# Development of a Multi-Radio Device for Dry Container Monitoring and Tracking
## 2 Related Works, Enabling Technologies and Standards
Alongside the applied research in this field, commercial initiatives have emerged in recent years proposing devices and tracking systems for dry containers; however, they have not gained traction in the market yet. The first systems based on the hardware and software technologies available before 4G are represented by the AVANTE [12] Intermodal Real-time Container Tracking Solution and STARCOM Systems TETIS [13] Real-time Container Tracking System proposed for the USA (the former) and UK (the latter) market. An analysis of those systems can be found in [PERSON]'s paper [14]. After that, the commercial initiative that has generated the highest expectations is the \"Traxens Box\", a version developed in 2017 with 2G/3G connectivity and a proprietary mesh radio network [15]. Although major shipping companies (MSC, Maersk, and CMA CGM) affiliated with the Digital Container Shipping Association (DCSA) [16] have shown interest in the development of the Traxens device, none of them have yet decided to adopt it extensively for their current shipments. The latest version, the \"Traxens-Box 3\", has upgraded its cellular communication technologies, abandoned the mesh, and is currently undergoing certification [17]. Recently, Traxens acquired a Next4 company offering a competing product, i.e., a removable container tracker capable of crane lift-up detection and door-opening detection, with BLE to connect to other sensors. The communication for that device is generically declared as IoT, but no further specification is provided, except that BLE is used for connecting to other sensors. The price of those devices is variable, up to USD 300 [18]. The relevant shipping company Hapag-Lloyd [19] has announced that its container fleet is currently equipping itself with devices from the established partner Nexxiot [20]. Furthermore, starting from the end of 2023, the installation of ORBCOMM devices has also commenced. The cellular connectivity is based on 4G with a 2G fallback. BLE is used for sensor communication, and no mesh network is implemented. It is not clear how the tracer is connected to the satellite network. It seems that in the case of satellite connection, the devices provided by ORBCOMM are used, but no detailed information is available about the communication technology adopted during the open sea journey and the overall costs. The digitization of containers appears to be at a turning point; all these initiatives indicate that the shift toward comprehensive service coverage is now imminent. The process is driven by three main trends: the increase in profit caused by high levels of digitalization of supply chains, increased awareness of the capability of connected objects, and new technology, which drives down costs. For the characteristics we describe below, we find that the new disruptive communication technologies in this sector are NB-IoT for long-range coverage and BLE Mesh for short-range communication. NB-IoT is a 5G Low Power Wide Area (LPWA) cellular network [21] that supports a large number of connections (Massive Internet of Things) with broad coverage, low energy consumption, and cost-effectiveness [22]. The NB-IoT network is already active in most countries worldwide (excluding Africa), as depicted in Figure 2. It can accommodate a vast number of IoT sensors with very limited radio resources. It is the most suitable network for monitoring dry containers on land in areas with cellular coverage. In the 5G SENSOR@SEA project, an NB-IoT network with satellite backhauling was also deployed on the container ship, demonstrating complete coverage for container monitoring and tracking, both on land and at sea [23]. Figure 2: Global IoT cellular coverage map of the GSM Association [24]. BLE Mesh Networks enable flexible and reliable communications for low-power Internet of Things (IoT) devices thanks to several key features explained below [25]. BLE Mesh networks can self-organize without a central control point.