esa-sceva/satcom-chunk-collection huggingface dataset:
# Matching of Energy Provisions in Multihop Wireless Infra-Structures
###### Abstract  
Recently there have been large advances in energy technologies for battery-operated systems, including green energy resources and high capacity batteries. The effective use of battery energy resources in wireless infrastructure networks to improve the versatility and reliability of wireless communications is an important issue. Emerging applications of smart cities, Internet of Things (IoT), and emergency responses highly rely on the basic communication network infrastructures that enable ubiquitous network connections. However, energy consumption by nodes in a wireless infrastructure network depends on the transmissions of other nodes in the network. Considering this inter-dependence is necessary to achieve efficient provision of energy in wireless networks. This paper studies the issue of energy provision for wireless relay nodes in Wireless Multihop Infrastructures (WMI) assuming constraints on the total energy provision. We introduce a scheme of Energy Provision Matching (Matching-EP) for WMI which optimizes energy provision based on matching of energy provision with estimates of differentiated position-dependent energy consumption by wireless nodes distributed in the network. The evaluation results show that Matching-EP with 4%-34% improvement in energy matching degree enables 10%-40% improvement of the network lifetime, and 5%-40% improvement of packet delivery compared with conventional WMI networks.  
energy provision; matching; wireless multihop infrastructures; green energy; network sustainability +
Footnote †: journal:  
_Article_  
Matching of Energy Provisions in Multihop Wireless Infra-Structures
# TopoSinGAN: Learning a Topology-Aware Generative Model from a Single Image
## 3 Results
### TopoSinGAN Performance Evaluation Using NTC  
The qualitative evaluation of synthetic images generated by SinGAN and TopoSinGAN reveals notable differences, as illustrated in Figure 6. While SinGAN outputs visually resemble the input images, they exhibit topological inaccuracies upon closer inspection. These inaccuracies include discontinuities along field boundaries and isolated line segments within the generated masks. Such anomalies pose a risk to applications that depend on precise topological structures.  
In contrast, TopoSinGAN demonstrates improved topological coherence. It maintains the continuity of agricultural field boundaries without introducing unintended gaps. Additionally, it minimized the number of abnormally isolated line segments within fields. Quantitative assessment using the NTC metric reveals a substantial improvement in accuracy with TopoSinGAN. Specifically, for agricultural and dendrology cases, the NTC indexes between the GT and the 1000 generated images were 15.15 and 14.55, respectively, for SinGAN. These distances are significantly reduced to 3.94 and 2.44 with TopoSinGAN. Lower NTC values indicate higher topological accuracy, thereby demonstrating the effectiveness of TopoSinGAN in enhancing topological coherence. The detailed NTC evaluation results are summarized in Table 1.  
\begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c c c c} \hline \hline  & \multicolumn{2}{c}{**SinGAN**} & \multicolumn{2}{c}{**TopoSinGAN**} \\  & _Mean_ & _STD_ & _Mean_ & _STD_ \\ \hline Agricultural & 15.15 & 3.41 & **3.94** & **1.81** \\ Dendrology & 14.55 & 3.07 & **2.44** & **1.35** \\ \hline \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table}
Table 1: Measured NTC indexes for 1000 synthetic images.  
Figure 5: The result of SVM graph classification using different feature sets.  
To further evaluate the performance of our model and facilitate comparison with existing approaches, we conducted experiments using the CREMI dataset, assessing the results through the NTC metric compared with the TopoGAN and WGAN models. The comparative results are summarized in Table 2. Our model demonstrated improved NTC scores, recording an NTC of 8.15, compared to TopoGAN, which achieved an NTC of 11.05. The WGAN and plain SinGAN models recorded similar NTC scores of 15.76 and 15.46, respectively. Additionally, Figure 7 presents sample generated masks produced by each model, visually comparing their performance.
