## 4 Recent Applications of Paleoparasitology
### Multi-Scale Analysis in Roman Sites  
Paleoparasitology data analyses enable us to obtain information at different scales, ranging from the structure to the entire site, to acquire broader spatio-temporal information, for example over a defined period. At the scale of the structure, the analysis of the filling indicates a biological origin of the filling and a function for the studied structure itself. At the site level, the location and function of several structures can provide information on waste management at the site and may highlight specific sectorizations for example. These various scales were tested on the Roman site of Horbourg-Wihr (Alsace region, France) [40]. This site corresponds to a vicus (a village in a rural area) occupied between the first and the third centuries CE. Sediment samples taken from twenty-six hollow structures of different types (pits, latrines, wells, ditches...) were studied. The results obtained for this site revealed one of the highest numbers of taxa for the Roman period (thirteen different taxa), with different and sometimes quite high numbers of eggs per structure. The identified taxa, the precise quantification of eggs per taxon, the total number of eggs, as well as the potential biological origin of the waste point to the function of the structures studied in paleoparasitology, most often latrines (i.e., only human waste) or rubbish pits (i.e., animal or mixed human/animal waste). Using the hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA), the structures were then grouped according to their filling, thus refining the proposed functions depending on the groups to which they belonged (Figure 2). The results provide more general information when they are associated with the location of structures on the site. Thus, the total number of eggs per structure highlights  
Figure 2: Example of hierarchical cluster analysis of structures from the site of Horbourg-Wihr. The group formed by rubbish pits is delimited by a green dashed line and that of the latrines by a red dotted line. areas with fewer eggs. Organic waste could be less present there, which could indicate differential waste management in this area compared to the rest of the site. Moreover, this area also includes a structure containing a very large number of _Fasciola_ sp. eggs (a parasite of herbivores), interpreted as a possible manure pit, and another containing _Oxyuris equi_ eggs (a specific equine parasite), to be linked to a stable or a horse-related activity on the site. The review of paleoparasitological data concerning for example a specific chronological period or geographic area provides a view of parasitic diseases at a broader supra-regional level. The review of data from the Roman period (27 BCE-476 CE) shows a significant and almost systematic presence of _Ascaris_ sp. and _Trichuris_ sp. in all the studied sites [40]. These two parasites have a specific direct fecal-oral transmission life cycle and are related to poor hygiene conditions. This result is even more surprising in view of the hygienic measures implemented by the Romans. Indeed, the use of public baths and latrines became widespread alongside the establishment of efficient water delivery systems (aqueducts, water pipes...) and wastewater disposal (sewers...). All these measures were therefore apparently insufficient to counterbalance public health problems caused by the growth of cities and the increase in population densities, as well as by the management of organic waste [40; 41]. Public and personal hygiene at that time were indeed not comparable to current health standards. For example, public baths were open to everyone, to the sick as well as to the healthy, and there was no sanitary control at the entrance (no individual shower beforehand...) [42]. In the same manner, the Romans ate with their fingers, and handwashing, although documented at the time, was apparently not systematic and not always conscientious.