## 4 Discussion
While this study did not measure insulin, it suggests that OLT may modulate glucose responses [20]. Similarly, our study found a delayed insulin peak in both olive leaf powder interventions, with the highest insulin levels at 2 h postprandialally, compared to 1 h in control. This delayed insulin response should be interpreted cautiously, as the study did not observe statistically significant changes in insulin or glucose levels overall. It may indicate a more gradual insulin release, potentially beneficial for glycemic control by preventing rapid blood glucose fluctuations [19; 24; 25]. However, further studies focusing on insulin kinetics and longer intervention durations, are required to confirm this hypothesis. While no significant changes were observed in lipid profiles or inflammatory markers, and similar findings have been reported in other trials [26], it is important to highlight that previous studies have suggested beneficial effects of OLE on lipid metabolism and inflammation [12; 24; 27; 28]. Specifically, reductions in lipid markers such as total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, and triglycerides, as well as decreases in pro-inflammatory cytokines like interleukin-6 and interleukin-8, following olive leaf supplementation have been previously reported [12; 24; 27; 28]. However, only one study to date has reported a decrease in CRP levels [25], indicative of a potential anti-inflammatory effect. The lack of significant effects in our study could be due to factors such as the specific dosage, intervention duration, or participant characteristics, which may differ from those in other trials. These findings underscore the need for further research to elucidate the impact of OLE on lipid and inflammatory profiles. Regarding the platelet-activating factor (PAF), our results indicated a postprandial decrease in PAF concentrations across all intervention groups, with no significant differences observed between the control (CTRL) group and the olive leaf supplementation groups (OLT and OLB). Notably, the CTRL and OLB groups exhibited larger standard errors compared to the OLT group, suggesting greater variability in PAF responses. This variability might reflect differences in the metabolic processing of the ingested meals, potentially influenced by the bioavailability and matrix of olive leaf polyphenols. The observed reduction in PAF after meal consumption aligns with its known role in inflammation and platelet aggregation, where a decrease may indicate a transient modulation of pro-thrombotic activity in the postprandial state in healthy individuals [29]. However, the considerable variability and lack of significant group-by-time interactions highlight the need for further investigation. Future studies should explore the mechanistic pathways through which olive leaf bioactives influence platelet function and PAF metabolism. Investigations in larger and more targeted populations--particularly individuals with cardiovascular risk factors or metabolic disorders--may help reduce variability and better elucidate these effects, as such groups often exhibit altered inflammatory and thrombotic profiles. Standardized and well-controlled procedures are essential to ensure the consistency of olive leaf supplementation. Specifically, the establishment of the optimal and consistent dosage of olive leaf powder in clinical trials to reduce variability in results and enhance the reliability of results is crucial [21,30,31]. This could involve careful calibration of the dosage based on bioavailability studies and alignment with the most effective therapeutic doses identified in preliminary trials. Such standardization will help to accurately assess the efficacy of olive leaf supplementation in regulating metabolic biomarkers, it will also enable easier comparisons across studies. Despite the valuable contribution of this study in understanding the effects of olive leaf powder on postprandial metabolic regulation, several limitations must be considered.