## 1 Introduction  
In the next few years, the number of highly automated vehicles (HAVs) on the roads is set to increase dramatically. These vehicles will use the latest technology, including radar, LiDAR, GPS, sensors, digital cameras and driver control systems. All these components will integrate with the Internet of Things (IoT), enabling vehicles to communicate with their surroundings. This is a significant step in modern travel. It introduces new levels of autonomy and fundamentally changes people's involvement in travel [1]. As HMIs serve as their main point of interaction, it is crucial for the vehicles' interfaces to consistently offer precise and understandable information in various driving scenarios. The assurance of reliability is fundamental for drivers to maintain road safety standards and respond effectively to changing driving conditions. It remains imperative to ensure driver awareness to build confidence in the performance and reliability of these advanced systems [2]. Despite significant advances in the field of autonomous vehicles categorised as SAE Levels 3 and 4 according to the SAE J3016 standard [3], these vehicles still face numerous obstacles that limit their progress and deployment. These challenges include ensuring uniform behaviour among road users to reduce errors, misunderstandings and accidents; addressing safety concerns; understanding how people will behave while driving; and understanding how complicated the systems are [4]. The main challenge is the design and functionality of driver-vehicle interfaces (DVIs), which facilitate communication between drivers and the DVIs. DVIs will send the driver information about the vehicle and other systems and allow the driver to give feedback. [PERSON] and [PERSON] [5] said that user interfaces are important in ensuring seamless and efficient interaction between users and complex systems. As fully autonomous systems are still not a consolidated reality, interfaces must be clear and intuitive. This point is also highlighted by [PERSON] et al. [6], who stress the importance of adapting interfaces to the specific needs of autonomous vehicle drivers. One of the main concerns is the accuracy of both technical and human language: any misunderstanding in the system's messages could lead to serious consequences, such as accidents or malfunctions. For this reason, the development of well-designed and easily understandable interfaces is a priority in the evolution of these systems. [PERSON] et al. [6] note that current designs tend to address an \"average driver\", neglecting individual preferences and needs (see also [7] about the personalisation of interfaces). Standardisation plays a crucial role in reducing the risk of accidents because it ensures consistency in systems, promoting security, usability and compliance with shared rules, avoiding errors and malfunctions. For instance, ISO and IEEE offer thorough guidelines in various situations. Standards like ISO 9241 [8], SAE J3016 [3], and ISO 26262 [9] set specific and practical guidelines for creating interfaces that are safe, intuitive, and reliable. However, [PERSON] and [PERSON] [10] express caution regarding the potential risks of these standards overstepping. They have highlighted that there is a danger of compromising the overall user experience if these requirements are pushed too far. Finding the right balance between personalisation and standardisation is therefore central to improving the safety and effectiveness of automated driving systems and their correct use in real-life situations. These challenges are further complicated by individual differences among drivers, who vary in experience, skill level and confidence in using automated systems. The design of DVIs must therefore consider a wide range of users, while ensuring safe and intuitive operation. This balance raises additional legal and liability issues, as communication errors between the vehicle and the driver can lead to accidents, opening questions about liability [11].