## 2 Legal Status of Mega-Constellations under International Space Law  
### International Treaties and Principles Governing Mega-Constellations  
The legal status of mega-constellations is currently an evolving and contentious issue in international space law [7]. Through the United Nations Committee On Peaceful Uses of Outer Space [8], five space treaties have been molded over time by the application of domestic policies and regulations as a result of the obligation placed upon states by Article 6 of the Outer Space Treaty. The 1967 Outer Space Treaty [9], also referred to as the Constitution of Outer Space [10; 11], provides the basic framework on international space law, as well as the basic principles pertaining to the conduct of space activities. However, it does not specifically address the unique challenges posed by mega-constellations consisting of thousands of satellites. These treaties were drafted in the 1960s-1970s, when only a handful of large, individual satellites were being launched. As a result, there are significant gaps and ambiguities in how existing space law applies to mega-constellations.  
During its early stages, in order to ensure uniformity and align with norms and standards promoting responsible behavior, the Outer Space Treaty required all space actors to comply with international laws through a number of principles. These included the freedom of exploration and use of outer space; carrying out space activities for the benefit of all mankind; the principle of the non-appropriation of outer space and of celestial bodies by states; the de-weaponization of outer space while encouraging the use of outer space for peaceful purposes; authorization and supervision; liability for outer space activities, which is further detailed in the Liability Convention [12]; cooperation and mutual respect, as well as international cooperation, as enunciated in the Rescue Agreement [13]; and the registration of launched objects catered for in the Registration Convention [14]. An example of this uniformity can be seen in the application of the UNCLOS in Article 87 to cater for the principle of freedom of the high seas and Article 89 to cater for the principle of non-appropriation, among others. It can be said that, because of the similarities that these two possess, outer space law development could benefit from experience gained in the law of the sea.  
As a result, based on the freedom to use and explore outer space, both public and private entities utilize space for commercial purposes, making satellite ownership overly commercialized, particularly in the areas of communication and navigation, as well as space travel [15] and mining, despite there being no actual international consensus on whether space mining is part of the freedom to use and explore outer space. This has, of course, been subject to controversy in the field of environmental protection, sustainability, and conservation [16]. Furthermore, despite its far-reaching positive purpose of holding space in trust for future space expeditions and protecting space from exploitation by individual states and corporations, the declaration of the use and exploration of space as the province of mankind has faced criticism due to being imperialistic and lacking [17]. This is based on the argument that the present politico-legal regimes and their philosophical grounding are imperialistic [18]. The current trends show tremendous growth towards the privatization and commercialization of space activities [19], including the emergence of mega-constellations. These trends have also led to an increase in the amount of space debris, despite the numerous normative regulations available on an international scale, such as the Space Debris Mitigation Guidelines, as well as on a regional scale, such as Europe's Zero Debris Charter, among others.