# Cyber Resilience Limitations in Space Systems Design Process: Insights from Space Designers
## 1 Introduction
### Vulnerabilities and Cyber-Attacks in Space Infrastructure  
Space assets are complex remote systems to engineer [12]. It is crucial to employ multidisciplinary legal and technical solutions due to space mission challenges and cross-border infrastructure with complex components of computing, communication, upgrades, and hardening requirements [13; 14]. Furthermore, outer space assets such as satellites or other flying objects have unique threats from orbital debris (both natural and artificial) and space weather [14]. Typically, space infrastructure is divided into three main segments with a range of potential attack surfaces [15]:  
* Space Equipment (SE) placed in space, such as a satellite, launch vehicle, rover, or flying object like ingenuity;
* Ground Stations (GSs) that directly support space activities;
* Launch Providers (LPs) deliver the space equipment into orbit. The new space infrastructure, such as programmable satellites and ground station as a service [16], produces new opportunities for both cyber-attacks and cyber-defence. New satellites have onboard computers and networked hardware with connectivity for remote analytics, configuration, and upgrades. In addition, ground stations and communication links contain vulnerabilities that lead each segment to cyber and physical threats from four distinct attacks and weapons known as anti-satellite (ASAT). The Centre for Strategic and International Studies uses the following classification [17]1. Kinetic Physical: These weapons target and destroy space-based space infrastructure, causing space debris. The ground-to-space missile (direct-ascent) is an example of a kinetic physical weapon. 2. Non-Kinetic Physical: As the name suggests, these ASATs use electromagnetic pulses or microwaves to interrupt adversary space assets. 3. Electronic: Signal jamming and spoofing examples of electronic weapons. 4. Cyber: Data interception, corruption, man-in-middle attacks, control takeover, and code injection are some examples of cyber ASATs. It is well understood that space infrastructure is under sophisticated anti-satellite attacks, and adversaries are increasingly developing modern ASAT weapons [18]. Recently, China, India, Russia, and the USA have demonstrated their capabilities with kinetic weapons designed to destroy satellites in low Earth orbit [8]. These weapons create large debris fields, threatening other satellites and polluting the space domain beyond recovery. In contrast, the impact of cyber-attacks and the resilience of space infrastructure is not well understood [19]. Space infrastructure shares significant similarities with submarine cable systems [20]. Both are critical remote systems and have a strategic impact on society's digital infrastructure. Like space assets, submarine cable systems are essential for global connectivity, yet their significance remains underappreciated by the general public. This lack of awareness makes them attractive targets for hackers and state actors seeking to exploit vulnerabilities. The necessity to secure these critical infrastructure components underscores the need for robust and adaptive technological solutions to defend against emerging cyber threats [21]. Therefore, similar to undersea cables, the space segment confronts unique threats and risks due to their remoteness, SWaP (Size, Weight, and Power) limitations, and upgrade challenges. These factors demand satellite designers, ground station operators, and launch providers to proactively anticipate and mitigate such threats and risks [22; 23]. Despite the apparent risks and potential impact across multiple jurisdictions, space cybersecurity and cyber resilience are poorly regulated, and governance is difficult [22]. The current landscape of space cybersecurity presents several critical challenges, from the need for more standards and regulatory frameworks to a complex supply chain, reliance on off-the-shelf commercial and open-source technology, and a limited, highly specialised workforce.