# Human Factor Issues in Remote Ship Operations: Lesson Learned by Studying Different Domains
## 4 Results
### Situation Awareness (SA)
SA in SCCs does not only depend on information; it also depends on the dynamic of the operating situation, which chnages [7]. As sensors and satellite communications provide the required information for remote ship operations, the level of cognition and conception of the operators will lead to a lower level of SA in SCCs than they would have on board. This happens due to indirect sensory information within the SCC. Various researchers who have examined SA argue that it should be considered in the case of land-based unmanned ship handling [22; 48]. Furthermore, [PERSON] et al. [7] argue that misunderstandings a vessel's situation, which is an SA challenge, can lead to mistakes in SCCs. Similarly, the operator of a remote crane must know the exact location of each container. As researchers note, remote operators cannot automatically gain the same information as a conventional crane operator [43]. In another example, the automation of the Helsinki Metro rapid transit system was cancelled due the fact that, without an intrusion detection system, it will crash into a person or another object on the track. Other challenges researchers identified include \"_driving the train on the track_\", \"_stopping at a station_\" and \"_interactions of the driver with other actors in the metro system_\" [47]. These issues refer to a lack of an adequate level of SA within the control center about the train and its surroundings and a lack of direct sensory information during the operation of automated trains, similar to the operations of autonomous vessels at sea. The report of the 58 th session of Sub-Committee on Safety of Navigation (NAV) [27] also references SA in its discussion of various user gaps and preliminary potential solutions for the operational areas of e-navigation solutions; some of the solutions identified could possibly also be applied in the field of remote ship operations, for example, an integrated presentation of available information. Research has identified a lack of harmonized presentation of local information in order to increase SA for shore support services for remote ship operation [10]. In addition, future research can leverage machine learning techniques to assess the risk of e-navigation using performance parameters collected from e-navigation systems and human factors that resulted in accidents. In doing so, a machine learning model can predict the risk of human operations based on the way they use e-navigation systems. [PERSON] et al. [30] provide a model of human error assessment for an autonomous cargo ship, which highlights the effects of situation awareness and ship perception as two significant factors. This issue is related to the way that sensor data are presented in order to provide local information for both monitoring and controlling processes in SCCs. Thousands of sensors provide information about the ship's status and voyage plan, however, the indirect sensory situation still remains, in addition to the fact that operators are not present onboard. This highlights SA as a significant challenge within the SCC. It is important to mention that SA--in the current paper--is discussed based on human-machine interactions. Other domains included here, such as UAV operation, show a similar focus [39]. However, SA could be investigated based on human-human interactions as well. In this respect, it is necessary to focus on the interactions between SCC operators, the captain and engineers in order to investigate how these human interactions affect the level of SA. SA based on human-machine interactions could consist of the level of awareness of operators about the status of the unmanned or autonomous vessel, their surroundings, and also other vessels. This status comprises a wide range of factors including the ship's health and route plan. Overall, SA, as an important factor, should be considered from both human-human and human-machine interaction perspectives in order to gain adequate information and achieve a satisfactory level of SA within the SCC.