## 1 Introduction  
With the commercialization of dental implants for partially or fully edentulous patients, clinicians and patients have shown increased interest in the longevity of implants. The so-called lifetime of an implant is determined by the strength and sterility of the osseointegration between the implant and the alveolar bone [1]. Thus, continuous research is being conducted on various surface treatments for titanium implants, as well as biocompatible bone substitutes that can reconstruct deficient alveolar bone. Numerous studies have demonstrated that the topography of the implant surface plays a crucial role in the bonding between the implant and hard tissue [2; 3; 4]. In 2019, [PERSON] et al. [5] described the advantages provided by the ultrastructure of the implant surface for physical and chemical osseointegration. Nanoscale porosity allowed for the identification of amorphous and crystalline calcium and phosphorus infiltrates, while submicron-scale porosity facilitated the embedding of collagen fibrils and the migration of osteocytes through cytoplasmic expansion. At micron-scale porosity, capillary penetration was observed, and at porosity above 100 \(\upmu\)m, direct ingrowth into the valleys between the implant threads of the lamellar bone occurred. Additionally, numerous studies support the biological benefits of nanostructures on the implant surface [6; 7; 8]. Titanium implant surface treatments can be categorized into abrasive and additive methods. Abrasive methods include blasting with alumina, titanium oxide, calcium phosphate, or sand to create a rough surface [9; 10], chemical etching with hydrochloric acid, sulphuric acid, or hydrofluoric acid [11; 12; 13], and oxidation with strong acids. Additive methods, such as titanium plasma spraying, involve the deposition of titanium particles at high temperatures [14]. Recently, the use of laser pretreatment on implant surfaces has gained significant attention [14; 15; 16; 17; 18]. Laser processing of implant surfaces is advantageous as it facilitates the creation of complex nanostructures and reduces contamination compared to other methods. While earlier methods used neodymium-doped yttrium aluminium garnet lasers, copper vapor lasers, and nanosecond excimer lasers [19], the development of ultrafast laser technology has introduced femtosecond lasers. These lasers offer superior precision and minimize thermal side effects compared to previously used lasers [20; 21]. When applied to a titanium surface, femtosecond lasers produce a variety of nanostructures, including nanopores and nanoprotrusions smaller than 20 nm, parallel grooves with sub-micron-level periods, microscopic roughness ranging from 1-15 \(\upmu\)m, smooth surfaces with microscopic inhomogeneities, and sphere-like nanostructures smaller than 10 nm [22]. Surface roughness is typically measured using roughness average (Ra) and arithmetic mean height (Sa) values, with Ra being preferred as it is a three-dimensional unit that includes small height differences on the surface. Implant surfaces with Sa values \(<\) 0.5 \(\upmu\)m are classified as smooth, 0.5 to \(<\)1.0 \(\upmu\)m as minimally rough, 1.0-2.0 \(\upmu\)m as moderately rough, and values \(>\) 2.0 \(\upmu\)m as rough [23]. Femtosecond laser-treated surfaces can achieve roughness levels between 1 and 15 \(\upmu\)m, which is highly beneficial. Historically, various surface treatments have been used, with Machined Branemark (Nobel Biorca AB, Goteborg, Sweden), Osseotite (momplant Innovations, Inc., Palm Beach Gardens, FL, USA), and Nanotite (mom (BIOMET 3i, Palm Beach Gardens, FL, USA) implants classified as minimally rough; SLA, TiUnite (Nobel Biorca AB, Goteborg, Sweden), OsseoSpeed (Astra Tech AB, Molndal, Sweden), and TiOblast (Astra Tech AB, Molndal, Sweden) as moderately rough; and IMZ implants (Friatec, Mannheim, Germany), titanium plasma spray (TPS), and ANKYLOS(m) (DENTSPLY Implants Manufacturing GmbH, Mannheim, Germany) as rough [23].