## 2 Industrial Communications with 5G  
With the evolution from 4G to 5G, more varied usage scenarios and applications for cellular networks are supported beyond voice, messaging, and mobile broadband. Fifth-generation networks support four service categories: enhanced mobile broadband (eMBB), ultra-reliable and low-latency communications, massive machine-type communications, and fixed wireless access, which the International Telecommunication Union's Radio Communication Sector (ITU-R) has identified for the 5G era [17]. By integrating 5G networks into their information and communication systems, enterprises can enhance the performance of their systems and operations by taking advantage of the enhanced capabilities of 5G networks. Some of these capabilities are as follows:  
* **Flexible numerology** for radio resource allocation [20; 21]: 3 GPP outlines two main frequency ranges for 5G NR use, called frequency range 1 (FR1) and frequency range 2 (FR2). FR1 is also known as the sub-6 GHz band, while FR2 is referred to as the millimeter-wave (mmWave) band. The maximum channel bandwidth and the space between OFDM subcarriers can vary depending on the specific frequency range being used. The concept of flexible numerology allows for variations in both the value of subcarrier spacing and the duration of OFDM symbols, impacting the available data rate and transmission latency. These subcarrier spacings are obtained by scaling up the LTE-based subcarrier spacing \(\delta f=15\) kHz by \(2^{\mu}\), leading to a range from 15 kHz up to 240 kHz, with a proportional change in cyclic prefix duration. This allows tailoring radio access parameters to suit the unique demands of industrial applications, like achieving low latency for real-time control or high throughput for data-intensive tasks. Furthermore, the adaptability of numerology allows for different applications with varying requirements to operate together within the same frequency band, resulting in optimal spectrum usage [22]. This can lead to enhanced efficiency and productivity in manufacturing processes, as well as improved automation and quality control beyond what other wireless technologies can offer. * **mmWave** communication [21; 23; 24]: The allocated mmWave radio spectrum provides much more bandwidth than is available in the sub-6 GHz band, allowing for the accommodation of a wide range of novel applications for Industry 4.0 and beyond. Example applications include advanced smart industrial functions like vision-guided robots, ultra-high-definition video and imaging for remote visual monitoring and inspection, smart safety instrumented systems, intelligent logistics, and high-precision image-guided automated assembly, among others. The availability of ultra-reliable and low-latency communications (URLLC) in factory automation scenarios enables smart machines and robots to work alongside humans or cooperate toward a common goal, which is a key aspect of the future Industry 5.0 vision. Furthermore, utilizing mmWaves enables not only thorough communication but also sensing, which can support seamless and adaptive behavior in equipment and machines, allowing them to detect nearby individuals or objects and react appropriately by adjusting their movements or slowing their operating rate. * **Beamforming**[25; 26; 27]: Antenna beamforming employs an array of multiple antenna elements to generate a directed beam. This has the significant advantage of reducing interference in sub-6 GHz bands, resulting in higher throughput due to directional transmission. At mmWave frequencies, beamforming is essential for reliable communication, as it enhances channel gain. Beamforming, for example, facilitates concurrent communication among collaborative robots in a smart industrial environment. * **Massive MIMO**[28; 29; 30; 31; 32; 33]: Massive MIMO utilizes a large number of antennas to exploit spatial degrees of freedom, enabling it to support communication with multiple devices simultaneously without requiring additional time or frequency resources [34].