## 2 Theory  
### The Indonesian Profile and Policy Direction  
Indonesia is the largest archipelagic nation, consisting of 16,056 islands, among which are the six major islands [7]. The demographic profile indicates a national population of 270.2 million people [8], with 60% of people residing on Java Island. The state administration structures the country into 34 provinces, 514 regencies/cities, 7232 districts, and 83,880 villages [9]. Figure 1 illustrates the number of districts within each Indonesian province. Based on a 2021 report, 73.7% of the total population used the Internet, while active mobile networks reached 353.3 million people or 125.6% of the total population [10]. This figure relates to the Indonesian behaviour of subscribing to services on multiple devices for Internet-related activities. Despite these figures, there remain areas that lack 4G services [11] and areas with poor Internet quality. The average and median Internet speed in Indonesia still falls below the world's top ten [12; 13; 14] and 1530 villages in Indonesia still do not have signals (blind/blank spots) [15]. The speed goal for the Internet (mobile and fixed broadband) continues to be a national one. Even the goal for cable Internet coverage in homes/households/families by 2024 concerns only 30 percent of all homes/households/families. As a result, Indonesia will not have established a coverage speed per household until the year 2024, as shown in Figure 2. Once all households have access to telecommunications signals, the amount of traffic per household can be increased until reaching a future goal. The government may conduct an intervention consisting of facilitating the telecoms infrastructure [16]. In line with the mandate of the Indonesian government regulation No. 46 of 2021, the mobile network operator (MNO), the Central Government, and Local Governments may provide facilities for use by MNOs at reasonable charges in the form of land, buildings, and/ or passive telecoms infrastructure. The execution of the provision of facilities may utilize the state budget, the regional revenue and expenditure budget, and other sources of funding in compliance with applicable laws and regulations. The Central Government and Regional Governments assist MNOs in developing their telecommunications infrastructure in a transparent, accountable, and efficient way in compliance with applicable laws and regulations. Facilitation and/or convenience include but are not limited to the granting of right of way, access to buildings and areas, charges based on reasonable costs and ensuring business certainty, rental rates and/or use of assets owned by the Central Government or Local Government, as well as technical standardization and telecommunications technology. In providing facilitation and/or convenience, local governments and/or authorized agencies must coordinate with the minister. Furthermore, MNOs in organizing telecommunications networks can cooperate with passive infrastructure providers. Passive infrastructure includes culverts/ducts, towers, poles, cable  
Figure 1: The Districts and Population Profiles of Indonesia’s Six Major Islands. holes/manholes, and/or other passive infrastructure. The provision of passive infrastructure can be carried out by the Central Government and/or Regional Governments, state-owned enterprises and/or regional-owned enterprises, privately owned enterprises, and/or legal entities or other parties determined by the Minister. Cooperation is carried out at a fair and cost-based utilization price. Price rates for passive infrastructure utilization are established by the suppliers of passive infrastructure in consideration of national efficiency, market conditions, positive economic consequences, and community interests. If the price of passive infrastructure utilization does not comply with the regulations, the Minister establishes a maximum rate that passive infrastructure providers must adhere to. Moreover, MNO may lease its telecommunication network to other MNOs and non-MNOs (service operators, etc.).