# Password Managers--It's All about Trust and Transparency
## 4 Results
### Online Questionnaire Study  
The online questionnaire was completed by 247 participants. We found that 43% of our respondents were 26-35 years old, 25% were 36-45 years old and 22% were 18-25 years old. Also, 2% were between the ages of 56 and 65 years while only 2 participants were 66 years of age or older. The highest level of education for our participants varies, the majority of participants are undergraduates (41%, 101 participants), followed by those with a master's (32%, 78 participants) or a PhD (11%, 28 participants), while the rest of the responses came from participants with secondary school education and some college. So, most of the participants are well-educated. One significant question in this part is related to the participants' educational background. So, we asked our participants if their educational background included computer science or information security. The purpose of this question was to compare between users and non-users of password managers, and experts and non-experts. As shown below, 52% of participants have a degree (education) related to computer science or information security, while 48% have different educational backgrounds. So, we call those with an educational background related to computer science or information security experts, while the rest are non-experts. Thus, there are 128 (52%) expert participants and 119 (48%) non-expert participants in Table 15.  
As is known, companies government sectors rely on the Internet for various services, thus we have seen a rapid increase in the number of websites; consequently, each person will have dozens of accounts to manage, which means each account needs a password. So, we asked, \"How many online accounts do you have?\" and found that 76 (31%) participants had more than 21 online accounts, followed by 51 (20%) participants with 11-15 accounts, and 37 (15%) participants had 16-20 accounts (Table 16). To find out if there was any significant difference between experts and non-experts, we used a Pearson Chi-Square test. We found that there was a significant difference between experts and non-experts and the numbers of accounts they have X2 (5, n = 247) = 19.338, \(p<0.002\). Also, we asked the participants, \"How many unique online passwords do you have?\" and 137 participants (55%) stated that they had 1-5 passwords, 31 participants had 21 or more passwords for their accounts, 47 (19%) participants had 6-10 passwords and 14 participants did not know how many passwords they had. We compared between expert and non-expert participants regarding how many passwords they had to see which group had more passwords. As shown in Table 17, experts have more passwords than non-experts; for example, 23 experts have 21 or more passwords compared to 8 non-experts; on the other hand, 60 experts have 1-5 passwords compared to 77 for non-experts. To find out if there was any significant difference between experts and non-experts, a Pearson Chi-Square test was performed. We found that there was a significant difference between experts and non-experts and the numbers of online passwords they have X2 (5, n = 247) = 14.986, \(p<0.010\). So, having an education related to computer science or information security helps to mitigate password reuse as experts have more passwords than non-experts. \begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c c c} \hline \hline
**Online Accounts** & **Experts** & **Non-Experts** & **Total** \\ \hline
1 to 5 & 2 & 17 & 19 \\ \hline
6 to 10 & 18 & 20 & 38 \\ \hline
11 to 15 & 23 & 28 & 51 \\ \hline
16 to 20 & 22 & 15 & 37 \\ \hline
21 or more & 48 & 28 & 76 \\ \hline I do not know & 15 & 11 & 26 \\ \hline \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table} 
Table 16: Number of online accounts for 128 experts and 119 non-experts. \begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c c} \hline \hline
**Experts** & **Non-Experts** & **Total** \\ \hline
128 (52\%) & 119 (48\%) & 247 participants \\ \hline \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table} 
Table 15: Numbers of Experts and Non-experts in this study. The last question in this part is about the use of password managers.