# A Three-Dimensional Electrochemical Process for the Removal of Carbamazepine  
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1 REQUIMITE/LAQV, Instituto Superior de Engenharia do Porto, Politecnico do Porto, 4200-072 Porto, Portugal; [EMAIL_ADDRESS] (L.C.-S.); [EMAIL_ADDRESS] (C.S. ); om#isep.ipp.pt (O.M.F. ); [EMAIL_ADDRESS] (M.M.M. ); [EMAIL_ADDRESS] (H.P.A.N. ); [EMAIL_ADDRESS] (M.C. ); [EMAIL_ADDRESS] (P.P. ); [EMAIL_ADDRESS] (C.D.-M.)
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1 REQUIMITE/LAQV, Instituto Superior de Engenharia do Porto, Politecnico do Porto, 4200-072 Porto, Portugal; [EMAIL_ADDRESS] (L.C.-S.); [EMAIL_ADDRESS] (C.S. ); om#isep.ipp.pt (O.M.F. ); [EMAIL_ADDRESS] (M.M.M. ); [EMAIL_ADDRESS] (H.P.A.N. ); [EMAIL_ADDRESS] (M.C. ); [EMAIL_ADDRESS] (P.P. ); [EMAIL_ADDRESS] (C.D.-M.)  
[PERSON]  
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1 REQUIMITE/LAQV, Instituto Superior de Engenharia do Porto, Politecnico do Porto, 4200-072 Porto, Portugal; [EMAIL_ADDRESS] (L.C.-S.); [EMAIL_ADDRESS] (C.S. ); om#isep.ipp.pt (O.M.F. ); [EMAIL_ADDRESS] (M.M.M. ); [EMAIL_ADDRESS] (H.P.A.N. ); [EMAIL_ADDRESS] (M.C. ); [EMAIL_ADDRESS] (P.P. ); [EMAIL_ADDRESS] (C.D.-M.)  
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The most hydrophilic pharmaceuticals enter the aquatic environment, and the most hydrophobic ones remain adsorbed on solid particles, sludge from WWTP, or river sediments. Treated wastewater and WWTP sludge (biosolids) are frequently used in the agro-ecosystem [13], contributing to the spread of the contamination. Hence, pharmaceuticals have been recognized as emerging pollutants, and their potential adverse effects on nontarget organisms have been attracting increasing attention [14]. One of the pharmaceuticals ubiquitously present in raw wastewater (ranging from ng/L to ug/L) and poorly removed by conventional WWTPs [15] is carbamazepine (CBZ), which is an anticonvulsant and mood-stabilizing drug, primarily used in the treatment of epilepsy and bipolar disorder, and consumed in substantial daily amounts (daily dose of 1000 mg for epilepsy treatment) [16; 17]. Approximately 30% of the oral CBZ dosage is excreted in its nonconjugated form in urine and feces [17]. In this context, CBZ has been proposed as an anthropogenic marker of sewage contamination in freshwater bodies due to its persistence and presence in waters [18]. Its adverse effects on several species have been demonstrated; CBZ can be assimilated and bioaccumulated in cucumber plants [19], and may produce oxidative stress in the common carp [20]. Although its occurrence in freshwater may not pose an immediate threat to aquatic ecosystems or human health, effective removal of CBZ is still required for safe water reuse. The presence of CBZ in the water cycle has increased the concern about its removal in WWTPs. During primary wastewater treatment, adsorption on primary sludge is the main mechanism of removal. However, due to the low log octanol-water partition coefficient (K\({}_{\text{ow}}\)) values of CBZ (low hydrophobicity), it is not expected to be adsorbed significantly onto sludge, but instead to dissociate in the aqueous phase [21]. Biological wastewater treatments (secondary treatments), such as the use of activated sludge and membrane bioreactors, are also not effective for CBZ removal due to its resistance to biodegradation [18]. In order to enhance the removal of CBZ in WWTPs, several advanced technologies have been tested as tertiary treatments, but so far none has appeared as an adequate solution [18]. For instance, CBZ removal by reverse osmosis and nanofiltration membranes is above 90% [22; 23]; however, these methods also present limitations such as membrane fouling and high operation costs associated with the high pressures used in the process [24]. Another approach is the use of advanced oxidation processes, such as ozonation [25], UV/H\({}_{2}\)O\({}_{2}\)[26], UV/TiO\({}_{2}\)[27], and Fenton processes [28], which are effective for CBZ removal.