## 1 Introduction
On the one hand, these anomalies within the tree's structure give rise to a diverse array of microhabitats, offering refuge to numerous species [7; 13; 40] and thus play a pivotal role in supporting biodiversity [41; 42]. On the other hand, the emergence of cavities and deteriorating wood poses challenges to the olive tree's health [43; 44; 45] and productivity as it matures [46]. Such challenges have the potential to impede nutrient and water transport within the tree [47; 48; 49], consequently affecting its productivity, fruit yield, and overall vigor [50; 51]. In parallel with these trunk physiology-related challenges, centennial olive trees often face threats from foliar diseases caused by fungi, with one of the prominent adversaries being _Spilocaea oleagina_ ([PERSON] [PERSON], responsible for olive leaf spot (OLS). The emergence of OLS can be attributed, in part, to microclimate alterations, notably increased humidity, arising from the gradual re-naturalization processes occurring within these groves [52]. Detectable through visual symptoms, this air-borne fungi manifests as dark green to black round spots surrounded by a yellow halo on leaves [53], contributing to defoliation and the gradual demise of olive tree shoots and branches, ultimately resulting in reduced vegetative growth and a substantial decline in productivity [54; 55; 56]. Furthermore, in these rainfed agroecosystems, water stress emerges as a pivotal abiotic factor affecting the health and vitality of centennial olive trees [57; 58; 59]. Despite the fact that these trees are well-adapted to drought conditions [60] and their physiological adaptations, including their deep root systems and efficient water-use mechanisms, highlight their ability to thrive in arid environments while maintaining productivity [61], water availability, influenced by (a) natural factors such as erratic rainfall patterns [62], extended drought periods [61], as well as (b) human interventions including land use changes [63] and water extraction for irrigation [64], poses significant challenges to the olive trees' water supply. To monitor these challenges and assess their impact on olive tree health and productivity, the adoption of non-invasive techniques has largely taken precedence over invasive ones in centennial olive groves and other crop systems. Invasive approaches, which entail physically penetrating the trees for data collection [65; 66] or treatment [67], despite their effectiveness in certain scenarios, carry the risk of introducing pathogens and causing mechanical damage, rendering them less suitable for routine monitoring and assessment of trees. Meanwhile, traditional laboratory-based plant disease detection methods which include physiological, biological, serological, and molecular tests [68; 69], due to their complexity, cost, and the time-intensive nature of their execution, exhibit limitations when applied to the early detection, control, and management of plant health [70]. Conversely, non-invasive techniques have gained increasing prominence in the systematic monitoring of these challenges and the comprehensive assessment of their impact on tree health and productivity. These techniques offer innovative insights into the complex interplay between trunk irregularities [71], diseases [72; 73], water stress [74; 75], and overall tree vigor [76], whether considered individually for each problem or when examining a set of combined effects. Among these non-invasive techniques, infrared thermography (IRT), a subset of remote sensing techniques [77; 78; 79], plays a pivotal role in evaluating tree physiology, facilitating early detection of stress factors [80; 81] and precise interventions to ensure tree health [82; 83] and productivity [46]. IRT captures temperature variations across different structures of the tree, including the canopy and trunk, providing valuable insights for identifying early signs of physiological stress stemming from factors like water deficiency [84; 85; 86; 87] or diseases [88].