## 1 Introduction  
Renewable energies are of the utmost importance in tackling the global energy challenges the world is facing today. The transition towards clean and sustainable energy sources is essential to mitigate climate change, reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and secure a sustainable future for generations to come. While the establishment of LNG (liquefied natural gas) capacities, including LNG terminals, has been instrumental in diversifying energy sources and reducing reliance on fossil fuels, it is crucial to acknowledge that LNG cannot be considered as climate neutral. Although its life cycle emits fewer greenhouse gases compared to traditional fossil fuels, LNG still contributes to carbon emissions. As a result, the focus is shifting towards alternative energy sources that have the potential to be truly climate neutral. Hydrogen and ammonia are emerging as promising candidates. In particular, ammonia has gained considerable attention as a future energy source and hydrogen carrier due to its high energy density, ease of storage, and potential for zero-carbonemissions [1]. Ammonia can be produced using renewable energy sources such as wind, solar, or hydroelectric power, making it an attractive option for achieving a sustainable energy mix. Moreover, ammonia can be used as a fuel, providing opportunities for clean energy applications in transportation, power generation, and other sectors. Currently, in Europe, ammonia import terminals are planned, for example, in Rotterdam [2] and Brunsbuttel [3]. Furthermore, the planned LNG terminal in Stade shall be designed and implemented in a way that is ammonia-ready, allowing for a modular approach to accommodate the market ramp-up of hydrogen [4]. However, there are still challenges and open questions related to the use of ammonia as an energy source. For example, the infrastructure for the production, transportation, storage, and utilization of ammonia needs to be developed. Safety aspects particularly in terms of storage must be considered as ammonia is highly toxic. Ammonia storage tanks can be designed as single, double, or full containment tanks. Well-known tank design standards are API 625 Standard [5] in combination with API 620 Standard [6], Annex R, and EN 14620 Part 1 to 5 [7; 8; 9; 10; 11]. It should be mentioned that European standardization committees are already developing a new EN 14620 Part 7 that will specifically address requirements for ammonia storage tanks [12]. In addition to such tank design standards, national or local requirements are frequently applying for the safe handling and storage of ammonia. One example of such national regulations is the PGS-12 regulation [13], newly developed by the Dutch government. The PGS-12 [13] will define minimum safety standards such as defined impact loads of an explosion or flying object. In addition, Belgium has implemented a directive [14] that also specifies minimum requirements. Regarding the design, the tanks typically consist of a supporting structure to securely hold the container, an insulation layer to control temperature, and an external protective layer. Insulation is particularly important to minimize the loss of ammonia through evaporation. The specific choice of tank type depends on various factors, including location, safety assessment, regulatory requirements, and risk level. A safe and economic design for such tank structures can be provided by the cylindrical double wall steel tank: the inner tank holds the liquid ammonia and acts as the primary container. The outer tank as the secondary container provides an extra layer of protection in case of any inner tank failure, containing the ammonia and holding the vapor pressure. The outer tank is designed to be structurally robust and capable of withstanding inner pressure and external forces, such as blast overpressure. For cylindrical steel tanks, explosion pressure safety--provided it has been considered in the design--for a peak overpressure of approximately 10 kPa is recognized as common value by the industry.