# The Archaeometallurgical Evaluation of Three Bronze Socketed Axes, Discovered in Eastern Romania
## 1 Introduction  
Researchers in the field of scientific conservation of cultural heritage pay special attention to each archaeological discovery, and in the case of an archaeological artefact, first and foremost is considered the context of the discovery, but also other aspects, such as its manufacture, use and disposal. The context of the discovery provides a series of very important data in determining the patrimonial features and functions of the artifact [1]. The evolution of the conservation state is strongly influenced by the depositional period in the archaeological site. From the beginning, the primary patina is formed. It is based on chemical redox processes (oxides, sulfides, etc. ), when continuous and uniform films are formed. Due to these layers with their preservative role, it is also called the noble patina. Before the abandonment and immediately after (the final phase of the period of use and continuing with the incipient phase after the abandonment), the secondary patina, also called poor patina, is referred over the noble one. It occurs due to the aggression of the exogenous factors, when as a result of redox electrochemical processes, assisted by acido-basic, ionic exchange and hydrolysis processes, the following are formed: oxyhydroxides, hydroxy salts, halogenates, carbonates, sulfates, phosphates, etc., which may be anhydrous or hydrated in the form of crusts, nodes and moles, concentrated in or differentiated across certain areas. For certain artifacts, in this phase they may suffer thermal effects (calcination, recrystallization, etc.) following incineration and anthropic or natural fires. In the archaeological site, over the secondary patina, tertiary or contamination patina forms, under the influence of pedological, chemical and microbiological processes (segregation, diffusion, osmosis, monolithization, fossilization, mineralization, hydration/dehydration,structural reforming, etc.). The three types of structures are often difficult to identify, on artifacts from both disturbed and undisturbed sites, due to variable/oscillating aggression of exogenous factors [2; 3; 4; 5; 6; 7; 8; 9; 10; 11; 12; 13; 14; 15; 16; 17]. It is known that the authentication of an artifact means much more than dating and identifying the metal worker and the place of manufacture. In fact, attention is paid to a number of attributes related to the origin of the raw material, the elaboration of the basic material, the manufacturing technology, the craftsman/workshop, the owner/holder, the distribution area, the way of use and the course taken until the abandonment. These aspects contribute to the determination of patrimonial elements and functions. The old collections of some museums are composed from a series of objects that deserve a revaluation and a proper scientific valorification through modern methods, as is the case of the three socketed axes discovered in Neamt County, Romania. These objects represent single finds, accidental discoveries without a clear context; but, as far as the metal objects are rare presences, these can be reevaluated and exploited from a scientific point of view through interdisciplinary methods, in order to gain more data. These axes were analyzed using noninvasive OM and SEM-EDX techniques to evaluate their archaeometallurgical characteristics, based on the chemical composition, the morphology of the corrosion crusts and the basic alloy. The experimental data allowed to indicate the artistic techniques and the manufacturing technology involved. The analogies of the pieces and their chronological frame indicate different cultural frameworks in three consecutive historical periods, so the main objective of this paper is to try to identify the manufacturing techniques that were used in order to follow the evolution and changes of these technologies in time in this specific area. Another objective is to investigate the depositional environment of the artifacts and its impact on their preservation trough the study of corrosion products and patina to find optimal conservation solutions.