esa-sceva/satcom-chunk-collection huggingface dataset:
## 4 Experimental Results
### Evaluation of Feature Extraction and Matching Modules
#### 4.3.2 Receiver Operating Characteristic  
The receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve is a graphical plot of trade-off which illustrates genuine acceptance rate (GAR) as the \(y\) coordinate versus false acceptance rate (FAR) as the \(x\) coordinate. The equations for GAR and FAR are as follows:  
\[\text{GAR}=\frac{\text{TP}}{\text{TP+FN}}, \tag{6}\]  
\[\text{FAR}=\frac{\text{FP}}{\text{TP+FN}} \tag{7}\]  
A robust way to compare the performance of different classifiers is to measure the area under the ROC curves (AUCs). Figures 16-18 show ROC curves and AUC metric values for three databases. As can be seen, SVM had the highest AUC value among the classifiers.  
\begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c c c c c c c} \hline \multirow{2}{*}{**Classifier in MM**} & \multicolumn{8}{c}{**Number of Training Samples**} \\ \cline{2-7}  & **1** & **2** & **3** & **4** & **5** & **6** & **7** \\ \hline SVM & 0.927 & 0.968 & 0.989 & 0.994 & 0.994 & 0.989 & 1 \\ KNN & 0.310 & 0.844 & 0.917 & 0.963 & 0.968 & 0.963 & 0.974 \\ RF & 0.718 & 0.836 & 0.924 & 0.955 & 0.959 & 0.931 & 0.963 \\ \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table}
Table 1: Verification accuracy obtained using different classifiers on the contact-based HKPU database.  
\begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c c c c c c} \hline \multirow{2}{*}{**Classifier in MM**} & \multicolumn{8}{c}{**Number of Training Samples**} \\ \cline{2-7}  & **1** & **2** & **3** & **4** & **5** & **6** \\ \hline SVM & 0.966 & 0.971 & 0.983 & 0.983 & 0.885 & 0.983 \\ \hline KNN & 0.365 & 0.909 & 0.943 & 0.949 & 0.828 & 0.879 \\ \hline RF & 0.915 & 0.929 & 0.944 & 0.956 & 0.810 & 0.909 \\ \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table}
Table 2: Verification accuracy obtained using different classifiers on the 2D contact-free HKPU database.  
\begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c c c c c} \hline \multirow{2}{*}{**Classifier in MM**} & \multicolumn{8}{c}{**Number of Training Samples**} \\ \cline{2-7}  & **1** & **2** & **3** & **4** & **5** \\ \hline SVM & 0.834 & 0.878 & 0.969 & 0.947 & 0.969 \\ \hline KNN & 0.27 & 0.63 & 0.760 & 0.773 & 0.84 \\ \hline RF & 0.640 & 0.660 & 0.783 & 0.766 & 0.841 \\ \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table}
Table 3: Verification accuracy obtained using different classifiers on the IITD touchless database.  
Figure 16: Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves of our proposed model for the contact-based HKPU database. AUC: area under the ROC curve.  
Figure 17: ROC curves of our proposed model for the 2D contact-free HKPU database.  
Figure 18: ROC curves of our proposed model for the IITD touchless database.
# Improving RF Fingerprinting Methods by Means of D2D Communication Protocol
## 2 Related Work
The technique to measure the relative distance between two units was based on acoustic ranging, if they were close to each other (less than 3 m). [PERSON] et al. [34] studied a real-time positioning based on the D2D real-time communication, which will be reliable in future 5G cellular networks. The ranging and positioning performance were evaluated with four impulse radio waveforms. Their proposed method provided sufficient accuracy for the future real-time positioning applications. [PERSON] et al. [35] used D2D collaboration to eliminate redundant fingerprints from a crowdsourced database. According to them, intercommunication among the devices would help to know whether a fingerprint need to be recorded or the database already handled a fingerprint from that location by other devices. [PERSON] et al. [36] focused on a GNSS/5G integrated positioning methodology with the D2D range and angle measurements. They analyzed the characteristics of a GNSS/5G integrated system and proposed a high-efficiency D2D positioning measure protocol, named crossover multiple-way ranging, which consumes fewer communication resources. Their simulation results show that their proposed integrated positioning methodology outperforms the non-integrated one especially with more mobile terminals and accurate D2D measurements. The evaluation test-bed was in the outdoor area. The real-time kinematic positioning technique was applied to collect GNSS data with a centimeter level accuracy. They used simulated 5G D2D data. Most of the previous studies were conducted on simulation data or in a laboratory environment. Compare to those our study reflects almost all the practical aspects of the real-world scenario. According to the authors best knowledge, this is a novel work where the D2D communication protocol is used to improve the RF fingerprint positioning method in such a sizable three-dimensional environment.
