## 1 Introduction  
Ozone (O\({}_{3}\)) has significant negative effects on the atmospheric environment and human health [1; 2; 3]. In addition, it also affects the Earth's ecosystem and climate system [4; 5; 6; 7]. First, tropospheric ozone, especially near-surface ozone pollution, poses a serious threat to human health [1; 2; 3]. Surface ozone is particularly harmful to the respiratory system [2], especially for children, the elderly, and people with respiratory diseases. Second, ozone has a significant impact on the water cycle by prompting plant stomata to close [4]. Ozone has a negative impact on the growth of crops and vegetation, interfering with crop yields and ecosystem stability, threatening plant photosynthesis, reducing crop output, and weakening the carbon absorption capacity of ecosystems [5; 6]. Ozone pollution also poses a threat to biodiversity, and increases in ozone have led to significant reductions in bird populations [7]. In addition, as the third largest greenhouse gas, ozone may also disrupt the Earth's radiation balance and affect the global climate system [5]. The continued deterioration of surface ozone pollution in China has been confirmed by many previous studies [8; 9; 10; 11; 12; 13; 14]. Among them, the NCP (including Beijing, Tianjin, Hebei, Shandong, Henan, and Shanxi Province) is the most economically developed and most populous region in China, one of the regions with the highest population density and urbanization level as well as being the region with the most serious air pollution, especially ozone pollution, in China [8; 15]. Previous studies have shown that ozone pollution in the NCP is mainly caused by vehicle exhaust [16; 17; 18], industrial emissions [19; 20; 21; 22; 23; 24], and domestic pollution sources [25; 26; 27; 28; 29]. In addition, topography, meteorological conditions, and seasonal changes also have an impact on ozone pollution. In terms of ozone precursors, NOx and VOCs are the two main kinds of precursors of ozone pollution. With the improvement in urbanization level in the NCP, the continued increase in the number of vehicles has led to an increase in exhaust emissions. NOx and VOCs in automobile exhaust are an important emission source of ozone precursors. In addition to automobile exhaust, industrial emissions are another important emission source of ozone precursors [30]. Due to the high population density in the NCP, domestic pollution sources emitted by human activities including household coal burning, emissions from the catering industry, and domestic waste disposal are also important sources of ozone precursors. In addition to ozone precursors, ozone pollution in the NCP is also significantly affected by meteorological conditions. Among the meteorological factors, temperature, radiation, wind, humidity, boundary layer height, precipitation, and cloud cover can directly or indirectly affect the diffusion and transmission of the ozone precursors (such as NOx and VOCs) as well as the photochemical reaction processes of ozone. Furthermore, the Taihang Mountains and Yanshan Mountains in the northwest of the BTH and the Taishan Mountains in central Shandong affect the diffusion of ozone precursors in the region, further affecting ozone pollution in this region. In existing studies, surface ozone is generally estimated using three main methods: deterministic models, empirical models, and machine learning models. Deterministic models are based on principles of atmospheric chemistry and aerodynamics, utilizing mathematical models to simulate the transport, diffusion, and chemical reactions of atmospheric gases to estimate surface ozone concentrations. This method, exemplified by models such as WRF-Chem, CMAQ, and GEOS-Chem, demands extensive meteorological and chemical data and a profound comprehension of the atmospheric chemical processes, enabling it to yield more precise results.