esa-sceva/satcom-chunk-collection huggingface dataset:
# Determination of Cyanotoxins and Prymnesins in Water, Fish Tissue, and Other Matrices: A Review
## 2 Cyanotoxins and Prymnesins

Table 1: Characteristics of the most commonly studied cyanotoxins and prymnesins. Saxitoxins (STXs) are highly polar, nonvolatile, tricyclic perhydropurine alkaloids. While the overall molecular structure is largely conserved within the group, substitutions and variations amount toat least 57 analogs in the environment. They are also referred to as paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs). PSTs can be non-sulfated, singly sulfated, or doubly sulfated [33; 37]. These water-soluble toxins can persist for over 90 days in freshwater [38], but they are altered by high temperatures and may be degraded into more toxic variants [32]. STX is one of the most potent natural neurotoxins, and a dose of approximately 1 mg of the toxin from a single serving of contaminated shellfish is fatal to humans [39]. The cyanotoxin \(\beta\)-N-methylamino-L-alanine (BMAA) is a non-protein amino acid reportedly produced by the majority of cyanobacterial isolates [40]. Some literature reports have suggested that cellular exposure to BMAA may lead to neurological damage in the brain and the central nervous system of humans and animals, potentially contributing to one of several neurodegenerative diseases [41]. However, this remains uncertain as while other studies have illustrated a wide spectrum of effects to exposure, the neurodegenerative disease relationship was not universally observed [42]. Cylindrospermopsins (CYNs) are another class of alkaloid cyanotoxins produced by a variety of freshwater cyanobacteria. Production of CYNs have been reported from Nostoclean species mostly, as well as recently from one Oscillatorie [43]. CYN and its variants are highly polar, polycyclic uracil derivatives containing guanidino and sulfate groups, and their detection has been reported worldwide. It is a potent hepatotoxin and is likely to be taken up by a variety of aquatic organisms, suggesting potential bioaccumulation risks [22; 44]. The invasive algae _Prymnesium parvum_ (golden algae) is a species of haptopbyte (Prymnesiophyta). The species is of concern because of its ability to produce a suite of complex polyether toxins, known as pyrmnesins. Prymnesins may refer to Prymnesin-1, Prymnesin-2, or Prymnesin-B1 (to name a few of the presently identified species). These variants differ primarily in the length of the carbon backbone and are recognized hemolytic and ichthyotoxic agents that have been associated with massive fish kills in at least 14 countries [45]. Because of the uncertainty as to the identity of potentially toxic species, and the unavailability of analytical standards, the detection methods used for other cyanotoxins are often not suitable for the detection of pyrmnesins, which often require more complex analyses, such as high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS), quadrupole-time of flight mass spectrometry (qTOF), and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) [46; 47].
## 2 Materials and Methods
### In Silico Model Training and Evaluation  
We trained ProtBERT with and without LoRA to observe any significant increases in the efficiency. Both models were trained for 20 epochs at a learning rate of 1 \(\times\) 10\({}^{-5}\) using the Adam optimizer. We used the NVIDIA RTX 3090 (Santa Clara, CA, USA) for the hardware, which offers 24 GB of VRAM suitable for training many deep learning models. We used accuracy, F1-score, Matthews correlation coefficient (MCC), and auROC metrics to evaluate both models. In addition, we investigated the number of trainable parameters in both models because they indicate the time required to train the model. For a further visual representation of the outputs, we used the t-distributed stochastic neighbor embeddings (t-SNEs) and reduced the dimension of the last hidden state embeddings of the model to a 2-dimensional space.
## 2 Materials and Methods
### Receiver Software  
The offline receiver achieves slot synchronisation for a codeword by edge detection, for an initial estimation of slot boundaries in the record of photodetector output voltage samples. Symbol synchronisation is then achieved by overlaying and summing a number of un-synchronised symbols and identifying the guard slot as the slot with the lowest cumulative sum. Maximum-likelihood demodulation of each symbol is implemented by summing the voltage values in each slot location and selecting the slot with the largest value. If the signal is lost at the beginning of a codeword, synchronisation fails and the codeword is discarded. However, if the signal is lost after a codeword is synchronised, the demodulator has an equal likelihood four-way decision on the pulse slot location for a given symbol.
## 5 Localized Recovery of Query Losses  
### Localized Query Loss Recovery  
Loss elimination is a local process to recover from query loss at a node. Compared with the conventional centralized approach, the local recovery has very low overhead and is able to perform a fast recovery. The basic concept is similar to utilizing a growing number of immune cells and the recovery procedure is a dynamic collaborative operation. It increases recovery efficiency and avoids recovery collisions among detectors with a growing reaction to the query loss.  
