# Learning-Based Optimisation for Integrated Problems in
## 2 Transport Planning Problems in IFT
### International Transport Operations  
In the IFT context, the transport process generally involves loading a shipment into a container or transport unit, such as a trailer, which is subsequently transported by truck to a transfer hub connected by railway connections. IFT represents a complex logistics chain that requires careful planning and coordination among multiple stakeholders. Note that, in this study, we only focus on IFT involving two modes, with a freight forwarder acting as the central agent responsible for organising the door-to-door transport. After a shipper delegates freight transport to the freight forwarder, optimising the information and transport flows between multiple stakeholders (such as the road operator, rail operator and terminal operator) becomes necessary. In what follows, we set out a framework for the IFT service and outline the key decisions, operations, and optimisation problems for the transport-related decision entities. The freight forwarder first selects modes and carriers by comparing intermodal transport services with unimodal road services and develops transport plans. Once the transport service is determined and the transport plan is scheduled, the freight forwarder is notified of any disruptions. A train delay may require the rebooking of road services and, thus, fast optimisation and the rescheduling of planned services. Moreover, the freight forwarder's decisions on scheduling, modes, the number of containers, and train lengths are impacted by past decisions, which subsequently influence future decisions, resulting in complex and non-linear behaviour. The freight forwarder schedules the road services based on the rail service's transit time and expected trans-shipment time at the terminals [1]. When scheduling road operations, road operators encounter a complex task of determining the optimal routes and optimising vehicle fleets, considering multiple constraints such as time windows and vehicle capacity, and setting the priority to empty or loaded containers. The rail operator is responsible for planning decisions regarding the railway network, such as infrastructure, network design, optimal pricing, and train dispatching. The railway undertakings provide the rail haul services according to the schedule of the freight forwarder and the rail operators. The main challenge here is to optimally assign resources such as locomotives, train routes, trailers, and containers. Finally, the terminal operator is responsible for the trans-shipment operations at the terminals such as the classification, consolidation, sorting, and exchange of load units. Although the raw transport costs of multimodal freight transport are generally lower than those for road transport, the handling costs at trans-shipment points make road-rail transport unprofitable for many markets [12]. The coordination and optimisation among all these six stakeholders require simultaneous consideration of multiple objectives such as cost, environmental impact, transit time, service level, delays, and resource utilisation. In general, planning decisions in IFT can be characterised as long-term (strategic), medium-term (tactical), and short-term (operational). But in practice, companies make decisions for two-time horizons: offline and online [13]. For example, in railway offline decisions involve routing trains in advance, determining the primary path for each train under normal conditions. These decisions are made based on demand, typically every three to six months. The routes and schedules are carefully planned manually, considering regulations, safety measures, demand forecasting, and demand requirements. Online decisions are required when disruptions occur during network operations. As road operations on the road constitute approximately 40% of the total IFT costs [14], the decisions of the road operators are much more critical.