## 3 Results
### Human Factors Influencing Evacuation
#### 3.2.1 Influence of Group Dynamics  
One of the most pivotal insights identified during sourcing the relevant literature is the significant impact that group dynamics have on evacuation efficiency. In a simulation [24] study conducted by using the AnyLogic software (A software based on the Social Force Model [25] that explains pedestrian dynamics by simulating how internal motivations, like the desire to reach destinations, maintain personal space, and respond to environmental attractions, drive movement, and interactions. Consequently, it offers a realistic and practical tool for understanding and planning pedestrian behavior and broader social phenomena and is in line with the IMO Guidelines on Evacuation Analysis for New and Existing Passenger Ships.) (and aiming to examine how individual versus group evacuations affect the evacuation process), have found out that individual evacuations tend to result in faster arrival at embarkation zones, while group evacuations prolong the peak duration of passenger arrivals. This delay is attributed to the group members waiting for slower individuals, which not only slows down the overall evacuation process, but also increases the likelihood of congestion in certain areas of the ship. Further research corroborates these findings, particularly in high-density situations where the spatial structure of groups exacerbates delays. [PERSON] et al. [26] highlighted that as crowd density increases, the tendency for groups to stay close together leads to more significant delays as they move through congested areas. Groups commonly tend to move as cohesive units, which can obstruct other passengers and create choke points, slowing down the overall evacuation process (Figure 4) [27; 28]. Additionally, the role of group leaders becomes increasingly critical in such scenarios; overreliance on a leader can decisively impact the outcome of an evacuation, either positively or negatively depending on the leader's decisions and actions.  
Furthermore, the relationship between group familiarity and evacuation efficiency also emerges as a crucial factor. [PERSON] et al. [29] demonstrated that familiarity among group members has a positive effect on evacuation efficiency, as familiar individuals are more likely to cooperate and coordinate effectively. Conversely, groups composed of unfamiliar  
Figure 4: Picture depicting the bottleneck and congestion that occurred during the Costa Concordia evacuation. Source: United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).  
individuals may experience competitive behavior among its members, leading to a decrease in overall speed. These findings are furtherly supported by other studies that support that the internal dynamics and structure of social groups also influence evacuation outcomes. [PERSON] et al. (2018) analyzed group structure, focusing on factors such as the center of mass, shape, and movement direction. Their findings, along with simulations conducted by [PERSON] et al. (2018), emphasize that the interactions between groups, as well as their internal configurations, significantly affect evacuation dynamics. These studies suggest that evacuation strategies should consider not only the behavior of individual groups, but also how multiple groups interact within the confined spaces of a cruise ship.