# The Role of Fungi in Food Production and Processing
## 2 Understanding the Research Prospects
### Mycotoxins and Food Safety
#### 2.5.2. Aflatoxin  
Aflatoxin derivatives are difuranocoumarins. They are constructed of a pentanone ring, or in some other cases, of a lactone ring (for AFBs: aflatoxin B). It is also possible to be constructed of a lactone ring attached to the coumarin core (for AFGs: atoxin G). Between the 20 known aflat, aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), aflatoxin B2 (AFB2), aflatoxin G1 (AFG1), and aflatoxin G2 (AFG2) are the four most important. AFB1's and AFB2's hydroxylated metabolites are aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) and M2 (AFM2). _A. flavus_ creates B types, while _A. parasitic_ creates G sorts [103]. AFs can be found in many different types of foods and feeds. Peanuts, nuts, figs, corn, rice, spices and dried fruits are among the most affected foods and feeds [104]. Contamination of crops from aflatoxin commonly occurs in the field before the harvest and is usually due to unfavorable conditions of storage. These conditions can be low substrate moisture content and relative humidity, as well as growing dryness. Increased farm animal mortality has been associated with aflatoxin contamination, and the indirect form of aflatoxin present in milk and dairy products (aflatoxin B1 is biotransformed to aflatoxin M1, a hydroxylated form) is caused by consuming polluted feed [105]. Aflatoxin has been linked to toxicity and carcinogenesis in humans and also in animals. Aflatoxin-related disorders are referred to as aflatoxinosis. Aflatoxin ingestion is thought to be a significant reason for the onset of primary hepatocellular carcinoma, especially in people with a history of hepatitis B. Complicating epidemiological studies is the existence of hepatitis B virus infection, a significant factor in liver cancer [106]. Aflatoxins biosynthesis occurs through a polyketide pathway initially proposed by [PERSON] in 1967. Presently, research indicates that the biosynthetic pathway of aflat involves 27 enzymatic reactions. Among the natural secondary metabolites, aflatoxin biosynthesis stands out as one of the most extensive and intricate processes, largely due to the multitude of oxidative rearrangements it encompasses. In 1988, [PERSON] identified three pivotal oxygen elements crucial to this pathway:  
1. Monooxygenases: These enzymes are responsible for integrating a single oxygen atom into another molecule while reducing it, with nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) serving as a co-factor. 2. Dioxygenases: Involved in ring-cleavage reactions, dioxygenases play a crucial role in the rearrangement of molecular structures. \begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{l l l l} \hline
**Mycotoxins** & **Genus/Species** & **Major Food** & **Toxic Effects and Diseases** \\ \hline \multirow{4}{*}{Ochratoxin OTA} & _A. ostrucas_ & Herbs, cereals, & Damage to the kidneys and liver, appetite loss, nausea, and vomiting, weakened immune system, and carcinogenic \\  & _P. nordicum_ & jerky, fruits, and wine & \\  & _P. verrucosum_ & & \\ \hline \multirow{4}{*}{Fumonisin} & _Fusarium_ & & Esophageal cancer, heart failure, liver damage, \\  & _F. verticllioides_ & Corn, cereals & neurotoxicity, carcinogenicity, human encephalomyelitis, and \\  & _F. Culmorum_ & & \\ \hline \multirow{4}{*}{Patulin} & _A. terreus_ & & \\  & _A. claratus_ & Silage, wheat, feeds, & \\  & _Pentiillium_ & apples, pears, grapes, & \\  & _Penicillium carneum_ & peaches, apricots, & \\  & _P. claigerium_ & olives, cereals & \\  & _P. grisegfulum_ & & \\ \hline \multirow{4}{*}{Zearalenone} & _Fusarium_ & Cereals, corn, fodder, & \\  & _F. graminearum_ & silage, timothy grass, & \\ \cline{1-1}  & _F. culmorum_ & & \\ \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table} 
Table 1: Cont. 3. Baeyer-Villiger reactions: These reactions facilitate the insertion of oxygen atoms between two carbon atoms, leading to structural modifications. Aflatoxin production is also significantly influenced by cytochromes P-450. These enzymes play a significant role in the biosynthesis process by attaching functional groups like methyl and acetyl.