## 3 Results and Discussion
#### 3.1.1 Techno-Functional Characteristics
cylindrica_ seed press cake powder and blends. FC = foaming capacity; FS = foam stability; EA = emulsifying activity; ES = emulsion stability. Lowercase letters indicate significant differences in columns at \(p=0.05\). The foaming capacity (FC) values demonstrated a gradual decrease with increases in tapioca flour content. Pure _L. cylindrica_ powder (LP 100%) exhibited the lowest foaming capacity, at approximately 53%, while pure tapioca flour (TF 100%) showed the highest at around 58%, consistent with the known foaming properties of starches, particularly those rich in amylopectin such as tapioca [32]. The blends displayed intermediate values, indicating a linear relationship between _L. cylindrica_ content and foaming capacity. Tapioca's gelatinization and viscosity-enhancing properties can effectively trap air, leading to increased foam formation. The foam stability (FS) values remained relatively consistent across all samples, ranging narrowly from 102% to 112%. The highest FS was observed for the LP30/TF70 blend (112%), followed by LP50/TF50 (109%), and pure _Luffa cylindrica_ powder (105%). The lowest FS was recorded for LP70/TF30 (102%). Pure tapioca flour exhibited a value of approximately 110%, indicating good foam-stabilizing capacity on its own. This suggests that the partial inclusion of fibrous LP (30%) might reinforce the matrix, helping to stabilize air bubbles within the gel network formed by TF. Similar effects have been observed when combining starches with moderate levels of insoluble dietary fiber, which can enhance the mechanical strength of the foam structure without excessively disrupting air entrapment [33]. Emulsifying activity (EA) and emulsion stability (ES) are essential parameters in food systems, particularly for plant-based meat analogues where oil-in-water emulsions contribute to texture and mouthfeel. The emulsifying activity (EA) showed more pronounced variations among the samples. The lowest emulsifying activity was seen in TF 100%, at about 5.4%, while pure _L. cylindrica_ powder showed a slightly higher EA value of about 8.7%. The blends demonstrated higher EA values, ranging between 10.9% and 15.8%, where the highest EA was observed for the LP70/TF30 blend, indicating that a higher proportion of _Luffa cylindrica_ powder supports the formation of emulsions. This can be attributed to its fibrous, porous structure and potential protein residues, which increase surface activity and oil droplet dispersion [34]. The emulsion stability (ES) values ranged from approximately 6% to 12%. Interestingly, the highest ES was found in the LP 100% sample, despite its moderate EA. This suggests that LP possesses inherent properties, such as a highly porous and fibrous matrix, that allow it to stabilize emulsions over time, likely by forming a strong interfacial barrier that resists coalescence. The emulsifying stability (ES) of the blends containing 30% and 50% luffa powder was not significantly compromised, maintaining relatively high values (respectively 10.2% and 10.45%). In contrast, the blend with 70% LP exhibited the lowest ES (5.95%), indicating that a higher proportion of fibrous material may disrupt the emulsion structure more substantially. The uniformity in emulsion stability suggests that both components and their combinations maintain stable emulsions once formed, regardless of the initial emulsifying activity differences. The complementary nature of these ingredients suggests the potential for optimizing blend ratios based on specific application requirements in food formulation. Figure 3 illustrates the pasting profiles of _L. cylindrica_ seed press cake powder blends with tapioca flour over a controlled temperature cycle, revealing distinct viscosity development patterns during the heating, holding, and cooling phases. Pure _L. cylindrica_ powder (LP 100%) demonstrated no viscosity development throughout the entire temperature profile, maintaining a baseline near zero mPa-s across all phases of the analysis.