# Cybersecurity Vulnerabilities in Off-Site Construction
## 7 Conclusions  
In this review, we presented the cyber vulnerabilities of adopting IR4 technologies in off-site construction. The reviewed literature noted that the OSC has experienced a sluggish adoption of IR4 due to increased costs, limited knowledge, and cybersecurity issues [5, 6, 25, 26]. Cybersecurity was presented as one of the most crucial components that has received little or no attention in OSC based on the limited publications. For this purpose, this study was formulated to evaluate the malware risks associated with the digitalization of the OSC value chain and to perform an analysis on the existing cybersecurity frameworks. In addition to the preliminary review of the cybersecurity vulnerabilities, threats, and risks of the OSC, this review can be used as a guide for presenting cybersecurity management in the complex OSC value chain, which encompasses IoT-based manufacturing and construction. After introducing the history of computer malware, we conducted a step-by-step analysis of the OSC value chain. We proposed that more emphasis is required at every stage of the construction and during the entire project life cycle process. A description of how an attack can be staged on an additive manufacturing OSC project was given. The CIA framework was identified in the literature to be the most basic cybersecurity framework from which other frameworks branch, and it operates under confidentiality, integrity, and availability. Adding the modifications of utility, possession, and authenticity attributes establishes the Parkerian hexad. Further Boyes modifications resulted in the extended Parkerian hexad. These three cybersecurity models do not provide specifics to OSC, and, as modifications are made, they tend to take an incomprehensible complex form. Moreover, the attributes they represent have substantial overlap with one another. For example, the definition of resilience in the extended Parkerian specifies how a system can endure the malfunction of communications and networking components before entire system failure [63], which has a similar meaning to the confidentiality attribute in the CIA model. The NIST framework provides more simplified and distinct attributes but has extensively generic strategies. This approach is integrated with the ISO 19650-5 framework and has been applied in construction more effectively due to its simplified approach. [PERSON] et al. [57] argued that frameworks should not be classified as wrong or right but as whether they are helpful or not. In principle, frameworks present what is expected for a secure cybersecurity system, and modifications are made as the scope and definition of expectationsexpand. From the survey literature, there is no cybersecurity framework that has been tailored for the OSC industry. We proposed the importance of adapted management, which incorporates blockchain technology despite limited attempts of its implementation in the construction industry. Blockchain technology was identified as a potentially secure way to ensure software and hardware security. The analysis conducted in this paper has made it clear that cybersecurity is more than simply a technical term. The growth of the OSC industry depends on the development of competent and specific cybersecurity frameworks and management tools that meet the OSC sector's unique needs. We highlighted the significant risks and the currently available solutions that need to be improved to boost the growth of OSC. We recommend the development of an OSC-suited cybersecurity framework. Conceptualization, Z.L. and C.A.J. ; methodology, K.N. ; validation, K.N., C.A.J. and Z.L. ; formal analysis, K.N. ; investigation, K.N. ; resources, Z.L. and C.A.J. ; data curation, K.N. ; writing--original draft preparation, K.N. ; writing--review and editing, K.N., Z.L. and C.A.J. ; supervision, C.A.J. and Z.L. ; project administration, C.A.J. and Z.L. ; funding acquisition, C.A.J. and Z.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.