Financial Highlights of Results for Years Ended December 31, 2018, 2017, and 2016;
We have identified the policies and estimates described below as critical to our business operations and the understanding of the results of our operations. Our preparation of the Financial Statements requires us to make estimates and assumptions that affect the reported amount of assets and liabilities, disclosure of contingent assets and liabilities at the date of our Financial Statements, and the reported amounts of revenue and expenses during the reporting period. We can offer no assurance that actual results will be the same as those estimates, and it is possible they will differ materially. Those estimates that were most critical to the preparation of the Financial Statements involved the following: (i) reserves for loss and loss expense; (ii) pension and post-retirement benefit plan actuarial assumptions; (iii) investment valuation and other-than-temporary-impairments (“OTTI”); and (iv) reinsurance.
The following tables provide case and incurred but not reported (“IBNR”) reserves for loss and loss expenses, and reinsurance recoverable on unpaid loss and loss expense as of December 31, 2018 and 2017:
2Includes commercial property (88% of net reserves) and commercial auto property coverages (12% of net reserves).
The actuarial reserve analysis is the foundation of the quarterly reserve review process. Using generally accepted actuarial reserving techniques, we project our estimate of ultimate loss and loss expense at each reporting date. Our IBNR reserve is the difference between the projected ultimate loss and loss expense incurred and the sum of: (i) case loss and loss expense reserves; and (ii) paid loss and loss expense. The actuarial techniques used in determining ultimate losses are part of a comprehensive reserving process that includes two primary components. The first component is a detailed quarterly reserve analysis performed by our internal actuarial staff. In completing this analysis, the actuaries must gather substantially similar data in sufficient volume to ensure statistical credibility of the data, while maintaining appropriate differentiation. This process defines the reserving segments, to which various actuarial projection methods are applied. When applying these methods, the actuaries are required to make numerous assumptions, such as the selection of loss and loss expense development factors and the weight to be applied to each individual projection method, among others. These methods include paid and incurred versions of the following methods: aggregate loss and loss expense development, Bornhuetter-Ferguson, Berquist-Sherman, and frequency/severity modeling (via a development approach). The second component of the analysis is the projection of the expected ultimate loss and loss expense ratio for each line of business for the current accident year. This projection is part of our planning process wherein we review and update expected loss and loss expense ratios each quarter. This reserve review includes actual versus expected pricing changes, loss and loss expense trend assumptions, and updated prior period loss and loss expense ratios from the most recent quarterly reserve analysis. Actual claims counts and severities are also considered relative to initial expectations.
Each quarter a reserve review produces updated reserve estimates for the current and prior accident years, which in turn leads to changes in the recorded reserves, favorably, or unfavorably. In 2018, we experienced overall net favorable prior year loss development of $29.9 million, compared to $39.2 million in 2017, and $65.8 million in 2016. The following table summarizes prior year development by line of business:
A detailed discussion of recent reserve developments, by line of business, follows.
At December 31, 2018, our general liability line of business had recorded reserves, net of reinsurance, of $1.2 billion, which represented 36% of our total net reserves. In 2018, this line experienced favorable development of $9.5 million, attributable to lower than expected loss expenses in accident years 2013 through 2017. The favorable loss expense emergence was partially offset by higher than expected loss emergence in accident years 2016 and 2017.
While we believe the underwriting and claims operational changes are significant drivers of our improved loss experience, there is always risk associated with change. Most notably, changes in operations may inherently change paid and reported development patterns. While our reserve analyses incorporate methods that adjust for these changes, nevertheless there is a greater risk of fluctuation in the estimated reserves.
Audit premium and endorsement premium may also introduce uncertainty into our reserves, as earned premiums are used as a basis to set initial reserves. Over recent years, this activity has been fairly consistent. Audit and endorsement activity resulted in additional DPW of $12.1 million in 2018 and $18.2 million in 2017.
At December 31, 2018, our commercial automobile line of business had recorded reserves, net of reinsurance, of $545 million, which represented 16% of our total net reserves. In 2018, this line experienced unfavorable development of $36.7 million, which was mainly driven by higher than expected severities in accident years 2015 through 2017.
In 2017, this line experienced unfavorable development of $35.6 million, which was mainly driven by: (i) higher than expected frequencies and severities in accident years 2015 and 2016; and (ii) higher than expected severities in accident years 2012 through 2014.
Some of the sames issues affecting the commercial automobile line are also affecting this line. Increased usage and vehicle repair costs, coupled with social trends such as distracted driving, are likely causes of increased frequencies and rising severities. We continue to recalibrate our predictive models, as well as refine our underwriting and pricing approaches. While we believe these changes will ultimately lead to improved profitability and greater stability, they may impact paid and reported development patterns, thereby increasing the uncertainty in the reserves in the near-term.
At December 31, 2018, our E&S casualty lines of business had recorded reserves, net of reinsurance, of $350 million, which represented 10% of our total net reserves. In 2018, this line experienced unfavorable development of $12.0 million, mostly associated with accident years 2015 and 2016. In 2017, this line experienced unfavorable development of $10.0 million, mostly associated with accident years 2014 and 2015. While we continue to build historical loss experience in this segment, our experience base is still significantly shorter than we have in our Standard Commercial and Personal Lines segments. Therefore, our reserve estimates for this line are subject to somewhat greater uncertainty than the comparable Standard Commercial and Personal Line segments. In addition, by its nature, the composition of this book tends to undergo greater changes over time, which may impact development patterns.
Our E&S results have improved over recent years. In support of these improved results, we have taken the following actions related to E&S casualty claims:
Required panel counsel firms to use our electronic legal billing and budgeting system to better manage budgets and expenses associated with litigation; and
We believe that the actions above are leading to earlier identification of severe claims, as well as earlier claims resolutions with improved outcomes. However, changes in claims operations can result in changes to claims reserving and settlement patterns. Once claims initiatives are implemented, it takes time for patterns to stabilize, and in the near term, these operational changes increase the uncertainty in reserve estimates.
Continued efforts in the areas of fraud investigation and salvage/subrogation recoveries. These efforts have been supported by predictive models that allow us to better focus our efforts.
United States monetary policy and global economic conditions bring additional uncertainty in the long-term given the length of time required for claim settlement and the impact of medical cost trends relating to longer-tail liability and workers compensation claims. Uncertainty regarding future inflation or deflation creates the potential for additional volatility in our reserves for these lines of business.
Expected claim frequencies, severities, and ultimate loss and loss expense ratios for the current accident year.
The sensitivities of loss and loss expense reserves to these key assumptions are illustrated below for the major casualty lines. The first table shows the estimated impacts from changes in expected reported loss and loss expense development patterns. It shows reserve impacts by line of business if the actual calendar year incurred amounts are greater or less than current expectations by the selected percentages. While the selected percentages by line are judgmental, they are based on the reserve range analysis, as well as the actual historical reserve development for the line of business. The second table shows the estimated impacts from changes to the expected loss and loss expense ratios for the current accident year. It shows reserve impacts by line of business if the expected loss and loss expense ratios for the current accident year are greater or less than current expectations by the selected percentages.
