esa-sceva/satcom-chunk-collection huggingface dataset:
## 3 Results and Discussions
### Influence of RAP Particle Size on Emulsification-Separation
#### 3.3.2 Emulsification-Separation Effects of Different Sizes of RAP Materials  
The purpose of separately processing RAPs of different sizes is to refine the specific separating effect of different particle sizes during emulsification-separation and to obtain the PL between different particle sizes, thus preparing for the subsequent separation of mixed particle sizes. The gradation curves in Figure 8 indicate emulsification-separation clusters of different particle sizes. When treating RAP above 4.75 mm, the emulsification passing rate is almost the same as the extraction passing rate, but there remains a gap. The filling area between the emulsification-separation sieve grading curve and the extraction grading curve was calculated. According to the results, the best treatment effect was achieved with 13.2 mm RAP, which has an area of only 39.14, whereas the area of 2.36 mm RAP is 139.21, indicating a significant difference between its grading curve and the extraction grading curve. To refine the specific variations of the different sizes in the mixed separation, the different particle sizes were progressively paired within emulsification-separation.  
As shown in Figure 9, when different RAP sizes were treated separately, the separated asphalt content decreased significantly. The asphalt content of 9.5 mm RAP decreased by more than 60%, and the asphalt content of 13.2 and 4.75 mm RAP decreased by 50%. The FMR was higher than 0.9 for 4.75 mm RAP; the aggregate coarseness and fineness were the same as the original gradation. However, the asphalt content of 2.36 mm RAP was only reduced by about 18%, and its fineness modulus was only 0.798, which was poorly separated and required further separation.  
Table 6 indicates the asphalt content after secondary separation, where it was further reduced, but its angular wear was more obvious through testing and observation. The gradation curve after one separation was basically the same; so, the difference in gradation after the second separation was small, and it met the requirements for use.  
\begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c c c c} \hline
**Sieve Size (mm)** & **13.2** & **9.5** & **4.75** & **2.36** \\ \hline Asphalt content (\%) & 1.95 & 1.74 & 3.15 & 6.12 \\ \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table}
Table 6: Asphalt content after secondary emulsification–separation.  
Figure 7: Emulsification–separation of AC-13 RAP grading curves.
# A New Method for Evaluating the Bearing Capacity of the Bridge Pile Socketed in the Soft Rock
## 2 Research Methodology
### Calculation of the Pile Bearing Capacity  
Referring to the design code (JTG 3363-2019), the calculation formulas of the characteristic value of the single pile vertical bearing capacity \(R_{a}\) and the vertical constraint stiffness of the pile \(K_{\text{vs}}\) are shown in Equations (24) and (25),  
\[R_{a}=c_{1}A_{p}f_{rk}+u\sum_{i=1}^{m}c_{2i}h_{i}f_{riki}+\frac{1}{2}\xi_{s}u \sum_{i=1}^{n}l_{i}q_{ik} \tag{24}\]  
where \(c_{1}\) and\(c_{2i}\) are the end resistance exertion coefficient and the lateral resistance exertion coefficient of the rock stratum \(i\); \(A_{p}\) is the cross-section area of the pile end (unit: m\({}^{2}\)); \(f_{rk}\) is the standard value of the saturated uniaxial compressive strength of the rock at the pile end, \(f_{riki}\) is the saturated uniaxial compressive strength of the rock stratum \(i\), and \(q_{ik}\) is the standard lateral resistance value of the soil layer \(i\) at the pile side (unit: KPa); \(u\) is the circumference of the pile section and \(h_{i}\) is the length of the pile embedded in the rock stratum \(i\) (unit: \(m\)); \(m\) is the number of rock strata and \(n\) is the number of soil layers; \(\xi_{s}\) is the lateral resistance exertion coefficient of the covered soil layer; and \(l_{i}\) is the thickness of the rock and soil layers under the cap bottom or the partial erosion line.  