# Whole-Genome Alignment: Methods, Challenges, and Future Directions
## 2 Classification of Whole-Genome Alignment Algorithms
### Anchor-Based Methods
#### 2.2.4 Lastz  
LASTZ is a versatile alignment tool commonly used in bioinformatics for comparing DNA sequences, mainly used to perform alignment of complete chromosomes [37]. It is widely used in comparative genomics, evolutionary analysis, genome assembly, and sequence annotation. Additionally, it has been employed for tasks such as identifying conserved regions, detecting sequence variations, annotating genomic features, and studying genome rearrangements [38]. It is often integrated into bioinformatics pipelines and genome analysis workflows alongside other tools and resources.  
LASTZ is known for its speed and sensitivity, making it suitable for aligning both closely related and distantly related sequences. It supports both global and local alignment modes, enabling users to align entire sequences (global) or identify regions of similarity (local), handling large genomes efficiently due to its memory-efficient indexing and alignment algorithms. Additionally, it is highly configurable, allowing users to specify parameters such as seed size, gap penalties, scoring matrix, and alignment sensitivity, which can be an advantage but also can be a disadvantage if its performance becomes sensitive to the choice of these parameters. Users need to carefully tune these parameters to balance sensitivity and specificity based on the specific characteristics of their sequences and the alignment task [39].LASTZ has a complexity of \(O(k\times n\times m)\), where \(k\) is the number of hits found and \(n\) and \(m\) are the lengths of the two sequences being compared.  
The LASTZ algorithm utilizes a seed-and-extend approach for DNA sequence alignment, as follows:  
1. This algorithm starts by detecting short near matches (seeds) between target and query sequences;
2. Next, these seeds are extended into longer alignments using a heuristic approach. An adaptive score threshold is calculated taking into account various factors such as the scoring matrix, gap penalties, and statistical significance;
3. A dynamic programming approach is adopted to align the non-extended blocks and construct the final alignment result, similar to the Lagan method.  
Figure 6: Multi-sequence alignment using Lagan. The Lagan method performs pairwise alignment between the closest sequences A and B. Each alignment is considered a new multi-sequence to be compared with another sequence in the set which is C in this case.
## 1 Introduction
An improved analysis method is developed to analyze the asymptotic performance of the proposed codes. The expressions of degree distributions are derived and proven. It is shown that there are two kinds of overall degree distributions, corresponding to two source types, respectively. Furthermore, the decoding performance is analyzed theoretically using the And-Or tree method. 3. A design method of degree distributions using joint iterative optimization algorithms is proposed. Based on the results of the asymptotic performance analysis, the degree distributions of the sources and relays can be optimized in an iterative way. 4. The effectiveness of the proposed enhanced distributed fountain codes is verified by a series of simulations. The degree distributions are validated to be consistent with the analysis and derivation, and the effectiveness of the optimization method is verified. The proposed codes are validated to have a good performance on both lossless and lossy channels through simulations with different parameter settings. The proposed coding scheme is able to overcome the effects of bad channel conditions caused by terrain, obstacles, and so on to avoid communication interruptions and improve the reliability of the network. With engineering optimization and design, it can be implemented and effectively used in various scenarios such as wireless sensor networks. The remainder of this paper is organized as follows. Section 2 proposes a novel multiple-access relay network with a cooperative relay. Section 3 proposes a novel enhanced distributed fountain coding scheme. Section 4 develops an analysis method for the asymptotic performance of the proposed coding scheme. Section 5 proposes an optimization design method for degree distributions. The simulation results are provided in Section 6 to validate the performance of the proposed codes. Discussions and comparisons are given in Section 7. Finally, the conclusions are drawn in Section 8.
