# Can the WiMAX IEEE 802.16 Standard Be Used to Resolve Last-Mile Connectivity Issues in Botswana?
## 3 Literature Review  
[PERSON] et al. [11] used the Opnet 14.5 simulator to evaluate the quality of service over WiMAX IEEE802.16 standard and obtained satisfactory results. In addition, [PERSON] and [PERSON] [12] found that, despite WiMAX 802.16 being used as access technology for the Internet of Things in metro areas, it could drive agribusiness applications such as UAV operation over 45 km and two times 50 m high. The findings indicate that although the WiMAX standard is used commonly in metro areas, it is suited for rural areas. Also, [PERSON] et al. [13] evaluated WiMAX 802.16 standard and found that the light (standard) VOIP service over WiMAX has no delay and throughput than voice with heavy video. This measurement indicates that using WiMAX-based networks to drive agribusiness in rural areas equally has advantages as other technologies at the last-mile level. Conclusively, [PERSON] and [PERSON] [14] found that 18 to 24 WiMAX 802.16e base stations could service a 467.34 km\({}^{2}\) area, suggesting that the WiMAX EEE 802.16e network could address connectivity and access of clustered small villages within 10 km and 30 km apart. The lack of relevant technology, infrastructure development, low population, and inadequate local application content in developing countries has limited internet penetration [15]. As a result, governments face the daunting task of providing connectivity and access, ensuring that end-users access e-government and other broadband services. The government should meet various obligations, such as national development programmes, millennium development goals (MDGs), and international telecommunication union treaties (ITU). However, connectivity and access challenges present opportunities for the government and other broadband stakeholders to explore technologies to address the challenges. Failure to provide citizens with connectivity and access, regardless of location, could create two types of citizens, one with access and the other not benefiting. Another challenge facing developing countries, including Botswana, is the rampant lack of support for infrastructure development, such as the lack of household power (electricity) connectivity, inadequate road networks, and equipment security. Despite limited WiMAX installations and LTE dominance in Botswana, MNOs, ISPs, and BoFiNET have deployed the technology on some sites. According to the Research ICT Africa report, Angola, Mozambique, Nigeria, Namibia, Ghana, and other countries adopted WiMAX as an access technology in the region, and have improved their internet penetration, affordability, and mitigated connectivity challenges [16]. Although the WiMAX standard body withdrew the WiMAX 802.16a/b/c, currently 802.16d/e/m is available and provides around 50 km for the Line of Sight or fixed stations, and 5-15 km for non-Line of Sight or mobile stations [17]. The WiMAX IEEE 802.16d could provide 70 Mbps, 802.16e--15 Mbps, and 802.16m--100 Mbps when installed. In addition, the WiMAX standard provides three alternate topologies: fixed point to point (P2P), fixed point to multipoint (P2 MP), and mobile WiMAX [17]. A mobile WiMAX topology relies on the collaborations of base stations to relay communication to subscriber stations and mobile devices that support a series of overlapping cells, which relay a signal to another base station cell and provide access [17]. [PERSON] emphasises that only wireless access technologies can address the rural broadband connectivity challenge by deploying wireless access technologies, especially WiMAX technology [18]. [PERSON] et al. point out that wired technologies require infrastructure installations often incompatible with developing countries' settlement patterns, which leads to higher deployment costs than for wireless technologies. The reliance on wired technologies has led developing countries to fail to deliver on several connectivity commitments from the government, such as Commonwealth Telecommunication Organization (CTO) 2015 and International Telecommunication Union (ITU) 2016.