Note that there is some overlap between the impacts in the two tables. For example, increases in the calendar year development would ultimately impact our view of the current accident year's loss and loss expense ratios. Nevertheless, these tables provide perspective into the sensitivity of each of these key assumptions.
Our general liability, excess liability, and homeowners reserves include exposure to asbestos and environmental claims. Our exposure to environmental liability is primarily due to: (i) landfill exposures from policies written prior to the absolute pollution endorsement in the mid 1980s; and (ii) underground storage tank leaks mainly from New Jersey homeowners policies. These environmental claims stem primarily from insured exposures in municipal government, small non-manufacturing commercial risks, and homeowners policies.
The fair value of our investment portfolio is defined under accounting guidance as the exit price or the amount that would be: (i) received to sell an asset; or (ii) paid to transfer a liability in an orderly transaction between market participants. When determining an exit price we must, when available, rely upon observable market data. The majority of securities in our equity portfolio have readily determinable fair values and, as such, are carried at fair value with changes in unrealized gains or losses being recognized through income. Additionally, our available-for-sale ("AFS") fixed income securities portfolio is carried at fair value and the related unrealized gains or losses are reflected in stockholders' equity, net of tax. For both our AFS and held-to-maturity ("HTM") fixed income securities portfolios, fair value is a key factor in the evaluation of a security for OTTI.
The fair value of approximately 99% of our investment portfolio is classified as either Level 1 or Level 2 in the fair value hierarchy. Fair value measurements in Level 1 represent quoted prices in active markets for identical assets. Fair value measurements in Level 2 represent prices determined using observable data from similar securities that have traded in the marketplace, typically using matrix pricing. The fair value of our Level 2 securities are determined by external pricing services. We have evaluated the pricing methodology used for these Level 2 prices and have determined that the inputs used are observable. For additional information regarding the valuation techniques used, refer to item (e) of Note 2. "Summary of Significant Accounting Policies" within Item 8. "Financial Statements and Supplementary Data." of this Annual Report.
Our investment portfolio is subject to market declines below amortized cost that may be other than temporary and therefore may result in the recognition of OTTI losses. Factors considered in the determination of whether or not a decline is other than temporary require significant judgment and include, but are not limited to, the financial condition of the issuer, the expected near-term and long-term prospects of the issuer, and our evaluation of the projected cash flow stream from the security. We also consider whether or not we have the intent to sell securities that are in an unrealized loss position. For additional information regarding our OTTI process and OTTI charges recorded, see item (d) of Note 2. "Summary of Significant
Accounting Policies" and item (j) of Note 5. "Investments" within Item 8. "Financial Statements and Supplementary Data." of this Annual Report, respectively.
Reinsurance recoverables on paid and unpaid loss and loss expense represent estimates of the portion of such liabilities that will be recovered from reinsurers. Each reinsurance contract is analyzed to ensure that the transfer of risk exists to properly record the transactions in the Financial Statements. Amounts recovered from reinsurers are recognized as assets at the same time and in a manner consistent with the paid and unpaid losses associated with the reinsured policies. An allowance for estimated uncollectible reinsurance is recorded based on an evaluation of balances due from reinsurers and other available information. This allowance totaled $4.5 million at December 31, 2018 and $4.6 million at December 31, 2017. We continually monitor developments that may impact recoverability from our reinsurers and have available to us contractually provided remedies if necessary. For further information regarding reinsurance, see the “Reinsurance” section below and Note 8. “Reinsurance” in Item 8. “Financial Statements and Supplementary Data.” of this Form 10-K.
For the year, our combined ratio was 95.0% and our non-GAAP operating ROE of 12.5% exceeded our financial target of 12% for 2018. Industry-wide commercial property results have been volatile and commercial auto has been a consistently poor performer, which when coupled with ongoing pricing pressures within the workers compensation line, have led to an expected 2018 combined ratio of 99.4% for the U.S. property and casualty insurance industry, or an ROE of 7.2%, as reported by Conning, Inc. in their fourth quarter 2018 Property-Casualty Forecast and Analysis Report.
2018 marks the fifth consecutive year that we reported double-digit non-GAAP operating ROEs, placing us among a select group of insurance companies that have achieved this level of performance. This is a particularly impressive track record in the context of: (i) meaningful catastrophe losses over the past two-year period; (ii) a highly competitive commercial lines pricing environment; and (iii) a continued low level of interest rates that negatively impacts net investment income from fixed income security portfolios.
Our insurance operations' ROE decreased 0.7 points, to 5.5%, in 2018 and 0.5 points, to 6.2%, in 2017 compared to the same prior year periods, reflecting increases in our combined ratio of 1.7 points and 0.4 points, respectively. These increases were principally driven by higher levels of both catastrophe and non-catastrophe property losses, lower levels of favorable prior year casualty reserve development, and a higher than expected booked accident year casualty loss and loss expense ratio for 2018, that were partially offset by improvements in our expense ratio.
As illustrated in the table above, we have seen the most significant favorable prior year casualty reserve development in our
workers compensation and general liability lines of business and the most significant unfavorable prior year casualty reserve
development in our commercial automobile and E&S lines of business. The following provides some qualitative discussion
around the actions we have taken regarding these lines of business:
Our commercial automobile line of business has been unprofitable for the past three years and remains a significant area of focus for us. Loss severities and frequencies have remained elevated, resulting in upward adjustments for the prior and current accident year casualty reserves. We have been taking a number of steps to address profitability in this line, including renewal pure price increases that averaged 7.3% in 2018, 6.7% in 2017, and 4.9% in 2016. We also continue to take a more conservative underwriting and pricing stance on higher hazard classes, resulting in a shift of business mix towards lower and medium hazard accounts. Longer-term, we also expect the introduction of Selective® Drive to improve the performance of accounts in that program. Our commercial automobile combined ratio was 115.7% for 2018, compared to the full-year expectation of 112% reported by Conning, Inc. On-going industry-wide profitability issues should drive pricing higher for this line of business in 2019.
Our E&S segment continues to perform below our target level and remains an area of focus for us as we continued to experience unfavorable development on the 2015 and 2016 accident years. We have been taking active steps over the past two years to address profitability in this segment, including implementing meaningful targeted price increases, exiting challenged business segments, and improving claims handling processes. We have begun to see improvement in profitability from these actions and plan to maintain our focus on this front as we have started to see a return to reasonable growth rates. Renewal pure price increases in E&S averaged 4.7% in 2018, with substantially higher price increases in targeted classes. While the relatively small size of the book could lead to some volatility, improved underwriting, pricing and claim outcomes have us on track to achieve our risk-adjusted profitability target for this segment by the end of 2019.
For additional qualitative discussions regarding reserve development, please refer to the insurance segment sections below in
A 0.5-point decrease in employee-related expenses, reflecting reduced labor expenses associated with productivity gains from the growth of our business, coupled with lower pension and medical benefit costs; and
The improvement in the underwriting expense ratio of 0.9 points in 2017 compared to 2016 was primarily due to:
Net investment income, after tax, contributed 9.2 percentage points to ROE in 2018 compared to 7.3 points in 2017 and 6.7 points in 2016.