\[K_{\text{vs}}=\frac{1}{\frac{b_{0}+5h}{EA}+\frac{1}{C_{0}A_{0}}} \tag{25}\]  
where \(\xi\) is a coefficient for the end bearing pile, \(\xi=1\); \(l_{0}\) is the free length of the pile and \(h\) is the length of the pile between the bedrock and soil surface (unit: m); \(A\) is the average section area of the pile in the soil; \(C_{0}\) is the resistance coefficient of the rock foundation; \(\overline{\varphi}\) is the average internal friction angle of the soil layer; \(S\) is the center distance of the pile bottom; \(d\) is the diameter pile bottom section (unit: m); and for the end bearing pile, \(A_{0}\) is calculated as  
\[A_{0}=\frac{\pi d^{2}}{4} \tag{26}\]  
The elastic modulus is an essential physical index of the rock deformation properties, calculated as described in [27]:  
\[f_{rk}=1.878524E^{0.978474}+0.11667 \tag{27}\]  
[PERSON] et al. [28] described the relationship between the pile lateral resistance and the uniaxial compression strength of saturated rock as:  
\[q_{ik}=0.25\sqrt{f_{rk}} \tag{28}\]
## 4 Discussion  
### Spatial Variation of ESVs  
Rational planning for land use change can have positive implications for ecosystem conservation and sustainable development in the Dongting Lake. This study quantitatively analyzes the change in EVs of the Dongting Lake caused by land use changes in 2000, 2005, 2010 and 2018. The overall land use of the Dongting Lake was relatively stable, indicating a stability in EVs during this study period. However, the complex, nonlinear changes in the EVs, as well as the different evaluation methods, make the EVs results somewhat different [40]. Both construction land and forested land area in the Dongting Lake increased during 2000-2018, which is in line with the trend of China's forest resource growth and urbanization development, and is related to the forest protection and expansion plan implemented in China [66]. Water bodies, forests and wetlands dominated the changes in EVs [41; 67], while increases in built-up land and unused land areas dominated the decrease in EVs [68]. The total coverage area of forests, water bodies and wetlands accounted for more than 50% of the total area of the Dongting Lake, and these land cover types were the main components of the EVs of the Dongting Lake. Water conservation [69] and waste treatment [70] were the main regulating functions of the Dongting Lake because the Dongting Lake has large water and wetland coverage areas that are of great significance to the hydrological functioning of the Dongting Lake.  
To protect Dongting Lake's ecosystem and its endangered rare species, strengthen environmental planning and biodiversity monitoring in the surrounding area. In the planning of functional areas, it is necessary to scientifically plan biodiversity conservation areas, especially to define core protected areas and peripheral protected areas. In areas with high EVs in Dongting Lake, strengthen the protection of forest land and waters, comprehensively implement projects such as cleaning up the core area of protected areas and ecological restoration, and establish projects such as returning farmland to lakes, returning farmland to wetlands, wetland ecological restoration and controlling the impact of human activities on the disturbance of biodiversity in the region. In the areas with low EVs in Dongting Lake, establish the project of returning farmland to forest, strengthen the protection of water sources, reduce the disturbance of human activities to the ecosystem and improve the habitat volume of the entire ecosystem type. We must adopt different protection and development models according to local conditions in order to maintain the structural stability and service functions of the Dongting Lake ecosystem.
# Joint Iterative Satellite Pose Estimation and Particle Swarm Optimization
## 4 Results
### Testing Result  
In the testing results, the estimated mean of the position error is converted to meters, whereas the orientation is converted to Euler angles for ease of understanding and comparison [11]. Tables 5 and 6 present the testing results by evaluating 500 images and implementing the tested method with the COCO pretrained weight and the Soyuz_hard pretrained weight, respectively. The testing results are presented as mean position estimation errors and mean orientation estimation errors. The numerical values in the tables indicate that test case number 3, which is the PE-PSO method with a weight (\(\omega\)) of 0.3 and  
\begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c c c c c c} \hline  & \multicolumn{2}{c}{**Epoch 1**} & \multicolumn{2}{c}{**Epoch 50**} & \multicolumn{2}{c}{**Epoch 100**} \\ \hline  & **Mean** & \(\sigma\) & **Mean** & \(\sigma\) & **Mean** & \(\sigma\) \\ \hline \(\zeta_{1}\) & 0.9910 & 7.2056 & 0.6607 & 1.2528 & \(-\)1.0213 & 1.4733 \\ \(\zeta_{2}\) & 0.9119 & 6.7317 & 1.5065 & 1.4761 & 1.0754 & 1.2136 \\ \(\zeta_{3}\) & \(-\)1.3849 & 6.2698 & \(-\)4.3527 & 1.4546 & \(-\)4.7126 & 1.1934 \\ \(\zeta_{4}\) & 1.6168 & 7.3208 & 4.0583 & 1.2990 & 4.0312 & 1.2177 \\ \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table}
Table 4: The mean and standard deviation (\(\sigma\)) of each modified element of the slack variable (\(\zeta\)) in epochs 1, 50, and 100.  
