# Plants as Symbols of Power in the Achaemenid Iconography of Ancient Persian Monuments
## 3 Results  
### Recurring Patterns and Related Plants  
Our analysis of Achaemenid iconography revealed a great amount of repetition of plant patterns and of single elements, and their biodiversity was limited to a few species. Most of them are relevant to the landscapes of the Middle East, North Africa, and the East of the Mediterranean Basin, whereas other characteristics of the specific landscapes of such geographical areas and plants were mainly selected considering their great pharmacological power. The recurring plant motifs from the various royal palaces in Perseopolis and the Darius I Palace in Susa are shown in Table 1 and Figure 2. Further elements (mainly rosettes) are also derived from the relief of Bisotun and Achaemenid tombs of Naghsh-e Rostam. The data showed that the so-called 'rosettes' were mostly used in the borders of reliefs and were the most commonly repeated element. Rosettes are represented everywhere, including on doorframes, in the volutes and column capitals, on the collars of bulls, and on the clothing of archers and other figures. From a morphological and taxonomical point of view, we identified two main types of rosettes, i.e., a radial arrangement of flowering elements similar to star and sun motifs, in the shape of the capitulate rosettes and lotus rosettes. Capitulate rosettes can be recognized by their wide central yellow disk and white rays, which clearly resemble the typical inflorescence capitula of the Asteraceae family (Compositeae) with yellow tubulate flowers in the center and numerous white ligulate flowers in the rays. They can be seen represented frontally (Figure 3a-c), in profile (Figure 3d), or from below (Figure 3e). Based on the morphological characteristics and the ring shape of the capitulate rosettes disk, we propose overall _Matricaria chamomilla_ L., but other species of the family (e.g., _Leucanthemum vulgare_) can be supposed. Figure 3: Capitulate rosettes (_Leucanthemum_ and _Matricaria_ sp.). (**a**) A 12-ray rosette pattern with the characteristic elements of the central disc (by [PERSON]); (**b**) _M. chamomilla_ and its central disk (Tele-Botanica/ CC-BY-SA 2.0 FR); (**c**) _Leucanthemum vulgare_ and its central disk (the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew); (**d**) _M. chamomilla_ in profile (Tele-Botanica/ CC-BY-SA 2.0 FR); the lower aspect of the capitula (**e**) _M. chamomilla_ and (**f**) _L. vulgare_ (World Flora Online); (**g**) rosettes in the scene borders of Apadana Palace in Perseopolis (Courtesy of the Institute for the Study of Ancient Cultures of the University of Chicago); (**h**) rosettes in the capitula of the column in Susa (Musée du Louvre); (**i**) rosettes in the Sphinx’s neck, the Gate of All Lands at Persepolis (courtesy by [PERSON]); (**j**) glazed brick panel, Palace [PERSON], Susa (Musée du Louvre); (**k**) rosette in profile at the base column (by [PERSON]); and (**l**,**m**) rosette from the lower capitula in the base columns of Persepolis (Courtesy of the Institute for the Study of Ancient Cultures of the University of Chicago). Figure 2: Distribution of the plant motifs in the royal palaces of Persepolis and Susa. Persepolis: (**1**) The gate of Nation, (**2**) Apadana Palace, (**3**) Palace of Darius, (**4**) Palace of Artaxrexes I, (**5**) Palace of Xerxes, (**6**) research center, (**7**) Harem of Xerxes, currently museum, (**8**) Treasury, (**9**) Council Hall, (**10**) Hundred Column Palace; Susa: (**1**) Apadana, (**2**) East Court, (**3**) Central Court, (**4**) West Court. Lotus rosettes in the style of the Egyptian lotus (_Nymphaea lotus_ L.) are recognizable by the smaller central elements and can appear in three morphological versions: showing a tetramerous radiate system, which corresponds to the early stage of flowering (Figure 4, stages 1 and 2); a radiate system characterized by a small central yellow disk with long white rays corresponding to mature flowering (Figure 4, stage 3); and a typical star arrangement, which corresponds to the transformation of the lotus ovary into a fruit (Figure 4, stage 4).