# Life Cycle Assessment of Land Use Trade-Offs in Indoor Vertical Farming +
## 4 Conclusions  
This study used the LANCA model to complement the EF method and evaluate the environmental impacts of microgreen production within an IVF system, with a particular focus on land use effects. The analysis compared systems implementing either building-integrated photovoltaics (PV) or a conventional grid electricity mix (GM). While the PV scenario results showed lower environmental impacts in most EF categories, mainly due to the use of renewable energy, the LANCA model revealed trade-offs related to land use, especially for ecosystem services such as erosion and infiltration reduction. The cultivation phase, dominated by energy-intensive processes, played a major role in the reduced impacts observed in the PV scenario. However, material-related inputs, such as substrate and packaging, also contributed noticeably to categories like climate change and ozone depletion. Together, cultivation and packaging emerged as central drivers of both energy- and land-related environmental effects. The hotspot analysis further indicated that in addition to climate change, categories associated with the use of renewable and non-renewable materials were also among the most affected. These outcomes underscore the unique contribution of LANCA in capturing function-oriented soil impacts that are often missed in LCA studies of urban farming. This research shows that although IVF systems do not rely directly on soil, their upstream and indirect effects on soil quality remain relevant and should not be ignored. By incorporating LANCA, this study offers a more complete picture of how production systems influence land-based environmental functions, contributing to a more balanced sustainability assessment. This work suggests that policymakers should implement mechanisms for future UA investments that are powered by renewable energy but implement policies for PV systems during construction and disposal that favor materials that mitigate the negative effects identified here. Other decision-makers such as IVF managers should not assume that because IVF systems reduce the space required to grow food they are immune to indirect effects on soils. The selection of substrate, for example, is an often overlooked factor that deserves more attention. Future work should apply this combined approach across diverse IVF setups and locations, assess alternative substrates and crops, and integrate economic metrics such as life cycle costing to further analyze the implementation of renewable energy infrastructure. Broader evaluations that include food security and socioeconomic factors will also be necessary to fully understand the sustainability of urban agriculture systems using controlled environments. The following supporting information can be downloaded at [[https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/app15158429/s1](https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/app15158429/s1)]([https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/app15158429/s1](https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/app15158429/s1)), Table S1: Infrastructure inventory; Table S2: Installation/Building integration inventory; Table S3: Controlled Environment Equipment inventory; Table S4: LEDs inventory; Table S5: GH Electronics inventory; Table S6: Sensor's inventory; Table S7: Calculation of the number of 3 kWp panels needed; Table S8: Energy mix for electricity production, PT; Table S9: IVF main operations inventory; Table S10: Coconut fiber process inventory; Table S11: Harvesting/Packaging inventory; Table S12: Cleaning inventory. **Author Contributions:** Conceptualization, A.C.C. ; methodology, A.C.C., S.R. and M.P. ; software, A.C.C. ; writing--original draft preparation, A.C.C. ; writing--review and editing, all authors; supervision, S.R. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. **Funding:** This work was supported by FCT/MCTES (PIDDAC) through projects UIDB/50009/2025, UIDP/50009/2025, and LA/P/0083/2020. **Institutional Review Board Statement:** Not applicable. **Informed Consent Statement:** Not applicable.