## 1 Introduction  
To transition into a carbon-neutral society in the era of global climate crisis, countries worldwide are increasing the proportion of clean energy that can replace fossil fuels [1]. Particularly, the automobile industry, which uses fossil fuels as its main fuel source, is considered a cause of the climate change. To reduce carbon dioxide emissions, governments worldwide have banned the sale of internal combustion locomotive vehicles and prepared to switch to electric vehicles (EVs) or hydrogen vehicles (HVs) [2]. The European Union (EU) aims to attain carbon neutrality by presenting the goal of reducing carbon emissions from new cars by 55% by 2030 and 100% by 2035, compared to 2021 [3]. Accordingly, the paradigm of automobile market is shifting from internal combustion engine vehicles to EVs or HVs. Global automobile companies, including Tesla, Volkswagen, Volvo, and Hyundai Motor Company, have announced various EVs models and expanded their production [4]. However, several limitations prevail, including short mileage, battery lifespan (sustainability), shortage of electric charging infrastructure, and the method of charging or replacing batteries at electric charging stations [5]. Photovoltaic (PV)-powered EV (also called solar cars) have attracted attention as measures to alleviate the aforementioned problems in the operation and management of EVs. PV-powered EV have modules attached to the exterior (e.g., the roof of the vehicle) or are integrated into exterior materials (vehicle-integrated PV, VIPV) for self-charging using a solar energy source while driving or parking [6]. Therefore, they are eco-friendly because they do not emit carbon dioxide, require less charging compared to the general EVs, and minimize fuel costs [7]. Numerous commercialized PV-powered EV models have been released, including Sion (Sono Motors), Lightyear One (Lightyear), Solar O, L, R, and A (Haney), Luna (Aptera Motors), Vision EQXX (Mercedes-Benz), Solar Prius (Toyota), Sonata (Hyundai Motor Group), and Revero (Karma Automotive) [4]. The global market size of PV-powered EV is expected to exceed 4.5 billion US dollar (USD) per year in 2030 [8]. However, efforts are required to overcome limitations, such as low efficiency of solar cells, small exterior surface area of vehicles, and variability of power output based on time and location [9]. Many recent studies have sought to develop technologies that ensure the commerciality and applicability of PV-powered EV. [PERSON] et al. [7; 10] assessed the effects of the development of high-efficiency solar cells on increasing the drivable distance and presented the anticipated effects of reducing carbon dioxide, EV charging cost, and battery capacity by adopting PV-powered EV. To develop high-efficiency or low-cost solar cells and modules applicable to PV-powered EV, Japanese researchers have reviewed the applicability of various types of solar cells and presented the expected cost reductions or effects [11; 12]. PV-powered EV charging stations have been widely investigated, including the analysis of their feasibility, performance, suitability, and technical and economic impacts [13; 14; 15; 16; 17; 18]. Several studies have been conducted on optimal parking lots, and researchers have predicted the amount of charge during the parking time of PV-powered EVs or suggested an optimal parking location based on geospatial analysis, considering solar irradiation and shadow effects at the site [19; 20; 21]. Recently, a method has been proposed for modeling shaded areas over time, creating a shading matrix representing the hourly shaded area ratio for a point on the road or parking space [22], and comparing the accuracy of two approaches, such as modeling and field measurement [23]. Additionally, several studies have analyzed the optimal driving pathways or routes of PV-powered EV [24; 25; 26; 27; 28]. Recently, the estimation of the potential of solar mobility has been demonstrated.