# Plants as Symbols of Power in the Achaemenid Iconography of Ancient Persian Monuments
###### Abstract  
The art of the Achaemenid Empire flourished in Ancient Persia from the 6 th to 4 th centuries BCE, and featured stone-carved monumental structures adorned with recurring zoological and floral patterns. Such representations clearly had a symbolic meaning intimately connected to religious expression and the will of deities. Considering the lack of any comprehensive analysis of botanical features, we investigate the recurring plant patterns and the variety of plants depicted. An analysis of the documentation referring mainly to monuments in the two main capitals of [PERSON], Persepolis and Susa, showed the presence of certain repetitive elements, such as the so-called rosettes (composed variously of Asteraceae capitula and _Nymphai_ flowers), palms (_Phoenix dactylifera_, the tree of life), pines, flowers or bunches and metamorphic elements. Some plants are described in this paper for the first time in the context of Persian iconography, such as _Mandrapora officinalis_ in offering scenes as a symbol of fertility and protection against evil spirits, _Pinus bruttia_ var. _eladrica_ as a symbol of immortality and elevation to the gods, and the capitula of _Matricaria/Lucaanthemum_ as solar symbols. Further interesting elements include _cf. Myrtus communis_ in some crowns and probably _cf. Epledra_ sp. in offering scenes. Achaemenid art was deeply influenced by the Zoroastrian religion of ancient Persia with its great attention to nature as well as by the nearby civilizations of the Mesopotamian area and Egypt. Most elements were also associated with psychotropic or medicinal attributes, which contributed to their position as symbols of power. flower representation; phytoiconography; plant symbolism; Persian empire; Persepolis; rosettes; Susa; Iranian art; Zoroastrian religion +
Footnote †: journal: plants  
about 550 BCE until the conquests of [PERSON] in 330 BCE. During this period, the Empire achieved rapid territorial expansion, stretching from Afghanistan to Anatolia and Egypt during the reign of [PERSON] [19]. Achaememid art incorporates elements from across this large territory and is known for its richness, elegance, and innovative techniques [26; 27; 28; 29; 30]. Achaememid iconographic elements are characterized by the use of natural and 'abstract' stylized motifs, which also originated from typical geometric patterns. Their use can be traced back to the Zoroastrian religion, which emphasizes the importance of nature and the environment, as well as reflecting the Empire's interest in horticulture and gardens, which were highly valued in Persian culture [31]. Many researchers have explored the meaning and symbolism of natural patterns found in Achaememid iconography and the cultural exchanges that took place with neighboring civilizations [19; 22; 24; 26; 32]. However, we still lack a comprehensive understanding of the various functions and meanings within the iconography of ancient monuments, even those that represent the centers of power where every detail aims to convey a specific ideology. Although it has been shown that images played a powerful communicative role in ancient Roman culture [33] and in a wider iconological context [1; 34; 35; 36; 37; 38; 39], the role of plant-based motifs is often treated summarily and afforded little attention. The literature only traces general characteristics and focuses on dominant elements, such as lotuses and palms, while describing others simply as rosettes, flowers, or trees, while providing few taxonomic details [15; 22; 40; 41; 42], which are in some cases wrongly interpreted and often there is no exploration of why specific floral elements were chosen. In general, archeological studies often neglect the biodiversity behind such representations, whereas previous botanical investigations of several archeological monuments in the Mediterranean area have demonstrated its richness [10; 12; 43; 44], for example, in the great attention that the ancients paid even to the minor details of plants and flowers [35; 37].