## Materials and Methods
### Instrumentation and Data Management  
As part of the Kenya RAPID program, program partners designed and installed remote monitoring sensors on approximately 120 motorized boreholes (SweetSense Inc, Denver, Colorado, United States). Motorized boreholes were selected by counties for sensor installations because they provide vital access to deep groundwater resources during the dry season and impact large human and livestock populations. Data related to water system functionality, the approximate number of pumping hours and volume extracted per day, and the last report date for the sensor were made available online through Sweet Sense's online dashboard. In addition, IBM Research developed the Water Management as a Service Platform (WMaaSP) that will be used to inventory each county's water points, including motorized boreholes, handpumps, and water catchments. The WMaaSP platform will display site functionality, use estimates, and maintenance records through an online web dashboard. Between September 2016 and September 2018, sensors were installed on 120 motorized boreholes across the five northern counties of Kenya resulting in sites with varying numbers of daily observations based on installation date (see Table 1). Sites were selected in collaboration with county water officers, sub-county water officers, and NDMA officials. Beginning the summer of 2016, county water officers worked with NDMA officials to identify strategic boreholes that would be prioritized for sensor installation and monitoring. Counties selected sites based on the borehole yield (m\({}^{3}\)), the estimated human and livestock populations served, the presence of alternative water sources, and patterns of human and livestock migration during drought periods. Each list of strategic boreholes was then reviewed for security concerns before being approved by the Ministry of Water and NDMA. As seen in Table 1, there was significant variability in the number of households and livestock served by each borehole, with non-strategic boreholes exhibiting greater variability than strategic boreholes. This could reflect the fact that more non-strategic boreholes were serving urban populations compared to rural areas with smaller or migratory human settlements. The sensors used in this study represent an improved version of technology used in previous studies [25; 26; 27; 28]. Sensors provided near real-time feedback on borehole functionality and use. An electric current clamp recorded whether the submersible pump was running with forty-minute sampling intervals. These current signals were then used to estimate the approximate amount of time each site was being used each day. Data was logged locally on each sensor and then transmitted via cellular and satellite networks to remote servers for analysis. Each day an R script estimated the approximate number of hours of use for each site. Where flow rate data were available for specific pump sites, the length of use was used to estimate the amount of water extracted at each site. Sensor up-time (percentage of days of reported sensor functionality) across the 120 sites averaged 96.9% (SD = 6.57%). Site up-time (percentage of days of at least some recorded use) averaged 59.5% across sites (SD = 27.5%). The use of artificial intelligence and expert-informed thresholds for determining site status (i.e., sensor malfunction, water system malfunction, seasonal disuse, or fully functional system) will be described in a forthcoming publication. At 24 of the sites, the electrical clamp was cut or removed causing the sensor to record that the pump was not being used. Representing approximately 5000 daily observations or about 5% of the total dataset, these data were removed prior to conducting the analysis.