (Motor Gasoline Blending Component) -CC—Combined cycle see also CCPP and CCGT -CCGT—Combined cycle gas turbine electricity generator -CCLIP—Conditional Credit Line for Investment Projects -CCN—Certificate of Convenience and Necessity (utilities regulation) -CCPG—Colorado Coordinated Planning Group -CCPP—Combined cycle power plant -CD—Contract Demand -CDD—Cooling degree day, a qualitative index used to reflect the demand for energy to cool a business -CDM—Clean Development Mechanism -CEA—Country Environmental Analysis -CEC—California Energy Commission -—Commission for Environmental Cooperation -—Council of the European Communities -CEEC—Central and Eastern European Countries -CEMS—Continuous emissions monitoring system -CEP—Country Environmental Profile -—Clean Energy Partnership, a joint hydrogen-project in Europe. -CEPS—Centre for European Policy Studies -CEPII—Centre d'Etudes Prospectives et d'Informations Internationales Economics think tank -CEQ—Council on Environmental Quality -CER—Certified Emission Reduction -CERA—Cambridge Energy Research Associates -CERCLA—Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act ""Superfund"" (US) -CERCLIS—Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Information System (US) -CERTS—Consortium for Electric Reliability Technology Solutions sponsored by the United States Department of Energy and California Energy Commission (US) -CfD—Contract for difference -CFS—cubic feet per second -CFTC—Commodity Futures Trading Commission -CH4—Methane -CHP—Combined heat and power -CIAC—Contributions in Aid of Construction -CIP—Critical Infrastructure Protection (US) -—see also EPCIP European Programme for Critical Infrastructure Protection -CMVE—Competitive Market Value Estimate -CNG—Compressed natural gas -CO—Carbon monoxide -CO2—Carbon dioxide -COC—Cost of capital -COE—U.S.",20478586,List of energy abbreviations,T -1156,1156.0,,"Nuclear transfer is a form of cloning. The step involves removing the DNA from an oocyte (unfertilised egg), and injecting the nucleus which contains the DNA to be cloned. In rare instances, the newly constructed cell will divide normally, replicating the new DNA while remaining in a pluripotent state. If the cloned cells are placed in the uterus of a female mammal, a cloned organism develops to term in rare instances. This is how Dolly the Sheep and many other species were cloned.",1632972,Nuclear transfer,S -1157,1157.0,,"Mosaic (also called Composer's Mosaic) was a Macintosh scorewriter application for producing music notation, developed by Mark of the Unicorn. -First released as Professional Composer among early Macintosh software in 1984, the application introduced a user interface similar to the word processor. The main features included entering musical notation, printing sheet music, and support for lyrics under the score with the font of choice. Notes could be selected from the user interface or entered from the keyboard. The user could also change or extend the tempo, key signature, meter, and other parameters.The next major release, Professional Composer 2.0, supported writing on up to 40 staves and allowed the user to enter notes as short as 128th notes, with all operations mainly controlled by menus and dialog boxes.",4856755,Mosaic notation program,T -1158,1158.0,,"A phytase (myo-inositol hexakisphosphate phosphohydrolase) is any type of phosphatase enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of phytic acid (myo-inositol hexakisphosphate) – an indigestible, organic form of phosphorus that is found in many plant tissues, especially in grains and oil seeds – and releases a usable form of inorganic phosphorus. While phytases have been found to occur in animals, plants, fungi and bacteria, phytases have been most commonly detected and characterized from fungi. - -History -The first plant phytase was found in 1907 from rice bran and in 1908 from an animal (calf's liver and blood). In 1962 began the first attempt at commercializing phytases for animal feed nutrition enhancing purposes when International Minerals & Chemicals (IMC) studied over 2000 microorganisms to find the most suitable ones for phytase production. This project was launched in part due to concerns about mineable sources for inorganic phosphorus eventually running out (see peak phosphorus), which IMC was supplying for the feed industry at the time. Aspergillus (ficuum) niger fungal strain NRRL 3135 (ATCC 66876) was identified as a promising candidate as it was able to produce large amounts of extracellular phytases.",3443240,Phytase,S -1159,1159.0,,"The characterization of nanoparticles is a branch of nanometrology that deals with the characterization, or measurement, of the physical and chemical properties of nanoparticles. Nanoparticles measure less than 100 nanometers in at least one of their external dimensions, and are often engineered for their unique properties. Nanoparticles are unlike conventional chemicals in that their chemical composition and concentration are not sufficient metrics for a complete description, because they vary in other physical properties such as size, shape, surface properties, crystallinity, and dispersion state. -Nanoparticles are characterized for various purposes, including nanotoxicology studies and exposure assessment in workplaces to assess their health and safety hazards, as well as manufacturing process control. There is a wide range of instrumentation to measure these properties, including microscopy and spectroscopy methods as well as particle counters. Metrology standards and reference materials for nanotechnology, while still a new discipline, are available from many organizations. - -Background -Nanotechnology is the manipulation of matter at the atomic scale to create materials, devices, or systems with new properties or functions.",54992011,Characterization of nanoparticles,S -1160,1160.0,,"A feather Christmas tree is a type of artificial Christmas tree that is generally considered one of the first artificial trees used as a Christmas tree. They originated in Germany in the late 19th century and became popular in the United States during the early 20th century. - -History -Feather Christmas trees were first created in Germany in the 1880s or 1890s and are regarded as one of the first types of artificial Christmas trees. These first artificial trees were, in part, a response to growing environmental concerns in the late 19th century concerning deforestation associated with the harvest of Christmas trees in Germany. The tradition of feather Christmas trees was brought to the United States by German immigrants in places such as Pennsylvania and Texas.Feather Christmas trees became popular during the early 20th century, and were sold by department stores in the United States. -Benefits touted for feather trees included the elimination of a trip to the tree lot and the lack of shed needles. Today, feather Christmas trees are valued as a collectible antique.",22175450,Feather Christmas tree,T -1161,1161.0,,"Crystallography is the experimental science of determining the arrangement of atoms in crystalline solids. Crystallography is a fundamental subject in the fields of materials science and solid-state physics (condensed matter physics). The word crystallography is derived from the Ancient Greek word κρύσταλλος (krústallos; ""clear ice, rock-crystal""), with its meaning extending to all solids with some degree of transparency, and γράφειν (gráphein; ""to write""). In July 2012, the United Nations recognised the importance of the science of crystallography by proclaiming that 2014 would be the International Year of Crystallography.Before the development of X-ray diffraction crystallography (see below), the study of crystals was based on physical measurements of their geometry using a goniometer. This involved measuring the angles of crystal faces relative to each other and to theoretical reference axes (crystallographic axes), and establishing the symmetry of the crystal in question.",7794,Crystallography,M -1162,1162.0,,"Sweating sickness, also known as the sweats, English sweating sickness, English sweat or sudor anglicus in Latin, was a mysterious and contagious disease that struck England and later continental Europe in a series of epidemics beginning in 1485. The last outbreak occurred in 1551, after which the disease apparently vanished. The onset of symptoms was sudden, with death often occurring within hours. Sweating sickness epidemics were unique compared with other disease outbreaks of the time: whereas other epidemics were typically urban and long-lasting, cases of sweating sickness spiked and receded very quickly, and heavily affected rural populations. Its cause remains unknown, although it has been suggested that an unknown species of hantavirus was responsible. - -Signs and symptoms -John Caius was a physician in Shrewsbury in 1551, when an outbreak occurred, and he described the symptoms and signs of the disease in A Boke or Counseill Against the Disease Commonly Called the Sweate, or Sweatyng Sicknesse (1552), which is the main historical source of knowledge of the disease.",956462,Sweating sickness,S -1163,1163.0,,"Ferdinand Berthoud (born 18 March 1727, in Plancemont-sur-Couvet, Principality of Neuchâtel; died 20 June 1807, in Groslay, Val d'Oise), was a scientist and watchmaker. He became master watchmaker in Paris in 1753. Berthoud, who held the position of Horologist-Mechanic by appointment to the King and the Navy, left behind him an exceptionally broad body of work, in particular in the field of marine chronometers. - -History -Ferdinand Berthoud was born on 18 March 1727, in Plancemont, Val-de-Travers, in the Principality of Neuchâtel, which then belonged to the Kingdom of Prussia, into a distinguished family of watch and clock makers. -His father, Jean Berthoud, was a master carpenter and architect. He was a burgher of Couvet, burgher of Neuchâtel, and justice of the peace for Val-de-Travers from 1717 to 1732. His mother, Judith Berthoud (1682–1765) was born in Couvet. -Ferdinand had four brothers: Abraham (1708-?); Jean-Henry (1710–1790), justice of the peace for Val-de-Travers, clerk of the court in Les Verrières, barrister in Cressier, and an expert watchmaker and clockmaker; Jean-Jacques (1711–1784), a draughtsman, and Pierre (1717-?), a farmer and clockmaker.",1177324,Ferdinand Berthoud,S -1164,1164.0,,"GameFAQs is a video gaming website that hosts guides and other resources, as well as an active message board forum. It was created in November 1995 by Jeff Veasey and has been owned by Fandom, Inc. since October 2022; its current editor is Allen ""SBAllen"" Tyner. -The site has a database of video game information, walkthroughs, FAQs, cheat codes, reviews, game saves, box art images, and screenshots, almost all of which are submitted by volunteer contributors. It covers game systems made as far back as the 1980s to current day modern consoles as well as computer games and mobile games. GameFAQs also hosts an active message board community, which has a separate discussion board for each game in the site's database, along with a variety of other boards.",8498138,GameFAQs,T -1165,1165.0,,"Pathfinding or pathing is the plotting, by a computer application, of the shortest route between two points. It is a more practical variant on solving mazes. This field of research is based heavily on Dijkstra's algorithm for finding the shortest path on a weighted graph. -Pathfinding is closely related to the shortest path problem, within graph theory, which examines how to identify the path that best meets some criteria (shortest, cheapest, fastest, etc) between two points in a large network. - -Algorithms -At its core, a pathfinding method searches a graph by starting at one vertex and exploring adjacent nodes until the destination node is reached, generally with the intent of finding the cheapest route. Although graph searching methods such as a breadth-first search would find a route if given enough time, other methods, which ""explore"" the graph, would tend to reach the destination sooner. An analogy would be a person walking across a room; rather than examining every possible route in advance, the person would generally walk in the direction of the destination and only deviate from the path to avoid an obstruction, and make deviations as minor as possible. -Two primary problems of pathfinding are (1) to find a path between two nodes in a graph; and (2) the shortest path problem—to find the optimal shortest path.",2426057,Pathfinding,M -1166,1166.0,,"In quantum biology, the Davydov soliton (after the Soviet Ukrainian physicist Alexander Davydov) is a quasiparticle representing an excitation propagating along the self-trapped amide I groups within the α-helices of proteins. It is a solution of the Davydov Hamiltonian. -The Davydov model describes the interaction of the amide I vibrations with the hydrogen bonds that stabilize the α-helices of proteins. The elementary excitations within the α-helix are given by the phonons which correspond to the deformational oscillations of the lattice, and the excitons which describe the internal amide I excitations of the peptide groups. Referring to the atomic structure of an α-helix region of protein the mechanism that creates the Davydov soliton (polaron, exciton) can be described as follows: vibrational energy of the C=O stretching (or amide I) oscillators that is localized on the α-helix acts through a phonon coupling effect to distort the structure of the α-helix, while the helical distortion reacts again through phonon coupling to trap the amide I oscillation energy and prevent its dispersion.",8491596,Davydov soliton,S -1167,1167.0,,"The School of Molecular Sciences is an academic unit of The College of Liberal Arts and Sciences at Arizona State University (ASU). The School of Molecular Sciences (SMS) is responsible for the study and teaching of the academic disciplines of chemistry and biochemistry at ASU. - -History -Chemistry instruction at ASU can be traced back