# AI-Driven Safety and Security for UAVs: From Machine Learning to Large Language Models
## 2 Background
### UAV Safety and Security Threats
#### 2.1.1 UAV Safety Threats  
* Physical Safety Risks  
UAVs may suffer physical damage or be exploited for malicious purposes. For example, an attacker may interfere with the regular operation of a UAV by damaging its hardware components, such as motors and sensors [53]. Additionally, UAVs may exhibit vulnerabilities in their physical design. These vulnerabilities may be exploited by attackers, damaging the UAVs. In addition, UAVs may fail during operation due to environmen  
Figure 3: Typical safety and security threats faced by UAVs. tal factors such as strong winds and extreme temperatures or structural issues such as overloading and insufficient material strength [54]. In addition, poorly designed landing systems for UAVs may lead to accidents. * Battery management challenges  
UAV batteries may be hit, crushed, or dropped during flight or storage. These events can damage their internal structures and trigger short circuits, heat generation, or even explosions. Using or storing UAV batteries at extreme temperatures may result in performance degradation or failure. For example, a significant decrease in battery performance at low temperatures may result in the inability of a UAV to fly properly. In addition, storing fully discharged batteries for extended periods can lead to deep discharge, which can cause irreversible damage to battery cells. * Sensor Spoofing Hazards  
UAV airframes are typically equipped with altitude and position sensors such as gyroscopes, accelerometers, and GPSs, which are essential for flight safety and precise navigation. Current threats against such sensors include ultrasonic interference with gyroscopes and GPS spoofing. In a GPS spoofing attack system, attackers can typically execute spoofing attacks in two ways after accessing the GPS receiver of a UAV. One approach involves leveraging the pseudorange calculation principle in GPS ranging. Attackers can process received satellite signals with high fidelity through a jamming device, subsequently delaying and forwarding the signal to deceive the GPS receiver into calculating an incorrect large pseudorange. This approach is referred to as a forwarding spoofing attack. On the other hand, attackers can create GPS jamming signals tailored to the satellite signal characteristics in the target area. They can then transmit these fabricated signals as if they were genuine satellite signals into the target's signal reception zone. This deception causes the compromised GPS receiver to lock onto the jamming signal source, resulting in erroneous pseudorange and positioning data [55]. * Collision Dangers  
Deploying clusters or multiple UAVs offers significant advantages over deploying single UAVs [56]. In challenging and dynamic environments, UAV flight safety is limited by sensor and battery capacities and power limitations. Additional complications arise from reduced visibility due to increment weather, such as rain and dust, and the complexity of remote monitoring. In addition, behaviors such as ignoring flight rules, making operational errors, and flying lawless UAVs in the dark can exacerbate the risk of collisions. In complex environments, UAVs must account for dynamic obstacles, such as other flying vehicles and birds, and static obstacles, such as buildings and power lines. These obstacles may interfere with the flight path of a UAV and increase the risk of collision [57]. * Loss of Flight Control Threats  
Navigational failures occasionally occur during UAV missions, prompting affected UAVs to autonomously search for and rely on nearby UAVs to act as navigators and guide them back to safety. However, if the pilot aircraft is improperly operated or illegally controlled by an attacker, for example, intentionally deviating from its route, a series of chain reactions may be triggered, including collisions, loss of control, and crashes among the vehicles, resulting in property damage and casualties. On the other hand, UAVs usually rely on electronic fencing technology to define their flight range and ensure that they fly in authorized airspace.