## 4 Discussion  
The effects of olive leaf powder supplementation on postprandial biomarkers were investigated in the present study. Olive leaf extract (OLE), rich in phenolic compounds such  
Figure 11: Postprandial PAF Inhibition (Mean \(\pm\) SE) over time (baseline, 1 h, 2 h, 4 h) in control (CTRL), olive leaf tea (OLT), and olive leaf biscuit (OLB) groups. \begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c c c c c c} \hline \hline  & **PAF** & **PAF** & **PAF** & **PAF** & **95\% Confidence Interval** & \multirow{2}{*}{_p_ **Value**} \\  & **(Mean \(\pm\) SE)** & **(Mean \(\pm\) SE)** & **(Mean \(\pm\) SE)** & **(Mean \(\pm\) SE)** & & \\  & **at Baseline (t1)** & **at 1 h (t2)** & **at 2 h (t3)** & **at 4 h (t4)** & **Time** & **Lower** & **Upper** & **(Group \(\times\) Time)** \\ \hline CTRL & \(0.916\pm 0.064\) & \(0.316\pm 0.288\) & \(0.099\pm 0.124\) & \(0.231\pm 0.178\) & t1 & 0.785 & 1.048 & \\  & & & & t2 & \(-\)0.280 & 0.913 & \\  & & & & t3 & \(-\)0.158 & 0.356 & \\  & & & & t4 & \(-\)0.137 & 0.599 & \\ \hline OLT & \(0.996\pm 0.047\) & \(0.018\pm 0.059\) & \(-0.086\pm 0.073\) & \(-0.024\pm 0.066\) & t1 & 0.898 & 1.094 & \\  & & & & t2 & \(-\)0.104 & 0.139 & \\  & & & & t3 & \(-\)0.238 & 0.065 & \\  & & & & t4 & \(-\)0.161 & 0.113 & \\ \hline OLB & \(0.916\pm 0.059\) & \(0.190\pm 0.197\) & \(-0.040\pm 0.200\) & \(0.138\pm 0.179\) & t1 & 0.794 & 1.037 & \\  & & & & t2 & \(-\)0.218 & 0.599 & \\  & & & & t3 & \(-\)0.454 & 0.374 & \\  & & & & t4 & \(-\)0.233 & 0.509 & \\ \hline \hline  & & & & & & \\ \end{tabular} Values are presented as mean \(\pm\) standard error (SE). PAF: plasma platelet-activating factor (% Inhibition). t1: baseline, t2: 1 h, t3: 2 h, t4: 4 h postprandially CTRL: Control meal without olive leaf supplementation. OLT: deal supplemented with olive leaf tea. OLB. Real supplemented with olive leaf tea. OLB. Real supplemented with olive leaf-enriched biscuit. Statistical analysis was performed using repeated measures (ANOVA) to assess the interaction effect (group \(\times\) time).  
\end{table} 
Table 13: Postprandial changes in platelet-activating factor. as oleuropein, has been extensively studied for its potential health benefits [18]. Research indicates that OLE may exert beneficial effects on glucose metabolism, insulin sensitivity, and oxidative stress [19; 20]. Additionally, OLE has demonstrated antihypertensive and hypocholesterolem properties, supporting its potential role in cardiovascular health [21]. These effects are primarily attributed to its potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory bioactive compounds, such as oleuropein and hydroxytyrosol, which contribute to the improvement of endothelial function, vascular tone, and lipid metabolism [18; 21; 22; 23]. However, the evidence remains inconsistent, with variations in study design, dosage, and populations contributing to mixed results [23]. This study aimed to evaluate the impact of olive leaf powder supplementation in two different formats, as an aqueous infusion (Intervention A) and as an additive in a biscuit (Intervention B), on insulin, glucose, cholesterol, and other biomarkers in a controlled, randomized procedure. Our results showed no statistically significant differences in most biomarkers tested, including insulin, glucose, cholesterol (HDL, LDL, total), triglycerides, and CRP, across the intervention groups compared to the control. This aligns with previous evidence suggested limited or inconsistent effects of olive leaf supplementation on metabolic markers [21; 23]. Specifically, the effects of olive leaf extract on biomarkers such as glucose, insulin, and lipid profiles have shown variability across different trials. This may reflect variability in study designs, dosage, duration, and participant characteristics likely explains these inconsistent findings, as seen in our study. In line with previous acute postprandial studies, [PERSON] et al. (2023) observed a delay in the peak time of postprandial glycemia after olive leaf tea (OLT) intake with a high-carbohydrate meal.