## 3 Blockchain and Tracking Technologies in the Raw Material Sector
### Considerations on the Value of the Data in a Blockchain Environment
\begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c} \hline \hline \multirow{4}{*}{Typical Use Cases} & A vast array of radio frequency-based technologies enable tracing of materials both on production sites, such as mines, as well as throughout global supply chains [28]. RFID tags combined with sensors are widely used to measure everything from location to temperature conditions for tracked goods [29, 12]. One can distinguish between tracking technologies that are designed for short range applications such as NFC (Near Field Communications) to large networks using low power such as Sigfox or LoRa (Low Range). The emerging 5G networks can create an additional layer for tracking use cases as they were designed to further enhance the IoT with larger data volume capacities and autonomous vehicle applications. \\ \hline \multirow{4}{*}{Robustness} & The robustness of the power networks depends on the type of network and the devices involved. Some may be encapsulated to withstand harsh environments, but usually there are limits to be considered. For example, RFID tags or other senders usually will not withstand a smelting process. \\ \hline \multirow{4}{*}{Range} & The various technologies often differ significantly in their range and performance. Unlike a barcode, a sender may not always be required to be within the line of sight of the reader, so it may be embedded in the tracked object. For example, an RFID device inside a box or other container may be readable from outside without a need to open the box or container. However, there may be performance variations, too [3]. NFC communication usually has a range of a few cm only, whereas Sigfox or LoRa can enable long-range transmissions with low power consumption to bridge the gap to more energy intensive long range networks, such as 5G, 4G etc. \\ \hline \multirow{4}{*}{Energy Requirements} & Passive devices, such as some types of RFID, can be powered by energy from the reader’s interrogating radio waves. Active devices require their own source of power, for example a battery. This is why active devices usually can be read at a greater range. \\ \hline \multirow{4}{*}{Data Related Capabilities and Limitations} & Depending on the technology used, devices can be read only or include a fixed or programmable logic for processing and transmitting and/or receiving data. In cases where the technology responds strictly sequentially (like with some types of RFID devices), managing bulks of items may be an issue, because the time needed for bulk reading can grow linearly with the number of devices to be read. Depending on the granularity of the tracking and the content that is tracked, data protection requirements need to be considered, too. For example, tracking of movements of goods per RFID, NFC, GSM or other technology may also allow direct conclusions to be drawn about the movement or performance of persons involved with the handling of the tracked goods. Moreover, depending on the type of technology, eavesdropping may be an issue. For example standard plain NFC may not be protected against eavesdropping and data modifications. \\ \hline \multirow{4}{*}{Other Aspects} & A variety of standards have been developed for various use cases to provide compatibility and safety. Although implementing and using these networks for tracking objectives can be costly, some of their features such as roaming across borders are key benefits when tracking global supply chain journeys. Moreover, the low latency rates of 5G are expected to enable new business models to emerge for the IoT ecosystem with potential new tracking applications. \\ \hline \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table} 
Table 4: Characteristics of Cellular, Near Range and Low Power Networks.