## 4 Discussion  
The total phenol and flavonoid contents of the methanolic extracts of samples were considerably higher in _P. ginseng_, which provided evidence that ginseng is the most potent variety. In this research, the results highlighted the importance of ginseng fruits which contain high levels of phenols and flavonoids. Out of five solvents, the methanolic extraction of plant parts, especially fruits, was previously documented to contain a high content of phenols and strong antioxidant ability [51]. The different solvents tried in this study gave a clear understanding of the importance of the selection of reliable and suitable solvents to achieve optimum extraction of total phenol and flavonoid from _P. ginseng_[51]. These components are strongly reducing, which enables them to act as free radical scavengers. The antioxidants help to protect humans from harmful oxidants, thereby safeguarding macromolecules such as proteins, lipids, DNA and carbohydrates to improve the immune system [52]. The present study supports the specific selection of solvents to extract more phenols. The analysis of phenolic compounds such as hydroxycinamic acid, hydroxybenzoic acid and flavonoids was conducted through UHPLC as certified by previous research [53; 54]. Many plant parts, from the roots to the fruits, are known to produce numerous secondary metabolites that have several medicinal uses, such as Low-Density lipoprotein (LDL) oxidation inhibition and reduced hypertension, and are also helpful for the improvement of many neurological disorders [55; 56]. Although many studies on ginseng have already been performed, very few studies have used UHPLC to comparatively evaluate the phenolic content of the various parts of ginseng. This study has helped to estimate the different phenols present in ginseng and may assist in the bulk production of pharmacologically important compounds from ginseng. Many researchers have identified the capacity of plant-based antioxidants as efficient free radical scavengers [57; 58; 59]. Components such as kaempfer, quercetin, gallic acid,  
Figure 6: Two-dimensional atomic force microscopy (AFM) images of copper (**a**) in 1 M HCl, and (**b**) in 1 M HCl with 1000 ppm of _P. ginseng_ inhibitor. cinnamic acid, rutin, coumaric acid and resveratrol were proven to have various therapeutic applications. As these are plant-derived components, their inclusion in our daily diet has the potential to inhibit free radicals [60; 61; 62]. These components have shown potency as reductants and singlet oxygen quenchers found in fruits and vegetables grown in varying climatic conditions and extracted by different methods [63]. Several techniques have been used to study the antioxidant mechanism of the plant extracts. The use of three different antioxidant assays in this research emphasized the importance of ginseng fruit as a potential antioxidant. The selection of methanol as a solvent resulted in greater activity than the rest of the solvents because of its compatibility with _P. ginseng_. This shows the crucial role of solvent selection in order to obtain more phenols and flavonoids from the plant samples [64]. Nitric oxide is well known for its inflammatory action. However, the excessive production of free radicals damaging tissues, vascular collapses and other medical illness such as juvenile diabetes and ulcerative colitis may occur [65]. The nitric oxide content of sodium nitroprusside produces nitrite when reacted with oxygen, which exhibits free radical scavenging activity. Antioxidant property was observed in the methanolic extract of fruits, leaves and roots, demonstrating it as an equivalent scavenging compound. As a weak oxidant, hydrogen peroxide inactivates enzymes by oxidizing thiol (-SH) groups, which cross the cell membrane and react with ferrous ions to form hydroxyl free radicals, leading to cell toxicity [66]. The results shown in this research are encouraging and confirm the scavenging activity of ginseng extracts, especially _P. ginseng_ fruit parts [66; 67].