## 4 Conclusions  
This study demonstrates the potential of using nanostructured catalysts derived from biomass waste, specifically CuFe nanoparticles supported in tea waste material (CuNPs@TWM), for the efficient removal of pharmaceutical contaminants from water. By analyzing the adsorption behavior of Acetylsalicylic acid (ASA), naproxen (NAP), and ibuprofen (IBU), key insights were obtained regarding the material's performance and the influence of catalyst dosage. Results revealed that CuNPs@TWM exhibited superior adsorption capacities compared to TWM and CuFeNPs, with maximum adsorption values of 5.32 \(\pm\) 0.01, 14.26 \(\pm\) 0.02, and 9.39 \(\pm\) 0.02 mg g\({}^{-1}\) for ASA, NAP, and IBU, respectively. The enhanced performance of CuNPs@TWM can be attributed to the synergistic effect between the high surface area of TWM and the catalytic activity of CuFe nanoparticles, which provide abundant active sites for adsorption and chemical interactions. The investigation into catalyst dosage revealed that the adsorption efficiency was highly dosage-dependent, with an optimal dosage of 20 mg L\({}^{-1}\) maximizing contaminant removal. At this dosage, a balance was achieved between the availability of active sites and contaminant concentrations. Complete degradation of the contaminants was achieved within 15 min by the EF process under optimal conditions (20 mA and 20 mg L\({}^{-1}\)). The applied current facilitated the efficient generation of oxidants, while the catalyst supported their activation. At higher currents (50 mA), secondary reactions like oxygen evolution and hydroxyl radical recombination slightly reduced efficiency, confirming 20 mA as the optimal current. Overall, the findings underscore the potential of combining biomass-derived supports with metal nanoparticles to create cost-effective, sustainable, and efficient adsorbents for water treatment applications. CuNPs@TWM offers a promising solution for removing CECs from contaminated water, aligning with global efforts to mitigate pharmaceutical pollution in aquatic environments. While the approach is promising at the laboratory scale, scaling up for industrial application may require further optimization and cost analysis. Future studies should explore the long-term stability and reusability of these materials, as well as their performance in complex water matrices containing numerous contaminants at pre-pilot plants. Additionally, the integration of these adsorbents into scalable water treatment systems could pave the way for practical applications in industrial and municipal settings. The following are available online at [[https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/app15031418/s1](https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/app15031418/s1)]([https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/app15031418/s1](https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/app15031418/s1)): Figure S1. XPS spectra for samples: (a) TWM, (b) CuFeNPs, and (c) CuFeNPs@TWM; Figure S2. Size distribution of the synthesized CuFeNPs; Figure S3. EDS elemental mapping for TWM; Figure S4. EDS elemental mapping for CuFeNPs; Figure S5. N\({}_{2}\) adsorption and desorption isotherms obtained for (a) TWM, (b) CuFeNPs, and (c) CuFeNPs@TWM; Figure S6. The pH\({}_{\text{p}ac}\) of the CuFeNPs@TWM; Figure S7. Normalized concentration decay for each CEC in the function of different solution initial pH: (a) pH 5, and (b) 7. Experimental conditions: Catalyst, CuFeNPs@TWM; catalyst load, 20 mg L\({}^{-1}\); applied current, 20 mA; electrolyte, Na\({}_{2}\)SO\({}_{4}\) 50 mmol L\({}^{-1}\); Figure S8. Concentration of Fe\({}^{2+}\) and Fe\({}^{3+}\) in solution after different catalytic cycles. Each cycle considered 30 min of adsorption and 30 min of EF process. Experimental conditions: Catalyst, CuFeNPs@TWM; catalyst load, 20 mg L\({}^{-1}\); applied current, 20 mA; electrolyte, Na\({}_{2}\)SO\({}_{4}\) 50 mmol L\({}^{-1}\); pH, 3. **Author Contributions:** L.M.-B. : Methodology and investigation; J.C.-P: formal analysis, writing--review and editing; C.G.-F.: formal analysis, writing--review and editing; N.E.