# A Review of the Potential Climate Change Impacts and Adaptation Options for European Viticulture
## 5 Climate Change Adaptation Strategies
### Short-Term Adaptation Strategies
#### 5.1.5 Soil Management  
Soil management is an essential adaptation tool, critical for soil and plant protection, water fluxes, greenhouse gas emission (GHE) rates, and possible carbon storage. In terms of water and carbon conservation, tillage is no longer advised, particularly in shallow soils on steep terrain, as it may also negatively affect yield and quality [199; 200]. Moreover, mechanical cultivation affects most soil microbes and their functioning (e.g., arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi) and promotes the mineralization of organic matter and soil erosion, which is one of the most important environmental problems aggravated by conventional agriculture. Eroded soils have low fertility and low water-holding capacity, which limits water use efficiency. The consequences of erosion are of major relevance, as climate change and extreme events may exacerbate erosion rates, and many vineyards in Europe are on slopes, which aggravates potential erosion. Higher yields are usually achieved when the soil is managed with herbicides. However, bare soil reduces water infiltration and does not protect against erosion [201]. In addition, problems of ground-water contamination; changes on soil structure; the significant increase of resistant weed populations; and, in some situations, residues in grapes and wine are a source of concern that encourages the adoption of more sustainable solutions. For all these reasons, other practices should be implemented in order to safeguud soil fertility and preserve non-renewable resources. The use of compost obtained from different materials, such as municipal solid waste, green waste and urban sludge, wood ash, leaves, pruned vine-shoots, winery sludge, grape stalks, and other biomass residues from the farm, can be a good option. The application of compost increases soil microbiome, organic matter content, soil porosity and soil structural stability, nutrient supply, and water retention capacity, also reducing soil erosion. However, when applying a compost, the nutrient input into the vineyard has to be considered, because, for instance, high nitrogen freights might cause nitrate leaching into groundwater and lead to excessive plant vigour, dense foliage in the cluster zone, and compact clusters, which are directly linked to a higher predisposition towards bunch rot [170; 202; 203]. Likewise, the use of synthetic (e.g., black polyethylene and geotextile) and organic mulches, including compost, bark, or straw, may have positive effects on soil water content [204] and yield under future warmer and drier conditions [205]. Mulches also moderate soil temperatures and suppress diseases and harmful pests. In all vineyards, the soil should be covered by green vegetation (spontaneous or cultivated herbaceous cover crops), at least during the rainy season, and by dead material (as in the case of Mediterranean viticulture) or partial cover crops as in intermittent rainfall areas, during the dry part of the season. The species used as cover crops should be selected on the basis of the local pedoclimatic conditions. Under low water availability, these species should have minimal competition for water (e.g., with short vegetative cycle) and make a positive contribution to soil fertility, as some self-reseeding annual legume species are comparatively less competitive for water than grasses and can fix atmospheric nitrogen [206]. A mixture of different species and cultivars should be chosen, as it increases the likelihood of success under variable weather conditions, being also advantageous to soil properties. On the other hand, in conditions of high-vigour environments, grasses could be inserted into the mixture. Cover crops keep the soil protected against erosion; reduce soil compaction, water evaporation, and dust; increase water infiltration, organic carbon, and trafficking; provide habitats for beneficial insects, and prevent nitrate leaching, resulting in enhanced yield and quality [207], as long as competition for water and nutrients will not cause deficits for the crop [208].