## 6 Conclusions  
This study aimed to present a holistic approach to diagnosing a city's vulnerability in the context of climate change. The comprehensive methodology helped policymakers identify key issues and plan further environmental projects, whether technical interventions or nature-based solutions. Additionally, it emphasised the urgent need to protect existing green spaces, which, even when dispersed, contribute to urban water retention and provide flood protection, particularly in mountainous regions. Although the methodology integrates well-established GIS analyses and widely applied multi-criteria analysis, it has not previously been used as part of a citywide diagnosis specifically designed to counteract climate change. Moreover, it is based on freely available data and developed using open-source tools, making it accessible and practical for stakeholders. The methodology is currently being applied by the authors in the development of city adaptation plans and has the potential to be incorporated into future rainwater management plans, which serve as strategic documents for urban planning.  
Although the study focused on two cities with distinct topography, hydrography, and demographics, the methodology is city-oriented and has been tested in several other cities with varying landscapes and population densities. The approach has yielded promising results, which have been utilised by city authorities to inform further projects.  
Both cities examined in this study shared common challenges related to urbanisation and climate adaptation. In both cases, urban expansion--particularly soil sealing--significantly increased the risk of flooding. Additionally, the spread of urban areas into suburban regions, including mountainous, forested areas, and floodplains, should serve as a warning for local authorities. The methodology developed in this study provides a valuable tool for land-use planners by clearly identifying areas at risk from extreme meteorological events, ensuring that new investments are planned with caution. It serves as a foundation for further planning efforts, whether as part of climate change adaptation strategies or urban water management frameworks, particularly when integrated with sewer network data. This study also highlights the importance of collaboration between stakeholders and experts in integrating data and applying results effectively to implement nature-based solutions within urban water management. The findings emphasise the need for a holistic approach to land-use management, balancing urban development with environmental protection to enhance resilience to climate change.  
Future work will focus on further developing GIS analyses. For instance, the current soil sealing assessment relies on data updated every three years, which may not adequately capture short-term trends in land-use changes and the expansion of impervious surfaces. Therefore, there is a need to develop a method for more frequent soil sealing assessments. Moreover, the current analysis of non-drained depressions is static and does not incorporate hydrological models of runoff, which is a critical component of the urban water cycle, particularly in relation to flash flooding.  
Conceptualisation, K.S.-G.; methodology, K.S.-G., J.B. and M.G.; software, J.B. and K.S.-G.; validation, K.S.-G. and J.B.; formal analysis, K.S.-G.; investigation, K.S.-G. and J.B.; resources, K.S.-G.; data curation, J.B. and M.G.; writing--original draft preparation, K.S.-G.; writing--review and editing, K.S.-G., M.P. and P.O.; visualisation, J.B. and K.S.-G.; supervision, M.P.; project administration, M.G.; funding acquisition, M.P. and M.G. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.  
The study was funded under the \"Cities with Climate 2.0\" project by the National Fund for Environmental Protection and Water Management, commissioned by the Ministry of Climate and Environment.  
All data are available upon request.  
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.