## 3 Results  
### Overall Impacts and Contribution Analysis  
Both the benefits and drawbacks of using RFID tags for fresh milk are examined. This begins with analyzing two models: one assessing the environmental impact of producing a single RFID tag, and the other evaluating the life cycle of one liter of milk ending up in a landfill. Figure 2 provides a detailed breakdown, showing how RFID implementation affects each milk case. The negative impact is equivalent to 8.3% of a tag's life cycle, considering that RFID tags are attached to cases with 12 items. The \"Avoided milk waste\" column quantifies the benefits of RFID, representing 2.6% of the milk's life cycle. Figure 2a presents the impact assessment results for one RFID tag, showing the environmental burden of its entire life cycle. The climate change impact, measured at 0.0329 kg CO\({}_{2}\)-eq, highlights substantial GHG emissions from RFID production, underscoring the need for energy reduction strategies. Ionizing radiation is also a concern, reflecting the burden of nuclear energy used in production. Freshwater ecotoxicity is one of the most significant impacts, indicating potential harm to aquatic ecosystems due to toxic substances released during the production of RFID tags. These substances can contaminate water bodies, affecting aquatic life and disrupting ecosystems. Addressing the sources of these toxic  
releases is crucial to mitigate their impact on freshwater environments. Emissions of volatile organic compounds contribute to photochemical ozone formation. Resource use, including water and minerals, is moderate but noteworthy. Significant reductions are observed in acidification and eutrophication, with RFID reducing the need for excessive fertilizers. Figure 2b provides a visual representation of these results, emphasizing how each process contributes to the overall environmental impact of the tag. Among the processes, antenna manufacturing has the most significant impact, contributing between 36% and 73% across all categories, with an average of 64%. Chip manufacturing also plays a substantial role, contributing between 11% and 43%, with an average of 20%. The assembly process makes a notable contribution as well, averaging 11%, while transport activities have a smaller impact, averaging 3%. Other processes combined contribute less than 2% to the total environmental burden. Figure 2c demonstrates that the environmental impacts of 1 L of fresh milk are assessed across multiple categories, covering its entire life cycle, from production to disposal. The climate change impact, measured at 1.34 kg CO\({}_{2}\)-eq, highlights substantial GHG emissions from RFID production, underscoring the need for energy reduction strategies. Land use presents a significant environmental burden, measured at 20.9 kg C deficit, indicating substantial resource occupation during the RFID tag's life cycle. Prioritizing the reduction  
Figure 2: Impact assessment of the RFID tag for fresh milk supply chain: (**a**) 16 impact categories for one RFID tag; (**b**) breakdown of impact across its entire life cycle; (**c**) impact analysis for fresh milk from farm to EOL phase; and (**d**) net impacts of RFID implementation for fresh milk tagging. of land use impact is crucial, as optimizing land use practices can help minimize negative impacts on ecosystems and biodiversity. Ionizing radiation is also a concern, reflecting the burden of nuclear energy used in production. Freshwater ecotoxicity has another significant impact, with a value of 1.70 CTUe, indicating potential harm to aquatic ecosystems due to toxic substances released during production. Addressing the sources of these toxic releases is crucial to mitigating their impact on freshwater environments. Emissions of volatile organic compounds contribute to photochemical ozone formation. Resource use, including water and minerals, is moderate but noteworthy. Despite these impacts, RFID helps improve resource utilization by preventing milk loss, which reduces the need for additional production and associated resource use.