Figure 5: Modifications of the slack variables (**a**) \(\zeta_{1}\), (**b**) \(\zeta_{2}\), (**c**) \(\zeta_{3}\), and (**d**) \(\zeta_{4}\) under the 400, 600, and 800 training batches in each epoch of the PE-PSO method.  
a weight damping ratio \(\left(\omega_{damp}\right)\) of 0.5, can achieve the best performance. It can reduce the position error from 1.3053 to 1.1346, representing an improvement of 13.1%, whereas it can improve the mean orientation estimation error under the COCO pretrained weight by 29.1%. Moreover, the PE-PSO method can enhance the performance achieved with the Soyuz_hard pretrained weight by reducing the mean position estimation error and the mean orientation estimation error by 7.8% and 0.3%, respectively. The values listed in Tables 5 and 6 confirm that the PE-PSO method can improve accuracy or reduce the error of satellite PE whenever it is deployed with the proper weight \(\left(\omega\right)\) and weight damping \(\left(\omega_{damp}\right)\) values.
# TSCH Multiflow Scheduling with QoS Guarantees:
## 1 Introduction
### TSCH Schedulers and Protocols
#### 1.2.2 Distributed  
These schedulers are based on negotiating the cell allocation of each node with its neighbours. In terms of reliability and delay performance they are similar to autonomous schedulers. They are also based on the RPL protocol, but have an added cost for the signalling and control messages used in the negotiation, Figure 2b. In [23], three possible alternatives are considered for the allocation of a cell from one node to an adjacent node: sharing of the same cell between all nodes, which reduces the complexity of signalling schedules but has negative effects in larger networks due to possible interference. Secondly, negotiation of a timeslot, which leads to an increase in energy consumption due to the exchange of messages. In addition, the last option, an arbitrary timeslot, which requires the use of hash functions to calculate the cell coordinates to be assigned by two adjacent nodes.  
The choice of allocation strategy will be determined by the requirements of the application in use. For an application with reliability requirements and high traffic load, the additional signalling option shall be chosen, whereas if there are more timing requirements, the use of hash functions is recommended. Decentralized Traffic Aware Scheduling (DeTAS) [6], Wave [7] and 6 TiSCH Minimal Scheduling Function (MSF) [24] are some of these distributed schedulers. However, hybrid algorithms using both strategies (hash and control messages) have also been proposed, such as DIS-TSCH [25].  
MSF defines how the scheduling of communications is managed in a distributed manner. It is built on the simplest scheduling scheme, scheduling with TSCH minimal. In this case, the scheduling is stored in the node, so there are no processes for cell allocation. Together with Orchestra, it is also the default in the Contiki-NG operating system. It contains a single slotframe with a preconfigured length where a single cell is scheduled for all nodes.  
In this way, any type of traffic is sent using this cell (EB, Data, RPL) [26]. As all nodes transmit and receive in the same timeslot and on the same channel Offset, this is called a shared cell, where collisions are very likely to occur. This single-slot operation results in very low energy consumption at the expense of a higher number of queued packets due to retransmissions. To improve performance, MSF includes a range of features that allow it to negotiate cells.  
Once a node has successfully joined and synchronised to the network, it can add, remove or relocate cells if any of the following reasons exist:  
* Adapt the link layer resources to the traffic between the node and the parent.
