## 1 Introduction  
It has been widely demonstrated that climate change is negatively affecting food security, biodiversity, and ecosystem health [1, 2]. In this context, permanent crops are particularly vulnerable [3], with certain groups, such as fruit growers, experiencing the most significant losses [4, 5]. These subjects are at the highest risk because they heavily depend on natural resources and have limited adaptive capacity [6]. Therefore, it is essential to implement adaptation and mitigation strategies to enhance their resilience to adverse events, which are expected to increase in frequency and intensity in the coming decades [7]. Recent studies [8, 9, 10] have shown that climate variations, including changes in temperature and precipitation, directly affect the quality and yield of citrus fruits. Generally, citrus trees adapt well to various climates, but their growth is constrained by low temperatures and frosts, which can be a limiting factor for agricultural production in arid and semi-arid climates, such as those in certain Mediterranean regions [11, 12]. Although climate warming is reducing the frequency of frost events, vegetation is increasingly exposed to frost due to the extension of the growing season [13, 14]. For instance, abnormally warm temperatures in late winter or early spring can lead to a false spring, where crops begin their annual growth earlier than usual, increasing the risk of damage from subsequent frost events [3; 15; 16]. Additionally, climate change is making late spring frosts more frequent, which is particularly problematic as they can affect trees during flowering, a stage when plants are most vulnerable, thereby hindering proper fruit development [17]. Frost is commonly defined as the lowering of air to below the freezing point, which is 0 \({}^{\circ}\)C [13; 18]. However, in the context of citrus agriculture, frosts are considered impactful when the land surface temperature (LST) detected by satellite drops to \(-2.3\)\({}^{\circ}\)C or below [19]. It has been clearly proved that at these temperatures, the tissues of the orange fruits can be permanently damaged, resulting in lower yields in future seasons and a decrease in fruit quality [12; 20; 21; 22; 23]. Low temperatures also damage citrus fruits by triggering the formation of ice crystals within their cells, leading to the rupture of the juice sacs inside the fruit, causing it to dry out [12; 24]. Farmers and investors are therefore strongly impacted economically by such climatic events, as a single night of freezing temperatures can lead to the complete loss of the crop [25]. In the last years, the use of remote sensing (RS) technologies for frost monitoring has advanced significantly, becoming an indispensable tool for accurate and timely assessment of agricultural conditions during and after frost events [16; 26]. The second-generation METEOSAT (MSG) satellites, operated by EUMETSAT, are particularly effective for this purpose. These satellites are equipped with the spinning enhanced visible and infrared imager (SEVIRI), which captures data across 12 spectral bands, ranging from visible to thermal infrared, with spatial resolutions of 1 km for visible bands and 3 km for infrared bands [27]. Other satellites, such as the Landsat constellation, while offering higher spatial resolution that could allow for more detailed monitoring of cultivated soil, face limitations such as revisit times spanning several days or even weeks, making them less suitable for our purposes. MSG's high temporal resolution, capturing images every 15 min, enables continuous monitoring of Earth conditions. In this regard, we emphasize the need for public RS data with both high spatial and temporal resolution, such as that anticipated from the upcoming ESA LSTM mission [28], which is expected to have a resolution of 50 m and a daily revisit time.