## 4 Results and Discussion  
### Phase 1: Analysis of the current situation  
A Ro-Ro terminal is designed to manage vehicles and Ro-Ro units that are loaded and disembarked using their own wheels, thus optimizing cargo handling and reducing operating times compared to other loading systems. The main activities and processes that characterize the operation of these terminals are described below, structured in stages. The operation of a Ro-Ro (Roll-on/Roll-off) terminal follows a structured flow that allows the efficient loading and unloading of vehicles. This process is made up of three main stages:  
1. Arrival and parking in waiting areas: vehicles enter the terminal and are directed to designated areas where they await their turn for loading or unloading. At this stage, documentation is checked and traffic is organized. 2. Loading/unloading: vehicles are guided to or from the ship, using their own wheels. This occurs through specially designed ramps that connect the dock to the vessel. 3. Storage or departure: after disembarking, vehicles are directed to temporary storage areas or directly outside the terminal, depending on their final destination. The use of technologies such as the Internet of Vehicles (IoV) and automation improves coordination, reduces waiting times, and optimizes vehicular flow at each stage (Figure 2). From these data and with the equations, the baseline has been established. The current values for waiting times, vehicular flow, and costs without IoV were defined based on survey responses from Ro-Ro terminals. These data were analyzed to estimate the impact of IoV using real operational insights from the surveyed terminals. Figure 2: Flow of operation of a Ro-Ro terminal (Roll-on/Roll-off). Source: own elaboration. The data used in this study were obtained through direct communication with Ro-Ro terminals, complemented by reliable secondary sources. To ensure the robustness of our analysis, we gathered key operational metrics, including traffic volume, average loading and unloading times, waiting times, and internal traffic flow management. These data were collected via surveys and direct exchanges with terminal operators. However, in cases where complete datasets were not available, we used established reference values from authoritative sources such as the International Maritime Organization (IMO), the European Sea Ports Organization (ESPO), and previous studies on transport logistics. To further strengthen the validity of our findings, we compared the collected data with industry standards and benchmarks from leading European ports. This methodological approach ensures that our results are both realistic and applicable to real-world terminal operations (Table 1). The calculated savings and efficiency improvements were derived from a comparative assessment of manual versus automated systems, using a combination of empirical data and validated reference figures. **Definition of Variables:**  
The Spanish port system is characterized by a high degree of heterogeneity, particularly in Roll-on/Roll-off (Ro-Ro) terminals. These differences stem from variations in operational models, technological adoption, and infrastructural configurations, making a direct comparison of all terminals impractical. To ensure the validity and relevance of this study, a selection of relatively homogeneous terminals has been analyzed. These terminals share similar operational frameworks and automation levels, providing a meaningful basis for performance assessment (Figure 3).