## 3 Results
### Spatial Access Disparities to the MOH Healthcare Centers: Analysis of 2 SFCA Results
On the other hand, reducing the threshold by less than 30 min may contribute to creating more spatial disparities, especially with the shortage of healthcare centers and the existence of a limited road network in certain districts without others. However, further research is needed to determine the effect of using different time thresholds on the magnitude of spatial disparities in access to healthcare centers in Jeddah. Therefore, our future work could investigate this issue by applying the E2 SFCA method to measure spatial accessibility based on different time thresholds. Although the study successfully demonstrated that remarkable spatial disparities in access to healthcare centers exist within urban Jeddah districts, it has certain limitations: (1) the presented study was based on population data that exceeded five years, and, therefore, more recent data are required to obtain more accurate results; (2) the study only covered the healthcare centers run by the Ministry of Health without considering private healthcare centers due to the lack of a spatial database for these centers. In contrast, identifying and geo-coding the addresses of these centers will cost researchers great time and effort that is not consistent with the time schedule given to complete this study. We expect that including private healthcare centers will improve the overall level of spatial accessibility, even with the limited road network in the peripheral districts, where these centers are well distributed over most parts of the city. However, more research is needed on the extent to which the inclusion of these centers contributes to reducing spatial disparities in access to healthcare in Jeddah. (3) Our initial research orientation was to integrate spatial and nonspatial factors (i.e., social and economic variables and demographic characteristics of the population) to accurately assess spatial disparities in access to healthcare centers in Jeddah, but the lack of data related to nonspatial factors at the districts level has led to the use of only the spatial factors in this study. Researchers have become aware of the importance of integrating spatial and nonspatial factors to be an effective method for assessing access to healthcare [22]. Nonspatial factors, such as poverty, income, age, language, disability status, or even availability and cost of transportation, can affect access to healthcare facilities [71]. For instance, [PERSON] et.al. [72] found that the utilization of physicians and meeting healthcare needs differ from one neighborhood to another in Hamilton, Ontario. They revealed that residents of the lowest income neighborhoods have lower utilization of physicians, as well as their health needs not being met [73]. Furthermore, entire district populations aged 65 and over have poor access to primary health services in Naples, Italy, especially in the city suburbs [74]. Accordingly, it is important that future research investigates the assessment of spatial disparities in access to healthcare services in Jeddah by integrating spatial and nonspatial factors, using improved versions of the original 2 SFCA method, where these improvements can better deal with the effect of distance decay within the supply and demand catchments compared to the original method that is limited to using the dichotomous distance decay function.