The improvements in both periods were driven by: (i) a higher overall level of interest rates in 2018; (ii) active portfolio management; (iii) excellent operating cash flow that was 18% of NPW; (iv) improved alternative investment returns; and (v) in 2018 a lower Federal income tax rate. Our alternative investments generated $14 million in after-tax income in 2018, compared to $8 million in 2017. In addition, after-tax investment income benefited from higher reinvestment yields in 2018, including a 111 basis point increase in the 90-day London Interbank Offered Rate ("LIBOR"), which affected our floating rate securities that represented approximately 16% of our fixed income securities portfolio at year-end. The after-tax earned income yield on the portfolio averaged 2.8% during 2018, compared to 2.1% during 2017. After-tax new money yields averaged 2.9% in 2018, and the weighted average after-tax book yield on the fixed income securities portfolio was 3.0% at December 31, 2018. Invested assets per dollar of stockholders' equity was 3.33 at year-end, which was basically flat compared to 2017.
Net realized and unrealized gains and losses can fluctuate when comparing ROE contributions year over year as they contain realized gains and losses on disposals that are discretionary as to timing, as well as OTTI charges. Additionally, due to a change in accounting literature that became effective on January 1, 2018, fluctuations in the market value of our equity portfolio are included in this line item. In 2018, this change in literature resulted in after-tax market valuation fluctuations of $29.4 million, or a 1.7-point decrease to ROE. Additionally, in 2018, we had higher trading volume driven by opportunistic sales, with net losses primarily in our fixed income securities portfolio as we reacted to volatility in the marketplace to increase our risk-adjusted yield.
Our interest and corporate expenses, which are primarily comprised of stock compensation expense at the holding company level, reduced ROE by 2.2 points in 2018, compared to 2.1 points in 2017 and 2.4 points in 2016. The lower corporate tax rate that was introduced with Tax Reform at the end of 2017 masked some of the improvement in the underlying pre-tax corporate expenses of $10.8 million. The decrease in the underlying corporate expenses were attributable to the following savings related to our long-term share based compensation program: (i) increases in our stock price that were of less magnitude than prior year increases; and (ii) structural changes we made to our long-term incentive program in early 2017.
Achieving written renewal pure price increases that match or exceed estimated loss inflation trends.
Continuing to enhance our customer experience strategy including value-added technologies and services such as our “Selective® Drive” program, which was introduced to our commercial automobile policyholders in the fourth quarter of 2018. This product assists with logistics management and improved safety by tracking and scoring individual drivers based on certain driving attributes, including phone usage while the vehicle is in motion.
Improving profitability in our commercial automobile line of business, personal automobile line of business and E&S Lines.
Turning to 2019 expectations, Conning, Inc. is currently forecasting a property and casualty industry combined ratio of 97.8%, including 4 points of catastrophe losses, with a return on equity of 7.6%.
A GAAP combined ratio, excluding catastrophe losses, of 92.0%. This assumes no prior-year casualty reserve development;
After-tax net investment income of $175 million, which includes $8 million after-tax net investment income from our alternative investments;
An overall effective tax rate of approximately 19%, which also includes an effective tax rate of 18% for net investment income, reflecting a tax rate of 5.25% for tax-advantaged municipal bonds, and a tax rate of 21% for all other items; and
Increases in the loss and loss expense ratio over the three-year period were driven by: (i) higher weather and non-weather related property losses; and (ii) lower favorable prior year casualty reserve development, as displayed in the tables below. In addition, current year loss costs increased by 0.9 points in 2018 and 0.6 points in 2017, compared to the same prior year periods. For quantitative information on the prior year development by line of business, see "Financial Highlights of Results for Years Ended December 2018, 2017, and 2016" above and for qualitative information about the significant drivers of this development, see the line of business discussions below.
Our underwriting expense ratio decreased by 0.8 points in 2018 and 1.2 points in 2017 compared to the respective prior year periods. These expense improvements were primarily driven by the following:
Decreases in employee-related expenses of 0.4 points in 2018 and 0.7 points in 2017, mainly attributable to lower pension, medical benefit, and labor costs;
The impact of the favorable prior year casualty reserve development on this line was as follows:
2016: 8.5 points attributable to accident years 2008 through 2013 and 2015. This was primarily driven by lower than anticipated claims severities.
The increases in the combined ratio of 1.0 points in 2018 compared to 2017, and 3.9 points in 2017 compared to 2016, were primarily driven by the items in the tables below, as well as increases in current year loss costs of 3.0 points in 2018 and 4.4 points in 2017 compared to the prior years. These items were partially offset by mix improvement of the underlying coverages within this line that reduced our loss estimates by 1.1 points in 2018 and 0.9 points in 2017, coupled with decreases in the underwriting expense ratio of 0.8 points in 2018 and 1.3 points in 2017, the drivers of which are consistent with those discussed in overall Standard Commercial Lines above.
The 2017 combined ratio decrease compared to 2016 was attributable to the loss and loss expense ratio, which decreased 0.9 points in 2017, driven by lower current year loss costs, partially offset by lower favorable prior year development. Additionally, the expense ratio improved by 1.2 points, consistent with the improvement in overall Standard Commercial Lines discussed above.
The combined ratio increases in the table above were driven by property losses as shown below. The increased non-catastrophe property losses in 2018 were principally related to the January deep freeze in our footprint states coupled with the relatively large number of fire losses during the year and continued increases in non-catastrophe loss severities. Higher catastrophe losses in 2018 include the impact of two hurricanes, Hurricane Florence and Hurricane Michael, and severe winter storms including Grayson and Riley that impacted our footprint states.
The loss and loss expense ratio increased 2.5 points in 2018 compared to 2017, and 2.1 points in 2017 compared to 2016, the primary drives of which were as follows:
The underwriting expense ratio decreased 2.9 points in 2018 compared to 2017, reflecting: (i) a reduction in costs of 1.1 points associated with the internally developed software platform used in this segment of our business, which was fully amortized in the fourth quarter of 2017; (ii) a reduction in employee-related expenses of 0.9 points; (iii) a reduction in profit-based
The underwriting expense ratio decreased 1.5 points in 2017 compared to 2016 reflecting: (i) targeted actions taken on our homeowners book of business that drove a 0.7 point decrease in direct commissions for this segment; (ii) a decrease in supplemental commissions to our distribution partners of 0.2 points; and (iii) a reduction in pension expense of 0.3 points.
While this segment experienced increased growth in 2018, we continue to address profitability through targeted price increases, business mix shifts, and improved underwriting standards and claims handling processes. We have sacrificed growth during 2017 and the first half of 2018 as we addressed underwriting profitability and exited some unprofitable classes. We have begun to see improvement in profitability from these actions and plan to maintain our focus on this front as we have started to see a return to reasonable growth rates. Renewal pure price increases in E&S averaged 4.7% in 2018, with substantially higher price increases in targeted classes. While the relatively small size of the book could lead to some volatility, improved underwriting, pricing and claim outcomes have us on track to achieve our risk-adjusted profitability target for this segment by the end of 2019.
