## 3 The Health and Environmental Consequences of Current Shipbreaking Practices  
Until the 1960s, the dismantling of ships was mainly performed in developed countries like the US, UK, Germany, and Italy [65]. However, during the 1960s and 1970s, shipbreaking shifted to semi-industrialized countries like Spain, Turkey, and Taiwan. This move was driven by lower costs. In the quest for even higher profits, 1980s ship owners started sending their vessels to developing countries where environmental and safety regulations were lax and workers faced significant economic constraints and limited employment options. Currently, the five main ship-dismantling countries are India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, China, and Turkey, where instead of the systematic dismantling of a ship to recover and reuse its materials in an environmentally sustainable and safe manner (ship recycling), the traditional and poorly regulated method of dismantling ships (shipbreaking) is mostly used. The shipbreaking industry in India is primarily located along the Alang-Sosiyabeach in Gujarat, where approximately 50 shipbreaking yards are operating [2]. The Bangladesh shipbreaking industry extends along over 12 km of the Sitakunda coastline of Chittagong and comprises around 145 shipbreaking yards. The shipbreaking industry in Pakistan is concentrated in Gadani, a coastal town located approximately 50 km northwest of Karachi. Around 130 shipbreaking yards are operated by about 40 companies along a 10-km stretch of beachfront. The shipbreaking industry in China, comprising approximately 60 companies, is spread across various locations along the Yangtze and Pearl Rivers, as well as in Dalian. End-of-life ships in Turkey are dismantled by 25 companies in Aliaga, Izmir Province. Among the four primary methods commonly used for ship dismantling, open beaching, alongside, dry-dock, and landing, open beaching is the worst from an environmental and human health point of view [66]. Unfortunately, the vast majority of ships are currently dismantled using the open beaching method on three beaches located in India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan, which poses a great risk to workers, local communities, and the environment [67]. Due to the lack of adequate infrastructure, equipment, and procedures, the working environment is unsafe and risky, and the International Labour Organization (ILO) considers shipbreaking a major occupational and environmental health problem [68]. Moreover, most of the workers are uneducated and lack any training, causing accidents that could have been avoided by guidance on work. According to the NGO Shipbreaking Platform, since 2009, more than 400 fatalities at the beaching yards have occurred [69]. Because major and minor accidents that cause injuries and the deaths of workers are common and frequent, the lack of workers' rights and occupational safety has been receiving the most attention. Less attention has been paid to diseases and conditions that arise from the exposure of workers and the surrounding population to harmful substances. Moreover, it seems that the trade-off between economic growth and environmental health has been accepted by many stakeholders, including unexpected ones, such as NGOs fighting for fair labor practices and safe working conditions [70]. A comprehensive overview of studies on ship recycling by [PERSON] et al. was published recently [71]. The substantial body of research on ship dismantling offers a thorough understanding of its processes, emphasizing the severe impacts of prevailing current practices on worker health and safety, as well as the significant environmental harm caused by various forms of pollution Furthermore, studies have examined the legal aspects, highlighting the importance of conventions, policies, and regulatory frameworks in enforcing obligations and national laws to address these challenges. They have also delved into the financial considerations, aiming to sustain benefits for all stakeholders engaged in the industry.