## 4 Discussion  
Sustainable land management and agroecological approaches are becoming more widely accepted to ensure the sustainability of agricultural systems, whatever their scale of production. Negative impacts on ecosystem services are significantly reduced by integrated management of non- and underutilized phytomass from both forestry and agricultural perspectives [55; 56; 57]. In Togo, there is unanimous agreement that landscape approaches can reduce the impact of human-induced drivers [58]. The NBR and the dNBR are the most commonly used models for monitoring and assessing ecosystem health. The four landscape patterns of different levels of disturbance to vegetation, mainly caused by wildfire in the study area, show that they are unevenly distributed [44]. The time series product of the NBR shows a regressive trend in terms of the quality of ecosystems and the functioning of agroecosystems. The impact of fire on the landscape was very damaging in 2017 compared with 2015, despite attempts to raise awareness of forest fires led by the National Forest Service and reinforced by the collaborative actions of local NGOs on the adoption of agroecological best practices since 2015. By 2020, this tendency had been reduced. The fact that 2015 and 2020 were both regarded as drought years in Togo [59] could explain this situation. Another explanation may involve the reappearance of uncontrolled wildfire previously caused by newcomers in the area for cultivation purposes, at least from the perspective of indirect benefits [60] generated by FeMoDo actions. Changes in vegetation in FeMoDo include abrupt, gradual, and seasonal changes [4; 61]. Throughout the time series, the vegetation component of FeMoDo showed an increase in stress levels, with regular spatial distribution. Similar trends have been observed in African Sahel vegetation dynamics [62]. The results of the present study are also consistent with previous studies of vegetation health using satellite data, which have found vegetation to be sensitive to climatic and agro-demographic stimuli [63]. Increasing productivity was characteristic of some landscape patterns of the study area in the present work, whereas in other areas this has shown decreasing associations with levels of stress [6]. Such dynamics may occur due to seasonality, the passage of time, climatic conditions, different land use patterns, invasive species, wildfire, and pests [63; 64]. The significant correlation (R2 = 0.98) between the calculated NPP and the reference value (MODIS A17) may mean that the finding of the current study is similar to 98% of existing reference NPP data. Current patterns of NPP in the study landscape are the combined result of environmental and land use changes. Thus, low NPP values in study landscapes could be explained by the fact that they were highly prone to wildfire or had been converted to agricultural land. Other studies have found a similar trend [65; 66]. Changes in precipitation and temperature regimes due to climate change can lead to extreme environmental conditions that are detrimental to plant and crop productivity [67]. However, it also appears that the high temperatures resulting from increased evapotranspiration and the arid conditions of this peneplain may strongly affect vegetation growth [68]. The low primary productivity observed mainly at the edge of the buffer zone, especially in protected areas, may be explained by the oldest phytomass components, which are affected annually by wildfire damage. Elsewhere in the landscape, the lower estimated NPPs may be explained by the fact that grasslands and temporary wetlands were generally burned. The increases and decreases in NPP may also have been influenced by the expansion of settlements and population growth, as well as the physico-chemical properties of the soil, as found in previous research [69]. It is mainly the sprawl from FeMoDo towards the periphery that constitutes the permanent active zone due to cropping systems.