## 3 Geological Setting  
The study area is a part of the Nile Valley, which was geologically studied by other authors [10; 11; 12]. Geologically, the whole of the Abydos site is associated with a large stretch of Quaternary to Pliocene deposits that uncomfortably overlay the Esna Shale, which is Early Tertiary in age [12]. Figure 2 shows the geology of Sohag province, including the study area. Various rock units that are distinguished in the Abydos site are composed mainly of sedimentary deposits and are arranged in the following order from older to younger: (i) Pliocene clays, (ii) Qena sands, (iii) Kom Ombo gravels, (iv) Ghawanim Formation, and (v) Dandara Formation, which range from the Pliocene to recent [13]. The main formation that contains groundwater in the study area is known as the Qena Sands Formation. It is scarcer in the west direction, where it cuts a Lower Eocene limestone plateau. Some of these sands were eroded by the River Nile and its valley to the east, and as a result, the current Nile and its plain are filled with silts. Results from three wells nearby Abydos Temple (well numbers 1, 2, and 3) indicate that part of the Qena sands is sometimes 15 m thick [14]. According to [PERSON] [15], the basal deposits above the Lower Eocene limestone are distinguished by a variety of clay deposits with scattered silt intercalation. These clays are compared with Paleonite deposits.  
[PERSON] [15] categorized the investigated site into three main components from a geomorphological perspective: the structural limestone plateau, the Nile terraces, and the Nile floodplain. The limestone plateau is characterized by high relief that often reaches 200-375 m and borders the Nile Valley from both directions. It is divided by several NE-SW and ENE-WSW trending crosswise dry wadis, some of which are currently filled with sands and gravels. A general slope toward the Nile Valley is attained through these wadis [16]. The Nile Terraces are situated between the agricultural plains and the limestone plateau's margins on both sides of the Nile Valley. It has a surface made of sands and gravels. Most of these desert fringes are represented by a sequence of subsequent terraces at intermediate altitudes (70-140 m) above the main sea level. These terraces are remnants of the previous alluvial plains [17]. The fertilized shale, silt, and mud utilized for agriculture make up the Nile flood plain, which includes the farmed area on both sides of the River Nile. With an elevation ranging from 55 to 65 m above the sea level in the Sohag district, the floodplain is virtually flat or gradually slopes down northward. In comparison to the eastern side of the Nile Valley, the cultivated areas are much wider on the western side.  
The Nile Valley was structurally bordered by the limestone plateau, which also created high relief structures with heights of 200-375 m. It is divided by several crossing dry wadis that trend NE-SW and ENE-WSW, some of which are currently filled with sands and gravels. These wadis eventually slope downward toward the Nile Valley. Most of these wadis have undergone several cycles of activity, separated by active (arid) ones, and are structurally restricted [16].  
Figure 2: (**A**) A geological map of the Sohag district, including the investigated area, emphasizing the major surface geologic units and a cross-section through the study site passing by the Osirion location [14]. (**B**) From the three drilled wells (1, 2, and 3) that were situated in the research site, the stratigraphic sequence west of the Abydos area was determined [18].