## 5 Conclusions  
1. The RTO and PDSC experiments indicated that, with an increase in pressure, the contact area between oxygen and crude oil expanded, intensifying and accelerating the oxidation process of crude oil. The oxidation process of the two heavy oil samples was divided into three stages, LTO, FD, and HTO, with descriptions of the reactions occurring in each stage.
2. The TGA experiments revealed that, with an increase in the heating rate, the overall oxidation rate of oil sands increased. The peak regions of both LTO and HTO reac  
Figure 14: Oil recovery results under different pre-exponential factors: (**a**) light oil burning; (**b**) heavy oil burning; (**c**) heavy oil cracking; (**d**) coke oil burning.  
tions widened, and the corresponding temperatures shifted to the right. Using the Flynn-Wall-Ozawda method, the activation energy (\(E\)) and pre-exponential factor (\(A\)) for oil sample G were determined as \(E\) = 131.2 kJ/mol and \(A\) = 9.46 \(\times\) 10\({}^{4}\) (kPa\(\cdot\)s)\({}^{-1}\), while for oil sample M, \(E\) = 127.9 kJ/mol and \(A\) = 1.26 \(\times\) 10\({}^{5}\) (kPa\(\cdot\)s)\({}^{-1}\).
3. The numerical simulation revealed that changes in the activation energy and pre-exponential factor generally had opposite effects on the crude oil oxidation process. For light oil burning, an increase in activation energy led to a decrease in oil recoveries, while an increase in the pre-exponential factor resulted in higher recovery rates. In the case of heavy oil burning, heavy oil cracking, and coke oil burning, an increase in activation energy led to higher recovery rates, while an increase in the pre-exponential factor resulted in lower oil recoveries.
4. The impact of activation energy on ISC recovery rates was primarily influenced by changes in activation energy in coke oil burning, with a recommended value of 130 kJ/mol. The influence of the pre-exponential factor on ISC recovery rates was mainly attributed to changes in the pre-exponential factor in heavy oil cracking, with a recommended value of 4.17 \(\times\) 10\({}^{9}\) (kPa\(\cdot\)s)\({}^{-1}\). Altering the activation energy and pre-exponential factor for light oil burning and heavy oil burning had a relatively minor effect on the final oil recoveries.  
C.F.: methodology, software, investigation, writing--original draft preparation, writing--review and editing, visualization; C.W.: resources, investigation, methodology; H.Z.: conceptualization, supervision, project administration; P.L. ([PERSON]): conceptualization, resources; W.G.: conceptualization, methodology; Y.C.: visualization, supervision, resources; H.H.: visualization, supervision; P.L. ([PERSON]): conceptualization, supervision, resources. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.  
The authors would like to acknowledge the financial support of the Institute Project of Research Institute of Petroleum Exploration and Development, PetroChina (2023 ycq03), China National Petroleum Corporation Technology Project (2023 ZG18) and the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 51774256).  
Not applicable.  
The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author.  
Authors [PERSON], [PERSON], [PERSON], [PERSON] and [PERSON] were employed by the Research Institute of Petroleum Exploration and Development, PetroChina, who provided funding and teachical support for the work. The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. The funder had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analysis, or interpretation of data, in the writing of the manuscript, or in the decision to publish the results.