## 4 Discussion
### Fragmentation Metrics  
Our results show three distinct dynamics in Ecuadorian mangrove forests. The first were areas where fragmentation increased even though the mangrove cover also increased. This was related to the emergence of new small mangrove patches, which caused the patch size and mean patch size to decrease, but the number of patches, the number of tiles, and the reticular fragmentation index to increase. This occurred in the provinces of Galapagos, Esmeraldas, Manabi, and Santa Elena (Figure 8A). The second dynamic was associated with areas where new forest patches were aggregated to existing ones, which caused an increase in patch size and mean patch size but decreased the number of patches and the reticular fragmentation index. This occurred in the Oro province. The third dynamic occurred in the Guayaquil province (Figure 8B), where although mangrove forest area increased, fragmentation metrics remained unchanged, indicating a mixture of the two previous trends. The ecological functionality of mangrove ecosystems is likely to be compromised in locations where positive or negative changes in fragmentation metrics coincide with loss or gain in area. As a result, mangrove functionality is likely to have been compromised in regions that have been identified as hotspots of mangrove cover loss or fragmentation [43].  
One of the negative effects of fragmentation and deforestation is the loss of connectivity, which is essential for the preservation, stability, and integrity of natural ecosystem biodiversity and must be taken into consideration when conserving ecosystems [44]. However, it has also been shown that in certain fragmentation processes, where the patch area increases and new patches are created, connectivity can increase. It should be considered that fragmentation of a landscape is manifested by different effects, such as an increase in the number of patches, a decrease in their size, an increase in the isolation between them, and changes in the shape of the patches [30,45]. It is always important to carry out multi-temporal studies for a better perspective on land use during the period under study. As a result, understanding the temporal evolution of fragmentation is extremely helpful when making decisions and determining the drivers causing fragmentation processes [46]. In this study, it was evident that mangrove forests recovered in some locations in Ecuador.  
Fragmentation is a process unrelated to habitat loss and therefore unrelated to habitat gain; it is what is known as \"fragmentation per se\" [48]. According to our results, Ecuadorian mangrove forests are recovering, but this recovery has two opposite effects: increasing and decreasing fragmentation. In the process of increasing fragmentation, the number of patches increased, decreasing the size of patches and increasing the RFI; this process for example occurred in the Galapagos Islands. On the other hand, some mangrove forests showed a decrease in fragmentation, where there was a decrease in the number of patches and RFI and an increase in patch size. These results may seem contradictory. However, this was because fragmentation has been studied in very homogeneous mangrove ecosystems growing in coastal areas or estuaries. Classical fragmentation metrics may not be very efficient in these types of ecosystems [46], which could explain why the RFI was high in the best-conserved provinces.  
The loss of coastal protection is perilous for the conservation of Ecuador's ecosystems. According to [PERSON] et al. [49], the lack of coastal protection caused by mangrove deforestation is likely to worsen as sea levels rise and intensification of tropical storms caused by climate change continues. In addition, high intertidal levels are obstructed by aquaculture ponds, which means that the remaining mangrove forests are severely affected by coastal changes, limiting opportunities for landward migration [19; 50].