# Plant-Derived Phytobiotics as Emerging Alternatives to Antibiotics Against Foodborne Pathogens
### Terpenes and Terpenoids
In plants, sesquiterpenes often act as phytoalexins--substances synthesized in response to pathogen attack--or as antifeedants that deter herbivory. They are abundant in many essential oils (e.g., farmesene, bisabolene). Sesquiterpenes exhibit strong antimicrobial (e.g., farmesol found in rose oil), anti-inflammatory (caryophyllene present in black pepper and cloves or budlei A from burdock leaves), and analgesic activity (e.g., lactucopicrin derived from _Lactuca virosa_), anticancer effects (e.g., nerolidol), and also cardioprotective (zerumbone from _Syringa pintatifolia_), and gastroprotective properties (such as sesquiterpene derivatives from _Fabiana imbricata_) [39; 40; 46; 47]. Dietary sources of sesquiterpenes include many fruits (apple, orange, strawberry) and spices (ginger, black pepper). Sesquiterpenes found in essential oils of foods were previously described by [PERSON] et al. [40]. Diterpenes (C20) consist of four isoprene units and may be acyclic, monocyclic, bicyclic, tricyclic, or multicyclic. They serve various functions in plants: regulation of growth and development via phytohormones (e.g., abscisic acid and gibberellin), plant defense, and acting as precursors for other important molecules. They exhibit a broad spectrum of activities, including antiviral, antimicrobial, antifungal, anticancer, antidiabetic, cardiovascular \begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{p{56.9 pt} p{113.8 pt} p{113.8 pt} p{113.8 pt} p{113.8 pt}} \hline \multirow{2}{*}{**Class**} & \multicolumn{2}{p{113.8 pt}}{**Number of**} & \multirow{2}{*}{**General Structural**} & \multirow{2}{*}{**Examples**} & \multirow{2}{*}{**References**} \\  & \multicolumn{2}{p{113.8 pt}}{**(C\({}_{5}\)H\({}_{8}\))**} & & & \\ \hline  & & & & phytol, retinol, retinal, & \\  & & & & geranylgeraniol, taxol, abietic acid, & \\  & & & & cembrene, crocetin, sugiol, totarol, taxodone, ferruginol, carnosol, solaneriosides, aphapolins, & [41] \\  & & & & clerodane, carnosic acid, sahandone, salprzelactones, fischeriabietanes, roscotanes, abscisic acid, and gibberellin & \\ \hline  & & & & squalene, lanosterol, lupeol, & \\  & & & & \(\beta\)-amyrin, betulin, oleanol, & [42] \\  & & & & akystosterol, and unsololol & \\ \hline  & & & & \(\beta\)-carotene, lycopene, zeaxanthin, & \\  & & & & astaxanthin, canthaxanthin, capsanthin, zeaxanthin, and lutein & [43] \\  & & & & capsanthin, zeaxanthin, and lutein & \\ \hline  & & & & natural rubber (cis-polyisoprene), gutta-percha, and natural latex & [44] \\ \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table} 
Table 2: _Cont._protective, immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory, and tissue regeneration-promoting properties [41; 48]. An example of a compound belonging to this group is carnosol, present in rosemary. Natural diterpencids, their source, and their biological activity were previously described by [PERSON] et al. [41]. Next, triterpenes (C30), formed by six isoprene units, are ubiquitous in plant membranes (as precursors to phytosterols) and participate in signaling pathways that regulate growth, differentiation, and stress responses. Additionally, they function in plant defense, deterring herbivores and inhibiting the growth of pathogenic microorganisms [49]. Triterpenes and triterpenoids exhibit diverse biological properties, including anticancer, antiangiogenic, anti-inflammatory, antiviral, antioxidant, antidiabetic, antihyperlipidemic, antimicrobial, hepatoprotective, cardioprotective, and immune-enhancing activities [50]. Examples of triterpenes include betulin, which comes from birch trees, and oleanol, found in olives. Tetraterpenes (C40), consisting of eight isoprene units, are predominantly carotenoids and xanthophylls, which function as accessory pigments in photosynthesis--absorbing light and protecting against photooxidative damage. Common tetraterpenes include beta-carotene, lutein, and lycopene [51]. In plants, they quench reactive oxygen species, deter herbivores (through coloration signaling toxicity), and attract pollinators or seed dispersers with bright colors.