# Cyber Dating Abuse and Maxeline Gender Norms in a Sample of Male Adults
## 4 Discussion  
This study analyzed the association between cyber dating abuse and conformity to masculine gender norms in a sample of Spanish male university students. The objective was to extend research about cyber dating abuse by analyzing the co-occurrence of the victimization and perpetration of cyber dating abuse and by examining the differences in conformity to the masculine gender norms among those men who were perpetrators or victims of cyber dating abuse. The results revealed that 26.5% of the participants were involved in cyber dating abuse as perpetrators/victims as opposed to 12.5% who were only victims and 6.5% who were only perpetrators. Supporting Hypothesis 1, the present study found high prevalence rates of cyber dating abuse, with a higher frequency of control behaviors. In line with previous research, the most common forms of cyber dating abuse were those that involve some form of control, such as monitoring victims' cellphone and social networks [11]. The regression analysis results indicated that being a victim of cyber dating abuse increased the probabilities of being a perpetrator, and vice versa. These results confirmed our hypothesis and are in line with previous studies showing that cyber dating abuse is a co-concurrent aggressive behavior. Our results are also in line with previous research showing that the main risk factor for suffering victimization was being formerly involved as a perpetrator, whereas the main risk for perpetration was having suffered victimization [11; 23]. However, our cross-sectional study design did not allow us to confirm the causal direction of the relations found between both roles within cyber dating abuse. Violence co-occurrence may be explained by the social learning theory according to what behaviors are learned through social interactions [52]. In this sense, [PERSON] and [PERSON] [53] found that youth who reported being a victim and a perpetrator also reported to being involved in a greater number of violent couples in the past. Co-occurrence could also be explained as a consequence of an escalation of violence among partners, where abuse could be a way to self-defense or retaliation [54]. Future research should analyze more carefully the factors behind the co-occurrence of cyber dating abuse. Previous research reported a relation between internalizing gender norms/roles and different forms of perpetration and victimization in romantic relationships. However, in contrast to what we hypothesized, we neither found significant associations between conformity to masculine gender norms and victimization by cyber dating abuse in both its direct and control forms, nor associations between perpetration by control and conformity to masculine gender norms. The only significant relationships were found in direct perpetration. However, the poor statistical power of the relations found did not allow us to confirm a significant association. Notwithstanding, these results are in line with the longitudinal work by [PERSON] et al. [55], who found that internalizing gender stereotypes was not a predictor of perpetrating dating violence among male adolescents. There may be several explanations for the results obtained. First of all, we must consider that participants in the current study reported low scores of conformity to masculine gender role norms, which could indicate a break from the traditional gender paradigm brought about by the socio-cultural changes that have taken place in Spain in recent times. Indeed, the study by [PERSON], [PERSON], and [PERSON] [56] has previously confirmed a reduction in gender role stereotypes in a representative sample of the Spanish population. Although there are still many gender inequalities, the European Union and, specifically, Spain have made important progress in order to reach higher levels of gender equality [36]. Moreover, the traditional gender socialization in terms of stereotypical feminine and masculine roles has gained flexibility during the last decades due to social, economic, and cultural changes [57].