## 3 Results and Discussion
#### 3.1.1 Techno-Functional Characteristics
Trough viscosity (TV) followed a similar pattern to peak viscosity, ranging from 447 \(\pm\) 12 to 2431 \(\pm\) 28 mPa-s. Pure tapioca flour showed the highest trough viscosity, while LP70/TF30 exhibited the lowest at 447 \(\pm\) 12 mPa-s. The breakdown viscosity (BD), representing paste stability during heating, showed dramatic variations from 28 \(\pm\) 8 to 4213 \(\pm\) 72 mPa-s. Pure tapioca flour exhibited the highest breakdown at 4213 \(\pm\) 72 mPa-s, indicating lower paste stability, while LP70/TF30 showed minimal breakdown at 28 \(\pm\) 8 mPa-s, suggesting excellent paste stability. The final viscosity (FV) ranged from 555 \(\pm\) 19 to 3870 \(\pm\) 234 mPa-s. Pure tapioca flour displayed the highest final viscosity, at 3870 \(\pm\) 234 mPa-s, while LP70/TF30 showed the lowest, at 555 \(\pm\) 19 mPa-s. The blends exhibited decreasing final viscosity with increasing _L. cylindrica_ content. Setback viscosity (SB), indicating retrogradation tendency, varied from 108 \(\pm\) 7 to 1439 \(\pm\) 206 mPa-s. Pure tapioca flour showed the highest setback, at 1439 \(\pm\) 206 mPa-s, suggesting strong retrogradation potential, while LP70/TF30 exhibited minimal setback, at 108 \(\pm\) 7 mPa-s. The peak time ranged from 3.7 \(\pm\) 0.00 to 6.6 \(\pm\) 0.13 min. Pure tapioca flour reached peak viscosity fastest, at 3.7 \(\pm\) 0.00 min, while LP70/TF30 required the longest time, at 6.6 \(\pm\) 0.13 min. The pasting temperature exhibited variations from 72.65 \(\pm\) 0.07 to 75.90 \(\pm\) 0.07 \({}^{\circ}\)C. Pure tapioca flour showed the lowest pasting temperature, at 72.65 \(\pm\) 0.07 \({}^{\circ}\)C, while LP70/TF30 demonstrated the highest, at 75.90 \(\pm\) 0.07 \({}^{\circ}\)C. The absence of measurable viscosity in pure _Luffa cylindrica_ powder confirms its lack of gelatinizable starch and aligns with previous studies demonstrating that fibrous, low-starch materials suppress paste formation under thermal shear conditions [38]. The progressive decline in peak, breakdown, and final viscosities with increasing _L. cylindrica_ content reflects the well-documented water competition and physical interference effects of insoluble dietary fibers in starch matrices [39]. In these blended systems, fiber particles hinder the swelling of starch granules, leading to delayed gelatinization and reduced peak viscosity--a phenomenon also observed with oat and rice flour mixtures. \begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c c c c c c c} \hline \multirow{2}{*}{**Sample**} & **Peak** & **Trough** & **Breakdown** & **Final** & **Setback** & **Peak Time** & **Pasting** \\  & **Viscosity** & **Viscosity** & **Viscosity** & **Viscosity** & **Viscosity** & **Viscosity** & **Temperature** \\ \cline{2-8}  & & & **[mPa-s]** & & & **[min]** & [\({}^{\circ}\)C] \\ \hline LP 100\% & —\({}^{\rm a}\) & —\({}^{\rm a}\) & —\({}^{\rm a}\) & —\({}^{\rm a}\) & —\({}^{\rm a}\) & —\({}^{\rm a}\) & —\({}^{\rm a}\) & —\({}^{\rm a}\) \\ LP30/TF70 & 3073 \(\pm\) 98 \({}^{\rm d}\) & 1540 \(\pm\) 65 \({}^{\rm d}\) & 1534 \(\pm\) 34 \({}^{\rm d}\) & 2594 \(\pm\) 85 \({}^{\rm d}\) & 1055 \(\pm\) 150 \({}^{\rm d}\) & 4.2 \(\pm\) 0.00 \({}^{\rm b}\) & 74.33 \(\pm\) 0.11 \({}^{\rm c}\) \\ LP50/TF50 & 1415 \(\pm\) 294 \({}^{\rm c}\) & 987 \(\pm\) 142 \({}^{\rm c}\) & 428 \(\pm\) 152 \({}^{\rm c}\) & 1516 \(\pm\) 200 \({}^{\rm c}\) & 528 \(\pm\) 60 \({}^{\rm c}\) & 4.7 \(\pm\) 0.17 \({}^{\rm c}\) & 73.92 \(\pm\) 0.60 \({}^{\rm c}\) \\ LP70/TF30 & 475 \(\pm\) 20 \({}^{\rm b}\) & 447 \(\pm\) 12 \({}^{\rm b}\) & 28 \(\pm\) 8 \({}^{\rm b}\) & 555 \(\pm\) 19 \({}^{\rm b}\) & 108 \(\pm\) 7 \({}^{\rm b}\) & 6.6 \(\pm\) 0.13 \({}^{\rm d}\) & 75.90 \(\pm\) 0.07 \({}^{\rm d}\) \\ TF 100\% & 6644 \(\pm\) 45 \({}^{\rm e}\) & 2431 \(\pm\) 28 \({}^{\rm e}\) & 4213 \(\pm\) 72 \({}^{\rm e}\) & 3870 \(\pm\) 234 \({}^{\rm e}\) & 1439 \(\pm\) 206 \({}^{\rm e}\) & 3.7 \(\pm\) 0.00 \({}^{\rm b}\) & 72.65 \(\pm\) 0.07 \({}^{\rm b}\) \\ \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table} 
Table 2: Pasting properties of _L. cylindrica_ seed press cake powder and blends.