## 3 Results and Discussion
### Characteristics of Manufactured Cousous
#### 3.2.2. Culinary Quality Results  
Swelling Index Results  
The effect of temperature (25 \({}^{\circ}\)C and 95 \({}^{\circ}\)C) on the swelling index of the different cousous formulations is illustrated in Figure 3. The study of the swelling kinetics of the cousous samples revealed distinct behaviors as a function of temperature. All samples reached an equilibrium swelling state at 25 \({}^{\circ}\)C (Figure 3a) after 20 min, with swelling indices ranging from 104.71 to 131.11%. Raising the temperature to 95 \({}^{\circ}\)C resulted in an increase in the swelling indices for the four cousous samples studied (Figure 3b). Under these conditions of temperature, swelling stabilization was observed after 15 min, with swelling index values ranging from 139.41 to 165.55%. Comparison with published data on durum wheat cousous reveals variations in SI according to the formulations. At 25 \({}^{\circ}\)C, the four formulations studied have higher SI than those reported by [PERSON] [24] but lower than those observed by [PERSON] et al. [17]. At 95 \({}^{\circ}\)C, a formulation C2 has a swelling index similar to that of [PERSON] et al. [20], while C3 and C4 have higher swelling indices, and C1 has a lower SI. The drop in the swelling index might be linked to the rise in the amount of gluten-free flours in the cousous formulations (acorn and sorghum), as a higher swelling index tends to happen when there is less of it. The swelling index is a key indicator of cousous quality. High-quality cousous is characterized by its strong ability to swell and effectively absorb sauces. This ability, crucial for its culinary quality, is influenced by the nature of the raw materials used during its manufacturing [30; 31]. The swelling index is affected by several factors, including starch,  
Figure 3: Swelling Index (SI) at 25 \({}^{\circ}\)C (**a**) and 95 \({}^{\circ}\)C (**b**) of manufactured cousous. C1: cousous with fermented sorghum, fermented wheat, and fermented acorns; C2: cousous with fermented acorns; C3: cousous with fermented sorghum and fermented acorns; and C4: cousous with fermented wheat and fermented acorns. which is the main part of flours and is made up of amylose (straight chains) and amylopectin (branching chains) arranged in granules. The amount of these two components changes depending on the type of plant and directly affects the swelling index. A high starch content, particularly amylopectin fractions, promotes a higher swelling index. The swelling index also reflects the intensity of non-covalent bonds within the starch granules [32]. Other factors, such as the size of the flour particles, the type of plant used, how the plant material is processed, and the presence of non-starch substances like fats and proteins, affect how starch interacts with water and, as a result, its swelling properties [33; 34; 35]. In the case of couscous, different formulations and flour blends have a significant impact on the swelling index. The mixture of various flours can result in synergistic interactions (increase in the swelling index) or antagonistic interactions (decrease in the swelling index) during cooking. The study suggests that mixtures of fermented acorms/fermented sorghum (C3) and fermented acorms/fermented wheat (C4) may form a looser network and retain more water compared to fermented acorms alone (C2). Conversely, the mixture of fermented acorms/fermented sorghum/fermented wheat (C1) seems to have the lowest swelling index. Disintegration Degree Results  
The disintegration degree values for the four couscous formulations are presented in Figure 4. Cooking loss is mainly attributed to the dissolution and release of gelatinized starches from the surface of the couscous grains into the cooking water [31]. The disintegration degree (DD), expressed as a percentage of released components into water, was evaluated and varies between 3.27% and 5.20%. The disintegration degree (DD) increased significantly (\(p<0.05\)) with the level of incorporation of fermented acorm flour.