## 4 Discussion  
Using the 2019 SIMCE database, we compared the academic performance in mathematics and language of 8 th-grade students attending schools in the three highest and three least PM\({}_{2.5}\)-polluted geographic areas. The results indicate lower academic performance in the SIMCE mathematics and language tests among schools located in the three most PM\({}_{2.5}\)-polluted areas compared to those in the three least polluted areas of the country. Subsequently, the SIMCE test results were compared according to the administrative dependency of the schools (private, subsidized, and municipal). Data revealed that the AP of 8 th-grade students in private and municipal schools is similar when their schools are located in the three zones with the highest and lowest air pollution. In contrast, students attending subsidized private schools in the most polluted zones demonstrated significantly lower SIMCE scores compared to their counterparts in the least polluted zones. On the other hand, the effect size for the comparison between high and low pollution schools indicates a small effect (0.31 in the math SIMCE and 0.27 in the language SIMCE). Critically elevated levels of PM\({}_{2.5}\) represent a serious risk to both environmental and public health, with documented impacts in various regions of Chile. Previous research has shown a strong association between chronic exposure to PM\({}_{2.5}\) and increased mortality, higher hospitalization rates, and a rise in respiratory and cardiovascular diseases in cities with high pollution levels [3]. In this context, the findings of our study reinforce the evidence that the adverse effects of PM\({}_{2.5}\) pollution are not limited to physical health alone but also affect the academic performance of students, suggesting an even broader impact on child well-being and educational equity. Specifically, our results show that eighth-grade students attending schools in municipalities with higher PM\({}_{2.5}\) concentrations have lower scores on the SIMCE tests compared to those in less polluted areas. These findings highlight the need to integrate air quality as a key variable in the formulation of public policies aimed at improving educational and health conditions in communities highly exposed to air pollution. In this context, and considering the Sixth Report on the State of the Environment in Chile, we observe that the three communes most polluted with PM\({}_{2.5}\) are in the southern part of the country, where there is a high residential demand for wood combustion for heating and cooking. Specifically, in the city of Coyahique, characterized by frequent episodes of environmental pre-emergency, the geographic configuration of a semi-closed \begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c c c} \hline \hline  & **Higher Air** & **Lower Air** & **\(p\) Value** \\  & **Pollution** & **Pollution** & **\(p\) Value** \\ \hline Language & & & \\ \hline Private schools & 280.8 \(\pm\) 5.2 & 255.6 \(\pm\) 30.2 & 0.08 \\ Subsidized private schools & 234.0 \(\pm\) 21.4 & 251.4 \(\pm\) 20.1 & \textless{}0.0001 \\ Public schools & 234.1 \(\pm\) 23 & 231.6 \(\pm\) 17.3 & 0.52 \\ \hline Mathematics & & & \\ \hline Private schools & 303.4 \(\pm\) 12.2 & 282.2 \(\pm\) 36.5 & 0.21 \\ Subsidized private schools & 247.6 \(\pm\) 26.7 & 272.1 \(\pm\) 23.0 & \textless{}0.0001 \\ Public schools & 246.5 \(\pm\) 24.2 & 238.6 \(\pm\) 17.2 & 0.05 \\ \hline \hline \end{tabular}  
* SIMCE scores expressed as means \(\pm\) standard deviation. Normality of the data was determined using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test. Differences between groups were assessed using Student’s \(t\)-test with a \(p\)-value \(<\) 0.05 and a 95% confidence interval.  
\end{table} 
Table 2: Eighth-grade academic results in language and mathematics in private, subsidized private, and public schools in areas with higher and lower air pollution. mountainous valley and large-scale atmospheric conditions also play a role, as they are natural forces that modulate lower ventilation in the basin [17].