## 3 Observed Damage Mechanisms in Eastern T\(\ddot{\text{u}}\)rkiye's Masonry Buildings
### 3.2. _Inadequate Cranftsmanship in Masonry Construction_
#### 3.2.3 Absence of Key Structural Details  
A fundamental tenet in seismic engineering is to ensure that masonry walls function integrally, with sufficient confinement and strong connections between perpendicular walls, floors, and roofs [8; 46]. Nonetheless, in numerous areas of eastern Turkiye, conventional masonry residences overlook critical structural components such as ring beams, vertical confining elements, and dependable wall-to-floor tie systems [41]. Consequently, the structural load pathways are inadequate, promoting the propagation of fissures and localized failures once seismic accelerations surpass moderate limits. The subsequent subsections investigate how the lack or improper implementation of these elements induces significant damage modes. A prevalent deficiency observed in masonry structures is the absence of comprehensive ring beams at both flooring and roofing levels. These horizontal structural elements, commonly referred to as bond beams, are typically anticipated to encompass the full perimeter of the masonry framework, playing a crucial role in interlinking discrete wall sections and effectively distributing lateral forces. In the EAF zone, however, a notable proportion of masonry residences either entirely forgo the inclusion of ring beams or implement them irregularly, often with inadequate reinforcement or interruptions at the corners. This structural inadequacy results in out-of-plane instability, characterized by the outward bulging of entire wall panels under lateral forces, particularly evident near the uppermost courses. Additionally, corners are adversely affected when ring beams do not create continuous loops, as this leads to incomplete bridging between orthogonal walls and permits out-of-plane rotations to occur with minimal resistance [46]. Vertical tie columns, which are crucial components in the confinement of masonry structures, are frequently overlooked or only superficially implemented in numerous constructions. The underlying principle of these vertical confining elements is to integrate steel reinforcement within boundary columns, thus consolidating wall segments into a cohesive entity. Regrettably, local builders often end the columns a few centimeters above the foundation or entirely omit them at the upper course, which obstructs a continuous load path from the foundation to the roof. During dynamic seismic activity, diagonal tension cracks that could potentially be mitigated by tie columns traverse uninterrupted along the full height of the wall, leading to the detachment and fall of substantial triangular segments. Observations from the 2023 Kahramanmaras earthquakes revealed numerous residential structures with incomplete vertical ties, where the reinforcement was either insufficient or inadequately anchored to ring beams, rendering the confinement system largely ineffective. A further widespread issue is the inadequate or entirely absent anchorage between walls and roofs, particularly for substantial earthen roofs or tile-based coverings. Rather  
Figure 11: Damage due to inconsistent mortar application. than securely fastening the roof diaphragm to the supporting walls, regional customs frequently involve placing wooden beams or logs on the walls without any mechanical anchorage. This configuration significantly restricts the capacity of the walls to function cohesively; when seismic activity generates horizontal forces, the roof mass shifts laterally, exerting pressure on the upper sections of the walls, which are not anchored to a ring beam or vertical columns. The resulting pivoting or rotation around the mid height or corners often results in either partial or complete collapse of the wall, occasionally worsened by deteriorating mortar at the roof junction [41]. Even when circumferential beams and vertical support columns are ostensibly incorporated, negligence regarding continuity, alignment, or adequate anchorage undermines their intended functionality [46].