The Efficiency of Geodetic and Low-Cost GNSS Devices in Urban Kinematic Terrestrial Positioning in Terms of the Trajectory Generated by MMS  
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1 Faculty of Civil and Geodetic Engineering, University of Ljubljana, Jamova cesta 2, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia 1  
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2 GeoSNav Laboratory, Department of Engineering and Architecture, University of Trieste, Via Valerio 6/2, 34127 Trieste, Italy 2  
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2 GeoSNav Laboratory, Department of Engineering and Architecture, University of Trieste, Via Valerio 6/2, 34127 Trieste, Italy 2  
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2 GeoSNav Laboratory, Department of Engineering and Architecture, University of Trieste, Via Valerio 6/2, 34127 Trieste, Italy 2  
[PERSON]  
1 Faculty of Civil and Geodetic Engineering, University of Ljubljana, Jamova cesta 2, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia 1  
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frustrating and confusing [1; 2; 3]. To this end, the performance of devices of varying quality must be tested against high-precision sensors. Not everyone has access to highly professional MMS sensors, but there is another way to solve the problem. With the advent of low-cost sensors, it is possible to produce mobile mapping sensors at an affordable price. Today's trend in geomatics is towards mass sensing with low-cost devices that could be useful in daily life for real-time mapping of reality or its subsequent reconstruction. Dual-frequency smartphones capable of acquiring carrier-phase measurements associated with other sensors, including INS (Inertial Navigation System), present another challenge in mobile mapping today. For example, such sensors could be used in the rapid acquisition of road conditions and damage, mapping of the condition of roadside facilities and the reconstruction of car accidents. However, in order for this to be of use, the quality of their robustness and performance should be investigated and estimated. Several authors [4; 5; 6; 7; 8; 9; 10; 11] have already noted that modern, low-cost electronic devices can achieve high accuracy in determining kinematic GNSS trajectories. Such sensors are used, for example, in drones for the direct georeferencing of trajectories [12; 13; 14; 15; 16; 17]. However, the georeferencing of trajectories for drones differs from ground-based positioning in terms of obstacles and the open sky, whereby rapid changes in the signal reception environment and measurement conditions pose a major challenge. The problem of kinematic positioning quality is also relevant to the challenges of autonomous vehicle navigation, where the requirements for integrity, reliability and quality are quite high and, in some cases, currently impossible to meet. As for smartphones, some authors [18; 19; 20] have reported that some characteristics of GNSS signals currently acquired by smartphones still have a negative impact on GNSS position accuracy. This was one of the main issues of the analyses in this study. To meet this challenge, the reference trajectory was derived from a professional MMS equipped with a POS/LV (Position and Orientation System for Land Vehicles) from Applank Corporation (Applank, Richmond Hill, ON, Canada). A detailed explanation of the system from the year 2000 can be found, for example, in [21; 22]. Among other studies, Applank measurements have already been used to evaluate the extraction of road geometry parameters [23], for studies comparing the kinematic performance of different satellite systems (GPS, GLONASS, Galileo) in terrestrial measurements using single frequencies [24] and multi-frequencies [25] at the University of Trieste.