## 1 Introduction  
As urban populations continue to grow and cities rapidly develop, investments in urban infrastructure are increasing [1]. The saturation of ground space, scarcity of land resources, and worsening urban traffic congestion pose significant challenges [2]. Many cities are faced with the urgent task of meeting urban development needs within limited land resources [3]. Urban underground space (UUS) development and utilization have become crucial strategies to support urban growth, mitigate land scarcity, and improve land resource utilization efficiency [4, 5, 6]. The development and utilization of UUS is considered an essential aspect of sustainable development [5, 7, 8], representing one of the few remaining natural resources that have yet to be fully tapped into [9]. The emphasis on UUS has attracted growing interest and stands out as a novel area of research [10]. However, UUS is regarded as a non-renewable resource [11], as its physical space and spatial continuity with specific soil strength cannot be returned to its initial condition once harmed [12]. Underground cities and rock houses were built from the early beginning of architecture, with significant examples of cities: Sanmencia in China in Henan Province, Matmata (Tunisia), Cappadocia (Turkey), Uplisciche (Georgia), Brlhovce (Slovakia), etc. [13] The selection of rock types must take into account their durability and ease of excavation. Humans have utilized stable rock formations, such as volcanic tuff (e.g., Cappadocia, Turkey) and sandstone (e.g., Ellora Caves, India), for underground living. The modern development and utilization of UUS began with the construction of the first underground railway in London in 1863 [14]. A surge in the construction of UUS occurred from the early 1960s to the late 1970s. Since the 1980s, Japan has experienced significant growth in the scale of individual underground streets, improvements in design metrics, and enhanced disaster resistance measures [15]. Major cities in the United States started constructing subways in the aftermath of the 20 th century, improving urban transportation services' efficiency and stimulating commercial growth. China's UUS development commenced in the 1960s, initially focusing on civil air defense engineering [16]. During the early 21 st century, cities, like Beijing, Shanghai, Guangzhou, and Hangzhou, began strategizing the development and use of their UUS. UUS development not only eases pressure on urban surface areas but also opens up new opportunities for urban development. There are constraints on UUS development and urban planning due to the structure of strata, hydrogeological circumstances, and a variety of engineering environmental geological impediments [17]. Challenges may arise during construction if there is not enough knowledge of engineering geology and hydrogeological states [18]. Despite this, there are still practical obstacles to UUS development, such as intricate geological situations, lack of cohesive planning, and insufficient development and utilization. Research on the geological suitability evaluation of urban underground spaces (GSEUUS) has begun to focus on developed countries in Europe and the United States. The Underground Space Center at the University of Minnesota and the Shimizu Institute of Technology in Japan utilize appropriate living and working environments as criteria for assessing engineers and designers [19]. This includes an examination of the current status of underground land use, development trends, psychological issues, structural design, and life safety. In-depth discussions have been conducted on various design-related topics. GSEUUS primarily focuses on regions in Europe [20; 21; 22] and the United States [21; 23]. These evaluations have involved quantitative risk assessments that consider active geological processes, such as earthquakes, landslides, and liquefaction, in conjunction with local policies.