# Data-Enabled Design for Social Change: Two Case Studies
## 2 Related Work
The project also stimulated participants in discussing and interpreting the data they collected every day. They also shared strategies adopted when they had captured dangerously high readings, such as finding alternate routes to be less polluted. Other examples of new recent forms of participation in large amount of data gathering are known as Participatory Sensing (PS). This is a movement that observes and collects masses of highly detailed information that can then be used to improve quality of life in a great variety of different sectors, from environment to health and culture [PERSON] et al. (2010). This approach involves citizens in the monitoring and control of the environment they live in, in the broadest sense of the term, meaning both territory and sociocultural space. Illustrious examples of PS include the Citizen Science project described above, but also embrace those developed by the University of California, Los Angeles, where students were involved in projects ranging from improvement of transportation to recycling, water monitoring, safety and health [PERSON] et al. (2010). However PS sees citizens primarily as \"data gatherers\" rather than partners of a sense-making and interpretation process of the generated data. The Timestreams Platform, developed by [PERSON] et al. (2010), tries to move more towards sense-making. This platform uses ubiquitous and pervasive computing for gathering and externalising a variety of data (e.g., CO\({}_{2}\), temperature, humidity, images and videos) by artists, to boost a societal discussion about climate change. The Brazilian artist [PERSON] created a record whose speed when played was controlled by the CO\({}_{2}\) data collected on the Timestreams platform. Although citizens have a different role in this project, the gatherers of information are not the same persons as the ones interpreting the data. So it seems that citizens can take up various roles in user-centred data-related design. As [PERSON] and [PERSON] [PERSON] and [PERSON] (2010) show in their map of UCD research (see Figure 1), most of the approaches to user-involvement can be mapped on a two-dimensional chart ranging from \"users as subject and source of information\" (user-centred design) to \"users as participants and/or design partner\" (participatory design, co-design, co-creation). The approaches share a fundamental issue in defining a suitable role for the users to deal with complex smart ecosystems. An example of data-related user-centered design approach that is positioned on the left side of the figure is Cell Phone Intervention for You (CITY), where young adults are involved in user tests during which they receive behavioural interventions on their mobile phones to stimulate them to lose weight [PERSON] et al. (2010). The above-mentioned examples of PS and citizen science are more centred around the middle or moving to the right when users have a more equal and participatory role (Figure 1). In our own data-enabled design approach we also try to explore the right side of this figure. The second challenge is related to techniques and methodologies for performing data-enabled design research. These methodologies range from screen-based approaches such as Virtual Ethnography [17] that adapts traditional observational methods to online fieldwork to the use of sensing technology worn by the users (see PS described above), and to approaches combining opinion-based and behaviour-based data [8; 18]. This also creates challenges for design researchers. As described above, the roles of users are changing due to technological developments such as ubiquitous wireless networking, an explosive growth of Web 2.0 sites and connected IoT technology. That means that the amount of data generated by citizens as \"amateur professionals\" (instead of the previous passive consumer who was merely digesting professionally created content) is exploding and by far exceeding the quantity of professionally created content [19].