# Ionospheric Science: An Example of the Importance of Diversity in Approaches to Scientific Research
## 3 Where Are We Today?
These flows and their importance for observing and modelling the thermosphere remain an important area of study, for example as discussed by [35];
3. **Ionospheres are ubiquitous across the universe. ** It is important to recognise that the co-existence of ionised (plasma) and neutral (fluid) components within the same atmosphere is a common feature of many astrophysical environments across the solar system and across the wider universe. Earth's upper atmosphere is simply the most accessible example of this type of environment and one where the presence of a significant magnetic field enriches the range of plasma behaviours in that environment. Thus, our understanding of Earth's ionosphere provides insights that can be of value for the fundamental understanding of partially ionised plasmas throughout the universe. A straightforward example has been the application of ionospheric expertise to improve our understanding of Mars' ionosphere. We now have a wealth of data from missions such as Mars Express and MAVEN and a good initial understanding of the ionosphere and other plasma environments of the Red Planet, enough to recognise that there is still much to learn [36]. However, this is just a second example (after Earth); there is considerable scope for novel research on ionospheres elsewhere in the solar system (around other planets, around comets, and in the solar chromosphere), as well as around exo-planets and other distant objects (e.g., accretion discs). These are just three examples of how ionospheric science has links to other research disciplines and benefits from, and contributes to, curiosity-driven research. Other examples include wider links with magnetospheric physics (where we now appreciate that, but do not fully understand how, the mid- and low-latitude ionosphere is sometimes strongly influenced by magnetospheric electric fields) and with plasma physics (to study how plasma instabilities generate irregularities in many parts of the global ionosphere). Nonetheless, we must recognise that ionospheric science has a strategic value that sits alongside the intellectual challenge that we expect in curiosity-driven research. In this respect, ionospheric science emulates many, perhaps all, environment sciences. A deep understanding of the environments that affect human activities enables us to exploit those environments for beneficial results and to protect ourselves against their natural adverse impacts (and to avoid creating further adverse impacts by degrading those environments). This is, of course, no more than applying science to live in harmony with the natural world--but that application is one of the great goals of science. In the case of ionospheric science, strategic value comes primarily from insights into how ionospheric variations affect radio signals passing through that region, often for the worse, but sometimes for the better. We can apply our understanding to assess how and when ionospheric effects on radio signals will impact radio technologies. In addition, where that assessment reveals gaps in our knowledge, we can enhance that understanding through targeted research programmes, i.e., where funding agencies seek research proposals to address specific scientific goals already identified as strategically important by the agency. Such goals are typically set through consultation with a range of experts, including potential users of the research, as well as members of the research community. As a possible ionospheric example, targeted research can seek to improve our understanding of where and when ionospheric instabilities will occur with sufficient strength to distort the amplitude and phase of important radio signals (e.g., GNSS and satcom signals at L-band frequencies). However, research outputs, whether from targeted or curiosity-driven research, are far from the end of the story. How do we transition research outcomes into operational use? This has traditionally been a significant problem, especially when transitioning research models into new services for forecasting and nowcasts.