to the early 1890s. At that time, the educational institution, a Normal School for the Territory of Arizona, “acquired...a supply of chemicals” for instructional purposes. Chemistry classes were held in Old Main during the late 1800s and into the early 1900s, taught by Frederick M. Irish.In 1927, President Arthur John Matthews hired George Bateman, the first faculty to hold a PhD who was not also a principal or president of the school.",69512983,School of Molecular Sciences (Arizona State University),M -1168,1168.0,,"Release notes are documents that are distributed with software products or hardware products, sometimes when the product is still in the development or test state (e.g., a beta release). For products that have already been in use by clients, the release note is delivered to the customer when an update is released. Another abbreviation for Release notes is Changelog or Release logs or Software changes or Revision history Updates or README file. However, in some cases, the release notes and changelog are published separately. This split is for clarity and differentiation of feature-highlights from bugs, change requests (CRs) or improvements on the other side. - -Purpose -Release Notes are documents that are shared with end users, customers and clients of an organization.",1212721,Release notes,T -1169,1169.0,,"In graph theory, a cut is a partition of the vertices of a graph into two disjoint subsets. Any cut determines a cut-set, the set of edges that have one endpoint in each subset of the partition. These edges are said to cross the cut. In a connected graph, each cut-set determines a unique cut, and in some cases cuts are identified with their cut-sets rather than with their vertex partitions. -In a flow network, an s–t cut is a cut that requires the source and the sink to be in different subsets, and its cut-set only consists of edges going from the source's side to the sink's side. The capacity of an s–t cut is defined as the sum of the capacity of each edge in the cut-set. - -Definition -A cut C = (S,T) is a partition of V of a graph G = (V,E) into two subsets S and T. -The cut-set of a cut C = (S,T) is the set {(u,v) ∈ E | u ∈ S, v ∈ T} of edges that have one endpoint in S and the other endpoint in T. -If s and t are specified vertices of the graph G, then an s–t cut is a cut in which s belongs to the set S and t belongs to the set T. -In an unweighted undirected graph, the size or weight of a cut is the number of edges crossing the cut.",2180494,Cut (graph theory),M -1170,1170.0,,"A modular process skid is a process system contained within a frame that allows the process system to be easily transported (skid mount). Individual skids can contain complete process systems and multiple process skids can be combined to create larger process systems or entire portable plants. They are sometimes called “a system in a box.” An example of a multi-skid process system might include a raw materials skid, a utilities skid and a processing unit which work in tandem. -Process skids are considered an alternative to traditional stick-built construction where process system parts are shipped individually and installed incrementally at the manufacturing site. They provide the advantage of parallel construction, where process systems are built off-site in a fabrication facility while civil site upgrades are completed at the plant site simultaneously. Skids are not always appropriate.",41200493,Modular process skid,E -1171,1171.0,,"In mathematics, nuclear operators between Banach spaces are a linear operators between Banach spaces in infinite dimensions that share some of the properties of their counter-part in finite dimension. In Hilbert spaces such operators are usually called trace class operators and one can define such things as the trace. In Banach spaces this is no longer possible for general nuclear operators, it is however possible for - - - - - - - 2 - 3 - - - - - - {\displaystyle {\tfrac {2}{3}}} - -nuclear operator via the Grothendieck trace theorem. -The general definition for Banach spaces was given by Grothendieck. This article presents both cases but concentrates on the general case of nuclear operators on Banach spaces. - -Nuclear operators on Hilbert spaces -An operator - - - - - - L - - - - - {\displaystyle {\mathcal {L}}} - on a Hilbert space - - - - - - H - - - - - {\displaystyle {\mathcal {H}}} - - -is compact if it can be written in the form -where - - - - 1 - ≤ - N - ≤ - ∞ - , - - - {\displaystyle 1\leq N\leq \infty ,} - and - - - - { - - f - - 1 - - - , - … - , - - f - - N - - - } - - - {\displaystyle \{f_{1},\ldots ,f_{N}\}} - and - - - - { - - g - - 1 - - - , - … - , - - g - - N - - - } - - - {\displaystyle \{g_{1},\ldots ,g_{N}\}} - are (not necessarily complete) orthonormal sets. Here - - - - { - - ρ - - 1 - - - , - … - , - - ρ - - N - - - } - - - {\displaystyle \{\rho _{1},\ldots ,\rho _{N}\}} - is a set of real numbers, the set of singular values of the operator, obeying - - - - - ρ - - n - - - → - 0 - - - {\displaystyle \rho _{n}\to 0} - if - - - - N - = - ∞ - . - - - {\displaystyle N=\infty .} - -The bracket - - - - ⟨ - ⋅ - , - ⋅ - ⟩ - - - {\displaystyle \langle \cdot ,\cdot \rangle } - is the scalar product on the Hilbert space; the sum on the right hand side must converge in norm. -An operator that is compact as defined above is said to be nuclear or trace-class if - -Properties -A nuclear operator on a Hilbert space has the important property that a trace operation may be defined.",2702319,Nuclear operators between Banach spaces,E -1172,1172.0,,"The Boston Journal of Natural History (1834-1863) was a scholarly journal published by the Boston Society of Natural History in mid-19th century Massachusetts. Contributors included Charles T. Jackson, Augustus A. Gould, and others. Each volume featured lithographic illustrations, some in color, drawn/engraved by E.W.",25646039,Boston Journal of Natural History,S -1173,1173.0,,"Framing, in construction, is the fitting together of pieces to give a structure support and shape. Framing materials are usually wood, engineered wood, or structural steel. The alternative to framed construction is generally called mass wall construction, where horizontal layers of stacked materials such as log building, masonry, rammed earth, adobe, etc. are used without framing.Building framing is divided into two broad categories, heavy-frame construction (heavy framing) if the vertical supports are few and heavy such as in timber framing, pole building framing, or steel framing; or light-frame construction (light-framing) if the supports are more numerous and smaller, such as balloon, platform, or light-steel framing. Light-frame construction using standardized dimensional lumber has become the dominant construction method in North America and Australia due to the economy of the method; use of minimal structural material allows builders to enclose a large area at minimal cost while achieving a wide variety of architectural styles. -Modern light-frame structures usually gain strength from rigid panels (plywood and other plywood-like composites such as oriented strand board (OSB) used to form all or part of wall sections), but until recently carpenters employed various forms of diagonal bracing to stabilize walls.",2071443,Framing (construction),E -1174,1174.0,,"A nuclear localization signal or sequence (NLS) is an amino acid sequence that 'tags' a protein for import into the cell nucleus by nuclear transport. Typically, this signal consists of one or more short sequences of positively charged lysines or arginines exposed on the protein surface. Different nuclear localized proteins may share the same NLS. An NLS has the opposite function of a nuclear export signal (NES), which targets proteins out of the nucleus. - -Types -Classical -These types of NLSs can be further classified as either monopartite or bipartite. The major structural differences between the two are that the two basic amino acid clusters in bipartite NLSs are separated by a relatively short spacer sequence (hence bipartite - 2 parts), while monopartite NLSs are not.",1648525,Nuclear localization sequence,S -1175,1175.0,,"The Society for Philosophy and Technology (SPT) is an independent international organization founded in 1976 whose purpose is to promote philosophical consideration of technology. SPT publishes Techné: Research in Philosophy and Technology, a tri-annual scientific journal. - -History -1975: Newsletter launched: formation of SPT and establishing the journal Techné in years to follow -1978: Annual Book Series Research in Philosophy of Technology was launched -1981: Actual organization of SPT with the first biennial international meeting organized by Fritz Rapp in Bad Homberg, Germany -1995: The first issue of Techné -2010: Techné is published by the Philosophy Documentation Center - -Presidents -A new president for the Society for Philosophy and Technology is chosen every two years (except in 1995). -1981: Carl Mitcham -1983: Alex Michalos -1985: Kristin Shrader-Frechette -1987: Marx Wartofsky -1989: Langdon Winner -1991: Joseph C. Pitt -1993: Jose Sanmartin -1997: Paul Durbin -1999: Deborah Johnson -2001: Andrew Light -2003: Paul Thompson -2005: Peter Kroes -2007: Diane Michelfelder -2009: Philip Brey -2011: Sven Ove Hansson -2013: Peter-Paul Verbeek -2015: Shannon Vallor -2017: Mark Coeckelbergh -2019: Pieter E. Vermaas -2021: Inmaculada de Melo-Martín -2023: President-Elect Robert Rosenberger - -SPT conferences -1981: Bad Homberg, Germany: Joint German-American Conference (Rapp), Germany, Organizer: Fritz Rapp -1983: Polytechnic Institute of New York, NYC, USA, Organizer: Carl Mitcham -1985: University of Twente, Netherlands, Organizer: Louk Fleishacker of Free University, Amsterdam -1987: Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, Organizer: Joe Pitt -1989: Bordeaux, France, Organizer: Daniel Cerezuelle -1991: University of Puerto Rico, Mayaguez, Puerto Rico, Organizer: Elena Lugo -1993: Peniscola (Valencia), Spain, Organizer: Jose Sanmartin -1995: Hofstra University, Long Island, New York, USA -1996: Puebla, Mexico, Organizer: Raul Gutierrez -1997: University of Düsseldorf, Germany, Organizer: Alois Huning -1999: University of California, San Jose / Silicon Valley, USA, Organizer: Noam Cook -2001: Aberdeen, Scotland, Organizer: Andrew Light -2003: Park City, Utah, USA, Organizer: Diane Michelfelder -2005: Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands, Organizer: Peter Kroes -2007: USC/VT, Charleston, South Carolina, USA, Organizers: Davis Baird, Ann Johnson, Joe Pitt -2009: University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands, Organizers: Philip Brey, Tsjalling Swierstra, Peter-Paul Verbeek, Katinka Waelbers -2011: University of North Texas, Denton, Texas, USA, Organizers: David Kaplan and Adam Briggle -2013: in Lisbon, Portugal -2015: NEU International Hotel, Shenyang, China -2017: Technische Universität Darmstadt, Germany, Organizers: Alfred Nordmann and Sabine Ammon -2019: Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, USA, Organizers: Martin Peterson (Chair), Deb Banerjee, Jonathan Coopersmith, Glen Miller, Gregory Pappas, Linda Radzik -2021 (Planned): Lille, France - -Pre-SPT events -1965: symposium at 8th annual SHOT (with AAAS) meeting in San Francisco -1973: international conference on history and philosophy of technology, University of Illinois -1975: University of Delaware (Paul T. Durbin): first meeting of philosophers interested in technology, organized with much help from Carl Mitcham -1977: 2d UD meeting, at which they talked about a society and established a newsletter (with Durbin as first editor), as well as set in motion meetings jointly with APA sections, and an election some time before the end of 1980.",27440977,Society for Philosophy and Technology,T -1176,1176.0,,"The Great Stork Derby was a contest held from 1926 to 1936. Female residents of Toronto, Ontario, Canada, competed to produce the most babies in order to qualify for an unusual bequest in a will. - -Background -The race was the product of a scheme by Charles Vance Millar (1853–1926), a Toronto lawyer, financier, and practical joker, who bequeathed the residue of his significant estate to the woman in Toronto who could produce the most children in the decade following his death.It is one of many unusual bequests in his will, along with giving a vacation home in Jamaica to a group of three men who detested each other under the condition that they live in the estate together indefinitely, brewery stocks to a group of prominent teetotal Protestant ministers if they participated in its operations and collected its dividends, and jockey club stocks to a group of anti-horse-racing advocates. -Litigation over the validity of the contest was resolved when the Supreme Court of Canada upheld the clause's validity. The Court further held the clause did not encompass children born out of wedlock, or stillborn. - -Competition -Eleven families competed in the ""baby race."" Seven of them were disqualified, but eventually Judge William Edward Middleton ruled in favour of four mothers (Annie Katherine Smith, Kathleen Ellen Nagle, Lucy Alice Timleck and Isabel Mary Maclean) who each received $110,000 for their nine children ($2.02 million in 2021 dollars). Three of the four had to pay back relief money given to them by the City of Toronto government. Two of the disqualified candidates, Lillian Kenny and Pauline Mae Clarke, each received $12,500 out of court in exchange for abandoning pending appeals. - -In popular culture -The Canadian 2002 TV movie The Stork Derby, depicted the stories of Lillian Kenny, Pauline Mae Clarke and Grace Bagnato and starred Megan Follows.",1511104,Great Stork Derby,S -1177,1177.0,,"Gene delivery is the process of introducing foreign genetic material, such as DNA or RNA, into host cells. Gene delivery must reach the genome of the host cell to induce gene expression. Successful gene delivery requires the foreign gene delivery to remain stable within the host cell and can either integrate into the genome or replicate independently of it. This requires foreign DNA to be synthesized as part of a vector, which is designed to enter the desired host cell and deliver the transgene to that cell's genome. Vectors utilized as the method for gene delivery can be divided into two categories, recombinant viruses and synthetic vectors (viral and non-viral).In complex multicellular eukaryotes (more specifically Weissmanists), if the transgene is incorporated into the host's germline cells, the resulting host cell can pass the transgene to its progeny.",6599910,Gene delivery,S -1178,1178.0,,"Arithmetic dynamics is a field that amalgamates two areas of mathematics, dynamical systems and number theory. Part of the inspiration comes from complex dynamics, the study of the iteration of self-maps of the complex plane or other complex algebraic varieties. Arithmetic dynamics is the study of the number-theoretic properties of integer, rational, p-adic, or algebraic points under repeated application of a polynomial or rational function. A fundamental goal is to describe arithmetic properties in terms of underlying geometric structures. -Global arithmetic dynamics is the study of analogues of classical diophantine geometry in the setting of discrete dynamical systems, while local arithmetic dynamics, also called p-adic or nonarchimedean dynamics, is an analogue of complex dynamics in which one replaces the complex numbers C by a p-adic field such as Qp or Cp and studies chaotic behavior and the Fatou and Julia sets. -The following table describes a rough correspondence between Diophantine equations, especially abelian varieties, and dynamical systems: - -Definitions and notation from discrete dynamics -Let S be a set and let F : S → S be a map from S to itself. The iterate of F with itself n times is denoted - - - - - - F - - ( - n - ) - - - = - F - ∘ - F - ∘ - ⋯ - ∘ - F - . - - - {\displaystyle F^{(n)}=F\circ F\circ \cdots \circ F.