# Data-Driven Approaches for Predicting and Forecasting Air Quality in Urban Areas
## 1 Introduction  
The principal parameters monitored as pollutants are carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen dioxide (NO\({}_{2}\)), particulate matter (PM) with diameters of 2.5 \(\upmu\)m and smaller (PM\({}_{2.5}\)), and sulfur dioxide (SO\({}_{2}\)). These pollutants originate from distinct sources, have specific health impacts, and interact with environmental factors that affect human health and ecosystems.  
CO primarily arises from incomplete combustion processes, especially those related to vehicular traffic and industrial activities. Munfarida and Arida [1] demonstrate a direct correlation between the number of vehicles and increased CO levels. Chronic exposure to CO is associated with long-term health conditions, particularly in communities with limited access to healthcare services [2]. These findings highlight the importance of traffic management in urban planning [3, 4].  
NO\({}_{2}\) is another major urban pollutant, primarily released through vehicle emissions and industrial processes. It is a known cause of respiratory diseases and contributes to the formation of ground-level ozone (O\({}_{3}\)), which presents additional health risks [5]. The studyby [PERSON] et al. [6] suggests that NO\({}_{2}\) exposure is particularly harmful in urban areas with high traffic emissions.  
PM\({}_{2.5}\) consists of fine particles capable of penetrating deep into the lungs and entering the bloodstream, resulting in severe health consequences such as respiratory and cardiovascular diseases [7; 8]. Annually, many urban areas frequently surpass this 10 \(\upmu\)g/m\({}^{3}\) threshold [7]. The link between PM\({}_{2.5}\) exposure and health outcomes is well established, with studies demonstrating that higher PM\({}_{2.5}\) levels correlate with increased mortality and hospitalizations for respiratory ailments [9; 10].  
SO\({}_{2}\) contributes to respiratory complications and exacerbates pre-existing conditions like asthma [11]. While SO\({}_{2}\) concentrations have decreased in several regions due to stricter environmental regulations, its health impacts persist, particularly in areas with intensive industrial activity. The interaction of SO\({}_{2}\) with other pollutants, such as NO\({}_{2}\) and PM\({}_{2.5}\), complicates the evaluation of AQ, as these substances often coexist and may synergistically affect health [12; 13].  
The COVID-19 pandemic offered a unique chance to witness how decreased human activity impacted air pollution [14]. Global lockdowns led to notable decreases in CO, NO\({}_{2}\), SO\({}_{2}\), and PM\({}_{2.5}\) levels across various regions, underscoring the influence of human activities on AQ [15; 16]. The long-term consequences of these reductions on public health and AQ management remain unclear. [PERSON] et al. [17] analyzed 87 cities during the pandemic. The study found that AQI-PM\({}_{2.5}\), AQI-PM\({}_{10}\), and AQI-NO\({}_{2}\) decreased by \(-7.36\%\), \(-17.52\%\), and \(-20.54\%\) in 2020 compared to 2019, following the introduction of restriction measures. This trend reversed in 2021, when the values of these parameters increased by \(+4.25\%\), \(+9.08\%\), and \(+7.48\%\). Another study conducted in Monterrey shows a decrease in the concentrations of SO\({}_{2}\) (\(-41.9\%\)), PM\({}_{10}\) (\(-30.5\%\)), and PM\({}_{2.5}\) (\(-25.6\%\)) during the quarantine period, compared to the average of the years 2017-2019. O\({}_{3}\) increased by \(+15\%\) during quarantine and \(+2.2\%\) during the reopening period [18]. Another study on 21 cities highlighted that daily NO\({}_{2}\) concentrations decreased by between 3% and 58% during the quarantine, but increased subsequently after the lifting of restrictions [19]. The pandemic highlighted the importance of sustainable urban planning and pollution control initiatives to reduce the health impacts of air pollution in the future [20; 21].