## 1 Introduction  
A global challenge affecting humankind lies in understanding, preventing and managing ever-increasing male infertility. The world health organization (WHO) defines infertility as the inability to conceive after a year of regular unprotected sexual intercourse [1]. Infertility affects all genders, and its prevalence among couples ranges from 10 to 15% globally, with male factors contributing 20-50% of all infertility cases [2; 3]. In addition, male infertility causes substantial psychological and social distress and imposes a considerable economic burden on the health care system [3]. Many causes and risk factors contribute to the overarching incidence of male infertility, graded as idiopathic, acquired and congenital [3]. Previous reports estimate that about 30-50% of male infertility patients are idiopathic [2; 4]. In addition, infertile couples experience many emotions, including depression, anger and shame. Furthermore, they are sometimes mocked, embarrassed and even presumed by peers, friends and parents, particularly in societies with high expectations for bearing children after marriage [4]. Acquired factors of male infertility include varicocele, testicular trauma, testicular torsion, recurrent unrogenital infections and acquired secondary hypogonadism [5]. Among these factors,varicocele is the most common cause of infertility in men, with a prevalence of 40% [5]. In addition, congenital causes of male infertility arise from the congenital bilateral absence of the vas deferens associated with cystic fibrosis, gene mutations and chromosomal abnormalities leading to the deterioration of testicular function and Y chromosome microdeletions resulting in isolated spermatogenic defects [6]. These risk factors may also cause excessive accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in cells and induce damage to the reproductive function by releasing inflammatory cytokines and, eventually, oxidative stress [7]. ROS affect sperm parameters directly or indirectly by impairing male reproductive hormones, cells and organs [7]. Some factors leading to male infertility can be surgically reversed or therapeutically ameliorated with drugs [8]. However, treatment options depend on the cause of male infertility, the patient's age, financial status, facilities available in a designated hospital and expertise [9]. The primary treatment for male factor infertility is intrauterine insemination (IUI), tubal and male ejaculatory duct cryosurgery, in-vitro fertilisation (IVF) and embryo transfer with or without intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) [9]. In addition, psycho-sexual counselling, vacuum constriction device (penis pump), diet, exercise, weight loss, approved phosphodiesterase type 5 (PDE5) inhibitors drugs, including Viagra (Sildenafil), Cialis (Tadalafil) and Levitra (Vardenafil) and Stendra (Avanafil), apomorphine and intra-cavrenosal injection therapies as well as medicinal plants, such as Pausinystalia yohimbe and Tribulus terrestris, are used for the treatment of erectile dysfunction [8,10]. Furthermore, testosterone replacement therapy (TRT), aromatase inhibitors and human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) therapy [11,12] are used for the treatment of primary hypogonadism. Most of these male infertility treatment options have been deemed adequate. However, they also have their downsides regarding side effects, costs, invasiveness of the administration method and availability, particularly in African countries [8,9,11,12]. Therefore, medicinal herbs may be recommended to treat male reproductive impairment, as these herbs enhance reproductive functions [13,14]. _M. deifera_ (drumstick tree, horseradish tree, ben-oil tree or kelor tree) is of the family 'Morringaceae' [15,16,17]. It originates from the sub-Himalayan tracts of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Afghanistan and can grow in subtropical and tropical climates [18].