# Using Chatbots as AI Conversational Partners in Language Learning
## 2 Chatbots in Language Learning  
There is an increasing amount of works about the integration of conversational agents in language learning, which can be framed within the linguistic area known as ICALL (Intelligent Computer-Assisted Language Learning). [PERSON] and [PERSON] [12] analyzed the interaction between two different chatbots with 211 students and concluded that they could be effectively used for self-practice via casual conversation, although the authors believed these programs are more useful for advanced language students. \begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c c c c c c} \hline \hline
**Interaction** & **Deployment** & **Knowledge** & **Service** & **Purpose** & **Complexity** & **Input** & **Processing** \\ \hline text-based & web-based & & & interpersonal & informative & based & rule-based \\ (and/or) & app-integrated & closed domain & interpersonal & task-based & keyword & generative \\ voice-enabled & standalone tools & & inter-agent & conversational & recognition & model \\ \hline \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table} 
Table 1: Chatbot classification. Similarly, [PERSON] et al. [13] compared 100 instant messaging conversations to 100 exchanges with the chatbot named Cleverbot along seven different dimensions: words per message, words per conversation, messages per conversation, word uniqueness and use of profanity, shorthand and emoticons. The authors found some notable differences such as that people communicated with the chatbot for longer durations (but with shorter messages) than they did with another human, and that human-chatbot communication lacked much of the richness of vocabulary found in conversations among people, which is consistent with later works related with the use of chatbots among children [14]. [PERSON] et al. [15] used a semantic approach to demonstrate the positive impact of using a conversational agent on the willingness to communicate (WTC) in the context of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) by providing users with various daily conversation contexts. In their study, the conversational agent facilitated an immersive environment that enabled learners to simulate various daily conversations in English in order to reduce their anxiety and increase their self-confidence. Several reviews about conversational agents in language learning have been published to date. [PERSON] and [PERSON] [16] identified some research gaps associated with 'the dearth of research from the human point of view' (p. 216), and concluded that modern forms of chatbot such as mobile chat apps, embedded website services or wearable devices should be given special attention in future research. [PERSON] [17] revised the adoption of different chatbots in language learning and highlighted some of its benefits such as student enjoyment, decreased language anxiety, opportunities of endless repetitions and multimodal capabilities. In another review, [PERSON] and [PERSON] [18] examined some attributes and quality issues related with chatbot development and implementation. The authors took into consideration factors such as efficiency, effectiveness and satisfaction, and concluded that chatbots can positively support learning but also be used to engineer social harm (misinformation, rumors). Similarly, [PERSON] [19] analyzed different types of chatbots, and pointed out six advantages: decreased language anxiety, wide availability, multimodal practice, novelty effect, rich variety of contextual vocabulary and effective feedback. [PERSON] et al. [20,21] presented a systematic review of 343 publications related with dialogue-based systems. The authors described the interactional, instructional and technological aspects, and underlined the learning gains in vocabulary and grammatical outcomes as well as the positive effects on student self-confidence and motivation. More recently, [PERSON] et al. [22] inspected 25 empirical studies and identified five pedagogical uses of chatbots: as interlocutors, as simulations, as helplines, for transmission and for recommendation.