###### Abstract
That is 1,800,000,000,000 parameters with which the LLM interacts to generate each individual token (a word or a part of a word). Multiplied by ChatGPT's 100,000,000 monthly users each processing just one prompt with 100 tokens daily brings us to a staggering 18,000,000,000,000,000,000 or 18 \(\times\) 10\({}^{21}\) computations, which explains the daily costs of running ChatGPT at USD 700,000 [12]. One can only imagine the environmental footprint of the operation. When given an input or prompt, LLMs are able to predict the next word in the context of all previous content and can thus generate creative outputs such as complete sentences and answers or even essays and poems. In effect, they generate a pattern of words based on the word patterns they have been trained on by applying attention to context and a controlled amount of randomness. Due to the fact that they have been trained on such a large amount of text, the quality of the text is such that GPT-4, for example, has been able to pass standardised academic and professional tests [13]. Users interact with an LLM via AI conversational agents or AI chatbots. An AI chatbot is a software application that uses AI techniques to simulate human conversation. In the past, AI chatbots did not use LLMs, and in the future, AI chatbots are likely to use resources other than LLMs, such as curated structured data, computational algorithms, and real-time data. Currently, however, AI chatbots are mostly used as conduits to LLMs, and thus, the terms AI chatbot and LLM are sometimes used interchangeably (Figure 1). The most-discussed AI chatbot in history was ChatGPT, built on the GPT called GPT-3.5 (specifically gpt-3.5-turbo) [16] ([[https://chat.openai.com](https://chat.openai.com)]([https://chat.openai.com](https://chat.openai.com)); accessed on 1 October 2023). It was released to the public in November 2022 and had 1 million active users in its first week ([[https://twitter.com/sama/status/1599668808285028353](https://twitter.com/sama/status/1599668808285028353)]([https://twitter.com/sama/status/1599668808285028353](https://twitter.com/sama/status/1599668808285028353)); accessed on 1 October 2023) and over 100 million after two months [17], easily surpassing Facebook, TikTok, Instagram, and Uber to that milestone. Since then, Google has launched Bard [18] ([[https://bard.google.com](https://bard.google.com)]([https://bard.google.com](https://bard.google.com)); accessed on 1 October 2023), Microsoft the Bing chatbot [19] ([[https://www.bing.com](https://www.bing.com)]([https://www.bing.com](https://www.bing.com)); accessed on 1 October 2023), OpenAI ChatGPT Plus [20] ([[https://chat.openai.com](https://chat.openai.com)]([https://chat.openai.com](https://chat.openai.com)); accessed on 1 October 2023), Opera Aria [21] ([[https://www.opera.com/features/browser-ai](https://www.opera.com/features/browser-ai)]([https://www.opera.com/features/browser-ai](https://www.opera.com/features/browser-ai)); accessed on 1 October 2023), Anthropic Claude 2 [22,23] ([[https://claude.ai](https://claude.ai)]([https://claude.ai](https://claude.ai)); accessed on 1 October 2023), and more. Figure 1: A high-level overview of an AI chatbot and LLM-powered software (constructed based on information from [14; 15]). AI chatbots have implications for a range of practices and disciplines and for many facets of our daily lives. They can be used to compose emails, essays, computer code, and speeches or translate text into another language or simply give it a different tone. They can be empowering because they lower the barrier to entry, seamlessly complement human work, and make us more productive and creative [3; 24; 25]. Many (but mostly proponents of entities with a stake in AI chatbots) tout that AI chatbots will take the drudgery out of everyday office work by automating various tasks and ultimately increasing productivity across the economy, e.g., [26; 27]. However, AI chatbots can also be terrifying and are seen by many as potentially threatening and having far-reaching negative consequences.