# Shadow Fleets: A Growing Challenge in Global
## 3 Dark Fleets and Gray Fleets: A Comparative Analysis
### Understanding Motivational Drivers Behind Shadow Fleet Operations  
The proliferation of shadow fleets requires an analysis of the underlying economic and political incentives. Economic rationality plays a primary role, as shadow fleet operations benefit from the significant discounts on Russian crude oil following sanctions \begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c c c} \hline \hline \multirow{2}{*}{**Characteristic**} & **Oil Transport** & **Fishing** & **General Cargo** \\  & **Dark/Gray Fleets** & **Dark/Light Fleets** & **Dark/Gray Fleets** \\ \hline \multirow{3}{*}{Primary Operators} & Russian oil (Gray) & \multirow{3}{*}{Chinese DWF (Dark)} & \multirow{3}{*}{North Korean cargo vessels} \\  & Iranian oil (Dark) & & EU vessels (Light) \\ \cline{3-3}  & Venezuelan oil (Dark) & & \\ \hline \multirow{3}{*}{Vessel Types} & Crude oil tankers & \multirow{3}{*}{Trawlers} & \multirow{3}{*}{Bulk carriers} \\  & Product tankers & & Long-liners \\ \cline{3-3}  & Chemical tankers & & Fishing vessels \\ \hline \multirow{3}{*}{AIS Compliance} & Dark: Disabled & \multirow{3}{*}{Dark: Regular disabling} & \multirow{3}{*}{Dark: Systematically disabled} \\  & Gray: Selective manipulation & & Light: Maintenance active \\ \hline \multirow{3}{*}{Operational Patterns} & Dark: Complete regulatory evasion & \multirow{3}{*}{Dark: Remote waters, protected areas} & \multirow{3}{*}{Dark: Complete regulatory evasion} \\  & Gray: Partial compliance & & Light: Within technical compliance \\ \hline \multirow{3}{*}{Key Examples} & Dark: ANITA, OLIVE & \multirow{3}{*}{Dark: Chinese Fleet at} & \multirow{3}{*}{Dark: M/V Wise Honest} \\  & Gray: ADVANTAGE ANGEL, STI & \multirow{3}{*}{Light: [PERSON], Willem} & \multirow{3}{*}{Gray: PABLO} \\  & DUCHESSA & & Van Der Zwan \\ \hline \multirow{3}{*}{Fleet Size (Estimated)} & Dark: \(\sim\)1100 & \multirow{3}{*}{Dark: \(\sim\)340 (Chinese DWF in} \\  & Gray: \(\sim\)900 & \multirow{3}{*}{Databagos)} & \multirow{3}{*}{Data not available} \\  & & Light: \(\sim\)250 (EU) & \\ \hline \multirow{3}{*}{Primary Objectives} & Dark: Complete sanctions evasion & \multirow{3}{*}{Dark: Resource exploitation} & \multirow{3}{*}{Dark: Sanctions evasion, illicit trade} \\  & Gray: Price cap avoidance & & Light: Resource exploitation \\ \hline \multirow{3}{*}{Environmental Impact} & High risk due to aging vessels, poor maintenance & \multirow{3}{*}{Dark: Unsustainable fishing practicesLight: Similar impact despite compliance} & Moderate to high due to poor maintenance and safety standards \\ \hline \hline \end{tabular} Source: Own elaboration (compiled from multiple sources).  
\end{table} 
Table 2: Comparative analysis of fleet types across maritime sectors. implementation. Russian Urals-grade crude trades at discounts of up to USD 30 per barrel compared to benchmark prices, creating substantial profit margins for operators willing to navigate sanctions risks [2]. These economic incentives often exceed the perceived risks of detection and enforcement. Geopolitical alliances facilitate shadow fleet operations, as demonstrated by Russia-China trade relationships. According to US Energy Information Administration data, China's crude oil imports from Russia increased by 23% in the first half of 2023 compared to 2022 averages, reaching 2.1 million barrels per day and making Russia China's largest crude oil supplier [27]. By 2024, Russia supplied 19% of China's total crude oil imports, compared to 15% in the pre-war period of 2019-2021 [27]. Much of this trade is conducted through vessels exhibiting gray fleet characteristics while maintaining technical legal compliance. Flag states with limited enforcement capabilities benefit economically from shadow fleet registrations through increased registry fees while bearing minimal operational oversight costs. The Kyiv School of Economics estimates that Russia has invested over USD 10 billion in building its shadow fleet since 2022, with over 600 tankers now transporting approximately 70% of Russian oil exports [28; 29].