} - A point P ∈ S is periodic if F(n)(P) = P for some n ≥ 1. -The point is preperiodic if F(k)(P) is periodic for some k ≥ 1. -The (forward) orbit of P is the set - - - - - - O - - F - - - ( - P - ) - = - - { - - P - , - F - ( - P - ) - , - - F - - ( - 2 - ) - - - ( - P - ) - , - - F - - ( - 3 - ) - - - ( - P - ) - , - ⋯ - - } - - . - - - {\displaystyle O_{F}(P)=\left\{P,F(P),F^{(2)}(P),F^{(3)}(P),\cdots \right\}.} - Thus P is preperiodic if and only if its orbit OF(P) is finite. - -Number theoretic properties of preperiodic points -Let F(x) be a rational function of degree at least two with coefficients in Q.",17584701,Arithmetic dynamics,M -1179,1179.0,,"The general objectives of strategic urban planning (SUP) include clarifying which city model is desired and working towards that goal, coordinating public and private efforts, channelling energy, adapting to new circumstances and improving the living conditions of the citizens affected. -Strategic planning is a technique that has been applied to many facets of human activity; we have only to mention Sun Tzu, Arthur Thomson or Henry Mintzberg; however, the application of strategic planning to urban contexts, or cities, regions and other metropolitan areas is a relatively recent development whose beginnings were eminently practical and artistical: a mixture of thought, techniques and art or expertise. -Fifteen years of practice proved to be enough time for the technique to spread and for the first “Meeting of American and European cities for the Exchange of Experiences in Strategic Planning” to be organized. Institutions sponsoring the meeting, held in Barcelona in 1993, included the Inter-American Development Bank, the European Community Commission and the Iberoamerican Cooperation Institute. The cities of Amsterdam, Lisbon, Lille, Barcelona, Toronto and Santiago de Chile participated, among others. -At that meeting it was demonstrated, along with other relevant aspects, that if cooperative processes are used in large cities in order to carry out strategic planning processes, and if a reasonable degree of comprehension is reached between the administration, businesses and an ample representation of social agents, organizational synergies will develop that will eventually improve resource management and citizens’ quality of life. - -History -Strategic Urban Planning processes (SUP), also known as Urban Renewal Projects, began to appear at the end of the 20th century. The city of San Francisco (U.S.A.) carried out its process between 1982 and 1984. The main motivation behind starting strategic urban planning processes was the attempt to adequately react to problematic situations (mainly economic crisis or standstill).",13974002,Strategic urban planning,S -1180,1180.0,,"Altera Hardware Description Language (AHDL) is a proprietary hardware description language (HDL) developed by Altera Corporation. AHDL is used for digital logic design entry for Altera's complex programmable logic devices (CPLDs) and field-programmable gate arrays (FPGAs). It is supported by Altera's MAX-PLUS and Quartus series of design software. AHDL has an Ada-like syntax and its feature set is comparable to the synthesizable portions of the Verilog and VHDL hardware description languages. In contrast to HDLs such as Verilog and VHDL, AHDL is a design-entry language only; all of its language constructs are synthesizable.",3621053,Altera Hardware Description Language,M -1181,1181.0,,"Senku Ishigami (Japanese: 石神 千空, Hepburn: Ishigami Senkū) is the protagonist from Riichiro Inagaki and Boichi's manga series Dr. Stone. Beginning in April 5738 AD, it has been over 3,700 years since a mysterious flash petrified nearly all human life. A 16-year-old genius named Senku Ishigami is suddenly revived to find himself in a world where all traces of human civilization have been eroded by time. Senku sets up a base-camp and begins to study the petrified humans in order to determine the cause of the event. -Senku was created by Inagaki to be a unique type of superhero as, while he does not possess supernatural powers, he stands out through his knowledge of science in order to help create a new civilization.",61978528,Senku Ishigami,M -1182,1182.0,,"Fungal isolates have been researched for decades. Because fungi often exist in thin mycelial monolayers, with no protective shell, immune system, and limited mobility, they have developed the ability to synthesize a variety of unusual compounds for survival. Researchers have discovered fungal isolates with anticancer, antimicrobial, immunomodulatory, and other bio-active properties. The first statins, β-Lactam antibiotics, as well as a few important antifungals, were discovered in fungi. - -Chemotherapeutic isolates -BMS manufactures paclitaxel using Penicillium and plant cell fermentation. Fungi can synthesize podophyllotoxin and camptothecin, precursors to etoposide, teniposide, topotecan, and irinotecan. -Lentinan, PSK, and PSP, are registered anticancer immunologic adjuvants.",42085062,Fungal isolate,S -1183,1183.0,,"Australasian Ornithological Conference is a biennial meeting of ornithologists that focuses on the Australasian region and Antarctica. Preceded by the short-lived series of two Southern Hemisphere Ornithological Congresses, they were initiated by the Royal Australasian Ornithologists Union (RAOU), also known as Birds Australia, with the inaugural meeting held at Bathurst, New South Wales in 2001. They have subsequently been jointly sponsored by the BirdLife Australia and the Ornithological Society of New Zealand (OSNZ). - -Conferences -2001 - Bathurst, New South Wales -2003 - Canberra, Australian Capital Territory -2005 - Blenheim, New Zealand -2007 - Perth, Western Australia -2009 - Armidale, New South Wales -2011 - Cairns, Queensland -2013 - Auckland, New Zealand -2015 - Adelaide, South Australia -2017 - Geelong, Victoria -2019 - Darwin, Northern Territory - -References -Robin, Libby. (2001). Flight of the Emu: one hundred years of Australian ornithology.",7106657,Australasian Ornithological Conference,S -1184,1184.0,,"Lincolnshire Naturalist's Union (LNU) is an association of amateur naturalists covering a wide range of natural history subjects. It was founded in 1893 and aims to promote the investigation of the fauna, flora, and physical features of the county of Lincolnshire and to promote the study of natural history. - -History -The society was formed on 12 June 1893 during a meeting held in Mablethorpe. The meeting came about from conversations held by William F. Baker and Joseph Coe with ""prominent naturalists connectected with Lincolnshire"". About 30 naturalists met at Mablethrope, travelled to Theddlethorpe and then returned to the Book-in-Hand hotel at Mablethorpe to discuss the formation of a union.",70921369,Lincolnshire Naturalists' Union,S -1185,1185.0,,"The optics term encircled energy refers to a measure of concentration of energy in an optical image, or projected laser at a given range. If a single star is brought to its sharpest focus by a lens giving the smallest image possible with that given lens (called a point spread function or PSF), calculation of the encircled energy of the resulting image gives the distribution of energy in that PSF. -Encircled energy is calculated by first determining the total energy of the PSF over the full image plane, then determining the centroid of the PSF. Circles of increasing radius are then created at that centroid and the PSF energy within each circle is calculated and divided by the total energy. As the circle increases in radius, more of the PSF energy is enclosed, until the circle is sufficiently large to completely contain all the PSF energy.",6274233,Encircled energy,E -1186,1186.0,,"In mathematics, a selection principle is a rule asserting -the possibility of obtaining mathematically significant objects by -selecting elements from given sequences of sets. The theory of selection principles -studies these principles and their relations to other mathematical properties. -Selection principles mainly describe covering properties, -measure- and category-theoretic properties, and local properties in -topological spaces, especially function spaces. Often, the -characterization of a mathematical property using a selection -principle is a nontrivial task leading to new insights on the -characterized property. - -The main selection principles -In 1924, Karl Menger - -introduced the following basis property for metric spaces: -Every basis of the topology contains a sequence of sets with vanishing -diameters that covers the space. Soon thereafter, -Witold Hurewicz -observed that Menger's basis property is equivalent to the -following selective property: for every sequence of open covers of the space, -one can select finitely many open sets from each cover in the sequence, such that the family of all selected sets covers the space. -Topological spaces having this covering property are called Menger spaces. -Hurewicz's reformulation of Menger's property was the first important -topological property described by a selection principle. -Let - - - - - A - - - - {\displaystyle \mathbf {A} } - and - - - - - B - - - - {\displaystyle \mathbf {B} } - be classes of mathematical objects. -In 1996, Marion Scheepers -introduced the following selection hypotheses, -capturing a large number of classic mathematical properties: - - - - - - - S - - - 1 - - - ( - - A - - , - - B - - ) - - - {\displaystyle {\text{S}}_{1}(\mathbf {A} ,\mathbf {B} )} - : For every sequence - - - - - - - U - - - - 1 - - - , - - - - U - - - - 2 - - - , - … - - - {\displaystyle {\mathcal {U}}_{1},{\mathcal {U}}_{2},\ldots } - of elements from the class - - - - - A - - - - {\displaystyle \mathbf {A} } - , there are elements - - - - - U - - 1 - - - ∈ - - - - U - - - - 1 - - - , - - U - - 2 - - - ∈ - - - - U - - - - 2 - - - , - … - - - {\displaystyle U_{1}\in {\mathcal {U}}_{1},U_{2}\in {\mathcal {U}}_{2},\dots } - such that - - - - { - - U - - n - - - : - n - ∈ - - N - - } - ∈ - - B - - - - {\displaystyle \{U_{n}:n\in \mathbb {N} \}\in \mathbf {B} } - . - - - - - - - S - - - fin - - - ( - - A - - , - - B - - ) - - - {\displaystyle {\text{S}}_{\text{fin}}(\mathbf {A} ,\mathbf {B} )} - : For every sequence - - - - - - - U - - - - 1 - - - , - - - - U - - - - 2 - - - , - … - - - {\displaystyle {\mathcal {U}}_{1},{\mathcal {U}}_{2},\ldots } - of elements from the class - - - - - A - - - - {\displaystyle \mathbf {A} } - , there are finite subsets - - - - - - - F - - - - 1 - - - ⊆ - - - - U - - - - 1 - - - , - - - - F - - - - 2 - - - ⊆ - - - - U - - - - 2 - - - , - … - - - {\displaystyle {\mathcal {F}}_{1}\subseteq {\mathcal {U}}_{1},{\mathcal {F}}_{2}\subseteq {\mathcal {U}}_{2},\dots } - such that - - - - - ⋃ - - n - = - 1 - - - ∞ - - - - - - F - - - - n - - - ∈ - - B - - - - {\displaystyle \bigcup _{n=1}^{\infty }{\mathcal {F}}_{n}\in \mathbf {B} } - .In the case where the classes - - - - - A - - - - {\displaystyle \mathbf {A} } - and - - - - - B - - - - {\displaystyle \mathbf {B} } - consist of covers of some ambient space, Scheepers also introduced the following selection principle. - - - - - - - U - - - fin - - - ( - - A - - , - - B - - ) - - - {\displaystyle {\text{U}}_{\text{fin}}(\mathbf {A} ,\mathbf {B} )} - : For every sequence - - - - - - - U - - - - 1 - - - , - - - - U - - - - 2 - - - , - … - - - {\displaystyle {\mathcal {U}}_{1},{\mathcal {U}}_{2},\ldots } - of elements from the class - - - - - A - - - - {\displaystyle \mathbf {A} } - , none containing a finite subcover, there are finite subsets - - - - - - - F - - - - 1 - - - ⊆ - - - - U - - - - 1 - - - , - - - - F - - - - 2 - - - ⊆ - - - - U - - - - 2 - - - , - … - - - {\displaystyle {\mathcal {F}}_{1}\subseteq {\mathcal {U}}_{1},{\mathcal {F}}_{2}\subseteq {\mathcal {U}}_{2},\dots } - such that - - - - { - ⋃ - - - - F - - - - 1 - - - , - ⋃ - - - - F - - - - 2 - - - , - … - } - ∈ - - B - - - - {\displaystyle \{\bigcup {\mathcal {F}}_{1},\bigcup {\mathcal {F}}_{2},\dotsc \}\in \mathbf {B} } - .Later, Boaz Tsaban