## 3 The Health and Environmental Consequences of Current Shipbreaking Practices
A study that assessed metal/loid exposure and its associated determinants in a population living and working near a large-scale open-beaching shipbreaking yard in Bangladesh showed that both occupational and environmental exposure groups exhibited significantly higher urinary metal/loid levels, including cadmium and molybdenum, compared to control and reference populations, suggesting a significant health threat [4]. Similarly, a study that examined the effects of shipbreaking on soil, crops, and human health in a 1221 km\({}^{2}\) area around Chittagong's shipbreaking yards suggested a significant threat to human health [77]. Elevated levels of 12 metals/metalloids (Pb, Cd, As, V, Cr, Mn, Cu, Zn, Fe, Co, Ni, and Sn) were found in soil, rice, and vegetables at four exposure sites compared to a control site. Soil pollution indices indicated moderate to high contamination, particularly for Pb, Zn, Cd, As, and Se. A health risk analysis indicated that dietary exposure to inorganic arsenic, cadmium, and lead from food crops, primarily spinach leaf and gourd, exceed oral reference doses (RfDs), potentially leading to adverse health effects in the general population [77]. A comprehensive assessment of eleven heavy metals (Pb, Cd, Cr, Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, Ni, Co, As, and Ag) was conducted on groundwater and seawater samples [78] and sediments [79] collected from a shipbreaking industrial area in Bangladesh. The results indicated that most water samples exhibited poor quality, particularly due to elevated levels of Fe, Mn, Pb, Cr, and Cd. Although the hazard quotient (HQ) values for most heavy metals were within acceptable limits, Cr posed a potential health risk, especially for children. Additionally, a carcinogenic risk assessment revealed that Cr, Pb, As, and Cd could pose significant health risks through the direct ingestion of contaminated groundwater. Elevated levels of Pb, Cd, Mn, Zn, Cu, As, and Ag were detected, indicating significant sediment contamination. Ecological risk assessments identified Cd as the highest risk, while Pb and As posed moderate risks. Health risk assessments showed that Zn exceeded safe limits for both adults and children, and several other metals approached or exceeded thresholds, especially for children. Carcinogenic risk assessments indicated potential health risks from Cr, As, and Ni. The POPs released during the shipwaking process also pose a significant threat to human health. Analysis of research related to the determination of concentrations of PAHs in various areas of Bangladesh and other countries indicates that shipwaking regions may be significant sources of PAH-contaminated air particles [80]. PAH concentrations in air particles in shipwaking areas are notably higher than in other countries and other areas in Bangladesh. Indeed, 18 of 23 sites in Chittagong's residential, industrial, and shipwaking districts surveyed in 2013 displayed alarmingly high levels of PAHs, as measured by the toxic equivalent quotient (TEQ), exceeding the WHO's safety threshold for cancer risk [81]. The concentrations of PCBs, DDTs, HCB, and SCCPs in ambient air in Chittagong were also substantially elevated when compared to similar studies conducted elsewhere in Asia. Unsustainable practices also cause serious environmental damage, particularly to the marine environment [82]. Environmental hazards related to open beaching were reviewed by [PERSON] et al. in 2018 [3]. Associated environmental impacts include global warming, acidification, eutrophication, ozone depletion, smog, and ecotoxicity. Accordingly, detrimental effects on flora and fauna (aquatic plants, mangroves, fish, and benthic invertebrates) have been observed [3,83].