## 1 Introduction  
As the global energy demand continues to escalate due to population growth and technological advancement, solar energy has emerged as one of the most viable solutions to the energy crisis [1]. Its abundance, cost-effectiveness, and scalability make it particularly suitable for addressing the long-term energy needs of both developed and developing countries. The photovoltaic (PV) industry has witnessed significant growth worldwide, fueled by extensive research and development efforts aimed at improving efficiency, accessibility, and affordability. As a result, PV systems have become instrumental in improving energy access in underprivileged areas, contributing to socio-economic development and reducing reliance on fossil fuels. However, PV technology faces challenges due to the nonlinear power-voltage curve, which is influenced by environmental factors such as temperature and irradiance. The power-voltage characteristic of a PV array illustrates the relationship between output power generated and voltage under specific solar irradiance and temperature circumstances. The maximum power point (MPP) represents the peak achievable power output. On the curve, the MPP is the operating point where the product of voltage and current is at its peak. At this key point, the PV panel delivers the highest possible power to the load. Operating at the MPP ensures that the PV panel extracts the maximum energy from the available sunlight, enhancing the efficiency of the system. Additionally, accurate maximum power point tracking (MPPT) increases the total energy generated over a given period, directly impacting the system's overall productivity. MPPT enables the PV system to adapt dynamically to changing environmental conditions (e.g., cloud cover or shading) to maintain high efficiency. If the PV system operates away from the MPP (e.g., at lower or higher voltages), (1) the panel will produce less power than its potential, (2) energy losses will occur, which reduces system efficiency, and (3) over time, suboptimal operation can lead to increased operational costs and reduced system lifespan. To ensure continuous operation at the MPP, the implementation of an MPPT controller is essential. While classical MPPT techniques effectively manage uniform radiation, PSCs cause multiple peaks in the power-voltage characteristic, including a single global peak power point (GPP) alongside several local maxima [2]. Recent advancements in MPPT techniques have extended their application to emerging fields such as transportation electrification. For instance, ref. [3] proposed a fault-tolerant power-sharing strategy with a novel MPPT method for parallel PV converters in electric airplanes, demonstrating improved reliability and efficiency under fault conditions. This highlights the growing need for robust and adaptable MPPT solutions in specialized applications, motivating the exploration of advanced algorithms to address broader PV system challenges, particularly under PSCs. Several recent studies have focused on improving MPPT techniques to enhance the efficiency and adaptability of PV systems under varying climatic and shading conditions. In [4], an improved perturb and observe (P&O) algorithm was introduced, wherein a reference voltage is calculated as a function of irradiance and temperature to reduce steady-state oscillations and enhance dynamic response. This method is paired with a non-isolated DC-DC converter that achieves a high voltage gain with a single switch, ensuring simplicity and feasibility for PV applications. Similarly, ref. [5] presents a modified P&O algorithm that dynamically adjusts the perturbation step size to reduce oscillations and improve convergence speed without requiring additional sensors. The proposed technique achieved an average steady-state efficiency of 99.8% and significantly reduced tracking time compared with conventional methods. Furthermore, ref.