## 1 Introduction  
Hydrated cement composites, such as cement concrete, are known for their excellent mechanical properties, including high compressive strength and modulus of elasticity. They have long been established as crucial materials in the modern construction industry, owing to their proven durability over extended periods. However, when continuously exposed to physically harsh conditions, such as repetitive loading, or chemically harsh conditions, like de-icing salt application and exposure to coastal environments, these cement-based composites can begin to deteriorate. This deterioration typically begins at the surface and progresses thermally. Acid specifically interacts with the calcium in hydrated cement composites to form calcium chloride (CaCl\({}_{2}\)), a soluble salt. This salt can be leached out, resulting in mass loss and compromising structural integrity. Furthermore, silica gel, a byproduct of the acid reaction, leads to significant physical alterations, leading to the severe degradation of the microstructure [1]. Such deterioration not only impairs material performance but can also reduce the structural integrity and lifespan of structures [2]. Consequently, maintaining concrete infrastructures remains a significant issue in the contemporary construction industry. Road pavements, in particular, being directly subjected to vehicle loads, demand high maintenance. Surface treatment methods, employed for road pavement maintenance, are widely used to enhance durability by improving resistance to surface abrasion and water ingress, offering a straightforward approach to construction [3; 4]. While some studies in asphalt pavement have explored the influence of these surface treatments [5; 6], research on their effects on the strength and durability of concrete pavements is still insufficient. However, there have been studies on the impact of these treatments on the safety and rideability of concrete pavements [7; 8]. Concrete surface treatment methods are commonly utilized to modify the material properties of hydrated cement composites at the surface and to a certain depth below. This enhances resistance to physical and chemical environmental exposures. These techniques are generally categorized into four types: surface coating, hydrophobic material impregnation, pore-blocking, and multifunctional treatment methods. Among these, the surface coating method, which employs materials like epoxy resin, acrylic, and polymer cementitious materials to create a physical barrier on the surface, is widely used to resist chemical attacks caused by water penetration [9; 10]. The hydrophobic impregnation technique renders the concrete surface and the adjacent subsurface layers water-repellent, effectively repelling water and detrimental ions from the cement or concrete matrix. Silane (SiH\({}_{4}\)), siloxane (Si-O-Si), and compounds containing these functional groups are primarily used in this hydrophobic impregnation process [11]. Additionally, the pore-blocking method improves the chemical properties of cement hydrates near the surface of concrete infrastructures, such as buildings, bridges, and highways. This is achieved by applying a silicate-based liquid-type permeable material, such as sodium silicate (Na\({}_{2}\)SiO\({}_{3}\)) and lithium silicate (Li\({}_{2}\)SiO\({}_{3}\)) solutions. These solutions react with calcium hydroxide (CH) in hydrated cement composites to form additional insoluble amorphous calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H), filling the pores up to a certain depth near the surface. This mechanism enhances durability by improving resistance to water penetration, carbonation, and surface abrasion [12; 13]. However, when using supplementary cementitious materials such as fly ash, the amount of calcium hydroxide (CH) initially formed is small [14], and the CH content gradually decreases due to carbonation over time [15]. Therefore, it is difficult to expect the desired effect from the silicate-based treatment solutions on actual aging concrete.