## 3 Results  
### Assessment of Olfactory and Gustatory Function  
At first, we investigated the differences in olfactory and gustatory function in subjects with hyposmia and hypogesusia compared to healthy controls. Table 1 shows mean values \(\pm\) standard deviation (SD) measured for age, sex, weight, height, body mass index (BMI), OThr, ODi, Old, TDI score, sweet, salty, sour, bitter taste perception, and TT score in healthy controls (n = 158), participants with hyposmia (Hypos, n = 111) and with hypogesusia (Hypogeu, n = 34). Table 1 showed no significant differences between groups for the mean age, height, and BMI. Instead, a significant increase in weight was observed between subjects with hypogesusia compared to healthy controls [F\({}_{(2,300)}\) = 3.914, \(p<0.05\)]. A marked decline in the olfactory function was observed both in subjects with hyposmia and hypogesusia. A noticeable compromise in the gustatory function was detected in subjects with hypogesusia and, to a minor extent, also in subjects with hyposmia. Regarding olfactory function, a significant reduction in OThr mean scores was observed for subjects with hyposmia and hypogesusia compared to healthy controls [F\({}_{(2,300)}\) = 82.671, \(p<0.001\)]. Subjects with hyposmia also showed lower significant mean scores for OThr \begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c c c} \hline \hline
**Parameters** & **Controls** & **Hypos** & **Hypogeu** \\  & **(n = 158)** & **(n = 111)** & **(n = 34)** \\ \hline Age (years) & 33.0 \(\pm\) 13.8 & 36.8 \(\pm\) 16.5 & 37.3 \(\pm\) 16.8 \\ Sex & 106 Women/52 Men & 70 Women/41 Men & 13 Women/21 Men \\ Weight (kg) & 63.8 \(\pm\) 14.0 & 66.6 \(\pm\) 15.7 & 71.1 \(\pm\) 11.9 * \\ Height (m) & 1.6 \(\pm\) 0.1 & 1.7 \(\pm\) 0.1 & 1.7 \(\pm\) 0.1 \\ BMI & 23.5 \(\pm\) 4.4 & 24.8 \(\pm\) 7.9 & 25.8 \(\pm\) 3.9 \\ OThr & 9.6 \(\pm\) 3.9 & 4.1 \(\pm\) 2.6 *** & 6.1 \(\pm\) 3.7 *** \\ ODi & 12.8 \(\pm\) 1.5 & 10.5 \(\pm\) 2.4 *** & 11.3 \(\pm\) 3.1 *** \\ Old & 13.5 \(\pm\) 1.2 & 11.9 \(\pm\) 2.0 *** & 11.9 \(\pm\) 2.8 *** \\ TDI score & 35.9 \(\pm\) 3.9 & 26.5 \(\pm\) 4.3 *** & 29.3 \(\pm\) 7.9 *** \\ Sweet & 3.5 \(\pm\) 0.7 & 3.2 \(\pm\) 1.1 * & 2.2 \(\pm\) 1.2 *** \\ Salty & 3.5 \(\pm\) 0.7 & 3.3 \(\pm\) 0.9 * & 2.3 \(\pm\) 1.2 *** \\ Sour & 2.8 \(\pm\) 0.8 & 2.3 \(\pm\) 1.1 *** & 1.3 \(\pm\) 1.1 *** \\ Bitter & 3.1 \(\pm\) 1.0 & 2.9 \(\pm\) 1.1 & 1.6 \(\pm\) 1.2 *** \\ TT score & 12.9 \(\pm\) 1.6 & 11.7 \(\pm\) 2.8 *** & 7.4 \(\pm\) 1.7 *** \\ \hline \hline \end{tabular} Legend: BMI = body mass index; OThr = odor threshold; ODi = odor discrimination; Old = odor identification; TDI score = OThr + ODi + Old; TT score = total taste score. Significant differences between groups (Ivo-way ANOVA adjusted with the Bonferroni Multiple Comparisons Test); *** \(p<0.001\); * \(p<0.01\); * \(p<0.05\) versus Controls; \({}^{\text{\textregistered}}\)\(p<0.001\), \({}^{\text{\textregistered}}\)\(p<0.01\), \({}^{\text{\textregistered}}\)\(p<0.05\) versus participants with hyposmia.  
\end{table} 
Table 1: Demographic and clinical parameters of healthy participants (Controls), participants with hyposmia (Hypos), and with hypogesusia (Hypogeu). compared to subjects with hypogeusia (\(p<0.05\)) (Table 1). In the ODi mean values, significant differences were found between subjects with hyposmia (\(p<0.001\)) and hypogeusia (\(p<0.01\)) compared to controls [F\({}_{(2,300)}=38.587\), \(p<0.001\)]. A significant decrease in Old mean scores, compared to healthy controls, was observed in subjects with hyposmia and hypogeusia [F\({}_{(2,300)}=32.436\), \(p<0.001\)]. Finally, the total olfactory function (TDI score), significantly decreased in participants with hyposmia and hypogeusia, compared to healthy controls [F\({}_{(2,300)}=136.164\), \(p<0.001\)]. Sweet taste perception significantly decreased in participants with hyposmia (\(p<0.05\)) and hypogeusia (\(p<0.001\)) compared to controls [F\({}_{(2,300)}=28.627\), \(p<0.001\)].