# Exploring the Use of Landmarks to Aid Pedestrian Wayfinding
## 4 Results
### Phase 3: Locating Landmarks Task  
To test hypothesis 3, which anticipated that the LM Group would correctly identify more landmarks on the unlabeled map compared to the GM and PM Groups, a one-way ANOVA was conducted. The analysis used the number of correctly located landmarks as the dependent variable, with the independent variable being the group category, consisting of three levels: LM, GM, and PM. The mean values and standard deviations for the groups were as follows: LM: M = 7.1, SD = 3.51; GM: M = 2.6, SD = 1.96; PM: M = 1.9, SD = 1.79, as shown in Figure 13. This indicates that the LM Group had the highest average number of correctly located landmarks, followed by the GM Group, with the PM Group having the lowest average. The ANOVA revealed a significant difference between the groups (F(2, 27) = 12.343, \(p\) < 0.001), with a large effect size (\(\eta^{2}\) = 0.478), suggesting that group membership accounted for a considerable portion of the variance in landmark placement accuracy. Post hoc tests (Tukey HSD) confirmed that the LM Group was significantly more accurate in locating landmarks than both the GM and PM Groups, while no significant difference was found between the GM and PM Groups. These findings strongly support hypothesis 3, confirming that the LM Group was significantly better at correctly placing landmarks compared to the other two groups. The results imply that the LM Group's approach or experience was more effective in landmark recognition and placement on the map. Hypothesis 3 was therefore confirmed. Figure 12: Errors made when drawing the route in Phase 2. Error bars indicate Standard Errors (SEs). The PM Group did not walk the same route. Next, in order to test hypotheses 4 and 5, the data were divided into on- or off-route landmarks. Dealing with hypothesis 4 first, according to which all participant groups were predicted to locate more on-route landmarks correctly than off-route landmarks. Figure 14 shows this to be true. (LM: M = 5.5, SD = 2.55; GM: M = 2.0, SD = 1.33; PM: M = 1.1, SD = 0.99). Consistent with the prediction of hypothesis 4, the mixed-design 3 x (2) ANOVA computed for the three participant groups (LM, GM, PM) and landmarks (on-route, off-route) revealed a main effect for landmarks (F (1, 27) = 46.00, \(p\) < 0.001). Hypothesis 4 was therefore supported. Although not specifically hypothesized, a comparison of the data for the on-and off-route landmarks within each of the three groups yielded a main effect for groups as well (F(2, 27) = 15.56, \(p\) < 0.001). In addition, the interaction was also significant (F(2, 27) = 15.56, \(p\) < 0.001). To determine the locus of the interaction, simple main effects showed that the data for on-route landmarks differed significantly between all three participant groups  
Figure 14: Both types of landmarks correctly located by the three groups. Error bars indicate Standard Errors (SEs). Figure 13: Landmarks correctly located by each of the three participant groups in Phase 2. Error bars indicate Standard Errors (SEs). (\(p<0.001\)). Significant differences also occurred with the locating of on-route landmarks compared to off-route landmarks (LM: \(p<0.001\); GM: \(p=0.004\)). With respect to hypothesis 5 predicting that participants in the LM Group would locate more off-route landmarks correctly than participants in the two other groups, Figure 14 above suggests that to be true (LM: M = 1.7, SD = 1.88; GM: M = 0.7, SD = 1.06; PM: M = 0.8, SD = 1.03). However, the analysis of those data was not as simple as for the on-route landmarks. First, four statistical outliers emerged in the off-route landmark data assessed by inspection of a boxplot. These were therefore reduced downwards. The data were also not normally distributed, as assessed by [PERSON]'s test of normality (\(p>0.05\)), and a data transformation failed to rectify this situation. However, as ANOVAs are generally resilient to deviations from normality [30], the aforementioned mixed-design ANOVA was still carried out.