## 2 Data Availability and Collection  
The current BeiDou-2 satellites transmit signals at three frequencies, namely, B1(1561.098 MHz), B2 (1207.140 MHz), and B3 (1269.520 MHz), on channel I and channel Q. Channel I is used for civil services and channel Q is used for military purposes [3]. As part of the development of the plan for global coverage and for testing the new BeiDou signal components, the new BeiDou-3e satellites retain the original B1I and B3I signals, but the B2I signal has been replaced by three new experimental signals, which are named B1C (1575.42 MHz), B2a (1176.45 MHz), and B2b (1207.17 MHz) [15; 16]. The legacy BeiDou B1, B2 and B3 frequency signal structures were firstly published in the BeiDou Signal In Space Interface Control Document in December, 2012; however, the new signal specifications are still in the phase and kept confidential. Thus, commercial receivers cannot decode the new B2 codes currently. With the assistance of the International GNSS Service (IGS) Multi-GNSS Experiment (MGEX) plan [17; 18], about 209 multi-GNSS stations have been set up in the IGS network, of which 161 stations are designed for tracking BeiDou-2 satellites (up to 21 August 2017). However, most receivers in the MGEX network cannot track the BeiDou-3e B1I and B3I signals, which is mainly due to old firmware versions. In order to monitor BeiDou satellite signal precision and to improve BeiDou service and performance, the international GNSS Monitoring and Assessment Service (iGMAS) was initiated and developed by China through deploying a worldwide multi-GNSS monitoring stations, which enables global tracking of BeiDou satellites [19]. Currently, 10 of the iGMAS stations are equipped with receivers manufactured by the 20 th and 54 th Institutes of the China Electronics Technology Group Corporation, and can track BeiDou-3e signals. In addition, 14 stations, from Geoscience Australia (GA) network, are able to track the original BeiDou-3e B1I and B3I signals. Table 1 lists information on these capable receivers, and their distribution is shown in Figure 1. The iGMAS and GA data from 21 January 2017 (day of year (DOY) 021) to 19 March 2017 (DOY 079) have been collected and subsequently used for analyses in this study. The selected length of data period is proved to be effective for evaluation of orbit precision under the same status of satellites and distribution of stations [14; 20].
# Dual-Probe Near-Field Phaseless Antenna Measurement System on Board a UAV
## 1 Introduction
On the other hand, iterative techniques do not need additional hardware elements, but the NF radiated by the AUT must be measured on two or more acquisition surfaces [15; 16; 17; 18]. Thus, for on-site NF antenna measurements using UAVs, the latter group of methods is more suitable, allowing a faster and easier deployment of the system. Nevertheless, recent developments in phaseless antenna measurement techniques using a single acquisition surface [19] are a promising solution aiming to avoid the need of two acquisition surfaces. In [9; 11; 20], an UAV-based system for on-site antenna measurement was presented, assessing the performance of the implemented system for antenna diagnostics and characterization. This contribution presents several novelties to improve the measurement accuracy of the system, thus enabling the characterization of high directive antennas, such as reflectors. These improvements are (i) the use of a dual-channel receiver, that allows placing two receiving antennas (probe antennas) at two different distances onboard the UAV, thus collecting NF measurements at two different distances simultaneously; (ii) the introduction of a GNSS dual-band RTK receiver, which increases positioning and geo-referring accuracy and reliability. The former also helps to reduce the flight time, since only one flight is required to gather measurements at two different surfaces. The later contributes to reduce the deployment time, since the convergence time (i.e., the time until a corrected position is obtained) improves compared to a single-band RTK receiver. However, several technical flaws found in the previous version of the prototype for on-site measurements that had an impact in the accuracy of the measurements have been assessed and solved. The experimental validation was conducted measuring a C-band reflector antenna which, to the authors' knowledge, has not been carried out before using other state-of-the-art UAV-based antenna measurement systems.