* Topology changes or parent switching.
* Managing a collision in the scheduling.
# Smart Detection System of Safety Hazards in Industry 5.0
## 3 Related Work and Background
### Synthetic Datasets
[22] contributed to object detection by crafting a synthetic dataset focused on household objects for the purpose of improving robotic scene understanding algorithms. Notably, they built this synthetic dataset in a virtual environment using the Unreal Engine platform. Focusing on the domain of facilities management, the authors in [26] propose an approach to enhance the performance of object detection algorithms. Specifically, this approach involves generating synthetically labeled images by leveraging pre-existing 3D building models and inserting them into a graphic engine. For the industrial case, the work in [27] presents a dataset with 200 K synthetic images for object detection purposes. The dataset is generated using a renderer, and the scenes are created in collaboration with different 3D experts. In addition to object detection, synthetic data also finds application in semantic segmentation. The paper in [28] demonstrates an approach that generates synthetic data to effectively train semantic segmentation AI algorithms in urban environments. Synthetic data can be exploited for construction site safety management. The work [29] presents a data-driven worker detection approach that generates synthetic data from the virtual environment. These samples are used to train object detection AI models to detect workers in sites from load-view crane cameras. The task of detecting and tracking construction workers is also tackled in [30]. The paper presents the process for creating synthetic scenes with a 3D creation suite, while these data are used to train an object detection algorithm. Moreover, the authors in [31] create a synthetic dataset that can be utilized for worker fall detection based on a virtual environment. Table 1 summarizes the above-mentioned research works. Although a valuable tool, the usage of synthetic datasets comes with certain drawbacks. One prominent limitation is the potential for a lack of fidelity to real-world data. While synthetic data can be meticulously crafted to replicate real-world scenarios, they may not fully capture the complexity, variability, and nuances of genuine environments [32]. As a result, when applied to real-world settings with unexpected challenges and unmodeled factors, models trained on synthetic datasets may struggle to generalize effectively. Furthermore, the accuracy of object annotations in synthetic datasets is heavily dependent on the quality of the modeling and annotation processes, while annotation errors or discrepancies can impede model training and evaluation.
## 5 Conclusions and Future Work  
In this paper we presented the design of a novel MFA mechanism based on image recognition and user established relations. The results of the testing and experimentation, along with an analysis of said results focusing on the accuracy, security, and usability achieved, were also presented.  
The mechanism achieved 100% accuracy in identifying and authenticating users if they did not forget their authentication elements and credentials, and 70.35% of total successful authentications in the very first attempts by users not accustomed to the mechanism.  
The mechanism proved to be an effective, user friendly, and novel method of MFA. This was ascertained by the large success rate of authentications and the user feedback, where users described the method as interactive and easy to use. The mechanism has an edge over mechanisms like OTP or biometric MFA mechanisms since it does not require a second device nor extra special hardware to complete authentication. This was mentioned by users in the feedback as a positive characteristic.  
Some of the limitations of the proposed MFA mechanism are that users found it difficult to memorize their authentication elements after an extended period, mainly the relations established between images. This caused failed authentications and push back from the users in the feedback, where they stated that this issue was an argument not to use this mechanism over more common alternatives.  
Future work could be focused on finding relations more seamlessly and in a way that facilitates memorization of such relations, perhaps by tweaking the user interface. However, it is a fact that it would be less likely for users to forget the established relationships if they utilized the mechanism regularly. User testing and experimentation including this type of adjustment would continue to improve the proposed MFA system with the objective of achieving user friendliness and acceptance.  
D.C.-T.: Data Curation, Investigation, Software, Resources, Visualization and Writing--original draft; J.A.P.-D.: Design of the system, Supervision and Writing--review & editing; J.A.C.-C.: Writing--review and editing. C.V.-R.: Writing--review & editing. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.  
This work was supported by the project \"Digital Technologies to Create Adaptive Smart Cities\" by Tecnologico de Monterrey Challenge-Based Research Funding Program. And partially supported by \"Red tematica Ciencia y Tecnologia para el Desarrollo (CYTED) 519 RT0580\" by the Ibero-American Science and Technology Program for Development CYTED.  
