# Sustainability in Bio-Based Edible Films, Coatings, and Packaging for Small Fruits
## 5 Edible Film and Coating Functionalities Important for the Small Fruit Industry
### Encapsulation Techniques and Mechanisms of Shelf-Life Extension Through Encapsulation Techniques
Spray-chilling or spray-cooling are two technologies that allow the production of lipid-coated substances, with the main difference between them being the melting point of lipids, that, in case of chilling, it is in the range of 34-42 \({}^{\circ}\)C and cooling temperature is higher [186]. Vacuum and freeze-drying are very similar drying processes, but freeze-drying depends on a high energy input and long processing time [200]. \begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{p{113.8 pt} p{113.8 pt} p{113.8 pt}} \hline \hline
**Encapsulation System** & **Principle** & **Features** \\ \hline Spray–Drying Technology & Emulsion dried into granules using atomization in the hot air stream & Advantages: short drying process, good solubility, low cost and process operation, proper transportation and storage. Disadvantages: uneven particle dimension, partial rupture of core material. & Advantages: short drying process, good solubility, low cost and process operation, proper transportation and storage. Disadvantages: uneven particle dimension, partial rupture of core material. & Advantages: short drying process operation, poor transportation and storage. Disadvantages: uneven particle dimension, partial rupture of core material. & Afterwards: uneven particle dimension, partial rupture of core material. \\ Spray–Cooling–Drying & Material combined with emulsifier and wall material. Creation of microcapsules by freezing at a temperature of \(-20\) \({}^{\circ}\)C and then placing freeze-dried & Advantages: minimal core damage. Disadvantages: it requires crushing and sieving and has high equipment requirements. \\ Fluidized Bed & Hot air-flow of fluidized bed is used to wrap core material with wall material solution & Advantages: uniform and moderate wall thickness. Disadvantages: the surface is easy to damage and has a low yield. \\ Oil-Phase Separating Method & The core material is added to a shell polymer and solvent solution, mixed and dispersed into a suspension, then added to a nonsolvent liquid and precipitation solvent, encapsulating the core material into microcapsules. & Advantages: simple equipment needs and a varied range of shell materials. Disadvantages: potential environmental pollution from solvents. \\ Extrusion & The core and wall material emulsion is extruded through pore membranes at low temperatures. Wall material in direct contact with a dehydrating agent forms microcapsules due to dehydration. Two monomers of different solubility are uniformly added to the continuous phase of wall material and the dispersed phase of core material. Polycondensation occurs at the phase interface, resulting in the formation of microcapsules. An aqueous solution containing wall material is sprayed on the surface of the suspended core material. Solvent vaporization is performed using low hot air. & Advantages: good densification and faster reaction rates. Disadvantages: retention of the monomers in microcapsules. & Advantages: a range of wall materials and uniform wall thickness of the capsule. Disadvantages: control factors and limitations regarding core material. \\ Electrostatic Spinning & Charged polymer solution flow deformed in an electrostatic field, followed by solvent evaporation or melt–cooling. & Advantages: easy to operate, no organic solvents, low cost, high efficiency. Disadvantages: difficulty in obtaining nanofiber filaments or separate staple fibers. \\ Phases Emulsion Method & Microcapsules are obtained by curing after removing the solvent from the suspension emulsion. & Advantages: single operation and absence of the use of organic solvents. \\ Tiny Hole-Coagulation Method & Hole-coagulation device, followed by calcium chloride or aldehydes, for a cross-linking reaction. & Advantages: simple operation and absence of the use of organic solvents. \\ \hline \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table} 
Table 3: Technical principles and characteristics of solid/liquid/gas-state core encapsulation systems. Adapted from [PERSON] et al. [201].