## 4 Conclusions  
In summary, the findings of this study underscore the complex interactions between water dynamics and soil properties in layered systems, leading to the following key conclusions:  
* Enhanced Understanding of Water Movement: The 3D images of the wetting bulb significantly improved our understanding of water movement within layered soil, providing valuable insights into the dynamics of water distribution. The images revealed the occurrence of funneling phenomena through the restrictive underlying layer, which acts as a capillary barrier, inhibiting the expansion of the wetting front. * Hydraulic Conductivity Differences: The observed differences in hydraulic conductivity between the two layers suggest that surface ponding and overland flow are generated through a saturation-excess mechanism. Percolating water can accumulate above the restrictive limestone layer, forming a shallow perched water table that may rise during extreme rainfall events, potentially leading to the complete saturation of the soil profile. * Soil Physical Quality Indicators: By integrating infiltration data with the BEST method, we determined key soil physical quality indicators in the upper soil layer. The estimated parameters indicated high levels of aeration and macroporosity (\(AC\) and \(p_{MAC}\)), alongside low values for microporosity indicators (\(PAWC\) and \(RFC\)). The \(RFC\) value of 0.55 m\({}^{3}\) m\({}^{-3}\) indicated the soil's limited capacity to retain water relative to its total pore volume. The \(PAWC\) value of 0.10 m\({}^{3}\) m\({}^{-3}\) indicated a scarcity of micropores ranging from 0.2 to 30 \(\upmu\)m in diameter, which typically hold water accessible to plant roots within the total porosity. * Implications for Root Proliferation: These findings suggest that the upper soil layer facilitates root proliferation and efficiently drains excess water toward the underlying restrictive layer. However, it has a limited capacity to store and supply water to plant roots. * Concluding Remarks and Considerations: The use of cover crops or at least inter-alley spontaneous vegetation, recently adopted in the experimental plot, is expected to mitigate, at least in part, these problems over the next years [59]. During periods of intense precipitation, cover crops play a crucial role in mitigating soil erosion and runoff by shielding the soil surface. Simultaneously, they contribute to minimizing nutrient losses by absorbing residual nutrients left in the soil [60]. This dual function underscores their importance in sustainable agricultural practices aimed at enhancing soil health and reducing environmental impacts during extreme weather events. In addition, the presence of cover crop residues may increase the soil organic matter, which also plays a role in producing macrostructures, thereby improving the surface soil structure [42]. Important benefits may also include improved moisture retention because of the mulch provided by cover crop residues [61]. Further studies will be necessary to assess the mitigation role that inter-alley cropping will play during the next agricultural cycles with regard to soil physical quality and the attenuation of the sealing phenomenon. S.D.P. : Conceptualization, Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis, Validation, Visualization, Writing--original draft, Writing--Review and Editing, Funding acquisition. G.F.: Writing--original draft, Writing--Review and Editing. M.B. : Writing--Review and Editing. L.R.R. : Investigation, Data Curation, Writing--Review and Editing. V.G. : Investigation, Writing--Review and Editing. F.G.: Writing--Review and Editing, Funding acquisition. A.C.: Writing--Review and Editing. L.L. : Writing--Review and Editing. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.