In addition to the quarterly reserve analysis, a range of possible IBNR reserves is estimated annually and continually considered, among other factors, in establishing IBNR for each reporting period. Loss and loss expense trends are also considered, which include, but are not limited to, claims frequencies and severities, individual large loss activity, asbestos and environmental claim activity, and other latent and continuous trigger claims activities. We also consider factors such as: (i) industry loss experience; (ii) legislative enactments, judicial decisions, legal developments, and changes in political attitudes; and (iii) trends in general economic conditions, including the effects of inflation. Based upon our quarterly reserve analysis, our annual reserve range, and other relevant factors and considerations, IBNR is established and the ultimate net liability for loss and loss expense is determined. Such an assessment requires considerable judgment given that it is frequently not possible to determine whether a change in the data is an anomaly until sometime after the event. Even if a change is determined to be permanent, it is not always possible to reliably determine the extent of the change until sometime later. There is no precise method for subsequently evaluating the impact of any specific factor on the adequacy of reserves because the eventual deficiency or redundancy is affected by many factors. The changes in these estimates, resulting from the continuous review process and the differences between estimates and ultimate payments, are reflected in the Consolidated Statements of Income for the period in which such estimates are changed. Any changes in the liability estimate may be material to the results of operations in future periods. In addition to our internal review, statutory regulation requires us to have a Statement of Actuarial Opinion issued annually on our statutory reserve adequacy. We engage an external consulting actuary to issue this opinion based on their independent review.
At December 31, 2018, our workers compensation line of business recorded reserves, net of reinsurance, of $924.8 million, which represented 28% of our total net reserves. During 2018, this line experienced favorable development of $83.0 million driven by accident years 2017 and prior. During 2017, this line experienced favorable development of $52.3 million driven by accident years 2016 and prior. During 2018, this line again showed lower loss emergence than expected, due, in part, to: (i) lower medical inflation than originally anticipated; (ii) our proactive underwriting actions; and (iii) various significant claims initiatives that we have implemented. Because of the length of time that injured workers receive medical treatment, decreases in medical inflation can cause favorable loss development across an extended number of accident years.
For both us and the industry, the commercial automobile line has experienced unfavorable trends in recent years. Increased frequencies are likely due to increased miles driven as a result of lower unemployment and lower gasoline prices, as well as an increase in distracted driving. We have seen rising severities on both bodily injury and property damage claims. On bodily injury claims, we have seen an increase in the average value of our paid loss settlements, which may be related to higher awards driven by aggressive attorney representation. Increasing property damage severities may be the result of the increasing complexity of vehicles and the technology they incorporate, which results in increased repair costs.
We also are investing in technologies that help us enhance the overall customer experience and improve our retention rates and hit ratios over time, such as our "Selective® Drive" program that was introduced to our commercial automobile policyholders in the fourth quarter of 2018. This product assists with logistics management and improved safety by tracking and scoring individual drivers based on driving attributes, including phone usage while the vehicle is in motion.
Our 2018 results continue to reflect our efforts to: (i) achieve meaningful overall renewal pure price increases at levels that are at or exceed expected claim cost inflation; (ii) generate new business; and (iii) improve the underlying profitability of our business through various underwriting and claims initiatives. Our NPW growth of 6% in 2018 and 2017 compared to the same prior year periods, was aided by the net appointment of about 110 retail agents in both 2018 and 2017, excluding agency consolidations. Included in these net appointments were 52 agents appointed in our new states of Arizona, New Hampshire, Colorado, New Mexico, and Utah, which contributed $25.7 million to our new business in 2018.
2017: 8.5 points attributable to decreases in accident years 2016 and prior, driven by lower than expected frequencies and severities.
2017: Unfavorable development of 8.1 points, which was driven primarily by: (i) higher than expected frequencies and severities in accident years 2015 and 2016; and (ii) higher than expected severities in accident years 2012 through 2014.
The loss and loss expense ratio improvement in 2017 compared to 2016 is primarily attributable to a decrease in current year loss costs reflecting our underwriting and claims improvement initiatives, including generating earned rate that is sufficient to outpace loss costs.
We have reinsurance contracts that separately cover our property and casualty insurance business. Available reinsurance can be segregated into the following key categories:
In addition to the above categories, as part of the acquisition of MUSIC in December 2011, we entered into several reinsurance agreements with Montpelier Re Insurance Ltd., which subsequently merged into Endurance Specialty Insurance Ltd in December 2015. Together, these agreements provide protection for losses on policies written prior to the acquisition and any development on reserves established by MUSIC as of the date of acquisition. The reinsurance recoverables under these treaties are collateralized.
reviewing stale prices. If further analysis is needed, a challenge is sent to the pricing service for review and confirmation of the price.
requisite service period is typically the lesser of the vesting period or the period of time from the grant date to the date of retirement eligibility. The expense recognized for share-based awards, which, in some cases, contain performance criteria, is based on the number of shares or units expected to be issued at the end of the performance period. We repurchase the Parent’s stock from our employees in connection with tax withholding obligations, as permitted under our stock-based compensation plans. This activity is disclosed in our Consolidated Statements of Stockholders' Equity.
