## 2 Materials and Methods
### Analysis of Torrefied and Non-Torrefied Wheat-Straw and Torrefaction Condensate  
The torrefied and non-torrefied solid biomass were comparatively analyzed using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) imaging, pyrolysis-gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (Py-GC-MS), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) with attenuated reflectance (ATR), and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), as previously described [28]. The liquid torrefaction condensates were analyzed using gas chromatography (GC), acidity (using a pH meter), and water content (Karl-Fisher moisture testing). The thermal behavior of raw and 300 \({}^{\circ}\)C-torrefied wheat-straw under different heating rates was evaluated through TGA (Thermogravimetric Analysis), using a TGA/SDTA 85/e TGA analyzer (Metller-Toledo, Columbus, OH, USA) by heating a typical sample mass of approximately 10 mg placed in 70 \(\mu\)L alumina/ceramic-based sample holders of a TSO801 RO Sample Robot auto-sampler and balance in a purge of nitrogen (50 mL min\({}^{-1}\)), at a pre-programmed linear heating rate of 10, 20, 30, and 40 K min\({}^{-1}\). The final temperature was 873.5 K, with a holding time of 15 min. For each heating rate, the % converted data were normalized to reflect that heating up to 150 \({}^{\circ}\)C was necessary to eliminate the residual water moisture content of the torrefied wheat-straw. Conversion was calculated following Equation (1). \[\alpha=\frac{(m_{0}-m)}{(m_{0}-m_{\infty})} \tag{1}\]where \(m_{0}=100\%\), \(m_{\infty}\) is the last corrected TG% value and DTG was calculated using Equation (2). \[DTG=\frac{(m_{n+1}-m_{n})}{dt} \tag{2}\]  
where \(m_{n+1}\) refers to the measured mass at a specific time (\(t\)) and \(m_{n}\) refers to the previous mass measurement, and \(dt\) refers to the time increase from one measurement to the next one. For each of the four heating rates, the sample temperatures and \(\ln(d\alpha/dt)\) values corresponding to conversions of 0.05 increments in the range of 0.05-0.90 were determined. A first-order reaction rate law with a temperature-dependent rate law constant \(k_{A}\) expressed by the Arrhenius Equation (3) was assumed to describe the resulting homogeneous primary thermochemical reactions with negligible mass and heat transfer. \[k_{A}(T)=Ae^{-\frac{E_{n}}{2H}} \tag{3}\]  
where \(A\)--the pre-exponential factor or frequency factor, \(E_{n}\)--activation energy (J mol\({}^{-1}\)), \(T\)--absolute temperature (K), and \(R\)--gas constant (8.314 J (mol K)\({}^{-1}\)). Milling of the wheat-straw to particle size between 42 and 60 mesh and use of an inert nitrogen carrier gas ensured rapid heat and mass transfer and avoidance of undesirable secondary thermochemical reactions. The isoconversional [PERSON] method [29], which assumes that the reaction rate (\(d\alpha/dt\)) at a constant conversion is only a function of temperature, was applied to thermogravimetric data. This was used to determine kinetic parameters for a first-order reaction rate law assumed to describe homogeneous primary thermochemical reactions with negligible mass and heat transfer. A plot of \(\ln(d\alpha/dt)\) vs. \(1000/T\) (K) for each conversion was generated. The activation energies were calculated from the slopes of each relatively straight line as per Equation (4). \[slope=\frac{-E_{n}}{R} \tag{4}\]  
The Arrhenius pre-exponential factors were calculated from the \(x\)-intercepts of these relatively straight lines following Equation (5), where a reaction order \(n\) of 1 was assumed. \[\ln A=x-\text{intercept}-n\ln(1-\alpha) \tag{5}\]  
The ASTM E1641-04 integral method was alternatively used. The vaporized products from primary reactions of fast pyrolysis of 280 \({}^{\circ}\)C-torrefied and non-torrefied wheat straw were also comparatively obtained and analyzed on a Py-GC-MS instrument (Agilent, Santa Clara, CA, USA) with a calibrated oven temperature of 500 \({}^{\circ}\)C and heating rate of 800 \({}^{\circ}\)C min\({}^{-1}\).