# Cybersecurity Vulnerabilities in Off-Site Construction
## 1 Introduction  
Currently, production and manufacturing settings emphasize operational efficiency and sustainability, and the architectural, engineering, and construction (AECO) sectors are no exceptions. Industries, such as construction, have developed the coined term of \"Construction 4.0\", referring to the application of Industry 4.0 (IR4) to construction. Construction 4.0 incorporates a plethora of digital technologies in smart and cyber-physical systems [1]. These digital technologies come in the form of artificial intelligence (AI), additive manufacturing, big data, virtual reality (VR), blockchain, internet of things (IoT), big data, and other diverse forms depending on the area of application [2, 3] (see Figure 1).  
The impact of these technologies has been reported to improve productivity and efficiency through smart environments that are interconnected via the internet, creating diversified information sharing and storage, and management in the form of the internet of things (IoT). It is projected that, by 2025, the IoT will approach 950 billion in market size, a sign of its growth [3]. Based on studies by [PERSON] et al. [4], the construction industry lags behind other domains, while other sectors, such as the manufacturing sector, have advanced further in digital technologies. Some of the barriers to adoption are the high initial costs through system modifications and the inevitable cybersecurity issues [5, 6], which arise from the synergy of construction practice with digital technologies.  
The digitalization of the construction industry has led to the extensive use of information and technological technologies (ICTs) throughout a project life cycle. As facilitated by the internet, this interconnectivity has created vulnerabilities that have created exploitable opportunities for malware breachers and cyber-attackers to preexisting systems in malicious attacks that use sophisticated tools to harvest unauthorized information and sabotage organizations [7]. On the other hand, the adoption of these technologies has been proven to shorten project durations, thereby, inevitably lowering project costs.  
This interconnectivity has become the weakest link that counters the benefits of cyber-physical systems (Figure 1). A more focused approach to upgrading the current existing security frameworks and cybersecurity is thus necessary. Cybersecurity defines the instruments, strategies, and systems to secure data and additional hardware and human interaction [8]. Unfortunately, cyber-security implications and the related challenges have not received their due attention in proportion to the development of IR4 technologies in AECO.  
As construction continues its upward trajectory toward digitalization, attacks are expected to rise, and security could potentially be the most significant setback towards fully adopting these digital technologies. Lessons can be drawn from well-established sectors, such as manufacturing, that are leading in digitalization. One of the emerging forms of construction is off-site construction (OSC), which simultaneously runs precast material manufacturing and onsite construction. Finished or semi-finished components are transported to the construction site for installation [9].  
This merges two sectors, namely manufacturing and construction, creating a more complex system that requires specific and reliable cybersecurity infrastructure and organization. This paper addresses the importance of cybersecurity development in the off-site construction industry, highlighting the possible threats. Furthermore, we compare existing cybersecurity frameworks and the possibility of using blockchain technology as a management tool.  
Figure 1: Multiple facets of Industry 4.0 and its integration in the IoT [1].