## 3 Results and Discussion
### Rock-Water Interaction and Source Deduction  
According to Figures 6 and 7, the cations and anions are mostly produced via rock weathering rather than evaporation, crystallization, or precipitation. The weathering of crystalline dolomitic limestones and calcium-magnesium silicates, primarily calcite, gypsum, and plagioclase, can provide a significant amount of these ions [62]. Both Ca\({}^{2+}\) and Mg\({}^{2+}\) may react with HCO\({}_{3}\)\({}^{-}\) and form calcite and dolomite, respectively. Since Ca\({}^{2+}\) and Mg\({}^{2+}\) react with HCO\({}_{3}\)\({}^{-}\), the Ca\({}^{2+}\)/HCO\({}_{3}\)\({}^{-}\)and Mg\({}^{2+}\)/HCO\({}_{3}\)\({}^{-}\) ratios would be directly related [63]. Even though the current study found a strong positive correlation between Ca\({}^{2+}\)/HCO\({}_{3}\)\({}^{-}\) and Mg\({}^{2+}\)/HCO\({}_{3}\)\({}^{-}\) (\(r^{2}\) = 0.962), calcite and dolomite formation is difficult when TDS levels are less than 600 mg:L\({}^{-1}\)[64; 65]. Since the average TDS (321 mg:L\({}^{-1}\); see Figure 8) is substantially lower than the required value, calcite and dolomite dissolution may not be achievable in the study area. Furthermore, if Ca\({}^{2+}\) and Mg\({}^{2+}\) come only through carbonate dissolution in aquifer materials and weathering of supplementary pyroxene or amphibe minerals, the (Ca\({}^{2+}\) + Mg\({}^{2+}\))/ HCO\({}_{3}\)\({}^{-}\) ratio would be 0.5 [66]. However, Figure 9 indicates that the ratio is slightly higher than 0.5 (or the 1:2 line), indicating that it is above the 1:2 line. The higher (Ca\({}^{2+}\) + Mg\({}^{2+}\))/HCO\({}_{3}\)\({}^{-}\) ratio clearly indicates that most groundwater samples have Ca\({}^{2+}\) + Mg\({}^{2+}\) dominance over HCO\({}_{3}\)\({}^{-}\), which reflects the concentration of Ca\({}^{2+}\) + Mg\({}^{2+}\) from carbonate dissolution (reverse ion exchange). The lower (Ca\({}^{2+}\) + Mg\({}^{2+}\))/HCO\({}_{3}\)\({}^{-}\) ratio in a minority of groundwater samples indicates silicate weathering [67; 68; 69]. The plot of (Ca\({}^{2+}\) + Mg\({}^{2+}\)) vs. (HCO\({}_{3}\)\({}^{-}\) + SO\({}_{4}\)\({}^{2-}\)) in Figure 9b shows that all samples are slightly above the 1:1 line, indicating that weathering and dissolution of carbonates and gypsum, as well as reverse ion exchange, are primarily responsible for the formation of these chemical elements [70; 71; 72]. Furthermore, an excess of alkaline earth elements (Ca\({}^{2+}\) and Mg\({}^{2+}\)) indicates an additional source of them which is balanced by Cl\({}^{-}\) and SO\({}_{4}\)\({}^{2-}\)[62]. This claim is corroborated by Figure 9c, which displays (Ca\({}^{2+}\) + Mg\({}^{2+}\)) vs. total cation data immediately above and below the 1:1 line, indicating a growing and decreasing contribution of Na\({}^{+}\) and K\({}^{+}\) as TDS rises and falls [73; 74]. Figure 7: Gibbs diagram showing the ratio of (Cl\({}^{-}\)/HCO\({}_{3}\)\({}^{-}\) + Cl\({}^{-}\)) and (Na\({}^{+}\) + K\({}^{+}\))/(Na\({}^{+}\) + K\({}^{+}\) + Ca\({}^{2+}\)) vs. TDS. Figure 8: Spatial distribution of the total dissolved salts (TDS) in the study area. The (Na\({}^{+}\) + K\({}^{+}\))/Cl\({}^{-}\) (Figure 9d) shows that 100% of the samples are below the 1:1 equilibrium line, indicating that reverse ion-exchange activity has depleted (Na\({}^{+}\) + K\({}^{+}\)) in the springs and wells [75; 76; 77]. If sample points lie along the 1:1 equiline in a plot of sodium versus chloride (Figure 9e), halite dissolution is the source of sodium and chloride [73; 74; 78; 79]. The silicate weathering process is indicated by a Na/Cl ratio > 1 [69; 80]. The Na\({}^{+}\) versus Cl\({}^{-}\) scatter plot shows that the bulk of the samples is below the 1:1 equiline in this investigation (Figure 9f). The cation exchange mechanisms and human effects are both to blame for the excess chloride in spring water. The Na-normalized [81] Ca\({}^{2+}\) and Mg\({}^{2+}\) ratios may have been related. As a result, in Figure 10a, the molar ratios of Mg\({}^{2+}\)/Na\({}^{+}\) vs. Ca\({}^{2+}\)/Na\({}^{+}\) are plotted in a log-log plot.