## 4 Discussion
Despite increasing management interventions by the Revolution Government of Zanzibar (RGoZ) to conserve mangroves, biodiversity losses continue unabated [40]. Compared to national figures from the FAO and related research from the East African countries, Zanzibar has reported comparatively low deforestation [65]. However, this study found that since 2000, mangrove deforestation in Zanzibar has increased dramatically. Global data suggest an average annual mangrove loss rate of 0.21% [66], which is lower than the average mangrove decline in Zanzibar of 1.2%. Varns upstream overuse and/or improperly manage pesticides, animal waste, fertilizers, and other toxic agrochemicals, which eventually enter the water supply [9]. The problem is made worse by irrigation systems that reduce the amount of freshwater flowing to the wetlands. Mangroves are tolerant of saltwater, but they need the right balance of freshwater to survive, otherwise they dry/die [9]. After many years of uncontrolled/unsustainable coastal development and infrastructure, wetlands, as well as mangrove forests have been cleared to make way for roads, industry, city expansion, harbors, and resorts [9; 58]. Overfishing, another threat to mangroves, can eradicate links in the marine food chain. In addition, fish farming can add extra nutrient waste to the marine ecosystems. Both overfishing and fish farming in Zanzibar have led to a shift in the delicate balance of marine ecosystems through, e.g., algae blooms that have affected mangroves [9]. The rise in sea level remains the biggest climate-related threat to mangroves in Zanzibar [9; 57; 60]. Some mangrove species cannot tolerate the influx of saltwater or escape the surging tides [9]. Although mangroves can keep pace with the sea-level rise, changes in climate and intense weather can cause them to shift or disappear, leading to lasting changes to the coastlines they protect [9], such as erosion along creeks. Drier conditions have slowed/stopped the natural buildup of organic peat soils [9]. Lessened water flow has caused the peat soils to collapse, undercutting the mangroves [9]. Sometimes storms damage trees, temporarily raising seawater levels and carrying sediment inland where it smothers the above-ground roots that provide mangroves with oxygen [9]. In places where mangroves have been degraded/cleared and reforestation activities have not taken place, other forest types have grown, but if the local weather conditions are not favorable, such places remain dry and bare. Afforestation activities initiated by the RGoZ and other stakeholders have led to the occurrence of mangrove forest cover where there was none. In order to save mangroves in Zanzibar, the following should be implemented:  
* The government should consult the relevant stakeholders for sustainable coastal development and infrastructure. * Optimal practices for responsible seafood should be developed and implemented. * Work should be carried out at all levels to prevent the worst impacts of climate change. * Sustainable agricultural practices should be applied. * Free-flowing rivers should be advocated for. * The population growth rate should be controlled. * A policy specifically targeting conservation/management of mangrove forests in Zanzibar (the current policy does not separate mangrove forests from the other forest types) should be formulated. * A concerted effort in reafforestation and afforestation activities should be implemented. * The forest management capacity should be improved. * Zanzibar's economy should be diversified. Taking these actions will not only secure a future for mangrove forests alone, but it will also bolster the entire coastal ecosystem. A method used in restoring mangroves in Zanzibar is through natural regeneration, where mangroves occupy the shoreline and natural succession takes over [36]. The _R. munconate_ and _B. gymmorrhizza_ are successful regeneration species in most areas of Zanzibar [67]. The regeneration of _R.