# The Perpetual Vector Mosquito Threat and Its Eco-Friendly Nemeses
## 1 Introduction
### A Glimpse of the Toll of Mosquito-Borne Diseases in Human Populations  
The extent of the global burden of mosquito-vectored diseases is remarkably exemplified by only a few diseases that are endemic in the African, Asian, and South American continents. Consider malaria, a protozoan disease of the liver and red blood cells, inflicted by _Plasmodium_ species and transmitted by _Anopheles_ species. A recent WHO report indicates that in 2022, nearly half the world's population (>3.9 billion) continued to be at risk of the disease, with an estimated morbidity of 249 million and mortality of 608,000 [6]. Tragically, even with current vector control programs and medical interventions, death rates remain relatively high when compared to other arthropod-borne diseases. Moreover, the daily livelihood is challenging for many who recover from cerebral malaria, which affects >500,000 and kills \(\sim\)400,000 children annually in Africa, and which is the most severe complication imposed by _Plasmodium falciparum_. Many survivors have an increased risk of neurological, cognitive, and behavioral disorders, and epilepsy. In fact, the leading cause of childhood neurodisabilities in sub-Saharan Africa is cerebral malaria [7; 8]. Although advances have been made in integrated pest management strategies, globally, 85 countries and territories remain endemic for malaria, including 45 within the WHO African Region (AR). In 2022, the AR continued to share a disproportionately high level of the global malaria burden, where the morbidity was 233 million (94%) and mortality was 580,000 (95%), and where children under 5 years of age accounted for \(\sim\)80% of all malaria deaths. Unequivocally, malaria has retained its status as the most significant parasitic disease of humans.  
Similarly, arboviruses are also of serious public health concern. These viruses have a wide geographic distribution in tropical and subtropical regions. Currently, over 500 arboviruses have been cataloged, of which \(\sim\)150 cause, or are implicated in, urgent and neglected tropical diseases (NTDs) [9; 10]. These arboviruses belong to the _Flaviviridae_, _Togaviridae_, _Asfarviridae_, _Orthomyxoviridae_, _Reoviridae_, _Rhabdoviridae_, and _Bunyaviridae_ families [4; 5]. Notable examples of members of the _Flaviviridae_ include dengue, yellow fever, and Zika viruses, whereas the Chikungunya virus is a member of the _Togaviridae_. Although Zika virus, arguably an NTD agent, has received much attention in recent years due to its reemergence in Brazil in 2015 and its association with brain abnormalities, including ventriculomegaly, cortical atrophy, calcifications, corpus callosum anomalies, and microcephaly in fetuses [11], dengue virus is by far the most prevalent among arboviruses. Indeed, dengue is endemic in more than 100 countries, mostly in the southern hemisphere [12]. Accurate statistics on the global burden of dengue are uncertain. Nevertheless, the WHO estimates that of the \(\sim\)3.9 billion people at risk of dengue and dengue fever, \(\sim\)390 million cases occur annually, of which 96 million are clinically symptomatic [13].