## 2 Topographical Context and Layout of the Fortification  
The fortification is situated atop a relatively steep hill, with a slightly gentler slope towards the north (Figure 2). The preparation of the terrain for construction does not appear to have posed major challenges, as the structure occupies the highest point of the hill, where several natural rock outcrops are present. This afforded the builders the advantage of a solid geological foundation. In some areas--particularly the steep and rocky southern flank--ashlars can be observed filling cracks and crevices in the bedrock. It is also worth noting that in this southern zone, the surviving outer masonry wall is difficult to distinguish from the natural rock, suggesting that part of the enclosure may have been hewn directly from the bedrock itself. The fortified complex features an elongated, polygonal plan aligned along an east-west axis. It adapts to the topography of the highest and most defensible part of the hill, while also taking advantage of the small plateau that crowns its summit. The perimeter was once enclosed by a curtain wall, or outer shell, of which only partial sections remain. This wall was clearly laid out to follow the contours of the terrain, adapting to the local geomorphology (Figure 3). The best-preserved sections of the enclosure are precisely those that face the steepest slopes--namely, the southern and western sides. In contrast, the northern and eastern sectors, which are more exposed and accessible, are the most deteriorated. This condition can likely be attributed to systematic plundering and stone removal over the centuries, particularly during the 19 th and 20 th centuries, when advances in transportation enabled more efficient extraction and relocation of building materials. It is reasonable to assume that the local population took advantage of the most easily accessible areas. Scattered stones and ashlars can be observed across the entire hillside, along with accumulations of material in certain locations, appearing as though they had been stockpiled for collection. Despite the degradation, the route of this advanced defensive enclosure remains partially legible, albeit with difficulty in some areas. Its hypothetical reconstruction requires a degree of interpretative reasoning and an understanding of defensive construction logic, especially along the more severely damaged sides. The thickness of the enclosing wall, or \"jacket\", generally exceeds 1.60 m, although this dimension varies from section to section. Traces of a barbican or outer parquet are evident on the western facade, which may have served as an additional line of defense protecting the sole access point to the fortress. This entrance is reached by ascending a series of carved stone steps that lead to a narrow opening, measuring 1.25 m in width. The  
Figure 3: Ground floor of the fortress of Lopera. Made by the author. Figure 2: Fortress situation on the ground. doorway itself--still largely intact (Figure 4)--is surmounted by a false arch constructed using the corbelling technique through the progressive approximation of courses. The entrance opens onto a small, almost square courtyard, approximately seven meters per side. It comprises the section of wall containing the entrance gate, the main tower, and two perpendicular walls, one of which has survived. The missing wall--of which only the remains of a buttress (machon) are visible--is thought to have housed the gate providing final access to the fortress's parade ground, which surrounds the tower [11] (p. 267), This area contains one of the most intriguing features of the complex: its floor lies at a lower level than the rest of the parade ground. This appears to result from an adaptation to the natural topography, as the current level coincides with that of the main entrance. Whether this depression is of natural or artificial origin, it would have made a direct assault through the main gate significantly more difficult.