# Space Efficiency of Tall Buildings in Singapore
## 5 Discussion  
Central cores are widely used in high-rise buildings in Singapore, as well as in many other cities [50; 51; 52]. Unlike tapered forms common in Asian skyscrapers [84] or setback forms seen in North America [86], Singapore high-rises often feature prismatic forms, similar to trends in Turkey [83] and the Middle East [85]. This study also finds that concrete is the primary material used in Singapore high-rises, aligning with practices in Turkey, the Middle East, and North America, but differing from those in Asia. While outrigger frame systems are typically preferred in skyscrapers across Asia, the Middle East, and North America, Singapore and Turkey more often use shear-walled frame designs. According to [PERSON]'s research, space utilization in tall buildings aims for 75% ratio [102]. Studies about high-rises in Turkey [83], Asia [84], the Middle East [85], and North America [86] indicate that average spatial efficiencies typically fall between 67.5% and 78%, with a wider range spanning from 56% to 86%. Additionally, core area to GFA ratio generally averages between 19% and 29.5%, with variations from 9% to 38%. These figures reveal substantial differences in how space and core areas are utilized across different regions, highlighting the diverse architectural practices and design priorities that influence tower construction. These data illustrate the complexities involved in optimizing space in high-rise buildings and emphasizes the need for region-specific strategies to improve efficiency. Figure 13: Radar charts by functions: (**a**) residential, (**b**) office, (**c**) hotel, and (**d**) mixed-use. In contrast, the context of timber residential buildings in Finland demonstrates significant potential for efficiency, with an average space utilization of 83% and a range from 78% to 88% [49]. Similarly, studies on tall timber towers show a high average space efficiency of 84% and a core area to GFA ratio of 10%. These findings showcase the effectiveness of timber as a construction material in maximizing space utilization, highlighting its potential as a sustainable and efficient option for a variety of applications [103; 104; 105]. In the case of 63 tall buildings in Singapore, this study finds an average space efficiency of 80%, with core-to-GFA percentages averaging 17%. The data reveal a range of space efficiencies from 68% to 91% and core-to-GFA ratios between 5% and 32%, reflecting the diverse design strategies and architectural choices that characterize Singaporeian high-rise construction. The distinct space efficiency of tall towers in Singapore compared to other regions can be resulted from several key factors, including local architectural practices, structural design preferences, regulatory requirements, and environmental conditions. In Singapore, high-rise construction often focuses on maximizing usable floor area due to limited land availability and high population density. This emphasis results in an average space efficiency of 80% and a lower core-to-GFA ratio of 17%, suggesting that Singaporeian architects and engineers prioritize compact and efficient core layouts to enhance the usable space within a building. The architectural and structural choices in Singapore are also influenced by the need to optimize for both vertical and lateral load resistance due to the region's tropical climate, which includes strong winds and heavy rainfall [106; 107; 108]. These environmental conditions necessitate robust structural systems that can withstand lateral forces while maintaining efficient space use. Singapore often employs advanced construction materials and techniques, such as high-performance concrete and innovative shear-walled frame systems, which allow for slimmer structural elements and thus more usable space within the building envelope [109; 110; 111]. Additionally, Singapore's stringent building codes and regulations encourage innovative design solutions that enhance spatial efficiency without compromising safety or comfort [112; 113; 114].