## 1 Introduction  
The development and utilization of renewable energy play a crucial role in achieving \"carbon neutrality\". Among the renewable energy sources, offshore wind power has garnered significant attention due to its considerable potential in supporting the energy mix. Offshore wind turbines are supported by various fixed foundation systems such as gravity base foundations, tripod structures, suction caissons, jackets, and monopiles, among which, monopile foundations are currently the most appealing foundation system in moderate water depths of up to 35 m [1]. This mainly stems from their fabrication and installation simplicity, cost-effectiveness, and established logistics [2, 3]. Achieving a higher energy output from offshore wind is pursued globally at an ever-increasing pace, which is leading to the design of heavier turbines, taller support structures, and colossal foundation systems. Foundations may account for up to 40% of the total cost of an offshore wind project [4]. Several initiatives were taken to lower the Levelized Cost of Energy (LCOE), which resulted in dropping the tender bid prices for offshore wind farms below the noteworthy threshold of 100 \(\epsilon\)/MWh from 2015 to 2016 [5]. Such initiatives continue to make offshore wind energy a viable energy source, capable of competing against other forms of energy harvesting. Focus has been allocated to optimizing the design of the support structure, particularly the monopile foundation system, which constitutes a significant portion of the construction costs. In this regard, current design procedures often adopt the standard p-y method--a simplified one-dimensional (1D) approach--in which the foundation is modeled as an embedded beam. Within this framework, non-linear p-y curves represent the lateral-load-displacement interaction between the soil and the embedded beam. Originally developed for slender piles of a high-embedded-length-(L)-to-diameter (D) ratio (L/D), the standard p-y approach, as proposed by recognized codes (e.g., API RP 2A-WSD and DNVGL-ST-0126 [6; 7]), has been widely used in the offshore oil and gas industry [8]. However, significant limitations exist when its application is extended to offshore monopile foundations with relatively small L/D ratios [9; 10]. Such limitations stem from the discrepancies between the conditions for which the approach is developed and used. The p-y approach was developed by studying slender piles with an L/D ratio of about 40 (diameter of 0.32 and embedded length of 12.8 m) for only a few cycles of lateral loading [11]. On the other hand, monopile foundations for offshore wind farm applications are typically designed with significantly lower L/D ratios of around 6 or less and may experience millions of loading cycles in their lifetime [4]. Monopiles experience bending and rotation when loaded laterally, with the balance between the two influenced by the embedment depth and rigidity. Typically, short, embedded piles (with a low L/D ratio) primarily rotate around a center of rotation with minimal bending, while longer, slender piles (with a high L/D ratio) exhibit more bending and a lesser degree of rotation [12]. Due to these behavioral differences, the necessity of establishing tailored design methods for large-diameter, relatively short monopiles is felt to be an alternative to the standard p-y method [13]. Therefore, different research and industrial institutes have allocated efforts to propose improved methods of predicting the lateral response of monopile foundations under different loading and soil conditions, adopting numerical, analytical, and experimental methods. In this regard, large-scale field tests were performed on monopiles in sand, clay, and chalk sites by PISA (Pile Soil Analysis) [10], [PERSON] et al., 2017, at Blessington [14], and ALPACA (Axial-Lateral Pile Analysis for Chalk Applying multi-scale field and laboratory testing) [15]. Moreover, centrifuge testing, as a more convenient experimental method, has been performed by the authors in [16; 17; 18; 19; 20; 21; 22; 23].