## 3 Geological Study  
Many scientists studied geophysically and geologically the investigated site, which is located in the Sohag governorate [14; 58]. In general, rock units dating from the Lower Eocene to the Recent Period are found in the Sohag governorate. Figure 2 depicts a geological map of the study site. The majority of the Abydos area is Quaternary, with Pliocene sediments unconformably covering the Esna Shale, which is Early Tertiary [59]. The Qena Formation is a dense succession of deposits of slightly indurated fluviatile sands at the section's base [60; 61]. Pliocene Clay, Qena Sands (Upper Pliocene to Lower Pleistocene), Kom Ombo Gravel, El Ghawanim Formation, and Dandara Formation are the five rock units that make up the overall lithological component of the survey area [62].  
Figure 2: Simplified geological map of Sohag Governate [62].  
The Qena sands are the principal water-bearing structure in the examined area, as well as in most of the Nile Valley. These sands thin out as they approach the Paleocene to Lower Eocene limestone plateau in the west. Some of these sands are removed by erosion eastwards, in places along the Nile and its valley, and silt fills the current Nile and its plain. According to results from neighborhood wells in the Abydos Temple site, the stretch of Qena sands could be up to 15 m thick [63]. The sands' base differs from one well to the next (Figure 3). The Pliocene sediments in the Upper Nile Valley are overlain by this sand sequence [64]. The Qena sands are observed to be overlain by gravel beds to the west of the Kom Ombo district [65]. Meanwhile, along the Nile's western bank between Sobag and Assiut, the Kom Ombo Formation's sediments are predominantly fluvialle sands with some gravel intercalations [62]. The Ghawanim Formation's lithologic strata also include cross-bedded fluvialle sands and gravels, as well as conglomerates lenses and quartzitic sandstone interbeds.  
The Dandara Formation is the top stratum of the geologic succession in the Abydos area [59]. They belong to a mineral sequence discovered in Ethiopia. Above the Kom Ombo gravels, the Dandara Formation silt appears as sedimentary strata with thicknesses ranging from a few centimeters to 5 m [66]. The silt is primarily sandy in composition, calcareous in spots, and stained to a red paleosol on top. The cultivated silts of the current Nile, which comprise the huge flood plain of Upper Egypt, truncate the previously studied sequence.  
The lithological feature of the region that is a segment of the Nile Valley consists of river deposits gathered during various periods of the river's evolution. Clay layers could be compared to Paleonile sediments, which are basal deposits over Lower Eocene limestone and are differentiated by varying clay depths with minor silt intercalation [64].  
Figure 3: The stratigraphic sequence west of Abydos area [62]. In this figure, the geologic formations of the study region are arranged chronologically.  
Two large faults extending NW-SE and NE-SW enclose the limestone cliff around the place, generating a prominent promontory, according to the overall structure of the Abydos region. The movement of groundwater throughout the region is influenced by these promontories [63].