# Assessing Fatality Risks in Maritime Accidents: The Influence of Key Contributing Factors
## 3 Problem Background
### Legal Framework and Policies  
The legal framework for alcohol limits on board maritime vessels is generally standardised as all crew members and shipping companies are required to comply with the International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers (STCW, 1978) [32]. This convention sets the minimum qualification standards for masters, officers, and watch personnel on maritime merchant ships. The STCW was adopted in 1978 by the International Maritime Organisation (IMO). Initially, the STCW Convention only recommended alcohol limits as a maximum of 80 milligrams of alcohol per 100 millilitres of blood for the watchkeepers on duty. As it was not possible to enforce these recommendations, it led to inconsistent application across member states [32].  
In 2010, the Manila Conference introduced the Manila Amendments to the STCW Convention, setting mandatory alcohol consumption limits for seafarers, replacing the original recommendations. These limits aimed to enhance maritime safety by addressing the risks of alcohol impairment and aligning with those for drivers in many European countries, simplifying compliance for international shipping companies. The limits were set at:  
* 25 micrograms of alcohol per 100 mL of breath;
* 50 mg per 100 mL of blood;  
Figure 1: Impact of alcohol consumption on maritime accidents and fatalities (2019–2023).  
* 67 mg per 100 mL of urine [33].  
National regulations may set stricter limits than those prescribed by the STCW Convention. Furthermore, seafarers must adhere to the drug and alcohol policies established by the shipping companies they work for. This section provides an overview of the international regulations and shipping company approaches regarding BAC limits on board maritime vessels. For example, in the EU, each country can implement stricter regulations, but they must comply with the minimum standards set by the IMO. For example:  
France has a more stringent limit--0.02% BAC for seafarers.  
Norway is not an EU member but is closely aligned with the EU through the European Economic Area (EEA) and sets the limit of BAC for professional seafarers at 0.02% [34].  
In the United States, a BAC limit is set by the USCG of 0.04% for individuals operating a commercial vessel. For recreational ships, the limit is less strict--0.08 BAC, which is similar to the limit for operating an automobile on land [35].  
Regulations in Asia can differ in various countries, but each country must follow the guidelines set by the IMO. While the majority of countries follow the STCW Convention on the alcohol limits in blood or breath, India, as well as Singapore, set stricter rules regarding BAC limits at 0.04% [36].  
Shipping companies may implement stricter alcohol policies, with various levels of BAC based on the type of cargo and vessel. Some companies permit a BAC of up to 0.04% during off-hours; on the other hand, others prefer a zero-alcohol policy. Companies like Maersk, Hapag-Lloyd, and COSCO enforce zero-alcohol policies, while MSC and ONE set a BAC limit of 40 mg per 100 mL. Captains and senior officers are responsible for enforcing these rules and often use on-board alcohol test meters to check the BAC of crew members. Seafarers who violate the policy face disciplinary actions, including dismissal.