## 3 Electromobility
### Electric Vehicles in Poland and Europe  
On the Polish market, there are fully electrical vehicles of such brands as Smart, Renault, Hyundai, Nissan and the most popular BMW (i3) [51]. According to the Innogy Polska report: highway to electromobility, for 41% of private persons and 73% of entrepreneurs, the most significant barrier hindering the development of electric vehicles is the lack of a publicly available network of fast charging stations. For 50% of entrepreneurs, the second most significant limitation is the range of these vehicles [31]. The availability of fast charging stations makes it possible to move comfortably around big cities. Covering the routes between the cities, using expressways or highways, which, due to lack of braking, fail to ensure sufficient energy recovery, which constitutes a great challenge and makes the travel time much longer in comparison with cars with diesel engines. The charging time of an average vehicle under household conditions, at the standard charging parameters (2.2 kW) with batteries of capacity of 30 kWh is 16 h. The situation is slightly better when it comes to public charging points (3.3 kW), where this time is reduced to 9-10 h. The problem is solved by fast chargers (62.5 kW), as a full charge takes about 30 min. However, these are scarce in Poland. In addition, it is necessary to consider charging losses at a level of 5-10% [52]. Another problem associated with batteries is their capacity. This problem will be less burdensome for owners of new cars; however, assuming the limit value of 3.4% for the loss of battery capacity per 10 thousand kilometres, let us assume for the purpose of our calculations a value of 3%. Traveling 30 thousand kilometres per year, we lose 9% of the capacity each year, and after 5 years it may turn out we have left only 55% of the range that we were able to achieve on the date of purchase. A lot depends on the climate; however, the climate of Poland is not favourable for such cars due to a high amplitude of temperatures. The systems which recover energy during braking are able to travel at a longer distance, but over time, out of the original 378 km [53] declared by the manufacturer, one would be able to travel less than 210 km. Let us keep in mind that this is the manufacturer's data--that is, a very optimistic variant. According to data from [PERSON] [54] on road traffic in Europe, 7 of Polish cities occupy places among the top 35, and it is known that in heavy traffic, the demand for energy increases substantially. Another significant problem in Poland is the origin of electricity. In countries, in which energy comes largely from renewable sources (RES), such as water, wind or sun, the discussed cars are indeed more environment-friendly on the local scale in comparison with cars with internal combustion engines, such as diesel engines. Although the technology is now developing, and progress in this regard has made us believe that these cars may become more environment-friendly than they are now, charging requires electricity, which in Poland comes mainly from coal-fired plants. Another serious problem in the future will be the disposal of used-up batteries and the content of numerous rare earth minerals in electric vehicles. The sale of fully electrical cars (BEV--Battery Electric Vehicles) in the eastern part of Europe is much lower in comparison with the West, although such countries as the Czech Republic, Romania and Lithuania do not make a difference between the sales of hybrid vehicles, a so-called Plug-in(PHEV--Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles) and that of BEV vehicles. This is due to specific territorial and legal characteristics, as well as the level of affluence of the society. In 2017, most of such cars were sold in Germany (more than 25,056 units), France (24,910 units) and Great Britain (13,597 units). The highest unit increase in sales in comparison with year 2016 was recorded in Germany (13,646 units) and the Netherlands (5629 units).