As shown in Figure 6(a), the proposed approach adopts a recovery operation with multiple detectors such as \(W\), \(X\), \(Y\), and \(Z\). The query packet that has not arrived at node \(A\) is cached at each detector. When a query loss is recognized at node \(A\), the detectors (nodes \(W\), \(X\), \(Y\), \(Z\)) attempt to deliver recovery messages that include the query content. Each detector contends for the access to the wireless media in a random manner, which is widely used in wireless communication and leads to a simple and easy setup of the wireless network. If one recovery attempt from a detector fails, another detector will attempt to deliver the recovery message to the node \(A\) again, see Figure 6(b). Due to the wireless broadcast, if node \(A\) responds to the recovery packet by delivering sensing data to the sink, the detectors \(W\), \(X\), \(Y\), and \(Z\) will overhear this sensor data packet. If a detector node receives the response from node \(A\), it will stop sending the recovery message to \(A\).
## 3 Results and Discussions
### Characterization of Sn-Cu Coated MWCNT
By increasing the bonding time to 5 and 8 min, the shear strength increased to 32.2 and 35.3 MPa. The shear strength obtained for the Sn coated Cu-MWCNT reflowed at 8 min was well within the upper limit of conventional TLP joints, as shown in Figure 5b [7; 9; 10; 25; 26; 27; 28; 29; 30; 31; 32]. Microstructural aspects such as the type and dispersion of second phase particles play an important role in the mechanical property of the joint. In the present work, a high shear strength is attributed to the inherent strength and stiffness of CNT and the reduction of voids. After the complete transformation of Cu\({}_{6}\)Sn\({}_{5}\) to Cu\({}_{3}\)Sn, the joint microstructure is similar to the three dimensional MWCNT network reinforced Cu\({}_{3}\)Sn IMC composite. In brittle materials, CNTs are reported to enhance the strength and toughness in three ways: (1) crack deflection at the CNT/matrix interface; (2) crack bridging; and (3) pull out of CNT [33]. Similar work by [PERSON] et al. [34] reported that the addition of 0.05 wt% Ni coated CNT in SAC solder enhanced the shear strength of the joint by 29%. Figure 5: (**a**) Shear strength of Cu/Sn-Cu-MWCNT/Cu TLP bonding joint at 260 \({}^{\circ}\)C as a function of reflow time; (**b**) Comparison of the shear strength data in the present work with the literature. Figure 6a,b shows the fracture surface of copper to copper joints bonded with Sn coated Cu-MWCNT powders reflowed at 260 \({}^{\circ}\)C for 5 and 8 min, respectively. In the 5 min reflow sample, cleavage steps and shear bands were observed along the Cu\({}_{6}\)Sn\({}_{5}\) IMC networks, while an intergranular brittle fracture occurred in the Cu\({}_{3}\)Sn, which indicated the presence of a fine grain structure. Reportedly, Cu\({}_{6}\)Sn\({}_{5}\) (140 MPam\({}^{-1/2}\)) have lower fracture toughness than Cu\({}_{3}\)Sn (170 MPam\({}^{-1/2}\)) [35]. Thus, propagation of cracks is easier in Cu\({}_{6}\)Sn\({}_{5}\) compared to Cu\({}_{3}\)Sn. In the 8 min reflow sample, an intergranular brittle fracture occurred along the Cu\({}_{3}\)Sn IMC, accompanied by a few dimples in the Cu\({}_{3}\)Sn particles. This could have been due to the pull out of the MWCNT networks in the Cu\({}_{3}\)Sn during shear. The present approach for fabricating MWCNT integrated Cu\({}_{3}\)Sn IMC bonding overcomes the problems associated with the joining duration and compositional inhomogeneity during conventional powder mixing and has a good potential to enhance the shear strength of Cu-Sn IMC. Shear strength obtained in the present work was well within the upper limit of the reported values [Figure 5b]. Therefore, further work is required to optimize Cu and Sn coating parameters and the bonding conditions to improve the shear strength of the joint.
# A Compendium of Parameterized Problems at Higher Levels of the Polynomial Hierarchy
## 3 Propositional Logic Problems  
We start with the quantified circuit satisfiability problems on which the \(k\)-\(*\) and \(*\)-\(k\) hierarchies are based. We present two canonical forms of the problems in the \(k\)-\(*\) hierarchy. For problems in the \(*\)-\(k\) hierarchy, we let \(\mathcal{C}\) range over classes of Boolean circuits.  