## 1 Introduction
The interaction and feedback relationship of different evaluation indicators are comprehensively determined in the model. Additionally, the model compensated for the defects of randomness and fuzziness in the previous evaluation of regional water environment carrying capacity. In addition to the above, the ANP model was also applied to the design of the LNG supply chain by [PERSON] et al. [16], aiding the selection of the least costly transport model. ANP is a decision-making method adapted to non-independent recursive hierarchies proposed by [PERSON] [17] based on AHP. AHP is a system consisting of one-way comparisons, which are usually better suited to ranking options according to criteria and their selection [11]. The ANP model not only has a recursive hierarchy [18; 19; 20] but also has the network hierarchy of internal loop control at the same level. Considering the correlation between elements, a linear structure is replaced with a nonlinear hierarchy structure. Additionally, considering the dominant role of low-level elements for high-level elements, feedback mechanisms are added to the ANP model [12; 18]. To solve the above problems, the study identified different types of risk elements present in LNG storage tank leakage incidents. According to the \"Five-high\" risk system proposed by [PERSON] [21; 22], accident risks were classified into high-risk locations, high-risk processes, high-risk substances, high-risk equipment, and high-risk personnel. All risks leading to accidents were systematically graded and analyzed to identify accident risk factors in a comprehensive and systematic way. Next, the ANP model was built to calculate the weights by combining the cross-influences between different elements, and the results of the ANP model and the AHP model were compared and analyzed. Then, the two-dimensional normal cloud model was constructed from the two dimensions of riskiness and the impact degree of the risk elements. The model quantitatively analyzed the impact degree and riskiness of each risk factor on the occurrence of accidents. The cloud chart in the model that visually reflects the level of risk was drawn up based on the results of the analysis, which enabled visual analysis of the data. Finally, according to the conclusion of the ANP-normal cloud model, and combined with the actual situation on the site, corrective measures and solutions were proposed in a targeted manner. Compared with previous studies, the study comprehensively considers the self-correlation and intercorrelation of different risk elements of LNG leakage accidents, and the weights are closer to reality. On the premise of ensuring the accuracy of the evaluation results, the normal cloud model is used to realize the quantification and visualization of the risk elements, which greatly reduces the probability of a leakage accident in the LNG storage tank.
# Optimal Solution of Environmental Economic Dispatch Problems Using QPGPSO-\(\omega\)
###### Abstract  
The renewable energy sources (RESs)-based economic dispatch problem (EDP) is of vital importance for modern power systems. Environmental pollution, climatic degradation, and rapidly growing prices of continuously depleting fossil fuels have encouraged researchers to consider mechanisms for RES implementation and optimal operations. This paper presents a quasi-oppositional population-based global particle swarm optimizer with inertial weights (QPGPSO-\(\omega\)) to solve environment friendly EDPs. The optimization technique is applied to solve the EDP under different scenarios including cases where only renewable energy sources (RESs) are used and the cases where combined emission-economic dispatch (CEED) problem is taken into account. The scenario for RESs includes a combination of six wind, five solar PV, and four biofuel systems for power generation. EDPs are considered without any constraints, and the variability of resources is depicted over time, along with the regional load-sharing dispatch (RLSD). The case of CEED considers ten thermal units with the valve point loading (VPL) effect and transmission losses. The results obtained by the proposed QPGPSO-\(\omega\) algorithm are better than the reported results employing other optimization methods. This is shown by the lower costs achieved up to USD 8026.1439 for the case of only RES-based EDPs, USD 1346.8 for the case of RES-based EDPs with RLSD, and USD 111,533.59 for the case of CEED. Thus, the proposed QPGPSO-\(\omega\) algorithm was effective in solving the various adopted power dispatch problems in power system.  
