## 5 Conclusions  
This study analyzed the performances of VIPV on a passenger car. The three systems considered to transfer the energy from VIPV to the battery are a system charging directly the HV battery and systems charging a 12 V or a 48 V battery before intermittent transmission of the electricity in the HV battery. Simulations indicate the order of influence of the parameters on the outputs of the numerical model presented in this paper: geographic position (1 st order), shading (2 nd order), thresholds related to extra-consumption of the VIPV system (3 rd order), frequency of recharge with the grid (4 th order) and the electric architecture (5 th order). A system charging through a 48 V battery enables higher mileage but has a lower performance in terms of the LCA due to the additional battery. Direct charge of the HV battery may be a compromise between performances in terms of mileage, complexity and carbon balance. In Europe, in sunny cities like Malaga, VIPV on a passenger car can gather up to 227 kWh per year at midlife with 312 Wp and 30% shading with an intermediate 48 V battery. It covers up to 1444 km in annual distance. This represents 12% of the vehicle's needs. For the best month, it can cover up to 14 km per day. For cities similar to average Europe, a passenger car can gather only 46 kWh per year, which covers only 293 km of yearly distance, with 312 Wp and 49% shading. For the most realistic scenario in 2030, with direct charge in an HV battery, 312 Wp, 30% shading and Paris irradiance (mean value Europe), the result is 101 kWh or 648 km per year. Specific VIPV development for energy optimization, such as a Lightyear 0 vehicle, considering 981 Wp at midlife (1.05 Wp installed) with 30% shading, can generate 4292 km per year. This clearly highlights that VIPV have to be considered at the beginning of the vehicle's conception to fully optimize VIPV benefits. Based on yearly PV energy and the mileage covered by VIPV, life cycle assessment was carried out with a low-carbon PV module and system hypotheses. The electricity mix and the solar irradiance have a high impact on the final CO\({}_{2}\)-eq. balance. The best European scenario is Malaga, coupled with a relatively highly carbonized electricity mix (up to 489 kg CO\({}_{2}\)-eq avoided). The worst scenario is Paris, with a low carbon electricity mix (France). The CO\({}_{2}\)-eq balance remains negative at 13 years of the vehicle's lifetime. The realistic scenario considered includes a European electricity mix, coupled with average European solar irradiance. In these conditions, the final CO\({}_{2}\)-eq balance is 77 kg CO\({}_{2}\)-eq, close to neutral. Beyond auto-generated distance and LCA topics, VIPV on passenger cars could be more efficient in specific applications, such as a fully dedicated VIPV vehicle, a light vehicle or collective mobility solutions, or, for specific environments such as non-interconnected zones and for resilience in the case of natural catastrophes as indicated by [PERSON] et al. (2023) [23]. Conceptualization, F.K. and B.C. ([PERSON]); Data curation, F.K. and F.C. ; Formal analysis, F.K. and F.C. ; Funding acquisition, B.C. ([PERSON]) and B.C. ([PERSON]); Investigation, F.K. ; Methodology, F.K., B.C. ([PERSON]), F.C. and B.C. ([PERSON]); Project administration, B.C. ([PERSON]); Resources, F.K. and B.C. ([PERSON]); Software, F.K. ; Supervision, F.K. and B.C. ([PERSON]); Validation, F.K. ; Writing--original draft, F.K., B.C. ([PERSON]), F.C. and B.C. ([PERSON]); Writing--review and editing, F.K. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. This research received funding from ADEME, grant number 1905C0043. This project was realized with the participation from members of INES.2S and received funding from the French State under its investment for the future program with reference ANR-10-IEED-0014-01. Not applicable. The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author. The data are not publicly available online due to privacy.