## 1 Introduction
The expression only applied to softwood and considered the timber member width, the distance from the fastener to the loaded edge of the member, and the ratio of the latter to the member depth (commonly known as the \(\alpha\) parameter). It is widely demonstrated and specified in some design codes that when \(\alpha\geq 0.7\), splitting may be neglected. The expression also includes a constant value arising from the fracture energy calibration parameter. However, the scientific literature suggests that this value is a considerable overestimation for some wood species commonly used in Europe [28]. The expression disregards the influence of other parameters, such as the number and geometry of groups of fasteners. Further experimental and numerical research has been carried out to propose alternative analytical formulations to the normative expression, taking into account the effect of different geometrical parameters of the connection and material properties. Most of these experimental studies have been conducted on softwoods, e.g., the first studies reported in [29; 30; 31; 32] used to calibrate the analytical model proposed by [PERSON] and [PERSON] or later relevant studies on sawn spruce and gullam [33; 34; 35; 36], radiata pine LVL [37], southern pine LVL [38; 39], and southern pine MSR lumber [38]. However, very little research has focused on the splitting behaviour of dowel connections in hardwood species. Recent studies can be found on _Eucalyptus globulus_ sawn wood [40] and yellow poplar PSL [38]. There is a work on beech beams loaded perpendicularly to the grain by connections, although the \(\alpha\) values considered were higher than 0.7 [23]. In terms of numerical investigations, several authors have developed finite element models (FEMs) to realistically replicate the behaviour of structural timber elements with fastener connections [22; 34; 41; 42; 43]. One method involves utilising cohesive zone models (CZMs) incorporating traction-separation laws, which are treated as inherent material properties. These models require predefining possible damage paths. Strength criteria based on limit stresses are applied to indicate the onset of the damage. Damage evolves as described by the traction-separation law following the principles of fracture mechanics. This method was first applied to wood in [44], and its capability has been sufficiently demonstrated in subsequent studies [41; 42; 45], as well as in previous work by the authors focusing on the simulation of crack propagation in double cantilever beams (DCBs) [17] and end-notched flexure (ENF) tests [18] in beech wood, offering good agreement with experimental results. The main objective of the present research is to determine the splitting capacity of _Fagus Sylvatica_ L. (European beech) solid wood beams loaded perpendicular to the grain by connections, considering \(\alpha\) values lower than 0.7. An experimental campaign is carried out on connections consisting of one and two dowels placed at various positions along beams of different lengths and depths aiming to study the influence of these geometrical parameters. Cohesive zone finite element-based models using the fracture properties of the species are also developed, which are capable of reproducing crack development. Finally, the results are compared with the theoretical splitting failure loads obtained by applying the analytical expression included in Eurocode 5 [24] and two other alternative design models reported in the literature [46; 47], which offer a more complete formulation regarding the consideration of different geometrical parameters of the connection.