###### Abstract
climate change; urbanization; compound flood; numerical simulations; machine learning 202  
are expected to face a nine-fold increase in flood risk, with flood-related losses projected to exceed $50 billion [8].  
In the context of global climate change, rising temperatures have accelerated the rate of sea level rise [9; 10]. Additionally, tropical cyclones have increased in intensity and decreased in translation speed [11; 12], the frequency and intensity of extreme rainfall events have increased [13; 14], and the intensity and frequency of storm surge disasters have also undergone significant changes [15]. Due to climate change, the average number of global flood events has increased more than six-fold in the past 50 years [16]. With ongoing global climate change and the continuous aggregation of population and economic activities in coastal areas, multiple flood-driving factors such as extreme rainfall, storm surges, high river runoff, rising sea levels, and astronomical tides are overlapping and interacting. In the future, coastal areas will face more severe flood disaster risks [17; 18]. Meanwhile, rapid urbanization in coastal areas is another major driving factor of flood risk, with urbanization rates in coastal cities such as Shenzhen and Guangzhou in China exceeding 80% [19]. Therefore, understanding the impact of climate change on compound floods and exploring strategies to mitigate the risk of compound flood disasters are major challenges faced by the international community and are crucial for global coastal disaster assessment and mitigation.  
Under the combined effects of various meteorological, hydrological, and hydrodynamic processes, coastal areas experience floods due to their unique geographical location and the influence of multiple driving factors, known as coastal compound floods [20]. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and other researchers, compound floods in coastal areas are a typical compound event currently facing the world [21; 22; 23]. Many coastal cities, such as New Orleans, Jakarta, Miami, and Lagos, are now facing the threat of compound floods. From the perspective of disaster mechanisms, the driving factors behind compound floods in coastal areas include the following: (1) ocean processes, such as sudden and severe sea level rise caused by abnormal weather processes like storm surges (often superimposed with astronomical tides), which can exceed the design standards of coastal protection infrastructure such as seawalls and breakwaters [24]; (2) extreme rainfall, where surface runoff exceeds the capacity of the drainage system, leading to waterlogging and flooding [25; 26]; (3) river runoff, where high flow in upstream channels causes rivers to exceed their capacity and overflow the embankments [27; 28]; and (4) rapid urbanization, which reduces forest and farmland areas and increases impermeable surfaces, accelerating surface runoff that exceeds the capacity of traditional urban drainage systems [29; 30]. When more than one of these driving factors occurs simultaneously or continuously, the destructive impacts of floods are amplified [31; 32]. For example, tropical cyclones in coastal areas are accompanied by both heavy rainfall and storm surges. If these events coincide with extreme river runoff and astronomical tides, they can result in severe compound floods. Figure 1 illustrates the generation processes and key driving factors of extreme compound flood events in coastal cities under intensified climate change scenarios.  
Although some researchers have investigated the mechanisms and simulation methods of compound flood hazards, there remains a lack of research quantifying the impact of climate change on the drivers of compound floods. [PERSON] et al. (2020) [20] analyzed regions with high compound flood potential under extreme global river flow and storm surge conditions, suggesting that the dependency structure between compound flood drivers significantly influences the joint probability of such events. [PERSON] et al. (2022) [32] examined the main disaster mechanisms and methodologies for compound floods in coastal areas, emphasizing the need for future research to incorporate climate change into the study of compound floods. Additionally, most current research addressing the impact of climate change focuses on single factors or specific flood scenarios, such as storm surges or rainfall, as isolated drivers. However, compound floods involve multiple interacting climate drivers, and the complexity of these interactions increases the challenges of simulation and prediction. For instance, [PERSON] et al. (2021) [6] assessed the impact of sea level rise on coastal flooding due to climate change and found that approximately $8.1 billion in damages from Hurricane Sandy could be attributed to sea level rise.