## 4 Discussion  
ROS are the key metabolites generated during ATP production, and their overproduction can affect the redox homeostasis [34]. Under normal conditions, ROS are neutralized or eliminated by enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidant systems [1]. However, structural damages can occur in the cells when the cell's ROS influx level increases rapidly due to environmental or oxidative stress [1]. These oxidative stresses directly induce inflammation and they are further correlated with the occurrence of various diseases including diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, neurodegenerative diseases, and several types of cancers [35; 36; 37]. Therefore, ROS production needs to be regulated by the intake of antioxidants, which can prevent the inflammation caused by oxidative stress and limit the development of inflammatory diseases. Figure 4: Effects of GPE on LPS-induced phosphorylation of c-Jun and nuclear translocation in RAW 264.7 cells. (**A**) GPEs suppressed the LPS-induced phosphorylation of c-Jun in RAW 264.7 cells. Cells were treated with the indicated concentration of GPE for 1 h and then stimulated with LPS (1 ug/mL) for 30 min. The levels of phosphorylation and expression were detected by western blot. (**B**) GPE suppressed the LPS-induced c-Jun expression in the nucleus of RAW 264.7 cells. Cells were treated with the indicated concentration of GPE for 1 h and then stimulated with LPS (1 ug/mL) for 30 min. The levels and locations of c-Jun were detected by immunofluorescence as described in the Materials and Methods section. Pepper is one of the most widely used spices in the world, with a distinctive flavor and tangy taste, and it is considered as the king of spices [29; 31]. Pepper can be black, green, or white depending on the degree of ripeness and the processing method used after harvest. The spiciness of green pepper is lesser than that of black pepper, and it is harvested in the unripe state [15]. The degree of maturation and the color of the pepper fruit have a strong effect on the biological activity of the pepper fruit [38]. Therefore, we evaluated the color, flavonoid contents, phenolic contents, and antioxidant activity of black and green pepper. The colors of the pepperorns are dependent on the chlorophyll content and various phytochemicals, which affect the flavonoid and phenolic contents and therefore, the antioxidant capacity. The contents of flavonoids and nonphenolic pigments are affected by the degree of the pepper fruit maturation and postharvest processing [39]. Our chromaticity analysis results showed that green pepper had high Hunter L* and b* values and low a* values, while black pepper had low Hunter L* and b* values and high a* values. As expected, the chlorophyll, flavonoid, and phenolic contents in GPI and GPS were higher than those in BPI and BPS. The chlorophyll, flavonoid, and phenolic contents are closely associated with the antioxidant capacity of botanical extracts [30; 31]. As expected, we observed a positive correlation between chlorophyll a and b, flavonoid, and phenolic contents and the DPPH and ABTS radical scavenging capacities of GPI and GPS (Tables 1 and 2). Similarly, a previous study reported that the fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP) and ABTS scavenging capacity of _Salvia coccinea_ (Lamiaceae) are dependent on the chlorophyll and phenolic contents [40]. Several studies have shown the antioxidant activity of pepper [41; 42]. Supercritical fluid extract of _P. nigrum_ L. were reported to have EC\({}_{50}\) values of 103.28 and 316.27 ug/mL [43]. [PERSON] and colleagues evaluated the antioxidant activity of 11 fruits in Brazil and among them, murici was determined to have the highest DPPH and ABTS radical scavenging capacities of 295.12 \(\pm\) 26.87 and 235.94 \(\pm\) 0.12 mg VCE/100 g, respectively.