The internal reserve analysis is performed quarterly, and relies upon generally accepted actuarial techniques. Such techniques assume that past experience, adjusted for the effects of current developments and anticipated trends, are an appropriate basis for predicting future events. Our analyses rely upon historical paid and case loss and loss expense experience organized by line of business, accident year, and maturity (i.e., “triangles”). Standard actuarial projection methods are applied to this history, producing a set of estimated ultimate loss and loss expenses. Ultimate loss and loss expenses are selected from the various methods, considering the strengths and weaknesses of the methods as they apply to the specific line and accident year.
disclosure of financial instruments. Specifically the guidance: (i) requires equity securities held in our investment portfolio to
the fair value of financial instruments for disclosure purposes; and (v) clarifies that the need for a valuation allowance on a
opening balances of accumulated other comprehensive income ("AOCI") and retained earnings, which represents the after-tax
statements of cash flows. These accounting updates impacted our categorization of distributions from equity method investees
update are to be applied on a prospective basis for annual or interim goodwill impairment tests in fiscal years beginning after
Topic 718 to include share-based payment transactions for acquiring goods and services from non-employees. ASU 2018-07 is
permitted. The adoption of this guidance will not have a material impact on our financial condition or results of operations.
ASU 2018-13 will not impact our financial condition or results of operations.
Unrealized gains and losses of AFS securities represent fair value fluctuations from the later of: (i) the date a security is designated as AFS; or (ii) the date that an OTTI charge is recognized on an AFS security, through the date of the balance sheet. These unrealized gains and losses are recorded in AOCI on the Consolidated Balance Sheets. As of the first quarter of 2018, equity securities are no longer required to be included in the table above under new accounting guidance that provides that unrealized gains and losses on equity securities should no longer be recognized in AOCI, but instead recognized though income. Refer to Note 3. "Adoption of Accounting Pronouncements" for additional information regarding the adoption of ASU 2016-01.
The following table summarizes the market value of these securities at December 31, 2018:
Realized gains and losses on the sale of investments are determined on the basis of the cost of the specific investments sold. Proceeds from the sale of AFS fixed income securities were $2,030.7 million, $1,197.9 million, and $926.5 million in 2018, 2017, and 2016, respectively. Proceeds from sale of equity securities were $113.3 million, $38.0 million, and $119.6 million in 2018, 2017, and 2016, respectively.
SICA borrowed: (i) $75 million in short-term funds from the FHLBNY on February 27, 2018 at an interest rate of 1.75%, which was repaid on March 20, 2018; and (ii) $55 million in short-term funds from the FHLBNY on March 28, 2018 at an interest rate of 1.98%, which was repaid on April 18, 2018.
Our combined insurance operations are subject to certain geographic concentrations, particularly in the Northeast and Mid-Atlantic regions of the country. In 2018, approximately 19% of NPW were related to insurance policies written in New Jersey.
We have analyzed our tax positions in all open tax years, which as of December 31, 2018 were 2015 through 2017, and we believe our tax positions will more likely than not be sustained upon examination, including related appeals or litigation. In the event we had a tax position that did not meet the more likely than not criteria, any tax, interest, and penalties incurred related to such a position would be reflected in "Total federal income tax expense" on our Consolidated Statements of Income. We are not currently under a federal income tax audit for any tax year.
We are required to disclose related party information for our transactions with BlackRock. BlackRock is highly regulated, serves its clients as a fiduciary, and has a diverse platform of active (alpha) and index (beta) investment strategies across asset classes that enables it to tailor investment outcomes and asset allocation solutions for clients. BlackRock also offers the BlackRock Solutions® investment and risk management technology platform, Aladdin®, risk analytics, advisory, and technology services and solutions to a broad base of institutional and wealth management investors. We incurred expenses related to BlackRock for services rendered of $2.0 million in both 2018 and 2017, and $0.4 million in 2016. Amounts payable for such services at December 31, 2018 and December 31, 2017, were $1.0 million and $0.5 million, respectively.
(b) We have various operating leases for office space, equipment, and fleet vehicles. Such lease agreements, which expire at various times, are generally renewed or replaced by similar leases. Rental expense under these leases amounted to $10.4 million in 2018, $10.8 million in 2017, and $12.3 million in 2016. We also lease computer hardware and software under capital lease agreements expiring at various dates through 2022. See item (p) of Note 2. "Summary of Significant Accounting Policies" in this Form 10-K for information on our accounting policy regarding leases.