# May the Extensive Farming System of Small Ruminants Be Smart?
## 3 Results
### Non-Wearable Sensors and Network Technologies  
Animal observation can also be carried out with fixed cameras that provide images or videos. This technological equipment facilitates the ability of farmers to watch and monitor many parameters within the barn, including temperature, activity levels, sound levels (such as vocalisations, sneezing, and coughing), and specific behaviours. For intensive indoor livestock farming, fixed cameras are used; for outdoor farming and grazing animals, fixed cameras are often integrated or replaced with cameras mounted on remotely controlled drones for large-scale surveillance [6]. Cameras can be cost-effective alternatives to positioning sensor collars, which are expensive and must be fitted to large numbers of animals for surveillance to provide helpful information [67]. Another possibility for monitoring livestock with new technologies is the use of drones. [PERSON] et al. [15] have reported using drones that include thermal cameras in small ruminant farming. The drones also provide landscape overviews, useful for assessing pasture biomass and grazing intensity [6]. However, evaluating drone images can be a time-consuming manual task. The observation of animals and social interactions is facilitated with cameras and with better results when combined with other technologies. The effect of drones on the behaviours and well-being of domestic grazing animals requires further investigation. Using drones equipped with cameras for counting and studying animals in the landscape is increasingly widespread, especially for wildlife [30]. Another type of camera is the thermal camera, which measures the amount of infrared radiation (heat) emitted by the body surface of an animal and can distinguish animals in the dark, making it possible to monitor them at night [42]. In the case of drones with thermal cameras, light, shadow, or dense vegetation conditions are less of a problem than for drones with cameras. In extensive systems, some studies have demonstrated the possibility of monitoring livestock with GPS devices coupled with remote sensing techniques such as LiDAR [68] or multispectral technology [64; 69; 70]. These systems have reported very interesting results for quantifying the environmental characteristics and explaining the movements of grazing animals [43]. As reported by [PERSON] et al. [71], the combination of a multi-camera video recording system for detecting sheep behaviours in standing and lying positions with an ultrawideband real-time tracking system (UWB RTLS) provides a position and a more accurate evaluation. In agriculture and animal husbandry, the application of wireless (WSN) technologies, consisting of a transceiver, sensors, microcontrollers, and energy sources, is increasing. The network comprises sensor nodes with data storage and processing capabilities, which, unlike RFID systems, can communicate wirelessly [16; 72]. Sensor network applications have become more important in recent years, partly due to the development of small, low-cost, multifunctional sensor nodes with low power consumption, helpful in monitoring grazing livestock. Several studies have reported positive results for using an inexpensive and relatively simple WSN system to track livestock and monitor their activity in real time using Wi-Fi [59]. The system records the animal movements using accelerometers and position sensors [80; 81]. All information about the animal's identity, location, and activity is sent to a base station node, which forwards it for storage on a web server. However, in several technologically well-developed countries, broadband in the countryside is still absent [46]. The recent and unprecedented evolution of IoT, big data, and machine learning (ML) technologies has created opportunities to recover additional and valuable information from grazing systems. ML techniques are increasingly used in livestock management for welfare monitoring and pasture management [65; 66].