## 1 Introduction  
The Niger Delta mangrove forests, spanning nine coastal states of Nigeria, are of major ecological significance as biodiversity hotspots. These forests harbour extensive biodiversity, including many endangered species [1]. Additionally, they are a vital resource for climate change mitigation as they sequester substantial quantities of atmospheric carbon dioxide [2]. The Niger Delta contains Africa's largest mangrove swamp and the world's third-largest wetland [3,4]. Beyond their ecological value, these mangrove forests play a crucial role in the lives of the diverse communities of the Niger Delta. For instance, these coastal forests serve as nurseries for young fish, supporting a vital food resource, yet the unmet demand for fish in Nigeria continues to rise [5]. With 70% of the population of the Niger Delta residing in rural areas, most depend on agricultural and piscatorial subsistence practices for their livelihoods and food security, as well as their cultural identity and well-being [6]. The Niger Delta region, with a 70-year history of oil extraction, hosts the second largest petroleum reserve on the African continent, with some estimates of up to 40.5 billion barrels of crude oil located within the lower Delta [7]. Nigeria's economy is heavily reliant on oil production, and associated oil exploration activities are attributed to over 90% of Nigeria's national foreign exchange [8]. However, oil operations in the Niger Delta have also been associated with numerous oil spillage and other pollution incidents resulting in well-documented environmental, social, and cultural impacts, including negative effects on fishing and farming sectors, adverse human health impacts, and disruption of the social and cultural fabric of affected communities [3,4,9,10,11]. Despite the persistent environmental consequences of oil pollution, policies and policy implementation processes have yet to show effective mitigation of oil pollution in the Niger Delta. A number of independent assessments have identified a range of complex issues impeding mitigation progress, including a lack of effective government interventions, violent contestations over compensation, equipment failures, and self-regulatory maintenance oversight of oil facilities by petroleum companies. Additionally, theft, artisanal oil refining, and oil bunkering, activities driven by economic pressures, contribute to the many obstacles to the oil pollution clean-up and environmental restoration efforts planned for the Niger Delta [4,10,12,13]. Since 2006, the Nigerian government's National Oil Spill Detection and Response Agency (NOSDRA) have reported over 130,000,000 litres of crude oil spillages in the Niger Delta [14]. A range of studies have attempted to quantify the extent of the oil spills, but the estimated total amount remains inherently imprecise due to under-reporting, incomplete data and limited monitoring and oversight [15]. Additionally, under-investment in NOSDRA's abilities to fully implement its statutory mandate [16], has resulted in reports of the petrochemical industry spearheading spillage investigations [17], with associated concerns about conflicts of interest. The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) 2011 report provided one of the first independent comprehensive multi-disciplinary reports on the environmental and human impacts of oil pollution in the region [10]. It highlighted the adverse effects on vegetative and aquatic systems, air quality, and the additional strain on public health and socio-economic stability in the Niger Delta. More recent research indicates that as of 2016, over one million individuals resided within the pollution-affected region surrounding Ogoniland [18], where pollutants bio-accumulate along the food chain, with both the air and drinking water being highly contaminated [19].