乔克托语

乔克托语（英语：Choctaw；乔克托语：Chahta'）是一种的语言，传统上通行于美国东南部的原住民族群之一乔克托人之间。尽管有人将契卡索语（Chickasaw）列为乔克托语的其中一种方言，但更多的资料指出，应将契卡索和乔克托语给视为彼此相似但不同的语言。
正写法.
乔克托语的书写系统基于拉丁字母，尽管乔克托语有多种不同的书写系统，但目最常见的系统为拜印顿系统（Byington）、拜印顿─苏万敦系统（Byington/Swanton）和密西西比乔克托族的现代系统。
现代系统变体（语言学者所使用）.
许多语言学方面的刊物使用的是此处列出的该套现代系统的变体，在此变体中，长母音常借由两个母音并写来表示；另在「语言学者所使用」的版本中，锐音符表示的是音高重音所在的位置，而非母音的长短。
本文以下讨论乔克托语语法的部份使用的系统为语言学者用的现代系统变体。
/ V____V
一些音变过程.
半母音插入.
当动词词根以长母音结尾时，/w/或/j/等半母音会插入该长母音之后。如下所示：
语法形态.
语序.
乔克托语语序如下：
ísatok."
在不及物动词中，其使用规则较为复杂。在其中，动态动词的主词用I类标记，静态动词的主词用II类标记；某些指称心理的动词其主词则可能使用III类标记。如下所示：
这种决定使用一致标记的方法常用被称为静动配列（active–stative）
否定.
N类一致标记用于否定中。 Negation is multiply marked, requiring that an agreement marker from the N set replace the ordinary I agreement, the verb appear in the lengthened grade (see discussion below), and that the suffix /-o(k)-/ follow the verb, with deletion of the preceding final vowel. The optional suffix /-kii/may be added after /-o(k)-/. Consider the following example:
可将此句和其相对应的肯定句进行比较：
To make this example negative, the 1sI suffix /-li/ is replaced by the 1sN prefix /ak-/; the verb root iya is lengthened and accented to yield íiya; the suffix /-o/ is added, the final vowel of iiya is deleted; and the suffix /-kii/ is added.
呼应前缀.
Reflexives are indicated with the /ili-/ prefix, and reciprocals with /itti-/:
Verb suffixes.
 While the verbal prefixes indicate relations between the verb and its arguments, the suffixes cover a wider semantic range, including information about valence, modality, tense and evidentiality.
The following examples show modal and tense suffixes like /-aachii/ 'irrealis'(approximately equal to future), /-tok/ 'past tense', /-h/ 'default tenses':
 Baliilih. 
 Baliili-h.
 run-tns
 `She runs.'
 Baliilaachih. 
 Baliili-aachi-h. 
 run-irr-tns
 `She will run.'
There are also suffixes that show evidentiality, or the source of evidence for a statement, as in the following pair:
 Nipi’ awashlihli.
 Nipi’ awashli-hli 
 meat fry-first:hand 
 `She fried the meat.' (I saw/heard/smelled her do it.)
 Nipi’ awashlitokasha.
 Nipi’ awashli-tok-asha
 meat fry-pt-guess
 `She fried the meat.' (I guess)
There are also suffixes of illocutionary force which may indicate that the sentence is a question, an exclamation, or a command:
 Awashlitoko?
 Awashli-tok-o
 fry-pt-q
 `Did she fry it?'
 Chahta’ siahokii! 
 Chahta’ si-a-h-okii
 Choctaw 1sII-be-tns-excl
 `I'm Choctaw!' or `I certainly am a Choctaw!'
Verbal infixes.
Choctaw verb stems have various infixes that indicate their aspect. These stem variants are traditionally referred to as `grades'. The table below shows the grades of Choctaw, along with their main usage.
Some examples that show the grades follow:
In this example the l-grade appears because of the suffixes /-na/ 'different subject' and /-o(k)/ 'negative':
"... lowat táahana falaamat akíiyokiittook."
 lowa-t táaha-na falaama-t ak-íiya-o-kii-ttook
 burn-ss complete<lgr>-ds return-ss 1sN-go<lgr>-neg-neg-dpast
 `... (the school) burned down and I didn't go back.'
The g-grade and y-grade typically get translated into English as "finally VERB-ed":
Taloowah.
 Taloowa-h 
 sing-tns 
 `He sang.'
 Tálloowah.
 Tálloowa-h 
 sing<ggr>-tns 
 `He finally sang.'
