# Plants as Symbols of Power in the Achaemenid Iconography of Ancient Persian Monuments
## 4 Discussion
### Other Saccred Ceremonial Plants and Their Significance in Ritual Offerings  
A number of different ceremonial plants offered to the king were represented in ceremonial rituals (in the case of the Apadana staircase, this was probably the New Year ceremony [26; 154; 155] or traditional epic events [156]). A prominent role is held by the mandrake (_Mandragon officinarum_), which was associated with the creation myth. It is for this reason that, when [PERSON] (according to [PERSON], the first human to worship [PERSON]) died, a mandrake grew from his semen after forty years. In this belief system, human beings, or the first man and woman in the world, '[PERSON] and [PERSON]', respectively, were created from the dual root of this plant [104; 105]. In Ancient Egypt, the mandrake was one of the most important flowers in gardens, and it appears widely in their imagery as a symbol of potency and sexual vitality [13]. It is likely that the New Kingdom knew of the effects of, for example, mandrake, poppy, and cannabis as narcotics, sedatives, and pain relievers as well as their mind-altering properties [107; 140], and therefore used in ritual magic and healing [140]. It is possible that the portrayal of this plant in Achaememid art might not strictly adhere to its factual dimensions. In fact, despite potential deviations from accurate dimensions, these representations prioritize symbolic significance over precise measurements, aiming to convey authority and grandeur within Achaememid art, as influenced by Egyptian elements. Finally, its golden round fruits were also seen as a symbol of the sun [5]. In the case of cf. _Ephera_ sp., while the specific morphological characteristics of this plant may not be immediately evident, we know that Iranians have known and used it from as early as the Zoroastrian period. The ritual practices involving Haoma might have evolved in an area with different flora from the final settlement, prompting substitutions with locally available substances. Scholars have proposed various candidates for Haoma, including Ephedra, which Iranians have historically used [157]. According to [PERSON] [158], Parsi-Zoroastrians used _Ephera procera_ (perhaps _E. sinica_ or _E. vulgaris_[108]), which was imported from the Hari River valley in Afghanistan. This plant contains the drug ephedrineand was a source of an Iranian anti-fatigue drink called Haoma, which was used in rituals in Persepolis and became a traditional drink of immortality and longevity [159]. Pomegranates (_Punica granatum_), with their dietary and medicinal properties, have been used as symbols of human fertility in the ancient Near East and Mediterranean regions since the fourth millennium BCE [143]. Pomegranates featured prominently in Assyrian rituals and royal gardens [47; 65], and are depicted in rock relief representations (e.g., the [PERSON] of Tutankhamun [47; 49; 65; 160] in Egypt and Nimrud in Assyria [47; 49; 65]). Several historical studies have found evidence of large-scale pomegranate plantations [149], and archaeobotanical pollen from Persepolis as well as other historical documents, such as those in the Persepolis Fortification Archive (PFa33), demonstrate that it was the subject of intensive arboricultural activities in the heartland of the Achaemenid Empire [161]. In Ancient Persia, the pomegranate was connected to religious beliefs and myths [162] and was a symbol of [PERSON], the goddess of water and of fertility. The pomegranate was a highly respected plant in Zoroastriani and was planted in the courtyards of Fire Temples, while its twigs and seeds were used in certain Zoroastrian rituals and customs [110; 163]  
_Cyperus papyrus_ is native to northern Africa [100] and does not naturally occur in Ancient Persia. Their depictions probably refer to the symbolism of _C. papyrus_ from Egypt, like in the Palace [PERSON] in Susa, where the combination of the lotus stalk (a symbol of Upper Egypt) and the papyrus (representing Lower Egypt) signifies the union of the two lands [24]. Finally, myrtle (cf.