# Plant-Derived Phytobiotics as Emerging Alternatives to Antibiotics Against Foodborne Pathogens
## 5 Phytobiotics in Practical Applications
Interactions with food components such as proteins, lipids, fibers, and carbohydrates can either facilitate or hinder the release, solubility, stability, and absorption of phytobiotics, ultimately affecting their efficacy. While some nutrients may enhance the bioavailability of bioactive compounds--for example, dietary fats improving the absorption of lipophilic phytochemicals--others, such as certain polyphenols, may form complexes that impede intestinal uptake. Moreover, these interactions can alter the antimicrobial potency of phytobiotics, impact their sensory properties, or lead to the formation of undesired byproducts, complicating their effective application in food systems [302]. Beyond direct effects on bioavailability, phytobiotics can engage in complex functional interactions within food matrices and biological environments. These interactions can be synergistic, leading to enhanced biological activities such as greater antioxidant or antimicrobial effects, as observed with the combination of polyphenols such as quercetin and resveratrol. Conversely, antagonistic effects may arise when the efficacy of one or more active constituents is diminished by other dietary compounds. Such outcomes depend on the molecular structure, concentration, and environmental context in which these compounds act. Furthermore, functional interactions may modulate metabolic pathways, influence the solubility and cellular uptake of phytobiotics, and affect their systemic clearance, thereby altering their pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics [303]. Overall, the complex interplay between phytobiotics, food matrices, and host factors poses a significant challenge in the practical application of phytobiotics, necessitating further research to fully exploit their potential in food formulations. Concerns also remain regarding the impact of phytobiotics on the gut microbiota. Phytobiotics are recognized for their ability to beneficially modulate the gut microbiome by promoting the proliferation of commensal microbial populations, such as _Lactobacillus_ and _Bifidobacterium_, while inhibiting the growth and virulence of pathogenic bacteria, thus exerting prebiotic-like effects. These activities not only support gut health but also offer broader systemic benefits, such as improved nutrient absorption, enhanced mucosal immunity, and better metabolic regulation [305]. Regular consumption of phytobiotics has been associated with the prevention and management of various chronic diseases, largely through modulation of gut microbiota composition, reduction of low-grade inflammation, and restoration of metabolic balance [306]. Despite these promising health benefits and the general perception of phytobiotics as safe natural compounds, concerns remain regarding their broader impact on gut microbial communities. While phytobiotics have the potential to inhibit pathogenic bacteria, their effects on commensal and probiotic populations have yet to be fully characterized. Disruption of the gut microbial balance could possibly yield unintended health consequences. It was shown that some phytochemicals, such as pyrrolidine alkaloids, have been identified as hepatotoxic and potentially carcinogenic, highlighting the need for thorough toxicity assessments. Safety and toxicity profiles of phytobiotics are not yet fully established. Although many are generally recognized as safe, the potential for adverse effects--especially at higher doses or with chronic exposure--necessitates rigorous toxicological assessment [307]. Additionally, differences in individual tolerance, species-specific responses in animals, and the presence of contaminants or adulterants can further complicate safety evaluations. Safety assessments employ in vitro and in vivo methodologies, including high-throughput screening systems, animal model studies, and adherence to international regulatory frameworks such as those established by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) [308].