# Non-Invasive and Accurate Blood Glucose Detection Based on an Equivalent Bioimpedance Spectrum
## 8 A Non-Invasive Blood Glucose Detection Experiment
### Multi-Person Blood Glucose Test
\begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c c c c c c c c} \hline \hline \multicolumn{1}{c}{\multirow{3}{*}{\begin{tabular}{c} **Tested** \\ **Person** \\ \end{tabular} }} & \multirow{3}{*}{\multirow{3}{*}{\begin{tabular}{c} **Gender** \\ **Eurogen** \\ **K-** \\ **Approaching** \\ \end{tabular} }} & \multicolumn{3}{c}{\begin{tabular}{c} **Classification Model Judgment** \\ **Blood** \\ **Glucose** \\ **K-** \\ **Approaching** \\ \end{tabular} } & \multicolumn{3}{c}{\begin{tabular}{c} **Biochemical** \\ **Blood** \\ **Glucose** \\ **High Blood** \\ **Glucose** \\ \end{tabular} } & \multicolumn{3}{c}{\begin{tabular}{c} **Absolute** \\ **Error** \\ **Error** \\ \end{tabular} } & \multicolumn{3}{c}{\begin{tabular}{c} **Relative** \\ **Error** \\ **Error** \\ \end{tabular} } \\ \cline{1-1}  & & & \begin{tabular}{c} **European** \\ **K-** \\ **Approaching** \\ \end{tabular} & \begin{tabular}{c} **Manhattan** \\ **K-** \\ **Approaching** \\ \end{tabular} & \begin{tabular}{c} **Whether It** \\ **Is** \\ **High Blood** \\ **Glucose** \\ \end{tabular} & \multicolumn{3}{c}{\begin{tabular}{c} **Blood** \\ **Glucose** \\ **K-** \\ **Error** \\ \end{tabular} } & \multicolumn{3}{c}{\
\begin{tabular}{c} **Biochemical** \\ **Blood** \\ **Glucose** \\ **Error** \\ \end{tabular} } & \multicolumn{3}{c}{
\begin{tabular}{c} **Absolute** \\ **Error** \\ **Error** \\ \end{tabular} } \\ \cline{1-1}  & & male & 1 & 0 & no & 4.985 & 4.3 & \(-\)0.685 & 15.93\% \\ \cline{1-1}  & 2 & Female & 1 & 1 & no & 5.198 & 4.4 & \(-\)0.798 & 18.14\% \\ \cline{1-1}  & 3 & male & 1 & 1 & no & 5.421 & 4.7 & \(-\)0.721 & 15.34\% \\ \cline{1-1}  & 4 & male & 1 & 1 & no & 5.567 & 4.9 & \(-\)0.667 & 13.61\% \\ \cline{1-1}  & 5 & male & 0 & 1 & no & 5.858 & 5.2 & \(-\)0.658 & 12.65\% \\ \cline{1-1}  & 6 & Female & 1 & 0 & no & 4.788 & 5.3 & 0.512 & 9.66\% \\ \cline{1-1}  & 7 & male & 1 & 0 & no & 5.354 & 5.4 & 0.046 & 0.85\% \\ \cline{1-1}  & 8 & male & 1 & 1 & no & 5.632 & 5.5 & \(-\)0.132 & 2.4\% \\ \cline{1-1}  & 9 & male & 1 & 1 & no & 6.035 & 5.8 & \(-\)0.235 & 4.05\% \\ \cline{1-1}  & 10 & Female & 0 & 0 & Yes & 8.856 & 7.3 & \(-\)1.556 & 21.32\% \\ \cline{1-1}  & 11 & male & 0 & 0 & Yes & 8.736 & 7.7 & \(-\)1.036 & 13.45\% \\ \cline{1-1}  & 12 & male & 0 & 1 & no & 6.498 & 7.4 & 0.902 & 12.19\% \\ \cline{1-1}  & 13 & male & 0 & 0 & Yes & 8.522 & 7.8 & \(-\)0.722 & 9.26\% \\ \cline{1-1}  & 14 & male & 1 & 1 & no & 6.023 & 6.3 & 0.277 & 4.39\% \\ \cline{1-1}  & 15 & male & 0 & 0 & Yes & 9.398 & 8.5 & \(-\)0.898 & 10.56\% \\ \cline{1-1}  & 16 & male & 1 & 1 & no & 6.385 & 6.4 & 0.015 & 0.23\% \\ \cline{1-1}  & 17 & male & 1 & 1 & no & 5.494 & 6.1 & 0.606 & 9.93\% \\ \cline{1-1}  & 18 & male & 0 & 1 & no & 6.853 & 6.5 & \(-\)0.353 & 5.43\% \\ \cline{1-1}  & 19 & male & 1 & 1 & no & 6.757 & 6.0 & \(-\)0.757 & 12.62\% \\ \cline{1-1}  & 20 & Female & 0 & 0 & Yes & 8.254 & 6.1 & \(-\)2.154 & 35.31\% \\ \hline \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table} 
Table 3: Single-person blood glucose experiment and blood glucose estimation. and its impedance spectrum shows less relevance to the above-mentioned features of hyperglycemia samples. Thus, it can be treated as a \"singular value\" and removed. After removing the sample of singular value, there are still two samples in Table 3 that have larger errors, both of which are females (with biochemical blood glucose values of 7.3 and 4.4). This may be caused by various gender differences, including skin impedance, basal metabolic rate, water content, and protein activity in human tissues. In samples where blood sugar levels are either slightly above or below the normal range, the relative prediction error increases, indicating that the model's predictive capability diminishes in sparse or boundary areas. An analysis of the blood sugar values presented in Figure 18 reveals no correlation, as the individuals tested are independent of one another. Figures 4 and 5 illustrate the discrepancies between biochemical blood sugar values and non-invasive blood sugar estimates.