## 1 The Evolution of Sports: A Synergy of Historical Development and Technological Innovation
The use of steel materials not only enhances the safety of competitive sports but also promotes the mass production and standardization of sports equipment, laying a solid foundation for the fairness and entertainment of events. Entering the 19 th century, with the advancement of the Industrial Revolution, materials technology witnessed an unprecedented development. The Bessemer converter and open-hearth steelmaking technologies have enabled the large-scale production of steel and given rise to a leap in the construction of modern sports infrastructure. The large-scale application of steel structures has significantly enhanced the load-bearing capacity and safety of sports venues, making it possible to host major events. For instance, the Crystal Palace built for the 1851 London World's Fair was the first to adopt a structural form combining cast iron and glass in its architecture, which had a profound influence on later sports buildings. Meanwhile, the invention of vulcanized rubber [11] in 1839 promoted the wide application of highly elastic materials in ball games, boosted the popularization of football, basketball and other sports, and also facilitated the standardization of relevant competition rules. The emergence of reinforced concrete technology laid the structural foundation for the modernization of sports venues in the 20 th century and initiated the era of \"spectator\" and \"industrialization\" of sports. The 20 th century witnessed a transformative evolution in synthetic materials, marked by the emergence of three major material systems: alloys, inorganic materials, and polymers, which together laid the technological foundation for the modern sports industry. In the domain of metallic materials, the widespread adoption of aluminum and titanium alloys has significantly improved the performance of sports equipment such as golf clubs and tennis rackets. Among inorganic materials, advanced ceramics--with their exceptional hardness and wear resistance--have become essential in the production of durable components and protective gear. Polymer materials have demonstrated even greater versatility, encompassing high-performance polymer fibers that enhance sportswear functionality, polyurethane rubber that has become the standard for athletic track surfaces, and composite materials that achieve an optimal balance between strength and weight. These developments have directly propelled the modernization of professional sports equipment, exemplified by innovations in kayaking and paragliding technologies. A particularly notable milestone is the advancement of semiconductor materials, which has enabled the development of intelligent chip technologies, forming the core infrastructure for the digital transformation of sports. These progressive breakthroughs in materials science have collectively constructed a comprehensive technological system that continues to drive innovation in sports equipment, performance monitoring, and training methodologies. Entering the 21 st century, the deep integration of materials, science and information technology has led sports into a new stage of intelligent and precise development. As shown in Table 1, the emergence of functional sensing materials has enabled the combination of kinematics and informatics. Smart materials, bionic materials [12], self-healing materials [13], and neural interface technologies [14] are gradually expanding the boundaries of sports materials. Smart clothing can monitor athletes' heart rate, body temperature, and muscle fatigue in real time [15]. Smart footwear can conduct gait analysis to help optimize training strategies [16]. Bionic materials are widely used in the fields of sports re habilitation and human body enhancement. The application of 3D printing technology [17] not only significantly enhances the efficiency of equipment manufacturing, but also enables highly personalized customization, allowing each athlete to obtain exclusive equipment that suits their own physiological characteristics.