### The Context and the Problem  
Specifically, for the first aforementioned point, human errors account for an estimated 92-96% of traffic accidents [1]. Indeed, human drivers are limited in recognizing, interpreting, understanding, and operating in critical situations; moreover, they are prone to misbehavior, drowsiness, and distraction [2]. In this perspective, vehicle automation promises to improve safety by removing human drivers from the control loop, especially the SAE-L3 [3]. Undeniably, automation systems are capable of faster response times, and can handle greater amounts of information and process it more quickly than human drivers. However, AVs are also subject to faults and misses since there are situations where such systems reach their limits and will not be able to work reliably (automation cannot cope with highly complex traffic situations, e.g., dense urban traffic. Also, the situational understanding and prediction capabilities of vehicles are at the moment far less sophisticated than the capabilities of human drivers). In these cases, the driver must intervene and take over control of the vehicle as quickly as possible and with high take-over quality [4; 5]. This can lead to the so-called \"irony/paradox of automation\" [6; 7], in which the designer who tries to eliminate the operator still leaves the operator to perform the tasks which the designer cannot think how to automate, and where the driver is substituted by the artificial system, but is still regarded as a \"fallback mechanism\" when automation fails or it is outside its ODD (we mean here the usage conditions and the functional boundaries of the AV) [3]. This human-automation interaction represents the concept of being \"the Boss\" (known as the traded control scheme [8]), where either automation or the human have total control of the vehicle, but in different periods.  
In this sense, human drivers are still considered to be in a supervisory role or are asked to remain available for immediate control take-over, often without pre-warning or correct situational awareness [9]. This solution (human drivers are requested to monitor/supervise the artificial system and to take vehicle control back when it fails) will cause out-of-the-loop problems [10], mode confusion [11], and behavioral adaptation [12] issues that need urgent reconsideration to maintain safe driving with AVs [13]. In fact, when vehicles are moving autonomously, human minds begin to wander, starting to mentally switch off from the supervision task (and thus from the driving job). In addition, it is also likely that society will not tolerate automation faults at the same rate it currently tolerates human faults. Indeed, accidents are rare events: one accident per 1.46 billion km [14]. This means that--overall--humans are reliable, with the capacity to handle complex and new situations, with  
\begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c c c} \hline \hline
**Abbreviation** & **Meaning** & **Abbreviation** & **Meaning** \\ \hline ADAS & Advanced Driver Assistance System & LoA & Level of Automation \\ \hline ADS & Automated Driving System & MF & Membership Function \\ \hline AI & Artificial Intelligence & MPC & Model Predictive Control \\ \hline AV & Automated Vehicle & NMPC & Non-linear MPC \\ \hline FIS & Fuzzy Inference System & ODD & Operational Design Domain \\ \hline HMI & Human–Machine Interface & RMS & Root Mean Square \\ \hline ITS & Intelligent Transportation Systems & SAE & Society of Automotive Engineers \\ \hline KPI & Key Performance Indicator & SC & Shared Control \\ \hline LC & Lane-Centering & TLC & Time to Lane Crossing \\ \hline LK & Lane-Keeping & TOR & Take-Over Request \\ \hline \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table}
Table 1: List of abbreviations.  
great capability for adaptation as well as for situational comprehension and anticipation. However, we may also consider that if AVs become reliable in all foreseeable and even unforeseeable situations on the road, the driver may easily over-trust the AV, especially when the driver does not clearly understand the ODD [9].