The following discussion and analysis should be read in conjunction with our consolidated financial statements and the related notes included in Item 8 of this annual report. In addition, please see “Information Regarding Non-GAAP Measures and Other” beginning on page 35 for a reconciliation of the non-GAAP measures for adjusted total revenues, organic commission, fee and supplemental revenues and adjusted EBITDAC to the comparable GAAP measures, as well as other important information regarding these measures.
Our consolidated financial statements are prepared in accordance with U.S. generally accepted accounting principles (which we refer to as GAAP), which require management to make estimates and assumptions that affect the amounts reported in our consolidated financial statements and accompanying notes. We believe the following significant accounting policies may involve a higher degree of judgment and complexity. See Note 1 to our 2017 consolidated financial statements for other significant accounting policies.
Investment income - Investment income primarily represents interest income earned on our cash and cash equivalents. Investment income in 2017 decreased compared to 2016 primarily due to lower levels of invested assets in 2017. Investment income in 2016 increased compared to 2015 primarily due to higher levels of invested assets in 2016.
The losses in 2017, 2016 and 2015 were low because the vast majority of our operations are now consolidated.
See Note 7 to our 2017 consolidated financial statements for a discussion of the terms of the Credit Agreement and note purchase agreements.
While we are continuing to assess all potential impacts of the new guidance, we anticipate this guidance will have an impact on our consolidated financial statements. We currently believe the most significant impact relates to our real estate operating leases and the related recognition of right-of-use assets and lease liabilities in both noncurrent assets and noncurrent liabilities in our consolidated balance sheet. See Note 15 to these 2017 consolidated financial statements for details on our current lease arrangements.
The primary reason for the increase in the amount of revenue recognized relates to our employee benefits business. Historically we have recognized this revenue throughout the contract period as underlying client exposure units became certain. Under the new guidance, the full year revenue under each of these contracts will be estimated at the effective date of the underlying policies resulting in acceleration of revenue recognized, with a reassessment at each reporting date. This also will cause a shift in the timing of revenue recognized in the interim periods as a majority of these annual contracts incept in the first quarter. Partially offsetting this interim impact will be the recognition of contingent revenues related to all of our brokerage business as these revenues will be estimated and accrued throughout the year as the underlying business is placed with the insurance carriers rather than our historical recognition where the majority of these were recognized in the first quarter, typically when we received cash or the related policy detail or other carrier specific information from the insurance carrier.
The amounts in work in process in the table above primarily are for capitalized expenditures incurred related to IT development projects in 2017 and 2016.
Total rent expense, including rent relating to cancelable leases and leases with initial terms of less than one year, amounted to $137.7 million in 2017, $134.2 million in 2016 and $121.6 million in 2015.
Our micro-captive advisory services are under investigation by the IRS. Additionally, the IRS has initiated audits for the 2012 tax year of over 100 of the micro-captive underwriting enterprises organized and/or managed by us. Among other matters, the IRS is investigating whether we have been acting as a tax shelter promoter in connection with these operations. While the IRS has not made specific allegations relating to our operations, if the IRS were to successfully assert that the micro-captives organized and/or managed by us do not meet the requirements of IRC Section 831(b), we could be held liable to pay monetary claims by the IRS and/or our micro-captive clients, and our future earnings from our micro-captive operations could be materially adversely affected, any of which events, could negatively impact the overall captive business and adversely affect our consolidated results of operations and financial condition. Due to the fact that the IRS has not made any allegation against us or completed all of its audits of our clients, we are not able to reasonably estimate the amount of any potential loss in connection with this investigation.
We have a wholly owned underwriting enterprise subsidiary based in the U.S. that cedes all of its insurance risk to reinsurers or captives under facultative and quota share treaty reinsurance agreements. This company was established in fourth quarter 2014 and began writing business in December 2014. These reinsurance arrangements diversify our business and minimize our exposure to losses or hazards of an unusual nature. The ceding of insurance does not discharge us of our primary liability to the policyholder. In the event that all or any of the reinsuring companies are unable to meet their obligations, we would be liable for such defaulted amounts. Therefore, we are subject to credit risk with respect to the obligations of our reinsurers or captives. In order to minimize our exposure to losses from reinsurer credit risk and insolvencies, we have managed that exposure by obtaining full collateral for which we typically require pledged assets, including cash and/or investment accounts or letters of credit, to fully offset the risk.
We do not provide for U.S. Federal income taxes on the undistributed earnings ($330.0 million and $243.0 million at December 31, 2017 and 2016, respectively) of foreign subsidiaries which are considered permanently invested outside of the U.S. The amount of unrecognized deferred tax liability on these undistributed earnings was immaterial at December 31, 2017 and $15.6 million at December 31, 2016, respectively. If undistributed earnings are repatriated to the U.S. in the future they would be considered previously taxed income in the U.S., however the amount of unrecognized tax liability on these earnings is not expected to be material.
Our risk management segment provides contract claim settlement and administration services for enterprises that choose to self-insure some or all of their property/casualty coverages and for underwriting enterprises that choose to outsource some or all of their property/casualty claims departments. These operations also provide claims management, loss control consulting and insurance property appraisal services. Revenues are principally generated on a negotiated per-claim or per-service fee basis. Our risk management segment also provides risk management consulting services that are recognized as the services are delivered.