## 3 Results and Discussion
#### 3.1.1 Techno-Functional Characteristics
The hydrophilic/lipophilic index (HLI) values ranged from 0.97 \(\pm\) 0.01 to 1.75 \(\pm\) 0.03 g H\({}_{2}\)O/g oil with the highest HLI at 1.75 \(\pm\) 0.03 for LP 100%, while pure tapioca flour exhibited the lowest, at 0.97 \(\pm\) 0.01. The blends displayed decreasing HLI values with increases in tapioca content, indicating a shift  
\begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c c c c c c} \hline \hline
**Sample** & **WHC** & **WAC** & **OAC** & **HLI** & **WAI** & **WSI** & **SP** \\
**[g H\({}_{2}\)O/g d.b. ]** & **[g H\({}_{2}\)O/g d.b. ]** & **[g oil/g d.b. ]** & **[g H\({}_{2}\)O/g oil]** & **[g H\({}_{2}\)O/g d.b. ]** & **[g/100 g d.b. ]** & **[g H\({}_{2}\)O/g d.b. ]** \\ \hline LP 100\% & 3.62 \(\pm\) 0.44 ** & 2.88 \(\pm\) 0.02 ** & 1.69 \(\pm\) 0.02 ** & 1.75 \(\pm\) 0.03 ** & 3.59 \(\pm\) 0.09 ** & 7.45 \(\pm\) 0.08 ** & 3.25 \(\pm\) 0.08 ** & 2.10 \(\pm\) 0.01 ** & 1.20 \(\pm\) 0.02 ** & 1.20 \(\pm\) 0.02 ** & 1.20 \(\pm\) 0.02 ** & 1.20 \(\pm\) 0.06 ** & 6.35 \(\pm\) 0.04 ** & 5.49 \(\pm\) 4.04 ** & 6.24 \(\pm\) 4.03 ** & 1.51 \(\pm\) 0.09 ** & 5.05 \(\pm\) 0.10 ** & 6.07 \(\pm\) 0.27 ** & 7.70 \(\pm\) 0.15 [FOOTNOTE:2]Footnote 2: LP = luffa powder; TF = tapioca flour; WHC = water holding capacity; WAC = water absorption toward a greater lipophilic character. LP-rich samples exhibited higher HLI values (up to 1.75), consistent with the hydrophilic nature of cell wall polysaccharides in Luffa (e.g., cellulose, hemicellulose). The observed changes support the view that LP contributes to hydrophilic functionality, while TF introduces more hydrophobic or amphiphilic behavior, which is relevant for emulsion-type meat analogues [30]. The water absorption index (WAI) showed values ranging from 3.59 \(\pm\) 0.09 to 10.90 \(\pm\) 0.15 g H\({}_{2}\)O/g d.b. ; TF 100% again had the highest WAI at 10.90 \(\pm\) 0.15, indicating the strong water uptake and swelling behavior typical of gelatinized starches. Pure _L. cylindrica_ powder showed the lowest WAI at 3.59 \(\pm\) 0.09. The blends exhibited increasing WAI with higher tapioca contents. The LP-rich samples showed lower WAI values, consistent with their limited swelling due to the rigid, non-gelatinizing nature of dietary fiber matrices. The water solubility index (WSI) varied considerably, from 0.88 \(\pm\) 0.38 to 7.45 \(\pm\) 0.64 g/100 g d.b. For soluble residuals, pure tapioca flour showed the lowest WSI at 0.88 \(\pm\) 0.38, while LP 100% exhibited the highest at 7.45 \(\pm\) 0.64, suggesting partial solubilization of some fiber components or fiber-starch interactions that promote breakdown into smaller soluble fractions during processing. Comparable patterns have been reported in blends of soluble and insoluble fibers with starches [31]. The swelling power (SP) displayed substantial variations, ranging from 3.25 \(\pm\) 0.08 to 9.74 \(\pm\) 0.19 g H\({}_{2}\)O/g d.b. ; TF 100% exhibited the highest swelling power at 9.74 \(\pm\) 0.19, while pure _L. cylindrica_ powder showed the lowest at 3.25 \(\pm\) 0.08. The blends demonstrated intermediate values that increased with the tapioca contents. SP was significantly higher in TF-dominated samples, confirming the gel-forming and swelling properties of tapioca starch, which exhibits extensive granule swelling upon heating [28]. In contrast, LP, being composed mostly of non-gelatinizing, lignocellulosic material, contributes little to swelling, resulting in lower SP values in LP-rich formulations. These results indicate that the addition of tapioca flour significantly influenced the functional properties of _L. cylindrica_ seed press cake powder, generally resulting in decreased water holding and absorption capacities but also in an enhanced swelling power and water absorption index, suggesting complementary functional characteristics that could be optimized for specific food applications. Figure 2 presents the foaming and emulsifying characteristics of _L. cylindrica_ seed press cake powder and its blends with tapioca flour. Figure 2: Foaming and emulsifying characteristics of _L.