identified the prevalence of the following related principle: - - - - - - - - ( - - - - A - - - B - - - - ) - - - - - - {\displaystyle {\binom {\mathbf {A} }{\mathbf {B} }}} - : Every member of the class - - - - - A - - - - {\displaystyle \mathbf {A} } - includes a member of the class - - - - - B - - - - {\displaystyle \mathbf {B} } - .The notions thus defined are selection principles.",50398478,Selection principle,M -1187,1187.0,,"Pinger, Inc. is a US Telecom provider for free texts, pictures, calls, and voicemails. Pinger was founded in 2005 by former Palm, Inc. managers Greg Woock (CEO of Pinger, Inc) and Joe Sipher. The company was founded in 2006 and is headquartered in San Jose, California. - -Products -The company has released several apps, mostly being available on iOS, Android, Microsoft Windows and Macintosh. - -Textfree -Textfree is an app that allows user to call and text using a real phone number for free.",37838876,Pinger,T -1188,1188.0,,"Astrology consists of a number of belief systems that hold that there is a relationship between astronomical phenomena and events or descriptions of personality in the human world. Astrology has been rejected by the scientific community as having no explanatory power for describing the universe. Scientific testing has found no evidence to support the premises or purported effects outlined in astrological traditions.Where astrology has made falsifiable predictions, it has been falsified.: 424  The most famous test was headed by Shawn Carlson and included a committee of scientists and a committee of astrologers. It led to the conclusion that natal astrology performed no better than chance. Astrologer and psychologist Michel Gauquelin claimed to have found statistical support for ""the Mars effect"" in the birth dates of athletes, but it could not be replicated in further studies.: 213–214  The organisers of later studies claimed that Gauquelin had tried to influence their inclusion criteria for the study by suggesting specific individuals be removed.",38862610,Astrology and science,M -1189,1189.0,,"In physics, Larmor precession (named after Joseph Larmor) is the precession of the magnetic moment of an object about an external magnetic field. The phenomenon is conceptually similar to the precession of a tilted classical gyroscope in an external torque-exerting gravitational field. Objects with a magnetic moment also have angular momentum and effective internal electric current proportional to their angular momentum; these include electrons, protons, other fermions, many atomic and nuclear systems, as well as classical macroscopic systems. The external magnetic field exerts a torque on the magnetic moment, - - - - - - - - τ - → - - - - = - - - - μ - → - - - - × - - - - B - → - - - - = - γ - - - - J - → - - - - × - - - - B - → - - - - , - - - {\displaystyle {\vec {\tau }}={\vec {\mu }}\times {\vec {B}}=\gamma {\vec {J}}\times {\vec {B}},} - where - - - - - - - τ - → - - - - - - {\displaystyle {\vec {\tau }}} - is the torque, - - - - - - - μ - → - - - - - - {\displaystyle {\vec {\mu }}} - is the magnetic dipole moment, - - - - - - - J - → - - - - - - {\displaystyle {\vec {J}}} - is the angular momentum vector, - - - - - - - B - → - - - - - - {\displaystyle {\vec {B}}} - is the external magnetic field, - - - - × - - - {\displaystyle \times } - symbolizes the cross product, and - - - - γ - - - {\displaystyle \gamma } - is the gyromagnetic ratio which gives the proportionality constant between the magnetic moment and the angular momentum. -The angular momentum vector - - - - - - - J - → - - - - - - {\displaystyle {\vec {J}}} - precesses about the external field axis with an angular frequency known as the Larmor frequency, - - - - - ω - = - − - γ - B - - - {\displaystyle \omega =-\gamma B} - ,where - - - - ω - - - {\displaystyle \omega } - is the angular frequency, and - - - - - B - - - {\displaystyle B} - is the magnitude of the applied magnetic field. - - - - - γ - - - {\displaystyle \gamma } - is (for a particle of charge - - - - − - e - - - {\displaystyle -e} - ) the gyromagnetic ratio, equal to - - - - − - - - - e - g - - - 2 - m - - - - - - {\displaystyle -{\frac {eg}{2m}}} - , where - - - - m - - - {\displaystyle m} - is the mass of the precessing system, while - - - - g - - - {\displaystyle g} - is the g-factor of the system.",2784730,Larmor precession,M -1190,1190.0,,"BamHI (pronounced ""Bam H one"") (from Bacillus amyloliquefaciens) is a type II restriction endonuclease, having the capacity for recognizing short sequences (6 bp) of DNA and specifically cleaving them at a target site. This exhibit focuses on the structure-function relations of BamHI as described by Newman, et al. (1995). BamHI binds at the recognition sequence 5'-GGATCC-3', and cleaves these sequences just after the 5'-guanine on each strand. This cleavage results in sticky ends which are 4 bp long.",10388309,BamHI,S -1191,1191.0,,"Advanced manufacturing is the use of innovative technology to improve products or processes, with the relevant technology being described as advanced, innovative or cutting edge. Advanced manufacturing industries increasingly integrate new innovative technologies in both products and processes. The rate of technology adoption and the ability to use that technology to remain competitive and add value to define the advanced manufacturing sector.World class manufacturing (WCM) integrates the latest-generation machinery with process/work systems to facilitate manufacturing based business development governed around manufactured products only, duly based over a high accent on product substitution or new product development. -Advanced manufacturing centers upon improving the performance of US industry through the innovative application of technologies, processes and methods to product design and production. A survey done in 2010 by White House defined advanced manufacturing and stated that:: ""A concise definition of advanced manufacturing offered by some is manufacturing that entails the rapid transfer of science and technology (S&T) into manufacturing products and processes."" (PCAST, April 2010.) - -Product technologies -Organizations practicing advanced manufacturing make products characterized as: - -Products with high levels of design -Technologically complex -Innovative -Reliable, affordable, and available -Newer, better, more exciting -Products that solve a variety of problems -Flexibility - -Process technologies -The manufacturing process technologies described in definitions of advanced manufacturing include: - -Computer technologies (e.g., CAD, CAE, CAM) (Paul Fowler, NACFAM, UK Manufacturing Advisory Service Southeast, C.B. Adams, St.",18159068,Advanced manufacturing,E -1192,1192.0,,"Cumulina (October 3, 1997 - May 5, 2000), a mouse, was the first animal cloned from adult cells that survived to adulthood. She was cloned using the Honolulu technique developed by ""Team Yana"", the Ryuzo Yanagimachi research group at the former campus of the John A. Burns School of Medicine located at the University of Hawai'i at Mānoa. Cumulina was a brown Mus musculus or common house mouse. She was named after the cumulus cells surrounding the developing oocyte in the ovarian follicle in mice.",2507954,Cumulina,S -1193,1193.0,,"Nikolas Kompridis (; born 1953) is a Canadian philosopher and political theorist. His major published work addresses the direction and orientation of Frankfurt School critical theory; the legacy of philosophical romanticism; and the aesthetic dimension(s) of politics. His writing touches on a variety of issues in social and political thought, aesthetics, and the philosophy of culture, often in terms of re-worked concepts of receptivity and world disclosure—a paradigm he calls ""reflective disclosure"". - -Critical theory -After gaining his Ph.D. at Toronto's York University, Kompridis worked with the influential philosopher and Frankfurt School social theorist Jürgen Habermas while a post-doctoral fellow at Goethe University. Following his time with Habermas he wrote a book responding to what he saw as serious shortcomings and inconsistencies in his mentor's work.",25645450,Nikolas Kompridis,T -1194,1194.0,,"A bioeffector is a viable microorganism or active natural compound which directly or indirectly affects plant performance (biofertilizer), and thus has the potential to reduce fertilizer and pesticide use in crop production. - -Types -Bioeffectors have a direct or indirect effect on plant performance by influencing the functional implementation or activation of biological mechanisms, particularly those interfering with soil-plant-microbe interactions. -In contrast to conventional fertilizers and pesticides, the effectiveness of bioeffectors is not based on a substantial direct input of mineral plant nutrients, either in inorganic or organic forms. - -Products in use are: -Microbial residues, -Composting and fermentation products, -Plant and algae extracts -Bioeffector-preparations (bio-agents) as ready-formulated products are applied: -with the purpose of stimulating plant growth (bio-stimulants), -to improve plant nutrient acquisition (bio-fertilizers), -to protect plants from pathogens and pests (bio-control agents) -or generally to advance cropping efficiency; they can contain one or more bio-effectors along with other substances” -Well established bioeffectors with documented positive results in the field level are: -Rhizobia strains for soil or seed inoculation as a prerequisite for symbiotic N2-fixation when establishing new legume species or varieties. -positive effects of mycorrhiza inoculation for soils with a (temporarily) low potential for natural root mycorrhization. -sufficient mycorrhization enhances nutrient (P) and water uptake and increases resistance to pathogenic fungi. -Further mechanisms for the positive impact of bioeffectors on plant growth have postulated, promising a high potential for resource preservation due to reduction of fertiliser and pesticide use: -Active nutrient mobilisation by exudation of acids and carboxylates (e.g. P-mobilisation), -exudation of micro-nutrient mobilising siderophores/chelates (e.g. Fe3+), -reduction of trace elements from less soluble oxidised to highly soluble reduced forms (e.g. Fe3+ to Fe2+, Mn4+ to Mn2+), -associative/non-symbiotic N2-fixation, protective antagonism to plant pathogens, -enhancement of mycorrhizal infection and growth, and stimulating hormonal effects. - -Research and Public Dissemination -Under the Acronym Biofector the European Union supports the Research of Bioeffectors under the leadership of the University of Hohenheim. Coordinator Guenter Neumann, Projectmembers: Jiří Balík, Borbala Biro, Karl Fritz Lauer, Uwe Ludewig, Torsten Müller, Alessandro Piccolo, Manfred G.",40399359,Bioeffector,S -1195,1195.0,,"A guéridon is a small table supported by one or more columns, or sculptural human or mythological figures, often with a circular top. The guéridon originated in France towards the middle of the 17th century. The supports for early guéridons were often modeled on ancient Egyptian and Greek as well as various African human traditional figures (inspired by caryatids). -While often serving humble purposes, such as to hold a candlestick or vase, the guéridon could be a high-style decorative piece of court furniture. By the time of Louis XIV's death in 1715, there were several hundred guéridons at Versailles, and within a generation they had taken on a nearly endless number of forms: columns, tripods, termini and mythological figures. Some of the simpler and more artistic forms were of wood carved with familiar decorative motives and gilded.",2145737,Guéridon,T -1196,1196.0,,"Spreaders in mining are heavy equipment used in surface mining and mechanical engineering/civil engineering. The primary function of a spreader is to act as a continuous spreading machine in large-scale open pit mining operations. - -Structure -A Spreader's superstructure may be seen as superficially similar to that of a bucket-wheel excavator, however, its most striking difference is that, instead of a bucket-wheel at the end of the boom, it is a discharge boom. -The spreader's design can vary, ranging from conventional single-boom spreaders to more modified two-conveyor compact spreaders. The main parts of a spreader usually come in four signature parts. The first is the signature receiving boom with or without a support crawler track. The second is the main body superstructure itself.",34279861,Spreader (mining),E -1197,1197.0,,"Andrew Silke holds a chair in Terrorism, Risk and Resilience at Cranfield University's Forensic Institute. Previously, he was the Head of Criminology and the Programme Director for Terrorism Studies at the University of East London. - -Works -Silke, Andrew, ed. (2003). Terrorists, victims, and society: psychological perspectives on terrorism and its consequences. Wiley.",62470718,Andrew Silke,S -1198,1198.0,,"Environmental epigenetics is a branch of epigenetics that studies the influence of external environmental factors on the gene expression of a developing embryo. The way that genes are expressed may be passed down from parent to offspring through epigenetic modifications, although environmental influences do not alter the genome itself. -During embryonic development, epigenetic modifications determine which genes are expressed, which in turn determines the embryo's phenotype. When the offspring is still developing, genes can be turned on and off depending on exposure to certain environmental factors. While certain genes being turned on or off can increase the risk of developmental diseases or abnormal phenotypes, there is also the possibility that the phenotype will be non-functional. Environmental influence on epigenetics is highly variable, but certain environmental factors can greatly increase the risk of detrimental diseases being expressed at both early and adult life stages. - -Environmental triggers for epigenetic change -The way that genes are expressed is influenced