## 2 Overview of LoRa and LoRaWAN  
WSN technologies are the standards that support network communication and allow sensing devices to share data packets. They are used widely in IoT applications, and each standard has different frequency bands, topologies, ranges, and energy consumption [12]. However, these technologies have coverage limitations [13]. Low-power wide-area networks (LPWANs) emerged to address this challenge and support large-scale IoT applications. LPWAN technologies operate in the sub-GHz frequency band. These technologies' specifications are low power, long range, and a low data rate, which make them appropriate solutions for monitoring systems (such as pipeline monitoring systems). In addition, LPWANs have low costs in the deployment of large-scale networks [14]. NB-IoT, Sigfox, DASH 7, and LoRa are examples of LPWANs. Based on our review, no single technology works for all IoT applications; its suitability depends on the actual application requirements. In this paper, we consider the large-scale pipeline monitoring system. Pipeline systems demand low-cost, wide-range, and low-power networking technologies. Due to its use of the licensed band, NB-IoT is more costly than other technologies. It also depends on the wide coverage provided by 4G and 5G cellular licensed networks, which may not be possible in large, unpopulated regions like deserts. In terms of coverage, Sigfox and LoRa are the two best technologies for pipeline monitoring. Sigfox can reach up to 30 km and LoRa up to 15 km. However, Sigfox requires a subscription, whereas LoRa is public software (no cost to use this technology). LoRa enables greater communication rates and larger payloads. In Sigfox, the data rate can reach 100 bps with a payload size of 12 bytes, whereas in LoRa, it can reach 50 kbps with a payload size of 243 bytes. Both use a star topology. Although Sigfox's network architecture is centralized, the network relies on Sigfox's infrastructure to operate, whereas in LoRa, users can operate the network. Sigfox has additional limits; LoRa, on the other hand, is less costly as well as more flexible. Determining which technologies to use is based on an application's needs, such as network cost, range, and payload size. LoRa's flexibility and adaptive features give more resilience than Sigfox in various environments. Both LoRa and Sigfox have useful battery life, generally 5-10 years. According to the in-pipeline monitoring system, LoRa has the best characteristics to address the application's requirements. In the following, we briefly present LoRa technology and the key technical parameters. LoRa and LoRaWANLong-range technology (LoRa) was provided by Semtech company in 2015 as a low-power, long-range connectivity solution. It operates on an unlicensed frequency spectrum of 868 MHz in Europe and 915 MHz in the United States. LoRa transmits data via chirp spread spectrum (CSS) modulation. LoRa has a restricted duty cycle, so throughput is low [15]. LoRa operating parameters are crucial for analyzing network performance, as they are utilized to develop test scenarios and evaluation methods. The parameters are bandwidth (BW), spread factor (SF), coding rate (CR), and transmitted power (TP). The network BW and SF determine the data rate. To deliver data to remote places, larger SF and transmission power values are used. Also, a smaller bandwidth enhances receiver sensitivity and range. LoRa supports three BW values: 125, 250, and 500 kHz, with SF values ranging from 7 to 12. The CR improves the link's reliability in the presence of interference. While greater coding rates improve noise and interference resistance, they also result in less data [15]. The LoRa packet format consists of a preamble (for synchronization), a header, and a payload (actual data). Another set of options related to the header and payload include coding rate (CR), explicit header (EH), and low data rate optimization enabled (DE). The CR ranges from 1 to 4, representing the number of bits utilized in error corrections; 1 is most commonly used in LoRa [16].