# Cybersecurity Vulnerabilities in Off-Site Construction
## 6 The Future of OSC  
Based on an analysis conducted by [26], the adoption of OSC is distributed mainly among nine countries, with China being the leading country in adoption. Such a low adoption of OSC is likely due to limited knowledge on implementing modular construction efficiently. In most practices, it is believed that poor and untimely implementation will result in the failure to achieve the projected targets [75]. An analysis is given in Table 9 with each country's publication's corresponding link strengths as well as the number of citations of the papers. The most significant contribution towards OSC implementation can be seen mainly in Asia with Mainland China having the most substantial contribution as represented by the most extended link in Figure 11 corresponding to a link strength of 3766. A more detailed breakdown is given in Table 9.  
Figure 10: Taxonomy of blockchain management. Reprinted/Adapted with permission from Reference [71]. Copyright 2017 Copyright Elsevier Ltd.  
From these linkages, we observed that Canada and Hong Kong ranked second and third in terms of publications. However, Hong Kong has stronger links with other countries that is second only to China. This could be attributed to its proximity to China [76]. The future of OSC is dependent on the adoption of IR4 digital technologies. On the other hand, Canada's total link strength ranks it as number 7. Based on a systematic review [26], about 13% of the publications discuss the implementation of digital technologies in the period between 2010 and 2020. Other than the top three leading countries, the United States, the UK, and Singapore show an active research influence on OSC, with BIM, IoT, RFID, and virtual reality being the most implemented technologies. The application of these digitalization technologies is expected to boost productivity. However, the aspects of cybersecurity appear to not have efficient models adopted to the current security needs. With the COVID-19 pandemic and political instability in Europe, supply chains have been significantly disrupted [21]. This has spurred a rise in the cost of infrastructure and a greater shortage of housing. More efficient and innovative solutions have become a necessity, and unfortunately, traditional construction practices have seen decreasing profit margins due to inefficiencies. The pandemic has brought a new perspective regarding health and safety with physical distancing and a reduced work  
Figure 11: The dominance of OSC by country [26]. \begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c c c c} \hline \hline
**Country** & **Documents Published** & **Citations** & **Average Citation** & **Total Link Strength** \\ \hline Mainland China & 47 & 623 & 13.3 & 3766 \\ \hline Canada & 18 & 93 & 5.2 & 4.94 \\ \hline Hong Kong & 17 & 487 & 28.6 & 2250 \\ \hline Australia & 15 & 81 & 5.4 & 1494 \\ \hline USA & 15 & 99 & 6.6 & 616 \\ \hline UK & 10 & 60 & 6 & 698 \\ \hline Singapore & 8 & 101 & 12.6 & 1211 \\ \hline Germany & 7 & 18 & 2.6 & 203 \\ \hline Brazil & 6 & 34 & 5.7 & 240 \\ \hline \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table} 
Table 9: Adoption of OSC initiatives based on the number of documents and citations in the top nine countries. The numbers indicate the number of citations per country [26]. force. These measures are not sustainable under traditional construction practices where everything is done onsite. On the other hand, OSC factory and site settings can support such requirements because of their ability to decongest the work environment. In addition, an estimated 50% reduction in work-related accidents was reported for OSC activity [77]. With OSC comes improved productivity. An estimated 50% increase in productivity was reported for OSC [78]. Traditional construction has only seen an estimated 1% growth over the past two decades [79]. This has made traditional construction projects unpredictable due to uncertain time-lines and costs.