## 7 Approaches to Prevent and Manage Infections Caused by Biofilms
### Nanoparticle Strategies
aureus_ biofilms, markedly enhancing its efficiency [306]. Furthermore, Usnic acid (UA)-loaded chitosan (CS) NPs represent a promising strategy for combating infections caused by biofilm-forming pathogenic bacteria. The anti-persister activity of UA-CS NPs offers a targeted approach to addressing the challenges posed by persister cells, which are often resistant to conventional treatments. This innovative delivery system enhances the efficacy of UA by improving its bioavailability and penetration into the biofilm matrix, thereby disrupting the dormant bacterial population and potentially reducing biofilm-associated infections [307]. Lipid-based NPs, such as liposomes and solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs), are increasingly recognized for their potential in biofilm control. Liposomes contain antibiotics, enhancing their penetration into biofilms, whereas functionalized liposomes specifically target bacteria associated with biofilms [308]. SLNs provide improved stability and extended release of encapsulated medicines, making them particularly beneficial in treating persistent biofilm-associated infections. [PERSON] et al. have noticed that liposomes act as efficient nanoplatforms for improving the delivery of antibiotics into _S. aureus_ biofilms. The integration of liposome-based delivery methods with the antibiotic vancomycin markedly suppressed _S. aureus_ biofilms in their investigation. Encapsulating vancomycin in liposomes enhanced its diffusion across the biofilm's EPS matrix, allowing elevated antibiotic concentrations to the bacterial cells situated inside the biofilm architecture [309]. This synergistic strategy underscores the capability of liposomes to address the difficulties presented by biofilm-related diseases, especially those involving resistant organisms like _MRSA_. Despite their significant potential, several obstacles limit the widespread application of NPs in biofilm control. Among these, toxicity and biocompatibility are critical concerns. While NPs exhibit high efficacy against biofilms, ensuring they do not negatively impact human cells or induce inflammatory responses is paramount [292]. For instance, AgNPs, widely recognized for their antimicrobial properties, have been shown to trigger oxidative stress in human cells, which may lead to severe outcomes such as neurological diseases and genetic mutations [310]. Recent studies have further highlighted that exposure to AgNPs can cause cellular damage and increase the risk of neurological illnesses [310]. Additionally, investigations into the effects of AgNPs on human cells have revealed potential harm to genetic material and the induction of oxidative stress at certain concentration levels [310; 311]. These findings also indicate genotoxic and cytotoxic effects associated with AgNP exposure, which underscores the need to evaluate their safety profiles carefully [312]. Addressing these challenges is essential to advance the clinical utility of NPs in biofilm management while minimizing potential risks to human health. Moreover, the scalability and cost-efficiency of nanoparticle manufacturing continue to pose substantial challenges. Producing NPs with uniform size, shape, and functionalization appropriate for therapeutic use necessitates sophisticated and expensive methods [313; 314].