## 1 Introduction  
The advancement of wireless communication technologies has had a profound impact on the development and implementation of sensor networks. The emergence of private 5G networks is revolutionizing Industry 4.0 by introducing new wireless communication systems, allowing sensor networks to achieve unprecedented levels of connectivity, reliability, and efficiency by facilitating the interconnection of objects, machines, and individuals [1, 2]. The private 5G market is experiencing rapid growth, driven primarily by Industry 4.0, which requires real-time data and reliable communication. According to a verified market research report, the global market size of private 5G deployments was valued at USD 3.92 billion in 2023, with a projected compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 38.80% from 2024 to 2031 [3]. Similarly, the Internet of Things (IoT) sensor market, valued at USD 12.34 billion in 2023, is expected to grow at a CAGR of 31.5% from 2024 to 2032, as reported by Polaris market research [4]. The key characteristics of private 5G sensor networks include ultra-low-latency communication (URLLC), enhanced mobile broadband (eMBB), massive machine-type connectivity (mMTC), security and privacy, and network slicing [5, 6]. Private 5G sensors provide ultra-low latency as low as 1 MS, which is crucial for time-sensitive sensor applications in industrial automation, where rapid data processing and response are required. Private 5G sensor networks provide significantly higher data rates than previous generations, enabling real-time transmission of large amounts of sensor data. Also, private 5G sensor networks can support up to one million sensors per square kilometer, making it ideal for dense sensor deployments in large industrial environments [7]. On-premises deployments of private 5G sensor networks provide control over security and data privacy and mitigate the risks associated with public networks [8]. The private 5G sensor networks allow for the creation of virtual networks tailored to specific applications or use cases, thus ensuring that sensor clusters operate efficiently under different requirements [9]. However, there are significant challenges to realizing private 5G sensor networks due to their deployment complexity and the multiple different hardware/software components from different vendors involved [10; 11]. A verified market research report identifies interoperability issues as a critical obstacle when private 5G networks integrate with existing technologies and devices requiring seamless communication across various systems and standards. Achieving these demands requires meticulous planning and robust solutions, which can complicate deployment and lead to higher costs [3]. The market and market reports highlight the seamless integration of private 5G networks with legacy systems as another significant challenge. This integration requires thorough consideration of compatibility issues to ensure uninterrupted data exchange between legacy systems and private 5G networks [12]. The market and market IoT sensor research report also stresses the need to establish common protocols and communication standards to enable the interoperability of IoT sensor devices [13]. Polaris market research points out that security and privacy concerns are significant challenges for sensor networks [4]. A CIO survey by NTT reveals that the most common barriers to deploying private 5G networks are the integration of the technology with legacy systems and networks, the complexity of deploying and managing these networks, and a lack of technical skills and expertise among employees to manage them [14; 15]. Given these interoperability and network management challenges, it is essential to develop solutions that facilitate the seamless integration of private 5G networks with legacy systems and ensure their manageability through existing industrial systems. Figure 1 illustrates a private 5G sensor network within an industrial automation environment, addressing interoperability and network management challenges.