## 8 Glucose Measurement
[184] described the limitations and benefits of CGM advancements in the T1 DM and explained the future application of this technology in revolutionizing T1 DM treatment and control. [PERSON] et al. [185] presented the recent evolution in the AP systems, T1 DM, CGM, insulin pump technology, closed-loop systems, SMBG, and MDI etc. [PERSON] et al. [186] explored flash glucose monitoring commencement in adolescents and young adults with T1 DM who were not meeting glycaemic targets in normal circumstances. This newer GM technology may decrease the management burden and raise the proportion of young adults and adolescents who achieve glycaemic targets. Flash glucose \begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c c c} \hline \hline
**GM Method** & **Advantages** & & **Disadvantage** \\ \hline \hline \multirow{6}{*}{\
\begin{tabular}{c} SMBG \\ \end{tabular} } & & & \(\bullet\) & Require more training and checking \\  & - & Accurately measure the capillary & \(\bullet\) & Subject to mis recorded data and \\  & glucose concentration & & user errors \\  & - & Relatively inexpensive & \(\bullet\) & Yield limited data in one point of time \\  & - & convenient to train patients & \(\bullet\) & Multiple daily testing is required to \\  & - & Familiar and widely used in practice & \(\bullet\) & achieve good glycaemic control \\  & - & Significant help in prioritization of & \(\bullet\) & Inconvenient and painful \\  & - & clinical problems and support in & \(\bullet\) & Quality of glucose test strip varies \\  & - & clinical decision. & \(\bullet\) & Sporadic measurements can occur \\  & - & & which impact the clinical effectiveness. \\ \hline \hline \multirow{6}{*}{
\begin{tabular}{c} CGM \\ \end{tabular} } & & \(\bullet\) & Provides the detailed picture of the \\  & glucose levels even in abnormal \\  & & circumstances (i.e., during sleeping \\  & & and exercise) & \(\bullet\) & More expensive compared to SMBG \\  & - & Record all readings perfectly & \(\bullet\) & Difficult to wear multiple sensor on \\  & - & Provide wide range of metrics for \\  & - & personalized diabetes management \\  & - & More convenient to use compared \\  & CGM & to strips \\  & - & No need of daily fingerstick by using \\  & - & the pre-calibrated systems \\  & - & Helpful for identifying low or high \\  & - & glucoses in patients who cannot \\  & - & recognize or express symptoms \\  & - & Enables more in-range glucoses \\  & - & Decrease worry and increase \\  & - & confidence about patients’ safety. \\ \hline \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table} 
Table 2: Advantages and disadvantages of glucose measurement (GM) techniques (adopted from recent studies [182; 183]). monitoring is one such modern technology, which delivers comprehensive glucose data when an interstitial glucose sensor is scanned by handheld device. Recently, ensemble methods have emerged as potential solutions for the glucose levels prediction in T1 DM patients [187]. The BG prediction involves forecasting a patient's BG levels based on past and current history (i.e., accumulated data). The BG prediction helps in providing the necessary alarm so as to avoid any further complications from the hyperglycemia and hypoglycemia. We present the detailed taxonomy of the latest BG prediction approaches in Figure 15.  
Apart from the BG prediction, researchers across the globe have been trying from decades to make functional commercial non-invasive glucose measurement devices [189]. The challenges associated with the such devices are the inaccurate readings, and repetitive replacement over time. The non-invasive GM methods can be categorized based on: (i) blood/tissue properties, (ii) the intrinsic properties of the glucose, and (iii) breath acetone analysis. The latest non-invasive GM techniques based on the glucose and tissue/blood properties are presented in Figure 16. Recently, various mathematical models have been developed for the purpose of GM and analysis in the T1 DM's patients [190]. [PERSON] et al.