## 2 Overview of Cyber Threats in EM
### Vehicular Technologies
#### 2.4.1. Manned Vehicles  
EM can be impaired by the means of transportation used by affected citizens, the emergency response vehicles used to carry people and equipment to and from the scene of the disaster, as well as by the local traffic.  
In the public transport sector, cyber attacks usually cause disruption in dispatching and signalling. In the 1990s they were related primarily to the lack of user authentication mechanisms, with hackers connecting via a dial-up modem to an airport network pretending to be the legitimate system administrator and altering critical information. Today, computer viruses and targeted cyber attacks affecting mass transportation are relatively common, especially in railways and airports [110]. Due  
\begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{p{56.9 pt} p{113.8 pt} p{113.8 pt} p{113.8 pt}} \hline \hline
**Technology** & **Security threat** & **Impact** & **Countermeasures** \\ \hline \multirow{8}{*}{Manned Vehicles} & Malware infection of traffic control systems [111] & Disabled air traffic control, signalling _etc._ & Web security literature [46] \\ \cline{2-4}  & Malware infection of on board computers [113] & Hijacked control of locks, brakes and engine & Malware detection [113] \\ \cline{2-4}  & GPS Spoofing [50, 117] & Artificial traffic jam caused & Signal analysis [51, 52, 53] \\ \cline{2-4}  & Web-based immobilisation hijacked [114] & Cars immobilised remotely and simultaneously & Web security literature [46] \\ \hline \multirow{8}{*}{Unmanned vehicles} & GPS Spoofing [50, 117] & Unmanned vehicle redirected [117, 118] & Signal analysis [51, 52, 53] \\ \cline{2-4}  & Gain-scheduling attack [117] & Control stability affected [117] & No known solutions \\ \cline{2-4}  & Fuzzing attack [117] & Random inputs to vehicle’s actuators [117] & No known solutions \\ \hline \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table}
Table 4: Vehicular EM security threats and proposed countermeasures.  
to the increasing use of off-the-shelf computers running Microsoft Windows, a number of incidents in the transport sector were caused by common viruses and worms that spread via the Internet and infected computers indiscriminately, with one such virus disabling air traffic control systems in Alaska in 2006 [111]. Yet, in most cases, there was no malicious intent and, more significantly, there was no damage beyond frustration and financial costs due to downtime. In 2008 though, a teenager managed to take control of the tram system in Lodz, Poland, and operated its track switches, eventually causing four trains to derail and 14 people to be injured [112].  
The automotive industry is also increasingly showing interest in cyber threats, partly because of isolated incidents of cyber intrusions against specific car types and partly thanks to the pioneering work of [PERSON] _et al_. [113]. In 2010, the latter demonstrated that it is possible to infect a car's networks via Bluetooth and other mechanisms and gain control of its locks, brakes and engine. A car interfered with in such a manner may be forced to veer towards one direction while driving at speed. While these vulnerabilities have been proven experimentally, we do not believe that they pose significant concern in the context of EM, as they do not scale easily enough to cause large-scale disruptions. On the other hand, an incident in Austin, Texas, the same year showed that large numbers of private cars can be simultaneously affected in an unexpected manner through a web-based vehicle-immobilisation system. The specific system had been set up by car dealers to disable a car's ignition system as a response to delinquent car payments, but it was exploited by a hacker who gained unauthorised access and issued rogue commands. Thus, it is particularly interesting that a website's security flaws had an indirect physical impact, causing 100 private cars to be simultaneously immobilised [114].