## 3 Applications and Limits of ATPs in Water and Wastewater Treatment
### Applications of ATPs in Water and Wastewater Treatment
\begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{l l l} \hline \hline
**Contaminant** & **Type of Process** & **Remarks/Results** \\ \hline \hline \multirow{4}{*}{Lincomycin} & Photolysis & approx. 80\% reduction at pH = 8 w/ 0.1 mM SO\({}_{3}\)\({}^{2-}\), 90\% reduction at pH = 10 w/ 5 mM SO\({}_{3}\)\({}^{2-}\), 120 min \\  & & approx. 50\% reduction at pH = 8 (not dependent on \\  & Photolysis w/ SO\({}_{3}\)\({}^{2-}\) & sulfite conc.), 80\% reduction at pH = 6, w/ 5 mM SO\({}_{3}\)\({}^{2-}\), 120 min \\  & & SO\({}_{3}\)\({}^{2-}\), 120 min \\  & & 100\% removal after 30 min \\  & & 100\% removal of parent compound in 8 h, complete \\  & & removal of halogenated by-products in 24 h \\ \hline \hline \multicolumn{3}{c}{_Pesticides_} \\ \hline \hline \multicolumn{3}{c}{Atrazine} & UV/sulfite & Completely transformed after 4 h \\  & & 100\% removal after 30 min \\  & & \\  & & \\  & & \\  & & \\  & & \\  & & \\  & & \\ \hline \hline \multicolumn{3}{c}{_Other pollutants_} \\ \hline \hline \multirow{3}{*}{Perchlorate} & UV/sulfite & CIO\({}_{4}\)\({}^{-}\) half-life in process 7\({}^{-}\)15 h \\  & & \(>\)75\% removal at pH = 11 in 22 h \\ \cline{1-1} Nitrate & UV/sulfite & \(>\)98\% removal at pH = 7 in 30 min \\ \cline{1-1} Bromate & Photocatalysis, various light & up to 90\% removal at process times between 15 and \\  & & sources and catalysts & 60 min \\  & & Photoreduction (Visible light + & 99.1\% removal at 90 min \\  & Ag@BiVO4@RGO catalyst) & \\ \cline{1-1}  & & 100\% removal in 10 min at acidic pH \\ \hline \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table} 
Table 8: Application of AORPs for the removal of different types of compounds. Data from [6, 74, 75, 76, 77]. \begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{l l l l} \hline \hline
**Contaminant** & **Type of Process** & **Remarks/Results** \\ \hline \hline \multicolumn{3}{c}{_Chlorinated compounds_} \\ \hline
2.4-Dichorophenol & \(\gamma\)-irradiation & complete degradation at 10 kGy \\ Monochloroacetic acid & & \\ Tetrachloroethylene. & EB & 80\% removal at 2 kGy \\ Trichoethylene & EB & 80\% removal at 2 kGy \\ Carbon tetrachloride & EB & 80\% removal at 2 kGy \\ \hline \multicolumn{3}{c}{_Perfluorinated Compounds_} \\ \hline \hline \multicolumn{3}{c}{_Aromatic hydrocarbons_} \\ \hline \hline \multicolumn{3}{c}{BTX} & EB & 80\% removal at 2 kGy \\ Toluene, ethylbenzene, o-, m-, & EB & 55–85\% removal at 10 kGy \\ p-xylenes, chlorobenzene & EB & Up to 99.5\% removal at \(<\) 5 kGy \\ \hline \hline \multicolumn{3}{c}{_Pharmaceutical compounds_} \\ \hline \hline \multirow{3}{*}{Carbamazepine} & EB & 90\% removal at 1 kGy \\  & EB with 10 mM H\({}_{2}\)O\({}_{2}\) & 90\% removal at 0.88 kGy, in 20 s \\ \cline{1-1}  & & 95\% removal at 2 kGy in 45 s \\ \cline{1-1} Diclofenac & \(\gamma\) irradiation & 90–100\% removal at 1–6 kGy in \\ \cline{1-1} MCPA & \(\gamma\) irradiation & 97\% removal at 4 kGy \\ \cline{1-1} Iopromide & EB & 90\% removal at 19.7 kGy \\ \hline \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table} 
Table 7: _Cont._In addition to the performance reported in the removal of emerging contaminants, irradiation-based AORPs have proven highly effective in the removal of natural dyes from food industry wastewater. Observed efficiencies were up to 48% for pure tincture and up to 100% for dilute solutions at a 32 kGy irradiation dose [78]. In municipal wastewater effluent disinfection, 95% removal of coliforms at a 0.2 kGy dose and 99% removal at a 0.5 kGy dose were measured [79]. As previously mentioned, the efficiency of a treatment should not only be evaluated on its degradation efficiency of specific compounds but also on the generation of intermediates of a lesser or non-toxic nature. A study on E-beam irradiation on real pharmaceutical industrial wastewater showed that when EB was applied as pre-treatment technology before biological treatment, almost complete detoxification of wastewater was achieved, compared to non-irradiated wastewater. The cytotoxicity of un-irradiated and irradiated wastewater was tested against _E. coli_, _P. aeruginosa_, and _B.