## 1 Introduction
#### Ecosystem Services  
Ecosystem services (ES) are defined as the benefits people obtain from nature [1; 4; 6]. ES connects human well-being and natural systems to ecological and economic development to lay a platform between nature and society [10]. Land use and land cover changes increase the population rate and have a huge impact on ES, which is leading to its degradation [11; 12; 13; 14; 15; 16]. Therefore, evaluation of ES has been the core subject of research in the academic section for years [17; 18], and the recent past interventions also show the readiness of the study to inform policymakers in undertaking essential decisions in the policy making process along, with the integration of ecology, geography, and economy [19]. In the study [20], the authors put forward that the authenticity of the ecosystem cannot be based on human intervention alone; the same is considered authentic when the researcher considers both pristine and altered forms of the ecosystem, therefore understanding the change in fundamental characteristics of the ecosystem. ES plays a vital part in constituting the well-being of an individual's life through security provision, meeting the basic needs for day-to-day life along with health and good social relationships with each other. Urban ecosystems are still a critical area of ES research, as half of the world's population dwells in urban areas. According to MEA, around 60% of global ES has been threatened or used inappropriately, and the same process is expected to continue essentially in the first half of the present century [1]. For this reason, recently, ES is significantly considered one of the vital aspects of land use planning and ecological environmental planning and management [19; 20; 21; 22; 23; 24; 25; 26; 27; 28; 29; 30; 31; 32]. The interaction between the ESs can take place in two ways. The first is trade-offs, where an increase in the effect of one of the ES results in a decreased effect in other ES. The second is synergies, where the increase in the effect of one ES also leads to the increased effect of other ES [23; 24]. When these relationships occur again across space and time, they are called ES bundles [25]. Understanding this relationship is rather critical, as it focuses on the relationship between ES by concentrating on inherent bundles rather than on discrete ES [26; 27; 28]. Studies by [PERSON] et al. say that the trade-offs and the synergies are caused by the interaction among various ecosystems, so the ecosystem services cannot be considered independent [29]. [PERSON] & [PERSON] infer that the study of various ES is complex [30]. Ecosystems can be monitored at different levels; they can be studied at a global scale or regional scale, or local scale. Global-level studies are carried out worldwide, but researchers suggest studying the services at the local level, which gives us a better understanding of the situation, helping us to take up appropriate mitigation strategies at a regional level. This helps us achieve sustainable goals at the global level [28]. Although research studies by a wide range of scholars have shed light on the interaction of various ecosystem services in recent years, the amalgamation of our existing knowledge repository and gaps is still inadequate [31]. Various other frameworks emerged in the recent past for ES studies [33]. To account for the natural capital, Common International Classification of Ecosystem Services (CICES) integrates different criteria of various ESs. Closely capturing concepts that relate to nature's contribution to humans is the framework developed by Inter-governmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES). To understand ES, Ref. [1] came up with a base framework for global ES study; therefore, ES can be classified into four categories: (i) provisioning ecosystem services, (ii) regulating ecosystem services, (iii) cultural ecosystem services, and (iv) supporting ecosystem services.