## 1 Introduction  
The European Union (EU) has emerged as a global leader in advancing legislation to enhance energy efficiency and promote renewable energy. Through ambitious policies such as the European Green Deal and the Renewable Energy Directive, the EU aims to achieve climate neutrality by 2050. Binding targets have been set to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, increase the share of renewable energy, and improve energy efficiency across member states. These initiatives are further supported by financial mechanisms such as the Just Transition Fund and Horizon Europe, which incentivize innovation and ensure equitable economic transformation. By fostering sustainable energy practices, the EU not only addresses climate change, but also strengthens energy security and stimulates green economic growth. The EU legislation includes Directive 2018/2001 [1], which outlines measures to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and accelerate the energy transition. It emphasizes promoting renewable energy sources and encouraging the use of electric vehicles (EVs) across Europe. Additionally, Directive 2018/2002 [2] establishes a common framework to promote energy efficiency, targeting a 32.5% improvement by 2030 and paving the way for further advancements. The large annual increase in cleaner energy deployment necessitates substantial renewable energy production capacity in the electricity grid. However, as the penetration of renewable energy sources (RES) continues to rise in conventional electricity distribution networks, new challenges emerge. The intermittent nature of RES introduces technical problems, requiring flexible management of bidirectional energy flows to mitigate load fluctuations [3]. Moreover, as modern systems increasingly rely on direct current (DC) loads, achieving regulated output voltages and supplying power that aligns with grid requirements becomes particularly challenging [3]. A promising approach to RES integration is distributed production (DP), which refers to small-scale electricity generation facilities located near points of consumption. In order to implement DP efficiently, microgrids (MG) have emerged as an effective interface for integrating renewable energy into power systems, offering a viable alternative to conventional distribution networks [4]. MGs represent a significant evolution in the energy distribution paradigm, providing a more flexible and resilient approach to meet the needs of local communities and industrial sectors. MGs can operate in island mode or in conjunction with the main grid, providing benefits such as improved reliability, efficiency, and RES integration. The emergence of microgrids in DC (DCMG) is an extension of this trend. In the current scenario of energy transition and technological advances, DCMGs have emerged as an innovative solution to the challenges faced in electricity distribution. This evolution represents a significant change from traditional alternating current (AC) systems and has the potential to reshape the way energy is produced, distributed and consumed. DC transmission and distribution offer significant advantages in terms of energy efficiency, integration of electronic devices, and reduced energy losses [5]. DCMGs are gaining prominence due to the increasing adoption of DC sources like PVs and BESS, as well as DC loads [6]. Compared to AC systems, DCMGs offer advantages such as eliminating synchronization, reactive power, and frequency control issues, resulting in improved reliability and efficiency [7]. However, DCMGs face challenges including protection due to the absence of natural current zero, stability concerns, power quality issues, and communication problems [7]. Effective voltage control and power management are crucial for maintaining stability and reliability in DCMGs, with various control strategies being employed, such as centralized, decentralized, and hierarchical approaches [8]. Advanced control techniques, including nonlinear, robust, and artificial intelligence methods, are also being explored to address these challenges [8; 9].