applied sciences  
A Study on Information Disorders on Social Networks during the Chilean Social Outbreak and COVID-19 Pandemic  
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searchers have examined how false information can affect important events such as presidential elections [6] and advertising campaigns [7]. The recent COVID-19 pandemic has shown that misinformation can impact regions such as Europe [8], India [9], and China [10], revealing that this phenomenon has a global reach. Different studies show that misinformation can affect how people view vaccination campaigns [11] and can make it harder for governments to control the spread of the pandemic [12]. Numerous organizations are studying how information disorders impact society [13]. Their objective is to develop public policies that can prevent the harmful effects of misinformation [14]. These efforts demonstrate that misinformation is a multifaceted issue that creates an ecosystem of information disorders [15]. The factors contributing to this ecosystem include producing false content, employing bots to disseminate false information widely [16], and increasing incivility on social media platforms, often fueled by troll accounts [17]. The complexity of the problem means that many questions still need to be answered. This study aimed to identify the characteristics of misinformation on social media platforms in Chile, a Latin American country where social media usage is widespread and that has experienced several social and political crises that have facilitated the spread of misinformation [18; 19; 20; 21]. With a population of 19 million, Chile has 13 million Facebook accounts, 9.7 million Instagram accounts, and 2.25 million Twitter accounts [22]. In 2019, a wave of protests against transportation fares led to a fully fledged social uprising against inequality and the political establishment. With the onset of COVID-19 in 2020, the social outbreak led to a process of drafting a new constitution, which failed in 2021 but was resumed in 2022. More specifically, the study had two objectives:  
* To interpret the dynamics of misinformation propagation on social platforms in Chile. We defined the trajectories and traceability of messages with misinformation spread on Twitter, Facebook, and Instagram. This information will recognize the speed and scope of the propagation, identifying if there are non-evident diffusion patterns. * To explain and analyze the characteristics of the messages that misinform on social platforms in Chile: within the messages that we studied, we conducted a content analysis, determining which linguistic strategies are used to misinform. Importantly, we compared the diffusion of stories verified as false, inaccurate, and true by professional fact-checkers; that is, we studied the differences and similarities in the dynamics of misinformation across platforms and between types of content. Our study examined the similarities and differences in misinformation across various topics of our recent history. Specifically, we focused on the Chilean social outbreak, the rise of the COVID-19 pandemic, the beginning of the constitutional process, and the 2021 presidential elections. By exploring these topics, we hope to gain insight into the characteristics of disinformation during different events. We paid close attention to the structural propagation of false information. Additionally, we considered specific properties of the content, including the readability of the texts and accessibility to content from various social media platforms. This article is organized as follows. We discuss related work in Section 2. The materials and methods used to develop this study are presented in Section 3. The content analysis of Twitter is presented in Section 4. Propagation dynamics on Twitter are discussed in Section 5. The analysis of volumes of reactions on Facebook and Instagram is introduced in Section 6.