1The E&S casualty renewal price increases were 5.0%, 7.5%, and 9.1% in 2018, 2017, and 2016, respectively.
The loss and loss expense ratio improvement in 2018 compared to 2017 is primarily attributable to a decrease in catastrophe losses partially offset by increases in unfavorable prior year casualty reserve development and non-catastrophe property losses.
The underwriting expense ratio improvement in 2018 compared to 2017 was primarily due to: (i) a decrease in labor-related expenses of 1.0 points; and (ii) a decrease in profit-based compensation to our distribution partners of 0.7 points. The increase in the underwriting expense ratio in 2017 compared to 2016 was primarily due to a 0.8-point increase in the allocation of corporate services to this segment in 2017.
The following illustrates the pooling percentages by Insurance Subsidiary as of December 31, 2018:
By entering into reinsurance treaties and arrangements, we are able to increase our underwriting capacity and accept larger individual risks and a larger aggregation of risks without directly increasing our capital or surplus. Our reinsurance program principally consists of traditional reinsurance. Under our reinsurance treaties, the reinsurer generally assumes a portion of the losses we cede to them in exchange for a portion of the premium. Amounts not reinsured below an attachment point are known as retention. Reinsurance does not legally discharge us from liability under the terms and limits of our policies, but it does make our reinsurer liable to us for the amount of liability we cede to them. In addition, our reinsurers often rely on their own reinsurance programs, or retrocession, as part of managing their exposure to large losses. Given the relatively small size of the
Casualty Reinsurance - purchased to provide protection for both individual large casualty losses and catastrophic casualty losses involving multiple claimants or customers. Facultative reinsurance is also used for casualty risks that are in excess of our treaty capacity.
As our need for catastrophe reinsurance increases, we seek ways to minimize credit risk inherent in a reinsurance transaction by dealing with highly-rated reinsurance partners and purchasing collateralized reinsurance products, particularly for high severity, low-probability events. The current reinsurance program includes $242 million in collateralized limit, primarily in the top layer of the catastrophe program.
1This amount represents reported and unreported gross losses estimated as of December 31, 2018.
Our current catastrophe reinsurance program exhausts at approximately 1 in 225 year return period, or events with 0.4% probability, based on a multi-model view of hurricane risk. Our actual gross and net losses incurred from U.S. landfalling hurricanes will vary, perhaps materially, from our estimated modeled losses.
The casualty excess of loss treaty, which covers both our standard market and E&S business, was renewed on July 1, 2018 and is effective through June 30, 2019, with substantially the same terms as the expiring treaty.
There are six layers covering 100% of $88 million in excess of $2 million. Losses other than terrorism losses are subject to the following reinstatements and annual aggregate limits:
We regularly reevaluate our overall reinsurance program and try to develop effective ways to manage the transfer of risk. Our analysis is based on a comprehensive process that includes periodic analysis of modeling results, aggregation of exposures, exposure growth, diversification of risks, limits written, projected reinsurance costs, financial strength of reinsurers, and projected impact on earnings, equity, and statutory surplus. We strive to balance sometimes opposing considerations of reinsurer credit quality, price, terms, and our appetite for retaining a certain level of risk.
Our investment philosophy includes certain return and risk objectives for the fixed income, equity, and other investment portfolios. After-tax yield and income generation are key drivers to our investment strategy, which we believe will be obtained through active management of the portfolio.
The increase in invested assets at December 31, 2018 compared to December 31, 2017 was driven by operating cash flow of $455 million, of which approximately $60 million was used to fund shareholder dividends and capital expenditures in the aggregate. The remaining operating cash flow was partially offset by a reduction in unrealized gains on our investment portfolio, primarily driven by the impact of rising interest rates on our fixed income securities portfolio during 2018.
We have audited the accompanying consolidated balance sheets of Selective Insurance Group, Inc. and subsidiaries (the Company) as of December 31, 2018 and 2017, the related consolidated statements of income, comprehensive income, stockholders’ equity, and cash flows for each of the years in the three-year period ended December 31, 2018, and the related notes and financial statement schedules I to V (collectively, the consolidated financial statements). In our opinion, the consolidated financial statements present fairly, in all material respects, the financial position of the Company as of December 31, 2018 and 2017, and the results of its operations and its cash flows for each of the years in the three-year period ended December 31, 2018, in conformity with U.S. generally accepted accounting principles.
We also have audited, in accordance with the standards of the Public Company Accounting Oversight Board (United States) (PCAOB), the Company's internal control over financial reporting as of December 31, 2018, based on criteria established in Internal Control - Integrated Framework (2013) issued by the Committee of Sponsoring Organizations of the Treadway Commission, and our report dated February 15, 2019, expressed an unqualified opinion on the effectiveness of the Company’s internal control over financial reporting.
2018 presentation. Specifically, we reclassified restricted cash balances related to our participation in the National Flood Insurance Program ("NFIP") from other assets in our consolidated balance sheet into a separate line item on the face of that statement. Additionally, refer to Note 3. "Adoption of Accounting Pronouncements" below for a discussion of the retroactive restatements that are included in these financial statements in relation to the adoption of new accounting pronouncements for the treatment of restricted cash and distributions from equity method investments on the Consolidated Statements of Cash Flows.
Our investment portfolio is primarily comprised of fixed income securities, which represent approximately 89% of our invested assets. We also hold equity securities, short-term investments, and other investments. A description of our portfolio holdings, and the related presentation in our Consolidated Balance Sheets, is provided below.
Equity securities may include common and non-redeemable preferred stocks. Equity securities with readily determinable fair values are carried at fair value. Certain equity securities without readily determinable fair values are carried at net asset value ("NAV") as a practical expedient.
Net realized and unrealized gains and losses on our Consolidated Statements of Income include the following:
Realized gain and losses on the disposal of investment securities, which are determined on the basis of the cost of the specific investments sold;
Other-than-temporary impairment ("OTTI") charges that are credit related or related to our intent to sell; and
A significant deterioration in the earnings performance, credit ratings, asset quality, or business prospects of the investee;
A significant adverse change in the regulatory, economic, or technological environment of the investee;
A significant adverse change in the general market condition of either the geographical area or the industry in which the investee operates;
A bona fide offer to purchase, or an offer by the investee to sell, or a completed auction process for the same or similar investment for an amount less than the carrying amount of that investment; and
We utilize a market approach for our Level 2 securities, using primarily matrix pricing models prepared by external pricing services. Matrix pricing models use mathematical techniques to value debt securities by relying on the securities' relationship to other benchmark quoted securities, and not relying exclusively on quoted prices for specific securities, as the specific securities are not always frequently traded. As a matter of policy, we consistently use one pricing service as our primary source and secondary pricing services if prices are not available from the primary pricing service. Fixed income securities portfolio pricing is reviewed for reasonableness in the following ways: (i) comparing our pricing to other third-party pricing services as well as benchmark indexed pricing; (ii) comparing fair value fluctuations between months for reasonableness; and (iii)
Further information on our Level 2 asset pricing is included in the following table:
We estimate an allowance for uncollectible accounts on our premiums receivable. This allowance is based on historical write-off percentages adjusted for the effects of current and anticipated trends. An account is charged off when we believe it is probable that we will not collect a receivable. In making this determination, we consider information obtained from our efforts to collect amounts due directly or through collection agencies.
