## 1 Introduction  
Long-Range Wide-Area Network (LoRaWAN) technology [1] is one of several recently developed Low-Power Wide-Area Network (LPWAN) technologies competing for market and mind-share in the Internet of Things (IoT) space. It is a low-power bidirectional wireless standard that operates in different unlicensed Radio Frequency (RF) bands. It has a range, depending on propagation conditions, of up to tens-of-kilometers. For instance, authors in [2] reported the reception of more than 60% of LoRaWAN packets on water. The clear line-of-sight (LoS) and absence of interference from other radio systems are attributed to successful LoRaWAN packet reception. In one unusual case, an experimenter with a 14 dBm 868 MHz Long Range (LoRa) received the LoRaWAN packets at 702 km distance [3, 4] in the atmosphere, which is expected due to lack of obstructions and interfering radio systems. However, in Non-Line-of-Sight (NLoS) and other interfering radio systems, the more likely scenario is 2 to 15 km [5, 6, 7, 8, 9] depending on the environment. LoRaWAN has several operating models, including a purely private network, a carrier-based approach where customers can connect devices to an existing network for a fee, and an open-source model [10] where users connect LoRaWAN gateways via a shared network and then any registered user has access to any LoRaWAN gateway. LoRaWAN has different ownership models [11, 12] the long-range low-power operation, and operational modes, including availability of acknowledgements, bidirectional data, and a multicast mode. These features earn LoRaWAN a wider public appeal than technologies such as Sigfox [13]. Sigfox operates in the same spectrum like LoRa. Unlike LoRaWAN, Sigfox is a subscription-only service with a limited number uplinks and a more limited number of downlink packets determined by subscription level. In addition, Sigfox supports much lower data rate applications. The recency of the developments of IoT applications and the release of LoRa and LoRaWAN technology has led to a scarcity of information regarding its performance and co-existence with other technologies operating in the European Union (EU) 868 Industrial, Scientific, and Medical (ISM) band [14]. Additionally, few studies have analysed the performance of LoRaWAN multi-gateway deployment in a real-world scenario. Radio transmission density in the unlicensed ISM 868 MHz band is expected to surge as the deployment of LPWAN technologies is becoming omnipresent in communities. As these transmissions increase, a failure to comply with regulations is imminent because of increasing devices contesting for a small frequency band. The model in [15] predicted 15% and 10% probabilities of the Duty Cycle (DC) of 1% being violated for Sigfox and LoRa in indoor for 10 devices, respectively. These predictions slightly agree with indoor measurements in this study where interference did not cause the Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) to unacceptable power levels. Non-compliance with regulation risks the IoT infrastructure operating in the unlicensed 868 MHz ISM band into the \"Interference of Things\" instead of the IoT. For example, authors in [16] based on measurement results in Belgium (2017) asserted that due to large-scale interference, there was a strong potential for performance degradation in the future, making the long-range sub-GHz technologies a victim of their success, thus unusable. Moreover, a study of interference [17] in the EU's 868 MHz ISM band measured signal activity and power levels with a focus on LoRa and Sigfox in the city of Aalborg, Denmark, in 2017 revealed interference increase in the unlicensed ISM 868 MHz band. Measurement results put the probability of interference at 33.7% in the shopping area for LoRa core uplink channels and at 58.2% in the business park for LoRa downlink channels. These measurement results were recorded four years ago and must be different from the recent situation due to rapid deployment of IoT applications.