## 4 Discussion  
In the current study, we found that hummus and chickpea consumption has increased significantly since the 2005-2006 NHANES; however, overall consumption in the population is low. The finding that hummus, but not chickpea, consumption has increased since the 2005-2006 NHANES among lower-income individuals is not surprising due to the demonstrated limited access to similar items such as fresh produce [25; 26]. On the other hand, the minimal food processing techniques involved with extending the shelf life of hummus [27; 28] make it a reasonable strategy to increase intake of legumes among lower-income populations. The further observation that consumption of hummus and chickpeas is independently associated with increased intakes of fruits, vegetables, total protein foods, and whole grains (and decreased intake of added sugars) supports consumption to be an effective strategy to increase intakes of other healthful foods in the diet. According to the Produce for Better Health Foundation, recent fruit and vegetable consumption declines are tied to two common behaviors: a decline in dinner side dishes for vegetables, and a reduced consumption of fruit juice at breakfast [29]. Hummus and chickpeas were shown to be mostly consumed at lunch and dinner, as well as during snacking occasions. More than 90% of Americans report two to three snacking occasions throughout the day; snacking provides nearly 23% of total daily energy intakes for most Americans and as much as 35% of total added sugars among children [30]. It is likely that hummus can act as a \"carrier\" food to help increase diet quality and the intake of more healthful foods such as vegetables and whole grains during snacking and other eating occasions. A recent study in healthy adults supports this observation; an afternoon hummus snack was associated with improved diet quality and a \(\approx\)20% decrease in subsequent snacking of desserts [19]. Based on nutrient biomarker analyses, consumers of hummus were more likely to have higher levels of serum 4-pyridoxic acid, total vitamin B\({}_{6}\), and red blood cell folate. We recently showed that serum vitamin B\({}_{6}\) levels decrease with age among middle-aged to older adults [31], indicating a potential need for future observational data that extend beyond the capabilities of NHANES and future public emphasis on foods (or dietary supplements) that contain significant amounts of this essential nutrient. The finding that hummus and chickpea consumers have a lower incidence of MetS and decreased BMI and waist circumference is likely somewhat due to its contribution to intakes of several essential macro- and micronutrients associated with increased diet quality [14]. As supported by the other observations, hummus and chickpea consumption is also likely a marker of healthier diet and lifestyle habits. A major strength of this study is the use of NHANES, which has a large sample size and is nationally representative. Limitations of NHANES include the sole reliance on self-reported dietary data. A previous validity analysis of the USDA Automated Multiple-Pass Method used for collecting 24-h dietary recalls in the What We Eat in America NHANES component found that