## 3 Results and Discussion
### Annual Changes in GPP  
The VPM was used to estimate GPP in 1995, 2003 and 2014 in the tourism city of Denpasar. Table 4 reports the annual total GPP estimates for each of the land cover types and their percentage of the total. Meanwhile, the spatial distributions of annual GPP in Denpasar as analysed from the Landsat satellite data by the VPM method for 1995, 2003 and 2014 are presented in Figure 4. Because the current study only studied changes in GPP, the study only shows GPP values for land use types related to greenspaces and settlement and does not include GPP values for non-greenspaces and settlement land types. The annual GPP for the entire region in the years 1995, 2003 and 2014 was estimated to be 61,609.15, 55,621.81 and 53,815.19 tC year\({}^{-1}\), respectively. In 1995, the estimated GPP in agriculture and grassland accounted for the largest portion, approximately 75.37% of the total estimated GPP, followed by forest with a proportion of 13.10%, and settlement accounted for 11.53%. It can be clearly seen in Figure 4a that the GPP was estimated to be higher than 550 gC m\({}^{-2}\) year\({}^{-1}\) in the agriculture and grass land use type. In 2003, the allocation of agriculture and grassland still accounted for the largest area, although it is lower than that in 1995, 55.33% of the total area, while the forest and settlement land use types exhibited increasing allocations of estimated GPP with proportions of 16.61% and 28.06% of the study area by the year 2003, respectively. There is an interesting spatial pattern of estimated GPP in 2003. Inside the area around the settlement, there is still a fairly high GPP value (>550 gC m\({}^{-2}\) year\({}^{-1}\)), and the south part of Denpasar has been dominated by high GPP values as a result of the replanting of mangroves. However, the high estimated GPP regions in the southeastern part of Denpasar in 1995 became more fragmented and scattered with low values of GPP in 2003 (Figure 4b), while the same location in 2003 was dominated by multi-functional buildings that serve tourism activities. Interestingly, the GPP estimation for settled areas has overtaken that of agriculture and grass areas, with a value of 41.39% of the total GPP estimation in 2014. The GPP estimation from forest increased by 19.08%, while that of agriculture and grass areas also declined, although the proportion was still quite large with a share of 39.53% of the total area in 2014. It is noteworthy that compared to their spatial pattern in 2003, the medium to high value GPP values were more fragmented and scattered around the regions with low GPP estimates in 2014. High estimated GPP was clearly observed in the southern part of Denpasar and in small areas of the agriculture and grass land use type (Figure 4c). \begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c c c c c c} \hline \hline \multirow{2}{*}{**Land use**} & \multicolumn{2}{c}{**1995**} & \multicolumn{2}{c}{**2003**} & \multicolumn{2}{c}{**2014**} \\ \cline{2-7}  & **Total** & **\%** & **Total** & **\%** & **Total** & **\%** \\ \hline Settlement & 7102.04 & 11.53\% & 15,607.49 & 28.06\% & 22,274.93 & 41.39\% \\ Forest & 8071.18 & 13.10\% & 9238.85 & 16.61\% & 10,268.58 & 19.08\% \\ Agriculture and grass & 46,435.93 & 75.37\% & 30,775.48 & 55.33\% & 21,271.68 & 39.53\% \\ Total & 61,609.15 & & 55,621.81 & & 53,815.19 & \\ \hline \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table} 
Table 4: Annual gross primary production (GPP) in Denpasar from 1995 to 2014 for each different land use as a total (tC year\({}^{-1}\)) and a percentage of the total. Figure 5 shows the mean estimates of annual GPP as analysed from Landsat satellite data for each land use type for 1995, 2003 and 2014. The mean GPP estimation for settlements decreased slightly (339.23 to 304.99 gC m\({}^{-2}\) year\({}^{-1}\)) during the 20-year period and increased marginally for the agriculture and grass land use type (593.53 to 605.65 gC m\({}^{-2}\) year\({}^{-1}\)).