## 3 The Role of Mining Tailings in Advancing Sustainable Construction Practices
### Mining Tailings as Aggregates in Concrete
\begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c c c} \hline
**SRM** & **Application** & **Dosage** & **Reference** \\ \hline SchT/KT & Ceramic tiles & 2–5–10 wt \%. & [146] \\ \hline MT/WR & Roof & Roof tiles: 5 wt\% & [147] \\  & tiles and blocks & Ceramic blocks: 10 wt\% & \\ \hline MT & Ceramic products (roof tiles, blocks, and paves) & Roof tiles: 5–10–20 wt\% & \\  & & Block and payer: 10–20 wt\% & \\ \hline BMW & Porcelain stoneware & 2.5–5–10–15–20–25–40 wt.\% & [149] \\ \hline CT & Aggregates in paving stones & & \\  & (cement Portland mixtures) & 25–50\% for a total weight of aggregates & [150] \\ \hline MT & Construction materials & From 0 to 58\% \(w/w\) & [151] \\ \hline IT & Ceramics composites & 25–40–45\% & [152] \\ \hline \end{tabular}  
* ANT: apatite–nepheline tailings; AT: antimony tailings; BMW: bentonite mining waste; CMWR: coal mine waste rocks; CNS: copper–nickel slag; CT: copper tailings; FQI: ferruginous quartzite tailings; GBPS: granulated blast furnace slag: GT: gold tailings; IT: iron tailings; KT: kaolin tiles; LPS: ladle furnace; LS: lithium slag: MT: mine tailings; PS: phosphate slag: PT: phosphorus tailing; QT: quartzite tailing; RM: red mud; SchT: schedule tailings; SS: steel slag; ST: silver tailings; SW: silt waste; WR: waste rock; wt%: weight percent; ZI: zinc tailings.  
\end{table} 
Table 2: _Cont._the compressive and flexural strength of concrete decreases as the proportion of tailings increases, with optimal substitution levels found to be between 10% and 40% for fine aggregates and between 5% and 20% for cement. Tailings were shown to enhance the mechanical and environmental properties of concrete when used in place of fine aggregates. Additionally, due to their filler effect, tailings positively affect the permeability and freeze-thaw resistance of concrete. However, if tailings exceed 10% of the mix, water permeability issues arise. High SiO\({}_{2}\) content tailings (\(\geq\)75%) proved beneficial as cement substitutes, particularly when the combined content of SiO\({}_{2}\), Al\({}_{2}\)O\({}_{3}\), and Fe\({}_{2}\)O\({}_{3}\) in the tailings exceeded 75%. The particle size of the tailings also plays a crucial role; those greater than 1 mm can enhance the compressive strength of the concrete. Despite these advantages, concrete containing tailings exhibited reduced carbonation resistance compared to normal concrete, and could present environmental risks such as potential heavy metal mobilization and acid mine drainage. Nevertheless, according to [PERSON] et al., employing tailings in concrete production can lead to significant reductions in CO\({}_{2}\) emissions from cement production and lower concrete production costs. The study emphasized the lack of extensive research on the environmental impacts of concrete with tailings, suggesting the need for more thorough investigations to widen the application of tailings in concrete production while considering both mechanical and environmental factors. Unlike cellulose, which is typically used for its reinforcement potential, mining tailings excel in bulk replacement applications and offer significant cost-savings opportunities when sourced and processed correctly. Their performance is strongly dependent on origin and treatment, making their integration more complex but potentially impactful when conditions allow.