Share-based compensation consists of all share-based payment transactions in which an entity acquires goods or services by issuing (or offering to issue) its shares, share units, share options, or other equity instruments. The cost resulting from all share-based payment transactions are recognized in the Financial Statements based on the fair value of both equity and liability awards. The fair value is measured at grant date for equity awards, whereas the fair value for liability awards are remeasured at each reporting period. The fair value of both equity and liability awards is recognized over the requisite service period. The
Reinsurance recoverable represents estimates of amounts that will be recovered from reinsurers under our various treaties. Generally, amounts recoverable from reinsurers are recognized as assets at the same time and in a manner consistent with the paid and unpaid losses associated with the reinsured policies. We require collateral to secure reinsurance recoverables primarily from our reinsurance carriers that are not authorized, otherwise approved, or certified to do business in one or more of our ten insurance subsidiaries' domiciliary states. Our ten insurance subsidiaries are collectively referred to as the "Insurance Subsidiaries." This collateral is typically in the form of a letter of credit or cash. An allowance for estimated uncollectible reinsurance is recorded based on an evaluation of balances due from reinsurers and other available information, such as each reinsurer's credit rating from A.M. Best Company ("A.M. Best") or Standard & Poor's Rating Services ("S&P"). We charge off reinsurance recoverables on paid losses when it becomes probable that we will not collect the balance.
We recorded depreciation expense of $19.5 million, $17.8 million, and $17.4 million for 2018, 2017, and 2016, respectively.
Accounting guidance requires a premium deficiency analysis to be performed at the level an entity acquires, services, and measures the profitability of its insurance contracts. We currently perform three premium deficiency analyses for our insurance operations, consistent with our reportable segments of Standard Commercial Lines, Standard Personal Lines, and E&S Lines. A combined ratio of over 100% does not necessarily indicate a premium deficiency, as any year's combined ratio includes a portion of underwriting expenses that are expensed at policy inception and therefore are not covered by the remaining unearned premium. In addition, investment income is not contemplated in the combined ratio calculation.
There were no premium deficiencies for any of the reported years, as the sum of the anticipated loss and loss expense, unamortized acquisition costs, policyholder dividends, and other expenses for each segment did not exceed that segment’s related unearned premium and anticipated investment income. The investment yields assumed in the premium deficiency assessment for each reporting period, which were based on our actual average investment yield before tax as of the September 30 calculation date, were 3.3% for 2018, 2.9% for 2017, and 2.4% for 2016.
Reserves for loss and loss expense are comprised of both case reserves on individual claims and reserves for claims incurred but not reported ("IBNR"). Case reserves result from claims that have been reported to one or more of our Insurance Subsidiaries, and are estimated at the amount of the expected ultimate payment. IBNR reserves are established at more aggregated levels than case basis reserves, and include: (i) reserves on IBNR claims; and (ii) provisions for future emergence on known or reopened claims. IBNR reserves are established based on the results of the Insurance Subsidiaries’ internal reserve analysis, supplemented with other internal and external information.
Certain property catastrophe events may be low in frequency and high in severity. These events may affect many insureds simultaneously. Due to the unique nature of these events, ultimate liabilities are estimated for each event, based on surveys of our portfolio of exposures, in conjunction with individual claims estimates. While generally short-tailed, the liabilities associated with these events are subject to a higher degree of uncertainty. We maintain significant reinsurance protection that greatly limits the impact that these extreme events have on net loss and loss expenses.
While the reserve analysis is the primary basis for determining the recorded IBNR reserves, other internal and external factors are considered. Internal factors include: (i) supplemental data regarding claims reporting and settlement trends; (ii) exposure estimates for reported claims, along with recent development on those estimates with respect to individual large claims and the aggregate of all claims; (iii) the rate at which new large or complex claims are being reported; and (iv) additional trends observed by claims personnel or reported to them by defense counsel. External factors considered include: (i) legislative enactments; (ii) judicial decisions; (iii) legal developments in the determination of liability and the imposition of damages; (iv) social inflation and heightened awareness of sources of liability; and (v) trends in general economic conditions, including the effects of inflation.
In January 2016, the Financial Accounting Standards Board ("FASB") issued Accounting Standards Update ("ASU") 2016-01,
2016-01”). ASU 2016-01 provides guidance to improve certain aspects of recognition, measurement, presentation, and
eliminates the requirement to disclose the methods and significant assumptions used to estimate the fair value that is required to
be disclosed for financial instruments measured at amortized cost; (iv) requires the use of the exit price notion when measuring
We adopted ASU 2016-01 in the first quarter of 2018 and recognized a $30.7 million cumulative-effect adjustment to the
through "Net unrealized losses on equity securities" on our Consolidated Statements of Income. See Note 5. "Investments" below for information regarding unrealized equity losses recognized in income for 2018.
There were two accounting updates that we adopted with a retrospective transition in the first quarter of 2018 that related to our
(ASU 2016-15, Statement of Cash Flows: Classification of Certain Cash Receipts and Cash Payments ("ASU 2016-15")) and
the presentation of restricted cash (ASU 2016-18, Statement of Cash Flows: Restricted Cash ("ASU 2016-18")). These ASUs
are discussed below and the discussions are followed with a table presenting the impact of the prior period restatements.
distributions from equity method investees within the statement of cash flows. In accordance with this guidance, we made an
accounting policy election to classify these distributions using the cumulative earnings approach. This election resulted in a
restatement to operating and investing cash flows as outlined in the table below. ASU 2016-15 also added or clarified guidance
guidance for these topics did not result in any restatements to our statement of cash flows.
Beginning in the first quarter of 2018, we are reporting restricted cash in its own line item on the Consolidated Balance Sheets
to aid in the reconciliation of the amounts presented on the Consolidated Statements of Cash Flows. We have also restated
prior year balances on the Consolidated Balance Sheets to conform to the current year presentation.
