# The Ocean-Going Autonomous Ship--Challenges and Threats
## 2 Navigational Equipment and Related Challenges

Table 1: Maritime Autonomous Surface Ships (MASS) Level of Control Definitions according to the ’MASS UK Code of Practice’ [19]. This classification is mostly consistent with the levels of control defined by the Lloyd's Register in the document 'Cyber-enabled ships. ShipRight procedure-autonomous ships' [13]--Table 2:  
The IMO, while setting the framework for the regulatory scoping exercise in 2018, approached this classification slightly differently, considering the option of remotely operated vessels with crew on board (Table 3) [15]. Similar approach has been accepted in the Class Guideline for Autonomous and Remotely Operated Ships by DNV GL (Table 4) [12]. \begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c c} \hline \hline
**Level** & **Name** & **Description 1** \\ \hline \multirow{4}{*}{AL 0} & \multirow{4}{*}{Manual–no autonomous function} & All action and decision making is performed manually—i.e., a human controls all actions at the ship level. Note: systems on board may have a level of autonomy, with ‘human in/on the loop’; for example, pms and engine control. Straight readouts, for example, gauge readings, wind direction and sea current, are not considered to be decision support. \\ \hline \multirow{4}{*}{AL 1} & \multirow{4}{*}{On-ship decision support} & All actions at the ship level are taken by a human operator, but a decision support tool can present options or otherwise influence the actions chosen, for example DP (Dynamic Positioning) Capability plots and route planning. \\ \hline \multirow{4}{*}{AL 2} & \multirow{4}{*}{On and off-ship decision support} & All actions at the ship level taken by human operator on board the vessel, but decision support tool can present options or otherwise influence the actions chosen. Data may be provided by systems on or off the ship, for example DP capability plots, OEM (original equipment manufacturers) configuration recommendations, weather routing. \\ \hline \multirow{4}{*}{AL 3} & \multirow{4}{*}{‘Active’ human in the loop} & Decisions and actions at the ship level are performed autonomously with human supervision. High-impact decisions are implemented in a way to give human operators the opportunity to intercede and override them. Data may be provided by systems on or off the ship. \\ \hline \multirow{4}{*}{AL 4} & \multirow{4}{*}{Human on the loop–operator/supervisory} & Decisions and actions are performed autonomously with human supervision. High-impact decisions are implemented in a way to give human operators the opportunity to intercede and over-ride them. \\ \cline{1-1} \cline{3-3}  & & \\ \cline{1-1} \cline{3-3}  & & \\ \cline{1-1} \cline{3-3}  & & \\ \hline \hline \end{tabular}  
* It should be noted that in 2019, Lloyd’s Register revised their procedures and published them under the new title: ‘ShipRight Design and Construction: Digital Ships Procedure for assignment of digital descriptive notes for autonomous and remote access ships’. The approach to the MASS classification has been revised too. While keeping the same number of autonomy levels, their names and the overall philosophy, the descriptions are now based on the digital accessibility levels, defined in details for the autonomous operation or remote access to the crucial vessels’ functionalities.  
\end{table} 
Table 2: MASS Level of Control Definitions according to the Lloyd’s Register guidance document on autonomous ships. Reproduced with the permission from the authors of ‘Cyber-enabled ships. ShipRight procedure—autonomous ships’, published by Lloyd’s Register, 2016 [13] (p. 2). \begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c} \hline \hline
**Level** & **Description** \\ \hline
1 & Ships with automated processes and decision support. \\
2 & Remotely controlled ships with seafarers on board. \\
3 & Remotely controlled ships without seafarers on board. \\
4 & Fully autonomous ships. \\ \hline \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table} 
Table 3: MASS Levels of Control according to IMO in the frame of a regulatory scoping exercise from 2018 [12; 15].