## 1 Introduction  
Water pollution due to anthropic contaminants or pollutants is an increasing global concern. Ranging from macro- to micro-pollutants, these are caused by different human activities, such as urban and industrial development, the use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides in agriculture, mining activities, and the disposal of pharmaceuticals and personal care products [1; 2; 3]. Water contamination by pharmaceuticals has been an environmental issue of concern since the late 1980s [4]. During the 1990s, pharmaceutically active compounds, such as lipid-regulating drugs, analgesics, antibiotics, antipsychotics, hormones, and chemotherapy and beta-blocking heart drugs, were detected in wastewaters, streams, and ground-water resources across Europe [5]. These molecules can have diverse and adverse effects on organisms and aquatic life. For this reason, the pharmaceutical product discharges from human and veterinary usage have been the object of intensive research for several years [6]. Numerous studies in Europe and North America have shown that carbamazepine (CBZ) is among the most frequently detected pharmaceutical products in the effluents of the municipal wastewater treatment plants and in the river waters [7]. Indeed, this molecule has a very low biodegradability and is considered environmentally persistent and refractory (see detailed information in Table 1). CBZ is a human pharmaceutical approved by the United States (US) Food and Drug Administration for treating epileptic seizures and trigeminal neuralgia. It is also used \"off-label\" to treat bipolar depression, excited psychosis, and mania [9]. CBZ is composed of two benzene rings fused to anazepine group, which in turn is connected to an amide group [10]. Its doses commonly range from 100 to 2000 mg per day [11; 12], which is reflected by an annual consumed quantity of CBZ in the world of about 1014 tons [13]. Post-administration, approximately 72% of oral CBZ can be absorbed, metabolized, and excreted in urine, whereas 28% is unchanged and is discharged into waters through feces [14]. Consequently, CBZ and its metabolites: trans-10,11-dihydro-10,11-dihydroxycarbamazepine (CBZ-diol) and 10,11-dihydro-10,11-epoxycarbamazepine (CBZ-epoxide) have been found in water. Several monitoring studies carried out in Europe, America, and Asia have detected CBZ in the aquatic environment at the highest frequency compared to the other pharmaceutical micropollutants. It is most frequently detected in sewage treatment plants effluents, in river water, and in seawater [15]. It was found at the highest concentration of 1.075 ug/L in surface waters in Germany [16], but also at 2.3 ug/L in Canada in wastewater effluent [17]. The toxicity of CBZ at such low levels is not ascertained; the risk does not seem immediate, so the main concerns are the accumulation of CBZ in the aquatic ecosystems and the potential cocktail effects in synergy with other micropollutants [18]. Wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) have been identified as the most relevant sources of pollution with this molecule. Indeed, the average removal rate of CBZ by the conventional activated sludge process is below 10%, and that it is not significantly improved by the use of modern configurations such as membrane bioreactors, though these are frequently effective at removing other pharmaceuticals [19; 20]. The same is reported for sequencing batch reactors in which CBZ appears to be resistant to microbial biodegradation [21]. However, other alternatives are more efficient: biological treatments with _Trametes versicolor_, for example, with lactose, eliminated about 60% of CBZ after 48 h of contact time [22]. The first drawback of the biological processes, in general, is the possible biodegradation of CBZ into more toxic compounds.