## 4 Results
### Spatiotemporal Changes in the Level of Urbanization and the Livelihood Level of Urban Residents
#### 4.1.2 Spatiotemporal Changes in the Livedived of Urban Residents  
From 2004 to 2007, areas with a low resident livelihood level were mainly located in areas with relatively poor infrastructure, such as Orkhon and Darkhan-Uul. Although the development of  
Figure 2: Spatiotemporal changes in the level of urbanization and urban residents’ livelihood level. Note: (**A**) The level of urbanization in 2004; (**B**) the level of urbanization in 2007; (**C**) the level of urbanization in 2010; (**D**) the level of urbanization in 2013; (**E**) the level of urbanization in 2016; (**F**) urban residents’ livelihood level in 2004; (**G**) urban residents’ livelihood level in 2007; (**H**) urban residents’ livelihood level in 2010; (**I**) urban residents’ livelihood level in 2013; and (**J**) urban residents’ livelihood level in 2016.  
mining and manufacturing has increased the urbanization level of Orkhon and Darkhan-Uul, the large influx of rural migrants has caused severe infrastructure shortages (such as an inadequate water supply [23]), which has made the livelihood levels of the residents in these two areas low. However, the areas with border trade ports have improved the living standards of urban residents through trade in agricultural and animal husbandry products and mineral resources: Examples of these areas are Govi-Altai, Sukhbaatar, Umunugovic, Dornogovic, and Selenge [72]. Meanwhile, the four areas of Ulaanbaatar, Tov, Arkhangai, and Uvurkhangai, taking advantage of convenient roads and railways to provide livestock and mineral products to the surrounding areas, have also enhanced the livelihood level of urban residents (Figure 2F,G).  
However, in 2010, the white dzud disaster (caused by a prolonged, extremely cold and snowy winter that made animals unable to find feed and caused them to die in large numbers [77; 78; 79]) occurred [22; 80]. In the regions where animal husbandry is the main economic industry, the livelihood levels of urban residents were seriously affected, such as Dornogovic, Uvs, and Uvurkhangai [81] (Figure 2H). The dzud disaster forced a large number of herder families to migrate to sum centers (a sum is an administrative division unit higher than the village level [22]) or Aimag centers [22]. However, the influx of immigrants caused a serious infrastructure shortage, and most of the migrants were unable to have a stable livelihood in areas such as Selenge and Umunugovic [12; 22]. Some migrants mentioned that only Ulaanbaatar had better basic services, especially healthcare and education for their children (interviews with migrants in a ger district of Ulaanbaatar on 27 October 2017).  
From 2010 to 2016, with mass immigrants moving to regions with higher urbanization levels in the central and eastern regions (e.g., Selenge, Umunugovic, and Ulaanbaatar) [22; 27], most of the western regions (e.g., Uvs, Uvurkhangai, and Bayankhongor) had relatively sufficient infrastructure (especially water supply) because of their reduced populations, and their livelihood levels were relatively higher than the livelihood levels of the eastern and central regions. Especially in Uvurkhangai and Bayankhongor, light industry was developed through convenient transportation (interview with Professor [PERSON], former director of the Institute of Geography and Geoecology MAS on 28 October 2017). Although the urbanization levels in these areas was low, their relatively rich infrastructure made the livelihood levels of urban residents relatively high (Figure 2I,J).