Asset-intensive and Longevity Reinsurance. In recent years, the Company has experienced growth in asset-intensive and longevity reinsurance. The Company intends to continue leveraging its existing client relationships and reinsurance expertise to create customized reinsurance products and other capital solutions. Industry trends, particularly the consolidation and reorganization that occurred among life insurance companies, changes in products and product distribution and new solvency requirements, are expected to enhance existing opportunities for asset-intensive and longevity reinsurance. To date, most of the Company’s asset-intensive reinsurance business has been written in the U.S., the UK and Japan; however, additional opportunities in other markets continue to develop. The Company also provides longevity reinsurance in the U.S., Canada and Europe.
DAC related to interest-sensitive life and investment-type contracts is amortized over the lives of the contracts, in relation to the present value of estimated gross profits (“EGP”) from mortality, investment income, and expense margins. The EGP for asset-intensive products include the following components: (1) estimates of fees charged to policyholders to cover mortality, surrenders and maintenance costs, less amount of risk upon death; (2) expected interest rate spreads between income earned and amounts credited to policyholder accounts; and (3) estimated costs of administration. EGP is also reduced by the Company’s estimate of future losses due to defaults in fixed maturity securities as well as the change in reserves for embedded derivatives. DAC is sensitive to changes in assumptions regarding these EGP components, and any change in such assumptions could have an effect on the Company’s profitability.
Claims and other policy benefits increased by $43 million, or 116.2%, in 2019. The increase in 2019 was primarily a result of the aforementioned new longevity transaction completed in 2019. Foreign currency exchange fluctuations in the Canadian dollar resulted in a decrease in claims and other policy benefits of $2 million in 2019.
Net investment income increased $6 million, or 15.0%, in 2019. The increase in investment income in 2019 was primarily due to an increase in invested asset base from new asset-intensive transactions, partially offset by a lower investment yield and foreign currency fluctuations. Foreign currency exchange fluctuations resulted in a decrease in net investment income of $1 million.
In addition, certain reinsurance treaties require the Company to place assets in trust at the time of closing to collateralize its obligations to the ceding company. Assets placed in trust continue to be owned by the Company, but their beneficial ownership and use are restricted based on the terms of the trust agreement. Securities with an amortized cost of $2.8 billion were held in trust for the benefit of the Company’s subsidiaries to satisfy collateral requirements for reinsurance business at December 31, 2019. Additionally, securities with an amortized cost of $27.3 billion as of December 31, 2019, were held in trust to satisfy collateral requirements under certain third-party reinsurance treaties. Under certain conditions, the Company may be obligated to move reinsurance from one subsidiary to another subsidiary, post additional collateral or make payments under a given reinsurance treaty. These conditions include change in control or ratings of the subsidiary, insolvency, nonperformance under a reinsurance treaty, or loss of license or other regulatory authorization of such subsidiary. If the Company was ever required to move reinsurance from one subsidiary to another subsidiary, the risk to the Company on a consolidated basis under the reinsurance treaties would not change; however, additional collateral may need to be posted or additional capital may be required due to the change in jurisdiction of the subsidiary reinsuring the business, which could lead to a strain on liquidity.
See “Securities Borrowing, Lending and Other” in Note 4 - “Investments” in the Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements for information related to the Company’s securities borrowing, lending and repurchase/reverse repurchase programs. In addition to its security agreements with third parties, certain RGA subsidiaries have entered into intercompany securities lending agreements to more efficiently source securities for lending to third parties and to provide for more efficient regulatory capital management.
Real estate risk is the risk that changes in the level and volatility of real estate market valuations may impact the profitability, value or solvency position of the Company. The Company has investments in direct real estate equity and debt instruments collateralized by real estate (“real estate loans”). Real estate equity risks include significant reduction in valuations, which could be caused by downturns in the broad economy or in specific geographic regions or sectors. In addition, real estate loan risks include defaults, borrower or tenant bankruptcy and reduced liquidity. Real estate loan risks are partially mitigated by the excess of the value of the property over the loan principle, which provides a buffer should the value of the real estate decrease. The Company manages its real estate loan risk by diversifying by property type and geography and through exposure limits.
Deferred tax assets and liabilities are measured by applying the relevant jurisdictions’ enacted tax rate to the temporary difference in the period in which the temporary differences are expected to reverse. The Company will establish a valuation allowance if management determines, based on available information, that it is more likely than not that deferred income tax assets will not be realized. The Company has deferred tax assets including those related to foreign tax credits, net operating, and capital losses. The Company has projected its ability to utilize its deferred tax assets and established a valuation allowance on the portion of the deferred tax assets the Company believes more likely than not will not be realized.
Information regarding the Company’s loan valuation allowances for mortgage loans as of December 31, 2019, 2018 and 2017 are as follows (dollars in millions):
Other invested assets include limited partnership interests, joint ventures (other than operating joint ventures), lifetime mortgages, derivative contracts and fair value option (“FVO”) contractholder-directed unit-linked investments. Other invested assets also include FHLB common stock, which is included in Other in the table below. Carrying values of these assets as of December 31, 2019 and 2018 are as follows (dollars in millions):
The cumulative foreign currency translation gain recorded in AOCI related to these hedges was $168 million and $201 million as of December 31, 2019 and 2018, respectively. If a hedged foreign operation was sold or substantially liquidated, the amounts in AOCI would be reclassified to the consolidated statements of income. A pro rata portion would be reclassified upon partial sale of a hedged foreign operation.
Mortgage Loans on Real Estate - The fair value of mortgage loans on real estate is estimated by discounting cash flows, both principal and interest, using current interest rates for mortgage loans with similar credit ratings and similar remaining maturities. As such, inputs include current treasury yields and spreads, which are based on the credit rating and average life of the loan, corresponding to the market spreads. The valuation of mortgage loans on real estate is considered Level 3 in the fair value hierarchy.
Target allocations of U.S. qualified pension plan assets are determined with the objective of maximizing returns and minimizing volatility of net assets through adequate asset diversification and partial liability immunization. Adjustments are made to target allocations based on the Company’s assessment of the effect of economic factors and market conditions. The target allocations for plan assets are 60% equity securities and 40% debt securities as of December 31, 2019 and 2018. The Company’s plan assets are primarily invested in mutual funds. The mutual funds include holdings of S&P 500 securities, large-cap securities, mid-cap securities, small-cap securities, international securities, corporate debt securities, U.S. and other government securities, mortgage-related securities and cash.
We tested the effectiveness of controls, including those surrounding the valuation of Level 3 securities.