## 3 Results
### Biophysical Opportunities for Low ILUC Risk Crops
#### 3.1.1 Oil Crops  
Today, lipids are needed to produce biobased substitutes in the hard-to-abate transport sectors of heavy duty, maritime, and aviation, namely, hydrotreated vegetable oil (HVO), the biobased hydrocarbon fuel substituting diesel, and hydrotreated esters and fatty acid (HEFA), the biobased jet fuel. Until 2030-2035 is it estimated the HEFA will be the dominant type of renewable jet fuel, whereas lignocellulosic biofuels and eFuels will emerge at large scale only afterwards [20; 21]. Rapeseed (_Brassica napus_) is already used to produce biodiesel, and there is also interest from the chemical industry for the use of rapeseed HEAR [16; 17; 22] to produce 'green' chemicals. Rapeseed is also considered an effective break crop in cereal rotation because it results in higher-yielding cereal crops and weed control. \begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c c c} \hline \hline
**TRL** & & & **Scale of Technological Readiness Level** \\ \hline TRL \textgreater{} 7 & +++ & (a) & industrial production at commercial scale \\ TRL \textgreater{} 7 & +++ & (b) & used at commercial scale for multiple end-uses \\  & & (c) & high \\ \hline TRL5–7 & ++ & (a) & production available at demo scale \\  & & (b) & recognized for its multiple end-uses \\  & & (c) & medium \\ \hline TRL3–5 & + & (a) & research to production \\ TRL3–5 & + & (b) & recognized end-use but still at the research level \\  & & (c) & low \\ \hline TRL \textless{} 3 & - & (a) & basic research data available \\  & & (b) & no recognized end-use \\  & & (c) & very low \\ \hline \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table} 
Table 2: Technology readiness level (TRL) for the criteria used in assessing strengths for non-food biomass crops. Ethiopian mustard is closely related to rapeseed (_Brassica carinata_ L.). The plant is well adapted to the Mediterranean climate and can be grown as either a winter or spring annual crop. It is suggested to grow it as a spring crop in areas with cold winters due to its low resistance to frost. In areas with mild winters, it can also be grown as a winter crop. Both rapeseed and Ethiopian mustard are tolerant to water stress and thus can be successfully grown in dry areas. They are also considered good crops for phytoremediation [17], offering a pathway for producing additional biomass from contaminated land and simultaneously rehabilitating said land. Crambe (_Crambe abyssinica_), can be grown as a spring crop in central and northern Europe and as a winter crop that can tolerate mild winters in South Europe. This plant is tolerant to cold and dry weather, can be easily adapted to a variety of climatic conditions, and exhibits high productivity [16; 17; 23]. Crambe has a short-cycle winter crop and could be a good alternative as a crop rotation system. The oil has great potential for biodiesel production due to its higher calorific value and oxidative stability as compared to soybean oil biodiesel [24]. Camelina is a fast-growing crop that can be cultivated in central and northern Europe as a spring crop and in south Europe both as winter and spring crop. The crop has a short growing cycle that allows double cropping (catch crop) and can be grown in a wide range of climatic (throughout Europe) and soil conditions (even on dry land in Spain) [16; 17]. Cardoon is a thistle, a drought tolerant crop, and the oil from its seeds can be used to produce biodiesel. The crop is moderately tolerant to saline conditions and to drought stress. It has also been cultivated for the phytoremediation of soils contaminated with arsenic and cadmium [16; 17; 25]. Safflower is a branching thistle-like herbaceous (spring or winter) annual plant that best fits in the Mediterranean zone. The crop is tolerant to prolonged dry periods and high temperatures. It can be grown on land with natural constraints including land contaminated with heavy metals [16; 17]. Castor is a hardy crop well adapted to south Europe. It can grow on land with natural constraints due to its high tolerance to drought, heat, and saline soil conditions.