## 5 Discussion  
### Learning  
Firstly, it is essential to note that the study's results demonstrated that women learned significantly more than men in the non-gamified condition, and women in the non-gamified version learned more than those in the gamified version. In keeping with this, various studies have examined gender differences in learning without gamification, suggesting that women tend to outperform men in certain aspects. For example, in the meta-analysis by [78] on academic grades, a small but significant advantage in women's performance was found in most subjects, including mathematics and sciences. Other researchers point to neurobiological differences between men and women that could influence learning; for instance, the cerebral hemispheres are more interconnected in the female brain, facilitating learning by integrating information across regions [80]. Some studies attribute this phenomenon to women's tendency to have a greater inclination toward consistent study habits [79]. Additionally, it should be considered in these results that gender stereotypes may have generated anxiety in men about not meeting societal expectations [82]. On the other hand, studies comparing the impact of gamification on learning between men and women are limited and show mixed results. Our study revealed that the incorporation of gamification elements hindered the learning of female participants. Specifically, we found that the women exposed to gamification obtained significantly poorer results than the female control group that received the same instruction without these elements. While men in the gamification group scored higher than their female counterparts, this difference was insignificant. In summary, our findings suggest that gamification may have a counterproductive effect on the academic performance of female students. This aligns with research suggesting greater effectiveness for men in gamified environments, such as the study by [32], which implemented a gamification system in an introductory university programming course, finding a more significant increase in engagement and motivation among male students than their female counterparts. Other research on gender differences in gamification [91] indicates a 5% higher interest in game customization for men than women, where scoreboards are the most attractive gamified component for both genders. They agree that more studies are needed to understand specific gender preferences and strategically adapt gamified elements, maximizing motivation and equal learning. However, Ref. [7] found no significant gender differences in the motivational effects of gamification in a programming course. The evidence suggests that implementing game elements in introductory programming courses can increase student motivation and engagement, as gamification amplifies the benefits of practice in these courses; gender appears to moderate the effects, being positive for women but not necessarily for men [3]. In [101], it was found that participating in gamified programs improves self-confidence in women and older adults more than in men and younger individuals; the researchers concluded that gamification design should consider these demographic differences. In [94], it is revealed that implementing badge-based gamification in higher education improved content acquisition and increased the perception of gender equity among students, with a more notable increase in participation and perceived learning among women than men. Hence, more studies were needed to understand under what conditions and why gamification use benefits certain groups more and how to optimize its equitable impact through motivational and psychological adaptations based on gender and age. The evidence on the differential gender impact of gamification for learning is still limited and contradictory. It likely depends on specific instructional design, content, sociocultural context, and individual student differences.