Question: The question Is pybind11 somehow magically doing the work of PyGILState_Ensure() and PyGILState_Release()? And if not, how should I do it? More details There are many questions regarding passing a python function to C++ as a callback using pybind11, but I haven't found one that explains the use of the GIL with pybind11. The documentation is pretty clear about the GIL:  [...] However, when threads are created from C (for example by a third-party library with its own thread management), they don’t hold the GIL, nor is there a thread state structure for them. If you need to call Python code from these threads (often this will be part of a callback API provided by the aforementioned third-party library), you must first register these threads with the interpreter by creating a thread state data structure, then acquiring the GIL, and finally storing their thread state pointer, before you can start using the Python/C API.  I can easily bind a C++ function that takes a callback: py::class_<SomeApi> some_api(m, "SomeApi"); some_api .def(py::init<>()) .def("mode", &SomeApi::subscribe_mode, "Subscribe to 'mode' updates.");  With the corresponding C++ function being something like: void subscribe_mode(const std::function<void(Mode mode)>& mode_callback);  But because pybind11 cannot know about the threading happening in my C++ implementation, I suppose it cannot handle the GIL for me. Therefore, if mode_callback is called by a thread created from C++, does that mean that I should write a wrapper to SomeApi::subscribe_mode that uses PyGILState_Ensure() and PyGILState_Release() for each call? This answer seems to be doing something similar, but still slightly different: instead of "taking the GIL" when calling the callback, it seems like it "releases the GIL" when starting/stopping the thread. Still I'm wondering if there exists something like py::call_guard<py::gil_scoped_acquire>() that would do exactly what I (believe I) need, i.e. wrapping my callback with PyGILState_Ensure() and PyGILState_Release().

Answer: In general pybind11 tries to do the Right Thing and the GIL will be held when pybind11 knows that it is calling a python function, or in C++ code that is called from python via pybind11. The only time that you need to explicitly acquire the GIL when using pybind11 is when you are writing C++ code that accesses python and will be called from other C++ code, or if you have explicitly dropped the GIL. std::function wrapper The wrapper for std::function always acquires the GIL via gil_scoped_acquire when the function is called, so your python callback will always be called with the GIL held, regardless which thread it is called from. If gil_scoped_acquire is called from a thread that does not currently have a GIL thread state associated with it, then it will create a new thread state. As a side effect, if nothing else in the thread acquires the thread state and increments the reference count, then once your function exits the GIL will be released by the destructor of gil_scoped_acquire and then it will delete the thread state associated with that thread. If you're only calling the function once from another thread, this isn't a problem. If you're calling the callback often, it will create/delete the thread state a lot, which probably isn't great for performance. It would be better to cause the thread state to be created when your thread starts (or even easier, start the thread from Python and call your C++ code from python).