## 1 Introduction  
The maritime sector is essential in global trade, transportation, and communication [1]. Approximately 80% of the world's trade by volume is moved by sea, with maritime trade volumes reaching 12,292 million tons in 2023. By the beginning of 2024, the global fleet comprised around 109,000 vessels, including cargo and non-cargo ships. According to the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), global maritime trade is expected to grow at an average annual rate of 2.4% from 2025 to 2029. According to the UNCTAD, the global shipping fleet is getting older, with numerous vessels approaching the end of their operational lifespan (20-25 years). As of early 2024, the average age of the global fleet, measured by deadweight tonnage, stood at 12.5 years, and the age by vessel counts averaged 22.4 years. Ships that are no longer economically viable and/or pose a risk to navigation safety should be disposed of appropriately [2]. From a sustainability perspective, the best solution for ship disposal is recycling. The majority of a decommissioned ship's materials, about 93%, represent valuable resources that can be recovered for reuse or recycling. Globally, retired ships yield approximately 20 million tons of high-quality materials annually [3]. Ferrous or mild steel scrap constitutes the primary source of revenue. Other recoverable metals include liquid-quenched and tempered steels, copper alloys, titanium, aluminum, and metals extracted from electronic waste. However, ships also contain hazardous and toxic substances, including asbestos, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), tri-butyl-tin (TBT), and metal/loids [4]. Therefore, it is important to ensure that ship dismantling is carried out in ship recycling facilities that are planned and managed in compliance with health and safety standards and environmental protection standards. Currently, the management of toxic and hazardous wastes from ship recycling is regulated globally by the Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal (Basel Convention) and the International Convention for the Safe and Environmentally Sound Recycling of Ships (Hong Kong Convention). The Basel Convention mandates an integrated lifecycle approach for hazardous waste management, encompassing all stages from production to disposal. While not specifically intended for ship decommissioning, the Basel Convention arguably applies to ships considered waste that are transported across borders. However, the Basel Convention's general environmental provisions have proven inadequate for addressing unsafe practices in major shipbreaking countries, necessitating a specialized regime for ship recycling [5]. Consequently, the Hong Kong Convention was created with contributions from the International Maritime Organization (IMO) member states, non-governmental organizations, the International Labour Organization (ILO), and Basel Convention parties [6]. The Hong Kong Convention regulates ship design, construction, operation, and recycling to ensure safety and environmental protection. It was adopted in 2009, but entry into force went very slowly (26 June 2025). To enhance recycling practices and accelerate the adoption of the Hong Kong Convention, the EU Ship Recycling Regulation (EU SRR) was adopted in 2013 and has been applied since 31 December 2014 [7]. All rules of the EU SRR, which implements the Hong Kong Convention and adds further safety and environmental standards, have been in force since 31 December 2020. The Hong Kong Convention and the EU SRR set out requirements applicable to ships, shipowners, and ship recycling facilities. A key requirement for ships in both instruments is keeping an inventory of hazardous materials (IHM) on board throughout their life cycle.