# AI-Driven Safety and Security for UAVs: From Machine Learning to Large Language Models
## 2 Background
### UAV Safety and Security Threats
#### 2.1.2 UAV Security Threats  
* Sensing Uncertainties Owing to the open three-dimensional network environment and the vast number of sensing nodes in the UAV sensing system, the information transmission process is also vulnerable to various security threats, such as eavesdropping, tampering, and manipulation. For example, sensing nodes upload information, such as location, sensing capabilities, sensing willingness, and load conditions, to support mission decision-making. If privacy policies and regulations restrict sensing in certain areas, tampering with the node location information may result in the node turning on the sensing function in restricted areas, leading to privacy violations. In addition, although multisensor data fusion technology improves the accuracy of UAVs, it is still not completely resistant to algorithmic attacks. * Radio Interference Disruptions As terrestrial radio technologies such as mobile base stations, TV broadcast towers, and Wi-Fi equipment become more widespread and complex, their frequency bands often overlap with those used by low-altitude aircraft. This overlap increases the risk of interference, degrading vehicle-to-vehicle communication quality, causing data loss or complete disruptions, and ultimately impairing the aircraft's maneuvering, positioning, and obstacle avoidance capabilities. In addition, owing to the broadcast characteristics of wireless channels, UAVs are susceptible to interference from malicious ground sources. This interference may result in transmitted data loss, elevated block error rates, and disconnection from communication links [58]. Such disruptions can interrupt the transmission of critical control data, thereby increasing the risk of crashes or collisions. * Authentication Vulnerabilities To establish communication with vehicles, UAVs activate Wi-Fi hotspots, allowing ground-based devices, such as mobile phones, computers, and remote controls, to achieve data interaction and remote control with UAVs by connecting to hotspots. However, this communication method is not completely secure. Attackers can easily identify and access the Wi-Fi links to steal sensitive data or even take complete control of the UAVs by spoofing the control signal remotely or surveillance-broadcast message attacks [59]. On the other hand, UAVs and ground networks, which rely on communication links for controlling commands and data interactions, are equally exposed to threats regarding information theft, information tampering, DOS attacks, and information injection. For example, UAVs may be impersonated by a malicious third party to perform unauthorized operations or enter no-fly zones. In addition, the lack of comparability of UAV identity information may lead to identity theft or forgery [60]. * Nonencrypted Data Exposure UAV cryptography security risks stem largely from cryptographic algorithm implementations. The mainstream advanced encryption standard (AES)-128 is vulnerable to quantum computing. Lightweight cryptographic algorithms such as CHAM-128/128 exhibit insufficient resistance to side-channel attacks. Flaws in key distribution mechanisms further induce risks, while homomorphic encryption used for telemetry data protection is limited by arithmetic power. In addition, the security of traditional encryption algorithms may be limited by key management and computational complexity, and is susceptible to tampering. * UAV Networking Complications  
UAV networking relies on various communication protocols with vulnerabilities that attackers can exploit to perform man-in-the-middle attacks, DoS attacks, or service disruptions. Current mainstream protocols, such as ad-hoc on-demand distance vector (AODV), optimized link state routing (OLSR), and greedy perimeter stateless routing (GPSR), are vulnerable to multiple security threats in dynamic topology environments. Attackers can exploit protocol vulnerabilities to implement route spoofing, data theft, or even network paralysis [61].