## 2 Theory
### ITU Framework of Universal Access  
The Telecommunications Access Framework provides an observational perspective on how to geographically expand the telecommunications access considering people's opportunity to obtain telecommunications. In 2002, a framework was developed to explore the universal accessibility of telecommunications in rural areas while mapping telecommunications access disparities. [PERSON] et al. [46] initiated pioneering research and published a framework entitled, \"Telecommunications and Information Services for the Poor: Toward a Strategy for Universal Access\" in 2002. [PERSON] and [PERSON] [47] introduced the gap model in 2006, modifying the dimensions (x and y axes) of the framework. Formerly influenced by poverty and geographical isolation, the revised dimensions were influenced by availability/supply and needs/demand, thereby triggering market efficiency, market gaps, and access gaps. This model best explains the impact of market forces, regulatory decisions, and financial constraints on the growth of the telecommunications market, particularly in regions with lower incomes, higher costs, and unevenly distributed populations.  
In 2009, [PERSON] et al. [48] streamlined the gap model framework by introducing the terms existing coverage, efficient market gap, and coverage gap (e.g., sustainable coverage gap and universal coverage gap) to the x and y axes. ITU and Intelecon-World Bank adopted the framework in the form of an ICT Regulation Tool Kit in 2010 [3] as a guide for global universal access. The ITU framework is considered to be the most applicable to Indonesia's situation as Indonesia has not established a per-household coverage speed target [49].  
There is a connection between available access and service utilization. If there are routine users within the home, household penetration becomes effective. Household penetration is the amount of network access and reach that each person in the house uses on their own. On the other hand, a routine user uses a service whenever it is useful in daily life, as opposed to only in exceptional situations or emergencies. To become routine users, most individuals require the convenience of private services, which they will only acquire if they are accessible and affordable. There are stages in the process of achieving routine users, beginning with the deployment of infrastructure coverage, continuing with the development of public access and the provision of shared resources, and concluding with private access. This transition model from infrastructure coverage to routine use is applicable to both telephones and the Internet. However, there is a significant distinction between the telephone and Internet staircases: no qualification or skill is required to use a telephone, whereas using the Internet effectively requires specific levels of literacy, practice, and specialized skills (e.g., use of software, knowledge of English). In general, most people require or desire affordable telephone services, but not necessarily Internet access. Even in developed nations, large portions of the population do not wish to use the Internet for a variety of reasons. Younger people appear to have a much easier time acquiring the skills required to use the Internet, while older people frequently lack both the interest and necessary skills. Moreover, in developing nations with lower levels of education and less relevant content, there are more barriers to Internet usage, even in places where it is accessible and affordable.  
Figure 5: Wae Rebo Isolated Kampoeng—Original Photos from [44,45].