The adoption of this guidance resulted in a restatement of operating cash flows in 2017 and 2016 to remove the impact of
ASU 2016-15 and ASU 2016-18 resulted in the following line item restatements within operating and investing cash flows on
In January 2017, the FASB issued ASU 2017-04, Intangibles-Goodwill and Other: Simplifying the Test for Goodwill
impairment. Under the new guidance, a goodwill impairment is calculated as the amount by which a reporting unit’s carrying
qualitative assessment for a reporting unit to determine if the quantitative impairment test is necessary. The amendments in this
In February 2018, the FASB issued ASU 2018-02, Income Statement - Reporting Comprehensive Income ("ASU 2018-02").
of 2018 and recognized a $5.7 million cumulative-effect adjustment for the deferred tax charge to income in the fourth quarter
of 2017 that was associated with net unrealized gains on our investment portfolio and pension plan resulting from the
terms longer than 12 months. For leases with a term of 12 months or less, an accounting policy election is allowed to recognize
lease expense on a straight-line basis over the lease term. Under the new lease guidance, we expect an increase in assets and
liabilities as we will recognize operating leases for office space, fleet vehicles, and equipment on our Consolidated Balance Sheets for the first time. ASU 2016-02 allows for certain practical expedients, accounting policy elections, and a transition method election. We currently plan to adopt practical expedients related to reassessing: (i) whether our existing contracts are,
In June 2016, the FASB issued ASU 2016-13, Financial Instruments - Credit Losses (“ASU 2016-13”). ASU 2016-13 will change the way entities recognize impairment of financial assets by requiring immediate recognition of estimated credit losses expected to occur over the remaining life of many financial assets, including, among others, HTM debt securities, trade receivables, and reinsurance recoverables. This ASU will not impact the impairment accounting model for AFS debt securities. ASU 2016-13 requires a valuation allowance to be calculated on these financial assets and that they be presented on the financial statements net of the valuation allowance. The valuation allowance is a measurement of expected losses that is based on relevant information about past events, including historical experience, current conditions, and reasonable and supportable forecasts that affect the collectability of the reported amount. This methodology is referred to as the current expected credit loss model. ASU 2016-13 is effective for fiscal years beginning after December 15, 2019, including interim periods within those annual periods. Early adoption is permitted, but no earlier than fiscal years beginning after December 15, 2018. We are currently evaluating the impact of this guidance on our financial condition and results of operations.
Requirements for Fair Value Measurement (“ASU 2018-13”). ASU 2018-13 modifies the disclosure requirements for fair value
valuation processes for Level 3 fair value measurements. This ASU added the following disclosure requirements: (i) the
changes in unrealized gains and losses for the period included in other comprehensive income ("OCI") for recurring Level 3
fair value measurements held at the end of the reporting period; and (ii) the range and weighted average of significant
observable inputs used to develop Level 3 fair value measurements. This update is effective for annual and interim periods
beginning after December 15, 2019, with early adoption permitted. As the requirements of this literature are disclosure only,
Disclosure Framework - Changes to the Disclosure Requirements for Defined Benefit Plans (“ASU 2018-14”). ASU 2018-14
modifications include: (i) removing the requirement to disclose the amount in AOCI expected to be recognized as components
of net periodic benefit cost over the next fiscal year; and (ii) adding the requirement to disclose an explanation of the reasons
ending after December 15, 2020, with early adoption permitted. As the requirements of this literature are disclosure only, ASU
2018-14 will not impact our financial condition or results of operations.
In August 2018, the FASB issued ASU 2018-15, Intangibles - Goodwill and Other - Internal-Use Software: Customer’s
software. This update is effective for annual and interim periods beginning after December 15, 2019, with early adoption
permitted. We are currently evaluating the impact of this guidance on our financial condition or results of operations.
1Upon adoption of ASU 2016-01, we recognized a $30.7 million cumulative-effect adjustment to the opening balance of AOCI, which represents the after-tax net unrealized gain on our equity portfolio as of December 31, 2017. Additionally, upon adoption of ASU 2018-02, we recognized a one-time reclassification from AOCI to retained earnings for $17.9 million representing the stranded tax assets related to our investment portfolio that were created in AOCI from the enactment of Tax Reform. See Note 3. "Adoption of Accounting Pronouncements" above for additional information.
(c) Information regarding our AFS securities as of December 31, 2018 and December 31, 2017 were as follows:
(d) The severity of impairment on the securities in an unrealized/unrecognized loss position averaged approximately 2% of amortized cost at December 31, 2018 and approximately 1% at December 31, 2017. Quantitative information regarding unrealized losses on our AFS portfolio is provided below. Our HTM portfolio had $0.2 million in unrealized/unrecognized losses at December 31, 2018 and $0.1 million in unrealized/unrecognized losses at December 31, 2017.
The increase in the less than 12 months unrealized loss position was due to higher interest rates, with a 60-basis point increase in the 2-year U.S. Treasury Note yields and a 28-point basis increase in the 10-year U.S. Treasury Note yields during 2018. We do not currently intend to sell any of the securities in the tables above, nor will we be required to sell any of these securities. Considering these factors and our review of these securities under our OTTI policy as described in Note 2,“Summary of Significant Accounting Policies” of this Form 10-K, we have concluded that they are temporarily impaired as we believe: (i) they will mature at par value; (ii) they have not incurred a credit impairment; and (iii) future values of these securities will fluctuate with changes in interest rates. This conclusion reflects our current judgment as to the financial position and future prospects of the entity that issued the investment security and underlying collateral.
Listed below are the contractual maturities of fixed income securities at December 31, 2018:
Distressed Debt: This strategy makes direct and indirect investments in debt and equity securities of companies that are experiencing financial and/or operational distress. Investments include buying indebtedness of bankrupt or financially troubled companies, small balance loan portfolios, special situations and capital structure arbitrage trades, commercial real estate mortgages, and similar non-U.S. securities and debt obligations.
(g) We did not have exposure to any credit concentration risk of a single issuer greater than 10% of our stockholders' equity, other than certain U.S. government agencies, as of December 31, 2018 or December 31, 2017.
1Includes unrealized holding gains (losses) of: (i) $(3.1) million on equity securities remaining in our portfolio as of December 31, 2018; and (ii) $(26.3) million on equity securities sold in 2018.
Net realized (losses) gains in the table above were driven by the following:
2018: Higher trading volume driven by opportunistic sales in both our fixed income securities and equity portfolios.
2016: A repositioning of our equity portfolio, partially offset by net losses in our AFS fixed income portfolio related to the change in our strategy to more actively manage this portfolio.
(a) The components of comprehensive income, both gross and net of tax, for 2018, 2017, and 2016 were as follows:
The following table presents the carrying amounts and estimated fair values of our financial instruments as of December 31, 2018 and 2017:
The following tables provide quantitative disclosures of our financial assets that were measured and recorded at fair value at December 31, 2018 and 2017:
2In accordance with ASU 2015-07, investments amounting to $37.3 million and $23.7 million at December 31, 2018 and December 31, 2017, respectively, were measured at fair value using the net asset value per share (or its practical expedient) and have not been classified in the fair value hierarchy. The fair value amounts presented in this table are intended to permit reconciliation of the fair value hierarchy to total assets measured at fair value.
The following tables provide quantitative information regarding our financial assets and liabilities that were not measured, but were disclosed at fair value at December 31, 2018 and 2017:
Our Financial Statements reflect the effects of assumed and ceded reinsurance transactions. Assumed reinsurance refers to the acceptance of certain insurance risks that other insurance entities have underwritten. Ceded reinsurance involves transferring certain insurance risks (along with the related written and earned premiums) that we have underwritten to other insurance companies that agree to share these risks. The primary purpose of ceded reinsurance is to protect the Insurance Subsidiaries from potential losses in excess of the amount that we are prepared to accept. Our major treaties covering property, property catastrophe, and casualty business are excess of loss contracts. In addition, we have an intercompany quota share pooling arrangement and other minor reinsurance treaties.