\(\Sigma_{2}^{\mathrm{P}}[k*]\)-WSat(\(\mathcal{C}\))  
_Instance:_ A Boolean circuit \(C\in\mathcal{C}\) over two disjoint sets \(X\) and \(Y\) of variables, and an integer \(k\).  
_Parameter:_\(k\).  
_Question:_ Does there exist a truth assignment \(\alpha\) to \(X\) of weight \(k\), such that for all truth assignments \(\beta\) to \(Y\) the assignment \(\alpha\cup\beta\) satisfies \(C\)?  
**Complexity:**\(\Sigma_{2}^{\mathrm{P}}[k*]\)-complete [7,8].  
\(\Sigma_{2}^{\mathrm{P}}[k*]\)-WSat  
_Instance:_ A quantified Boolean formula \(\phi=\exists X.\forall Y.\psi\), and an integer \(k\).  
_Parameter:_\(k\).  
_Question:_ Does there exist a truth assignment \(\alpha\) to \(X\) with weight \(k\), such that \(\forall Y.\psi[\alpha]\) evaluates to true?  
**Complexity:**\(\Sigma_{2}^{\mathrm{P}}[k*]\)-complete [7,8].  
\(\Sigma_{2}^{\mathrm{P}}[*k]\)-WSat(\(\mathcal{C}\))  
_Instance:_ A Boolean circuit \(C\in\mathcal{C}\) over two disjoint sets \(X\) and \(Y\) of variables, and an integer \(k\).  
_Parameter:_\(k\).  
_Question:_ Does there exist a truth assignment \(\alpha\) to \(X\), such that for all truth assignments \(\beta\) to \(Y\) of weight \(k\) the assignment \(\alpha\cup\beta\) satisfies \(C\)?  
**Complexity:**\(\Sigma_{2}^{\mathrm{P}}[*k]\)-complete [7,8].  
\(\Sigma_{2}^{\mathrm{P}}[*k]\)-WSat(\(\mathcal{C}\))  
_Instance:_ A Boolean circuit \(C\in\mathcal{C}\) over two disjoint sets \(X\) and \(Y\) of variables, and an integer \(k\).  
_Parameter:_\(k\).  
_Question:_ Does there exist a truth assignment \(\alpha\) to \(X\), such that for all truth assignments \(\beta\) to \(Y\) of weight \(k\) the assignment \(\alpha\cup\beta\) satisfies \(C\)?  
**Complexity:**\(\Sigma_{2}^{\mathrm{P}}[*k,t]\)-complete when restricted to circuits of weft \(t\), for any \(t\geq 1\) (by definition);  
\(\Sigma_{2}^{\mathrm{P}}[*k,\mathrm{SAT}]\)-complete if \(\mathcal{C}=\textsc{form}\) (by definition);  
\(\Sigma_{2}^{\mathrm{P}}[*k,\mathrm{P}]\)-complete if \(\mathcal{C}=\textsc{circ}\) (by definition).
## 3 Methodology
### Word Embeddings  
RoBERTa (robustly optimized BERT approach) is a pre-trained language model based on the transformer architecture, which is an improved version of BERT and has achieved significant success in the field of natural language processing. Traditional word vector representations, such as Word2 Vec (2018) and GloVe (2018), have performed well in many tasks. However, with the advent of pre-trained language models like BERT, the quality  
\begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c c} \hline \hline
**Method** & **Data** & **Performance Metrics** \\ \hline genetic algorithm (2018) & European cardholder dataset & Accuracy: 99\% \\ \hline neural networks (2018) & Sina Weibo data (not public) & Accuracy: 83.67\% \\ \hline LGM-GNN (2018) & Amazon data & F1: 86.73 \\ \hline transformer model (2018) & Italian banking group data & F1: 83 \\ \hline BERT + BiLCNN (2018) & Chinese scam phone text dataset (not public) & F1: 97.2 \\ \hline BERT-based model (2018) & CCL2023 Dataset & F1: 86.6 \\ \hline \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table}
Table 1: Table of methods, datasets, and performance comparisons in fraud-detection-related research.  
of word vector representations has significantly improved. BERT, a pre-trained language model based on the transformer architecture, has had great success in natural language processing tasks, but RoBERTa usually performs better in a variety of tasks. This can be attributed to RoBERTa's improvements, such as using larger models, longer training periods, removing the Next Sentence Prediction (NSP) task, and using dynamic masking, among other enhancements.  
In our study, we chose to use RoBERTa for word embedding processing on text to obtain richer semantic information. RoBERTa excels in capturing subtle contextual differences, making it particularly effective for tasks like fraud detection, which require a deep understanding of textual context. By utilizing RoBERTa, we are able to take advantage of its training on large-scale datasets, significantly enhancing the representation of text data. A detailed representation of RoBERTa embeddings is illustrated in Figure 1.
