# New Space Engineering Design: Characterization of Key Drivers
## 3 Results and Discussion
### Discussion per Application Domains
#### 3.2.1 LEO Constellations of Small Satellites
), which enables high functionality and allows for limited redundancy within constrained mass and volume budgets. Distributed space systems composed of small satellite platforms inherently support spacecraft modularity and standardization. This architectural approach helps achieve flexibility in meeting diverse mission requirements and simplifies maintainability through rapid replacement of individual units [101]. Moreover, the relatively lower costs associated with this application domain allow for a higher tolerance for risk, which, in turn, facilitates the widespread adoption of COTS components. The CubeSat experience provides a clear example of these benefits: initially conceived for purely academic purposes, these standardized satellites have proven reliable through accumulated flight heritage, resulting in being considered for cost-effective commercial solutions. This contrasts with custom-designed component development, which requires extensive, tailored qualification programs [4]. Moreover, the distributed functional architecture of satellite constellations provides benefits beyond reliability, embodying the concept of resilience. Historically, large, complex, and expensive satellites have been designed with near-zero tolerance for failure, as any failure would result in significant losses, which could be detrimental even for space agencies and major corporations. In this context, resilience refers to the capability of a distributed system as a whole to recover its primary functions despite the failure of individual system nodes (e.g., a single satellite unit) due to unanticipated events, provided proper technical management [21]. This has been practically demonstrated by commercial constellations such as Planet Labs' fleet of Earth-observation CubeSats, which are low-cost, rapidly deployable, and regularly replenished to ensure mission continuity [102]. Similarly, Satellogic, an Argentinian company, exemplifies the New Space paradigm by deploying constellations of microsatellites (i.e., 38.5 kg units) to deliver affordable, high-resolution Earth imagery. Their services, like those offered by many other emerging companies, are accessible to small enterprises that were traditionally excluded from space-based applications [103]. Industry 4.0 approaches to production align particularly well with the development of large constellations, offering significant improvements in performance-to-cost ratios. However, the main distinction from other industries is the rigorous, extensive environmental qualification and acceptance testing required for space-grade hardware. This is addressed through accelerated life testing, automated testing, process verification, and on-orbit validation of prototype units prior to high-volume production [104]. Within the context of broader accessibility, companies are now facilitated in testing their systems, either through ground-based environmental testing [105; 106] or, preferably, through dedicated In-Orbit Demonstration (IOD) mission programs [107]. The advantages derived from adopting practices of other engineering sectors have already proven to be beneficial for other areas within the space industry, thus introducing the parallelism of Space 4.0. For example, it improved the manufacturing process of larger GEO spacecraft, as shown by recent developments at Airbus [97]. In conclusion, while the deployment and operation of small satellite constellations in LEO may require substantial initial investments, their specific engineering characteristics ultimately support overall cost reduction by fostering a competitive supply market, creating opportunities for small providers, and expanding access to affordable services for a broader range of end users.