# Utilization of By-Products from the Fruit and Vegetable Processing Industry in Pasta Production
## 2 Pasta  
Pasta is a traditionally Italian cereal-based product, highly appreciated and consumed worldwide due to its sensory quality, ease of preparation, low cost, and long shelf life [31]. The term \"pasta\" refers to a wide variety of products that differ in shape (e.g., macaroni, spaghetti, bows, tagliatelle, noodles, etc. ), processing methods, ingredients, and shelf life. Figure 1: Articles containing the words ‘pasta’ and ‘by-product’ or ‘waste’ in the topic. Search conducted in WOS on 31 December 2024. Since pasta is typically made only with durum wheat semolina and water, it is rich in complex carbohydrates and naturally low in fats and simple sugars. Additionally, it has a lower Glycemic Index (GI) than other cereal-based products [32]. Pasta, when consumed as part of a low-GI dietary pattern, does not adversely affect adiposity and even reduces body weight and Body Mass Index compared with higher GI dietary patterns [33]. However, it provides little in the way of other nutrients such as fiber or bioactive components [11]. The processing of pasta has been recently reviewed by [PERSON] et al. [34]. A key factor in pasta production is the raw materials. It is widely recognized that durum wheat semolina is the ideal raw material for producing high-quality pasta [35; 36]. In fact, in Italy, the world's leading producer and consumer of pasta, it is forbidden to make pasta with other types of flour [34]. Durum wheat (_Triticum durum_) has different characteristics from soft wheat (_Triticum aestivum_), such as greater hardness, higher carotenoid content, lower lipoxygenase activity, and, in general, a higher protein content and gluten strength than other wheat flour types [37]. Its greater hardness allows for higher yields in the production of semolina, which leads to pasta with better culinary qualities than flour-based pasta. The particle size of durum wheat semolina also plays a crucial role in pasta quality [34]. Moreover, its higher carotenoid content contributes to a more intense yellow color, while the lower presence of lipoxygenases helps preserve this color during processing. Additionally, the higher protein content and the gluten characteristics of durum wheat improve the quality of the resulting pasta. Pasta can be made with durum wheat semolina or a combination of soft wheat flour and semolina. The use of soft wheat is common in some countries due to its lower cost or the limited availability of durum wheat. However, this practice negatively affects pasta quality. Regarding the production process, pasta is made by mixing semolina and other ingredients with water and applying mechanical force to develop the gluten network. Additionally, these operations can be done under vacuum to reduce oxidation of color-related components and minimize air bubbles in the final product [38]. Part of the mechanical work involves low-temperature extrusion, which also shapes the pasta, although in some cases, pasta can be made by rolling. A critical final step is drying, which extends the product's shelf life. This drying process is crucial and must be adapted depending on the quality of the raw materials [39], and it should be optimized in terms of temperature, relative humidity, and time when new ingredients are introduced [40]. This is attributed to the varying enzymatic activity present in different ingredients, which can influence biochemical reactions during processing. However, the most significant impact lies in the structural modifications induced in the gluten network, affecting its elasticity, strength, and overall integrity. These changes in the composition alter the water absorption capacity of the dough, ultimately influencing the texture, cooking properties, and quality of the final pasta. Fresh pasta, which has a higher moisture content and shorter shelf life, can also be marketed.