## 1 Introduction  
Concrete is the world's most widely used construction material, with annual production exceeding 10 billion tons [1]. This ubiquity is due to its exceptional durability, remarkable strength and unrivaled versatility. Composed mainly of cementitious binder, aggregates, water and chemical admixtures, concrete offers a unique combination of properties that make it the preferred choice for a multitude of construction applications. However, despite its countless advantages, the production of its main component, cement, generates around 7% of the world's carbon dioxide (CO\({}_{2}\)) emissions, making a significant contribution to global warming, one of the greatest environmental challenges of our time [2]. The cement manufacturing process is not only energy-intensive, requiring substantial quantities of fossil energy, but also releases considerable volumes of CO\({}_{2}\) during the calcination of limestone, the crucial stage in the production of clinker, the key component of cement. Faced with these growing environmental concerns and the urgent need to act to mitigate the impacts of climate change, intensive efforts have been made within the concrete industry to develop alternative cementitious materials and optimize production processes. The main objective is to significantly reduce the carbon footprint associated with concrete manufacture while maintaining its outstanding technical performance and durability. Supplementary cementing materials (SCMs) are at the heart of this innovative strategy to reduce the environmental impact of concrete [3; 4; 5; 6; 7; 8; 9; 10; 11; 12; 13]. By partially replacing Portland cement linker, the main but energy-intensive component of cement, with SCMs, it is possible to significantly reduce the CO\({}_{2}\) emissions associated with concrete production [14; 15]. This partial substitution not only reduces clinker demand and related emissions but also improves concrete performance. The use of cement substitute materials (SCMs) plays a crucial role in promoting the circular economy by adding value to industrial by-products that would otherwise be considered waste. By incorporating these materials into concrete formulations, we not only reduce the quantities of waste to be disposed of but also make more efficient use of available resources, thus contributing to a more sustainable future for the construction sector. Among the most commonly used SCMs are fly ash, silica fume and metakaolin. These materials offer significant environmental benefits by reducing CO\({}_{2}\) emissions and waste generation, while improving the mechanical properties and durability of concrete thanks to their pozzolanic properties and beneficial effects on the microstructure of cement paste. Fly ash, derived from coal combustion, is widely recognized for its ability to improve the workability and long-term strength of concrete. Its incorporation into concrete formulations reduces the need for Portland cement, while increasing the strength and durability of the final material [16]. Silica fume, a by-product of silicon production, stands out for its significant effect on concrete strength and durability. Due to its extreme fineness and high reactivity, it contributes to the formation of an additional hydrated calcium silicate gel (C-S-H), thus improving the density and durability of concrete [17]. Metakaolin, obtained by calcining kaolinite clay, improves not only the mechanical strength of concrete but also its resistance to chemical attack. Its fine granulometry and pozzolanic reactivity make it an excellent reinforcement for concrete mixes, increasing their longevity and performance [18; 19]. In addition, other SCMs, such as granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS), are gaining importance in research and practical applications. Granulated blast furnace slag, derived from the steel-making process, is a by-product rich in silica and alumina, which can replace part of the Portland cement in concrete mixes.