# An Organizational and Governance Model to Support Mass Collaborative Learning Initiatives
## 2 A Brief Overview of Related Work
### Establishing Adequate Learning and Performance Assessment Indicators and Metrics  
According to the UN agenda for the sustainable development goals 2030, namely regarding education [43], learning is at the heart of global education and development, and it can empower individuals with values, skills, and knowledge to live in dignity, build a better life, and enhance society overall. To improve learning outcomes, it is important to know what the learners are learning, what they need to learn, and how to assess their achievements. Learning assessments have increasingly gained prominence in education practice as it reveals the strengths and weaknesses in the process of learning [6]. Assessments can be used as a helpful means for decision-makers and developers (e.g., education system, employers, families, ministries, communities, civil society groups, and donors) to diagnose, plan, monitor, modify, and improve learning activities. The results of the assessment can also help instructors and planners in making better decisions on how to improve instruction and pedagogy; design and improve education programs and curricula; and allocate sufficient resources [44]. To measure learning (program, progress, and outcomes) appropriately, a review of the literature demonstrates that there is a wide range of useful strategies and methods that each can be used alone or in combination (depending on the objectives of the assessment). These include but are not limited to formative assessment, summative assessment, diagnostic assessment, continuous assessment, norm-directed assessment, criterion-directed assessment, subjective assessment, objective assessment,open-book assessment, practical assessment, oral assessment, process assessment, peer assessment, formal and informal assessments, and self-assessment [45; 46]. A well-designed learning assessment method should stand on well-formulated indicators. An indicator is a specific, achievable, and measurable value and checkpoint that can be used to show the changes or progress at different levels of learning processes and at different points in time. Indicators help us determine whether or not the learning program objectives have been achieved. Furthermore, during the process of designing, modifying, and developing a learning program or curriculum, various types of indicators can be considered, which are suited to the needs of the plan from the stakeholders' point of view [47]. Prior studies [48; 49] indicate that in each learning assessment method, a set of specified indicators might be used to collect the needed information. The selected indicators should be focused, clear, and specific. There is, however, no simple step-by-step process for choosing the right indicators for a mass collaborative learning network. Selecting the appropriate indicators depends on the network's unique circumstances and the changes the network or community is working towards. Furthermore, there are additional considerations that should be taken into account, such as the type of network/community, the network management model, the objectives of evaluation, the context and level in which the assessment occurs, the data sources available, the time horizon of evaluation, the frequency of data collection, etc. [50]. Previous research studies [51; 52], however, suggest a set of learning assessment indicators that demonstrate how well the learning process works at different levels. These indicators include learning environment and climate, leadership quality, socio-economic conditions, teaching quality, network objectives, network characteristics, the status of the teaching profession, the number of learners, learners' cultural aspects, the number of learning approaches, time on task, and innovative aspects of learning, etc. In line with earlier studies and investigations, we also propose some indicators for learning assessment based on the general objectives and conditions of MCL initiatives.