# Artificial Intelligence-Empowered Doppler Weather Profile for Low-Earth-Orbit Satellites
## 2 Methodology
### Satellite Link Budget Perspective  
We used the Satellite Link Budget Analyser application of MATLAB to comprehensively analyse link budgets for SatCom systems as shown in Table 3. A few key features included were:  
* Conducting a comprehensive analysis of link budgets by inputting precise parameters related to the geographical location, characteristics of LEO satellites and ground stations in Australia, as well as atmospheric conditions such as rain attenuation(dB), total  
Figure 13: Effects of varying spreading factors (SFs) on LoRa performance of the Globalstar satellite. Simulation started on 1 January 2024 for 24 h, with simulation steps executed every second. Bandwidth is set at 500 MHz, Carrier frequency range is between 5091 to 5250 MHz, Application payload is set at 55.  
atmospheric losses (dB), and total propagation losses (dB) that may affect the connection. Figure 14 shows the loss and accuracy in red and blue for the ISS LSTM model.
* Creating a Globalstar and ISS communication link that satisfies a predetermined minimum link margin threshold.
* Utilising detailed calculations for interim link budget assessments.
* Performing evaluations, computations, and visual representations of results while considering various design constraints.  
An exhaustive examination and simulation of ground stations to ascertain the Signal-to-Noise-and-Interference-ratio (SINR) and Coverage probability was performed for both downlink and uplink scenarios. The Globalstar satellite features a complex communications infrastructure, including S- and L-band antennas, a trapezoidal body, and two solar arrays. Each satellite operates at an altitude of 1414 km, equivalent to approximately 876 miles above sea level. Figure 15 shows the Coverage probability of uplink with the SINR threshold in decibels on the \(X\)-axis. Figure 16 shows the power of the flat faded signal and frequency selected faded signal on the \(Y\)-axis in Figure 17.  
\begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{l c c c c} \hline \hline
**Tag** & **Name** & **L1** & **L2** & **L3** \\ \hline N1 & Distance (km) & \(1.2426\times 10^{4}\) & \(4.0215\times 10^{4}\) & \(3.6138\times 10^{4}\) \\ N2 & Elevation (deg) & \(-75.6539\) & \(13.5231\) & \(41.5653\) \\ N3 & Tx EIRP (dBW) & 32 & 46 & 47 \\ N4 & Polarisation loss (dB) & 3.0103 & 3.0103 & 3.0103 \\ N5 & FSPL (dB) & 181.9385 & 205.3634 & 206.5296 \\ N6 & Rain attenuation (dB) & - & 13.0271 & 0 \\ N7 & Total atmospheric losses (dB) & - & 15.2073 & 0 \\ N8 & Total propagation losses (dB) & 181.9385 & 220.5707 & 206.5296 \\ N9 & Received isotropic power (dBW) & \(-155.9488\) & \(-180.5810\) & \(-165.5399\) \\ N10 & \(C/N_{0}\) (dB-Hz) & 95.6503 & 71.0181 & 86.0592 \\ N11 & \(C/N\) (dB) & 25.0433 & 3.2366 & 18.2777 \\ N12 & Received \(E_{b}/N_{0}\) (dB) & 25.6503 & 1.0181 & 16.0592 \\ N13 & Margin (dB) & 13.6503 & \(-10.9819\) & 4.0592 \\ \hline \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table}
Table 3: Link budget analysis for assessing the availability of the Geostar LEO satellite using the Earth–Space Propagation atmospheric loss model.  
Figure 14: Mean square error loss is shown in red and accuracy in blue for the estimated Doppler shift MHz of the proposed ISS-LSTM.  
Figure 16: Power of the flat faded signal corresponding to the number of samples taken.  
Figure 17: Power of the frequency and selected faded signal corresponding to the number of samples taken.  
Figure 15: Coverage probability of uplink with signal-to-noise-and-interference-ratio (SINR) threshold in decibels on the \(X\)-axis. The different color lines show the Coverage probability of uplink with the SINR threshold in decibels.  
The following chart displays the outcomes of the calculated link budget analysis for assessing the availability of the SatCom link using the Earth-Space Propagation atmospheric loss model as outlined in Recommendation ITU-R P.618-13 [34].