As a Standard Commercial Lines and E&S Lines writer, we are subject to the Terrorism Risk Insurance Program Reauthorization Act ("TRIPRA"), which was extended by Congress to December 31, 2020. TRIPRA requires private insurers and the United States government to share the risk of loss on future acts of terrorism certified by the U.S. Secretary of the Treasury. Under TRIPRA, each participating insurer is responsible for paying a deductible of specified losses before federal
assistance is available. This deductible is based on a percentage of the prior year’s applicable Standard Commercial Lines and E&S Lines premiums. In 2019, our deductible is approximately $339 million. For losses above the deductible, the federal government will pay 81% of losses to an industry limit of $100 billion, and the insurer retains 19%. The federal share of losses will be reduced to 80% in 2020.
The Insurance Subsidiaries remain liable to policyholders to the extent that any reinsurer becomes unable to meet their contractual obligations. In addition to this direct counterparty credit risk, we have indirect counterparty credit risk as our reinsurers often enter into their own reinsurance programs, or retrocessions, as part of managing their exposure to large losses. We evaluate and monitor the financial condition of our reinsurers under voluntary reinsurance arrangements to minimize our exposure to significant losses from reinsurer insolvencies. On an ongoing basis, we review amounts outstanding, length of collection period, changes in reinsurer credit ratings, and other relevant factors to determine collectability of reinsurance recoverables. The allowance for uncollectible reinsurance recoverables was $4.5 million at December 31, 2018 and $4.6 million at December 31, 2017.
In 2018, we experienced overall net favorable prior year loss development of $29.9 million, compared to $39.2 million in 2017 and $65.8 million in 2016. The following table summarizes the prior year development by line of business:
The majority of the 2018 net favorable development was attributable to our workers compensation line of business, which was impacted by continued favorable medical trends in accident years 2017 and prior. Partially offsetting this was adverse development in the commercial automobile line of business, driven by increases in severities in accident years 2015 through 2017.
The Insurance Subsidiaries had $39.2 million of favorable prior accident year development during 2017, which included $48.6 million of net favorable casualty development and $9.4 million of unfavorable property development. The net favorable casualty reserve development was largely driven by the workers compensation and general liability lines of business, including products liability and excess liability. Partially offsetting this net favorable development was $36.0 million of unfavorable casualty development in the commercial auto line of business, which was primarily driven by: (i) higher than expected frequencies and severities in accident years 2015 and 2016, and (ii) higher than expected severities in accident years 2012 through 2014. In addition, our E&S casualty lines experienced unfavorable development of $10.0 million in 2017.
The Insurance Subsidiaries had $65.8 million of favorable prior accident year development during 2016, which included $69.0 million of net favorable casualty development and $3.2 million of unfavorable property development. The net favorable casualty reserve development was largely driven by the workers compensation and general liability lines of business, including products liability and excess liability. Partially offsetting this net favorable development was $25 million of unfavorable casualty development in the commercial automobile line of business. In addition, our E&S casualty lines experienced unfavorable development of $6.0 million in 2016.
(d) The reconciliation of the net incurred and paid claims development tables to the liability for loss and loss expenses in the consolidated statement of financial position is as follows:
The table below provides a summary of our outstanding debt at December 31, 2018 and 2017:
Our Line of Credit agreement contains representations, warranties, and covenants that are customary for credit facilities of this type, including, without limitation, financial covenants under which we are obligated to maintain a minimum consolidated net worth, minimum combined statutory surplus, maximum ratio of consolidated debt to total capitalization, and covenants limiting our ability to: (i) merge or liquidate; (ii) incur debt or liens; (iii) dispose of assets; (iv) make investments and acquisitions; and (v) engage in transactions with affiliates.
In addition to the above requirements, the Line of Credit agreement contains a cross-default provision that provides that the Line of Credit will be in default if we fail to comply with any condition, covenant, or agreement (including payment of principal and interest when due on any debt with an aggregate principal amount of at least $20 million), which causes or permits the acceleration of principal. Additionally, the Line of Credit limits borrowings from the FHLBI and the FHLBNY to 10% of the respective member company's admitted assets for the previous year.
(3) In February 2013, we issued $185 million of 5.875% Senior Notes due 2043. The notes became callable by us on February 8, 2018, at a price equal to 100% of their principal outstanding amount, plus accrued and unpaid interest to, but excluding, the date of redemption. A portion of the proceeds from this debt issuance was used to fully redeem the $100 million aggregate principal amount of our 7.5% Junior Subordinated Notes due 2066 that were outstanding at the time. Of the remaining net proceeds, $57.1 million was used to make capital contributions to the Insurance Subsidiaries, while the balance was used for general corporate purposes. There are no financial debt covenants to which we are required to comply in regards to these Senior Notes.
Our Investments segment is evaluated based on after-tax net investment income and its ROE contribution, as well as after-tax net realized and unrealized gains and losses.
We had a goodwill balance of $7.8 million at both December 31, 2018 and 2017 on our Consolidated Balance Sheet that relates to our Standard Commercial Lines reporting unit.
As of December 31, 2017, our accounting for the impact of Tax Reform on our deferred tax assets and liabilities was complete with the exception of amounts related to loss reserve discounting. Prior to Tax Reform, we had elected to use our own loss reserve payment patterns for determining the factors to be used for calculating our discounted loss reserves for federal income tax purposes. Under Tax Reform, this election was eliminated and we are now required to utilize discount factors based on industry experience and a corporate bond yield curve, which the IRS had not finalized as of December 31, 2017. Considering this, at December 31, 2017, we calculated a pre-tax decrease to our discounted loss reserves of $35 million by utilizing the industry experience approach under the tax law that existed prior to Tax Reform. This increased the deferred tax asset related to loss reserves by $7.5 million. A Tax Reform transition rule allows this change in accounting method to be amortized into expense over an eight-year period beginning in 2018. As a result, we established an offsetting deferred tax liability of $7.5 million as of December 31, 2017.
In addition to the impact of Tax Reform discussed above, our statutory tax rate reconciliation for 2018 and 2017 benefited from accounting literature implemented in 2017 that requires the tax effects of share-based compensation to be recognized in the income tax provision. Prior to 2017, these amounts were recorded in additional paid-in capital.
(c) The tax effects of the significant temporary differences that gave rise to deferred tax assets and liabilities were as follows:
Net deferred income tax assets increased by $21.6 million in 2018, driven by an $18.6 million decrease in gross deferred tax liabilities as rising interest rates have reduced unrealized gains on our fixed income securities portfolio.
After considering all evidence, both positive and negative, with respect to our federal tax loss carryback availability, expected levels of pre-tax financial statement income, and federal taxable income, we believe it is more likely than not that the existing deductible temporary differences will reverse during periods in which we generate net federal taxable income or have adequate federal carryback availability. As a result, we had no valuation allowance recognized for federal deferred tax assets at December 31, 2018 or 2017.