economical dispatch problem (EDP); quasi-oppositional population; renewable energy sources (RESs); valve point loading (VPL)
# CFD Simulations of Flows in a Wind Farm in Complex Terrain and Comparisons to Measurements
## 2 Methodology
### Flow Cases  
Based on twelve months of met mast and wind turbine measurements, nine wind farm flow cases (FC1) have been identified for comparing the AD-RANS simulations. The AD-RANS flow cases are shown in Table 2. The wind turbine furthest upstream and that is the least influenced by the wakes of nearby wind turbines is chosen as the wind speed reference in Table 2. The met masts were not used as references for the wind speed because they are influenced by the wakes of nearby wind turbines for the 300\({}^{\circ}\) and 330\({}^{\circ}\) wind directions. It was not possible to derive the wind direction from the wind turbine SCADA, thus the wind turbine could not be used as the wind direction reference. The met masts are used to determine the reference wind direction. Due to the large computational expense, only four cases (FC2) are investigated for the AL-LES simulations. The AL-LES flow cases are shown in Table 3. The met masts were used as reference for the wind speed and direction in FC2. The \(\pm\)5\({}^{\circ}\) and \(\pm\)1 m/s cases in Tables 2 and 3 represent the bin intervals used to collect the SCADA measurements. Met mast and SCADA measurements used in the comparisons are filtered and represent neutral atmospheric conditions. Section 3 contains the AD-RANS and AL-LES simulation results for the FC1 and FC2 flow cases, respectively.  
Figure 4: (**a**) outer and (**b**) terrain computational grids used in the AL-LES computations.
## 5 Experiments and Results
### Recovery Results for Vision Database  
The second set of images of natural scenes (Shullani [16]) taken with cellphone devices was used to test the same methodology as previously defined. Figure 11 shows some natural scenarios such as forest, sky, coast, mountain, prairie, and river. Precision measure was used to determine performance of the proposal, precision measure is defined in Equation (11).  
\[P=\frac{TP}{TP+FP} \tag{11}\]  
where \(P\) = precision, \(TP\) = True Positive, \(FP\) = False Positive.  
Figure 10: Test with images contaminated with salt and pepper noise at 0.1%, 0.3%, and 0.5%.  
Figure 9: Images test rotated by 90, 180, and 270 degrees.  
As shown in Figures 12 and 13, the search or query image is recovered along with the 5 more similar images by taking into account the recovery of the most similar image in the replacement method. The proposed methodology gives 100% result if the the recovery of the most similar image is taken into account in the resubstitution method. Figure 13 concatenates all the tests carried out on the referenced database such as rotated, scaled, and noised (salt and pepper noise). It can be observed that the proposed method works 100% for the rotated and scaled images, whereas the performance falls to 50% for images having noise.  
Figure 11: Natural scenes examples from Shullani database [16].  
Figure 12: Image retrieval by scene on Shullani database [16].
# Skin Cancer Metabolic Profile Assessed by Different Analytical Platforms
## 5 Analytical Platform in Metabolomics Workflow
### NMR-Based Metabolomics  
NMR spectroscopy is an additional powerful analytical platform used in metabolomics and proteomics. Although NMR is less sensitive compared to mass spectrometry, it offersmany unique benefits to the analysis fields, such as its non-selective nature, high reproducibility, absolute quantitation, and its capability to identify unknown metabolites, as the advances in analytical techniques are helping in the discovery of lots of unknown signals in complex mixtures.  
NMR spectroscopy provides data complementary to MS and is often used without any separation methods or sample preprocessing, unlike MS, which is usually combined with GC or LC chromatographic separation techniques to analyze and cover several types of metabolites [36].  
Several NMR active atomic nuclei such as \({}^{15}\)N, \({}^{31}\)P, \({}^{13}\)C, and \({}^{1}\)H can be used in the metabolomic analysis of biological samples. However, \({}^{1}\)H NMR spectroscopy is the most commonly used because the \({}^{1}\)H nucleus has a higher NMR sensitivity compared to other nuclei, and is present in nearly all metabolites. Specific metabolites are reliably assigned NMR spectra peaks, with the number of active contributing atomic nuclei being directly proportional to peak intensities. Thus, NMR offers information on metabolite identity and quantity.  
As with GC-MS and LC-MS metabolomic workflow, NMR metabolomics also involves several essential steps. Following biospecimen collection such as tissue, urine or blood serum from humans, cell lines, or animal models, metabolite signals can be detected followed by the identification of unknown metabolites by searching the database. Then, a single internal standard can be used for the absolute quantitation of all identified metabolites in the spectrum. After biomarker discovery and validation, metabolite concentrations are used for differentiating between test and control groups, and for identifying changed metabolic pathways, which helps in identifying drug targets to prevent and cure diseases and achieve better therapeutic outcomes [33].  
