# The Effect of Land Cover on the Nectar Collection by Honeybee Colonies in Urban and Rural Areas
## 1 Introduction
The presence of bees in urban ecosystems depends on land use types and, consequently, on the characteristics of urban vegetation. Different environmental conditions support different bee species [26; 27]. Pollinator preferences also vary over time and may be influenced by the degree of industrialisation. Certain species may emerge or increase in abundance, while others may decline or even disappear [28]. Research by [PERSON] et al. [29] demonstrated that the diversity and abundance of _Apoidea_ bees in urban environments can be significantly influenced by the presence of parks and green spaces. Despite occupying a small proportion of urban areas, these environments play a crucial role as forage sources. Notably, [PERSON] et al. [22] found that non-native and invasive plant species play a significant role in sustaining urban bee populations alongside native flora. The landscape structure, incorporating the presence of broad-leaved forests, grasslands, and shrublands, plays a pivotal role in nectar availability and influences the foraging patterns of honeybees [30]. The abundance of bees has been found to be unrelated to the extent of paved roads or buildings but strongly dependent on the type and amount of vegetation [31; 32]. The presence of forests, irrespective of their type, was found to be positively correlated with bee diversity, with larger forest areas exhibiting higher diversity [33]. This finding is corroborated by two other studies, which also confirmed the beneficial impact of forest proximity on bees. In Kenya, hives located in closer proximity to forest fragments produced higher volumes of honey, while in France, areas with greater forest coverage supported larger and stronger colonies despite being situated in the vicinity of intensive agricultural activities [34; 35]. Agricultural monocultures may provide large quantities of nectar, but only over short periods, followed by forage gaps. Therefore, the introduction of diverse crops and semi-natural habitats is essential. The conservation of wild plants and shrulands in agricultural landscapes can offer additional sources of pollen and nectar beyond the main crop flowering season [36]. The type and nutritional quality of pollen collected by bees depend on the surrounding landscape structure. The higher the proportion of agricultural land, the lower the protein content of the stored pollen [37]. Anthropogenic land cover is most associated with high colony losses in honeybees. Conversely, land cover classes such as grain maize, mixed forests, andiferous-mixed forests have been predominantly linked to low colony losses. The prevailing data indicate that land cover related to transportation infrastructure, industrial zones, and recreational areas exhibits a stronger correlation with overwintering colony losses in developed countries [38]. The primary objective of this study is to make a comparison between artificial urban and rural ecosystems concerning the availability of sugar-based forage for honeybees. The availability is measured by the number of foraging days and the amount of nectar collected. Additionally, the survey aims to assess the suitability of specific vegetation types found in these ecosystems as forage sources for bees. This analysis will facilitate an evaluation of the impact of urbanisation and agricultural land use on the productivity of honeybee colonies. The findings will enhance the understanding of ecological factors affecting pollinators and offer practical guidance for sustainable beekeeping. The findings will contribute to a better understanding of the ecological factors influencing pollinator health and provide practical recommendations for optimising landscape management strategies to support sustainable beekeeping.