## 2 Materials and Methods
### Measurement Outcomes  
Gait analysis was conducted based on spatial parameters, including stride length, step width, and foot rotation (i.e., the angle between the longitudinal axis of the foot and the direction of walking), as well as temporal parameters such as stride time and cadence. Cross-group comparisons were performed after normalizing the data by calculating dimensionless numbers for stride length (\(l\)), stride time (\(\hat{l}\)), and cadence (\(\hat{f}\)), using [PERSON]'s scaling method, where the average leg length of both legs was used as the constant (\(l_{0}\)) [43]. Stride length was normalized as \(\hat{l}=\frac{l}{l_{0}}\), stride time as \(\hat{t}=\frac{l}{\sqrt{l_{0}/g}}\), and cadence as \(\hat{f}=\frac{f}{\sqrt{s/l_{0}}}\), where \(l\), \(t\), and \(f\) represented the participant's stride length, stride time, and cadence, respectively, recorded under each walking condition [43]. The average length of both legs was also used to normalize step width, which was expressed as a percentage of leg length, similar to the approach used in a previous study that utilized stature as a constant [13]. The duration of the stance phase and its sub-phases--load response, midstance, and pre-swing--as well as the swing phase of gait were assessed and reported as percentages of the total gait cycle duration. The stance and swing phases refer to the periods within a gait cycle when the foot is in contact with the ground and when it is not, respectively. The load response corresponded to the period between the initial ground contact and the lifting of the contralateral leg. Mid-stance is the period in which the contralateral leg swings in the air and the body's center of gravity is transported over the loaded foot. The pre-swing includes the period within a gait cycle whose beginning is defined by the heel strike of the contralateral side of the body and whose end is defined by toe-off of the side of the body under consideration [44]. The anteroposterior and mediolateral location of COP was identified as the intersection point on the cyclogram--a diagram created by connecting the COP trajectories from the forefoot of one side to the rearfoot of the contralateral side during selected gait cycles over time [44]. Additionally, the maximum vGRFs exerted on seven distinct plantar surface regions of the foot were recorded across all walking conditions. These functional regions were identified by the system's dedicated software using predefined segmentation methods [45]. These methods integrate geometric proportions and dynamic pressure distribution across the plantar surface, along with customizable analysis settings, to ensure consistency in data interpretation. Geometric segmentation divides the foot into predefined zones based on its length and width proportions, while dynamic pressure-based segmentation allows for the automatic detection of high-pressure areas, adjusting region boundaries in response to shifts in the CoP, maximum load points, and gait phases. The regions, along with the proposed approximate anatomical structures that correspond to them (acknowledging that their boundaries are not always clearly defined), are delineated as follows: (i) the rearfoot, covering the posterior 30% of the foot and subdivided into medial and lateral regions corresponding to the heel; (ii) the midfoot, comprising the central 30% of the foot, aligning with the medial longitudinal arch; and (iii) the forefoot, covering the anterior 40% of the foot, which is further divided into two equal parts: the anterior half, corresponding anatomically to the toes, and the posterior half, which is subdivided vertically into three regions--the medial, central, and lateral forefoot regions--corresponding to the 1 st, 2 nd-3 rd, and 4 th-5 th metatarsals, respectively (Figure 1) [44,46]. Results were reported as averages for the measured variables derived from all steps taken across each gait condition.