## 1 Introduction  
Seismic-induced soil liquefaction can be destructive for infrastructures. History investigations have shown that seismic-induced soil liquefaction can cause large ground deformation or settlement, ground fissure, lateral spreading, etc. [1, 2, 3, 4], as well as direct damage on structures including embankments, underground pipelines, and tunnels [5, 6]. In recent years, catastrophes led by seismic-induced soil liquefaction took place worldwide, e.g., the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake, the 2011 Christchurch New Zealand earthquake, the 2011 east Japan earthquake, the 2016 southern Taiwan earthquake and the 2018 Sulawesi earthquake in Indonesia [7, 8, 9, 10, 11]. Significant soil liquefaction was observed during these earthquakes, which brought about destructive aftermath. Statistical investigations find that the economic loss caused by liquefaction can make up 15-30% of the total loss during an earthquake [12], which should be taken as one of the major hazards for earthquake damage. Calcareous sand is widely spread in islands and coastal areas around the world. With the expansion of human society, the engineering projects confronting calcareous sand sites are increasing, and the seismic liquefaction risk of calcareous sand ground cannot be ignored. Differing from the commonly known quartzite sand, the calcareous sand possesses unique mechanical properties due to the distinct mesoscopic characteristics such as the angular grain shape, low stiffness, high particle breakage susceptibility, and high internal porosity [13; 14]. While considerable progresses have been made on studies about sand liquefaction, the majority of the previous studies are conducted based on quartzite sand [15]. Disputes and blanks still remain on the mechanical properties and dynamic behavior of calcareous sand. According to laboratory test results, it is believed that calcareous sand has a higher liquefaction resistance than quartzite sand, i.e., it is generally more difficult for calcareous sand to liquefy in most of the cases [16; 17]. However, the history investigations can still present cases of seismic-induced liquefaction in calcareous sand sites, such as the 1993 Guam earthquake, the 2006 Hawaii earthquake, and the 2010 Haiti earthquake [18; 19; 20]. Sand liquefaction had caused severe damage to infrastructure including embankments and ports during these earthquakes [21]. Therefore, the liquefaction mechanism and dynamic characteristics of calcareous sand still need to be further studied. The conventional methods of studying the seismic response of sites include history investigation, in situ testing, laboratory testing, and numerical simulation. Among the various types of laboratory tests, the centrifuge test stands out with the advantage of generating Ng gravity via rotation and obtaining an identical or approximately identical stress field to the prototype in the model, which makes it capable to reproduce the deformation and failure mechanism of the prototype [22]. The centrifuge tests have been widely used in earthquake geotechnical engineering studies for more than three decades, providing a large amount of essential information through physical models and greatly contributing to the advancement of knowledge in this field [23]. The pioneering collaborative project VELACS (Verification of Liquefaction Analysis by Centrifuge Studies) carried out in the mid-1990s provided reliable experimental data for numerically modelling soil liquefaction, including nine centrifuge model tests of saturated sand materials [24; 25; 26; 27]. Another notable international collaboration, LEAP-2017 (Liquefaction Experiments and Analysis Projects), initiated for validating constitutive and numerical modelling of soil liquefaction and its consequences using centrifuge tests, eventually built a high-quality database including twenty-four centrifuge model tests of liquefaction and lateral spreading [28; 29; 30].