## 5 Conclusions  
Leveraging high-resolution (30 m) forest disturbance datasets from 1986 to 2016, integrated with multi-source remote sensing observations (LST, NDVI, LAI, albedo, and ET), this study provides the first systematic, continental-scale elucidation of the multidimensional LST response to FDS across Europe. By statistically disentangling the influence of climate variability, our analysis demonstrates that forest disturbance dynamics were the primary driver of the observed LST increases in continental Europe during this period, with their contribution significantly exceeding the independent impacts of climate change. Temporal analysis revealed a significant overall decrease in European FDS, although this decline markedly decelerated after 2001, offering novel quantitative insights into the evolving resilience of European forest ecosystems. Mechanistically, this research identified dual pathways through which individual forest disturbance events impact LST: (1) immediate alterations to the land surface energy balance (e.g., increased albedo and reduced evapotranspiration) and (2) modifications to the vegetation structure and physiology (e.g., a reduced NDVI and LAI). These findings provide critical parameters for refining land-atmosphere interaction models and offer a robust scientific foundation for the European Union's implementation of nature-based solutions (NBSs) to achieve the climate objectives of The Paris Agreement and develop climate-resilient forest management systems. **Supplementary Materials:** The following supporting information can be downloaded at: [[https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/f16050852/s1](https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/f16050852/s1)]([https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/f16050852/s1](https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/f16050852/s1)), Figure S1: Example of 3 \(\times\) 3 matrix with the disturbed pixels between 1986-2016. Orange indicates a pixel classified as disturbed within this period, while green indicates an undisturbed pixel. Pixels are numbered P1 through P9 for reference, with P5 typically representing the central target pixel; Table S1: The mean values of \(\Delta\) for FDS, LST, Albedo, ET and vegetation factors between (1986-2000) and (2001-2016) and the mean values of \(\Delta_{\text{s}}\) for all European countries; Figure S2: Time series of Tmax and Tmin in Europe from 1986 to 2016. (**a**) \(\Delta\) Tmax time series; (**b**) Comparison of mean \(\Delta\) Tmax values between the periods 1986-2000 and 2001-2016; (**c**) \(\Delta\) Tmin time series; (**d**) Comparison of mean \(\Delta\) Tmin values between the periods 1986-2000 and 2001-2016. Orange and green dashed lines represent the linear regression linesfitted to the data for the 1986-2000 and 2001-2016 periods, respectively; Table S2: The mean values of \(\Delta\) for climatic factors between (1986-2000) and (2001-2016) and the mean values of \(\Delta_{\rm s}\) for all European countries; Figure S3: Top 10 European countries ranked by the magnitude of the inter-period difference (\(\Delta_{\rm s}\) variable, calculated as mean 2001-2016 minus mean 1986-2000) for selected variables. (**a**) Ranking by \(\Delta_{\rm s}\) FDS; (**b**) Ranking by \(\Delta_{\rm s}\) LST; (**c**) Ranking by \(\Delta_{\rm s}\)NDVI; (**d**) Ranking by \(\Delta_{\rm s}\) LAI; (**e**) Ranking by \(\Delta_{\rm s}\) Albedo; (**f**) Ranking by \(\Delta_{\rm s}\) ET; Figure S4: Time series analysis of \(\Delta\) GPP in Europe from 1986 to 2016. (**a**) Time series of \(\Delta\) GPP; (**b**) Comparison of mean \(\Delta\) GPP values between the periods 1986-2000 and 2001-2016. Orange and green dashed lines represent the linear regression lines fitted to the data for the 1986-2000 and 2001-2016 periods, respectively; Figure S5: The mean values of \(\Delta_{\rm s}\) LST, \(\Delta_{\rm s}\) FDS, \(\Delta_{\rm s}\) NDVI, \(\Delta_{\rm s}\) LAI, \(\Delta_{\rm s}\) Albedo, \(\Delta_{\rm s}\) ETfor all European countries; Figure S6: Time series analysis of climate factor differences (\(\Delta\) Variable) in Europe from 1986 to 2016.