## 4 Discussion
Moreover, the study did not employ advanced imaging or assessment techniques, such as bioimpedance analysis or dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA), which could have provided more detailed insights into changes in intra- and extracellular water content at the level of the upper limbs. Nevertheless, it is important to note that we implemented measures to minimize potential confounding factors in circumference assessments, as detailed previously. These precautions ensured that the data collected provided a reliable representation of structural adaptations within the practical constraints of applied sports settings. By designating circumference measurements as a secondary variable and explicitly acknowledging their limitations, we aimed to ensure transparency and provide a balanced interpretation of the findings. Another limitation is the lack of direct dietary monitoring, as participants were only instructed to maintain their dietary habits throughout the intervention. Although this approach ensures ecological validity by reflecting real-world training conditions, variations in macronutrient intake, total energy consumption, and supplementation practices could have influenced strength and structural adaptations. Future studies should consider incorporating controlled dietary assessments, such as food diaries or dietary recalls, to better account for potential nutritional confounders. Furthermore, individual differences in motivation during training could have played a role in performance outcomes. While all training sessions were supervised to ensure adherence to the prescribed protocols, effort exertion was monitored through RIR, and participants (who were experienced powerlifters accustomed to structured training programs) were likely to maintain consistent effort levels. Nevertheless, intrinsic motivation and psychological factors remain influential variables in neuromuscular adaptations. Despite this limitation, the supervised nature of the sessions and the inclusion of well-trained participants likely helped minimize variability in effort exertion. The practical implications of this study highlight the versatility and effectiveness of LL-HV resistance training as a viable strategy for enhancing bench press performance and promoting structural adaptations, particularly in trained powerlifters. This protocol demonstrated certain advantages, such as improved MV at 80% of 1 RM and significant increases in arm circumference, the overall lack of significant between-group differences suggests that both LL-HV and HL-LV protocols are effective within this population. These findings reinforce the adaptability of trained powerlifters to diverse training stimuli, offering strength and conditioning professionals a flexible framework for program design. Given that LL-HV training leads to notable gains in both maximal and relative strength, it provides a viable alternative or complement to HL-LV training methods. Coaches might consider integrating LL-HV phases into training regimens to optimize athletic performance across various sports by improving both strength-to-body-weight ratios and overall performance metrics, which are particularly critical for competitive powerlifters. In practice, incorporating LL-HV training phases can help achieve a balanced development of power output and maximal strength. This approach offers a promising alternative to traditional HL-LV training, potentially reducing injury risks associated with high loads and providing a varied stimulus for functional and structural adaptations.