## 3 Results
### Biophysical Opportunities for Low ILUC Risk Crops
#### 3.1.3 Sustainable Agricultural Practices
Diverse crop rotations have the potential to deliver organic carbon to the soil derived from harvest residues, root residues, and root exudates. The effect is mainly determined by the amount and composition of the harvest residues [40]. Crop rotation achieved higher yields, less weed pressure, and higher soil C and N content in Poland in spring wheat [42] and in spring barley [43]. Data of 30 long-term experiments collected from 13 case study sites in Europe show that crop rotation had a positive effect on soil organic matter (SOM) content and yield and positively influenced earthworm numbers. Overall, crop rotation had little impact on soil pH and aggregate stability [44]. Farmers in Finland are worried about wet conditions in winter, more frequent heavy rains, and wet conditions during the harvest periods, which affect crop yields, nutrient leaching, and erosion. In response, specific crop rotations, including the use of deep-rooted crops (i.e., clover and oilseed), have been proposed by local scientists [45]. In Italy, adopting 2 or 3 year crop rotations (based on winter wheat and tomato) under future conditions led to an increase in soil organic carbon (SOC) by approximately 10% of the SOC content of the current system that is based on continuous wheat [46]. Agroforestry involves land-use systems and practices where woody perennials are deliberately integrated with crops and/or animals on parcels with the same land management, without the intention to establish a permanent forest stand. The trees may be arranged as single stems, in rows or in groups, and grazing may also take place inside parcels (silvoarable agroforestry, Silvo pastoralism, grazed or intercropped orchards) or on the limits between parcels (hedges, tree lines). The standing stock of carbon aboveground is usually greater than the equivalent land use without trees, and planting trees may also increase soil carbon sequestration [47; 48; 49; 50]. Root systems of intercropped trees enable input of carbon to deeper soil layers compared to crops [39; 40]. Review studies of agroforestry systems reduced surface runoff and soil, SOC, and nutrient losses by average values of 58%, 65%, 9%, and 50%, respectively. They also lowered herbicide, pesticide, and other pollutant losses by 49% on average. However, [PERSON] et al. (2021) [51] called for a caution: only a few studies provide results based on strong evidence, and more detailed reporting on effects of agroforestry on soil quality aspects is needed. However, results from available studies do show that agroforestry can lead to benefits on biodiversity [51; 52; 53; 54]. Soil enrichment can be achieved with biochar. The application of biochar produced from biowastes to soils could be a very good way to reduce demand for fertilisers (cutting dependency, costs, and pollution), sequester carbon, and enable relatively cheap and lasting amelioration of degraded land and sustainable and improved agriculture [30]. The pyrolysis process produces biochar as well as two additional materials, syngas and bio-oil, that may have commercial value as energy sources. Biochars differ depending on the feedstock, temperature, and residence time and have been effective tools of waste management, soil remediation, and may also offer mitigation of GHG emissions through carbon sequestration [31]. Due to the large variability of biochar, one type of biochar may not be suitable for all growing conditions and crops.