## 5 Discussion  
This study examined how the complexity and quantity of TBM training materials affect cognitive load and recall performance among construction workers. The findings indicated that simplifying visual materials and reducing the number of items led to improved recall, particularly for less experienced and non-technical workers. These results align with cognitive load theory, which suggests that instructional design should minimize extraneous cognitive load and optimize intrinsic and germane load to support learning. The superior recall performance in Group B and C supports previous research by [PERSON] (2001) and [PERSON] et al. (2011), emphasizing that well-aligned, simplified multimedia content can significantly enhance memory retention in high-risk, time-constrained settings (6;7). This suggests that even short safety briefings, like TBMs, can be made more effective when designed according to evidence-based learning principles. Moreover, the study has practical implications beyond the construction industry. Fields, such as manufacturing, logistics, and healthcare, where fast-paced environments require quick and effective safety communication, may benefit from the same principles. Adopting simplified, segmented training materials may enhance training outcomes across diverse sectors. However, the study has limitations. Variables, such as literacy level, language comprehension, and prior exposure to training content, were not fully controlled. Future studies should explore how cognitive capacity and educational background interact with material design. Additionally, while recall performance was tested shortly after training, the long-term retention effects were not measured. These findings provide a foundation for improving the effectiveness of TBM and similar training formats by integrating cognitive science principles into content design. \begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c c c c c c c} \hline \hline
**Variable** & **Type** & **Accident Experience** & **Average** &
\begin{tabular}{c} **Standard** \\ **Deviation** \\ \end{tabular} & **F** & \(p\) & **Post-Verification** \\ \hline \multirow{8}{*}{Recall count} & & Indirect & 3.37 & 2.582 & & & \\  & & Direct & 3.44 & 3.046 & & \\  & & No & 2.73 & 2.410 & 0.964 & 0.384 & n/a \\  & & Total & 3.03 & 2.526 & & & \\ \cline{2-8}  & & Indirect & 4.92 & 2.741 & & & \\  & & Direct & 5.75 & 3.202 & & & \\  & & No & 3.95 & 2.460 & & & \\  & & Total & 4.45 & 2.646 & & & \\ \cline{2-8}  & & Indirect & 4.31 & 2.076 & & & \\  & & Direct & 3.33 & 3.215 & & & \\  & & No & 3.95 & 1.964 & & & \\  & & Total & 4.08 & 2.032 & & & \\ \hline \multirow{8}{*}{Recall rate} & & Indirect & 0.22 & 0.195 & & & & \\  & & Direct & 0.22 & 0.228 & & & \\  & & No & 0.17 & 0.184 & & & \\  & & Total & 0.19 & 0.191 & & & \\ \cline{2-8}  & & Indirect & 0.38 & 0.212 & & & \\  & & Direct & 0.45 & 0.246 & & & \\  & & No & 0.30 & 0.190 & & & \\  & & Total & 0.34 & 0.204 & & & \\ \hline \multirow{8}{*}{Recall rate} & & Indirect & 0.54 & 0.259 & & & & \\  & & Direct & 0.42 & 0.403 & & & \\ \cline{1-1}  & & No & 0.50 & 0.246 & & & \\ \cline{1-1}  & & Total & 0.51 & 0.254 & & & \\ \hline \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table} 
Table 10: The mean and standard deviation of the educational items by accident experience. This study contributes to the theoretical development of cognitive load theory by applying it to the field of occupational safety training, specifically within the time-constrained environment of construction TBM sessions. By demonstrating how simplified, visually aligned, and limited-scope materials improve learning outcomes, the study shows how CLT can be operationalized in real-world safety education settings. This expands the applicability of CLT beyond classroom or multimedia environments into short-format, high-risk, and field-based training programs.