## 9 The Production and Advancement of Electrical Steels  
Electrical steels (Fe-3 wt. %Si) find widespread applications in the cores of transformers, generators, and motors. Figure 14 illustrates the evolution of electrical steel throughout the twentieth century. The journey of electrical steel began with Hadfield's production of 3% silicon steel in 1903, which had a notable impact on reducing losses [51]. Over time, advancements in material processing led to a reduction in the impurity content in steel, resulting in improved magnetic properties. Additionally, the introduction of the cold-rolling process played a crucial role in further reducing the thickness of materials while simultaneously enhancing their magnetic properties. In 1934, [PERSON] expanded upon the findings of [PERSON] and [PERSON] [99], making a significant discovery about the magnetic properties of iron in specific crystallographic directions \begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c c c} \hline \hline
**Element** & **Effect on Properties** & **Benefits** & **Drawbacks** \\ \hline Aluminium & Increased resistance. & Reduced energy loss in appliances. & Brittle steel, processing challenges. \\ \hline Silicon & Reduced permeability. & Narrowed magnetic properties. & Increased resistance, processing challenges. \\ \hline Manganese & Increased resistance. & Reduced losses, improved permeability. & Smaller grains, deterioration in some cases. \\ \hline Cobalt & Enhanced magnetization. & Improved magnetic properties. & Higher cost, complex material composition. \\ \hline Nickel & Increased permeability. & Low losses for specific applications. & Greater eddy current losses, conductivity. \\ \hline Phosphorus & Variable impact. & Enhanced or reduced induction, texture change. & Influence on texture, induction variation. \\ \hline Chromium & Reduction in bead size. & Improved microstructure, desired phase. & Minimal impact on magnetic properties. \\ \hline Tin & Improved crystalline texture. & Reduced core loss, increased flux density. & Excessive addition may increase core loss \\ \hline Others & Variable effects. & Various improvements and drawbacks. & Element-specific effects and trade-offs. \\ \hline \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table} 
Table 2: Comparison of influence of various elements on electrical steel properties. Figure 14: Historical development of core loss reduction in grain-oriented silicon steel and progress of relevant science and technology [45]. and planes. This discovery paved the way for the development of a unique type of steel with grains arranged in a manner that aligned the [100] direction parallel to the rolling direction, while the [110] planes were parallel to the sheet's surface. The production process for this steel involved several stages, including cold reduction, intermediate annealing, decarburization, batch annealing, and flattening. The resulting steel, known as Goss-textured steel or GO steel, presented a remarkable texture known as the \"Goss texture\". This particular texture, along with the favourable magnetic properties it conferred, proved to be highly advantageous for modern-day electrical steel production. As a result, GO steel has become widely used in various applications within the electrical industry. In 1994, Nippon Steel introduced a novel high-permeability steel called HiB [54]. In contrast with Goss steel, the manufacturing process for HiB steel involved just one cold-rolling reduction. The key inhibitors used during production were AlN as the primary inhibitor and manganese sulphide (MnS) as the secondary inhibitor. These inhibitors played a crucial role in enhancing the magnetic properties of the steel. While the angle of orientation with the rolling direction was reduced from 7\({}^{\circ}\) to 3\({}^{\circ}\) compared to Goss steel, there was a trade-off. The grain size of the HiB steel increased significantly from 0.3 mm to 1 cm [100]. Despite the larger grain size, the HiB steel exhibited high permeability, making it a promising choice for various applications where magnetic efficiency is essential.