## 1 Introduction  
The electric vehicle (EV) in all its modalities, whether hybrid, plugged-in, or battery [1], is presented as a feasible solution to the problems of resources, energy, and pollution management facing countries worldwide [2, 3]. Multiple factors are accelerating its adoption by consumers and society, the most important causes of which have been studied for years and can be summarized as follows:  
* Growing global concern about climate change and its effects on glacier melting [4], sea level increments, thermal variations and extreme precipitations attributed to global warming, specifically to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and the high CO2 production associated with energy obtained through fossil fuel combustion. The reduction of GHG emissions caused by human activity, considered the main cause of rapidly advancing global warming [5], is a core priority. The International Energy Agency (IEA) has made several proposals aimed at limiting the increase in global temperature to two degrees Celsius by 2050 [6]. In this line, the transportation sector was the producer of 25% of GHG emissions in 2009. Since then, various initiatives have been implemented to reduce these gases by incorporating cleaner technologies in vehicles such as electrification, which emits less CO2 than internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEV) when electricity comes from renewables or from the use of new fuels [7]. According to the European Environment Agency, 15% of GHG emissions are caused by the transportation sector, with this figure being 27% in the European Union (EU) [8, 9]. In the case of the United States (US), this rate rises to 29%; thus, private and public organizations are working together to make it possible for all EVsto work with electricity from renewable sources [10; 11]. In the US, the transportation and electricity sectors accounted for over 53% of GHG emissions in 2021 [12], with work on EV solutions showing the potential to improve these figures. * A progressive increase in the costs of extracting crude oil and higher prices for consumers are among the reasons for the IEA warning of a decrease in gasoline and diesel production in the coming decades. Except in the US, where large investments have been made in fracking, oil companies are gradually ceasing to invest in new oil fields, and are diversifying them into other sectors such as electricity and renewables [13]. Thus, investment in clean energy by oil and gas companies doubled to around 20 billion USD by 2022, accounting for around 4% of upstream capital investment and 0.5% of net income [14]. * Although the enormous energy density and stability of fuels have favored their global use for more than a hundred years, the production of environmental pollutants from fossil fuel combustion for electrical or transportation purposes is increasing globally and becoming toxic at local levels in large cities, where the density of pollutants from tailpipes or factories is high and they remain immobile due to different weather conditions, causing episodes of low air quality and illnesses [15]. Approximately 90% of the world's citizens live in areas where the World Health Organisation's (WHO) air quality guidelines are exceeded. Cities produce about 78% of CO2, and significant air pollutants affect the more than 50% of the world's population living in them [16]. * Greater global efficiency, rationalizing energy consumption, and the need for a new paradigm around the use of renewable resources is called for, along with changing the centralized energy production concept of the 20 th century towards wider geographical distribution. This could include an increase in the penetration of Distributed Energy Resources (DER), in which Plug-in Electric Vehicles (PEV) can be included thanks to their capacity to provide stored electricity when necessary [17]. Further studies assessing the impact of penetration of DERs above 20%, reaching 40% and even 60%, are essential to anticipate their impact on the electricity grid [18].