## 3 Proposed Model Techniques
### LoRa Overview: What Is LoRa?
A LoRa network links densely connected networks, which consist of a huge number of endpoint devices, and this makes it able to observe, detect, and monitor information over a huge number of nodes in a specialized manner. The structure of LoRaWAN has four components: end-point devices, gateways, an application server, and a network server. In addition, the LoRa network's stack protocol presents and focuses on the layers involved in data transmission, such as the physical layer, the data link layer, and the application layer [40]. The LoRa network structure and stack protocol are shown in Figure 1.  
LoRa Transmission Parameters  
The endpoints of LoRa configure and employ several attributes, such as separating factors, bandwidths, the correction rate, and the transmitting power, which result in many opportunities for variation. A LoRa network's efficiency is significantly affected by the setting of these attributes; calculating the appropriate configuration and adjusting the value of energy transmitted while still providing the necessary range of communication performance is an important challenge that should be addressed. Therefore, it is vital to select transmission attributes that fit with the LoRa network. * Spreading Factor: The spreading factor calculates how much a signal spreads in time. The SF is obtained by dividing the rate of the chip over the rate of the symbol; in other words, the SF refers to the number of bits represented by a specific symbol. When the value of the SF increases, the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) also increases, resulting in increased sensitivity and range. The LoRaWAN spreading factor standards range between 7 and 12, indicating that a higher value of the spreading factor improves the limit of the communication range by scaling the reactivity for the receiver side,  
Figure 1: Description of a LoRa network: (**a**) LoRa network architecture; (**b**) LoRa stack protocol. while the data rate is reduced. Thus, higher SF values lead to high LoRa node power consumption. * Bandwidth: The bandwidth denotes the range of various frequencies that the signal or a communication channel can hold. It is typically calculated in hertz (Hz) and refers to the difference between the highest and lowest frequencies that can travel over a channel. Typical bandwidth ranges for the LoRa network are 125 kHz, 250 kHz, and 500 kHz. A wide range of bandwidths can lead to a higher data rate but at the same time, reduce the coverage range due to increasing noise levels. * Coding Rate: The LoRa custom error-coding approach improves the range of wireless connections. The outcomes of the CR provide extra information that should be carried over the physical layer of the LoRa payload, and this is adjusted using the coding rate attribute. The coding rate refers to the level of redundancy added to the transmitted data for error correction. LoRa provides four CR configurations: 4/5, 4/6, 4/7, and 4/8. A lower value of the CR, e.g., 4/5, means less redundancy, which leads to higher throughput but lower robustness to interference, while a higher CR provides improved error correction abilities but at the cost of the data rate. * Transmission Power: The transmission power is a crucial approach for the delivery of data packets in the LoRa network, so it should be adjusted properly. Making the value of the transmission power low will extend the life of the battery while making the signal range shorter, and vice versa. The most common range of TP values is between 2 dBm and 20 dBm for most LoRa devices, making balancing the TP important for optimizing performance [41].