The NMR approach can examine metabolites comprised of many traits considered to be etiologically significant for many diseases, such as triglyceride and cholesterol in the case of coronary heart disease (CHD). However, this approach does not catch other potentially significant factors such as different inflammatory traits, sex hormones, insulin, or regulatory proteins. Therefore, using untargeted mass spectrometry-based metabolomic platforms in addition to NMR could reveal additional metabolites [37]. Figure 3 represents the full process of dermal metabolomics [26].  
Figure 3: Process of dermal metabolomics.
## 7 Experiment and Analysis
### Evaluation of PoAP
#### 7.3.2 Evaluation of Consensus Efficiency  
To evaluate the efficiency of the PoAP consensus mechanism, we conducted experiments and compared its performance against the PBFT algorithm. The efficiency of the consensus execution was evaluated by measuring consensus delay and throughput.  
Consensus delay is the time taken for the generation of each block. The increase in the number of nodes participating in the consensus led to a higher number of communications required to reach consensus, thereby increasing the consensus latency. Figure 8 indicate a sharp decline in PBFT performance with a large number of nodes, with an average time of 11.607 s when 100 nodes execute consensus. Conversely, PoAP consistently demonstrated lower consensus delay under the same number of maintainer nodes. In the experiments, different cryptographic sortition probabilities \(p\) was assigned values in the range of [0.2, 0.3, 0.4], thus altering the number of committee members elected. A higher probability resulted in more committee members being elected. With the increase in nodes, the PoAP consensus delay also increased, with a new block generation taking 2.385 s with 100 maintainers and \(p=0.3\), indicating that PoAP maintains lower consensus delay, allowing users' transactions to be quickly confirmed in the NexoNet.  
The transaction throughput refers to the number of transactions processed by a system within a unit of time. It serves as a measure of the system's concurrency capacity and is typically expressed as transactions per second (TPS). The throughput of PoAP at \(p=0.3\) is compared with PBFT, as shown in Figure 9. With the increase in the number of nodes, the throughput of PBFT decreases significantly, while that of PoAP decreases very slowly. The reason is that through committee elections, PoAP achieves consensus among a trusted small group of maintainers, thereby reducing the communication between nodes caused by the increase in node count. Therefore, PoAP outperforms PBFT in terms of throughput.  
Figure 7: Distribution of block generating maintainers.  
We compare PoAP with widely used consensus mechanisms in blockchain system such as PoW, PoS, and PBFT in Table 4. It is evident that PoAP surpasses other mechanisms in terms of higher TPS, better scalability, resistance to hard forks, and a well-defined incentive mechanism. As a novel consensus mechanism design, PoAP leverages users' accumulation of \(PV\) and their voting to perform effectively in the BOSM application scenario, especially in public blockchain with a large user base, showcasing its significant potential for widespread application.
# Long-Range Acoustic Communication Using Differential Chirp Spread Spectrum
## 6 Conclusions  
CSS communication is a good modulation to use wideband in a variety of environments. We explained how to improve performance when using the duplication method using the matched filter in the CSS method. If the size of the matched filter is doubled by applying a differential coding method, performance is improved by taking advantage of the fact that the time-bandwidth product cost increases. The simulation of the SNR proved that performance improved by about 3 dB and confirmed that performance was also improved in the environment where the Doppler shift occurred. In lake and sea experiments, we confirmed that the proposed method improved performance. The lake experiment confirmed that the performance improves significantly when there are multipath and Doppler effects, and the sea experiment confirmed the performance improvement in long-range communication of 90 km. Next, a study is needed on the possibility of improving both the bit rate and performance by utilizing differential coding in multiband CSS communication.  
All authors contributed significantly to the work presented in this manuscript. [PERSON] and [PERSON] proposed the method described here; [PERSON], [PERSON] and [PERSON] conceived and designed the experiments; [PERSON], H.-i.R. and [PERSON] performed the experiments and analyzed the data. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.  
This research received no external funding.  
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
## 3 Methods  
### SBAS-InSAR  
SBAS-InSAR has become a widely used time-series InSAR technology in recent years and has overcome the problems of spatiotemporal decorrelation and atmospheric interference. SBAS-InSAR technology was first introduced in 2002 [28]. It is a time-series method based on multiple-master images and uses the SVD method of the matrix to obtain the deformation rate of the study area.  
