## 1 Introduction
Nevertheless, technologically deterministic approaches, which emphasize technological solutions while neglecting broader social and ecological contexts, may exacerbate inequality, create a false sense of security, and ultimately heighten long-term vulnerabilities [33]. Thus, it is essential to embrace a Social-Ecological-Technological system (SETS) perspective to integrate social, ecological, and technological resilience, which can create opportunities for novel approaches to adaptation and transformation in complex environments while better managing risks and trade-offs [34; 35; 36]. The intricate mutual promotion and inhibition among subsystems is critical for the well-being of urban systems. Positive interactions among these subsystems can create synergistic effects, enhancing collective performance beyond the sum of their individual functionalities [37]. In the face of disturbances, coordinated responses among subsystems help maintain overall stability, whereas the pursuit of independent goals without coordination can lead to unsustainable outcomes and potentially system collapse [38]. The term \"coupling\" refers to the interaction and mutual influence between two or more subsystems [39], while \"coordination\" emphasizes the collaborative efforts of subsystems within complex systems to collectively achieve shared goals [40]. Scholars have dedicated substantial efforts to quantify the coupling coordination degree (CCD) of the resilience among urban subsystems [41; 42; 43]. However, current research efforts still lack a comprehensive evaluation framework that integrates technological resilience. In some cases, the complexity of urban system processes and patterns--both within individual cities and across interconnected urban regions--represents a critical challenge for today's urban planners, policymakers, and managers, especially in the context of UAs' construction. This complexity arises because sustainable choices made in one location may not hold true if they impose social, economic, or environmental trade-offs elsewhere [44]. Although research on urban spatial resilience evaluation exists, there remains a deficiency in dynamically analyzing the spatiotemporal evolution of resilience across continuous time series and different scales [45]. This gap also involves ignoring the spatial heterogeneity of resilience and the spatial connections between cities within the UAs. The Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei urban agglomeration (BTHUA), serving as China's capital economic circle, innovation engine, and critical ecological region [46], features SETS that are both typical and highly complex. The region currently faces significant tensions among population aggregation, economic development, urban expansion, and ecological construction. Previous research on the urban resilience of the BTHUA has primarily focused on individual resilience subsystems or the coupling between socioeconomic and ecological subsystems. Here, we conducted a quantitative assessment of the resilience of the urban system in the BTHUA using a developed SETS framework, investigating the interactive coupling effects of SETS resilience and its spatiotemporal dynamics. Specifically, we aimed to (1) estimate the SETS resilience, (2) examine the spatiotemporal characteristics of the coupling coordinated development of SETS resilience and the interactions among cities, and (3) identify the key obstacle factors. Consequently, this study is expected to contribute to the refinement and enhancement of the theoretical framework for UAs' resilience. It provides empirical evidence for understanding and measuring SETS resilience at the regional scale, offering novel perspectives on the sustainable development of resilient cities. By emphasizing the coupling coordination of subsystems and intercity interactions as crucial pathways to regional sustainability, the research not only deepens theoretical understanding but also serves as a practical reference for formulating policies to enhance UAs' resilience.