by the environment that the genome is in.",72989088,Environmental epigenetics,S -1199,1199.0,,"The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) consists of more than 100 letters and diacritics. Before Unicode became widely available, several ASCII-based encoding systems of the IPA were proposed. The alphabet went through a large revision at the Kiel Convention of 1989, and the vowel symbols again in 1993. Systems devised before these revisions inevitably lack support of the additions they introduced. -Only language-neutral systems are discussed below because language-dependent ones (such as ARPABET) do not allow for a systematic comparison. - -General information -Symbols -Only the symbols in the latest IPA chart are included. The numbers in the leftmost column, according to which the symbols are sorted, are the IPA Numbers.",61051395,Comparison of ASCII encodings of the International Phonetic Alphabet,T -1200,1200.0,,"Prototype (stylized as [PROTOTYPE]) is a 2009 action-adventure video game developed by Radical Entertainment and published by Activision. It was released in June 2009 for the PlayStation 3, Xbox 360, and Microsoft Windows. In July 2015, the game was re-released alongside its sequel as the Prototype Biohazard Bundle for the PlayStation 4 and Xbox One. Separate versions of the two games became available in August 2015. In Prototype, players control an amnesiac shapeshifter named Alex Mercer as he attempts to stop an outbreak of a virus called Blacklight in Manhattan, which mutates individuals into powerful, violent monsters.",12374528,Prototype (video game),S -1201,1201.0,,"This is a timeline of mathematicians in ancient Greece. - -Timeline -Historians traditionally place the beginning of Greek mathematics proper to the age of Thales of Miletus (ca. 624–548 BC), which is indicated by the green line at 600 BC. The orange line at 300 BC indicates the approximate year in which Euclid's Elements was first published. The red line at 300 AD passes through Pappus of Alexandria (c. 290 – c. 350 AD), who was one of the last great Greek mathematicians of late antiquity. Note that the solid thick black line is at year zero, which is a year that does not exist in the Anno Domini (AD) calendar year system - -The mathematician Heliodorus of Larissa is not listed due to the uncertainty of when he lived, which was possibly during the 3rd century AD, after Ptolemy. - -Overview of the most important mathematicians and discoveries -Of these mathematicians, those whose work stands out include: - -Thales of Miletus (c. 624/623 – c. 548/545 BC) is the first known individual to use deductive reasoning applied to geometry, by deriving four corollaries to Thales' theorem.",16266307,Timeline of ancient Greek mathematicians,M -1202,1202.0,,"The sociology of the Internet involves the application of sociological theory and method to the Internet as a source of information and communication. The overlapping field of digital sociology focuses on understanding the use of digital media as part of everyday life, and how these various technologies contribute to patterns of human behavior, social relationships, and concepts of the self. Sociologists are concerned with the social implications of the technology; new social networks, virtual communities and ways of interaction that have arisen, as well as issues related to cyber crime. -The Internet—the newest in a series of major information breakthroughs—is of interest for sociologists in various ways: as a tool for research, for example, in using online questionnaires instead of paper ones, as a discussion platform, and as a research topic. The sociology of the Internet in the stricter sense concerns the analysis of online communities (e.g. as found in newsgroups), virtual communities and virtual worlds, organizational change catalyzed through new media such as the Internet, and social change at-large in the transformation from industrial to informational society (or to information society).",17669599,Sociology of the Internet,M -1203,1203.0,,"In number theory, Zolotarev's lemma states that the Legendre symbol - - - - - - ( - - - a - p - - - ) - - - - {\displaystyle \left({\frac {a}{p}}\right)} - for an integer a modulo an odd prime number p, where p does not divide a, can be computed as the sign of a permutation: - - - - - - ( - - - a - p - - - ) - - = - ε - ( - - π - - a - - - ) - - - {\displaystyle \left({\frac {a}{p}}\right)=\varepsilon (\pi _{a})} - where ε denotes the signature of a permutation and πa is the permutation of the nonzero residue classes mod p induced by multiplication by a. -For example, take a = 2 and p = 7. The nonzero squares mod 7 are 1, 2, and 4, so (2|7) = 1 and (6|7) = −1. Multiplication by 2 on the nonzero numbers mod 7 has the cycle decomposition (1,2,4)(3,6,5), so the sign of this permutation is 1, which is (2|7). Multiplication by 6 on the nonzero numbers mod 7 has cycle decomposition (1,6)(2,5)(3,4), whose sign is −1, which is (6|7). - -Proof -In general, for any finite group G of order n, it is straightforward to determine the signature of the permutation πg made by left-multiplication by the element g of G. The permutation πg will be even, unless there are an odd number of orbits of even size.",2995566,Zolotarev's lemma,M -1204,1204.0,,"A railroad chronometer or railroad standard watch is a specialized timepiece that once was crucial for safe and correct operation of trains in many countries. A system of timetable and train order, which relied on highly accurate timekeeping, was used to ensure that two trains could not be on the same stretch of track at the same time. - -Overview -Regulations of the watches used by critical personnel on the railroads (engineer, conductor, switch yard controllers, etc.) were specified almost from the beginning of widespread railroad use in the 1850s and 1860s. These regulations became more widespread and more specific as time went on, with some watches that were ""railroad standard"" at an earlier time eventually becoming obsolete as technology improved. There was, however, no absolute, universal definition used across different railroad lines. Each company appointed one or more ""time inspectors"" (typically a watchmaker) who decided which watches were acceptable for use.",758612,Railroad chronometer,S -1205,1205.0,,"COSMOS stands for ""COSMetic Organic and Natural Standard"", which sets certification requirements for organic and natural cosmetics products in the Europe. The standard is recognized globally by the cosmetic industry. By adhering to specific guidelines, cosmetics marketers can use COSMOS signatures, which are registered trademarks, on packaging to confirm the products meet minimum industry requirements to be considered organic or natural. - -History -In 2002 five European organisations responsible for setting organic and natural cosmetics standards met at a trade show to share ideas for broader standards to be used globally. These five COSMOS members are: - -BDIH (Germany) -Cosmebio (France) -Ecocert Greenlife SAS (France) -ICEA (Italy) -Soil Association (Great Britain)Over 1,600 manufacturers who sell over 25,000 products across over 45 countries follow the standard, according to Cosmos-standard.org. About 85% of the certified cosmetics industry uses COSMOS signatures on its products. -Although the five members differed on certain standards separately, they were able to smooth out differences to create a harmonised international standard that was first published in 2010.",56449548,Cosmos (standard),T -1206,1206.0,,"Design standards, reference standards and performance standards are familiar throughout business and industry, virtually for anything that is definable. Sustainable design, taken as reducing our impact on the earth and making things better at the same time, is in the process of becoming defined. Also, many well organized specific methodologies are used by different communities of people for a variety of purposes. - -Design standards -One of the better known is the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) green building rating system, which uses a diverse group of hard measures of environmental quality and impacts to define a holistic approach to sustainable building and assign ratings to individual projects. -Sustainable design is really just a more determined effort to consider the whole range of impacts on our environment in making any decision. A more complete design guide, guided more by whole project impact measures, is the model offered by the U.S. cooperating agencies in the ""Whole Building Design Guide"". -Green construction codes and standards are beginning to emerge on the national code stage.",15262886,Sustainable design standards,S -1207,1207.0,,"This glossary of aerospace engineering terms pertains specifically to aerospace engineering, its sub-disciplines, and related fields including aviation and aeronautics. For a broad overview of engineering, see glossary of engineering. - -A -Above ground level – In aviation, atmospheric sciences and broadcasting, a height above ground level (AGL) is a height measured with respect to the underlying ground surface. This is as opposed to altitude/elevation above mean sea level (AMSL), or (in broadcast engineering) height above average terrain (HAAT). In other words, these expressions (AGL, AMSL, HAAT) indicate where the ""zero level"" or ""reference altitude"" is located. -Absolute humidity – describes the water content of air and is expressed in either grams per cubic meter or grams per kilogram. -Absolute value – In mathematics, the absolute value or modulus |x| of a real number x is the non-negative value of x without regard to its sign. Namely, |x| = x for a positive x, |x| = −x for a negative x (in which case −x is positive), and |0| = 0.",50775420,Glossary of aerospace engineering,E -1208,1208.0,,"An edge case is a problem or situation that occurs only at an extreme (maximum or minimum) operating parameter. For example, a stereo speaker might noticeably distort audio when played at maximum volume, even in the absence of any other extreme setting or condition. -An edge case can be expected or unexpected. In engineering, the process of planning for and gracefully addressing edge cases can be a significant task, and yet this task may be overlooked or underestimated. -Non-trivial edge cases can result in the failure of an object that is being engineered. They may not have been foreseen during the design phase, and they may not have been thought possible during normal use of the object. For this reason, attempts to formalize good engineering standards often include information about edge cases. - -Software engineering -In programming, an edge case typically involves input values that require special handling in an algorithm behind a computer program.",652109,Edge case,E -1209,1209.0,,"Acoustic Doppler velocimetry (ADV) is designed to record instantaneous velocity components at a single-point with a relatively high frequency. Measurements are performed by measuring the velocity of particles in a remote sampling volume based upon the Doppler shift effect. - -Probe specs and features -The probe head includes one transmitter and between two and four receivers. The remote sampling volume is located typically 5 or 10 cm from the tip of the transmitter, but some studies showed that the distance might change slightly. The sampling volume size is determined by the sampling conditions and manual setup. In a standard configuration, the sampling volume is about a cylinder of water with a diameter of 6 mm and a height of 9 mm, although newer laboratory ADVs may have smaller sampling volume (e.g.",22366672,Acoustic Doppler velocimetry,S -1210,1210.0,,"Conda is an open-source, cross-platform, language-agnostic package manager and environment management system. It was originally developed to solve difficult package management challenges faced by Python data scientists, and today is a popular package manager for Python and R. -At first part of Anaconda Python distribution developed by Anaconda Inc., it ended up being useful on its own and for things other than Python, so it was spun out as a separate package, released under the BSD license. The Conda package and environment manager is included in all versions of Anaconda, Miniconda, and Anaconda Repository. Conda is a NumFOCUS affiliated project. - -Features -Conda allows users to easily install different versions of binary software packages and any required libraries appropriate for their computing platform. Also, it allows users to switch between package versions and download and install updates from a software repository.",46315592,Conda (package manager),T -1211,1211.0,,"Somatic embryogenesis is an artificial process in which a plant or embryo is derived from a single somatic cell. Somatic embryos are formed from plant cells that are not normally involved in the development of embryos, i.e. ordinary plant tissue. No endosperm or seed coat is formed around a somatic embryo. -Cells derived from competent source tissue are cultured to form an undifferentiated mass of cells called a callus. Plant growth regulators in the tissue culture medium can be manipulated to induce callus formation and subsequently changed to induce embryos to form the callus.",31570900,Somatic embryogenesis,S -1212,1212.0,,"The Tac-Promoter (abbreviated as Ptac), or tac vector is a synthetically produced DNA promoter, produced from the combination of promoters from the trp and lac operons. It is commonly used for protein production in Escherichia coli.Two hybrid promoters functional in Escherichia coli were constructed. These hybrid promoters, tacI and tacII, were derived from sequences of the trp and the lac UV5 promoters. In the first hybrid promoter (tacI), the DNA upstream of position –20 with respect to the transcriptional start site was derived from the trp promoter. The DNA downstream of position –20 was derived from the lac UV5 promoter.",49172614,Tac-Promoter,S -1213,1213.0,,"Perepiteia is claimed to