## 3 Results
### Pain Status and Basic Activities of Daily Living  
Significant associations were observed between pain groups and the presence of more than one limitation in BADLs (\(\chi^{2}\) = 3679.3; df = 2; \(p\) \(<\) 0.001; V = 0.231). A total of 5% of participants without pain had \(>\)1 limitation, compared to 18% with LP and 37% with WP (\(p\) \(<\) 0.001), with significant differences also between the two pain groups. In IADLs (\(\chi^{2}\) = 4511.5; df = 2; \(p\) \(<\) 0.001; V = 0.256), 10% of pain-free individuals had \(>\)1 limitation, versus 28% and 51% among those with LP and WP, respectively (\(p\) \(<\) 0.001), with pairwise comparisons confirming significant differences. Detailed comparisons are presented in Table S1, and Figure 2 illustrates the distribution of the limitations across the pain groups. \begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{l c c c c c c c} \hline \hline  & \multicolumn{2}{c}{**No Pain**} & \multicolumn{2}{c}{**Localized Pain**} & \multicolumn{2}{c}{**Widespread Pain**} \\ \hline  & \multicolumn{2}{c}{**n (37,147)**} & \multicolumn{2}{c}{**n (30,161)**} & \multicolumn{2}{c}{**n (1531)**} & \\ \hline  & **Median** & **(IQR)** & **Median** & **(IQR)** & **Median** & **(IQR)** & **\(p\)-Value** \\ \hline
**Age** & 68 & (14) & 71 & (15) & 72 & (16) & \(<\)0.001 *** \\
**Loneliness** & 3 & (1) & 4 & (2) & 4 & (3) & \(<\)0.001 *** \\
**Hand Grip Ratio (kg/Weight)** & 0.4 & (0.2) & 0.4 & (0.2) & 0.3 & (0.2) & \(<\)0.001 *** \\
**Cognitive Functioning** & 18 & (6) & 17 & (6) & 16 & (8) & \(<\)0.001 *** \\
**n** & **(\%)** & **n** & **(\%)** & **n** & **(\%)** & \\
**Sex** & 1762 & 48\% & 11,243 & 37\% & 453 & 30\% & \(<\)0.001 *** \\ Men & 19,385 & 52\% & 18,918 & 63\% & 1078 & 70\% & \(<\)0.001 *** \\
**Body Mass Index** & & & & & & & \\ Underweight & 420 & 1\% & 391 & 1\% & 44 & 3\% & \\ Normal & 13,144 & 37\% & 8620 & 30\% & 464 & 33\% & \\ Overweight & 15,265 & 42\% & 11,442 & 39\% & 521 & 38\% & \(<\)0.001 *** \\
**Obese** & 7141 & 20\% & 8642 & 29\% & 363 & 26\% & \\
**Depression** & 29,978 & 83\% & 17,646 & 61\% & 500 & 38\% & \\ No & 6028 & 17\% & 11,355 & 39\% & 810 & 62\% & \(<\)0.001 *** \\
**Long-term illness** & & & & & & & \\ No & 22,619 & 61\% & 8150 & 27\% & 214 & 14\% & \(<\)0.001 *** \\ Yes & 14,449 & 39\% & 21,994 & 73\% & 1313 & 86\% & \(<\)0.001 *** \\
**+3 Mobility and upper limb/fine motor limitations** & & & & & & & \\ No & 32,676 & 88\% & 16,482 & 55\% & 496 & 33\% & \\ Yes & 4374 & 12\% & 13,656 & 45\% & 1027 & 67\% & \(<\)0.001 *** \\
**Physical Activity** & & & & & & & \\ Inactive & 3473 & 9\% & 5333 & 18\% & 543 & 36\% & \\ Active & 33,592 & 91\% & 24,794 & 82\% & 979 & 64\% & \(<\)0.001 *** \\
**Education level** & & & & & & & \\ None & 729 & 2\% & 963 & 3\% & 98 & 6\% & \\ Pre-primary & 3491 & 9\% & 4398 & 15\% & 350 & 23\% & \\ Primary & 5211 & 14\% & 5462 & 18\% & 298 & 20\% & \\ Lower secondary & 15,232 & 41\% & 11,735 & 39\% & 525 & 34\% & \\ Upper secondary & 1912 & 5\% & 1450 & 5\% & 44 & 3\% & \(<\)0.001 *** \\ Post-secondary non-tertiary & 10,006 & 27\% & 5838 & 19\% & 198 & 13\% & \\ First stage of tertiary education & 380 & 1\% & 193 & 1\% & 9 & 0\% & \\ Still in school & 11 & 0\% & 15 & 0\% & 2 & 0\% & \\
**Dispositional optimism:** & & & & & & & \\
**Look forward to each day** & & & & & & & \\ Often & 24,798 & 68\% & 17,111 & 58\% & 648 & 48\% & \\ Sometimes & 8273 & 23\% & 8456 & 29\% & 406 & 30\% & \\ Rarely & 2348 & 7\% & 2818 & 10\% & 186 & 14\% & \(<\)0.001 *** \\ Never & 890 & 3\% & 922 & 3\% & 104 & 8\% & \\
**Full of opportunities** & & & & & & & \\ Often & 15,938 & 44\% & 8298 & 28\% & 308 & 23\% & \\ Sometimes & 13,984 & 39\% & 11,845. & 41\% & 487 & 36\% & \\ Rarely & 5193 & 14\% & 6974 & 24\% & 342 & 26\% & \\ Never & 1144 & 3\% & 2147 & 7\% & 208 & 16\% & \\ \hline \hline \end{tabular}  
* n: number; IQR: interquartile range; perceived loneliness (scores: 3–9). A higher value indicates a higher loneliness level; *** (\(p\)-value \(<\) 0.001).  
\end{table} 
Table 2: Sample descriptive analysis.