## 5 Results
### Planning Instruments: National Plans and Programs  
National plans and programs on sustainable development and eco-innovation were investigated in the selected 17 countries. We also examined plans and programs supported by international organizations and other countries. The plans reflect policy priorities. Each country established a national sustainable development strategy or a national Agenda 21 after the 1992 UNCED (Table 4). Most of the selected countries initiated national plans for green growth and innovation in the 2000s. National plans include several sectors that are related to eco-innovation, such as environmental protection, waste, renewable energy, purchase/procurement, clean technology, and climate change. However, Mongolia, Brunei Darussalam, and Myanmar have not yet initiated national plans that are directly related to eco-innovation. All target countries emphasized innovative green technologies in their national plans. Except for Brunei Darussalam, all countries introduced strategies for vitalizing renewable energy and mitigating and adapting to climate change. Several countries established policies for green purchasing or green procurement, which can be referred to as integrating environmental considerations into purchasing policies, programs, and actions [62]. Green procurement is also used to promote the development of green innovation [63]. Compared to private businesses, governments can be more effective through public procurement in initiating green purchasing [21] (p. 9). Governments play a key role as large-scale purchasers in the market economy [64]. Therefore, they can support sustainable public procurement start-up phases. In Thailand, in 2008, cabinet resolutions endorsed the National Green Procurement Plan and required government sectors to implement the plan [21] (p. 18). In Malaysia, the Ministry of Finance plays an important role as the largest buyer in advancing green procurement [21] (p. 18). Figure 2: Eco-innovation sectors. The national programs in the selected countries mostly emphasize carbon reduction and renewable energy. Brunei Darussalam, Lao PDR, Cambodia, Bangladesh, and Myanmar did not initiate national programs for eco-innovation. Except for Brunei Darussalam, four of the least developed countries lacked institutional approaches to eco-innovation. Japan initiated eco-innovation-related national programs earlier than other Asian countries. Japan started the Top Runner Program in 1998 to improve the energy efficiency of end-use products. The Top Runner Program is evaluated as an effective approach for setting mandatory energy efficiency standards based on the most efficient products on the market [65]. Japan internationally introduced its excellent experiences on the 3 Rs (Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle) in waste management and attempted to be a leading nation for creating a sustainable materials cycle through the 3 Rs in Asia [66]. Japan's government proposed the 3 Rs initiative during the G8 summit in 2004. The 3 Rs activities are widespread in Asian countries. All countries selected in this research participated in the Regional 3R Forum that was launched in 2009. The Fourth Regional 3R Forum, which was held in March 2013, adopted the Hanoi 3R. Declaration, Sustainable Goals for Asia and the Pacific for 2013-2023, which aims to provide a basic framework for Asia-Pacific countries to develop measures and programs to promote the 3 Rs towards transitioning to a resource-efficient and green economy [67]. Japan supported establishing a national plan on waste management, including the 3 Rs, in other Asian countries such as Malaysia. Internationally, European countries contributed to introducing eco-innovation to Asia. The European Union made the issue of sustainable consumption and production a priority in its regional cooperation strategy from 2007 to 2013. In 2008, the European Commission launched the SWITCH-Asia program to promote sustainable products, processes, services, and consumption patterns in Asia.