# Real-Time Contrail Monitoring and Mitigation Using CubeSat Constellations
## 4 Distributed Systems with CubeSats
### Preliminary Constellation Simulations  
Satellite constellation design for contrail monitoring in the North Atlantic Corridor demands a strategic balance between satellite availability and coverage continuity. Based on a preliminary analysis, the optimal configuration consists of three orbital planes, each populated by three satellites, denoted as a 3 \(\times\) 3 configuration. This architecture achieves an effective trade-off between coverage performance and system complexity. A moderately high eccentric orbit is proposed, with a perigee of 500 km and an apogee extending to 10,000 km. Table 1 presents the orbital parameters of the proposed CubeSat constellation designed for contrail monitoring within the North Atlantic Corridor. The constellation comprises three orbital planes (P1, P2, and P3), each hosting three satellites, identifiedas CS-1 to CS-9. Each orbital plane is configured with a semi-major axis of 11,628 km, supporting a highly eccentric orbit with an eccentricity of 0.40850 and an inclination of 60.0 degrees to maximize coverage over the target region. The right ascension of the ascending node (\(\Omega\)) for each plane is separated by 120 degrees to provide an optimal distribution of coverage across the corridor. Each satellite is positioned with an argument of perigee (\(\omega\)) fixed at 270.0 degrees, with specific true anomalies (\(v\)) allocated to each satellite to ensure even spacing within the orbit. This configuration, with a perigee of approximately 500 km and an apogee extending to around 10,000 km, is tailored to balance continuous area coverage with efficient system complexity. The parameters specified in Table 1 highlight the planned orbital characteristics that allow for extended visibility over the North Atlantic Corridor, thereby enhancing monitoring of aviation-induced contrails. This configuration supports prolonged satellite passes over the region while minimizing the number of satellites required, striking a balance between system cost and performance. This configuration ensures prolonged satellite visibility over the target region, thereby enhancing monitoring capabilities with a reduced number of satellites. However, the increased orbital eccentricity presents challenges in signal transmission, which may necessitate more advanced communication systems to maintain reliable data links. Figures 2-5 provide an analysis of the performance metrics for various satellite constellation configurations over the North Atlantic Corridor. Figure 2 presents the availability of satellites over the region, with a single satellite providing 20.3% availability over the target region. This rises to 96.6% availability for two planes each containing two satellites, with 100% coverage being achieved with a total of nine satellites spread evenly over three planes. Figure 3 examines the contact duration between satellites and ground stations, showing the minimum, average, and maximum durations for different configurations. As the number of orbital planes and satellites per plane increases, contact duration improves, as indicated by the darker shades in the heatmap: the average contact duration ranges from 73 min for a single satellite to an unlimited duration achieved with nine satellites. Figure 4 illustrates the minimum, average, and maximum number of visible satellites across the region. The results indicate that increasing both the number of planes and satellites per plane results in a higher number of satellites being visible at any given time. This increased satellite visibility enhances network redundancy, ensuring consistent data collection and minimizing potential coverage gaps. Notably, the proposed 3 \(\times\) 3 configuration is shown to have a minimum of two satellites of signal at any given time, providing full redundancy against failure, which cannot be achieved in a six-satellite configuration.