### Civic Online Reasoning  
[PERSON] et al. [6] found that news literate individuals are less likely to share news items on social media, leaving less literate individuals vulnerable as they are more likely to share and be exposed to untrustworthy news. To combat misinformation, [PERSON] et al. [17] have called for an initiative to find technological improvements in the dissemination of news as well as training of readers' critical thinking. Among other things, the authors proposed to draw on journalistic skills to improve media education. Such an effort was initiated by [PERSON] and [PERSON] [11], which led [PERSON] and collaborators to develop the concept of civic online reasoning in order to boil down online source criticism to a few relevant and concrete strategies [10; 11; 12; 13; 14]. Civic online reasoning is an elaboration of three heuristics used by professional historians to evaluate historical texts and images [18; 19]: (a) corroboration (i.e., comparing documents), (b) sourcing (i.e., evaluating the document source before reading its text) and (c) contextualisation (i.e., identifying the document frame of reference). In their study, [PERSON] and [PERSON] [11] invited professional fact-checkers, historians and university students to evaluate websites with information of importance to citizens. The major finding was that the professional fact-checkers outperformed the other groups in their strategies to detect and debunk misinformation. The group of fact-checkers employed _lateral reading_, which means that they immediately began investigating the publisher of the information by opening additional internet browser tabs before they even read the information on the target website. Furthermore, fact-checkers also employed _click restraint_; they carefully chose to proceed to links in search results that were relevant and not necessarily ranked as the top result. Thus, the fact-checkers, in opposition to the other groups, read multiple, relevant sources in order to be able to corroborate and contextualise the information and understand the publisher's motivation. Often, online information is not only composed of written text but also accompanied by images and videos, particularly when shared through social media. Information consumers, currently and in the future, must therefore be able to critically assess multimodal sources, which requires not only verbal literacy but also visual literacy. What becomes ever more crucial today is the ability to evaluate the credence of visual and verbal content created by skilled communicators. A picture can better convey a direct meaning than the abstract symbols of verbal communication in the sense that photographs are direct and analogue to the object they portray, in contrast to written words that need to be actively read before they can be understood. The visual system naturally develops as a child matures through the interaction with the environment, but reading text relies on higher cognitive skills. However, when coupled with written text, images can be used in deceptive ways to manipulate the readers' emotions and lend credence to manipulative texts. This contrast was elaborated upon by [PERSON] [20] arguing that visual images may require greater literacy than words. Therefore, the need for greater literacy arises, given that skilful communicators can easily manipulate their audiences by using emotional or tendentious imagery to augment a message [21]. Imagery, even if true, can be angled to portray a false picture. Video can be manipulatedwith selective editing to make the events portrayed become larger than life to sway public opinion [22]. Similarly, statistical data can be presented in graphs in ways that amplify differences to an unrealistic degree [23]. Judgement of images is highly tacit and a viewer often arrives quickly at an interpretation intuitively.