# Possible Health Effects of Road Dust in Winter: Studies in Poland
## 3 Results
### Other Indices
An exception was HQing for children and adults at site 6 (3.82 \(\times\) 10\({}^{0}\) for As); the calculated value was several times higher than the results obtained in Beijing. For Kumasi in Ghana, this value was 3.5 \(\times\) 10\({}^{-2}\)[49]. Therefore, among these three cities, the inhabitants of Beijing are the least exposed to non-carcinogenic risk, where for inhabitants of Piekary Slaskie in Upper Silesia, the risk was the highest. HQing for children in summer in Upper Silesia was 1.3 \(\times\) 10\({}^{-1}\), which is lower than that in winter [25]. Apart from site 12, the other sites in both regions were characterised by lower values than those in China. In the Lower Silesia agglomeration, the majority of sites were characterised by lower values than those obtained in Ghana for As. In the capital of China, the highest HI (5.35 \(\times\) 10\({}^{-1}\), children) was recorded for Pb, while in Poland the value was lower. The only exception was site 6, where HI was above 1.7 \(\times\) 10\({}^{0}\), suggesting that URD from this site is more than three times as polluted with Pb than in Beijing. In summer, the content of Pb in Upper Silesia was not assessed. In the capital of Oman, Muscat, HI was 1.2 \(\times\) 10\({}^{-2}\)[50]. Therefore, inhabitants of the Upper Silesia agglomeration are more exposed to a negative impact from Pb in URD on health than people living in the capital cities of China and Oman. HI for Lower Silesia was higher than the value obtained for Muscat, Oman (HI = 4.3 \(\times\) 10\({}^{-2}\)), which shows that both regions in Poland can be characterised by high potential health hazards. \begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c c c c c c c c c c c c} \hline  & **Mn** & **Ni** & **Cu** & **Zn** & **As** & **Cr** & **Mg** & **Co** & **Pb** & **Cd** & **V** & **Al** & **References** \\ \hline Upper Silesia, & 622 & 29 & 70 & 7787 & 409 & 155 & 53,747 & 4 & 586 & 4 & 19 & 91,923 & This work \\ \hline Lower Silesia, & 260 & 57 & 50 & 291 & 5 & 108 & 6177 & 7 & 29 & 0.3 & 19 & 5980 & This work \\ \hline Upper Silesia, & 1619 & 34 & 175 & 2683 & 109 & 106 & 21 & - & - & - & - & 22 & [25] \\ \hline Lower Silesia, & 258 & 50 & 126 & 153 & 3 & 77 & 6700 & - & - & - & - & 5133 & [25] \\ \hline Lublin, Poland & - & 27 & 66 & 202 & - & 53 & - & - & 23 & - & - & - & [19] \\ \hline Kumasi, Ghana & 164 & 44 & 50 & 280 & 6 & 70 & - & - & 47 & - & - & - & [49] \\ \hline Changchun, & 367 & 35 & 50 & 162 & 36 & 63 & 3430 & 37 & 73 & 29 & 60 & 6080 & [51] \\ \hline Beijing, & 531 & 36 & 63 & 239 & 5 & 85 & - & - & 66 & 0 & - & - & [48] \\ \hline Manchester, UK & 282 & - & 113 & 653 & - & - & - & 265 & - & - & - & - & [52] \\ \hline Delhi, & - & 36 & 192 & 284 & - & 149 & - & 121 & 3 & - & - & - & [53] \\ India & 2256 & 4 & 9 & 43 & - & - & - & 3 & 19 & 2 & - & - & [54] \\ \hline Muscat, Oman & - & 9 & 68 & 181 & 5 & 3 & - & 20 & 19 & - & - & - & [50] \\ \hline Oslo, Norway & 833 & 41 & 123 & 412 & - & - & - & 19 & 180 & 1 & - & - & [55] \\ \hline Madrid, Spain & 362 & 44 & 188 & - & - & 61 & - & 3 & 1927 & - & 17 & - & [55] \\ \hline Luanda, Angola & 258 & 10 & 42 & 317 & 5 & 26 & 4485 & 3 & 351 & 1 & 20 & 4839 & [56] \\ \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table} 
Table 7: Summary of the literature data on the average concentrations of selected metals in URD for Poland and other countries [mg/kg]. In Delhi (India), the highest EF score for URD was obtained for Pb (21.9) [53]. Again, in Poland, it was at site 6 (EF = 1908 for As) in Upper Silesia and site 1 (EF = 431 for Ni) in Lower Silesia in our winter studies. In summer, the very high enrichment was registered mainly for As, Cu, and Zn [25]. When we compare the EF score calculated in India for Pb (the highest value) with that in our studies, we notice that in both regions the EF score was much higher (site 6 = 473, site 1 = 71, and site 2 = 26). The EF score in Delhi (India) for Cu was 22.4. Among the analysed sites in Poland, six had higher scores than in India, and four were characterised by extremely strong enrichment.