# Breeding of Camels in Europe: Between Continuity and Innovation
## 1 Camels in Europe Are Not a Recent Phenomenon  
The _Camelidae_ family traces its origins to North America during the Middle Eocene, approximately 46-42 million years ago. This family was highly diverse, with up to 13 genera, now extinct, present during the Miocene. Both paleontological and mitochondrial DNA evidence indicate that two major tribes within this family began to diverge in North America during the late Early Miocene, around 17.5-16 million years ago. The tribe _Camelini_, genus _Camelus_, cameloids or Old World camellids migrated across the Bering Strait, eventually spreading throughout Asia, the Middle East, and Eastern Europe, while the tribe _Auchenitini_, genus _Lama_, lamoids or New World camellids moved southward to South America [1]. Within the genus _Camelus_, two species of domesticated camels are recognized: the one-humped or dromedary camel (_Camelus dromedarius_) and the two-humped or Bactrian camel (_Camelus bactrians_). The dromedary was domesticated in Southeast Arabia, whilethe Bactrian camel was domesticated in Central Asia between the fourth and first millennia B.C.E. [2]. These domesticated species, including their hybrids (_Camelus dromedarius_ x _Camelus hactrianus_), which are known to be fertile [3], were subsequently spread to various regions for diverse utilitarian purposes, such as packing, draught, and riding activities [4]. Dromedaries are traditionally found in African, Near and Middle Eastern, and Southern Asian countries, while Bactrian camels are restricted to Central Asia. However, the two species coexist in only a few regions, primarily Kazakhstan [5]. In Africa,romedaries appeared around the seventh century B.C.E., introduced through Egypt during trade expeditions from the Arabian Peninsula. Their adaptability to harsh environments and functional versatility led to their widespread distribution across the Sahara by the fifth century B.C.E. [6]. Bactrian camels, on the other hand, expanded to regions such as Mongolia and Western China by the 3 rd and 1 st centuries B.C.E., respectively [7]. By the beginning of the Common Era, both camel species had reached most arid and semi-arid regions of Africa and Asia. Their introduction to Europe began during the Low Roman Empire (284-476 C.E. ), when two-humped camels first arrived. They were initially incorporated into the Roman army due to their superior speed and endurance compared to horses. Beyond military uses, camels played roles in public games, imperial logistics, and as symbols of wealth and social status [8; 9; 10] (Figure 1). Ancient literature and iconographic evidence provide insights into using camels in the Roman Empire [11; 12; 13]. Camels were primarily bred as beasts of burden, serving military and trade purposes [13]. During the Late Roman period, the State maintained a substantial number of camels to transport supplies required by the Roman army during campaigns. Additionally, camels were utilized as riding animals and played a role in agricultural activities in southern regions, such as plowing. Historical records also document camel fighting and racing in public spectacles. Furthermore, written sources reference the consumption of camel milk and meat [11; 14]. Figure 1: Camels in Roman Europe and the Roman Mediterranean. (**a**) A fragment of the ‘Mosaic of Silenius’ of Thysdrus depicting a dromedary camel (El Djem, Tunisia, 3 rd century C.E.) (© Wikimedia); (**b**) a fragment of a mosaic floor showing a camel carrying a wine amphora (Kissufin, Israel, 6 th century C.E.) (© Wikimedia); (**c**) ‘Adoration of the Magi’ featuring three camels from a fourth-century C.E. Roman sarcophagus at Rome (Photographer: [PERSON]/© Wikimedia Commons); (**d**) a Roman statuette of a dromedary dated to approximately 1–300 C.E. (© Museum of Fine Arts of Budapest, Hungary); (**e**) the obverse of a silver denarius featuring Nabatean King [PERSON] kneeling with a camel ([PERSON] and [PERSON], 58 B.C.E., Rome mint) (© CNG Coins).