# The Influence of Immersive and Collaborative Virtual Environments in Improving Spatial Skills
## 2 Literature Review
### VR and Spatial Skills Training  
Virtual reality is an increasingly popular medium for research on training spatial ability [39]. In addition to the visual problem of presenting a 3D task using 2D media, spatial tasks may face issues of engagement and motivation. Using media like VR to present spatial training tasks may help with student motivation, as traditional paper and pencil tasks may be unappealing to students, who might find them boring or unmotivating [40]. In recent years, numerous researchers have been exploring new media like VR and augmented reality (AR) for spatial training tasks. One approach is to train mental rotation skills by having users rotate shapes in a virtual environment [41; 42; 43]. In another example, visual cues were added to the virtual environment with the goal of training mental rotation skills [44]. In addition to training mental rotation skills specifically, others have attempted to train spatial skills by having students view their own 3D models in VR [45], training the spatial skill of perspective-taking [46], and training general spatial ability [47]. Rather than immersive VR, other researchers have explored using AR to train spatial ability [48; 49]. Virtual Reality-based spatial training programs have been demonstrated to be effective, as shown in the following examples. In one study, researchers used exercises in an AR book in an attempt to train spatial relations and spatial visualization skills and used a VR orienteering game to train the skill of spatial orientation [40]. This study used a control group who did not complete the training and found that the gains in performance on spatial tests at the end of the study were greater for the experimental group [40]. In another study, researchers developed a novel VR spatial training application in which students manipulated shapes in a virtual environment by moving, rotating, and scaling the shapes. To validate the tool, the researchers conducted an experiment in which one group of students used a VR headset to participate in the activity, and another group performed the same activity on a computer screen. Spatial test scores improved more for the virtual reality group than for the computer screen group [50]. These studies suggest that VR spatial training is effective, and potentially more so than computer-based spatial training media. Following the study published by [PERSON] and [PERSON] [51], it is important to differentiate between VR observed on a screen and immersive VR [52], in which the user is completely visually immersed in virtual space. According to [PERSON] and [PERSON] [53], immersive VR allows the user to interact in a 3D computer-generated environment, and immersive VR is what has drawn the most interest of educators and educational researchers [54; 55]. [PERSON] and [PERSON] [56] argued that the potential of this technology for the classroom seems limitless. The works presented by [PERSON] et al. [57], [PERSON] et al. [58], and [PERSON] et al. [59] conclude that immersive virtual environments are as effective as real-world environments for training spatial ability. Levels of immersion may be especially relevant to training spatial skills, as a study found that different levels of complexity of spatial learning may be better learned at different levels of immersion [60]. Other researchers have assessed VR-based spatial training instruments on the basis of usability and enjoyability. One study found that the right combination of levels of immersion and controls could lead to the most positive experience for the user in a VR-based mental rotation training task [43]. Another study assessed a VR-based training application for mental rotation. In this case, the researchers compared conditions in which the users could actively manipulate the objects versus passively observing the motion. Users rated the active condition higher rated for playfulness, ease of use, and use-intention score [39].