## 3 Results and Discussion
\begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c} \hline \hline
**Sampling Methods** & **Criteria Application** \\ \hline \multirow{8}{*}{Oropharyngeal swab} & Oropharyngeal (OPS) sampling is considered a more practical method to use. Before being extracted, the swab is gently twisted a few times and directed towards the posterior wall of the orophynx. A broader variety of swab items can be used to get OPS samples, and while self-collection may be possible, it is advised that a healthcare professional collect OP swabs. Performing throat cultures on individuals who have an irritated epiglottis is not recommended. Acute respiratory obstruction and bacterial infection can both be exacerbated by swabing the epiglottis. Healthcare professionals must conduct these tests in a dedicated and sterilized room to prevent the transmission of the virus. All healthcare professionals administering the oropharyngeal swab test are required to don the recommended personal protective equipment (PPE), which should include an N95 mask, disposable cap, goggles, gown, latex gloves, and shoe covers. Medium cost. Medium accessibility. \\ \hline \multirow{8}{*}{Bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BAL) samples may be considered as a viable option due to their characteristics as a highly effective specimen with a notable rate of detection. However, in the collection process, a bronchoscope is passed through the mouth or nose into an appropriate airway in the lungs, with a measured amount of fluid introduced and then collected for examination. This sample is typically obtained from patients who are severely ill or undergoing mechanical ventilation. Bronchoalveolar lavage serves as a valuable and secure procedure for sampling the cellular components of the lung. BAL, as a diagnostic tool, can be employed to accurately diagnose various infections and acquire material for culture and sensitivity analysis. The most prevalent risks associated with this procedure are akin to those observed in flexible bronchoscopy, including transient hypoxemia, post-BAL fever (which can be seen in up to 30% of patients), bronchospasm, and, very rarely, pneumothorax. This procedure can only be performed by a trained physician, and it is required to wear the recommended personal protective equipment (PPE), which should include an N95 mask, disposable cap, goggles, gown, latex gloves, and shoe cover. Very high cost. Low accessibility. \\ \hline \multirow{8}{*}{Saliva} & Saliva testing and collection may be a simple, low-cost sample technique that causes the user as little discomfort as possible. It is also a reliable, user-friendly, portable, and scalable platform for the diagnosis of diseases. The type of saliva sampled—whole saliva or saliva generated by certain glands—as well as whether the sample was taken following stimulation will determine the outcome. The amount of spit and the device’s capacity to retrieve the biomarkers determine which one is best. Moreover, the salivary composition can be influenced by several factors, including the flow rate, pH, temperature, food, and age (with infants, children, and the elderly exhibiting the most fluctuation). However, since new, extremely sensitive technologies have been developed, saliva has a lower level of analytes. Additionally, the potential to be self-collected eliminates the need for a trained health professional for sampling. Low cost. High accessibility. \\ \hline \multirow{8}{*}{Faeces} & SARS-CoV-2 is frequently detected in faecal specimens even after negative results from throat swabs during the post-symptomatic phase. The presence of the virus in the stool seems to be comparable among patients with and without gastrointestinal symptoms. It is crucial to acknowledge that the stool sample might contain infectious pathogens, which can be transmitted to others. Consequently, it is mandatory for all healthcare professionals handling the samples to wear the prescribed personal protective equipment (PPE), including an N95 mask, disposable cap, goggles, gown, latex gloves, and shoe covers. The performance of a faecal culture testing does not entail any associated risks and can be self-collected. Low cost. Medium accessibility. \\ \hline \multirow{8}{*}{Blood} & In certain scenarios, such as when dealing with patients in a comatose state, the act of sampling through the orophyngeal or nasopharyngeal route is rarely achievable, thus making blood sampling a viable alternative. Furthermore, the utilization of blood tests may pose fewer risks for the medical personnel carrying out the sampling compared to the use of respiratory swabs. It is important to acknowledge that the identification of viral RNA-aemia might not indicate an active infection, but rather signify a post-viral infection period. As this approach involves an invasive methodology, there exists the potential for adverse effects such as pain, swelling, bruising, discoloration of tissue, or scarring around the vein from which the blood sample is drawn. It is plausible that some of these tissue alterations and scarring could persist permanently. Additionally, these collection procedures must be conducted exclusively by licensed technicians with the proper collection material including collection tubes, needles, blood collection chairs and sterilization materials. Every healthcare professional must use the specified personal protective equipment (PPE), comprising an N95 mask, disposable cap, goggles, gown, latex gloves, and shoe covers. High cost. \\ \hline \hline \end{tabular}
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