## 2 Materials and Methods  
### Site Description  
Five villages from Centane (namely Holela, KwaZingxala, Jojweni, Mapondweni, and kwaMakhama) and five villages (Gwwalibomvu, Qombolo, kuHange, Komkhulu, and esiXhotyeni) in the Tomo demarcation were selected to participate in the current survey (Figure 1). The two small towns are situated in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. The province is made up of thirty-seven district municipalities. Centane is located within the Mnquma Local Municipality, situated at 32.18 degrees south latitude, 28.02 degrees east longitude. The town has an elevation of approximately 501 m above sea level. With an area of about 4.39 km\({}^{2}\), Centane is home to an average population of 1456 people, resulting in a population density of 330 individuals per square kilometer. The demographic composition of Centane reflects a diverse community. The majority, comprising 96.2% of the population, identifies as Xhosa. Additionally, there is a presence of other ethnic groups, with 0.8% being of colored descent, 0.2% Indian/Asian, 1.1% white, and 1.7% belonging to various other tribes. On the other hand, Tomo is situated within the Intsika-Yethu Local Municipality, located at 31.93 degrees south latitude and 27.64 degrees east longitude. It is positioned at an elevation of approximately 1083 m above sea level. Tomo covers an area of about 3.72 km\({}^{2}\) and has an average population of 2108 individuals, resulting in a population density of 570 people per square kilometer. The demographic composition of Tomo is characterized by a predominantly Black African population, accounting for 94.8% of the residents. There is also a presence of other ethnic groups, including 2.1% colored, 1.7% Indian/Asian, and 1.3% White individuals. Regarding language usage, the majority of the population in Tomo, comprising 88.7%, speaks Xhosa. Additionally, 3.1% of the residents use English as a primary language, 1.1% speak Afrikans, and 7.0% communicate in various other languages. The two small towns are known to suffer from several socioeconomic challenges, including a high youth unemployment rate, and most people depend on government social grants and subsistence livestock farming as primary income sources. Whether it is crop, livestock production, or both, farming is the lifeblood of this resource-constrained local population, keeping indigenous cattle breeds and sheep as the most preferred livestock species in both areas. The region is sparsely populated and fragile to climate variability, experiencing extremes of drought and foods. Animals in the study area rely on natural pastures as a source of feed. The climate of the two small towns is commonly characterized by a slightly hot summer; high humidity all the year-round; and inconsistent rainfall (annual average rainfall of 473.2 mm), which is received during November to April. On average, the site recorded a daily maximum temperature of 25.8 \({}^{\circ}\)C and a minimum temperature of 11.2 \({}^{\circ}\)C. The humidity is high throughout the year, with the average being 72.1%. The study area is located in a hot, humid zone that has four distinct seasons, viz post-rainy (March to May), cold-dry (June to August), hot-dry (September to November), and hot-wet (December to February). The area lies in a lowland characterized by steep, isolated mountains, and the weld type is predominantly Bhisho Thornveld [31]. Several trees characterize the vegetation in the region, including shrubs and grass species, with Acacia Karoo, Themeda triandra, Panicum maximum, Digitaria eriantha, Eragrostis spp., Cynodon dactylion, and Pennisetum clan-destinum being the dominant plant species [32]. Soils are extremely heterogeneous but are predominantly sedimentary (sand and mudstones) with some variation when intrusions of igneous rock (doleritic dykes and sheets) result in red soils occurring in some areas [9].