SICA offers a voluntary defined contribution 401(k) plan that is available to most of our employees and is a tax-qualified retirement plan subject to ERISA. Expense recorded for this plan was $15.8 million in both 2018 and 2017, and $15.0 million in 2016.
The following tables provide details on the Pension Plan for 2018 and 2017:
The estimated net actuarial loss for the Pension Plan that will be amortized from AOCI into net periodic benefit cost during the 2019 fiscal year is $2.6 million.
When determining the most appropriate discount rate to be used in the valuation, we consider, among other factors, our expected payout patterns of the Pension Plan's obligations as well as our investment strategy, and we ultimately select the rate that we believe best represents our estimate of the inherent interest rate at which our pension and post-retirement life benefits can be effectively settled. The approach we utilize discounts the individual expected cash flows using the applicable spot rates derived from the yield curve over the projected cash flow period. The weighted average discount rate used to determine 2019 interest cost is 4.12%.
The Pension Plan had no investments in the Parent’s common stock as of December 31, 2018 or 2017. For information regarding investments in funds of our related parties, refer to Note 16. "Related Party Transactions" below.
The investments in the global equity and liability hedging funds are collective investment funds that utilize a market approach wherein the published prices in the active market for identical assets are used. These investments are traded at their net asset value per share. There are no restrictions as to the redemption of these investments nor do we have any contractual obligations for further investment. These investments are classified as Level 1 in the fair value hierarchy.
We presently do not anticipate contributing to the Pension Plan in 2019, as we have no minimum required contribution amounts.
The Amended and Restated Stock Purchase Plan for Independent Insurance Agencies (2010), Amended and Restated as of February 1, 2017 (the "Agent Plan").
The total intrinsic value of options exercised was $4.5 million in 2018, $4.0 million in 2017, and $2.3 million in 2016.
The following table provides share-based compensation expense in 2018, 2017, and 2016:
In 2005, we established a private foundation, now named The Selective Insurance Group Foundation (the "Foundation"), under Section 501(c)(3) of the Internal Revenue Code. The Board of Directors of the Foundation is comprised of some of the Parent's officers. We made $0.5 million of contributions to the Foundation in 2018. We made no contributions to the Foundation in 2017 and 2016, respectively.
BlackRock, Inc., a leading publicly traded investment management firm (“BlackRock”), has purchased our common shares in the ordinary course of its investment business and has previously filed Schedules 13G/A with the SEC. On January 31, 2019, BlackRock filed a Schedule 13G/A reporting beneficial ownership as of December 31, 2018, of 14.2% of our common stock. In connection with purchasing our common shares, BlackRock filed the necessary filings with insurance regulatory authorities. On the basis of those filings, BlackRock is deemed not to be a controlling person for the purposes of applicable insurance law.
The Vanguard Group ("Vanguard"), one of the world's largest investment management companies, offers low cost mutual funds and exchange-trade funds ("ETFs"), as well as other investment related services. On January 10, 2019, Vanguard filed a Schedule 13G/A reporting beneficial ownership as of December 31, 2018, of 10.1% of our common stock. In connection with purchasing our common shares, Vanguard filed the necessary filings with insurance regulatory authorities. On the basis of those filings, we do not expect Vanguard to be deemed a controlling person for the purposes of applicable insurance law.
Our Pension Plan contained investments in Vanguard funds of $86.3 million at December 31, 2017, but no investment in these funds existed at December 31, 2018. We recorded a net investment loss on these funds of $5.5 million in 2018, net investment income of $9.1 million in 2017, and net investment income of $5.4 million in 2016. In addition, our Deferred Compensation Plan and Retirement Savings Plan may offer our employees the option to invest in various Vanguard funds. All transactions with Vanguard are consummated in the ordinary course of business on an arm's-length basis.
(a) We purchase annuities from life insurance companies to fulfill obligations under claim settlements that provide for periodic future payments to claimants. As of December 31, 2018, we had purchased such annuities with a present value of $21.0 million for settlement of claims on a structured basis for which we are contingently liable. To our knowledge, there are no material defaults from any of the issuers of such annuities.
(c) As of December 31, 2018, we had contractual obligations that expire at various dates through 2036 to invest up to an additional $202.3 million in alternative and other investments. There is no certainty that any such additional investment will be required. For additional information regarding these investments, see item (f) of Note 5. "Investments" in this Form 10-K. In addition, as of December 31, 2018, we had the following contractual obligations: (i) $17.8 million to further invest in non-publicly traded common stock within our equity portfolio that expire in 2023; and (ii) $40.4 million to further invest in non-publicly traded CLOs in our fixed income securities portfolio that expire through 2030. We expect to have the capacity to repay and/or refinance these obligations as they become due.
As of December 31, 2018, we do not believe the Company was involved in any legal action that could have a material adverse effect on our consolidated financial condition, results of operations, or cash flows.
The Insurance Subsidiaries are required to maintain certain minimum amounts of statutory surplus to satisfy the requirements of their various state insurance departments of domicile. RBC requirements for property and casualty insurance companies are designed to assess capital adequacy and to raise the level of protection that statutory surplus provides for policyholders. The Insurance Subsidiaries' combined total adjusted capital exceeded the authorized control level RBC, as defined by the NAIC based on their 2018 statutory financial statements. In addition to statutory capital requirements, we are impacted by various rating agency requirements related to certain rating levels. These required capital levels may be more than statutory requirements.
As of December 31, 2018, the Parent had an aggregate of $146.0 million in investments and cash available to fund future dividends and interest payments. These amounts are not subject to any regulatory restrictions other than the standard state insolvency restrictions noted above, whereas our consolidated retained earnings of $1.9 billion is predominately restricted due
to the regulation associated with our Insurance Subsidiaries. In 2019, the Insurance Subsidiaries have the ability to provide for $210.0 million in annual dividends to the Parent; however, as regulated entities, these dividends are subject to certain restrictions, which are further discussed below. The Parent also has available to it other potential sources of liquidity, such as: (i) borrowings from our Indiana Subsidiaries; (ii) debt issuances; (iii) common stock issuances; and (iv) borrowings under our Line of Credit. Borrowings from our Indiana Subsidiaries are governed by approved intercompany lending agreements with the Parent that provide for additional capacity of $70.5 million as of December 31, 2018, based on restrictions in these agreements that limit borrowings to 10% of the admitted assets of the Indiana Subsidiaries. For additional restrictions on the Parent's debt, see Note 10. "Indebtedness" in this Form 10-K.
New Jersey and Indiana require notice of the declaration of any ordinary dividend distribution. During the notice period, the relevant state regulatory authority may disallow all or part of the proposed dividend if it determines that the dividend is not appropriate given the above considerations. New York does not require notice of ordinary dividends. Dividend payments exceeding ordinary dividends are referred to as extraordinary dividends and require review and approval by the applicable domiciliary insurance regulatory authority prior to payment.
2Effective January 1, 2018, changes in unrealized gains and losses on our equity portfolio are recognized in income through "Net unrealized losses on equity securities" on our Consolidated Statements of Income, as a result of our adoption of ASU 2016-01. See Note 3. "Adoption of Accounting Pronouncements" above.