The hn-grade is usually translated as 'kept on VERBing':
 Ohóbana nittak pókkooli’ oshtattook.
 Ohóba-na nittak pókkooli’ oshta-ttook
 rain<hngr>-ds day ten four-dpast
 `It kept on raining for forty days.'
The h-grade is usually translated "just VERB-ed" or "VERB-ed for a short time":
 
 sleep<hgr>-tns
 `He took a quick nap.
Nominal morphology.
Noun prefixes.
Nouns have prefixes that show agreement with a possessor. Agreement markers from class II are used on a lexically specified closed class of nouns, which includes many (but not all) of the kinship terms and body parts. This is the class that is generally labeled inalienable.
 sanoshkobo’ `my head' 
 sa-noshkobo’ 
 1sII-head
 chinoshkobo’ `your head' 
 chi-noshkobo’ 
 2sII-head
 noshkobo’ `his/her/its/their head' 
 noshkobo’ 
 head
sashki’ `my mother' 
 sa-ishki’ 
 1sII-mother
 chishki’ `your mother' 
 chi-ishki’ 
 2sII-mother
Nouns that are not lexically specified for II agreement use the III agreement markers:
 aki’ `my father' 
 a-ki’ 
 1sIII-father
amofi’ `my dog' 
 am-ofi’ 
 1sIII-dog
Although systems of this type are generally described with the terms alienable and inalienable, this terminology is not particularly appropriate for Choctaw, since alienability implies a semantic distinction between types of nouns. The morphological distinction between nouns taking II agreement and III agreement in Choctaw only partly coincides with the semantic notion of alienability.
Noun suffixes.
Choctaw nouns can be followed by various determiner and case-marking suffixes, as in the following examples, where we see
determiners such as /-ma/ `that', /-pa/ `this', and /-akoo/ `contrast' and case-markers /-(y)at/ 'nominative' and /-(y)a/ 'accusative':
alla’ naknimat 
 alla’ nakni-m-at 
 child male-that-nom
 `that boy (nominative)'
Hoshiit itti chaahamako obiniilih.
 Hoshi’-at itti’ chaaha-m-ako o-biniili-h 
 bird-nom tree tall-that-cntr:acc superessive-sit-tns 
 `The bird is sitting on that tall tree.' (Not on the short one.)
The last example shows that nasalizing the last vowel of the preceding N is a common way to show the accusative case.
Word order and case marking.
 The simplest sentences in Choctaw consist of a verb and a tense marker, as in the following examples:
"Obatok." 
Oba-tok
rain-pt
'It rained.'
"Niyah." 
Niya-h
fat-tns 
'She/he/it is fat.'
'They are fat.'
"Písatok." 
Písa-tok
see<ngr>-pt 
'She/he/it/they saw her/him/it/them.'
 As these examples show, there are no obligatory noun phrases in a Choctaw sentence, nor is there any verbal agreement that indicates a third person subject or object. There is no indication of grammatical gender, and for third person arguments there is no indication of number. (There are, however, some verbs with suppletive forms that indicate the number of a subject or object, e.g. iyah `to go (sg.)', ittiyaachih `to go (du.)', and ilhkolih `to go (pl)'.)
When there is an overt subject, it is obligatorily marked with the nominative case /-at/. Subjects precede the verb
"Hoshiyat apatok." <br>
 Hoshi'-at apa-tok <br>
 bird-nom eat-pt <br>
 `The birds ate them.'
When there is an overt object, it is optionally marked with the accusative case /-a/:
"Hoshiyat shoshi(-ya) apatok."
Hoshi'-at shoshi'(-a) apa-tok.
bird-nom bug-(acc) eat-pt
'The birds ate the bugs.'
The Choctaw sentence is normally verb-final, and so the head of the sentence is last.
Some other phrases in Choctaw also have their head at the end. Possessors precede the possessed noun in the Noun Phrase:
 "ofi' hohchifo 
 dog name 
 'the dog's name'
Choctaw has postpositional phrases with the postposition after its object:
"tamaaha' bilika" 
 town near
 `near a town'
Examples.
Some common Choctaw phrases (written in the "Modern" orthography):
Other Choctaw words:
Counting to twenty:
At " "Native Nashville" " web [http://www.nativenashville.com/language/tutor_chata.php], there is an Online Choctaw Language Tutor, with Pronunciation Guide and four lessons: Small Talk, Animals, Food and Numbers.