## 2 Primary Factors  
Agriculture is one of many sectors that is vulnerable to ongoing climate change [75; 76]. Changes in precipitation and temperature fluctuations during the growing season may contribute to significant yield losses [77]. As such, environmental factors are commonly used variables in predicting crop yields [4; 6; 17; 72]. The independent variable most often used in ANN models is temperature [78]: minimum temperature (TMN), maximum temperature (TMX), and average temperature. Research on forecasting maize productivity performed in the north-eastern part of South Africa showed the different effects of temperature on crop production depending on the location. TMX significantly influenced the yield of maize in two out of four investigated provinces, and in one province TMN, was largely responsible for shaping maize productivity. Considering the maximum and minimum temperature as independent variables allowed the researchers to create models that obtained from 80% to 95% of the confidence range of the forecasts [6]. [PERSON] et al. [51], however, using artificial neural networks, created three models forecasting the yield of rapeseed. In the model forecasting the yield at the end of May, one of the important factors influencing the rapeseed's proper growth and development was the average air temperature in the period from 1 to 31 May. [PERSON] et al. [79], when forecasting the yield of maize for ten states in the United States, identified the ten best input variables, including minimum, maximum, and average temperature. Considering temperature in models predicting crop yield is justified, as this factor highly influences the growth and development of crops [80]. Temperature distribution during the growing season has the strongest impact on plant productivity. However, if the plant is properly supplied with water, this impact is reduced [81]. The temperature distribution during the dormancy of winter plants and the value of this parameter at various stages of their vegetation crucially affect yield. Low temperatures in winter are a stress factor for plants. In the case of winter grains, such as wheat, frost damage reduces the number of ears or seeds and, in extreme cases, may cause wheat seedlings to die [82]. Additionally, the exposure of plants to low temperature reduces their height, number of leaves, and the length of internodes [83]. The occurrence of higher-than-average temperatures in the winter season may result in a decrease in the level of plant frost resistance. This phenomenon has a particularly negative impact when severe frosts reoccur because such plants are then less immune to its effects [81; 84]. All these abnormalities in plant development not only reduce yield, but also decrease yield quality. Extreme high temperatures are detrimental to the proper development of plants. [PERSON] et al. [85] noted the average temperature fluctuations during the wheat growing season. Fluctuations of 2 \({}^{\circ}\)C in major regions in Australia resulted in reductions in wheat grain yield of up to 50%. Much of this is caused due to the ageing of the leaves as a result of the high temperatures. Temperature increases in critical phases of grain growth, such as the grain filling stage, can shorten this process. The dry mass of the grain is positively correlated with time of grain maturation. The occurrence of high temperatures during this period negatively impacts the yield by inhibiting the transport of photosynthetic products to the grain [86; 87; 88]. An essential environmental factor determining the proper growth and development of plants is water and its availability in soil. Although plants have developed mechanisms at the molecular level that allow for the reduction in resource consumption and adjust their growth to unfavorable environmental conditions, water stress and water deficits still pose a serious threat to agricultural crops [89].