# Consumer Perceptions and Attitudes Towards Ultra-Processed Foods
## 3 Related Work
### Comparison of Existing Models of User Attitudes Towards Industrially Formulated Foods
The root mean square error (RMSEA) values span between 0.05 and 0.08, with the number of latent variables varying from 2 to 11. The count of statistically significant factors fluctuates within this range. Despite extensive research on the factors shaping consumer attitudes toward UPFs, there is still no widely accepted framework for assessing their nutritional impact and health consequences. Moreover, studies on UPF consumption patterns and their broader implications, particularly across diverse socio-economic and cultural contexts, remain limited. The existing research does not fully capture the evolving nature of dietary preferences, public health awareness, or data analysis methods. Therefore, advancing methodological approaches and conducting empirical investigations in this field can help bridge these gaps and generate valuable insights for public health policymakers and the food industry. \begin{table}
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Table 1: _Cont._Main Factors Affecting Consumer Attitudes Towards Ultra-Processed Foods and Their Impact on Buying Decisions  
The HBM [29] and the TPB [30] can be adapted and applied to understand consumer attitudes and decision-making regarding UPFs. Below is a brief overview of the key constructs in this model. These constructs shape consumer attitudes, which, in turn, influence purchase intentions and actual buying behaviour. The outlined framework offers a holistic perspective illustrating how individual factors (such as health awareness and product familiarity) and external social influences (such as subjective norms and environmental considerations) interact to drive UPF consumption. Health consciousness reflects an individual's awareness and concern for their well-being, shaping daily decisions, including dietary choices. It represents the motivation to adopt behaviours that promote health and mitigate risks. Prior research indicates that higher health consciousness significantly affects food purchasing behaviour, with higher health awareness leading to a preference for natural, minimally processed foods, and a reduced intake of UPFs [37; 41]. Knowledge about UPFs refers to an individual's understanding of the composition, processing methods, and health implications associated with these products. Knowledge can be both objective (factual information) and subjective (perceived understanding based on personal beliefs). Studies indicate that consumers with higher levels of nutritional knowledge are better equipped to make healthier food choices and are more likely to limit their consumption of UPFs [33; 37; 40]. Social norms encompass the shared beliefs, values, and behaviours within a community or social group that shape individual decision-making. In the context of UPF consumption, social norms can shape dietary habits through peer influence, family practices, cultural expectations, and media exposure [42]. Studies suggest that individuals tend to adopt eating behaviours aligned with their social circles, particularly under the influence of family, friends, and online communities [31; 32; 35]. Environmental concerns reflect an individual's awareness of and motivation to address the environmental impact of their consumption choices. These concerns encompass resource depletion, greenhouse gas emissions, plastic pollution, and the ecological footprint of UPF production, packaging, and distribution. As sustainability gains global importance, consumers are increasingly considering the broader environmental consequences of their dietary habits [8]. Research suggests that environmentally conscious individuals are more likely to prefer foods with a lower ecological impact and tend to reduce UPF [18; 33]. Attitude towards UPFs refers to an individual's overall positive or negative evaluation of these products, encompassing both affective (emotions and feelings) and cognitive (knowledge and beliefs) components.