## 4 Discussion
The 14 anti-inflammatory components primarily consist of methyl linoleicate, oleic acid, \(\beta\)-starch acetate, and sterols (such as stigmasterol sitosterol). Among them, oleic acid can inhibit the LPS-induced inflammatory reaction by down-regulating the expression of the nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-\(\kappa\)B) signaling pathway [56]. Methyl linoleic effectively inhibits the expression of IL-1\(\beta\) in THP-1 cells. In the PPI network visualization analysis, ADRB2, PTGS2, NOS3, BDNF, and PPARG have been identified as potential core targets for the anti-inflammatory effects of _C. japonicum_ (Figure S1). Among them, ADRB2 is a crucial \(\beta\)2-adrenergic receptor involved in maintaining hepatocellular carcinoma cell proliferation and survival. Additionally, it has been found to attenuate osteoarthritis-like defects in temporomandibular joints when conditionally detected in mice [57; 58]. PTGS2, also known as COX-2 enzyme, plays a significant role in the inflammatory response by catalyzing arachidonic acid conversion to prostate H2, which triggers the inflammatory cascade [59]. The expression of PTGS2 is regulated by various stress-related factors and serves as an important regulator; up-regulated PTGS2 significantly contributes to inflammation regulation through glucagon production [60]. Nitric oxide (NO) plays a crucial role in regulating various aspects of vascular function, including smooth muscle cell proliferation and migration, vascular tone, endothelial permeability, and endothelial-leukocyte interactions. It serves as a key anti-atherogenic factor in the endothelium [61]. Endothelial-type nitric oxide synthase 3 (NOS3), encoded by a gene located on chromosome 7q35-36, is responsible for maintaining vascular homeostasis and regulating endothelial function. NOS3 genetic polymorphisms have been demonstrated to exert an impact on NO levels and lipid profiles, and they are associated with hypertension [62], as well as with diabetic foot ulcers [63]. BDNF represents a crucial class of neurotrophic factors that play an essential role in regulating neuronal proliferation, differentiation, maturation, and pro-neuronal regeneration; it constitutes a fundamental factor in ongoing depression research [64]. BDNF and its receptor, tyrosine kinase receptor B (TrxB), have been implicated in the pathogenesis of various neurological disorders [65]. Furthermore, activation of the BDNF/TrxB signaling pathway has shown potential for ameliorating memory deficits in rats with Alzheimer's disease [66]. PPARG belongs to the nuclear transcription factor superfamily as a subtype of peroxisome proliferatorator-activated receptor and has been demonstrated to mitigate inflammatory responses by inhibiting the NF-kB signaling pathway, making it a promising therapeutic molecular target for diverse malignant tumors [67]. In GO and KEGG pathway analyses of 32 targets related to anti-inflammatory effects of _C. japonicum_, it was revealed that the biological processes primarily involved in _C. japonicum_ include response to LPS, negative regulation of cellular regulatory processes, response to hypoxia, negative regulation of macrophage-derived foam cell differentiation, and response to activity (Figure 3). The anti-inflammatory activity of _C. japonicum_ mainly involves signaling pathway processes, such as the relaxin signaling pathway, arginine biosynthesis pathway, prostate cancer pathway, AGE-RAGE pathway in diabetic complications, apocynin signaling pathway, and PI3K-Akt signaling pathway (Figure 4). Among these pathways, the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway is a crucial intracellular mechanism that responds to extracellular signals and regulates various cellular and molecular functions, including metabolism, survival, growth, and angiogenesis. Its involvement in gastritis has also gained significant attention in recent years due to its role in cell growth, proliferation, apoptosis, as well as blood glucose regulation [68].