# Cyber Resilience Limitations in Space Systems Design Process: Insights from Space Designers
## 2 Literature Review
In contrast, the increased vulnerability is further compounded by the fact that space systems are now more interconnected than ever before with the introduction of concepts such as the Internet of Space Things (IoST)and the commercialisation of space [45]. As a result, the cybersecurity risks for space systems have become more complex and diverse, requiring a comprehensive and proactive approach to address them effectively. Inadequate cybersecurity engineering measures in space systems can have severe consequences, as these systems most often support critical infrastructure and services essential to our modern society. The disruption or compromise of these systems could lead to significant economic losses, social unrest, and even loss of life [46]. Furthermore, increasing reliance on space-based assets for military and defence purposes makes them an attractive target for nation-state actors and other malicious entities seeking to gain strategic advantages [41]. In engineering terminology, space infrastructure is a prime example of a complex system of systems (SoS). They are characterised by integrating multiple heterogeneous systems, often spanning different generations of technology [47]. Engineering complexity typically arises from the necessity of combining space-based elements, such as satellites and spacecraft, with terrestrial ground stations and, finally, control centres. This intertwined connectivity forms a tightly coupled network of systems that must work together seamlessly to deliver critical services [45]. Furthermore, this complexity makes space infrastructure more vulnerable to cascading and escalating failures. A disruption in one component can quickly propagate throughout the entire system, amplifying the impact of the initial damage [46]. One of the most crucial aspects of space infrastructure is the unique characteristics of its physical space environment. Engineering safe and secure space infrastructure is complex and further compounded by the unique traits that impose severe constraints on space systems' design, deployment, and operation [44]. Critics argue that some constraints, such as harsh radiation environments, extreme temperature, and limited power and bandwidth, make it difficult to implement traditional cybersecurity measures such as encryption, authentication, and intrusion detection [48]. Therefore, the long lifetimes of many space assets, often measured in decades, can result in the persistence of legacy systems and protocols that are vulnerable to modern cyber threats, making cyber resilience a significant challenge [49]. To effectively address these challenges, a holistic approach to space cybersecurity is required, encompassing both technical and organisational measures. As academics pointed out, from a technical standpoint, this may involve incorporating security-by-design principles into the development of space systems, ensuring that cybersecurity considerations are integrated throughout the life cycle of the system [14; 41]. This includes implementing robust encryption and authentication mechanisms and deploying advanced monitoring and detection capabilities to identify and respond to potential threats in real time [45]. However, effective space cybersecurity from an organisational perspective requires close collaboration and information sharing among all stakeholders from the development, operation, and use of space infrastructure [47]. This includes government agencies, commercial operators, academic institutions, and international organisations. They must work together to establish common standards, best practices, and incident response procedures to ensure the resilience and continuity of space-based services in the face of ever-evolving cyber threats for space [49]. Academics claim that limited situational awareness and attribution capabilities in space further complicate cyber defence. Detecting and responding to attacks can be difficult due to the remote, unattended nature of space assets and the challenges of collecting and sharing threat intelligence [32; 50].