# Optimizing Herbicide Use in Fodder Crops with Low-Cost Remote Sensing and Variable Rate Technology
## 5 Conclusions  
This work demonstrates the effectiveness of a low-cost sensor in enabling smart spraying technology for weed control in fodder crops. The research hypothesis, which proposed that a low-cost and relatively simple digital imagery method could map weeds and enable variable-rate herbicide application, was confirmed. The results showed a significant reduction in herbicide use (30%) compared to the fixed-rate method, thereby contributing to both economic benefits for farmers and environmental sustainability goals.  
Although the method requires some technical knowledge in the use of GIS software and operator supervision, it does not rely on costly sensors or continuous sampling, making it a practical and accessible solution for farmers with existing mechanized equipment. By defining homogeneous zones for targeted herbicide application, the proposed method aligns with the goals of the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) 2030, particularly those related to reducing chemical inputs and promoting sustainable farming practices.  
However, further research is needed to address certain limitations, such as the lower weed identification accuracy compared to more sophisticated methods (e.g., RF and SVM), and to explore strategies for improving recognition rates without increasing costs. Additionally, future studies should investigate the long-term impact of variable rate herbicide application on crop yield and profitability across different crops and farming systems.  
Conceptualization, L.A.C., L.S. and S.D.; methodology, L.A.C., L.S. and S.D.; software, L.S., S.D. and S.B.; validation, L.A.C., L.S. and S.D.; formal analysis, L.A.C., L.S. and S.D.; investigation, L.A.C., L.S., S.D., S.F. and P.D.; resources, L.A.C. and B.M.; data curation, L.S., S.D. and S.B.; writing--original draft preparation, L.S.; writing--review and editing, L.A.C. and L.S.; visualization, L.A.C., L.S., S.D., B.M., A.M.O.S., P.D., C.F., S.F. and S.B.; supervision, L.A.C.; project administration, L.A.C.; funding acquisition, L.A.C. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.  
The APC was funded by national funds through the Fundacao para a Ciencia e a Tecnologia, I.P. (Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology) via the project UIDB/05064/2020 (VALORIZA--Research Centre for Endogenous Resource Valorization); by national funds from Fundacao para a Ciencia e a Tecnologia (FCT), Portugal, through the research unit UIDP/04035/2020 (GeoBioTec); and by the GEEBovMit Project--LA 3.3-PRR-C05-i03-I-000027-LA3.3--Mitigation of GHG emissions in beef cattle production--pastures, forages, and natural additives.  
Not applicable.  
The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article; further inquiries can be directed at the corresponding authors.  
The authors would like to thank the National Institute for Agricultural and Veterinary Research (INIAV) for providing the experimental field and the crops installed under the GEEBovMit Project--LA 3.3-PRR-C05-i03-I-000027-LA3.3--Mitigation of GHG emissions in beef cattle production--pastures, forages, and natural additives. The authors would also like to thank the GeoBioTec and VALORIZA research centers, and the InovTechAgro--National Skills Center for Technological Innovation in the Agroforestry Sector.  
The authors declare no conflicts of interest. The funders had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript; or in the decision to publish the results.