# Bioelectrical Signals for the Diagnosis and Therapy of Functional Gastrointestinal Disorders
## 6 Summary and Future Directions
Recent advances in technology, such as cloud and edge computing, miniaturization of devices, and light-fidelity communication, could be incorporated to achieve personalized therapies. Conceptualization, R.A. and L.K.C. ; writing--original draft preparation, R.A., K.J.M., and L.K.C. ; writing--review and editing, N.P., L.A.B., and M.-L.H. ; visualization, K.J.M. ; supervision, L.K.C. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. The work was funded, in part, by funding from Marsden Fund Council managed by Royal Society Te Aparangi, Health Research Council of New Zealand, Medical Technologies Centre of Research Excellence (MedTech CoRE), Riddet Institute Centre of Research Excellence, and National Institutes of Health (R01 HD088662, SPARC OT20D030538). N.P. and L.K.C. hold intellectual property interests in the field of gastrointestinal electrophysiology mapping and are shareholders in FlexiMap Ltd. The rest of the authors declare no conflict of interest. \begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{p{113.8 pt} p{113.8 pt} p{113.8 pt}} \hline \hline
**Technique** & **Target Organs** & **Description** & **Therapeutic Targets** \\ \hline \multirow{2}{*}{Serosal pacing} & \multirow{2}{*}{Stomach [93; 94; 95; 96]} & Low-frequency, & \\  & & high-energy direct & Gastroparesis \\ \hline \multirow{2}{*}{Serosal stimulation} & Stomach [94; 95; 96] & \multirow{2}{*}{High-frequency, direct} & \multirow{2}{*}{High-frequency, direct} & \multirow{2}{*}{\begin{tabular}{l} Gastroparesis \\ Chronic unexplained \\ nausea and vomiting \\ \end{tabular} } \\  & Small intestine [114; 115; 116; 117] & & \\  & Colon [141; 142] & & \\ \hline \multirow{2}{*}{\begin{tabular}{l} Transcutaneous electrical stimulation \\ \end{tabular} } & Stomach [97; 98] & High-frequency, indirect & \multirow{2}{*}{\begin{tabular}{l} Functional dysppesia \\ Chronic constipation \\ Fecal incontinence \\ Irritable bowel syndrome \\ \end{tabular} } \\  & Colon [143; 144] & & \\ \hline \multirow{2}{*}{Sacral nerve stimulation} & Colon [136; 137; 138; 139; 140] & High-frequency, nerve stimulation & \multirow{2}{*}{\begin{tabular}{l} Chronic constipation \\ Fecal incontinence \\ Irritable bowel syndrome \\ \end{tabular} } \\  & & \\ \hline \multirow{2}{*}{Biofeedback/Neurofeedback} & \multirow{2}{*}{\begin{tabular}{l} Oropharynx and \\ Esophagus (EMG, EEG, \\ MEG) [42; 43; 44; 45] \\ \end{tabular} } & Classification of & \\  & & muscular/neural activity & Dysphagia \\ \hline \multirow{2}{*}{\begin{tabular}{l} Pharyngeal electrical stimulation \\ \end{tabular} } & Oropharynx and & High-frequency, direct stimulation & \multirow{2}{*}{\begin{tabular}{l} Dysphagia \\ Dysphagia \\ \end{tabular} } \\  & Esophagus [46; 47] & & \\ \hline \multirow{2}{*}{\begin{tabular}{l} Neuromuscular electrical stimulation \\ \end{tabular} } & Oropharynx and & High-frequency, direct or indirect stimulation & \multirow{2}{*}{\begin{tabular}{l} Dysphagia \\ Dysphagia \\ \end{tabular} } \\  & Esophagus [48; 49] & & \\ \hline \multirow{2}{*}{\
\begin{tabular}{l} Transcranial (direct current or magnetic) stimulation \\ \end{tabular} } & Oropharynx and & High- and low-frequency stimulation to the brain & \multirow{2}{*}{
\begin{tabular}{l} Dysphagia \\ \end{tabular} } \\  & Esophagus [50; 51] & & \\ \hline \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table} 
Table 2: Bioelectrical therapies for functional gastrointestinal disorders (FGIDs). * [PERSON] et al. (2019) [PERSON]; [PERSON] [PERSON]; [PERSON]; [PERSON]; [PERSON]; [PERSON]; [PERSON]; [PERSON]; [PERSON]; [PERSON]; et al. Therapist telephone-delivered CBT and web-based CBT compared with treatment as usual in refractory irritable bowel syndrome: The ACTIB three-arm RCT. _Health. Technol. Assess._**2019**, _23_, 1. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
* [PERSON] (2014) [PERSON] Electroceutsc spark interest. _Nat. Cell Biol._**2014**, _511_, 18. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
* [PERSON] et al. (2014) [PERSON]; [PERSON]; [PERSON]; [PERSON]; [PERSON]; [PERSON] Recent progress in gastric arrhythmia: Pathophysiology, clinical significance and future horizons. _Clin. Exp. Pharmacol.