# Plant-Derived Phytobiotics as Emerging Alternatives to Antibiotics Against Foodborne Pathogens
## 5 Phytobiotics in Practical Applications
Their composition can fluctuate significantly depending on the plant species, the geographical origin, cultivation conditions, harvest time, and processing methods. This variability affects the consistency and predictability of their antimicrobial efficacy. Furthermore, phytobiotics often comprise complex mixtures of bioactive compounds, the individual and synergistic effects of which are not yet fully understood. This complicates both scientific evaluation and regulatory approval. Stability and safety are critical issues for the application of phytobiotics in the food industry. The stability of phytobiotics is influenced by various factors, including chemical interactions, environmental conditions, microbial contamination, and extraction methods. Phytobiotics are prone to chemical degradation during storage, which can lead to the loss of active components and the formation of inactive or even toxic metabolites. Many phytobiotics are highly susceptible to degradation under food processing and storage conditions, including exposure to heat, light, oxygen, humidity, and variations in pH, which can significantly diminish their bioactivity and shelf life, thereby limiting their practical utility in food systems [294; 295]. It has been shown that higher temperatures can accelerate the degradation of active compounds, as observed for diarylheptanoids in _Curcuma comosa_ (at as low as 40 \({}^{\circ}\)C) and phenolic compounds in _Gynura proclumens_[296; 297]. Microbial contamination, particularly by pathogenic microorganisms capable of forming biofilms, poses a significant threat by degrading active constituents and generating harmful by-products. Therefore, maintaining strict control measures during preparation, packaging, storage, and transportation is essential to preserve product integrity [298]. Furthermore, extraction and preparation methods significantly affect the stability of phytobiotics. Techniques such as ultrasonic, microwave, and supercritical fluid extraction, although effective in isolating bioactive compounds, can modify the structure and stability of these compounds, potentially resulting in less stable or less bioactive forms [299]. In addition to stability concerns, many phytobiotics suffer from poor bioavailability due to their complex structures and low water solubility. This limits their effectiveness when administered in traditional forms [300]. The bioavailability of phytobiotic compounds--particularly polyphenols and essential oils--is a crucial factor determining their practical effectiveness. The bioavailability of phytobiotics, which refers to the extent and rate at which the active compounds are absorbed and utilized by the body, is influenced by several factors, both intrinsic to the compounds themselves and related to the host and the surrounding environment. One of the primary factors is the chemical structure of the phytobiotics. Whether a compound is hydrophilic or lipophilic significantly affects its solubility in gastrointestinal fluids, which in turn influences its ability to permeate the intestinal epithelial cells and reach systemic circulation. Lipophilic compounds, for example, often require the presence of fats or bile salts for enhanced absorption [301]. Additionally, host-related factors such as age, sex, ethnicity, physiological status, and overall health condition can significantly affect the bioavailability of phytobiotics [302]. For instance, the composition of an individual's gut microbiota can influence the metabolism and absorption of plant-derived compounds, while gastrointestinal diseases or impaired digestion can limit bioavailability [303]. Considering the interindividual variability in pharmacokinetics and bioavailability, determining the optimal dose of phytobiotics is challenging. Factors such as end-organ dysfunction, interactions with other drugs, and dietary intake can affect the efficacy of phytobiotics, complicating dose optimization [304]. The food matrix in which phytobiotics are consumed also plays a significant role in their bioavailability and functionality.