## 6 Applications to Governance and Ecosystem-Based Management of the Cases Studied [Discussion]
### Marine Protected Areas  
As of 2021, approximately 7.7% of the world's oceans are designated as marine protected areas (MPAs). This includes different regimes of protection and treaties for their definition: from fully protected areas, where all human activities are banned to partially protected areas, where some activities are allowed [62].  
This percentage has been increasing in recent years, as more countries and organisations have recognised the importance of protecting marine environments and have established new MPAs, albeit it has long been seen that established goals have not been reached and definition of MPAs, especially large ones, is not without criticism. One of the arguments for the establishment of MPAs in remote areas is the lack of surveillance methods essential for their enforcement [63]. The goal set by the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), also known as the Aichi targets, was to protect at least 10% of coastal and marine areas by 2020 (Target 11, [64]). This goal has not been reached four years past, and the situation, especially in terms of the coverage of MPAs is far from being a success. A new goal, known as the 30 \(\times\) 30 target, consists of protecting 30% of the World's oceans by 2030 and was first proposed by the United Nations Decade on Ocean Science for Sustainable Development. The 30 \(\times\) 30 target has been endorsed by several other organisations, including the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification. This new goal aims to conserve and protect marine biodiversity, habitats, and ecosystem services, and to enhance their resilience to the impacts of human activities and climate change. In addition, it also aims to support the achievement of other sustainable development goals, such as those related to food security, poverty reduction, and climate change mitigation and adaptation.  
It is important to note that the coverage of MPAs alone does not guarantee the protection of marine biodiversity and ecosystems. The effectiveness of MPAs in conserving biodiversity and ecosystems depends on many factors, such as the size, location, and management of the MPA, as well as the level of enforcement of the regulations [30].  
In terms of their need for high temporal and spatial resolution, MPA monitoring lacks the same type of systematic monitoring as very small lakes. In fact, based on data from the Marine Protection Atlas [65], 37% of MPAs are of very small size (\(<\)10 km\({}^{2}\)), which renders current open and free EO technology inefficient in terms of observing such small areas.  
Our literature search outlined in Figure 6 was refined to include benthos and seagrass (in Web of Science: (\"seagrass\" or \"benthos\") and \"satellite\" and \"marine protected area\"). There were no results for benthos but 16 results for \"seagrass\" co-occurrence with \"satellite\" and \"marine protected area\". These mostly reveal studies on the usage of high- and very high-resolution data for the environmental management in specific scenarios. The ALOS AVNIR-2 and Landsat-2 satellites were used to assess the dynamics of seagrass beds in the Cu Lao Cham MPA, underlining a loss of seagrass area [66].  
GeoEye-1 was used in Karimunjawa National Park for the assessment and distribution of seagrass [67].  
In summary, the status of MPA conservation and environmental-based monitoring is not mature. The satellite resources to monitor MPAs have been mostly related to the use of satellite tracking for tracking species and detection of illegal activities, environmental monitoring of Chlorophyll a is practically non-existent.