## 3 Results and Discussion
However, it has notable drawbacks, including the necessity for repetitive calibrations before each permittivity measurement. Additionally, errors may arise due to air gaps that form between the probe and the liquid being tested. Accurate and precise information about soils is essential for maintaining and improving soil resources, particularly in addressing significant environmental challenges such as agricultural abandonment, loss of organic carbon, and soil health deterioration. Fertilizer inputs must be tailored to meet the needs of trees, restoring, at least, the annual losses experienced by orchards. Any excess or deficiency in fertilization directly impacts the trees, reducing their production potential in both quantity and quality. Furthermore, excessive fertilization can lead to groundwater pollution. In many Mediterranean countries, including Tunisia, water has become a limiting factor in agricultural development. With increasing demand, effective water management has gained importance, placing significant pressure on water resources. Despite considerable efforts to mobilize water resources, Tunisia has faced water shortages in recent years. Water management in Tunisian agriculture poses significant challenges, especially given the excessive quantity of water currently used. Thus, accurately determining the water volume required for irrigation is crucial to achieving high-quality harvests without wasting water. This underscores the importance of this project in irrigation management and in establishing a program to supply trees with the necessary water. Tunisia, classified as a water-stressed country, has two thirds of its territory characterized as nearly desert-like. This critical situation has significantly impacted Tunisian agriculture, prompting the Ministry of Agriculture to undertake urgent water and soil retention projects. However, despite these efforts, such systems still need further development and expansion. But, even with these initiatives, these systems still require improvement and expansion. To detect soil moisture, salinity, compaction, temperature, and oxygen levels, Tunisia's solutions now rely on sensors and probes. Growers, farmers, agronomy technicians, and other agricultural professionals use these measuring tools. Nevertheless, a large number of these sensors have low sensitivity, slow response times, and are hard-wired. Currently, solutions in Tunisia rely on sensors and probes to measure soil moisture, salinity, compaction, temperature, and oxygen levels. These measuring instruments are utilized by agronomy technicians, growers, farmers, and other agricultural professionals. However, many of these sensors are hard-wired, exhibit slow response times, and have low sensitivity. They cannot operate autonomously and require human intervention, \begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c c} \hline
**Measurement** & **Advantages** & **Disadvantages** \\ \hline \multirow{2}{*}{Coaxial Probe} & High accuracy for high-loss materials. & Air gaps cause errors. \\  & High accuracy for high-loss materials. & Repetitive calibrations. \\ \hline \multirow{2}{*}{Transmission Line} & Suitable for high frequency. & \multirow{2}{*}{Cannot be used below a few GHz. \\  & Supports both solids and liquids.} & \\ \hline \multirow{2}{*}{Parallel Plate Capacitance} & Measurements are easier. & Supports low frequency (best results). \\  & Suitable for high-loss materials. & Electrode polarization effect. \\ \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table} 
Table 6: Comparison between the measurement methods. measurement boxes, and adjustments, with data stored and read via connection cables on PCs. Additionally, automatic watering programmers control the operation of solenoid valves, enabling automated irrigation at predetermined frequencies and durations. While sprinkler systems offer various advantages for water management, pollution problems due to the irrational use of fertilizers persist.