## 4 Blockchain
### Blockchain Implementations in Government  
Blockchain-based solutions vary from an industry to another in domain and their applications. We can find various implementations, ranging from the energy sector [29; 30] to finance [31], healthcare, supply chains [32], academia [33; 34], and many more. Nonetheless, blockchain technology helps the government sector to improve services by offering solutions in the following areas:  
* Land registry--Blockchains can create immutable land records, making title transfers transparent and reducing fraud. The Swedish government is testing a blockchain land registry system [35]. Voting system--Blockchain-based e-voting can enable transparent, tamper-proof, and verifiable elections. Brazil has implemented a blockchain voting system [36], as well as Estonia, who is setting an example in the region [37]. * Identity management--Blockchain digital IDs can prevent identity theft and enable seamless Know Your Customers (KYC) processes. Dubai plans to put all government documents on a blockchain by 2020 [38]. * Taxation--Blockchain technology can improve tax filing, collection, and audits through trackable records and the automation of processes. The UK's tax authority is exploring using a blockchain for VAT collection [39]. * Benefits disbursement--Blockchain wallet systems can enable the direct fraud-proof transfer of government benefits and welfare schemes. The World Food Programme uses a blockchain for aid distribution [40]. * Regulatory compliance--Blockchain'regtech' solutions can make regulatory reporting and compliance more efficient through shared ledgers between regulators and entities [41]. The US Security and Exchange Commission (SEC) is implementing a blockchain for regulatory oversight [42]. * Public procurement--Blockchain technology enables transparency and immutability in government procurement through tamper-proof contract data and spending records on a public ledger. Dubai uses a blockchain for government procurement [43]. Despite the credentials of blockchain and its various applications in the government field, it is yet to be explored and tested for national population censuses. Due to the characteristics of blockchain technology, it is expected that blockchain-based systems for population and housing censuses will also inherit these characteristics. Therefore, such systems can potentially be used for the following:  
* Recording census data--Census data like name, age, address, etc., can be recorded on a blockchain in a secure and immutable way. These data would be transparent, while also protecting privacy through encryption. * Data integrity--Blockchain's distributed nature makes census data highly secure and immutable. Once recorded, the data cannot be altered without network consensus. This ensures accuracy and trust in census figures. * Authentication of census enumerators--Blockchain technology can enable the secure authentication of census enumerators using digital IDs. Their activities, like surveys completed, can also be immutably recorded on the chain. * Access control for data--Census data on the blockchain can consist of granularly permissions to ensure that only authorized parties can access specific data. This maintains transparency while also prioritizing privacy. * Automating parts of the census--Smart contracts enabled via a blockchain allow for the automation of certain census operations like notifications, tracking fieldwork, and data transfer between parties. * Decentralized identification system--Blockchain technology can be used to create tamper-proof digital IDs for citizens that are secured cryptographically. This allows for the unique identification and authentication of each person. Our research hypothesis is that the implementation of blockchain technology holds the promise to alleviate, if not entirely eradicate, the identified challenges and potential solutions listed in Table 1.