be a new generator developed by the Canadian inventor Thane Heins. The device is named after the Greek word for peripety, a dramatic reversal of circumstances or turning point in a story. The device was quickly attributed the term ""perpetual motion machine"" by several media outlets. Due to the long history of hoaxes and failures of perpetual motion machines and the incompatibility of such a device with accepted principles of physics, Heins' claims about Perepiteia have been treated with considerable skepticism. -In 2003, Heins filed a patent application in Canada but no patent was granted. Heins also founded Potential Difference Inc, the website of which contains a series of videos of the inventor demonstrating the machine.",15644495,Perepiteia,T -1214,1214.0,,"As of 1990, manufacturing in Chad was dominated by agribusiness, and Cotontchad in particular. Next in importance were the National Sugar Company of Chad (Société Nationale Sucrière du Tchad—SONASUT), the Chadian Textile Company (Société Tchadienne de Textile—STT), the Logone Breweries (Brasseries du Logone—BdL), and the Cigarette Factory of Chad (Manufacture des Cigarettes du Tchad—MCT). Observers estimated that these five industries generated some 20 percent of GDP. Of lesser importance were the Farcha Slaughterhouse (Abattoir Frigorifique de Farcha), the Industrial Agricultural Equipment Company (Société Industrielle de Matériel Agricole du Tchad—SIMAT), and Soft Drinks of Chad (Boissons Gazeuses du Tchad—BGT).Before the warfare of the 1979-82 period, Chad's industrial sector included between 80 and 100 small and medium enterprises, in addition to the major manufacturing industries. Most of these processed agricultural products, or competed in the import/export trade.",16010099,Manufacturing in Chad,E -1215,1215.0,,"Equipment service management and rental (ESM&R) refers to equipment services management throughout the heavy equipment life cycle. Increased competition and slim margins in heavy equipment sales and rental place a heavy burden on manufacturers, dealers, rental companies and service businesses to improve their service performance. Improving service in these conditions is critical to maintaining margins and growing profitability.The ESM&R approach provides an integrated view of the heavy equipment business. Thus manufacturers, dealers, suppliers, rental and services business can improve the value their customers derive from their equipment and subsequently improve their own profitability and reduce cost at the same time. Collaboration is a critical factor in the equipment supply chain. -Equipment companies must have two fundamentals in place of operational control of service operations on the one hand and equipment intelligence on the other.",30475108,Equipment service management and rental,E -1216,1216.0,,"Trekkies is a 1997 documentary film directed by Roger Nygard about the devoted fans of Gene Roddenberry's Star Trek. It is the first film released by Paramount Vantage, then known as Paramount Classics, and is presented by Denise Crosby, best known for her portrayal of Security Chief Tasha Yar on the first season of Star Trek: The Next Generation. - -Contents -The film contains interviews with Star Trek devotees, more commonly known as Trekkies. The fans range from people who dress as Klingons to members of Brent Spiner fan clubs and includes a club that is producing a Star Trek movie of their own. Trekkies includes many Star Trek actors and fans including Barbara Adams, the Whitewater scandal trial juror who arrived in court in her Starfleet uniform. Another prominent profilee was Gabriel Köerner, who attained minor celebrity status as a result of his role in the film. - -Production -After she worked with director Roger Nygard in his television film High Strung (1991), former Star Trek: The Next Generation actress Denise Crosby suggested that they should work together on a documentary regarding Star Trek fandom.",31136,Trekkies (film),T -1217,1217.0,,"Biological dark matter is an informal term for unclassified or poorly understood genetic material. This genetic material may refer to genetic material produced by unclassified microorganisms. By extension, biological dark matter may also refer to the un-isolated microorganism whose existence can only be inferred from the genetic material that they produce. Some of the genetic material may not fall under the three existing domains of life: Bacteria, Archaea and Eukaryota; thus, it has been suggested that a possible fourth domain of life may yet be discovered, although other explanations are also probable. Alternatively, the genetic material may refer to non-coding DNA (so-called ""junk DNA"") and non-coding RNA produced by known organisms. - -Genomic dark matter -Much of the genomic dark matter is thought to originate from ancient transposable elements and from other low-complexity repetitive elements.",35942883,Biological dark matter,S -1218,1218.0,,"This article contains a list of the most studied restriction enzymes whose names start with G to K inclusive. It contains approximately 90 enzymes. -The following information is given: - -Enzyme: Accepted name of the molecule, according to the internationally adopted nomenclature, and bibliographical references. (Further reading: see the section ""Nomenclature"" in the article ""Restriction enzyme"".) -PDB code: Code used to identify the structure of a protein in the PDB database of protein structures. The 3D atomic structure of a protein provides highly valuable information to understand the intimate details of its mechanism of action. -Source: Organism that naturally produces the enzyme. -Recognition sequence: Sequence of DNA recognized by the enzyme and to which it specifically binds. -Cut: Cutting site and DNA products of the cut. The recognition sequence and the cutting site usually match, but sometimes the cutting site can be dozens of nucleotides away from the recognition site. -Isoschizomers and neoschizomers: An isoschizomer is an enzyme that recognizes the same sequence as another.",27459241,List of restriction enzyme cutting sites: G–K,S -1219,1219.0,,"The Hugo Wolf F/A-18C simulator (official designation: Mobile Training Installation Ground Operations) is a realistic non-flying replica of a McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet, used as an interactive training simulator for operational ground staff. It is fitted with specialised equipment to simulate various emergency scenarios. Two examples are used by the Swiss Air Force. - -History -The Swiss Air Force operates a number of McDonnell Douglas F/A-18C Hornet aircraft. Training of ground crew in emergency procedures initially required diversion of an aircraft from operational duties. Swiss fibreglass cabin construction specialists Hugo Wolf AG began design studies for a training simulator in 2009 and it evolved into a proposal for a Mobile Training Installation Ground Operations, in the form of a realistic and interactive non-flying mock-up.",58901680,Hugo Wolf F/A-18C simulator,T -1220,1220.0,,"In biomedical contexts, a biomarker, or biological marker, is a measurable indicator of some biological state or condition. Biomarkers are often measured and evaluated using blood, urine, or soft tissues to examine normal biological processes, pathogenic processes, or pharmacologic responses to a therapeutic intervention. Biomarkers are used in many scientific fields. - -Medicine -Biomarkers used in the medical field, are a part of a relatively new clinical toolset categorized by their clinical applications. The four main classes are molecular, physiologic, histologic and radiographic biomarkers. All four types of biomarkers have a clinical role in narrowing or guiding treatment decisions and follow a sub-categorization of being either predictive, prognostic, or diagnostic. - -Predictive -Predictive molecular, cellular, or imaging biomarkers that pass validation can serve as a method of predicting clinical outcomes.",4584079,Biomarker,S -1221,1221.0,,"Simulation in manufacturing systems is the use of software to make computer models of manufacturing systems, so to analyze them and thereby obtain important information. It has been syndicated as the second most popular management science among manufacturing managers. However, its use has been limited due to the complexity of some software packages, and to the lack of preparation some users have in the fields of probability and statistics. -This technique represents a valuable tool used by engineers when evaluating the effect of capital investment in equipment and physical facilities like factory plants, warehouses, and distribution centers. Simulation can be used to predict the performance of an existing or planned system and to compare alternative solutions for a particular design problem. - -Objectives -The most important objective of simulation in manufacturing is the understanding of the change to the whole system because of some local changes. It is easy to understand the difference made by changes in the local system but it is very difficult or impossible to assess the impact of this change in the overall system.",50048068,Simulation in manufacturing systems,E -1222,1222.0,,"Time evolution is the change of state brought about by the passage of time, applicable to systems with internal state (also called stateful systems). In this formulation, time is not required to be a continuous parameter, but may be discrete or even finite. In classical physics, time evolution of a collection of rigid bodies is governed by the principles of classical mechanics. In their most rudimentary form, these principles express the relationship between forces acting on the bodies and their acceleration given by Newton's laws of motion. These principles can also be equivalently expressed more abstractly by Hamiltonian mechanics or Lagrangian mechanics. -The concept of time evolution may be applicable to other stateful systems as well.",937739,Time evolution,M -1223,1223.0,,"A relief valve or pressure relief valve (PRV) is a type of safety valve used to control or limit the pressure in a system; excessive pressure might otherwise build up and create a process upset, instrument or equipment failure, explosion, or fire. - -Pressure relief -Excess pressure is relieved by allowing the pressurized fluid to flow from an auxiliary passage out of the system. The relief valve is designed or set to open at a predetermined set pressure to protect pressure vessels and other equipment from being subjected to pressures that exceed their design limits. When the set pressure is exceeded, the relief valve becomes the ""path of least resistance"" as the valve is forced open and a portion of the fluid is diverted through the auxiliary route. -In systems containing flammable fluids, the diverted fluid (liquid, gas or liquid-gas mixture) is either recaptured by a low pressure, high-flow vapor recovery system or is routed through a piping system known as a flare header or relief header to a central, elevated gas flare where it is burned, releasing naked combustion gases into the atmosphere. In non-hazardous systems, the fluid is often discharged to the atmosphere by a suitable discharge pipework designed to prevent rainwater ingress which can affect the set lift pressure, and positioned not to cause a hazard to personnel.",984070,Relief valve,E -1224,1224.0,,"Induced stem cells (iSC) are stem cells derived from somatic, reproductive, pluripotent or other cell types by deliberate epigenetic reprogramming. They are classified as either totipotent (iTC), pluripotent (iPSC) or progenitor (multipotent – iMSC, also called an induced multipotent progenitor cell – iMPC) or unipotent – (iUSC) according to their developmental potential and degree of dedifferentiation. Progenitors are obtained by so-called direct reprogramming or directed differentiation and are also called induced somatic stem cells. -Three techniques are widely recognized: -Transplantation of nuclei taken from somatic cells into an oocyte (egg cell) lacking its own nucleus (removed in lab) -Fusion of somatic cells with pluripotent stem cells and -Transformation of somatic cells into stem cells, using the genetic material encoding reprogramming protein factors, recombinant proteins; microRNA, a synthetic, self-replicating polycistronic RNA and low-molecular weight biologically active substances. - -Natural processes -In 1895 Thomas Morgan removed one of a frog's two blastomeres and found that amphibians are able to form whole embryos from the remaining part. This meant that the cells can change their differentiation pathway. In 1924 Spemann and Mangold demonstrated the key importance of cell–cell inductions during animal development.",36315057,Induced stem cells,S -1225,1225.0,,"The European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC) study is a Europe-wide prospective cohort study of the relationships between diet and cancer, as well as other chronic diseases, such as cardiovascular disease. With over half a million participants, it is the largest study of diet and disease to be undertaken.EPIC is coordinated by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), part of the World Health Organization, and funded by the ""Europe Against Cancer"" programme of the European Commission as well as multiple nation-specific grants and charities. -521,457 healthy adults, mostly aged 35–70 years, were enrolled in 23 centres in ten European countries: Denmark (11%), France (14%), Germany (10%), Greece (5%), Italy (9%), The Netherlands (8%), Norway (7%), Spain (8%), Sweden (10%) and the United Kingdom (17%). One UK centre (Oxford) recruited 27,000 vegetarians and vegans; this subgroup forms the largest study of this dietary group. Recruitment to the study took place between 1993 and 1999, and follow-up is planned for at least ten years, with repeat interview/questionnaires every three to five years. The main prospective data collected are standardised dietary questionnaires (self-administered or