# The Role of Fungi in Food Production and Processing
## 2 Understanding the Research Prospects
### Mycotoxins and Food Safety
#### 2.5.3 Ochratoxin A  
Ochratoxin A can be found in grains, dried fruits, coffee, and wine and also among other agricultural goods worldwide. It is considered a naturally occurring foodborne mycotoxin. Numerous fungi (Table 2), with varying ideal growth temperatures and water activities, produce it, infecting a variety of food and feed products [117]. Inadequ agricultural practices during food drying and inadequate product storage are the main causes of contamination [118]. Consequently, traditional food-processing methods are unable to significantly lower its content in meals and drinks. In 1965, ochratoxin was identified and described as a chemically stable substance. Ochratoxin A is the most prevalent among the OTAs, a class of structurally similar isocumarin derivatives connected to L-phenylalanine. Ochratoxin A is hepatotoxic and nephrotoxic [101]. Numerous health issues might arise from animals and humans being exposed to OTA on a regular basis. OTA and other mycotoxins typically affect humans through a number of pathways, the most significant of which is food consumption. Ochratoxin A may cause cancer in animals, but it is unclear whether it causes cancer in people. Urinary tract cancers associated with human Balkan endemic nephropathy (BEN) are thought to be mostly caused by OTA [119]. At the moment, it is uncertain how OTA causes cancer. When oxidative metabolism occurs, OTA is genotoxic [120]. This process, which has two distinct mechanisms of action--direct (covalent DNA adduction) and indirect (oxidative DNA damage)--is thought to be crucial to the development of cancer. According to a relatively recent risk assessment of OTA [121], \begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{l l} \hline \hline
**Fungal Genera** & **Food Products Spoiled** \\ \hline \multirow{2}{*}{_Aspergillus_} & Grains (cereals, rice, corn), nuts, fruits (grapes, apples), vegetables (tomatoes, potatoes), dairy products, spices [108] \\ \hline \multirow{2}{*}{_Penicillium_} & Cheese (Camembert and blue cheese), cured meats, bread, fruits (oranges and apples), vegetables (onions and carrots), nuts [109] \\ \hline \multirow{2}{*}{_Fusarium_} & Grains (wheat, barley, maize), legumes (peanuts and soybeans), fruits \\  & (bananas), vegetables (tomatoes and cucumbers) [110] \\ \hline \multirow{2}{*}{_Alternaria_} & Fruits (apples, citrus fruits), vegetables (tomatoes, carrots), cereals (wheat), nuts [111] \\ \hline \multirow{2}{*}{_Mucor_} & Fruits (strawberries), vegetables (cucumbers, zucuchinis), bakery products \\  & (bread, cakes), dairy products (cheese) [112] \\ \hline \multirow{2}{*}{_Rhizopus_} & Fruits (apricots and peaches), vegetables (e.g., tomatoes), bakery products (e.g., bread), dairy products (e.g., cheese) [113] \\ \hline \multirow{2}{*}{_Botrytis_} & Fruits (grapes, strawberries, raspberries), vegetables (tomatoes, lettuce), grains (rice) [114] \\ \hline \multirow{2}{*}{_Cladosporium_} & Fruits (citrus fruits), vegetables (tomatoes and cucumbers), grains (wheat), dairy products (cheese) [115] \\ \hline \multirow{2}{*}{_Geotrichum_} & Dairy products (soft cheeses and yogurt), fruits (grapes), vegetables (carrots), \\  & bakery products (bread and cakes) [116] \\ \hline \multirow{2}{*}{_Candida_} & Dairy products (cheese, yogurt), fruits (apples and grapes), bakery products (bread and cakes), alcoholic beverages (wine and beer) [116] \\ \hline \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table} 
Table 2: This table provides a brief overview of the common fungal genera and the food products they are known for damaging. Fungal spoilage can vary depending on the environmental conditions, storage practices, and specific strains of fungi involved. the OTA-DNA adduct levels were low and unusual for genotoxic carcinogens, and OTA tested negative in genotoxicity tests with good specificity. With one notable exception, our analysis of the epidemiological data indicates that there does not seem to be any statistically significant evidence linking OTA exposure to dangers to human health [117].