# Nanoformulation of Peptides for Pharmaceutical Applications: In Vitro and In Vivo Perspectives
## 3 Nanoformulation of Peptides
### Lipid-Based Nanoformulations (LNFs)  
LNFs have been focused on in the scientific arena due to their great biocompatibility and versatility. They are great candidates for peptide carriers due to their submicron sizes, encapsulation capabilities (in protecting peptides against degradation), biodegradability, and their ability to maintain the drug activity's effectiveness [91]. Table 2 summarizes different types of LNFs that are used as peptide carriers. \begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c c c c c} \hline
**LNFs** & **Descriptions** & **Advantages** & **Disadvantages** & **Applications** & **References** \\ \hline \multirow{8}{*}{Nanoemulsions (NEs)} & - Oil, water, and surfactant. & & & 1. [PERSON] et al. (2014) discovered & \\  & - Long- and medium-chain & 1. Excellent dispersity. & 1. Require high & & polyunsaturated fatty ads sell she able to \\  & glycerides, and fatty acids. & 2. Prolonged stability. & concentrations of surfactant & & encapsulate the analgesic peptide; \\  & - Peptide is solubilized within the & 3. Good penetration abilities. & 2. Choices of biocompatible surfactants are limited. & 2. [PERSON] et al. (2006) developed NEs of \\  & dispersed nanoparticles. & & & polymynn B and found NEs capable of \\ \hline \multirow{8}{*}{Liposomes} & - Bilayer vesicles; aqueous compartment is enclosed entirely by the membranous lipid bilayer & 1. Consistent release of proteins and peptides. & [PERSON] et al. (2002) formulated & \\  & - Bilayer vesicles; aqueous compartment is enclosed entirely by the membranous lipid bilayer & 2. Easy modification of & 1. Limited stability can cause & against _Pseudomonas aeruginosa_ and \\  & - Involve phospholipids, & 3. Increase membrane permeability, & lead to aggregation. & \\  & - phosphorylated, glycerol derivatives, and saturated and unsaturated fatty acids. & drugs with proteins & 2. Extra steps are commonly & \\  & -started and unsaturated fatty acids. & 4. Toxic-free & & \\  & - Antibiotic character, & & \\  & enables self-assembly. & & & \\ \hline \multirow{8}{*}{Solid Lipid nanoparticles (SLNs)} & 1. Better drug & 1. & \begin{tabular}{c} [PERSON] et al. (2008) reported TFEC-SA and conjugate F-SA that are inserted into \\ SLN become potential applications for \\ \end{tabular} \\  & - Consist of lipids in a solid state & 2. Encapsulate both lipophilic and & 2. Drug repulsion (burst & \\  & at both room and body & \begin{tabular}{c} hydrophobic drugs. \\ \end{tabular} & \begin{tabular}{c} release after \\ intravenous injection. \\ \end{tabular} & \\  & temperature. & 3. Improve drug stability. & & \\  & - Solid hydrophobic core and & 4. Control release drug formulation & 3. Require stabilizer to \\  & - Single layer of the & & \\  & - stable and triglycerides are slower & & prevent drug portioning to \\  & - tune other derivatives. & & the outer aqueous phase. \\  & - & 5. \multicolumn{1}{c}{Suitable for large-scale production.} & \\ \hline \multirow{8}{*}{NanoStructure lipid carriers (NLCs)} & - Next generation of SLNs by improving the stability and & 1. Simple preparation. & \begin{tabular}{c} 1. Simple preparation. \\ 2. Larger drug loading capacity \\ compare with SLNL \\ \end{tabular} & \
\begin{tabular}{c} 2. Larger drug loading capacity \\ compare with SLNL \\ \end{tabular} &
\begin{tabular}{c} 1. Susceptible to degradation \\ by gastrointestinal liposes. \\ \end{tabular} \\  & - Blend of solid lipids and liquid lipids & 4. Low water content in final & 4. Low water content in final & \\  & lipids (oil) in certain proportions. & & particle suspension. & \\ \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table} 
Table 2: Summary of different INF types as peptide carrier.