## 2 Materials and Methods
### Raw Material
#### 2.2.1 Techno-Functional Characteristics  
The water absorption capacity (WAC), oil absorption capacity (OAC), and hydrophilic/lipophilic index (HLI) were measured following the protocol of [PERSON] (2024), with slight modifications [16]. Briefly, the WAC was determined by mixing. For determination of the water absorption capacity (WAC), 3 g of a sample were mixed with 30 mL of distilled water in pre-weighed centrifuge tubes. To assess oil absorption capacity (OAC), an identical procedure was followed, replacing water with 30 mL of rapeseed oil. The mixtures were homogenized using a vortex mixer ([PERSON], Schwabach, Germany) for 30 s, allowed to stand at room temperature for 10 min, and subsequently centrifuged at 3000\(\times\)\(g\) (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA). After centrifugation, the supernatants were carefully decanted. The remaining sediment, along with the tubes, was placed in a drying oven (Vindon Scientific, Rochdale, UK) at 50 \({}^{\circ}\)C for 25 min to remove residual moisture or oil. The WAC and OAC values were expressed as grams of liquid retained per gram of dry sample, based on Equation (1):  
\[\textbf{WAC; OAC}=\frac{\textbf{Wst}-\textbf{Wt}}{\textbf{Ws}} \tag{1}\]  
The hydrophilic/lipophilic index (HLI) was calculated as the ratio of water absorption capacity (WAC) to oil absorption capacity (OAC), serving as an indicator of the sample's polarity-related binding preferences. The water absorption index (WAI), water solubility index (WSI), and swelling power (SP) were assessed. Briefly, 3 g of the sample were suspended in 30 mL of distilled water in pre-weighed centrifuge tubes and subjected to thermal treatment at 90 \({}^{\circ}\)C for 10 min in a water bath (MLL147, AJL Electronics, Krakow, Poland). After allowing the suspensions to cool to ambient temperature, samples were centrifuged at 3000\(\times\)\(g\) for 10 min. The sediment was weighed to determine water retention, while the supernatant was transferred to pre-weighed Petri dishes and dried in a laboratory oven (SML, Zalmed, Lomianki, Poland) at 110 \({}^{\circ}\)C for 24 h to quantify solubilized solids. WAI, WSI, and SP were then calculated and expressed as g/g or %, as appropriate. Foaming properties were measured based on a modified procedure adapted from [PERSON] et al. (2012) [17]. To determine foaming capacity (FC), 1 g of the test material was dispersed in 50 mL of distilled water in a graduated cylinder. The mixture was manually agitated in a vertical motion for 5 min and the initial and post-foaming volumes were recorded. FC was expressed as milliliters of foam per gram of dry matter. Foam stability (FS) was evaluated by monitoring the decrease in foam volume after 1 h at room temperature, with results expressed as a percentage of the initial foam volume. The calculation was based on Equation (2), as follows:  
\[\text{FS}\left[\%\right]=\left(\text{V}_{1}\text{H}/\text{V}_{0}\right) \times 100 \tag{2}\]  
where V\({}_{1}\)H represents the foam volume after 1 h and V\({}_{0}\) denotes the initial foam volume. Emulsifying activity (EA) and emulsifying stability (ES) were assessed following the method of [PERSON] et al. (2024), with slight modifications [18]. The procedure involved mixing the sample with predetermined amounts of water and rapeseed oil, followed by homogenization to form an emulsion. The emulsified phase was separated by centrifugation; the volume of the emulsion layer was measured to determine EA. To evaluate ES, the emulsionswere subjected to mild heating and allowed to rest at room temperature, after which the retained emulsion volume was recorded. The determination of dietary fiber content (both insoluble and soluble fractions) was conducted following a modified enzymatic-gravimetric protocol. The procedure was adapted from AOAC Method 991.43 and AACC Method 32-07.01, incorporating elements from AACC Methods 32-05.01 (total dietary fiber) and the dedicated method for soluble and insoluble fiber determination with additional adjustments [19].