# Human Factor Issues in Remote Ship Operations: Lesson Learned by Studying Different Domains
## 4 Results
### Decision Making  
This human factor issue is derived from both human-human and human-machine interactions. Different types of technology, human-machine interfaces, communication channels, level of situation awareness, and sense of ship affect the process of decision-making. [PERSON] et al. [24] discussed challenges and gaps that prevent teams and individuals from gaining appropriate SA in order to make decisions during the remote monitoring and controlling of unmanned ships. A study of UAV operations showed that obstacles to understanding the situation in hand led to poor decisions [33]. On the other hand, the onboard autonomous system has to provide adequate information for operators in SCCs because operators' decisions depend on the provided information. For instance, one study drew attention to the problem that SCC operators may pay attention to information that is wrong or does not matter, wasting energy [22] and, hence, making poor decisions. A study of remote ship operation argued that _\"intelligent decision-making capability\"_ is a key element in automatic simulation systems and automatic ship navigation systems, which affect collision avoidance maneuvers and the planning of routes. In traditional maritime navigation, a human pilot is responsible for assessing the situation and making the safest decisions, while an automatic ship navigation system is designed for autonomous navigation in a safe and efficient manner without human intervention or to guide navigators' decisions [25]. [PERSON] et al. [61; 62] implemented a Markov logic network to model SA primarily for fire accidents and the emergency evacuation of offshore platforms. Through doing so, software agents created a method of simulating different behaviors in different situations in order to improve decision-making by facing trainees to different situations in a virtual training environment. [PERSON] et al. [63] proposed a methodology to capture the knowledge of expert seafarers and establish a knowledge database to improve decision making capabilities by providing the best operating practice for offshore ice management. They stated that seafarers make the decision and choose their strategy based on different techniques and prescribed approaches they learned from training. This indicates how the operator's decisions are derived from situation awareness and local information which they gathered during the operations. However, in remote ship operations, decision-making occurs specifically in control centers. Another study identified the challenges of creating a successful training simulator in order to train coming officers. One of the main challenges is the _\"readiness of response\"_ of the automated boats when they face new situations which require controllers to act in real-time when they carry out the assigned task [26]. Actions in real time could be affected by different factors, although, ultimately, this leads to a real-time decision. Thus, human-machine interactions and response times are also important in the context of decision-making for unmanned and autonomous vessels. The quality of human-human interactions between operators, supervisors and the situation team also influence the process of decision-making. When the autonomous vessel switches to full direct remote control, situation awareness and human interactions within the situation team significantly affect decision-making processes. Factors such as stress, memory limitations, and a dynamic environment could very easily disturb decision-making and human cognitive work [33]. Furthermore, [PERSON] et al. [7] discussed delays that may occur due to SCC operators taking a long time to find out what is happening; this refers to the human-out-of-the-loop syndrome which affects the decision-making process. In another study, some remote crane operators explain that in unexpected situations, they stayed calm before making a decision [45].