## 3 Results and Discussion
#### 3.1.1 Techno-Functional Characteristics
This confirms the absence of starch or other paste-forming components in the seed press cake powder. TF 100% exhibited the most pronounced pasting behavior, with the initial viscosity remaining low until approximately 65 s, when rapid viscosity development began. The viscosity increased dramatically to reach a peak of approximately 3300 mPa-s at around 81 s, corresponding to a temperature of approximately 85 \({}^{\circ}\)C. During the holding phase at 95 \({}^{\circ}\)C, the viscosity decreased to approximately 2400 mPa-s, indicatingsubstantial breakdown under continuous shear. Upon cooling, the viscosity increased moderately to reach a final value of approximately 3000 mPa\(\cdot\)s at 193 s, demonstrating significant setback. The LP30/TF70 blend showed intermediate pasting behavior, with viscosity development beginning around 57 s. The LP50/TF50 blend demonstrated further reduced pasting characteristics, with gradual viscosity development starting around 65 s. The LP70/TF30 blend exhibited minimal pasting properties, with very gradual viscosity development beginning at around 73 s. The profile showed no distinct peak, with viscosity gradually increasing to approximately 400 mPa\(\cdot\)s during the heating phase. The viscosity remained stable during holding and showed only a slight increase during cooling to reach a final value of approximately 500 mPa\(\cdot\)s, demonstrating a minimal setback tendency. These pasting profiles clearly demonstrate the dilution effect of _L. cylindrica_ seed press cake on tapioca starch functionality, with increasing _L. cylindrica_ contents resulting in progressively reduced peak viscosity, breakdown, and setback values [16; 33]. The results suggest that _L. cylindrica_ seed press cake acts as a non-gelling diluent that interferes with starch granule swelling and paste formation, potentially through physical hindrance or competition for available water. The dilution of pasting properties observed with increases in the _Luffa cylindrica_ contents can be attributed to its intrinsic composition, particularly to the absence of starch and the presence of fibrous cell wall materials that interfere with starch gelatinization. Studies have confirmed that _L. cylindrica_ is rich in cellulose and hemicellulose, which can restrict water availability and physically obstruct starch granule swelling [35]. This aligns with our finding that pure _L. cylindrica_ (LP 100%) showed no measurable viscosity under thermal treatment, indicating the lack of gelatinizable constituents. Moreover, _L. cylindrica_ has demonstrated hydrophilic behavior due to its porous structure, which can increase water holding but not contribute to pasting viscosity, further supporting its role as a non-gelling diluent [36]. The observed increase in pasting temperature and peak time in blends with higher _L. cylindrica_ contents may reflect delayed starch gelatinization due to water competition and the formation of fiber-starch interactions, a phenomenon also observed in bio-composite studies using Luffa cellulose [37]. Figure 3: Pasting profile of _L. cylindrica_ seed cake powder and blends. Table 2 presents the pasting properties of _L. cylindrica_ seed press cake powder and its blends with tapioca flour, revealing significant variations in viscometric characteristics across different formulations. Pure _L. cylindrica_ powder LP 100% exhibited no measurable viscosity parameters, indicating an absence of pasting properties under the test conditions. This suggests that _L. cylindrica_ seed press cake alone lacks the starch content necessary for gelatinization and paste formation. The peak viscosity (PV) values varied considerably among samples containing tapioca flour, ranging from 475 \(\pm\) 20 to 6644 \(\pm\) 45 mPa-s. Pure tapioca flour (TF 100%) demonstrated the highest peak viscosity, at 6644 \(\pm\) 45 mPa-s, while LP70/TF30 showed the lowest, at 475 \(\pm\) 20 mPa-s. The blends exhibited a clear inverse relationship between _L. cylindrica_ content and peak viscosity.