## 4 Simulation and Results
### Simulation Results and Discussion
This means a performance enhancement of up to 443.9% in delaying the FND and up to 281.7% in prolonging the survival of 80% of the nodes compared to the conventional LEACH as well as improvements of 261.29% and 143.96%, respectively, over the LEACH with K-means. Figure 8 compares the residual energy of nodes after 100, 500, and 1000 rounds for seven different clustering protocols under Scenario 1 (BS at 100 m, 300 m). The results are presented for two conditions: (a) no mobility and (b) with mobility (maximum mobility range of 10 m/round). The visualized data highlight how energy sustainability varies across protocols and scenarios. In the no-mobility condition (Figure 8a), IK-MACHES consistently shows the highest residual energy across all rounds, demonstrating its superior energy-balancing capability. PSO and LEACH-GK follow as the next-best-performing protocols, benefiting from their distance-aware and energy-optimized clustering mechanisms. In contrast, classical LEACH and LEACH-B show significantly lower residual energy, with many nodes nearing complete energy depletion by the 500 th and 1000 th rounds, emphasizing their inefficiency in energy distribution. Under the mobility condition (Figure 8b), the  
Figure 6: Simulation result of network lifetime with alive nodes graph for each round with no mobility: (**a**) Scenario 1 (BS = 100 m, 300 m), (**b**) Scenario 2 (BS = 100 m, 100 m). energy gaps between protocols widen further due to the additional challenge of dynamic node movement. IK-MACHES continues to outperform other protocols, with a balanced and higher residual energy distribution across nodes, particularly after 500 and 1000 rounds. PSO and LEACH-GK maintain moderate performance, though their energy consumption patterns are less uniform than IK-MACHES. Meanwhile, protocols like classical LEACH and LEACH-B exhibit poor energy sustainability, with most nodes depleting energy rapidly due to their lack of mobility-aware mechanisms. Figure 9 presents the residual energy distribution of nodes after 100, 500, and 1000 rounds under Scenario 2, where the BS is centrally located at (100 m, 100 m). Compared to Scenario 1 (Figure 8), the shorter communication distances in Scenario 2 result in significantly improved energy sustainability across all protocols. Under the no-mobility condition (Figure 9a), the proposed IK-MACHES protocol demonstrates the highest residual energy across all rounds, indicating superior energy efficiency and balanced energy distribution. PSO-based clustering and LEACH-GK follow as the next best performers, with moderate energy consumption and reasonable uniformity among nodes. In contrast, LEACH-K and Improved-LEACH show slightly lower energy retention, while classical LEACH and LEACH-B experience significant energy depletion, especially by the 500 th and 1000 th \begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c c c c c c c} \hline \hline \multicolumn{2}{c}{**Protocol**} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{**LEACH**} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{**LEACH-B**} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{**Improved-LEACH**} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{**LEACH-K**} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{**LEACH-GK**} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{**PSO**} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{**Proposed**} \\ \hline \multicolumn{2}{c}{Scenario 1: BS at (100 m, 300 m)} & & & & & & & \\ \cline{2-8} No Mobility & \multicolumn{1}{c}{FND} & 12 & 15 & 230 & 23 & 252 & 28 & 26 \\ \cline{2-8}  & 80\% Alive Nodes & 184 & 182 & 352 & 195 & 612 & 834 & 984 \\ \hline \multirow{2}{*}{Mobility} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{FND} & 4 & 12 & 65 & 19 & 21 & 123 & 14 \\ \cline{2-8}  & 80\% Alive Nodes & 98 & 167 & 186 & 187 & 198 & 202 & 256 \\ \hline \multicolumn{2}{c}{Scenario 2: BS at (100 m, 100 m)} & & & & & & & \\ \cline{2-8} No Mobility & \multicolumn{1}{c}{FND} & 359 & 363 & 578 & 612 & 689 & 712 & 723 \\ \cline{2-8}  & 80\% Alive Nodes & 757 & 897 & 1178 & 1181 & 1098 & 1238 & 1357 \\ \hline \multirow{2}{*}{Mobility} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{FND} & 98 & 102 & 121 & 131 & 187 & 209 & 211 \\ \cline{2-8}  & 80\% Alive Nodes & 297 & 367 & 438 & 449 & 497 & 498 & 496 \\ \hline \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table}