## 1 Introduction
Others focus on developing ICT architectures encompassing numerous security layers [13] and integrating a number of frameworks, models and methodologies [14], with a particular interest in service-oriented architectures and their use to support governance of collaborating enterprises [15]. Another example of the technical perspective on collaboration is the application of the concept of System of Systems to study collaborative organisations, their behaviour and performance [16]. The implementation of best practices and standards complements the studies of cybersecurity, in particular in relation to the Internet-of-Things (IoT) and the concept of Industry 4.0 [14; 17]. While some of the referenced sources claim that the technical solutions offered help solve issues related to interoperability, collaboration, security, and value chain governance [10; 11], the problem with the governance of collaboration persists. Some authors go as far as to designate the exclusive reliance on technological solutions as \"libertarian techno-utopianism\" [18]. The IoT is of particular concern. While the IoT has facilitated automation of industrial processes, transport and homes, its rapid growth is also a cause for significant security and privacy concerns due to the absence of effective regulation, standards and weak governance [19]. The increasing reliance on private providers of cybersecurity services is also a cause of concern. That includes the quasi-governmental role of the private actors on key cybersecurity issues [20] and known cases of security breaches and access to sensitive data of non-vetted foreign private employees [21]. The public-private governance of critical information infrastructures is just one example of the existence of an accountability gap, i.e., a gap in governance [21]. Other studies of connected systems and organisations also demonstrate that \"the management of safety and security risks... requires the extension of existing governance mechanisms, including regulation, standards, and industry best practices, to combine both safety and cybersecurity\" considerations [22], as well as understanding shared risks [23]. Some of the governance aspects of collaboration have already been addressed, demonstrating that:* the effective contribution of private persons to formal computer emergency response arrangements, e.g., crowdsourcing, requires recognition and division based on the roles and individual needs and can encourage 'netiezens' to co-produce cybersecurity [24];
* trust is key for sharing cyber intelligence and motivating partners to join a cybersecurity alliance [25];
* the timely identification, management and resolution of conflicts among partner organisations is key for successful collaboration [26];
* traditional assessments of security risks often focus on tangible assets, while tangibles such as tacit knowledge are in some cases more important than physical assets [27];
* knowledge sharing is a fundamental factor for strategic decision making, particularly in relation to innovation management and sustainability of collaborative organisations [28];
* Interoperability is a must for cybersecurity information sharing and timely threat intelligence [29]. This partial list provides just a glimpse into the governance challenges of cybersecurity collaboration. The challenge is much more extensive, which explains why policy-governed (and not technology-driven) and secure collaboration is defined by the Science of Security initiative of the US National Security Agency as one of the top five 'hard problems' of cybersecurity [30]. One of the four pilot projects launched to establish a cybersecurity competence network on the basis of the project consortium includes 30 partners from 14 European countries [31].