## 2 Technological Advances in Point-of-Care Testing (POCT)
### POCT for Chronic Disease Monitoring  
Beyond cancer, POCT has demonstrated substantial utility in chronic disease management--an area of particular relevance to workforce health [8]. Chronic and autoimmune diseases impact approximately 10% of the global population and can be categorized as either organ-specific (e.g., type I diabetes, Graves' disease) or systemic (e.g., lupus, rheumatoid arthritis). Early detection of autoantibodies is essential for timely diagnosis, disease monitoring and guiding treatment decisions. Traditional diagnostic methods such as ELISA, immunofluorescence and Western blotting are widely used but come with significant limitations, including high costs, long processing times and relatively low sensitivity--factors that restrict their utility in routine screening or point-of-care applications [37]. In contrast, biosensors as POCT systems offer a promising alternative due to their ability to combine a biological recognition element with a signal transducer for the detection of disease-specific biomarkers. They enable faster, more cost-effective and real-time diagnostics. Among these, electrochemical biosensors (e.g., amperometric, impedimetric, voltametric) are especially valued for their high sensitivity and selectivity and have been successfully used to detect markers such as anti-citrullinated peptide antibodies and interleukin-12. Optical biosensors, leveraging fluorescence, surface plasmon resonance (SPR) and electrochemiluminescence, allow for the detection of biomarkers like anti-CCP antibodies and microRNAs. Mechanical biosensors, such as quartz crystal microbalance (QCM) systems, measure changes in mass or surface stress and are known for their exceptional sensitivity. Additionally, the integration of nanomaterials--such as graphene, carbon nanotubes and gold nanoparticles--further enhances biosensor performance by improving signal transduction and bioreceptor immobilization. The field is also moving toward non-invasive solutions, with the development of wearable biosensors that can \begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c c c c c} \hline
**Cancer Type** & **Biomarker(s)** & **POCT Technology** & **Sample Type** & **Detection Time** & **Reference** \\ \hline Prostate & PSA (Prostate & Lateral flow immunoassay, & Serum, Urine & \(\sim\)10–15 min & [28] \\ Cancer & Specific Antigen) & Electrochemical biosensors & Serum, Violence & \(\sim\)20–30 min & [28; 29] \\ \hline Colorectal & CEA (Carcinom- & Microfluidic chips, & Serum, Stool & \(\sim\)20–30 min & [28; 29] \\ Cancer & tyrosine Antigen) & Electrochemical assays & Serum, Stool & \(\sim\)20–30 min & [28; 29] \\ \hline Colorectal & Volatile organic & Electrochemical, gas chromatography/ & & & \\ Cancer & compound & mass spectrometry & & & \\ Breast Cancer & HER2, CA 15-3 & \begin{tabular}{c} \end{tabular} & \begin{tabular}{c} \end{tabular} & \(>\)30 min & [34] \\ \hline \begin{tabular}{c} Ovarian \\ Cancer \\ \end{tabular} & CA-125 & \begin{tabular}{c} Gold nanoparticle-based colorimetric \\ tests, Electrochemical sensors \\ \end{tabular} & \begin{tabular}{c} Serum, Saliva \\ \end{tabular} & \(\sim\)15–20 min & [35; 36] \\ \hline Lung Cancer & CYRA 21-1, & \
\begin{tabular}{c} Quantum dot-based biosensors, \\ INSE \\ \end{tabular} &
\begin{tabular}{c} Blood, Exhaled \\ breath condensate \\ \end{tabular} & \(\sim\)20 min & [28; 34] \\ \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table} 
Table 1: Current POCT systems for cancer. monitor disease-related biomarkers through sweat, offering continuous, real-time tracking for better management of chronic autoimmune conditions (Figure 3). For diabetes mellitus, portable HbA1c analyzers such as the Siemens DCA Vantage provide laboratory-comparable results from capillary blood samples in minutes, facilitating both diagnosis and glycemic control monitoring [38]. Cardiovascular risk assessments can be enhanced through onsite lipid profile testing using devices like the CardioChek PA system, offering total cholesterol, HDL, LDL and triglyceride measurements within a rapid timeframe [39].