## 7 Approaches to Prevent and Manage Infections Caused by Biofilms
### Nanoparticle Strategies  
Nanoparticles (NPs) have emerged as an innovative solution for combating biofilm-associated diseases due to their unique physicochemical characteristics, including diminutive size, extensive surface area, and potential for functionalization. These characteristicsallow NPs to infiltrate biofilms' EPS matrix, specifically target entrenched bacterial populations, and administer therapeutic medicines with exceptional accuracy [289; 290]. Due to their considerable resistance to traditional antibiotics, biofilms are challenging; hence, nanoparticle-based approaches provide a viable option for preventing biofilm development and treating existing biofilm-associated illnesses [291; 292]. Furthermore, integrating NPs with existing biofilm-targeting agents enhances their efficacy by improving penetration, stability, and targeted delivery within biofilms. This synergistic approach disrupts biofilm integrity and amplifies the therapeutic impact of antibiotics, antimicrobial peptides, and other agents, offering a highly effective strategy for managing persistent biofilm-related infections [293; 294]. Topical formulations using NPs in chronic wound treatment break biofilms, reduce bacterial loads and enhance wound healing [291]. In dental treatment, NPs are used in adhesives and filling materials to impede biofilm growth, avoiding tooth cavities and periodontitis [295]. NPs interfere with biofilms via many methods. A primary mechanism is their capacity to infiltrate the thick EPS matrix, which often obstructs conventional antimicrobials. By permeating the matrix, nanoparticles provide therapeutic medicines directly to bacterial cells [296]. Metallic NPs, particularly silver ( AgNPs) and zinc oxide (ZnO) possess inherent antibacterial characteristics, notably the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). These ROS damage the EPS matrix, destroy bacterial cell membranes, and impede metabolic processes, disintegrating biofilms [297; 298]. Similarly, gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) have been identified to target major metabolic pathways: protein and nucleic acid synthesis, energy metabolism, and QS. These multifaceted mechanisms enable AuNPs to disrupt bacterial metabolism and communication, effectively impairing biofilm formation and persistence. Together, these metallic NPs offer promising strategies for managing biofilm-associated infections by targeting biofilms' structural integrity and metabolic functions [299]. Metallic NPs, such as AgNPs, AuNPs, ZnO, and titanium dioxide, are thoroughly investigated for their significant antibacterial properties. [PERSON] et al. (2019) showed that fucoidan-stabilized AuNPs significantly prevented biofilm formation and decreased pathogenicity in _P. aeruginosa_[300]. [PERSON] et al. (2024) demonstrated that 3-amino-1,2,4-triazole-5-thiol-modified gold nanoclusters exhibit exceptional efficacy in eradicating biofilm-encased bacteria. Using an in vivo infected catheter implantation model, the study revealed that these gold nanoclusters could eliminate approximately 90% of the bacteria within the biofilms [301]. NPs may be engineered as vehicles for antimicrobial medicines, facilitating the targeted delivery of elevated medication concentrations directly to biofilms. This focused strategy minimizes systemic adverse effects while maintaining adequate medication levels at the infection site. Functionalizing particular ligands or peptides promotes accuracy by enabling selective targeting of bacterial biofilms, hence increasing treatment effects [302; 303]. For instance, polymeric NPs, such as those composed of chitosan or poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA), provide enhanced benefits as carriers for antimicrobial compounds. Chitosan nanoparticles compromise bacterial cell walls and enhance medication delivery in biofilms. PLGA nanoparticles provide regulated drug release, guaranteeing prolonged antibacterial efficacy [304; 305]. [PERSON]'s research (2023) demonstrated that PLGA NPs enhanced vancomycin penetration into _S.