## 4 Results
### Spatial and Temporal Dimensions  
This section discusses how smart mobility innovations can contribute to the alleviation of the spatial and temporal dimensions of transport disadvantage. Due to the association with time and distance, this dimension is most closely related to issues surrounding geographic-related transport disadvantage. Based on the reviewed literature, smart mobility could alleviate the spatial and temporal dimensions of transport disadvantage by: (a) filling gaps in the public transport network by improving the coverage and frequency of services; (b) strengthening the connection with public services by designing services to act as a feeder system which connects to major public transport nodes and employment centers; (c) improving the flexibility of public transport by offering services on-demand; and (d) creating more transportation choices in areas where choice is traditionally limited. A list of all reviewed literature is shown in Appendix A.  
Firstly, literature on smart mobility consistently identifies smart mobility innovations as a way to fill gaps in the public transport network. In doing so, smart mobility can contribute to improved coverage and frequency of services [43; 93]. DRT services, in particular, have been highlighted as a way to provide door-to-door transportation by using fleets of smaller shared vehicles as opposed to fixed route services [94]. Other advantages of using smaller vehicles over traditional buses is that they have a lower operational cost per passenger and can access areas with smaller road widths [94]. However, these services often require significant government subsidies as they do not have the required number of users to support profitability over the required coverage [35; 95]. While subsidizing these services may be more economical than providing fixed route public transport [96], ITS can also help better match supply and demand and develop locally specific strategies that also contribute to lower costs and better efficiency [95; 97]. ITS has been shown to allow better real-time control over the networks and enhance the potential for DRT to provide increased flexibility and greater coverage while bringing costs closer to that of public transport [27; 43]. SAV has also been identified as a way to improve coverage particularly by reducing the instance of dead runs [33; 98]. Notwithstanding, there will also be issues associated with providing the necessary infrastructure to facilitate suitable network coverage [99; 100]. Furthermore, when promoting alternative fuel vehicles that generate electricity from the grid, there may be issues associated with grid capacity. Infrastructure issues are intensified in low density and rural areas due to inadequate infrastructure and longer transmission distances [47; 50; 101]. As such, low-density areas would still attract higher transportation costs than high density areas, and significant investment is required for ensure geographic equity [101]. One solution relates to cross-subsidization where profits made in areas with high demand are used to subsidize and fund the required infrastructure in areas with lower demand [47; 95]. By sharing information and resources across the transportation system MaaS can help facilitate this cross-subsidization to ensure maximum profitability and promote social equity [83]. Furthermore, since subsidies may make low density housing more attractive, planning interventions that promote walking, cycling, higher densities around employment and transit centers, and investment in high speed public transport remain important [59; 102]. Secondly, smart mobility can be used to support investment in high-speed public transport by using innovative services to act as a feeder system, which acts as a first- and last-mile connection to major public transport nodes and employment centers [96]. Theoretically, improved access to public transport would reduce car dependency and therefore reduce transportation costs [103].