# When Maritime Meets Aviation: The Safety of Seaplanes on the Water
## 1 Introduction  
Hazards, whether natural or human-made, present potential threats to individuals, equipment, and operations [1]. Reducing these and mitigating associated risks are essential objectives in transportation safety to protect lives, goods, and the environment. However, systematic hazard analysis is often constrained by reporting limitations, as incidents that do not result in significant damage or harm may go unreported. Public accident databases frequently lack critical contextual details, such as environmental factors or pilot decision-making processes, leading to incomplete insights. A comprehensive safety analysis must therefore go beyond traditional accident data to incorporate both qualitative and quantitative methods. The maritime industry is considered to be the most complex and dangerous worldwide [2, 3]. Canada is a nation that boasts a rich maritime heritage and vast coastal regions, with major ports such as Vancouver, Halifax, and Montreal playing critical roles in international trade and commerce. Maritime safety is crucial due to its role in providing a protective refuge for vessels, facilitating the transfer of people and goods, promoting tradeand economic growth, and serving as a significant source of employment. Recent studies, such as that by [PERSON] et al. [4], have emphasized that maritime accidents are influenced by multiple interconnected risk factors, highlighting the need for robust analytical frameworks to better manage operational safety. In particular, ports represent dynamic environments with a complex set of safety challenges. Canada is also a global leader in seaplane operations. However, the unique operational environment of seaplanes, combining maritime and aviation hazards, requires pilots to navigate risks associated with both sectors. This poses specific safety management challenges that are currently underexplored. Canada, with its vast and rugged geography, is a global leader in seaplane operations, supporting both commercial and recreational activities. While commercial seaplane operations are subject to stringent regulatory oversight, private and recreational seaplane pilots often operate under more relaxed regulatory frameworks. This increases their exposure to safety risks. Unlike land-based aircraft, seaplanes must contend with additional hazards, such as water conditions, limited maneuverability, and interactions with maritime traffic. The dual nature of seaplane operations further complicates their safety management, as regulatory distinctions exist between aircraft and vessels. Saeplanes are generally defined as aircraft that can take off and land on water. The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) defines a seaplane as \"An airplane on floats (amphibious or non-amphibious) or a flying boat (water-only or amphibious)\" [5]. There are two main categories of seaplanes in use in Canada:  
1. Floatplanes--these have floats but no wheels;
2. Amphibious--these are planes that have floats and retractable wheels, so they have the capability to land and take off from both the land and the water. In addition, according to the 1972 International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea (COLREGs), a seaplane is regarded as a vessel when it is on the water, whether it is landing, anchored, or being launched from a water slide. However, when the seaplane is out of the water, it is treated as an aircraft [6]. Research relating to the safety of ships and seaplanes sharing the water environment is scarce, but there are a few studies that mention both. These have revealed several key areas of concern and methodological approaches. [PERSON] [7] conducted an extensive risk analysis of seaplane operations in Sanya Port in China, comparing the maritime traffic environment of seaplanes to that of other vessels, and emphasizing unique safety challenges. Similarly, [PERSON] et al. [8] explored the operational and environmental safety of seaplane traffic in Croatia, noting differences in waste management between seaplanes and traditional vessels.