## 1 Introduction  
Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are a leading player in the energy storage industry, especially for portable devices. They are widely used in large-scale electrochemical energy storage applications, which are essential for the development of electric vehicle systems. This rise in use can be attributed primarily to the advantageous range of properties they provide, such as strong energy density, long operating lives, high operating voltages, low self-discharge rates, low weight, and environmental friendliness [1, 2, 3, 4]. Although LIBs are widely recognized as highly efficient electrochemical devices with remarkable energy density, there are certain safety concerns associated with them. The primary reason for these concerns is that the organic electrolytes that are typically used in conventional lithium-ion batteries are flammable [5, 6, 7, 8]. The use of polymer electrolytes as the electrolyte and separator in LIBs has been accepted as an achievable strategy to reduce these safety concerns [9, 10]. For several decades, liquid electrolytes have held a pivotal role in electrochemical energy storage, primarily attributed to their high ionic conductivities ranging from 10 to \(10^{-2}\) S cm\({}^{-1}\) and their effective interface interactions with electrodes. However, using liquid electrolytes has brought with it some inherent risks, such as the possibility of organic electrolyte components burning and leaking. Lithium dendrite growth in the liquid medium is another notable disadvantage of liquid electrolytes used in lithium batteries. This phenomenon arises from inconsistent current distribution and is more pronounced in the case of porous separators and lithium metal electrodes. However, since solid polymer electrolytes do not depend on liquid solvents, they offer a strong way to allay these safety worries and stop the development of lithium dendrites. It is crucial to recognize that most solid polymer electrolytes that have been reported have shown considerably reduced ionic conductivities, usually between \(10^{-8}\) and \(10^{-5}\) S cm\({}^{-1}\), and have demonstrated inadequate interactions with electrodes, which has led to a compromised cycle performance [11; 12; 13; 14]. Their advancements have also been hampered by poor mechanical quality. In light of this, gel polymer electrolytes (GPEs), which combine the benefits of liquid and solid electrolytes, are garnering more interest due to their dual functionality as separators and electrolytes [15; 16]. Various polymer matrices, including poly (ethylene oxide) (PEO), poly (vinyl alcohol) (PVA), poly (methyl methacrylate) (PMMA), polyacrylonitrile (PAN), poly (vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF), and poly (vinyl chloride) (PVC) have been studied as GPEs [16; 17; 18; 19]. As a common ultraviolet (UV)-curable oligomer material, polyurethane acrylate possesses double bonds with high reactivity at both ends. Depending on the kind and composition of the polyol and diisocyanate employed, different structures and properties can be obtained [20; 21]. The remarkable physical qualities of polyurethane acrylate (PUA) and polyurethane methacrylate (PUMA), including its fast curing time, toughness, and controllable hardness, have made it a popular choice for photocuring applications [22]. Because of its flexibility and high-density network structure, UV-curable PUA resin has been employed in electrochemical devices including lithium-ion batteries [23; 24]. PUA can improve durability by increasing the interfacial binding strength of the electrolyte [25; 26; 27]. Due to its many benefits, including low energy consumption, high speed, high chemical stability, room-temperature operation, cheap processing costs, and environmental friendliness, UV-curing technology has been widely used. Epoxy, polyurethane, epoxy acrylate, and polyurethane acrylate derivatives have been widely used in UV-curing technologies for a variety of purposes, including advanced composite materials, surface coatings, and structural adhesives [28; 29; 30].