## 3 Results
### Nanemulsion Stability During Storage
#### 3.3.2 Bioaccessibility Study of Nanoemulsions  
The standardized static INFOGEST 2.0 in vitro protocol [10] was applied to study the effect of each lipid phase on the bioaccessibility of the bioactive compounds. Lycopene and phenolic compound (TPC) bioaccessibility (%) values for each nanoemulsion lipid phase are shown in Figure 5.  
The bioaccessibility percentages of lycopene in raw tomato pulp reported in literature range from undetected to as low as 0.1%, with some studies reporting values between 1.5% and 3% [54; 55; 56]. Therefore, it is evident that the nanoemulsions tested in this study exhibit significantly higher lycopene bioaccessibility values. Numerous studies have demonstrated that nanoemulsions enhance the bioaccessibility of lipophilic compounds [57; 58; 59; 60; 61]. The small droplets in nanoemulsions provide a larger surface area for digestive enzymes to act upon, and penetrate and remain longer in the mucus layer lining the epithelial cells--thus increasing the chances of absorption--while they can also enhance the absorption of lipophilic components due to their high water solubility [62]. Moreover, the formulation of these nanoemulsions allows for improved stability and protection of lycopene from degradation during gastrointestinal transit, which further contributes to its enhanced bioaccessibility. This characteristic is particularly important given the susceptibility of lycopene to oxidation and degradation in harsh digestive environments. Figure 4: Typical droplet-distribution graph based on intensity for olive pomace oil (OPO), canola oil (CLA), corn oil (CO), fish oil (FO), and sunflower oil (SO) nanoemulsions enriched with lycopene, ascorbic acid (AA), and phenolic compounds (ph). \begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c c c c} \hline \hline \multirow{2}{*}{**Samples**} & **MDD** & \multirow{2}{*}{**PDI**} & \multirow{2}{*}{**Turbidity**} & **Viscosity** & \multirow{2}{*}{**Whiteness**} \\  & **(nm)** & & & **(cP)** & \\ \hline OPO-AA\_ph & 307.9 \(\pm\) 15.0 \({}^{\text{a}}\) & 0.276 \(\pm\) 0.01 \({}^{\text{x}}\) & 0.506 \(\pm\) 0.046 \({}^{\text{y}}\) & 19.7 \(\pm\) 1.77 \({}^{\text{z}}\) & 16.27 \(\pm\) 1.46 \({}^{\text{w}}\) \\ CLA-AA\_ph & 331.8 \(\pm\) 11.4 \({}^{\text{a}}\) & 0.266 \(\pm\) 0.009 \({}^{\text{x}}\) & 0.535 \(\pm\) 0.037 \({}^{\text{y}}\) & 16.1 \(\pm\) 1.13 \({}^{\text{z}}\) & 11.94 \(\pm\) 0.84 \({}^{\text{w}}\) \\ SO-AA\_ph & 317.7 \(\pm\) 7.7 \({}^{\text{a}}\) & 0.276 \(\pm\) 0.009 \({}^{\text{x}}\) & 0.404 \(\pm\) 0.028 \({}^{\text{y}}\) & 20.4 \(\pm\) 1.43 \({}^{\text{z}}\) & 38.68 \(\pm\) 2.71 \({}^{\text{w}}\) \\ CO-AA\_ph & 259.5 \(\pm\) 5.5 \({}^{\text{b}}\) & 0.263 \(\pm\) 0.06 \({}^{\text{x}}\) & 0.401 \(\pm\) 0.034 \({}^{\text{y}}\) & 18.3 \(\pm\) 1.56 \({}^{\text{z}}\) & 47.10 \(\pm\) 4.00 \({}^{\text{w}}\) \\ FO-AA\_ph & 246.4 \(\pm\) 8.4 \({}^{\text{b}}\) & 0.200 \(\pm\) 0.05 \({}^{\text{x}}\) & 0.387 \(\pm\) 0.026 \({}^{\text{y}}\) & 18.7 \(\pm\) 1.27 \({}^{\text{z}}\) & 36.17 \(\pm\) 2.46 \({}^{\text{w}}\) \\ \hline \hline \end{tabular}  
* Superscript letters a and b represent significant differences in MDD (\(p<0.05\)) between lipid phases. Superscript letters x for PDI, y for Turbidity, z for Viscosity, and w for whiteness represent no significant differences (\(p>0.05\)) between lipid phases.  
\end{table} 
Table 5: Mean droplet diameter (MDD), polydispersity index (PDI), turbidity, viscosity, and whiteness of lycopene o/w nanoemulsions enriched with ascorbic acid (AA) and phenolic compounds using different lipid phases; olive pomace oil (OPO), canola oil (CLA), sunflower oil (SO), corn oil (CO), and fish oil (FO). Our results indicate that the nanoemulsion containing olive pomace oil achieved the highest bioaccessibility percentage (53.8 \(\pm\) 2.6%), while the nanoemulsion with fish oil had the lowest (40.1 \(\pm\) 2.1%) (Figure 5). The lipid phase of the nanoemulsion significantly affected bioaccessibility percentages (\(p\) < 0.05).