# Seareed Exhibits Therapeutic Properties against Chronic Diseases: An Overview
## 6 Pharmacological Properties of Seaweed to Overcome Chronic Disease
### Diabetes  
In recent years, diabetes has become a major health problem worldwide, particularly among youth [162]. Diabetes is a metabolic disorder characterized by insufficient insulin secretion and improper insulin utilization [163]. It is divided into two types: insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (type 1 diabetes) and non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (type 2 diabetes) [101]. Previous studies have shown that seaweed, which is high in bioactive compounds, has anti-diabetic properties (Table 4). \begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c c c c} \hline
**Algal Source** & **Constituent** & **Study Type** & **Biological Effects** & **Ref.** \\ \hline \multicolumn{5}{c}{Brown Seaweed (Phaeophyta)} \\ \hline _Eckonia cava_ & AG-dieckol & In vivo & Reduced total glucose and lipid & [101] \\ _Eckonia cava_ & Dieckol & In vivo & Reduced blood glucose level, serum & [102] \\  & & & insulin level and body weight & \\  & & & Inhibited the activation of high & \\ _Eckonia cava_ & Polyphenol & In vivo & glucose-induced hepatic stellate cells & [164] \\  & & & (HSCs) & \\ _Sargassum heniphyllum_ & Fucoidan and & In vivo & Reduced urinary sugar & \\  & & & Reduced total glucose and lipid & \\  & & & Inhibited pro-inflammatory mediators & \\ _Sargassum heniphyllum_ & Oligo-fucoidan & In vitro and in vivo & Inhibitory effects on diabetes-evoked & [166] \\  & & & renal fibrosis & \\ _Padina arborescens_ & Methanolic extract & In vivo & Ameliorated hyperglycemia and & \\  & & & dysplasia & \\ _Ascophyllum nodosum_ & Carbohydrate- and & & Inhibited \(\alpha\)-glucosidase & \\  & & & Inhibition of sucrose & \\  & & extracts & & (IC\({}_{50}\) = 0.83 mg/mL) \\ \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table} 
Table 4: The effects of seaweed-derived compounds on diabetes. \begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c c c c} \hline
**Algal Source** & **Constituent** & **Study Type** & **Biological Effects** & **Ref. ** \\ \hline \multirow{4}{*}{_Ascophyllum nodosum_} & & & \multicolumn{1}{c}{Inhibited \(\alpha\)-glucosidase} & \multirow{4}{*}{[169]} \\  & & & (IC\({}_{50}\) = 0.013–0.047 mg/mL) & \\  & & & \multicolumn{1}{c}{Inhibited \(\alpha\) -amylase} & \\  & & & (IC\({}_{50}\) = 0.12–4.64 mg/mL) & \\ \multirow{4}{*}{_Focus vesiculus_} & Carbohydrate- and & & \\  & polyphenolic-enriched & In vitro & Inhibited  
Type 2 diabetes is the most common type of diabetes, and its prevalence is increasing significantly worldwide. The mechanism of diabetes is shown in Figure 4d. Hyperglycemia plays an important role in the development of type 2 diabetes and complications associated with the disease, such as microvascular and macrovascular diseases [176]. Several studies have been conducted that suggest extracts from seaweeds could combat diabetes. For instance, flavonoids present in _Enteromorpha prolifera_ exhibited hypoglycemic effects by upregulating IRS1/PI3K/AKT and downregulating the JNK1/2 insulin pathway in the liver [14]. This study also reported that treatment in type 2 diabetic mice enriched the abundance of gut microbiota, such as _Turicbacter_ and _Alistis_[9]. Meanwhile, phlorotannin (dieckol) of _Ecklonia cava_, fucoidan, and fucoxanthin of _Sargassum hemiphyllum_ reduced total glucose, lipid, serum insulin levels, and body weight in vivo [101; 102; 165]. Furthermore, polyphenols extracted from _Ecklonia cava_ also inhibited the activation of high glucose-induced hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) by downregulating ROS and/or GSH and inhibiting TGF-\(\beta\) secretion [164]. In addition, _Padina arborescens_ may ameliorate hyperglycemia and dyslipidemia in in C57 BL/KsJ-db/db mice. A novel phenolic compound from _Ishlige foliacea_, octaphlorethol A, was tested in vitro, and may increase glucose transporter 4 (Glut4) translocation, which is mediated by PI3K/Akt and AMPK activation [170]. Additionally, octaphlorethol A was found to downregulate hepatic gluconeogenesis in vivo by inhibiting G6 Pase and PEPCK activity [171].