# Artificial Intelligence of Things for Solar Energy Monitoring and Control
## 2 AIoT in PV Systems: Background
### Internet of Things
This ensures that operators can remotely manage and optimize PV systems, reducing the need for on-site intervention and lowering operational costs [49,50]. Table 2 presents a comparison of wireless communication technologies in PV systems. Wired communication protocols ensure reliable, low-latency data transfer and seamless integration in IoT systems, particularly in industrial and energy applications. PROFINET is an industrial Ethernet protocol for fast and secure data communication in automation systems [51]. In PV systems, PROFINET plays a key role in connecting components like PLCs (Programmable Logic Controllers), inverters, and sensors to allow real-time monitoring and control. It helps transfer essential data such as voltage, current, and temperature from the field to the control center, making the system more efficient. PROFINET can also link PV systems with SCADA software platforms for centralized supervision, fault detection, and performance analysis. Its high-speed and reliable communication makes it especially useful for large-scale solar setups and smart grid integration. On the other hand, Modbus protocol is essential for enabling communication between devices in automation systems, allowing data to be exchanged through regular polling. It supports interdependent control variables across different hardware, ensuring coordinated updates [52]. Modbus has a long-standing presence in industrial automation, and its TCP version is widely adopted in advanced industrial contexts such as Industry 4.0 and the Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT) [53]. In PV systems, Modbus can monitor and control various components like inverters, batteries, and environmental sensors, ensuring real-time data acquisition and effective system management. Together, Modbus and PROFINET can complement each other, with PROFINET handling high-speed communication and Mod \begin{table}
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**Technology** & **Range** & **Power Consumption** & **Applications in PV Systems** \\ \hline Wi-Fi & \(\leq\)100 m & High & Monitoring and remote control of energy production and system performance. Less suitable for PV systems. \\ \hline Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE) & \(\leq\)30 m & Low & Small-scale PV systems in smart homes and offices. \\ \hline Zigbee & \(\leq\)100 m & Very Low & Smart grid integration, energy monitoring, and enabling efficient communication between PV components. \\ \hline LoRa (LPWAN) & \(\leq\)50 km & Very Low & Monitoring and energy management in large-scale and remote PV installations. \\ \hline Satellite Communication & \(\geq\)1500 km & High & Remote or off-grid PV systems, enabling performance tracking, fault detection, and system optimization in large-scale solar farms. \\ \hline \end{tabular}
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Table 2: Comparison of wireless communication technologies in PV systems. bus managing data exchange across various devices, creating an integrated and efficient system. Another well-known protocol is RS-485, also referred to as EIA-485. This protocol supports networks with up to 32 nodes. It operates on a master-slave communication model, where packets exchange data. The transmission speed can reach up to 10 Mbps over short distances (around 12 m) and up to 100 kbps for longer distances, with a maximum range of approximately 1333 m [54]. In PV systems, RS-485 is commonly used for wired communication between inverters, energy meters, and monitoring devices. Its long-distance capability and noise resistance make it ideal for transmitting data such as voltage, current, power output, and fault signals from solar inverters to a central controller or data logger. This enables real-time performance tracking, fault detection, and integration with SCADA systems in both residential and large-scale solar installations. MQTT, or Message Queuing Telemetry Transport, is a lightweight, efficient protocol widely used in IoT for communication between resource-constrained devices due to its low power consumption, scalability, and reliable message delivery.