## 3 Results and Discussion
### Electrical Parameters  
Electrical properties of biological materials (honeys) are typically determined using parameters such as complex resistance (Z--impedance), consisting of active resistance (R--resistance), and passive resistance (Xc--reactance, associated with electrical capacitance) or admittance (Y--complex conductance) consisting of conductance G (active conductance) and susceptance--B (passive conductance) [67]. To verify the suitability of the proposed electrical method, only selected parameters were used, i.e., impedance, conductance, and electrical capacitance, resulting from the adopted equivalent electrical model RCC (resistor-capacitor-capacitor). With the aim to conduct a more detailed analysis of the results and indicate differences in ionic conductivity and dielectric properties, the authors plotted graphs describing impedance changes in a wide range of frequencies (from 20 Hz to 2 MHz)--see Figure 2. These analyses allowed for more precise determination of the electrical characteristics of honeys, taking into account both low and high frequencies. Then, the results of the analysis were presented together with their interpretation, thereby expanding existing knowledge and providing grounds for future research. Lime honey (Figure 2a) was characterized by moderate impedance in the low-frequency range (\(\sim\)4.5 k\(\Omega\) at 20 Hz), stable up to 10 kHz, and then decreasing at higher frequencies. Thus, these changes suggest the preponderance of solution resistance at low frequencies. Rapeseed honey (Figure 2b) was characterized by the highest impedance at low frequencies (\(\sim\)13 k\(\Omega\) at 20 Hz), indicating a unique ionic structure. This indicates high impedance stability in a wide frequency range, with abrupt changes at high frequencies. Buckwheat honey (Figure 2c) showed a relatively low impedance (\(\sim\)4.4 k\(\Omega\) at 20 Hz) compared to rapeseed honey, which may be due to higher ionic conductivity. Impedance stability up to 100 kHz and a sharp drop in higher frequencies were also observed. Figure 2: Impedance changes as a function of the measurement current frequency (from 20 Hz to 2 MHz) for honey: (**a**) linder; (**b**) rapeseed; (**c**) buckwheat; (**d**) goldenrod and phacelia; (**e**) acacia and multi-flower. The goldenrod and phacelia honeys (Figure 2d) showed similar characteristics, with moderate impedance and stable behavior up to approx. 100 kHz. Phacelia was characterized by a slightly higher impedance in the mid-frequency range, which may result from differences in the content of minerals. Acacia honey (Figure 2e) showed the highest impedance at high frequencies, which may be due to its specific chemical structure, while multi-flower honey (Figure 2e), with a more complex composition, had intermediate impedance values between linden and goldenrod. The obtained results confirm that impedance analysis in a wide frequency range is an effective tool for differentiating honey types and their chemical and physical characteristics. In the low-frequency range (20 Hz-1 kHz), the impedance of honeys was high, which results from limited ionic conductivity and dielectric properties, and also suggests the preponderance of diffusion effects. These phenomena may be due to mass transport processes, which are important for the ionic characteristics of honeys. The observed differences in this range may be related to differences in the chemical composition and water content of the tested samples [42; 68; 69; 70; 71]. The rapid changes observed in impedance values with increasing frequency indicate a decreasing effect of ion diffusion and an increasing preponderance of electrical conductivity processes. Such a variability emphasizes the specificity of the electrical properties of honeys, which can be used to differentiate them and analyze their quality. In the high-frequency range (10 kHz-2 MHz), a stabilization of impedance values was observed, which reflects the preponderance of electrical resistance.