Not applicable.  
Data Availability Statement: Data available on request due to restrictions eg privacy or ethical. The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author. The data are not publicly available due to privacy concerns regarding images obtained from users' cell-phone gallery.  
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
# FSCB-IDS: Feature Selection and Minority Class Balancing for Attacks Detection in VANETs
## 3 Proposed Methodology
### Feature Selection  
The objective of feature selection is to eliminate unimportant and/or duplicate features so as to select the optimal set of features to build efficient models of the studied phenomena. The feature selection workflow consists of obtaining a score for each possible feature and selecting the better features. A feature's frequency is calculated in the training process for each instance, both positive and negative individually, and a function of these two is calculated. It is important to verify features in intrusion detection to identify the most crucial ones that will help in eliminating unnecessary data. In this paper, we have used mutual information [43] filtering method that measures the decrease in variance among two variables, as presented in Equation (6).  
\[\text{I}(\text{X};\text{Y})=\text{H}(\text{X})-\text{H}(\text{X}\,|\,\text{ Y}) \tag{6}\]  
\(\text{H}(\text{X})\): X's entropy  
\(\text{H}(\text{X}\,|\,\text{Y})\): X's conditional entropy given Y
## 4 Results and Analysis  
### Analysis of Meteorological Factors on Historical Forest Fire Occurrences  
#### 4.1.1 Trends in Historical Forest Fire Occurrences and Affected Areas  
As shown in Figure 4, between 1991 and 2021, Yunnan Province experienced a total of 10,986 forest fires, affecting an area of approximately 57,000 hectares. From 1991 to 1997, the frequency and scale of the fires were relatively stable. However, in 1999, due to extreme drought, insufficient fire prevention awareness, and outdated equipment, the fires were particularly severe. The period from 1998 to 2000 experienced extreme drought conditions, significantly increasing the likelihood of forest fires. Such extreme weather conditions could lead to atypically high peaks in fire occurrences [42]. From 2014 to 2018, the implementation of innovative fire regulations and enhanced monitoring and prevention measures effectively reduced the number and scale of fires in Yunnan Province [43; 44].  
Figure 4: Relationship between the number of forest fires and the area affected.  
In the spring and early summer of 2019, Yunnan experienced a historically rare seasonal drought, resulting in rapid fire spread and significant ecological damage [45]. Research indicates that in 2019, Yunnan was undergoing a warm and dry climatic trend, making the region more susceptible to droughts, with annual average precipitation decreasing by about 15 mm every decade and average temperatures rising approximately 0.19 \({}^{\circ}\)C per decade [46]. Compared to the drought in 2009-2010, the 2019 drought had a more significant impact on water resource storage in the southern regions of the province. The area became prone to drought even under higher rainfall conditions [47].
# Comprehensive Analysis of Maritime Cybersecurity Landscape Based on the NIST CSF v2.0
## 5 NIST CSF-Based Analysis of Maritime Cybersecurity
### Protect
#### 5.3.3 Data Security
[91] emphasized the critical need for reliable information transmission in the Maritime Transportation System (MTS). They proposed an IoT-enabled communication system integrated with blockchain technology, which was specifically designed to enhance data security and transaction integrity within the maritime context. Acknowledging the rising risk of cyberattacks, [PERSON] et al. [92] focused on the vulnerabilities of shipboard power systems, underscoring the need for robust data security measures to safeguard vital information. Recognizing the essential role of data transmission security in the IoUT, [PERSON] et al. [93] emphasized the need for robust encrypted color images to ensure data integrity and confidentiality. Similarly, [PERSON] et al. [94] addressed the increased risk of cyberattacks on digital shipboard marine radar systems, prompting the need to protect sensitive information in the maritime context. Lastly, [PERSON] et al. 's [95] research highlighted the need for encrypted data in ship information systems (SISs) to enhance the security of confidential data and mitigate cyber threats in the face of the COVID-19 pandemic. These consolidated articles underline the imperative of data security as the maritime domain grows increasingly digital, interconnected, and consequently vulnerable.