## 1 Introduction  
Wireless communications have recently undergone an exceptional surge in various areas. From cellular networks to satellite connections, wireless telecommunications have given rise to a multitude of novel services to provide communication and internet connectivity worldwide. Despite this, the \"World Internet Development Report 2024\" states that the global average internet penetration rate is approximately 67.1 percent, implying that approximately 32.9% of the global population lacks internet access. This means billions of people are still unconnected [1]. Traditional communication methods that utilize radio frequencies (RF) face data transmission capacity constraints due to technological and regulatory challenges [2]. From a technological perspective, these systems are mainly constrained by limited available bandwidth, signal attenuation, interferences, and hardware limitations in terms of weight and energy efficiency. On the regulatory front, they are bound by spectrum allocation, the necessity for licenses and coordination, and the international agreements governing the use of the RF spectrum and orbital slots [3]. Terrestrial networks, for example, make it impossible to deliver telecommunications services in isolated areas, the North and South Poles, and impoverished settlements due to high building costs. Likewise, for certain scenarios, such as high-speed trains and planes, terrestrial wireless communication networks deliver poor quality of service (QoS) due to a high call drop rate caused by high mobility and frequent cell handovers. Satellite communications have received a lot of attention for offering abundant radio frequency resources, wide coverage areas, long communication distances, rapid deployment capabilities, and minimum interference from the ground network. However, the dependence on satellite communication highlights the inherent limits of present RF technologies. As an alternative to addressing these limits, the use of optical technology has demonstrably pushed the RF boundaries to enable data transmission with high bandwidth and secure channels. Free-space optical (FSO) communication emerges as a subset of optical communication technology that is used to address the growing demand for high-speed data transmission in space applications. FSO, with its inherent advantages of large capacity, low detection likelihood, and minimal interception risk, provides an alternative solution to standard RF communication. It may also contribute to the deployment requirements of mega-constellations composed of multiple small-to-medium-sized satellites, thereby mitigating the issues related to spectrum congestion in RF communication [4]. The global space-based laser communication market, mostly commercial applications, is expected to reach USD 5 billion by 2031, i.e., a growth of about 26% per year since 2022 [5]. FSO links can be established between fixed or dynamic point-to-point systems or in interconnections between satellites, aircraft, maritime vessels, and ground terminals (stationary and mobile). FSO links for space communication require beam tracking and locking prior to data transmission. In inter-satellite communications, where there is no need for ground stations, FSO links with wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) and relays can be deployed [6]. Recent space missions have demonstrated in orbit the core principles of space-based optical communication, which paved the way for its real-time deployment in both academic and business sectors [7]. These missions have demonstrated a range of optical communication links that are classified based on their separation from the Earth's surface and have investigated both the dynamic and stationary conditions of the transmitters and/or receivers. For instance, in geostationary Earth orbit (GEO), the satellite is typically deployed at about 36,000 km above the Earth's equator.