interview-based), seven-day food diaries, blood samples and anthropometric measurements, such as body mass index and waist-to-hip ratio.",6646507,European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition,S -1226,1226.0,,"Build-on-demand or manufacturing on demand (MOD) refers to a manufacturing process where goods are produced only when or as they are required. This allows scalability and adjustable assemblies depending on the current needs of the part requestor or client. -Manufacturing on demand has the potential to markedly affect the manufacturing industry by shortening lead times and reducing costs. Manufacturing previously relied on Request for quotes (RfQs) that were not digitally obtainable. - -Examples -Audio and video discs -Recordable discs with audio and/or video content can be published from companies to customers via manufacture on demand. This differs from traditional releases as the discs are only produced on demand, rather than being stored in a warehouse, eliminating inventory. Many companies have taken advantage of this new process, including Warner Bros.",56350120,Build-on-demand,E -1227,1227.0,,"In geometry, the Perles configuration is a system of nine points and nine lines in the Euclidean plane for which every combinatorially equivalent realization has at least one irrational number as one of its coordinates. It can be constructed from the diagonals and symmetry lines of a regular pentagon, omitting one of the symmetry lines. In turn, it can be used to construct higher-dimensional convex polytopes that cannot be given rational coordinates, having the fewest vertices of any known example. All of the realizations of the Perles configuration in the projective plane are equivalent to each other under projective transformations. - -Construction -One way of constructing the Perles configuration is to start with a regular pentagon and its five diagonals. These diagonals form the sides of a smaller inner pentagon nested inside the outer pentagon.",35289232,Perles configuration,M -1228,1228.0,,"Quantum statistical mechanics is statistical mechanics applied to quantum mechanical systems. In quantum mechanics a statistical ensemble (probability distribution over possible quantum states) is described by a density operator S, which is a non-negative, self-adjoint, trace-class operator of trace 1 on the Hilbert space H describing the quantum system. This can be shown under various mathematical formalisms for quantum mechanics. One such formalism is provided by quantum logic. - -Expectation -From classical probability theory, we know that the expectation of a random variable X is defined by its distribution DX by - - - - - - E - - ( - X - ) - = - - ∫ - - - R - - - - λ - - d - - - D - - X - - - ⁡ - ( - λ - ) - - - {\displaystyle \mathbb {E} (X)=\int _{\mathbb {R} }\lambda \,d\,\operatorname {D} _{X}(\lambda )} - assuming, of course, that the random variable is integrable or that the random variable is non-negative. Similarly, let A be an observable of a quantum mechanical system.",712450,Quantum statistical mechanics,S -1229,1229.0,,"Aimable Robert Jonckheere (25 May 1920 – 24 September 2005), commonly known by friends and colleagues as ""Jonck"", was a psychologist and statistician at University College London (UCL). He is probably best known for his work in nonparametric statistics, where he has a test named after him: Jonckheere's trend test. - -Early life -Jonckheere was born in Hem, near Lille in France, in a house attached to an observatory. His father was Robert Jonckhèere, a French astronomer known for discovering 3350 double stars. Jonckheere took a first class degree in psychology with statistics in 1949 and a PhD in 1956, both from UCL. - -Work -Jonckheere is probably best known for his work in nonparametric statistics, approaches which make fewer assumptions about the theoretical distribution of the data than parametric statistics. In this field he developed what is now known as Jonckheere's trend test, a method which is implemented in SPSS, a statistical package favoured by social scientists, and R, widely used by statisticians.",50408842,Aimable Robert Jonckheere,M -1230,1230.0,,"Fog collection is the harvesting of water from fog using large pieces of vertical mesh netting to induce the fog-droplets to flow down towards a trough below. The setup is known as a fog fence, fog collector or fog net. Through condensation, atmospheric water vapour from the air condenses on cold surfaces into droplets of liquid water known as dew. The phenomenon is most observable on thin, flat, exposed objects including plant leaves and blades of grass. As the exposed surface cools by radiating its heat to the sky, atmospheric moisture condenses at a rate greater than that of which it can evaporate, resulting in the formation of water droplets.Water condenses onto the array of parallel wires and collects at the bottom of the net.",30861073,Fog collection,T -1231,1231.0,,"Engineering law is the study of how engineering ethics and legal frameworks are adopted to ensure public safety surrounding the practice of engineering. -California law defines engineering as ""the professional practice of rendering service or creative work requiring education, training and experience in engineering sciences and the application of special knowledge of the mathematical, physical and engineering sciences in such professional or creative work as consultation, investigation, evaluation, planning or design of public or private utilities, structures, machines, processes, circuits, buildings, equipment or projects, and supervision of construction for the purpose of securing compliance with specifications and design for any such work."" By comparison, New York and Ontario law uses life and health in their definitions. Ontario defines engineering as the ""planning, designing, composing, evaluating, advising, reporting, directing or supervising that requires the application of engineering principles and concerns the safeguarding of life, health, property, economic interests, the public welfare or the environment, or the managing of any such act.""California law makes public protection paramount. The legislative intent is that protection of the public shall be the highest priority of the Board for Professional Engineers in California.Engineering is a controlled activity in North America. The practice of engineering is largely separated from that of a natural scientist or a technician by engineering law and education.",28442598,Engineering law,E -1232,1232.0,,"A time-of-flight camera (ToF camera), also known as time-of-flight sensor (ToF sensor), is a range imaging camera system for measuring distances between the camera and the subject for each point of the image based on time-of-flight, the round trip time of an artificial light signal, as provided by a laser or an LED. Laser-based time-of-flight cameras are part of a broader class of scannerless LIDAR, in which the entire scene is captured with each laser pulse, as opposed to point-by-point with a laser beam such as in scanning LIDAR systems. -Time-of-flight camera products for civil applications began to emerge around 2000, as the semiconductor processes allowed the production of components fast enough for such devices. The systems cover ranges of a few centimeters up to several kilometers. - -Types of devices -Several different technologies for time-of-flight cameras have been developed. - -RF-modulated light sources with phase detectors -Photonic Mixer Devices (PMD), the Swiss Ranger, and CanestaVision work by modulating the outgoing beam with an RF carrier, then measuring the phase shift of that carrier on the receiver side. This approach has a modular error challenge: measured ranges are modulo the RF carrier wavelength. The Swiss Ranger is a compact, short-range device, with ranges of 5 or 10 meters and a resolution of 176 x 144 pixels.",19991513,Time-of-flight camera,E -1233,1233.0,,"The National Operating Committee on Standards for Athletic Equipment (NOCSAE, pronounced /'nɒxsi/ NOKH-see) is a nonprofit standards organization which develops standards for the manufacture of certain protective athletic equipment in the sports of baseball, football, hockey, lacrosse, and polo. NOCSAE conducts and funds scientific research and collects and analyzes data relating to standards development.The organization's office is in Overland Park, Kansas. The NOCSAE annual operating budget is primarily funded through licensing fees NOCSAE charges to manufacturing companies that have had their equipment certified compliant to standards by a third-party certifying organization. - -History -In 1967, the National Collegiate Athletic Association's Equipment and Injuries Committee recommended the establishment of an organization capable of collecting and organizing data on injuries to the head, neck, and spine that were related to football helmets. This Committee was responding to the deaths of 32 players in American organized football. In 1968, NOCSAE was officially organized through the combined efforts of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), the American College Health Association, the National Federation of State High School Associations (NFHS), and the Sports Fitness Industry Association (SFIA), to develop a football helmet standard effective in reducing or eliminating fatalities from head injuries such as skull fractures and subdural bleeding.",37077867,National Operating Committee on Standards for Athletic Equipment,T -1234,1234.0,,"National Science Advisor to the prime minister was a post that existed from 2004 to 2008. Previously, in 2003, the Privy Council Office published A Framework for the Application of Precaution in Science-based Decision Making about Risk under the government of Prime Minister Jean Chrétien. It provided a lens to assess whether precautionary decision making is in keeping with Canadians' social, environmental and economic values and priorities.Dr. Arthur Carty officially started in the role of on April 1, 2004. The advisor headed the Office of the National Science Advisor (ONSA), within Industry Canada, later moved to Privy Council Office.",4149451,National Science Advisor (Canada),T -1235,1235.0,,"The Pixel Imaging Mass Spectrometry camera (PImMS) is an ultrafast imaging sensor designed for time-of-flight particle imaging. It was invented by professors of chemistry at the University of Oxford, Mark Brouard and Claire Vallance., Renato Turchetta from IMASENIC (formerly at the STFC Rutherford Appleton Laboratory), and Andrei Nomerotski from Brookhaven National Labs (formerly at the Department of Physics, University of Oxford). The camera and accompanying software have been further developed by Iain Sedgwick (STFC Rutherford Appleton Laboratory), Jaya John John (Department of Physics, University of Oxford), and Jason Lee (Department of Chemistry, University of Oxford). The camera has been used for studies in chemical reaction dynamics, imaging mass spectrometry, and neutron time-of-flight imaging. - -References -External links -University of Oxford (15 July 2015). ""The Fastest Camera in the World: the PImMS sensor"".",56095710,Pixel Imaging Mass Spectrometry camera,M -1236,1236.0,,"In mathematics, a function - - - - - f - : - - - R - - - k - - - → - - R - - - - {\displaystyle f\colon \mathbb {R} ^{k}\to \mathbb {R} } - is supermodular if - - - - - f - ( - x - ↑ - y - ) - + - f - ( - x - ↓ - y - ) - ≥ - f - ( - x - ) - + - f - ( - y - ) - - - {\displaystyle f(x\uparrow y)+f(x\downarrow y)\geq f(x)+f(y)} - for all - - - - x - - - {\displaystyle x} - , - - - - y - ∈ - - - R - - - k - - - - - {\displaystyle y\in \mathbb {R} ^{k}} - , where - - - - x - ↑ - y - - - {\displaystyle x\uparrow y} - denotes the componentwise maximum and - - - - x - ↓ - y - - - {\displaystyle x\downarrow y} - the componentwise minimum of - - - - x - - - {\displaystyle x} - and - - - - y - - - {\displaystyle y} - . -If −f is supermodular then f is called submodular, and if the inequality is changed to an equality the function is modular. -If f is twice continuously differentiable, then supermodularity is equivalent to the condition - - - - - - - - - ∂ - - 2 - - - f - - - ∂ - - z - - i - - - - ∂ - - z - - j - - - - - - ≥ - 0 - - - for all - - - i - ≠ - j - . - - - {\displaystyle {\frac {\partial ^{2}f}{\partial z_{i}\,\partial z_{j}}}\geq 0{\mbox{ for all }}i\neq j.