## Data and Methods
### Methods
The FPAR\({}_{\rm chl}\) within the photosynthetically active period in the VPM is assumed to be a linear function of EVI, and the coefficient \(a\) is set to be 1.0 [39]:  
\[\rm FPAR_{chl}=\ EVI\times a \tag{7}\]  
PAR irradiance measurements were not routinely carried out at radiometric sites, such as standard actinometric stations, where broadband solar irradiance components are routinely measured [59]. PAR is the region of incoming global solar radiation reaching the earth surface ranging from wavelengths of 400 to 700 nanometers [60]. Therefore, PAR is assumed to be approximately half of the global solar radiation [61]. Based on the literature compiled by [PERSON] et al. [62], the ratio between PAR and global solar radiation ranges from 0.42 to 0.52. For this study, a ratio of 0.45 is used to calculate PAR from global solar radiation because this factor is employed in most studies related to GPP estimation, e.g., [63]. Global solar radiation was calculated using the modified Sayigh universal formula for the Indonesian region [64] by utilizing daily data on bright sunshine hours received during the day, maximum air temperature, and relative humidity obtained from the BMKG in a year to obtain annual PAR for 1995, 2003 and 2014. Details on the global solar radiation computation method using the modified Sayigh universal formula can be found in [PERSON] and Sugiyatno [64]. In this study, the remote sensing indices EVI and LSWI are assumed to be the same throughout the year. Consequently, the monthly and seasonal variability of vegetation cover and water stress cannot be known throughout the year. Only PAR and \(T_{scalar}\) have monthly and seasonal variability, because they are calculated from daily meteorological data. However, the primary remote sensing Landsat data used in this study were taken during the end of March, which is the beginning of the transition season (March-April-May) between the northwest monsoon (rainy season) and the southeast monsoon (dry season) for the study area [45; 65], except for the data for 1995, which were acquired in February. During the transition season, the water content is not too high because rainfall begins to decrease and is not too low because it is not the dry season. In Denpasar, the vegetation in settlement areas is dominated by annual and perennial plants, such as roadside trees, shade trees, and annual flowering plants. The forest land use type is also dominated by perennial plants and mangroves. [PERSON] et al. [66] showed that annual, perennial and mangrove plants in the tropics have relatively stable vegetation indices throughout the year and are unaffected by the monsoon seasons. The agriculture land use type exhibits a seasonal pattern that is influenced by monsoons due to the planting period in which the dominant plant are paddy crops [67]. However, [PERSON] et al. [68] found that paddy crops in Bali, Indonesia exhibit peaked vegetation index values in late June and early December (cropping period (reproductive stage)) with the lowest values in mid-September (fallow and flooding/transplanting period) and are at an average value in March and late October (cropping period (vegetative growth stage)). Moreover, [PERSON] et al. [69] also showed that the vegetation health index (VHI), which can describe variations in vegetation indexes and water stress other than drought conditions, does not have high fluctuations throughout the year in the tropics except during El Nino events. Therefore, it can be assumed that the vegetation cover and water content in the transition season can represent the average annual condition for the study area. To understand the impact of land use changes on GPP estimation in an urban tourism area of Denpasar, GPP values are extracted for each type of land use during the study year. The definition of land use types is based on Table 1. Previously, the area of each land use type and the speed of change were calculated.