## 5 Conclusions  
This study aimed to investigate the impact of ENSO on temperature using remote sensing (RS) data. Our key findings revealed that ENSO events have a significant effect on the surface temperature, as observed through the Landsat and MODIS satellite data during El Nino and La Nina events. The surface temperature was found to be influenced by the Oceanic Nino Index (ONI), with El Nino events leading to a temperature rise of 0.5-2.5 \({}^{\circ}\)C when the ONI value exceeded +0.5. The study also analyzed the impact of ENSO on the spatial distribution of the surface temperature in Kuching City, Sarawak and found that ENSO events affect both the maximum and average temperatures in the city.  
The effectiveness of RS data from the MODIS and Landsat satellites in studying the impact of ENSO events on the surface temperature in Kuching City was assessed, revealing a high effectiveness with correlation coefficients of 0.97 for the MODIS satellite data and 0.90 for the Landsat satellite data when compared to temperature data provided by the Kuching branch of the Malaysian Meteorological Department (MMD). These findings have important implications for stakeholders and the community in Kuching City, enhancing public awareness of the threats posed by temperature increases during ENSO events. This study also highlights temperature variations in different areas of the city, emphasizing the need for preparedness measures to mitigate the effects of urban heat islands and ENSO on the local environment. This knowledge is crucial for disaster management agencies, such as the Sarawak State Disaster Management Committee, natural disaster management agencies, and the National Security Council, enabling them to implement targeted steps and assistance in hotspot areas such as industrial zones and city centers to reduce the impact of ENSO on the community.  
However, this study had limitations primarily due to its reliance on MODIS and Landsat satellite data, which require cloud-free study locations. Cloud cover poses a persistent challenge in Malaysia's equatorial climate, obstructing thermal wave measurements and leading to data loss. Therefore, collecting RS data comprehensively and accurately remains difficult. For future research, it is recommended to utilize high-resolution data, such as drones/UAVs with a resolution of 1 m or less, which can provide more detailed information, particularly for studying the effects of ENSO events on built-up areas. Additionally, researchers anticipate the availability of satellites with high-resolution thermal wave capabilities in the future, enabling more precise, detailed, and long-term investigations into the impact of ENSO on urban climates.  
Conceptualization, O.V.E. and R.A.K.; methodology, O.V.E. and R.A.K.; software, O.V.E. and R.A.K.; validation, O.V.E. and R.A.K.; formal analysis, O.V.E. and R.A.K.; investigation, O.V.E. and R.A.K.; resources, O.V.E. and R.A.K.; data curation, O.V.E. and R.A.K.; writing--original draft preparation, O.V.E. and R.A.K.; writing--review and editing, O.V.E. and R.A.K.; visualization, O.V.E. and R.A.K.; supervision, O.V.E. and R.A.K.; project administration, O.V.E. and R.A.K.; funding acquisition, O.V.E. and R.A.K. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.  
This APC was supported by Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia and Universiti Malaysia Sabah.  
Not applicable.  
Data Availability Statement: Data is unavailable due to privacy.  
The authors declare no conflict of interest.