# Password Managers--It's All about Trust and Transparency
## 2 Related Work  
A recent study [11] found that 41% of respondents include at least one piece of personal information in their passwords, such as a birthday, while others capitalize a letter to comply with password policy. A security researcher, [PERSON], analysed 32 million leaked passwords and found only 12% of passwords were 9 characters in length or longer [19]. Participants know that password reuse is not secure but is memorable [20] while 91% of participants reuse at least one of their passwords for multiple accounts [21]. The MTurk study [22] reported that participants reused on average 71% of their passwords, which confirms the result of prior work [23; 24] that found that password reuse is rampant. Besides, 59% of participants reuse passwords for multiple accounts due to the difficulty of remembering long complex passwords [25]. [PERSON] and [PERSON] state that an attacker can gain access to several accounts if they discover one reused password [12]. However, a single password remains widely used for authentication [26]. As a result, password managers were developed to help people handle passwords safely and generate a unique password for each account. A previous study [7] found that writing passwords down in a secure location or using password managers can be a promising solution for password reuse. Password managers offer the benefits of having strong passwords and uniqueness, compared to other entry methods [22], while they improve usability by offering autofill login forms [27]. Moreover, password managers generate, store and encrypt passwords, while users need only remember one master password [28]; [PERSON] et al. state that users create stronger passwords when they use memory aids, which can encourage them to use password managers [29]. In a study on the use of passwords among experts and non-experts, [PERSON] and [PERSON] found that the majority of non-experts use browser-saving features [30], while the majority of experts use a dedicated password manager and browser-saving features [18]. Also, the researchers [11] concluded that experts depend on many of the same coping strategies as non-experts, that is, reusing passwords and writing them down. Likewise, prior work [7] found that more experts than non-experts use password managers. A recent interview study [31] found that users of browser password managers are driven by convenience, while users of separate password managers use them for their better security. In a study about the security practices of experts and non-experts [7], it was found that usability drawbacks of password managers are harder to deal with for non-experts, while suggesting that the low adoption rate of password managers might be due to an ingrained mental model. In a survey study on adopting and rejecting smartphone password managers [17], the results present a number of rejecting factors, such as usability, lack of awareness and trust, security concerns, device memory, battery and control. In a study on passwords [11], it was found that some participants do not use password managers because they do not trust them and are unwilling to install them. Additionally, [PERSON] et al. found that users of password managers have higher computer proficiency and better experience of computer security than non-users; they found that convenience, security and usefulness are the main reasons for using password managers by users, while non-users noted security and usability as the main reasons for not using them [9]. Similarly, it was reported that a lack of immediacy and time are the most common reasons for not downloading and using password management applications [32]. [PERSON] et al. applied an ecological theory in a study on passwords which found that participants expressed fewer concerns about using password managers, such as the risk of password manager databases being hacked or accidental password loss [21]. Furthermore, [PERSON] et al.