# Static and Modal Models of Automotive Wheel Hubs Based on Lightweight Design and Cost-Effectiveness
## 1 Introduction  
With the rapid development of the automotive industry, there is an increasing demand for high-performance and safety standards in vehicles. As an important part of the automobile suspension system, the automobile wheel hub bears the weight of the vehicle and is also used to transmit power. The rationality of their structure has a significant impact on the vehicle's performance and comfort. Additionally, in the context of the global environmental demand for reducing carbon emissions, energy-saving and emission reduction have become a prominent trend [1, 2]. Therefore, the structural safety and lightweight design of wheel hubs have become increasingly important in the field of automotive manufacturing [3]. Traditional wheel hub design is often based on empirical and trial-and-error methods, lacking a comprehensive and scientific approach. However, with the development of computer technology and finite element analysis (FEA) methods, utilizing numerical simulation for analyzing and optimizing wheel hub structures has become an effective approach. More and more researchers have started using the finite element method (FEM), which not only has rigorous mathematical theory but can also solve complex nonlinear strain-stress relationships. Numerical simulation can also provide a unified direction for process optimization, reducing the number of experiments and improving experimental efficiency and success rates [4, 5]. For instance, [PERSON] [6] proposed a method that defines the standard finite element method as a stiffness matrix, which can be used to analyze the dynamic loads and displacements of the internal rolling bearings of the wheel hub, as well as the interaction between loads and displacements. In the optimization design of wheel hub structures, selecting the appropriate optimization method and setting reasonable parameters are key factors. It is necessary to conductin-depth research and comparison of different optimization methods and determine the most suitable method and parameters based on the specific problem. The mass, center of gravity position, and mass moment of inertia of the wheel hub are important factors that affect the driving and steering performance of the vehicle. During the test, if the deviation caused by these factors is too large, it will have a significant negative impact on the overall motion performance of the vehicle [7]. The material properties of the wheel hub have a significant influence on its strength, stiffness, durability, and other aspects. However, there are still certain limitations and shortcomings in the performance testing of wheel hub materials, such as incomplete testing methods and imprecise experimental data. The main types of materials for wheel hubs are steel, aluminum alloy, and magnesium alloy. Aluminum alloy wheel hubs, due to their advantages of being lightweight, having good heat dissipation, high safety factor, and design flexibility, currently account for approximately 54% of the global wheel hub market [8], with approximately 80% of aluminum alloy wheel hubs being produced by LPDC [9]. In addition, by processing the modal analysis results of the wheel hub, we can obtain the natural frequency, mode shape and other parameters that affect the movement of the wheel hub, which provides a certain basis for the structure optimization, material selection and manufacturing process in the design process of the wheel hub. During modal analysis, attention should be paid to modeling errors, selection of boundary conditions, modal truncation issues, and uncertainties in material properties. Employing appropriate methods and strategies can improve the accuracy and reliability of modal analysis results. [PERSON] et al. [10] analyzed the rolling energy loss of wheels through experiments and model development, indicating that the rolling resistance of a vehicle was governed by various factors, such as the normal load. [PERSON] et al.