Assuming that N + 1 SAR images are obtained in the same area within a fixed time (\(t_{0}\),..., \(t_{\text{N}}\)). M differential interferograms can be generated. The inequality definition of M is as follows:  
\[\frac{N+1}{2}\leq M\leq\frac{N(N+1)}{2} \tag{1}\]  
For the differential interference pattern, j, generated by the images collected at \(t_{A}\) and \(t_{B}\) (\(t_{A}<t_{B}\)), the phase at any point, (\(x\), \(r\)), is  
\[\delta\phi_{j}(x,r)=\phi(t_{B},x,r)-\phi(t_{A},x,r)\approx\Delta\phi_{disp}+ \Delta\phi_{topo}+\Delta\phi_{orb}+\Delta\phi_{atm}+\Delta\phi_{noise} \tag{2}\]  
where \(\Delta\phi(t_{B},x,r)\) and \(\Delta\phi(t_{A},x,r)\) are the phases of the two images at point (\(x\), \(r\)) and \(\Delta\phi_{disp}\) is the phase formed by the accumulated deformation of the line of sight (LOS) at \(t_{\text{B}}\) and \(t_{\text{A}}\) relative to \(t_{0}\). The phase errors caused by terrain, orbit, atmosphere, and noise are expressed by \(\Delta\phi_{topo}\), \(\Delta\phi_{orb}\), \(\Delta\phi_{atm}\), and \(\Delta\phi_{noise}\)[28].  
In this study, we used GAMMA18.04 software to perform SBAS-InSAR processing on the Sentinel-1A data. After the data preprocessing, it was necessary to generate a connection graph. In order to ensure the accuracy of the results based on the characteristics of this study area and relevant studies on landslide identification in the Loess Plateau region [29,30] while ensuring high coherence of the data and generating as many interference pairs as possible, the temporal baseline and spatial baseline of the data were set to 180 d and 160 m, respectively. A total of 337 interferometric pairs were generated, and their spatiotemporal baselines are shown in Figure 3. After performing differential interferometry and adaptive filtering [11] on 337 interferometric pairs, a coefficient of 0.35 was used to remove the influence of noise and other factors in order to obtain a highly coherent unwrapping image and obtain effective deformation information. Afterward, atmospheric phase removal and time-series analysis were performed to obtain the surface deformation information for the study area.  
\begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c} \hline Time coverage period & 4 February 2018–21 May 2023 \\ Imaging mode & IW \\ Orbital direction & Descending \\ Number of images & 70 \\ Average angle of incidence & 33.91\({}^{\circ}\) \\ Resolution & 5 \(\times\) 20 m \\ Band & C-band \\ Width of images & 250 km \\ \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table}
Table 1: Basic information of Sentinel-1A satellite images.
# Experimental Investigation of Oxygen Carrier Aided Combustion (OCAC) with Methane and PSA Off-Gas
###### Abstract  
Oxygen carrier aided combustion (OCAC) is utilized to promote the combustion of relatively stable fuels already in the dense bed of bubbling fluidized beds by adding a new mechanism of fuel conversion, i.e., direct gas-solid reaction between the metal oxide and the fuel. Methane and a fuel gas mixture (PSA off-gas) consisting of H\({}_{2}\), CH\({}_{4}\) and CO were used as fuel. Two oxygen carrier bed materials--imiente and synthetic particles of calcium manganate--were investigated and compared to silica sand, an in this context inert bed material. The results with methane show that the fuel conversion is significantly higher inside the bed when using oxygen carrier particles, where the calcium manganate material displayed the highest conversion. In total, 99.3-99.7% of the methane was converted at 900 \({}^{\circ}\)C with ilmenite and calcium manganate as a bed material at the measurement point 9 cm above the distribution plate, whereas the bed with sand resulted in a gas conversion of 86.7%. Operation with PSA off-gas as fuel showed an overall high gas conversion at moderate temperatures (600-750 \({}^{\circ}\)C) and only minor differences were observed for the different bed materials. NO emissions were generally low, apart from the cases where a significant part of the fuel conversion took place above the bed, essentially causing flame combustion. The NO concentration was low in the bed with both fuels and especially low with PSA off-gas as fuel. No more than 11 ppm was detected at any height in the reactor, with any of the bed materials, in the bed temperature range of 700-750 \({}^{\circ}\)C.  
m pacs: 26 October 2020