### Legal Aspects of Deep Sea Mining  
The evolution of the legal framework related to the exploitation of abiotic resources in the marine environment is currently undergoing a delicate phase. To date, regulations and policies surrounding deep-sea mining are still evolving, as the industry is relatively new and there are still many unknowns about its potential impacts [17].  
The International Seabed Authority (ISA) is an autonomous international organization established by the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) of 1982. With the 1994 Agreement relating to the implementation of Part XI of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea [18; 19], the ISA tried to establish a set of protocols and rules with the common aim of organizing and controlling all activities related to developing resources from the seabed (generally defined as the 'Area') for the benefit of mankind as a whole (UNCLOS, Section 3; [20]). In doing so, the ISA is mandated to ensure the effective protection of the marine environment from the harmful effects that may arise from seabed-related activities. The agreement on the implementation of UNCLOS charges the ISA with developing a system for the exploration and exploitation of these resources, including creating the necessary rules, regulations, and procedures (Article 153 of UNCLOS [20]). Some countries have developed their own regulations and policies for deep-sea mining within their Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs; Figure 1B). The Italian Parliament has approved a law that authorizes the declaration, by presidential decree, of an Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) in all or part of the waters beyond the territorial sea, based on a decision by the Council of Ministers upon the proposal of the Minister of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation [21; 22].  
The evolution of maritime law led to a precautionary management of marine natural and biotic resources within the framework of an ecosystem approach to their use, namely Maritime Spatial Planning (MSPD), and the need to protect the marine environment beyond national waters. In recent years, Italy established a vast Ecological Protection Zone to avoid activities that may constitute sources of pollution. Furthermore, conservation actions for these environments stem from recommendations in the Third National Report  
Figure 1: **(A)** SE Tyrrhenian Sea. PVC is the Palinuro Volcanic Chain, VB: Vavilov Basin; MB: Marsili Basin. TLF: Tindari-Letojanni Fault. **(B)** The Italian Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ).  
on Natural Capital (2019), emphasizing their intrinsic economic value and the ecosystem services they provide [23]. With the adoption of Resolution 73/284, the United Nations Decade on Ecosystem Restoration (2021-2030) recommends a conservation-oriented vision, as adopted by the International Seabed Authority (ISA) for achieving the Sustainable Development Goals of Agenda 2030 [24]. Finally, recommendations from the Marine Strategy Framework Directive for achieving GES and its targets strongly discourage activities that could have significant environmental impact and promote the protection of the deep sea from mining and deep-sea fishing, as also requested and supported by many research entities and NGOs and already adopted by some countries, such as New Zealand and Polynesia. It is evident that this national and international regulatory scenario, although currently not a direct prohibition against mining, strongly discourages it both scientifically and productively, and in fact, it emphasizes and accelerates the need to develop studies and research aimed at its geochemical, biological, and ecological characterization.