# Fine-Scale (10 m) Dynamics of Smallholder Farming through COVID-19 in Eastern Thailand
## 2 Materials and Methods  
### Study Area  
The study area is located in Eastern Thailand, which consists of seven provinces: Chachoengsao, Chanthaburi, Chon Buri, Prachin Buri, Rayong, Sa Kaeo, and Trat. Bangkok is adjacent to the region and borders the province of Chachoengsao (Figure 2). The entire area of the region occupies approximately 34,000 km\({}^{2}\), with a total population of over 4.8 million [25]. We did not include the islands (e.g., Koh Chang, Koh Kood, and Ko Mak) located in the south of Trat due to the small presence of farmlands and logistical challenges in field data collection. Though temperature and rainfall vary slightly by province, the general climate of Eastern Thailand is characterized by three distinct seasons: the hot season from March to May, the wet season from May to October, and the cool season from  
Figure 1: A farmland showing mixed cultivation of pineapple (low plants) and young rubber trees (photo credit: [PERSON]). November to March. In recent years, however, the effects of climate change have made Thai seasons less predictable, causing concern for agricultural growing seasons [26]. The dominant crop types in the region are durian, rice, eucalyptus, oil palm, pineapple, sugarcane, cassava, rubber, mangosteen, and coconut, which were the main focus of this study. However, each of the seven provinces in Eastern Thailand have different concentrations of crop types. For example, rice is more common in the eastern part of Chachoengso, following the growing patterns of Central Thailand. The availability of water, influenced by rivers and coastlines, plays a role in crop planting decisions within the region. Overall, Eastern Thailand has a robust agricultural economy, where agricultural land use for each of the seven provinces varies between 54.47% and 69.25% of the total land area [27]. Dominated by smallholder farming, the region has been influenced by both domestic and foreign investments aimed at expanding agricultural growth. The Thai government has long been involved in supporting or constraining agricultural production nation-wide, especially for rice. A significant shift away from subsistence production to growing goods for the market took place after World War II, driven by international (US) influence in trade, government patronage, and the flow of credit and inputs into smallholder agricultural communities [28]. Following protests in the 1990s, eventually consolidated under the umbrella of the Assembly of the Poor, the national government instituted several policies to reduce taxes on agriculture and provide subsidies for farmers. This included programs that supported the price of rice on the domestic market, sought to reduce the amount of land devoted to rice cultivation (to keep prices higher), and encouraged self-sufficiency economies. Successive governments have implemented (sometimes contradictory) programs to help small-scale farmers produce and market specific crops and gain better access to markets. Additionally, to protect smallholder farms from excessive foreign investment and conversion into corporate farms, Thailand has implemented the Foreign Business Act and its Amendments, preventing foreigners from buying land for farming [29]. This measure ensures the continued production of crops and maintains the significance of smallholder farms in Thailand's agricultural sector. However, the EEC region is a government-sponsored development zone along Thailand's Eastern seaboard, specifically the provinces of Rayong, Chon Buri, and Chachoengso. Twelve key industries are specifically targeted for  
Figure 2: The study area of Eastern Thailand, which consists of seven provinces: Chachoengso, Chanthaburi, Chon Buri, Prachin Buri, Rayong, Sa Kaeo, and Trat. The Thai names in the backdrop image on the right figure represent locations and do not affect interpretation of field samples. foreign investment within the EEC, including 'advanced agriculture and biotechnology' and 'food for the future' [24].