## 4 System Overview  
In this section, we describe the design and realization of the antennas, microwave receivers, mixed-signal converter circuits, and FPGA-based digital realizations that constitute the proposed spatial-temporal spectrum perception system. The antennas and microwave systems were designed and realized in-house, while the FPGA system was procured from the open-source radio telescope instrumentation developer community (CASPER) that is in charge of major radio instruments, such as the Square Kilometer Array (SKA), Murchison Wide-field Array, the Allen Telescope Array, and others.
# Correspondence between Multilevel Graph Partitions and Tree Decompositions
## 3 Graph Partitioning
### Node-Based Graph Partition  
A _node-based graph partition_ of a graph \(G=(V,E)\) is a set \(\mathcal{C}\) of subsets of \(V\). No node of \(V\) may be contained in more than one set in \(\mathcal{C}\). Further, we require that there is no edge \(\{u,v\}\in E\) such that \(u\) and \(v\) are in different cells of \(\mathcal{C}\). The set of nodes of \(V\) that are in no set of \(\mathcal{C}\) is called _separator_. A common objective is to minimize the separator size.  
Node-based partitioning is very similar to edge-based partitioning. Think of it as cutting through nodes instead of cutting through edges. Figure 2 illustrates edge- and node-based partitions.  
Figure 1: Running Example with tree decomposition rooted at \(\{p,c\}\).  
Figure 2: Examples of edge- and node-based partitions.  
A node-based partition can be derived from an edge-based partition. For every cut edge, an endpoint is selected and inserted into the constructed separator.
## 2 Exploring SDN, NFV, Policies, ML, Network Slicing and Telecom Security
### Policy-Based Network Security
#### 2.4.2 Implementation Challenges in PBN and IBN  
Throughout this research about policy-based networking (PBN) and intent-based networking (IBN), some common themes were discussed regarding the limitations present in these technologies. Namely, the process of policy refinement and translation, as discussed in [61], may cause issues if no standard is defined to regulate the process and make it universally interpreted amongst different vendors, which means a vendor-agnostic approach. Also, the scalability issues related to policy rigidity, presented in [62], limit most of the policy-based networks implemented in the studied work. Intent-based networks do, indeed, provide more flexibility, which in turn improves scalability. However, as disseminated in [63], the high level of abstraction inherent to intents requires very sophisticated models that can translate them into policies that can be enforced appropriately, which may be a source of errors and inefficiencies in larger network implementations. Nonetheless,working on standardising these processes and coupling them with the existing base architecture for policy-based networks, as previously discussed in [57], may bring us closer to practically implementing these types of networks on large-scale scenarios of heterogeneous networks, namely in network slicing.
## 3 Results and Discussion
### Case-Study III: Small Artificial Water Basins  
The third case study presents the detection of the presence of small water surfaces, a small lake in the backyard of building and two small adjacent artificial ponds in a golf court. Starting with the golf court water basins, Figure 11(a) shows the presence of reflected signals, in terms of peak-to-noise-floor separation for PRN 11 and PRN 32. These showed an increment of the values that could be associated to reflections. Following the same approach used for the previous case studies, the specular points lines were overlapped to the orthophotomap. Figure 11(b) shows that the edges of the pond approximately correspond to the increase (decrease) of the peak-to-noise-floor separation. The width of the upper pond is approximately 120 m while the smaller pond is approximately 35 m. This indicates that GNSS-R, in addition to the monitoring of lakes and rivers, can enable the detection of small water surfaces.  
Figure 12: Example of the detection of an artificial pond taken from data set (1).  
The reflections from the small backyard lake of Figure 13 were recorded on flight (2). The approximate width of this lake is 45 m. Like in the case of the golf court basin, the presence of the pond was clearly detected and the width of the lake is clearly distinguishable processing PRN13. These types of detection can provide valuable data to the potential application of supporting operations performed after floods, especially for post-mission analysis and in case images from satellites are not available.
# An Audio-Based Motor-Fault Diagnosis System with SOM-LSTM
## 3 Methodology  
This paper divides the motor-operating sound-processing flow into three major items: FFT, SOM, and LSTM. First, the spectral data extraction of FFT is used to convert the motor operating sound into spectral data. The second step is the feature mapping of SOM; the features and correlation of spectral data are mapped into two-dimensional space. Finally, the sound of the rotary motor is classified using LSTM, and different types of operational sounds are identified automatically, thereby implementing the effective monitoring and classification of the operating status of the rotary motor. By analyzing the spectral data, different types of operational sounds are classified into four types, namely normal, out of phase, unbalanced voltage, and misalignment.  
