## 1 Introduction  
Air pollution is a global issue, particularly in low- and middle-income countries, which serve as industrial production hubs and often rely on low technology. Additionally, heavy vehicle usage and traffic congestion contribute significantly to air pollution [1]. Air pollution has severe health consequences and can lead to stroke, heart disease, lung cancer, and respiratory diseases. In 2019, approximately 99% of the world's population lived in areas where the air quality was poor and did not meet the good air quality standards set by the World Health Organization (WHO). The WHO estimated that air pollution caused approximately 4.2 million premature deaths in 2019, with 89% of these deaths occurring in low- and middle-income countries. Most of the affected populations were in Southeast Asia and the Western Pacific regions [2]. Thailand experienced economic growth of approximately 24.62% from 2012 to 2022, as measured by GDP (Gross Domestic Product) [3], caused by the expansion of its urbanization and industrial sectors. Both factors cause air pollution problems, especially in terms of Particulate matter 2.5 (PM\({}_{2.5}\)) and Sulfur dioxide (SO\({}_{2}\)) emissions from vehicles and fuel, residential, and industrial uses [4]. PM\({}_{2.5}\) and SO\({}_{2}\) are considered major causes of air pollution that greatly affect the economy, the environment, and public health. SO\({}_{2}\) is a component of particulate matter (PM) and has become a major problem in Thailand, particularly in areas with high economic activity, industry, and urbanization. This pollution contributes to environmental degradation and indirectly impacts Thailand's economy. It has also been found that air pollution has resulted in economic costs as high as 210,603 million baht in 1990 and 871,300 million baht in 2013, when adjusted to 2018 currency values [1]. This is a critical issue in Thailand as it imposes significant economic, public health, and environmental costs. In particular, PM\({}_{2.5}\) and SO\({}_{2}\), which originate from both domestic and neighboring countries' economic activities, contribute to severe pollution levels. This study focuses on the socio-economic factors influencing PM\({}_{2.5}\) concentrations across provinces. By analyzing how each socio-economic factor affects PM\({}_{2.5}\) levels, the findings can help formulate policy recommendations for economic planning aimed at addressing air pollution and promoting environmentally friendly and sustainable growth. These efforts align with Thailand's 20-Year National Strategy (2018-2037), the Master Plan of the National Strategy (2018-2037), and the National Reform Plan on Natural Resources and Environment, all of which emphasize the development of an eco-friendly economy and long-term sustainable growth. The goal is to control air pollution levels, ensuring that they do not exceed the international standards set by Thailand [5]. However, a research gap remains, as previous studies have predominantly relied on provincial-level, ground-based data in Thailand [6; 7; 8; 9]. To cover this research gap, the main objective of this study is to utilize satellite data from the Modern-Era Retrospective Analysis for Research and Applications, Version 2 (MERRA-2) to analyze the spatial correlations of PM\({}_{2.5}\) within the model and examine the relationship between air pollution and socio-economic factors in Thailand using the EKC framework and a spatial econometric model. This methodological approach differs from previous studies. The study results confirm that provinces with high economic activity and energy consumption intensity and sizable populations tend to experience severe PM\({}_{2.5}\) pollution. Additionally, PM\({}_{2.5}\) is a nationwide issue that affects all provinces rather than being confined to a single region. Therefore, the government should implement integrated policies at the national level rather than addressing the problem in isolation within individual provinces.