## 5 Primary Environmental Effects Induced by the 30 October 2020, Mw = 7.0, Samos Earthquake
### Permanent Surface Deformation
#### 5.1.1 Permanent Surface Deformation in the Northwestern Part of Samos
They certainly correspond to two fossil shorelines. Such traces are useful tools and valuable geological records allowing us to increase the time window in the research on earthquake geology and paleoseismology from a few tens to hundreds or even thousands of years and to contribute to more accurate seismic risk assessments not only for the region of Samos, but also in similar seismic active areas around the world [22; 46; 47]. * Uplift at the Punta promontory  
The area of the Punta promontory is located at a distance of 18 km southwest of the earthquake's epicenter and nearly 1 km southwest of the Akra site (Figures 7 and 9). The area is composed of Kerketeas schists conformably overlying marbles of the same unit. This area was uplifted coseismically by 22 cm and was imprinted on the marbles of the Kerketeas unit (Figure 9). At the base of the marbles along the rocky coast, the uplift has exitrpated the intertidal biota. This site has also high potential for preserving uplift traces. Its geological structure comprises metamorphic formations, such as marbles and schists, which favor the imprint of permanent coastal uplift in its geomorphological record as evidence of uplift associated with historical and paleo-earthquakes [28]. More specifically, along parts of the eastern side of the Punta promontory, there is clear geomorphological evidence of at least three fossil shorelines, including benches and notches. In particular, there are two benches at a height of 0.6 \(\pm\) 0.2 m and 1.1 \(\pm\) 0.2 m above sea level and a notch at a height of 2.3 \(\pm\) 0.2 m [28]. Relics of two polystromatic colonies of Dendropoma petraeum at a height of 0.7 \(\pm\) 0.2 m and 1.1 \(\pm\) 0.2 m asl, respectively, have been found at the eastern edge of the Punta promontory and correspond to two fossil shorelines [28]. * Uplift at Ayios Isidoros  
The area of Ayios Isidoros is located at a distance of about 25 km southwest of the earthquake's epicenter, \(\sim\)7 km southwest of the Punta site (Figure 7). It is also composed of marbles of the Kerketeas unit [5; 24]. During the earthquake, this area presented an uplift of 30 cm, which was also imprinted in the formations of the Kerketeas unit. At the base of the marbles along the rocky coast, the uplift has also exitrpated intertidal biota. Based on the study on the Holocene shorelines conducted by [28], notches were found in the cape of Ayios Isidoros at the height of 0.50 \(\pm\) 0.70 and 1.10 \(\pm\) 1.30 m, respectively. * Uplift at Ayios Nikolaos  
The area of Ayios Nikolaos is situated in the northwestern part of Samos at a distance of \(\sim\)12 km southwest of the epicenter and \(\sim\)4 km northeast of the town of Karlovasi (Figures 7 and 10). It is composed of the clastic series of the Karlovasi basin and more specifically of incohesive conglomerates, which present alternations with and a lateral transition to more fine clastic deposits of grit and sandstones with a marly matrix. Locally, sandy loams and clays with disperse pebbles are also observed. The formations are of Miocene age. In the Ayios Nikolaos bay, local people reported an uplift of coastal rocks observed immediately after the mainshock of 30 October 2020 (Figure 10). The same people observed a further uplift caused by the strong aftershock of 20 January 2021 measuring magnitude Mw = 4.5. According to the epicentral determinations by the National Observatory of Athens ([[https://bbnet.gein.noa.gr/mt_solution/2021/210120_23_37_56.87_MTsol.html](https://bbnet.gein.noa.gr/mt_solution/2021/210120_23_37_56.87_MTsol.html)]([https://bbnet.gein.noa.gr/mt_solution/2021/210120_23_37_56.87_MTsol.html](https://bbnet.gein.noa.gr/mt_solution/2021/210120_23_37_56.87_MTsol.html)) accessed on 21 January 2021), the aftershock's epicenter is situated closer to the observation site with respect to the mainshock's epicenter.