### Coupled Human and Natural Systems  
In this regard, the Kenya RAPID program and NDMA provide two compelling examples of meso-level initiatives that are uniquely suited--with funding, multi-agency mandate, and a degree of political autonomy--to support counties in their efforts to avoid drought emergencies while ensuring sustainable access to water resources [18]. As depicted in Figure 1, the work of both of these initiatives takes place in what is often referred to as a coupled human and natural system (CHANS), a theoretical framework that describes the dynamic interplay between human alterations of the environment and the impacts on ecological systems and human well-being [19; 20].  
Increased drought frequency and severity have significant effects on the amount of pasture available for grazing, the amount of available surface water, and the overall demand for groundwater resources. These changes in the natural environment are monitored through networks of individuals embedded in each of the counties, satellite imagery, and remote sensors that provide near real-time assessments of water system functionality and use. The risk of drought emergency is assessed and communicated with varying efficacy throughout the different layers of governance [21]. Information about need and assessments of risk are often sharpest at the local level where resources are typically scarce [22]. In contrast, information about need and assessments of risk are often wanting at the macro level where resources need to be mobilized. Thus, meso-level institutions and initiatives can play an important role in bridging these two contexts through the collection and communication of information from the local level and the coordination of response and resources from the macro level.  
To the extent that meso-level institutions are buffered from the short-term influence of election cycles, these initiatives can support long-term capacity-building and policies that will reduce vulnerability to drought emergencies, such as sustainable waterpoint management; surface water retention, recharge, and reuse; sustainable rangeland management; and coordination of migration and grazing [23]. As outlined in a recent County Diagnostic Report for Kenya published by the University of Oxford, \"Risks converge in social and natural systems with the intersection of climate hazards, financial flows, operational performance, and institutional accountability,\" and \"information flows strengthen institutional coordination and performance\" [24] (p. 18). Thus, a key finding of this report is that the use of sensors for collecting transparent, accurate, and accessible monitoring data can play a crucial role in providing accountability, unlocking new financial flows, and supporting the development of water secure institutions at scale.  
An important question in this investigation is to what extent the Kenya RAPID program and NDMA activities are fostering drought resilience by improving access to sustainable groundwater services. However, since Kenya RAPID activities and coordination with NDMA are still underway, this represents  
Figure 1: Coupled human and natural systems framework to model how perceptions, policies, and behaviors mediate the dynamic interactions between human and natural systems.  
only the initial assessment of how these initiatives are supporting access to groundwater services through the monitoring and maintenance of strategic boreholes in each county. It is also important to note that processes were still being formalized for operationalizing monitoring data to inform maintenance activities in each county. As a result, this investigation is primarily focused on exploring the factors that influence strategic and non-strategic borehole use. Future investigations, including an impact evaluation taking place during the primary dry season of 2019, will more explicitly address how monitoring data from remote sensors can be used to improve groundwater service delivery in these counties.