###### Abstract  
Wireless Underground Sensor Networks (WUGSNs) transmit data collected from underground objects such as water substances, oil substances, soil contents, and others. In addition, the underground sensor nodes transmit the data to the surface nodes regarding underground irregularities, earthquake, landslides, military border surveillance, and other issues. The channel difficulties of WUGSNs create uncertain communication barriers. Recent research works have proposed different types of channel assessment techniques and security approaches. Moreover, the existing techniques are inadequate to learn the real-time channel attributes in order to build reactive data transmission models. The proposed system implements Deep Learning-based Multi-Channel Learning and Protection Model (DMCAP) using the optimal set of channel attribute classification techniques. The proposed model uses Multi-Channel Ensemble Model, Ensemble Multi-Layer Perceptron (EMLP) Classifiers, Nonlinear Channel Regression models and Nonlinear Entropy Analysis Model, and Ensemble Nonlinear Support Vector Machine (ENLSVM) for evaluating the channel conditions. Additionally, Variable Generative Adversarial Network (VGAN) engine makes the intrusion detection routines under distributed environment. According to the proposed principles, WUGSN channels are classified based on the characteristics such as underground acoustic channels, underground to surface channels and surface to ground station channels. On the classified channel behaviors, EMLP and ENLSVM are operated to extract the Signal to Noise Interference Ratio (SNIR) and channel entropy distortions of multiple channels. Furthermore, the nonlinear regression model was trained for understanding and predicting the link (channel behaviors). The proposed DMCAP has extreme difficulty finding the differences of impacts due to channel issues and malicious attacks. In this regard, the VGAN-Intrusion Detection System (VGAN-IDS) model was configured in the sensor nodes to monitor the channel instabilities against malicious nodes. Thus, the proposed system deeply analyzes multi-channel attribute qualities to improve throughput in uncertain WUGSN. The testbed was created for classified channel parameters (acoustic and air) with uncertain network parameters; the uncertainties of testbed are considered as link failures, noise distortions, interference, node failures, and number of retransmissions. Consequently, the experimental results show that DMCAP attains 10% to 15% of better performance than existing systems through better throughput, minimum retransmission rate, minimum delay, and minimum energy consumption rate. The existing techniques such as Support Vector Machine (SVM) and Random Forest (RF)-based Classification (SMC), Optimal Energy-Efficient Transmission (OETN), and channel-aware multi-path routing principles using Reinforcement Learning model (CRLR) are identified as suitable for the proposed experiments.  
keywords: wireless underground sensor networks; channel; distortion; machine learning; reactive communication; energy efficiency; quality assessment
# A Watermarking Technique for Biomedical Images Using SMQT, Otsu, and Fuzzy C-Means
## 3 Proposed Model
### Preprocessing  
Preprocessing provides an added advantage to further analysis. Often during biomedical image transmission, the quality degrades and suffers from blurriness and undesirable noise. To reduce these issues, the sharpness and brightness of the biomedical image was enhanced in the pre-processing stage.  
For image enhancement, we used the successive mean quantization transform (SMQT) algorithm with the help of [PERSON]'s threshold. This algorithm converts the image into a binary tree where each node represents the mean quantization unit (MQU). Each of the MQUs works in three steps: mean calculation, quantization, and input set split [15]. In this case, [PERSON]'s threshold value is utilized at the root of the binary tree of the SMQT algorithm. The output tree is shown in Figure 2. The tree is expressed as u(l,n), where l is the current level and n is the output number. The final SMQT result is calculated by adding the weighting result of the data points of u(l,n). The algorithm aims to have a low dynamic image range. That is why the weighting is calculated by 2\({}^{\text{L-1}}\) up to \(L=8\).  
Figure 1: Flowchart of the proposed model.  
Figure 2: The SMQT as a binary tree of the mean quantization unit (MQU).
## 2 Materials and Methods  
This section presents the real case of dam monitoring based on GNSS techniques and is taken as a reference to exemplify the methodological approach for the analysis and interpretation of the displacement time series logged by the GNSS monitoring system. Two subsections are reported. The first one focuses on the description of the monitored structure, its characteristics and the installed GNSS monitoring equipment. For security and privacy reasons, site and structure will be described in a general way, and any information that could potentially lead to identifying the location and/or the responsible personnel/organization/company of the dam will be omitted. The second subsection deals with the processing required to filter the raw time series for the subsequent displacement interpretation, with particular reference to a possible practical implementation in the framework of an early warning system.
