## 3 Security and Privacy Attacks and Threats in EC-Based IoT
Location awareness of EC nodes, e.g., Wi-Fi hotspots and base stations (BSs), can be exploited by attackers, and then they can detect and track the device's physical location or other sensitive information from the physical location of EC nodes. In addition, if users connect to multiple EC nodes simultaneously to access a particular service, the physical location of a user's device can be precisely detected using positioning techniques [32, 33, 99, 105]. The EC paradigm in IoT is a combination of heterogeneous resources and devices manufactured by various vendors. Generally, there is no agreed framework or standard policies for the implementation of this paradigm; still, there are many undetected security and privacy threats [33]. Table 1 shows a summary of security and privacy attacks and related solutions and countermeasures according to the solutions explained in Section 4 and their related IDs in Table 2. Table 3 shows the definitions of the security principles outlined in Table 1. \begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c c c c c c c c} \hline  & \multicolumn{6}{c}{**Against**} \\  & **Confidentiality** & **Integrity** & **Availability** & **Accountability** & **Nonrepudiation** & **Trust** & **Privacy** & \\ \hline Attacks and threats & & & & & & & & Solutions \\ \hline Malicious injections & ✓ & ✓ & ✓ & ✓ & ✓ & ✓ & ✓ & 18 \\ \hline Node replication & ✓ & ✓ & ✓ & ✓ & ✓ & ✓ & ✓ & ✓ & \\ \hline Hardware Trojans & ✓ & ✓ & ✓ & ✓ & ✓ & ✓ & ✓ & \(4,5,6\) \\ \hline Camouflage & ✓ & ✓ & ✓ & ✓ & ✓ & ✓ & ✓ & ✓ & \(4,5,6,11\) \\ \hline Corrupted or malicious EC nodes & ✓ & ✓ & ✓ & ✓ & ✓ & ✓ & ✓ & ✓ & \(4,5,6,11\) \\ \hline Injecting fraudulent packets & & ✓ & & & & ✓ & ✓ & ✓ & \(10,11\) \\ \hline Side-channel attacks & ✓ & & & & & ✓ & ✓ & \(6\) \\ \hline Jamming attacks & & & ✓ & ✓ & ✓ & & ✓ & \(2,8,10,11\) \\ \hline Denial-of-service & & & & ✓ & ✓ & ✓ & & ✓ & \(1,2,8,10,11\) \\ (D6) attacks & & & & ✓ & ✓ & ✓ & & ✓ & \(1,2,8,10,11\) \\ \hline Physical attacks/tampering & ✓ & ✓ & ✓ & ✓ & ✓ & ✓ & ✓ & ✓ & \(6\) \\ \hline Eavesdropping or sniffing & ✓ & & & & & ✓ & & ✓ & \(11\) \\ \hline Routing information attacks & ✓ & ✓ & & ✓ & ✓ & ✓ & & ✓ & \(9\) \\ \hline Forgery attacks & & ✓ & & & ✓ & ✓ & ✓ & ✓ & \(10,11\) \\ \hline Unauthorized control access & ✓ & ✓ & ✓ & ✓ & ✓ & ✓ & ✓ & ✓ & \(10,14\) \\ \hline Integrity attacks against & ✓ & ✓ & & & & & & & \(19\) \\ machine learning & & & & & & & & \(19\) \\ \hline Replay attack or & & & & & & ✓ & ✓ & ✓ & \(10,11\) \\ freshness attacks & & & & & & ✓ & ✓ & \(18\) \\ \hline Insufficient/inessential & & & & & ✓ & ✓ & & ✓ & \(18\) \\ logging attacks & ✓ & & & & ✓ & ✓ & ✓ & ✓ & \(18\) \\ \hline Nonstandard frameworks & & & & & & & & & \(19\) \\ and inadequate testing & ✓ & ✓ & ✓ & ✓ & ✓ & ✓ & ✓ & \(18\) \\ \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table} 
Table 1: Summary of security and privacy attacks and related solutions and countermeasures. \begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{l l l l} \hline \hline
**Solutions and Countermeasures** & **ID** & **Espination** \\ \hline Packet filters & & 1 & Accept or deny packets from particular addresses of services by setting up routers, firewalls, or servers [120] \\ Firewalls & & 2 & Apply a set of rules of the boundary between two or more networks and specify which traffic is allowed and which is defined. \\ Physical security & & 3 & literally access to key servers to key servers, by keeping the resources behind a local door and/or prepotted from natural and human-made disasters, motivated and unauthorised places of equipment, hackers, competitors, and terrorist and bubharmed events by keeping resources behind a local and protected device [121]. \\ Countermeasures for malicious & Side-channel signal analysis & 4 & Implementing timing, power, and spatial temperature testing analysis and by detecting unusual behaviors of nodes/devions, detecting hardware brains and malicious firmware/software installed on IoT PCs/devices.