## 1 Introduction
Amongst all costs, the cost of energy is one of the most recurrent and highest in intensive irrigated agricultural systems [38], especially for small-holder farmers that are using diesel and electricity pumps for irrigation. Photovoltaic solar generators could represent a potential alternative source of energy to reduce the cost of electricity consumption as the price of this technology is declining [15]. A number of studies used economic analyses to demonstrate the financial viability of solar-powered groundwater pumping based on capital investment costs, operational costs and payback periods [14; 17; 28; 39; 40]. The major outcome of these studies was that solar energy is more financially viable than diesel. Hybrid systems with solar energy and connection to the grid for electricity supply during periods of non-operation are also possible, as discussed by [14; 41]. From the environmental and sustainability perspective, energy supply is a focal point. It was estimated that about 7% of the total world energy consumption is used for water supply [42]. Reductions in CO\({}_{2}\) emissions with the use of solar pumps were previously quantified compared to other sources of energy by [14; 25; 40]. Solar pumps may also enhance carbon sequestration by increasing biomass production through irrigation of grasslands and crops [12]. However, one of the major risks is that the low operational cost of solar-powered groundwater pumping may result in an over-abstraction of groundwater and water resource quality deterioration [14; 19; 43; 44]. Life cycle assessments of solar-powered groundwater abstraction were conducted in previous work to examine the impacts of the technology from cradle to grave, including the handling of e-waste [45; 46]. The general conclusion from previous feasibility studies was that solar energy is more environmentally and economically viable than diesel and electricity [47; 48]. Despite the obvious advantages of renewable energy sources in terms of profitability and reduced environmental footprint, the use of energy sources based on fossil fuels (oil, coal, gas) outweighs by far solar energy [49]. Although the solar pumps technology is mature, the adoption is not widespread due to the high initial capital investment and the specialized skills required in the design, installation and maintenance. A comprehensive feasibility study on the utilization of local-scale alternative water source interventions and associated technologies for water abstraction and supply has not been carried out in South Africa. This study aimed at investigating the technical, socio-economic and environmental feasibility for the establishment of MUS and solar-powered groundwater pumps in rural communities of Greater Giyani Municipality (Limpopo) in order to provide a secure water source for domestic and agricultural purposes from non-perennial river sand banks and shallow aquifers. Given the site-specific characteristics of the application, it was not possible to consider a large area (e.g., province or district). Greater Giyani Municipality was considered because it is a critical area in terms of water scarcity and drought occurrence. The envisaged outcome was to improve the resilience of rural areas to a changing climate, which is characterized by recurring climate extremes, and also to encourage sustenance of rural livelihoods.