# Ohmic Baking of Gluten-Free Bread: Role of Starch and Flour on Batter Properties
## 3 Results and Discussions
### Starch and Flour Properties
\begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c c c c c} \hline \hline
**Sample** & **Ratio \({}^{*}\)** & **Electrical Conductivity (S/m)** & **Flow Behavior** & **Consistency** & **Apparent** \\  & & **Conductivity (S/m)** & **Index n** & **Coefficient K (Pa-s\({}^{\text{n}}\))** & **Viscosity (Pa-s)** \\ \hline \multirow{4}{*}{Corn} & 1:0.9 & 0.64 \(\pm\) 0.04 a & 0.48 \(\pm\) 0.06 a & 266.98 \(\pm\) 13.84 c & 29.11 \(\pm\) 4.33 b \\  & 1:1.3 & 0.53 \(\pm\) 0.04 a & 0.46 \(\pm\) 0.01 a & 62.36 \(\pm\) 0.44 b & 4.15 \(\pm\) 0.15 a \\  & 1:1.7 & 0.56 \(\pm\) 0.08 a & 0.52 \(\pm\) 0.02 a & 21.20 \(\pm\) 1.00 a & 1.98 \(\pm\) 0.09 a \\ \hline \multirow{4}{*}{Wheat} & 1:0.9 & 0.48 \(\pm\) 0.02 b & 0.44 \(\pm\) 0.04 b & 170.33 \(\pm\) 10.05 c & 12.43 \(\pm\) 0.95 b \\  & 1:1.3 & 0.40 \(\pm\) 0.01 a & 0.34 \(\pm\) 0.04 a & 57.09 \(\pm\) 0.75 b & 2.29 \(\pm\) 1.13 a \\  & 1:1.7 & 0.38 \(\pm\) 0.01 a & 0.52 \(\pm\) 0.01 c & 22.32 \(\pm\) 0.11 a & 1.91 \(\pm\) 0.08 a \\ \hline \multirow{4}{*}{Potato} & 1:0.9 & 0.47 \(\pm\) 0.03 a & 0.55 \(\pm\) 0.06 a & 358.95 \(\pm\) 13.19 c & 47.12 \(\pm\) 10.09 b \\  & 1:1.3 & 0.53 \(\pm\) 0.01 b & 0.55 \(\pm\) 0.02 a & 70.85 \(\pm\) 3.86 b & 8.14 \(\pm\) 0.27 a \\  & 1:1.7 & 0.46 \(\pm\) 0.02 a & 0.55 \(\pm\) 0.03 a & 28.06 \(\pm\) 0.97 a & 2.80 \(\pm\) 0.10 a \\ \hline \multirow{4}{*}{Cassava} & 1:0.9 & 0.52 \(\pm\) 0.01 b & 0.51 \(\pm\) 0.07 a & 352.83 \(\pm\) 18.04 c & 56.20 \(\pm\) 2.48 b \\  & 1:1.3 & 0.54 \(\pm\) 0.01 c & 0.44 \(\pm\) 0.03 a & 65.98 \(\pm\) 1.72 b & 4.57 \(\pm\) 0.35 a \\  & 1:1.7 & 0.43 \(\pm\) 0.01 a & 0.53 \(\pm\) 0.01 a & 24.29 \(\pm\) 1.06 a & 2.28 \(\pm\) 0.04 a \\ \hline \multirow{4}{*}{Rice} & 1:0.9 & 0.57 \(\pm\) 0.00 c & 0.36 \(\pm\) 0.02 a & 749.23 \(\pm\) 50.08 c & 63.04 \(\pm\) 13.99 b \\  & 1:1.3 & 0.53 \(\pm\) 0.02 b & 0.45 \(\pm\) 0.02 b & 130.14 \(\pm\) 6.68 b & 15.86 \(\pm\) 0.71 ab \\ \cline{1-1}  & 1:1.7 & 0.42 \(\pm\) 0.01 a & 0.53 \(\pm\) 0.04 c & 46.51 \(\pm\) 0.88 a & 5.64 \(\pm\) 0.07 ab \\ \hline \multirow{4}{*}{Buckwheat} & 1:1 & 0.50 \(\pm\) 0.02 c & 0.33 \(\pm\) 0.02 a & 386.33 \(\pm\) 33.97 c & 28.39 \(\pm\) 2.22 c \\ \cline{1-1}  & 1:1.5 & 0.41 \(\pm\) 0.02 b & 0.47 \(\pm\) 0.02 b & 100.48 \(\pm\) 7.47 b & 11.94 \(\pm\) 0.40 b \\ \cline{1-1}  & 1:2 & 0.35 \(\pm\) 0.01 a & 0.46 \(\pm\) 0.02 b & 36.56 \(\pm\) 2.22 a & 3.65 \(\pm\) 0.17 a \\ \hline \hline \multicolumn{4}{l}{\({}^{*}\) Expressed as starch/flour: water ratio. All values are expressed as means \(\pm\) SD. Significant differences (\(p<0.05\)) are displayed by the different lowercase letters in the same column within the same raw material.} \\ \end{tabular}
\end{table} 
Table 3: Effect of water content on the rheological and electrical properties of gluten-free batter made from various flours/starch. GF batters were also characterized in terms of their flow behavior (see Table 3). The flow behavior index n of all batters ranged between 0.33-0.55, indicating a shear-thinning behavior, which was mostly not influenced by the addition of water. Shear-thinning indicated a weakened molecule network due to applied shear. This results in a less viscous, less cohesive, and less elastic batter compared to wheat dough [10]. The apparent viscosity and the consistency coefficient (K) showed a similar trend. The values decreased significantly with increasing water content, being negatively correlated (\(r=-0.72\) and \(r=-0.76\), respectively). Rice batter demonstrated the highest apparent viscosity and consistency coefficient, probably due to the high WHC, starch damage, and amylose content of the flour. On the contrary, wheat batter exhibited the lowest apparent viscosity and consistency coefficient, mainly attributed to the low WHC and swelling power of the flour. Figure 1 shows the viscoelastic properties of different GF batters. The increase of water content dramatically decreased storage (G\({}^{\prime}\)) and loss (G\({}^{\prime\prime}\)) moduli of the samples.