# Ship Network Traffic Engineering Based on Reinforcement Learning
## 2 Materials and Methods
### Ospf  
Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) [19] is a dynamic routing protocol used for routing in computer networks. It is a type of Interior Gateway Protocol (IGP) used to exchange routing information between routers within a single autonomous system (AS). OSPF is an open standard whose protocol specifications are managed and maintained by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF). Among them, RFC 2328 [20] defines OSPFv2, which is an Internal Gateway Protocol (IGP) for IPv4 networks, used for dynamic routing selection between routers. It provides a detailed description of various aspects of the OSPFv2 protocol, including the data format of the protocol, protocol message exchange between routers, routing calculation, establishment and maintenance of neighbor relationships, etc. RFC 5340 [21] defines OSPFv3, which is an extension of the OSPF protocol for IPv6 networks. Similar to OSPFv2, OSPFv3 is used for routing selection in IPv6 networks. This system enables routers from different manufacturers to implement and support the same protocol standards. OSPF uses the shortest path first algorithm to determine paths for packets to travel through the network. In other words, the routing path it chooses is the shortest, i.e., has the lowest cost (usually the link bandwidth). OSPF is a link-state protocol that understands network topology by exchanging link-state databases (Link-State Database) [22]. Each router maintains a link-state database containing information about the status of all links in the network. OSPF runs within an autonomous system rather than between different autonomous systems. An autonomous system refers to a group of networks and routers controlled by a unified management entity. OSPF can divide the network into different areas to increase scalability and reduce the link-state database size. The router only knows the topology information within the area, not the overall topology of the autonomous system. OSPF helps connect disconnected areas through virtual links so that the entire autonomous system forms a logical connectivity structure.  
OSPF is widely used in enterprise and Internet provider networks, providing a highly reliable, dynamically adaptable routing mechanism suitable for complex network environments.
# ECOTIRE: A New Concept of a Smart and Sustainable Tire Based on a Removable Tread
## 2 Intelligent Tire Requirements for the New Concept  
Key parameters such as rotation speed, inflation pressure, and supported load are essential for evaluating a tire's ability to transmit forces to the pavement in both longitudinal and lateral directions [31]. These forces are closely tied to the balance between required and available grip in various conditions. In the development of intelligent tires, grip estimation has been a fundamental aspect, with strain measurements serving as a primary tool. To explore this further, the research team developed two intelligent tire prototypes based on existing models, as shown in Figure 1. The results demonstrate the promising capabilities of instrumented tires.  
Various studies have successfully extracted valuable insights from tire deformation data, leading to improved estimates of parameters such as pressure, angular velocity, tire load [32], slip angle, and lateral force [33], requested lateral grip [34], camber angle [35], effective radius, and contact patch length [36]. More recently, this research has focused on the combined grip in both longitudinal and lateral directions [37; 38; 39]. These advancements have enabled the development of slip detection systems that provide critical data to driving assistance systems, helping to anticipate slippage and support functions like stability control, traction, and braking assistance.  
While these results emphasize the potential of instrumented tires, their broader adoption requires reducing both the cost and complexity of the instrumentation. Additionally, it is essential to integrate these components into more durable tires, allowing the electronic systems to function over longer distances or, ideally, throughout the vehicle's entire lifespan.  
A conventional rubber-based casing, when paired with an appropriate protective coating, could offer a viable solution for enhancing service life and supporting the necessary instrumentation. Promising research suggests that coatings made from polyurethanes and silicones, when properly applied, can effectively shield rubber from degradation caused by ultraviolet radiation, humidity, and temperature [40; 41; 42]. Since the casing experiences significantly less wear than the tread, its lifespan can be extended by three to five times if properly protected from environmental factors. Given that this component makes up more than 80% of the tire's weight, it plays a crucial role in reducing overall waste generation.  
To address the distinct challenges posed by both the casing and tread, it is essential to explore alternatives to the current tire structure. In collaboration with the technological company Advantaria, the ECOTIRE research initiative focused on removable tread was launched. Advantaria brings expertise in similar tire structures, originally developed for military vehicles to enhance their durability and even incorporate armor [43; 44; 45].