## 2 Related Work
[79] suggested that the grid and distributed energy source should pre-negotiate the load and frequency requirements of the SG system in the blockchain-based trading framework. Connecting DC systems based on DRES to the grid follows a similar process, with the addition of an extra inverter module to convert the DC power into AC power. Figure 4: (**a**) Oncoming generator receiving power from the bus when its no-load frequency is less than the system frequency (50/60 Hz); (**b**) oncoming generator sharing the greater load as the no-load frequency is increased. Figure 3: Transmission line of grid as an infinite bus on which multiple three-phase AC energy sources can be connected. Different countries have introduced schemes to remunerate market participants for their available capacity through capacity markets, aiming to ensure resource adequacy and supply reliability. These capacity costs are determined based on the price of providing necessary energy when required, with long-term considerations in mind. For instance, the 15-year capacity market agreement for new generators in the United Kingdom incentivizes market participants to make new investments with an eye toward long-term supply security. Initially, capacity markets were proposed for conventional generation power plants, which produce a constant and predictable amount of energy. Supply flexibility is essential and could be encouraged through capacity measures in future power systems, which would be distinguished by a high percentage of variable renewable energy (VRE). Additionally, improving demand-side flexibility by shifting consumer consumption from peak to off-peak times in response to price signals could further enhance the system. New market participants should be permitted to participate in a capacity adequacy process based on their business capability. Demand response and other flexible capacities, including battery storage technologies (when exporting energy to the grid), EVs, and interconnections, could improve the system's dependability during periods of supply shortfall. Smart Grid (SG) Software Components: A Tutorial on Cloud-Based Blockchain, Distributed Ledger Technology, and Smart Contracts  
Blockchain is the bloodline of modern decentralized financial transaction tracking, and it uses the cloud computing platform to generate irrevocable transaction certificates through distributed ledger technology (DLT). The first study to propose blockchain-based BTC [93] foresaw financial transactions solely using a P2P-based distributed framework, enabling electronic cash flow through online payments to be sent directly from one party to another without going through a financial institution. Digital signatures employing efficient cryptography techniques provide part of the solution, but the main benefits are lost if a trusted third party is still required to prevent double-spending. Double spending is defined as the customer initiating two quick transactions so that the account does not reflect an updated financial state while the second transaction is made. This problem is resolved using a P2P network, as shown in Figure 5. The P2P network timestamps transactions by hashing them into a contiguous chain of hash-based proof-of-work (PoW), called DLT, endorsed by majority node approval. On endorsement of the transaction establishing proof of authenticity, the prosumer or DRES will be awarded financial remuneration in the form of digital currency. This DLT forms an immutable record that cannot be changed without redoing the PoW and again obtaining majority vote approval. This is theoretically possible only if 51% of the participating blockchain nodes are compromised by an attack. The incentive for nodes is carrying out transaction block validation through PoW calculation. Smart contracts are automated computer programs running on the blockchain that conclude a transaction based on pre-agreed conditions and notify all participants through broadcast communication.