## 2 Materials and Methods
### Simulations  
The simulations of the different configurations for the buildings, according to housing typology and the design characteristics of the study factors, were carried out using the EnergyPlus energy model [35] and the CYPETHER HE Plus software (version 2024) [36]. The latter is recognised by the Spanish Government for normative justification of the basic energy saving requirements defined in the Spanish TBC [39]. The spaces of the thermal model are subjected to the operational conditions and occupancy profiles corresponding, in this case, to private residential use (see Annex D in [39]). For the operational conditions, the standardised setpoint temperature values given in [39] are used. In the summer period, the upper setpoint temperature is 27 \({}^{\circ}\)C between 23:00 and 6:59 and 25 \({}^{\circ}\)C between 7:00 and 22:59, while the lower setpoint temperature is 23.5 \({}^{\circ}\)C. In the winter period, the lower setpoint temperature is 17 \({}^{\circ}\)C between 23:00 and 6:59 and 20 \({}^{\circ}\)C between 7:00 and 22:59, while the upper setpoint temperature is 25 \({}^{\circ}\)C. In this regard, the CYPETHER HE Plus software counts the number of hours in which \begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c c c} \hline
**Typology** & **Thermal Transmittance (W/m\({}^{2}\)-K)** & **Absorptivity** & **Air Permeability (m\({}^{3}\)/h\(\cdot\)m\({}^{2}\))** \\ \hline WFR1 & 2.2 & 0.75 & 50 \\ WFR2 & 5.7 & 0.30 & 50 \\ WFR3 & 4.0 & 0.30 & 20 \\ WFR4 & 2.2 & 0.30 & 20 \\ WFR5 & 2.2 & 0.75 & 20 \\ \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table} 
Table 4: Technical characteristics of the different types of window frame. \begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c c c} \hline
**Typology** & **Thickness (mm)** & **Solar Factor** & **Thermal Transmittance (W/m\({}^{2}\)-K)** & **Emissivity** \\ \hline GL1 & 4 & 0.85 & 5.7/6.9 & 0.89 \\ GL2 & 4-6-4 & 0.76 & 3.3/3.6 & 0.89 \\ GL3 & 4-15-10 & 0.63 & 1.4/2.2 & \(\leq\)0.03 \\ GL4 & 4-15-10 & 0.76 & 2.7/3.4 & 0.89 \\ \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table} 
Table 5: Technical characteristics of the different types of glazing. Note: the thermal transmittance values shown are in vertical/horizontal position. the defined indoor comfort temperature is exceeded and the number of unmet load hours with and without occupancy (see [36], pp. 90-91). The Spanish TBC requires that the total of unmet load hours should not exceed 4% of the total occupancy time (see [39], p. 11). This rate is recognised in EN 16798 ([43]) as the percentage of time outside a specified operative temperature range. According to EN 16798-1, the highest expectation level of indoor environmental quality is achieved with a rate below 6%, which is classified as Category I (see Annex B of EN 16798-1:2019 ([43], p. 44). EN 16798 is included as a reference standard in the Spanish TBC with the Regulation on Thermal Installations in Buildings (see Appendix 2 in [44], p. 91). All of the simulations carried out in the present study comply with the Spanish TBC and, therefore, with the thermal comfort requirements for Category I according to EN 16798, presenting an optimal level in terms of thermal comfort for occupants. With respect to the occupancy profiles, the following internal loads (in W/m\({}^{2}\)) are considered: sensible occupancy, latent occupancy, lighting, and equipment. The latter parameters are incorporated in the model with hourly values and for all months of a typical year [45]. The values are differentiated according to whether the day is a working day, a Saturday, or a public holiday. The calculation model considers a standard pattern, established by the Spanish Government, for window opening patterns and building ventilation, differentiated according to the summer or winter period and time of day (see [45], pp. 21-23). This standard pattern was employed in all of the simulations. The different configurations were additionally simulated according to eight different orientations of the main facade of the building from North (0\({}^{\circ}\)) to Northwest (315\({}^{\circ}\)).