## 3 Results and Discussion  
### MSW Management in Southeast Asia  
The generation and characteristics of waste mainly rely on population growth, the rate of urbanization, the degree of industrialization, income level, consumption habits, local climate, and economic policies [2; 15]. The major portion of waste composition in Southeast Asia countries is composed of organic waste, followed by plastic and paper. Typical waste composition in Southeast Asia comprises 51% organic waste, 12.9% paper, 7.2% plastics, 4% glass, 3.3% metal, and 19.6% other. (Figure 7). The average per capita waste generation in the region accounts for approximately 1 kg per capita per day [1]. Table 1 shows some brief demographic context, waste generation, and waste management data in Southeast Asian countries. The urban population in most of these countries has below 50% of the total waste, most from low-income and lower middle-income countries. Low economic development  
Figure 7: A comparison of waste composition in Southeast Asian countries [1; 12]. countries regionally experience lower per capita waste generation rates, accounting for below 1 kg per capita per day. Additionally, source segregation and collection rates--at below 50% and 70%, respectively, compared to the rates of the developed countries--are affected by this low economic development [1]. In average, Southeast Asian countries practice 5% compost, 9% incineration, 59% solid waste disposal, and 27% other, including recycling, waste-to-energy, and other waste disposal methods [12]. More details about the demographic context and waste management of each Southeast Asian country are described below. (a) Brunei Darussalam  
Brunei Darussalam has 423,188 residents, and its urban population was 77% of the total in 2015. Along with the waste generation of 0.87 kg per capita per day [1], the total annual waste generation in 2015 amounted to 210,000 tons per year, and the collection efficiency was 90% [12; 42]. The country disposes of the majority of waste to disposal sites, but it only composts 2% of its waste [1]. With costly waste management infrastructure and limited land area, the country has encountered a lack of capacity in the design, implementation, and monitoring of policies, programs, and projects [42]. However, the country is developing projects based on a public-private partnership (PPP) mechanism for the waste management sector [42]. It is expected to contribute 10% renewable energy share in power generation by 2035, excluding hydropower [45]. The potential share of renewable energy, in total, of the primary energy supply has been projected to reach 4% in 2025 and 7% in 2030 [44]. (b) Cambodia  
Cambodia has 15,577,899 residents, and its urban population was 21% of the total in 2015 [12]. Along with the waste generation of 0.6 kg per capita per day [1], the total annual waste generation in 2014 amounted to 1,089,000 tons per year, and the collection efficiency was 80% [12; 42]. The recycling sector contributes 20% of the total waste generation. Despite a lack of policies and programs that address significant reduction of MSW, the country is preparing an integrated solid waste management strategy for the future development of the MSW management sector [42]. However, there is still limited awareness and behavior of people related to the concept of sustainable cities/green cities [42]. The country has set a target of 27% emission reduction by 2030 relative to business-as-usual (BAU) in the energy industry [41]. The potential share of renewable energy in total primary energy supply is projected to reach 35% in 2025 and 44% in 2030 [44]. (c) Indonesia  
Indonesia has 255,993,674 residents, and its urban population was 54% in 2015 [12]. Along with the waste generation of 0.52 kg per capita per day [1], the total annual waste generation in 2012 amounted to 22,500,060 tons per year, and the collection efficiency ranged from 56% to 75% [1; 42; 12].