Figure 2: The frequency-domain signals of no load, half a load, and a full load for 128 Hz, 256 Hz, 512 Hz, and 1024 Hz.
## 2 Materials and Methods
### Determination of Free Radical Scavenging Ability  
Taking vitamin C and vitamin E as the reference substances, the antioxidant activity of _Ginkgo_ flavonoids was evaluated by determining the clearance ability of 2,2-diphenyl-l-(2,4,6-trinitrophenyl) hydrazine (DPPH). DPPH (10 mg) was dissolved in anhydrous ethanol, fixed at 100 mL, mixed, and 0.1 mg mL\({}^{-1}\) DPPH solution was obtained. Before the antioxidant experiment, the PEG in the upper layer of the aqueous two-phase extraction solution was removed using XAD resin. After two-phase separation, flavonoids were enriched in the upper phase; then, the upper phase was separated, diluted into homogeneous a phase with distilled water, the flavonoids were absorbed with XAD16 macroporous resin to remove polyethylene glycol, eluted with 65% ethanol, concentrated, and dried to obtain _Ginkgo_ total flavonoids. Thereafter, the flavonoids were dissolved in anhydrous ethanol to determine the oxidation resistance. The concentrations of the _Ginkgo_ flavonoids were 3.75, 7.5, 15, 30, and 60 mg L\({}^{-1}\), respectively, and 2 mL of the _Ginkgo_ flavonoid sample solution was mixed with 2 mL absolute ethanol. After mixing, it was incubated under dark static conditions for 30 min; anhydrous ethanol was used for the calibration. The absorbance of each test tube solution was measured at 517 nm [19]. The DPPH scavenging rate was calculated according to the following formula.  
Free radical scavenging ability of DPPH:  
\[\mathsf{S}=\left(1-\frac{A_{i}-A_{j}}{A_{0}}\right)\times 100\% \tag{6}\]  
where the absorbance of the DPPH solution without flavonoid sample is \(A_{o}\), the absorbance of DPPH and sample mixture is \(A_{i}\), and the absorbance of the sample solution and anhydrous ethanol mixture is \(A_{j}\).
## 4 Discussion
### Feeding Protocol Adjustment  
In the initial test conducted in 2019, the copep culture was fed with a suspension of _I. galbana_ (Haptophyta), while parallel cultures received a mixture of _Nannochloris_ sp. and _Tetraselmis suecia_ (Chlorophyta) along with _I. galbana_. Our observations revealed significant differences in development between the cultures. Specifically, those fed exclusively with _I. galbana_ showed superior growth and vitality compared to those fed with the algae mixture. This result aligns with the guidelines of ISO 14669:1999 [33], which recommends _I. galbana_ as a food source. Consequently, we included _I. galbana_ as a food source for copepods cultures. In the 2021 test, cultures initially fed with _I. galbana_ experienced high mortality rates; therefore, we incorporated _R. baltica_ (also mentioned by ISO) as a substitute for _I. galbana_. This adjustment aims to provide the cultures with an optimal diet with low mortality rates, thereby enhancing the reliability and reproducibility of our experimental results.  
Test Chamber Specification Update  
Evaluation of organisms in the original square wide-mouth bottles proved challenging, primarily due to limited visibility and higher risks of contamination, evaporation, and volatilization. To address these issues, we introduced an alternative test chamber: borosilicate glass Petri dishes (height 20 mm; diameter 100 mm). These dishes provide superior visibility for organism evaluation and mitigate contamination risks. The modified protocol allows for the use of either the traditional square bottles or the new Petri dishes, offering greater flexibility and improving overall testing conditions.  
The modifications to the feeding regimen and test chamber specifications collectively enhance the accuracy and reliability of our marine organism testing protocols. By aligning these protocols more closely with ISO 14669: 1999 [33] standards, we ensure that our testing conditions are optimal for organism development and sensitivity, ultimately leading to more reliable and reproducible test results.  
In 2021, borosilicate glass Petri dishes (20 mm in height and 100 mm in diameter) were replaced with 50 mL cell sterile cell culture flasks made of polystyrene, closed with screw caps, for 24 and 48 h. This modification was made to improve culture handling and sterility, thereby enhancing the consistency and reliability of our experimental outcomes.  
Future studies should continue to refine these protocols, exploring additional adjustments that may further improve testing outcomes.  
It was concluded that these modifications should be added to the initial protocol.