} - -Supermodularity in economics and game theory -The concept of supermodularity is used in the social sciences to analyze how one agent's decision affects the incentives of others. -Consider a symmetric game with a smooth payoff function - - - - - f - - - {\displaystyle \,f} - defined over actions - - - - - - z - - i - - - - - {\displaystyle \,z_{i}} - of two or more players - - - - i - ∈ - - 1 - , - 2 - , - … - , - N - - - - {\displaystyle i\in {1,2,\dots ,N}} - . Suppose the action space is continuous; for simplicity, suppose each action is chosen from an interval: - - - - - z - - i - - - ∈ - [ - a - , - b - ] - - - {\displaystyle z_{i}\in [a,b]} - . In this context, supermodularity of - - - - - f - - - {\displaystyle \,f} - implies that an increase in player - - - - - i - - - {\displaystyle \,i} - 's choice - - - - - - z - - i - - - - - {\displaystyle \,z_{i}} - increases the marginal payoff - - - - d - f - - / - - d - - z - - j - - - - - {\displaystyle df/dz_{j}} - of action - - - - - - z - - j - - - - - {\displaystyle \,z_{j}} - for all other players - - - - - j - - - {\displaystyle \,j} - . That is, if any player - - - - - i - - - {\displaystyle \,i} - chooses a higher - - - - - - z - - i - - - - - {\displaystyle \,z_{i}} - , all other players - - - - - j - - - {\displaystyle \,j} - have an incentive to raise their choices - - - - - - z - - j - - - - - {\displaystyle \,z_{j}} - too. Following the terminology of Bulow, Geanakoplos, and Klemperer (1985), economists call this situation strategic complementarity, because players' strategies are complements to each other.",905850,Supermodular function,M -1237,1237.0,,"The Space Station Processing Facility (SSPF) is a three-story industrial building at Kennedy Space Center for the manufacture and processing of flight hardware, modules, structural components and solar arrays of the International Space Station, and future space stations and commercial spacecraft. It was built in 1992 at the space complex's industrial area, just east of the Operations and Checkout Building.The SSPF includes two processing bays, an airlock, operational control rooms, laboratories, logistics areas for equipment and machines, office space, a ballroom and conference halls, and a cafeteria. -The processing areas, airlock, and laboratories are designed to support non-hazardous Space Station and Space Shuttle payloads in 100,000 class clean work areas. The building has a total floor area of 42,500 m2 (457,000 sq ft). - -History and construction -During the re-designing phase of Space Station Freedom in early 1991, Congress approved new plans for NASA to lead the project and begin manufacturing its components for the future International Space Station. Kennedy Space Center was selected as the ideal launch processing complex for the ISS, as well as hosting all the internationally manufactured modules and station elements. -However the Operations and Checkout Building (which was originally to be the prime factory for station launch processing) was insufficient in size to accommodate all the components.",9378828,Space Station Processing Facility,E -1238,1238.0,,"An outbuilding, sometimes called an accessory building or a dependency, is a building that is part of a residential or agricultural complex but detached from the main sleeping and eating areas. Outbuildings are generally used for some practical purpose, rather than decoration or purely for leisure (such as a pool house or a tree house). This article is limited to buildings that would typically serve one property, separate from community-scale structures such as gristmills, water towers, fire towers, or parish granaries. Outbuildings are typically detached from the main structure, so places like wine cellars, root cellars and cheese caves may or may not be termed outbuildings depending on their placement. A buttery, on the other hand, is never an outbuilding because by definition is it is integrated into the main structure. -Separating these work spaces from the main home ""removed heat, obnoxious odors, and offending vermin"" and decreased the risk of house fires and food-borne illnesses.",73002590,Outbuilding,M -1239,1239.0,,"The International Conference on Bioinformatics (InCoB) is a scientific conference on bioinformatics aimed at scientists in the Asia Pacific region. It has been held annually since 2002. Originally organised by coordination between the Asia Pacific Bioinformatics Network (APBioNet) and the Thailand National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (BIOTEC) in 2002, the meeting has since been the flagship conference of the APBioNet, where APBioNet's Annual General Meeting is held. - -Scientific publications -Since 2006, InCoB has been partnering with BMC Bioinformatics to publish an InCoB Special Conference Issue of top papers presented at the conference. In 2007, an additional tie-up with the Bioinformation journal was established in addition to the BMC Bioinformatics issue. - -Technological placeshifting -Since 2007, InCoB held in Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, has been placeshifted in an additional location in a developing country venue, namely the Vietnam National University, Hanoi (VNU) through the advanced videoconferencing project of APAN and TEIN2. In 2015, InCoB was organised jointly with the International Conference on Genome Informatics in an attempt to increase effectiveness and scalability. - -Satellite training workshops -Since 2007, at the VNU site coordinated by the Institute of Biotechnology Hanoi (IBT), InCoB coordinated with the International Union for Biochemists and Molecular Biologists (IUBMB), the Federation of Asian Oceanian Biochemists and Molecular Biologists (FAOBMB) and APBioNet to hold a two-week bioinformatics training course with course faculty from Karolinska Institutet, NCBI and National University of Singapore, supported by the S* Alliance for Bioinformatics Education and BioSlax, a software development project hosted at NUS as part of an ASEAN SubCommittee on Biotechnology (SCB) project.",12848292,International Conference on Bioinformatics,S -1240,1240.0,,"Villiger Sons (officially Villiger Sons Ltd.) is a Swiss multinational concern which manufactures and sells cigars and cigarillos and other tobacco products. Founded in 1888, the company is family owned and managed in the third, respectively fourth generation, and employs over 1,500 people worldwide. Villiger produces over 16 brands and has a revenue of approximately $220 million (2017). Besides owning several factories as subsidiaries in countries such as the Dominican Republic, Nicaragua and Indonesia.Villiger is also present on the U.S. market and has opened a new subsidiary of Villiger North America, Inc.",73824389,Villiger Sons,E -1241,1241.0,,"In business, diffusion is the process by which a new idea or new product is accepted by the market. The rate of diffusion is the speed with which the new idea spreads from one consumer to the next. Adoption is the reciprocal process as viewed from a consumer perspective rather than distributor; it is similar to diffusion except that it deals with the psychological processes an individual goes through, rather than an aggregate market process. - -Theories -There are several theories that purport to explain the mechanics of diffusion: - -The two-step hypothesis – information and acceptance flows, via the media, first to opinion leaders, then to the general population -The trickle-down effect – products tend to be expensive at first, and therefore only accessible to the wealthy social strata – in time they become less expensive and are diffused to lower and lower strata. -The Everett Rogers Diffusion of innovations theory – for any new idea, concept, product or method, there are five categories of adopters: -Innovators – venturesome, educated, multiple info sources; -Early adopters – social leaders, popular, educated; -Early majority – deliberate, many informal social contacts; -Late majority – skeptical, traditional, lower socio-economic status; -Laggards – neighbors and friends are main info sources, fear of debt. -The Chasm model developed by Lee James and Warren Schirtzinger - Originally named The Marketing Chasm, this model overlays Everett Rogers' adoption curve with a gap between early adopters and the early majority. Chasm theory is only applicable to discontinuous innovations, which are those that impose a change of behavior, new learning, or a new process on the buyer or end user. And the pre-requisite for a chasm or gap to exist in the adoption lifecycle is the innovation must be discontinuous. -Technology driven models – These are particularly relevant to software diffusion.",242495,Diffusion (business),T -1242,1242.0,,"Shi Yigong (Chinese: 施一公; born May 1967) is a Chinese biophysicist who serves as founding and the current president of Westlake University since April 2018.He previously served as vice president of Tsinghua University from 2015 to 2018 and dean of Tsinghua University School of Life Sciences from 2009 to 2016. - -Education -Shi Yigong received a Bachelor of Science with majors in biology and mathematics from Tsinghua University in 1989 and a Doctor of Philosophy in molecular biophysics from Johns Hopkins University in 1995.During his graduate studies, he determined the crystal structure of several critical apoptotic proteins, including apaf-1, DIAP1, and the BIR3 domain of XIAP. - -Career -Shi Yigong was the Warner-Lambert/Parke-Davis Professor in the department of Molecular Biology at Princeton University. In June 2008, he was selected as a Howard Hughes Medical Institute investigator. However, he rejected the award upon resigning his position at Princeton University in order to pursue his career at Tsinghua University, becoming the dean of the School of Life Sciences there. In 2003, he was appointed a Chair Professor of Tsinghua's Department of Biological Sciences and Biotechnology. In late 2007, He was appointed Vice Director of Tsinghua's Institute of Biomedicine and Vice Dean of Tsinghua's Department of Biological Sciences and Biotechnology before returning to China.",5280300,Shi Yigong,S -1243,1243.0,,"A recuperator is a special purpose counter-flow energy recovery heat exchanger positioned within the supply and exhaust air streams of an air handling system, or in the exhaust gases of an industrial process, in order to recover the waste heat. Generally, they are used to extract heat from the exhaust and use it to preheat air entering the combustion system. In this way they use waste energy to heat the air, offsetting some of the fuel, and thereby improve the energy efficiency of the system as a whole. - -Description -In many types of processes, combustion is used to generate heat, and the recuperator serves to recuperate, or reclaim this heat, in order to reuse or recycle it. The term recuperator refers as well to liquid-liquid counterflow heat exchangers used for heat recovery in the chemical and refinery industries and in closed processes such as ammonia-water or LiBr-water absorption refrigeration cycle. -Recuperators are often used in association with the burner portion of a heat engine, to increase the overall efficiency. For example, in a gas turbine engine, air is compressed, mixed with fuel, which is then burned and used to drive a turbine.",1040953,Recuperator,E -1244,1244.0,,"Alexander M. Feskov (born 17 February 1959 in Alchevsk, Ukraine) is a Ukrainian physician, reproductive scientist, and ultrasonographer who specialises in reproductive technology and fertility treatment. -Feskov is one of the most well-known reproductive technology and surrogacy specialists in Ukraine, and has over 100 academic publications. Other notable physicians who have done related research include Yury Verlinsky, Lars Johanson, and Norbert Gleicher. -He is a member of the European Society of Human Reproduction and Embryology (ESHRE), and is also a member of the board of Ukrainian Association of Reproductive Medicine. - -Education -Born in Alchevsk, Ukraine, Feskov was an intern in obstetrics and gynecology at the 1st City Clinical Hospital in Kharkiv, Ukraine. He then went on to graduate from the Faculty of Medicine at Kharkov Medical Institute in 1990. - -Career -Feskov has been working in the field of reproductive medicine for more than three decades. He specialises primarily in obstetrics and gynecology, endoscopy, and ultrasonography.Feskov has done extensive medical research on sperm fertility, in vitro fertilization, and various other reproductive technologies and treatments.",62502434,Alexander M. Feskov,S -1245,1245.0,,"A passive dual coil resonator (pDCR) is a purely passive receive coil insert for a preclinical magnetic particle imaging (MPI) system which provides frequency-selective signal enhancement. The pDCR aims to enhance the frequency components associated with high mixing orders, which are critical to achieve a high spatial resolution. - -Motivation -One of the biggest challenges in MPI is to achieve a good signal-to-noise ratio, especially for higher harmonics. The intention behind this is that as many harmonics of the induced particle signal as possible, which drop in intensity at higher frequencies and then disappear in the noise floor, should be usable for image reconstruction to reach a better spatial resolution. To enhance the harmonics at higher frequencies, one aims to increase the inductive coupling between the particles and the receive coils at higher harmonics. - -Design -As the name suggests, the pDCR, which consists of two coaxial coils, is passive because it does not have a voltage source and also no electrical connection to the rest of the MPI scanner system. The pDCR represents a resonant circuit and therefore also includes a capacitor.",70828730,Passive dual coil resonator,S -1246,1246.0,,"The dusky smooth-hound (Mustelus canis), also called the smooth dogfish or the dog shark, is a species of houndshark in the family Triakidae. This shark is an olive grey or brown in color, and may have shades of yellow or grayish white. Females live to 16 years and males have a lifespan of 10 years. M. canis was the first shark recognised to have viral infections. - -Taxonomy -M.",652288,Dusky smooth-hound,S -1247,1247.0,,"Recurrent event analysis is a branch of survival analysis that analyzes the time until recurrences occur, such as recurrences of traits or diseases. Recurrent events are often analysed in social sciences and medical studies, for example recurring infections, depressions or cancer recurrences. Recurrent event analysis attempts to answer certain questions, such as: how many recurrences occur on average within a certain time interval? Which factors are associated with a higher or lower risk of recurrence? -The processes which generate events repeatedly over time are referred to as recurrent event processes, which are different from processes analyzed in time-to-event analysis: whereas time-to-event analysis focuses on the time to a single terminal event, individuals may be at risk for subsequent events after the first in recurrent event analysis, until they are censored. - -Introduction -Objectives of recurrent event analysis include: -Understanding and describing individual event processes -Identifying and characterizing variation across a population of processes -Comparing groups of processes -Determining the relationship of fixed covariates, treatments, and time-varying factors to event occurrence - -Notation and frameworks -For a single recurrent event process starting at - - - - t - = - 0 - - - {\displaystyle t=0} - , let - - - - 0 - ≤ - - T - - 1 - - - < - - T - - 2 - - - < - … - - - {\displaystyle 0\leq T_{1}