## 1 Introduction  
Tissue engineering and regenerative medicine have witnessed remarkable advancements in recent years, fueled by the increasing demand for innovative and sustainable materials that can improve patient outcomes. These advancements are especially evident in the development of implant materials designed to repair or replace damaged bone tissue. The ideal implant material should exhibit excellent biocompatibility, mechanical strength, controlled biodegradation, and bioactivity to support tissue integration and regeneration. However, the complex physiological environment poses significant challenges for the development of such materials, particularly for long-term biomedical applications. Surfacemodification, therefore, plays a crucial role in enhancing implant functionality and durability by improving tissue integration, corrosion resistance, and bioactivity. In this context, the adoption of green chemistry principles is essential to ensure the sustainability and safety of biomedical materials throughout their lifecycle. Bone implants are indispensable in modern orthopedic, maxillofacial, and dental surgery for repairing fractures, filling bone defects, and replacing missing or damaged bone structures. They serve as scaffolds or mechanical supports to restore function and promote the healing of bone tissue. Implant materials can be broadly categorized into metallic, polymeric, and ceramic types, each with its unique advantages and limitations [1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6]. Polymeric materials, such as polylactic acid (PLA), polycaprolactone (PCL), and polyetheretherketone (PEEK), have been extensively studied for biomedical applications. They offer benefits such as tunable biodegradation rates, flexibility, and ease of processing. However, their inherent low mechanical strength and poor load-bearing capacity limit their use in critical applications such as dental and orthopedic implants. Additionally, polymeric materials often lack the bioactivity required to support direct bone bonding, necessitating surface modification or the incorporation of bioactive fillers. Ceramic materials, including hydroxyapatite (HA) and calcium phosphate (CaP) ceramics, are widely used due to their excellent bioactivity and osteeconductivity, which promote bone regeneration. However, ceramics are inherently brittle and prone to fracture, making them unsuitable for load-bearing applications. Their stiffness can also lead to stress shielding, a phenomenon where the implant bears most of the load, causing bone resorption and weakening over time [1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6]. In contrast, metallic materials offer superior mechanical properties, making them ideal for load-bearing applications. Metals such as titanium (Ti), cobalt-chromium (Co-Cr) alloys, and stainless steel have high tensile strength, ductility, and fracture resistance, enabling them to withstand the mechanical stresses encountered in the musculoskeletal system. Titanium and its alloys are particularly favored due to their excellent biocompatibility, corrosion resistance, and favorable mechanical properties. Despite these advantages, traditional metallic implants are not without limitations. Their high stiffness compared to natural bone can cause stress shielding, and their permanent nature can lead to complications such as inflammation and implant-related infections [7; 8; 9; 10; 11; 12; 13; 14]. To overcome these challenges, biodegradable metallic materials have gained attention as promising alternatives to traditional permanent implants. Magnesium (Mg) and its alloys have emerged as attractive candidates due to their unique combination of properties. Magnesium is biocompatible, has mechanical properties closely resembling those of natural bone, and is gradually absorbed by the body over time, eliminating the need for secondary removal surgeries. Furthermore, magnesium ions (Mg\({}^{2+}\)) released during degradation play a vital role in bone metabolism, stimulating osteoblast activity and promoting mineralization.