## 4 Recent Applications of Paleoparasitology
### Using Statistical Treatment and Spatializing Paleoparasitological Data  
As mentioned above, a comprehensive analysis of an archaeological site with a complete parasitological diagnosis is achievable. By sampling a specific layer, with well-defined dates, it is possible to spatialize areas of parasite marker concentration. Materializing concentrations of parasite eggs, apprehending specific areas of fecal matter discharge which can be linked to latrines or stable areas, for instance, becomes conceivable. This approach has been established on several Neolithic lake sites, the site of La Draga (Spain) and Zurich-Parkhaus Opera (ZPO, Switzerland). It should be noted that exceptional preservation conditions are necessary to undertake this type of approach. The site of La Draga constitutes the first evidence of a Neolithic lake settlement for the Iberian Peninsula and provides an opportunity to explore site occupation as well as the economic exploitation of the surrounding resources [49; 50]. A total of 72 samples were taken from the oldest layer dated from the second half of the sixth millennium BCE. Parasitic markers point to a high concentration area in a dwelling, indicating a specific zone  
Figure 3: (**A**) Ascarid-type eggs corresponding to decorticated “_Ascaris_ eggs” observed under the Uffizi Gallery in Florence, 62 \(\upmu\)m \(\times\) 47 \(\upmu\)m each, 400\(\times\). (**B**) Visualization on electrophoresis gel (2%) of obtained amplicons from 6 PCRs reactions in 2 sediment DNA extractions showing a clear positive reaction for the targeted taxon (_Ascaris_ sp.). (**C**) Targeted gene for _Ascaris_ sp. DNA amplification and obtained sequence. The 74 bp long fragment showed 100% homology with the currently known _Ascaris_ sp. genome when blasted in Genbank. of domestic and fecal waste matter (Figure 4A). This hot spot demonstrates a tendency to manage waste at the household level. Despite their willingness to concentrate waste, the inhabitants present a high rate of infestation and show co-occurrence of several gastrointestinalal parasites [51; 52]. More recently, a larger-scale study was carried out on the site of Zurich Parkhaus Opera, with a set of 124 samples analyzed from the only layer of the site, dating from 3176 to 3153 BCE. The possible dissociation between the domestic context and circulation paths for data processing revealed a set of information. Firstly, a cattle stable area is evidenced by high concentrations of ruminant parasites. However, most importantly, an as of yet unexplored perspective for paleoparasitology emerged from this study. In fact, this site is singular, not only on account of exceptional preservation conditions but because of the identification of population sectorization, materialized by a physical barrier (popular barrier) [53; 54]. This observation is reflected in the parasite spectrum identified over the whole site, which differs according to the social status of inhabitants (Figure 4B). These specific synchronic contexts provide valuable information about the sectorization of the population and the resulting waste management [50]. A good example of a diachronic analysis is the Neolithic site of Zug-Riedmatt (Switzerland), dated to 3250 to 3100 cal. BCE [55]. At this site, a set of core samples, and not a single occupation layer, was sampled and analyzed. Micromorphology and radiocarbon dating point to two or three occupation phases, without interruptions [56; 57]. The evolution of the parasitic spectrum demonstrates a drastic change in livelihood patterns over time, ranging from a strong dominance of fish consumption to an increase in meat products (Figure 4C). However, the question of the existence of two or three occupation phases remains unresolved. Although a change in supply is perceptible through the parasitic spectrum, it is difficult to prove that this evolution reflects distinct occupation phases or even a change in environmental conditions.