## 5 Conclusions  
Providing equal spatial access to healthcare has become crucial, especially with increasing population growth in urban contexts. In other words, a healthcare system that meets the requirements of availability and affordability will be useless if the spatial accessibility to healthcare is not provided to all equally. Hence, this study sought to identify and analyze spatial disparities in access to the MOH healthcare centers in Jeddah city. UsingGIS, spatial accessibility was measured using the original 2 SFCA method based on the 30-min drive-time threshold. Overall, the results showed that 97.51% of the Jeddah population have access to healthcare centers, but with disparate levels of accessibility. The majority of those are concentrated in the central districts of the city. In contrast, 2.49% of the population is classified as unserved populations, where they should travel more than 30 min to access a healthcare center. Most of these districts are concentrated in the southeast of the city. Nevertheless, spatial disparities in access to healthcare centers can be reduced in Jeddah by applying several approaches, such as allocating new centers in less-served areas or optimizing locations of some centers at the level of Jeddah districts. Moreover, it is necessary to enhance the spatial connectivity between districts with poor access and other parts of the city. This can be achieved by building or completing road construction in some districts that basically have a limited road network, such as the southern districts. In addition, strengthening the existing collective transport network at the level of peripheral districts may improve spatial access to healthcare centers. Consequently, implementing such recommendations could reduce travel time taken between populations residing in peripheral districts and healthcare facilities by less than 30 min; thus, some of these districts may be reclassified as districts with access to healthcare centers. However, there is a need for further investigation on how much the spatial access to healthcare would be improved if road and public transport networks were developed in Jeddah, especially at the level of peripheral districts. This study only covered the MOH healthcare centers in Jeddah according to the available data and the time schedule given for preparing this study; however, this is not enough to take a comprehensive conception of the reality of the healthcare system in Jeddah. Therefore, this study can be considered as a basis for further investigations, which is important to focus on measuring spatial accessibility to healthcare providers (governmental and private) in Jeddah or even other Saudi cities using the methodology of the 2 SFCA method or its enhanced versions. Furthermore, it is also essential that these investigations consider integrating spatial and nonspatial factors to identify and assess spatial disparities in access to healthcare more accurately. However, in contrast, the lack of spatial data on healthcare providers (i.e., facility location address) and nonspatial data (e.g., socioeconomic variables at the level of urban population districts) may constitute an obstacle to conducting such investigations. It is possible to conduct surveys to collect this data at the level of urban population districts, but it may require more time, effort, and resources to accomplish this task. However, the results of this study can be considered as an assistant reference for the MOH decision makers when developing the primary healthcare sector in Jeddah by giving the less-served districts defined by this study a priority when allocating future healthcare centers. This will contribute to improve spatial equity in access to healthcare centers. Conceptualization, A.M.; methodology, A.M. and B.F.K. ; software, B.F.K. ; validation, A.M. and B.F.K. ; formal analysis, A.M. and B.F.K. ; investigation, A.M. and B.F.K. ; resources, A.M. and B.F.K. ; data creation, B.F.K. ; writing--original draft preparation, B.F.K. ; writing--review and editing, A.M. and B.F.K.