# Artificial Intelligence-Empowered Doppler Weather Profile for Low-Earth-Orbit Satellites
## 3 Results and Discussion
Specifically, SF10 is susceptible to the dynamic Doppler effect for E angles greater than 40 degrees, while SF12 begins to experience difficulties at E angles exceeding 13 degrees. In comparison to ground objects, LEO satellites induce a considerably greater Doppler shift as they navigate around the Earth at an average velocity of thousands of kilometres per hour. Given the substantial dynamics inherent in an LEO satellite, Doppler positioning algorithms are poised to reap significant advantages from this heightened dynamic attribute. Through our innovative approach, we have successfully demonstrated the efficacy of accurately estimating carrier frequencies from 1-bit quantised data with reduced reliance on pilot signals and lower SNRs when compared to conventional signal processing methodologies. We rigorously analyze and simulate ground stations to ascertain the signal-to-noise-and-interference ratio (SINR) and coverage probability for downlink and uplink scenarios. The Globalstar satellite is equipped with a sophisticated communications infrastructure including S- and L-band antennas, a trapezoidal body, and two solar arrays. Each satellite operates at an altitude of 1414 km, approximately 876 miles above sea level. The ISS maintains an orbital altitude range of 370-460 km (200-250 nautical miles) above the Earth's surface. The ISS orbital inclination is set at 51.6 degrees, enabling the station to traverse over 90% of the populated regions on Earth. Figure 18 illustrates the configuration for the Satellite Link Budget configuration for the Globalstar satellite and the Perth ground station as follows:  
* Link L1 acts as an uplink, enabling the establishment of a connection between ground station G1 and satellite S1. * Link L3 operates as a critical intermediary, facilitating communication between satellite S3 and satellite S4. * Link L2 functions as a downlink, enabling the flow of communication between satellite S2 and ground station G2. Summarising the above discussion, the classification challenges outlined in this study are critical for optimising throughput and reducing bit error rates. The machine learning and deep learning algorithms examined in this context are specifically designed to address classification tasks and aim to improve the operational efficiency of low Earth orbit (LEO) satellites in the context of the Doppler effect. A thorough analysis has been performed regarding the performance of LoRa and ground satellite connectivity utilising machine learning and deep learning techniques, with particular attention given to the substantial impact of the Doppler weather effect. The hybrid artificial intelligence model that has been developed demonstrates a high degree of effectiveness in classifying extended transmission distances, albeit with a consideration of bandwidth limitations. Additionally, the AI framework is capable of predicting  
Figure 18: Configuration for the Satellite Link Budget for the Globalstar satellite and the Perth ground station. Link L1 acts as an uplink enabling a connection between ground station G1 and satellite S1. Link L3 operates as a critical intermediary, facilitating communication between satellites S3 and S4. Link L2 functions as a downlink, enabling communication between satellite S2 and ground station G2. the Doppler profile for low-Earth-orbit (LEO) satellites, while also incorporating factors related to weather attenuation. This integrated approach serves to optimise the project for both uplink and downlink transmission processes. As a result, there is a significant enhancement in computational efficiency and overall system performance. Furthermore, this methodology allows for comparative analyses against other prominent modulation schemes that are relevant within the Internet of Things (IoT) standards, including the Doppler effect associated with long-range modulation. The classification analysis has focused on several key factors that differentiate the impacts of static Doppler from those of dynamic Doppler.