## 4 Discussion  
Climate variability in this context pertains to changes in weather patterns like temperature and rainfall on a basis within their scope [64]. The study found that precipitation in the Sawena district between 1984 and 2023 exhibited increases during September through November with October showing the most notable rise in rainfall levels, over the years analyzed; though overall annual rainfall trends did not show significant shifts and other months displayed varying patterns without distinct trends. In January and February, there was an amount of variation noted with coefficients of variation reaching over 230%.  
Research conducted in areas of Ethiopia shows notable changes in rainfall throughout the seasons [65; 66] that align with the findings made in Sawena district. Furthermore, this pattern of change matches what has been seen in parts of East Africa where erratic rainfall affects the availability of water and forage [67; 68]. These findings are consistent with what has been observed in arid regions where rain during the dry season shows significant variations over time. The fluctuations in climate difficulties for herders and the management of water resources require approaches to address the effects of climate change.  
Temperature trends in Ethiopia indicate substantial annual and seasonal warming, often exceeding 0.03 \({}^{\circ}\)C per year, particularly during the dry season [48; 66; 69]. This trend aligns with observations in other East African pastoralist regions, notably in Kenya and Tanzania, where decades of consistent warming have occurred [70; 71; 72]. The temperature increase in Sawena reflects these broader regional patterns. Such rising temperatures, alongside shifting rainfall dynamics, pose significant challenges to Ethiopia's livestock sector--an economic mainstay highly susceptible to climate variability. Pastoralists and agro-pastoralists are grappling with intensified heat stress, declining water availability, and reduced feed quality [69]. To address these impacts, adaptation strategies such as adopting drought-resistant livestock breeds are critical for sustaining livelihoods.  
In Sawena district, households have adopted a range of strategies to combat climate variability, with seasonal livestock migration being the most prevalent (45.1%), reflecting its deep roots in pastoralist culture. This aligns with broader findings where seasonal migration is vital for adaptive grazing and mitigating environmental pressures, especially in regions with restricted mobility [69; 70]. Such practices support resilience and climate adaptability, as observed in Kenya among the Maasai pastoralist systems [71; 72]. Additionally, 26.3% of Sawena households rely on productive safety net programs for essential support, paralleling the experiences of Karrayu pastoralists in Ethiopia who use these programs to buffer against climate impacts [71].  
Livelihood diversification, practiced by 19% of Sawena households, further bolsters resilience through activities like crop farming, trading, and adopting drought-resistant livestock such as camels, consistent with strategies noted by [69; 70; 73]. Planting seedlings, embraced by 9.7% of Sawena households, contributes to soil health and erosion prevention, echoing agro-pastoralist practices that include agroforestry, crop rotation, and organic manure use, which reinforce overall system sustainability. In the same way, key factors, such as age, education, credit access, livestock ownership, asset value, mass media access, extension services, market distance, and access to rangeland, influence adaptation strategies like seasonal migration, safety net participation, and livelihood diversification and seedling planting.