## 1 Introduction  
Cruise ships, in contrast to ferries and other (more conventional and smaller-sized) passenger ships, typically embark on multi-day journeys at sea or along inland rivers [1]. Traveling on cruise/large passenger ships offers a combination of accommodation and entertainment that has gained significant popularity during the last few decades. Consequently, the overall passenger capacity of these ships has also expanded. For example, the global number of ocean cruise passengers transported in 2019 was 27.5 million, as reported by Cruise Market Watch [2]. Simultaneously, driven by the ongoing advancements in shipbuilding technology, the dimensions of cruise ships are expanding. As cruise ship structures continue to advance, the process of evacuating passengers and personnel has grown increasingly arduous. Unfortunately, there are signs that the safety assessment process around the topic of evacuation is struggling to keep up with the fast pace of cruise/large passenger ship expansion in terms of numbers and capacity, leading to the emergence of many safety concerns related to cruises, such as the fact that cruise ship workers in many cases are ill-equipped to handle emergencies due to inadequate evacuation training [3; 4]. Furthermore, research suggests that there is an absence of an effective and inclusive safety culture onboard ships within the maritime community, hindering open exchange of ideas and perceptions among all crew members [5]. Additionally, safety management practices (such as risk assessment, risk management, etc.) showcase severe deficiencies that can lead to human errors and consequently to life losses [6], while also, in many cases, impractical ship layouts can hinder evacuation procedures in the case of an emergency. In order to effectively deal with these inefficiencies, and after the occurrence of certain cruise/large passenger ship accidents that were associated with significant casualties (e.g., MS Estonia, Costa Concordia, MV Sewol, etc. ), the International Maritime Organization (IMO) and an extended number of stakeholders in the maritime industry, as well as researchers focused on the maritime domain, are currently prioritizing the implementation of a safe and comprehensive evacuation plan for cruise ships. Research suggests that if passengers are not promptly/timely evacuated to muster stations during an accident, this will significantly impede and prolong later rescue attempts. Therefore, a thorough quantitative analysis and risk assessment of the evacuation process is crucial to undertake. Passenger Evacuation Capacity (PEC) encompasses various aspects related to the evacuation of a ship, such as the time it takes to evacuate, identifying potential areas of congestion, evaluating the layout of the ship, assessing the availability of life-saving facilities, and implementing effective evacuation procedures [7]. Therefore, an extensive assessment of the PEC of cruise/large passenger ships can serve as a guide for enhancing the layout of escape routes and developing more efficient evacuation strategies. This will guarantee the swift and safe evacuation of people from ships facing an imminent and life-threatening danger (during emergency situations). According to the (recently updated) International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) [8] regulations, all cruise/large passenger ships are now required to complete an evacuation analysis. The specific techniques and performance standards for this analysis are outlined in the Guidelines for Evacuation Analysis for New and Existing Passenger Ships (MSC.1/Circ. 1238 & Revision: MSC1/Circ.1553) [9; 10]). For newly constructed cruise ships, this evacuation study can be utilized to detect and mitigate potential regions of overcrowding along the escape paths at an early stage during the design phase. Furthermore, in order to achieve better evacuation efficiency, it is important to approach other areas that equally affect the outcome of an abandonment operation, such as human factors.