# Mobile Networks and Internet of Things Infrastructures to Characterize Smart Human Mobility
## 3 Human Mobility Research in Evolution Mobile Network
### Human Mobility Research from 1G to 4G  
Mobile phone tracking has been the subject of research that has expanded rapidly over the past decades as an array of scientific applications have become technologically and socially feasible. Additionally, it is one that offers some huge benefits over the more traditional methods of people counting, such as overhead cameras, thermal sensors, and laser beams. Whilst smartphone tracking technology is currently applicable in many surveys, it was not always like this. Therefore, Table 1 presents the metrics (represented in Section 2.2.2) used for the human mobility models along with mobile systems growth. First generation (1G) was developed to communicate with the mobile phones through the network of distributed transceivers. Started in 1974 and completed in 1984, its architecture was based on an advance mobile phone service (AMPS) and total access communications system (TACS) technologies. 1G networks only allowed voice calls to be made, suffered from reliability and signal interference issues, and had limited protection against hackers. In addition, they enabled brief conversations that were limited to a few people for professional purposes. These network limitations were managed from a better understanding of human mobility models. Thus various network-related metrics, such as data loss ratio, transmission count, or energy consumption were considered for the management of this mobile network infrastructure. However, there is a need for a more developed system leading 1G to evolve to 2G [3]. The next generation of mobile networks, 2G has driven the general packet radio service (GPRS), similar to the global system for mobile communication (GSM), with a few refinements which gave it higher data speeds, and enhanced data rates for GSM evolution (EGPRS). EGPRS was an evolutionary upgrade and enhancement to 2G and 2.5G GPRS networks through 1990 to 2003. During 2G cellular phones, some significant features were included, like short message service (SMS), picture messages, voice or image messages (MMS), and to improve communication between users, multiple access techniques are used, i.e., time division multiple access (TDMA), code division multiple access (CDMA), and frequency division multiple access (FDMA). In this mobile network, low-level events coming from the network, such as location and cell updates, and calls set-up can be aggregated using triangulation of the position of each mobile equipment. Consequently, these position algorithms make that 2G gives relevant contributions to determine human mobility patterns based on the several and anonymous sources of information [85]. From 2003 to 2008, 3G provided services with the ability to transfer simultaneously both non-voice data (e.g., exchanging email, downloading information, or instant messaging) and voice. This standard is basically a smooth evolutionary path of 2G systems. Some of the 3G standards include universal mobile telecommunications system (UMTS) (3 GSM), that is by the third generation partnership project (3 GPP), high-speed downlink packet access (HSDPA) which provides a linear enhancement path for UMTS-based 3G networks. This improvement allows higher data transfer speeds, and others protocol networks like wideband code division multiple access (W-CDMA), freedom of mobile multimedia access (FOMA), generic access network (GAN/UMA), high-speed uplink packet access (G-HSUPA), and time division-synchronous code division multiple access (TD-SCDMA) [86]. This mobile network provides data to survey people's behavior patterns in cyberspace \begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c c c c c c} \hline \hline
**Mobile** & **Movement-** & **Link-** & **Network-** & **Spatial-** & **Temporal-** & **Social-** \\
**Networks** & **Based** & **Based** & **Based** & **Based** & **Based** \\ \hline
1G & & & ✓ & & & \\
2G & & ✓ & ✓ & ✓ & & \\
3G & ✓ & ✓ & ✓ & ✓ & ✓ & ✓ \\
4G & ✓ & ✓ & ✓ & ✓ & ✓ & ✓ \\
5G & ✓ & ✓ & ✓ & ✓ & ✓ & ✓ \\ \hline \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table}