## 5 Experimental Results
### Changes Analysis for DMUs Using MPI
#### 5.2.2 Technological Change  
Table 8 shows the year-on-year technological changes or \"frontier-shift effect\" for 17 DMUs from 2013 to 2017. Figure 3 shows the diagram. From 2013 to 2014, 10 countries are found to have improved technological efficiency. They are Austria, Finland, France, Hungary, Italy, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, and Switzerland. This  
Figure 3: Yearly technological changes from 2013 to 2017. \begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c c c c c} \hline
**DMU** & **2013–2014** & **2014–2015** & **2015–2016** & **2016–2017** & _Average_ \\ \hline Austria & 1.041 & 0.984 & 1.000 & 0.993 & 1.004 \\ Belgium & 0.946 & 0.951 & 0.997 & 0.995 & 0.972 \\ Czech Republic & 0.984 & 0.980 & 0.984 & 1.004 & 0.988 \\ Finland & 1.020 & 0.995 & 1.002 & 0.983 & 1.000 \\ France & 1.056 & 0.960 & 1.000 & 0.994 & 1.002 \\ Germany & 0.968 & 0.972 & 0.998 & 0.990 & 0.982 \\ Greece & 0.996 & 0.996 & 0.994 & 0.981 & 0.992 \\ Hungary & 1.008 & 0.992 & 0.992 & 0.989 & 0.995 \\ Italy & 1.053 & 0.956 & 0.976 & 0.993 & 0.994 \\ Netherlands & 0.920 & 0.936 & 0.988 & 1.001 & 0.961 \\ Norway & 1.059 & 0.973 & 0.999 & 0.997 & 1.007 \\ Poland & 0.997 & 0.981 & 0.986 & 1.000 & 0.991 \\ Portugal & 1.005 & 0.996 & 0.978 & 0.978 & 0.989 \\ Spain & 1.017 & 0.993 & 0.999 & 0.978 & 0.997 \\ Sweden & 1.062 & 0.981 & 1.004 & 0.990 & 1.010 \\ Switzerland & 1.038 & 1.000 & 1.004 & 0.998 & 1.010 \\ United Kingdom & 0.993 & 0.970 & 0.999 & 0.993 & 0.989 \\
**Average** & 1.010 & 0.977 & 0.994 & 0.992 & 0.993 \\
**Max** & 1.062 & 1.000 & 1.004 & 1.004 & 1.010 \\
**Min** & 0.920 & 0.936 & 0.976 & 0.978 & 0.961 \\
**SD** & 0.041 & 0.018 & 0.009 & 0.008 & 0.013 \\ \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table} 
Table 8: Year-on-year technological efficiency change for the 17 DMUs from 2013 to 2017.  
implies these countries have innovated and improved their technologies for production. Among these countries, Sweden improved its technology the most (+6.2%). However, seven countries were found to have a recessed technology efficiency, including Belgium, the Czech Republic, Germany, Greece, the Netherlands, Poland, and the United Kingdom, each of them with a less-than-1 technological change score. The Netherlands recessed technological efficiency the most (\(-\)8%). From 2013 to 2014, the 17 countries as a whole improved 1%. From 2014 to 2015, the number of countries with improved technological efficiency was down to 0 from 10, a big drop. Switzerland had no change on the technological efficiency (due to a technological efficiency change score = 1). The other rest 16 countries recessed in their technological efficiency. They are Austria, Belgium, Czech Republic, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, the United Kingdom (with a less-than-1 technological efficiency change score). Among them, the Netherlands recessed the most (\(-\)6.3 %). In this time period, the 17 countries as a whole recessed 0.23%. From 2015 to 2016, the number of countries with improved technological efficiency increases from 0 to 3. They are Finland, Sweden, and Switzerland (with a greater-than-1 technological change score). Switzerland continued to advance its technological efficiency; together with Sweden, Switzerland had the best technological efficiency improvement (+4%). However, the improvements made by these countries are not significant. Two countries had no change to technological efficiency in this time period. They are Austria and France. The remaining 12 countries had regressive technological efficiency. They are Belgium, the Czech Republic, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Spain, and the United Kingdom (with a less-than-1 technological efficiency change score). Among the 12 countries, Italy was the country with the worst regression (\(-\)2.4%). However, these improvements and regressions were found to be minor, as the best improvement is 0.4%, while the worst regression is 2.4%. As a whole, 17 countries recessed 0.6% in this time period.