# Consumer Perceptions and Attitudes Towards Ultra-Processed Foods
## 5 Data Analysis
### SEM Model of Customer Attitudes and Purchase Behaviour Towards UPFs

Table 6: Discriminant validity—Fornell and Larker criterion. The heterotrait-monotrait (HTMT) ratio is used to evaluate the correlations between constructs to confirm discriminant validity. While literature thresholds generally range from 0.85 to 0.9, the results from this study (see Table 8) indicate that all HTMT ratios are below the upper limit of 0.9 and are statistically significant. The \(p\)-values indicate that both knowledge and subjective norms have a moderate impact on attitudes toward UPFs, while environmental concerns exert a significant effect. In addition, attitudes toward UPFs strongly influence willingness to purchase, and willingness to purchase, in turn, has a very high impact on actual buying behaviour. All \(p\)-values are below 1%, with the exception of the health consciousness effect on attitude toward UPFs, which exceeds 20% (see Figure 4 and Table 9). These results generally support our hypotheses--with the exception of H1--and are in line with most previous research. Notably, all predictor variables have positive regression coefficients. Step 5. Interpret the obtained results. One possible explanation for the rejection of the first hypothesis (H\({}_{1}\)) (\(\beta\) = 0.079 and \(p\) > 0.05) linking health consciousness to attitudes towards UFFs is that the majority of our respondents were young individuals. Younger consumers may prioritise other factors--such as taste, convenience, or social influence--over health concerns when evaluating food choices. This demographic might also perceive the health risks associated with UFFs differently than older populations, leading to a weaker relationship between health consciousness and their attitudes towards these foods. Another possible explanation is that the conceptualisation of health consciousness might not have fully captured the specific attitudes toward UFFs. Respondents who are generally health-conscious may still perceive UFFs as acceptable if they believe these foods offer convenience or align with other lifestyle priorities. This could be due to a gap between general health awareness and the nuanced understanding of UPF-related risks, thereby weakening the hypothesised link between health consciousness and attitudes toward UFFs. The support for hypothesis H\({}_{2}\) (\(\beta\) = 0.197 and \(p\) < 0.001) linking knowledge to attitudes towards UFFs can be explained by the fact that greater knowledge can reduce uncertainty and enhance risk perception, prompting consumers to reassess their dietary choices. As individuals become more aware of the ingredients, processing methods, and long-term consequences of consuming UFFs, they are likely to adopt attitudes that favour healthier alternatives, thereby reinforcing the significant influence of knowledge on consumer attitudes. Additionally, increased knowledge often correlates with improved nutrition literacy and access to reliable information sources. This empowers consumers to critically evaluate UPF marketing claims and make informed decisions, further solidifying the positive relationship between knowledge and a more cautious, health-oriented attitude toward UFFs. Subjective norms influence attitudes towards UFFs (H\({}_{3}\)) (\(\beta\) = 0.117 and \(p\) < 0.05) by shaping individuals' perceptions of what is considered acceptable or desirable within their social circles. When family, friends, or influential social groups express concerns about UPF consumption or promote healthier eating habits, individuals are more likely to adopt a similar attitude, aligning their personal beliefs with those of their peers. Additionally, social pressure and the desire for social conformity play crucial roles. People often adjust their dietary choices to meet the expectations of significant others, thereby reinforcing attitudes that reflect the prevailing social sentiment. This dynamic, rooted in social learning and normative influence, strengthens the relationship between subjective norms and a more cautious, health-conscious stance towards UFFs.