# Development and Characterization of High-Fiber, Gluten-Free Pasta for Celiac Disease Patients  
[PERSON]  
1 Department of Nutrition and Food Technology, Faculty of Agriculture, Jordan University of Science and Technology, Irbid 22110, Jordan; [EMAIL_ADDRESS] (S.M. ); [EMAIL_ADDRESS] (W.H.) [PERSON]  
3 Department of Clinical Nutrition and Dietetics, Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences, The Hashemite University, Zarag 13133, Jordan; [EMAIL_ADDRESS]  
[PERSON]  
1 Department of Nutrition and Food Technology, Faculty of Agriculture, Jordan University of Science and Technology, Irbid 22110, Jordan; [EMAIL_ADDRESS] (S.M. ); [EMAIL_ADDRESS] (W.H.) [PERSON]  
5 Authorization and Dietetics Program, College of Pharmacy, Al Ain University, Abu Dhabi Campus, Al Ain 112612, United Arab Emirates
and genetic factors [2]. The determinants of genetic susceptibility include human leukocyte antigen (HLA) and non-HLA genes [6], while environmental factors are mainly related to dietary gluten consumption. Gluten is a major storage protein present in wheat, barley, and rye and directly related to CD severity and disease outcomes [3]. Oats can be considered a gluten-free cereal product, as reported by several studies. However, there are some issues regarding the claims that oats are a gluten-free cereal; oats are described as one of the gluten-containing cereals by the Codex Alimentarius, and the presence of symptoms of exacerbation and malabsorption is believed to be connected to the inclusion of oats in gluten-free diets. Gluten intake causes serious damage to the small intestine mucosa, distinguished by crypt hyperplasia, lymphocytic infiltration, inflammation, and villous flattening, leading to gastrointestinal and abdominal pain, weight loss, and diarrhea [7]. The only effective treatment for CD is strict, lifelong adherence to the gluten- free diet [7]. Nevertheless, the replacement of gluten is a major technological challenge because it is one of the most important structure-building proteins that is responsible for enhancing the quality, elasticity, extensibility, and cohesiveness that contribute to the rheological properties of wheat-based products [8]. Even a small amount of 50 mg/day or less can cause adverse mucosal deterioration in CD patients, leading to a risk of anemia, osteoporosis, secondary inflammation, autoimmunity, malignancies, and even death [9]. However, an alternative approach can be adopted to develop gluten-free products with similar quality and structural properties as cereal products [10]. Numerous gluten-free food products, such as rice, corn, sorghum, millets, and potato/pea starch, and various gluten replacers, including xanthan gum, have been known as suitable alternatives while maintaining the physical-sensorial properties of gluten-free, cereal-based products [7]. Considering that, lupin is considered an excellent replacement (gluten-free crop) due to its unique nutritional and functional properties in bakery and pastry products [11]. Moreover, lupin contains a range of bioactive antioxidants, carotenoids, and phytoestrogen compounds beneficial to reducing low-density lipoprotein levels, blood pressure, plasma cholesterol, and triglyceride levels [12]. Rice is another alternate type of cereal used in the manufacturing of gluten-free products and is characterized by several health benefits, including hypoallergenic activity and high digestible carbohydrate contents [13]. Concomitantly, corn contains storage proteins called zeins, which are different from gluten and are a rich source of vitamins, minerals, dietary fiber, and functional elements such as phenolics, anthocyanins, \(\beta\)-carotene, lutein, and flavonoids [13]. In addition, flaxseed is a very good source of soluble and insoluble fiber, which helps to prevent irritation, constipation, bowel syndrome, and diverticular disease [14]. It also has antioxidant, anti-diabetic, and anti-inflammatory functions, which in turn reduce the risk of cardiovascular disorders, renal disorders, bone disorders, and cancer [15].