# Combination of LiCs and EDLCs with Batteries:
## 3 Results  
The tests carried out on the energy storages involved verifying the performance of the energy storages against the results of previous research, the specifications on their datasheet, the theories guiding their operation, and validating the proposed energy storage hybridisation topology. It was important to validate the energy storages by verifying the working condition; this was done by carrying out charging and discharging tests and comparing the results to previous research. Starting with the battery, the charge and discharge curves of the battery are presented in Figure 6. The battery was charged by supplying a 2-A constant current through its terminals, and charging started at a full discharge of 14 V and lasted till a full charge voltage of 16.8 V; while the discharge started from a full charge voltage of 16.8 V and then stopped when the useable energy in the battery was consumed at 14 V. The charging of the battery under the constant 2-A current lasted for about three hours, while the full discharge under a 2-A load lasted for about 2.5 h. Comparing this to the discharging time obtained by [33; 37], they reported a 60-min discharge time for the battery under a 4-A load. According to the datasheet of the battery in reference [40], it is rated at 6000 mAh, which means it is expected to be able to supply a load of 6 A for one hour; using this as a ratio, that means under a 2-A load, it should run for up to three hours. From the discharge test, the battery was seen to be able to run for more than 80% of the time prescribed by the manufacturer; therefore, the battery performance was within acceptable limits. The charging of SC and HC was done similarly to, but a little differently from the battery. To charge SC or HC, first you start with a constant current with the charging voltage limited to the maximum bank voltage. This is done to allow the flow of charges from the charger into the SC or HC banks due to the potential difference. When the respective bank voltages begin to approach the maximum bank voltage, there is a decrease in the potential difference; therefore, the current begins to drop, and constant voltage charge begins to facilitate trickle charging until there is no potential difference between the charger and SC or HC; thus, the current falls to zero when charging is complete. As can be observed in Figure 7 for SC and Figure 7 for HC, charging started at a low voltage of about 8.5 V; at this voltage, the capacitors are discharged up to about 90% capacity. The current was constant at 3 A when the capacitors reached their full charge; the current began to reduce to allow the trickle charging to take place. Charging of SCs and HCs was carried out using a laboratory power supply; this was to allow the limiting of the charging voltage to 16.8 V so that the cells were not damaged by overcharging. The charging time of the capacitors under the 3-A current lasted for about 30 min for the SC and about 40 min for the HC bank; these results are different from the less than 20 min reported by [33; 37]; however, this is very likely due to the trickle charging carried out in this research because it was not reported by the authors in [33; 37] that trickle charging was done in their research. Figure 6: The experimental validation of the battery showing the charging and discharging curves under a 2-A current source and load, respectively. In Figure 8, the discharge results obtained for SC and HC are presented; the discharge was carried out at 3 A and 12 A using a B&K Precision 8602 electronic load. The discharging times of SCs are much longer than the discharge time reported by [33; 37]. Specifically, under 12 A, SC and HC lasted more than two minutes longer, while under a 3-A load, they lasted over eight minutes longer than the 11 min reported by [33; 37]. This shows the huge importance of trickle charging in the use of SCs and HCs. After the validation of the energy storages, HC and SC were further tested to see their transient response to steep changes in the load.