## 1 Introduction  
Stemming is a process applied to blast holes to prevent gases from escaping during detonation. A stemming material helps confine the explosive energy for a longer duration. Without stemming, up to 50% of the explosive energy can escape through the borehole [1]. Proper stemming has been shown to improve explosive efficiency by over 41% [2]. Further, employing even the least efficient stemming materials can boost the usable energy of an explosion by 60%, while the most efficient stemming materials can increase it by up to 93% [3]. Missing or improper stemming, which can lead to the detonation gas escaping from the blast hole in advance, results not only in the waste of explosive energy and poor rock fragmentation but also in environmental problems, such as ground vibration, noise, flying rocks, back breaks, and air blasts [4]. Smaller amounts of explosives may be used to produce the same blasting effects if explosive energy was used more effectively [5, 6]. Improvements in fragmentation will result in lower second breaking work costs. Proper stemming can reduce costs and improve the productivity and profitability of a mining operation. The main objective of rock-blasting is fragmentation by explosive. The loading and hauling operations of a mining operation, particularly the crushing line, profit greatly from good fragmentation [7]. Additionally, cracks are generated over a larger area in the rock mass using proper stemming. These cracks propagate, interconnect, and cut the rock mass; thus, the block size and distribution after blasting satisfy the construction or mining requirements. Therefore, reasonably selecting the stemming material is of particular importance for improving the blasting effect, increasing the efficiency of explosives, and obtaining ideal blasting fragmentation. In the mining industry, blast holes are sealed with three different sorts of stemming materials: colloidal, liquid, and solid. Additional research on the performance of stemming materials is required. [PERSON] et al. [8] used a water stemming technique that involves putting water-filled polyvinyl plastic bags within blast holes. A water-silt composite-stemmed blasting method for tunnels was proposed [9] to increase rock breakage, reduce dust, and use fewer explosives. In most cases, using fluid-type stemming inside a blast hole as a stemming material produced good results. Fluid has a higher density than air, and even at extremely high pressures, the compression of water is significantly lower than that of air [10]. Under dynamic loading, [PERSON] et al. [11] performed an AUTODYN numerical analysis using a variety of stemming materials, such as fluid (water), sand, and air, placed in the area between the internal explosives and the hollow wall inside the blast hole. The water stemming case, which was also the best medium for shockwave transmission, produced the largest fracture area. Additionally, the presence of fluid (water), which results in the deformation and displacement of the rock, causes the shock wave to reflect and bubble pulse, which contributes to the high stress exerted during this process. The most effective method to evaluate the stemming effect is to conduct field experiments. A stemming performance test of a small-scale model was developed, and the results showed that different stemming materials have different functionalities, which can significantly influence the efficiency of rock breaking [12]. [PERSON] [13] suggested a simple physical model for predicting the time required to eject stemming. This model depends only on the inertia of the stemming material. The frictional forces that resist the movement were omitted. The stemming performance of the stemming material can be evaluated using the initial ejection velocity of the stemming part at the entrance of the blast hole [14]. The momentum of the stemming structure based on the explosive load can be calculated using the mass of the stemming structure and the initial velocity of the stemming part when the stemming is ejected into the orifice.