## 1 Introduction  
### Climate Variability and Pastoralism  
Pastoralism is crucial for its economic, ecological, and sociocultural value in Ethiopia. Economically, pastoralism accounts for 10-40% of the country's GDP [1], 30-35 percent of its agricultural GDP [2], and generates 90% of Ethiopia's livestock exports, which account for 20% of the country's total exports [3]. The pastoralist and agro-pastoralist sectors, primarily lowland grazing systems, contribute significantly to domestic consumption and export markets by producing 34% of national red meat, 38% of total milk, 21% of cow's milk [4], and 80% of the annual milk supply [5]. In terms of social aspects, Ethiopian communities deeply embed pastoralism in their cultural heritage, promoting highlander cultures and attracting tourists [6]. Livestock is a symbol of wealth and social status in pastoralist communities. Over 70% of wildlife sanctuaries and parks are located in pastoralist areas [7], making them prime locations for eco-tourism initiatives. The unique culture and lifestyle of pastoralist communities offer rich inspiration for tourism [3]. Ecologically, pastoralism plays a crucial role in biodiversity maintenance, habitat creation, and vegetation management [8]. It provides essential ecosystem services, such as grazing, which is an effective tool for biodiversity maintenance and restoration [9]. Ethiopia's lowland regions, home to numerous ecological and historical sites, are significant tourist attractions. These include the UNESCO-registered archeological site in Afar and other stunning, unique landscapes [3]. Pastoralism plays a vital economic, social, and ecological role in Ethiopia, but it is highly vulnerable to climate variability. These fluctuations have led to widespread loss of livelihoods and increased food insecurity among pastoralists, resulting from droughts, locust invasions, displacement, and floods. Additionally, climate variability creates competition and conflicts over scarce resources, which have intensified due to the depletion of natural resources and population growth [10]. Specifically, due to climate change and variability in Ethiopia, the number of people needing humanitarian aid rose from 20 million to 26.2 million in 202, with over 54% of those affected residing in pastoralist areas [11]. Climate change and variability in Ethiopia has had a significant impact on pastoralists and agro-pastoralists, leading to the loss of 50-80% of their cattle herds. This has made it difficult for them to restock their herds, forcing many to abandon pastoralism and engage in non-pastoralist livelihoods such as charcoal production. This, in turn, aggravates deforestation and environmental degradation [10,12]. Pastoralism is a farming practice where households rely on meat, milk, and cereals in most of the area sourced from their livestock's sale and, in return, purchased from the market. Climate change can lead to livestock mortality, crop failures, and increased food insecurity. This vulnerability is exacerbated by declining milk yields and constraints on pastoralists' ability to sell livestock and buy cereals. As climate change vulnerability increases, the value of livestock may decrease and cereal prices may rise, making trade less favorable. Herd reconstruction is slow because the mortality rate in female reproductive stock and reductions in herd sizes below a certain threshold make it unlikely for pastoralists to recover their losses [13,14]. To address these climate variability challenges, pastoralists employ different adaptation and coping strategies. These strategies help to them adapt to changing conditions, diversify livelihoods, enhance livestock production, increase feed availability, and improve community resilience, contributing to sustainable land use and economic development. However, they must tailor strategies to the specific needs of different pastoralist households [15, 16, 17, 18].