## 5 Conclusions  
Several _Ferula_ species have a long history of use in traditional medicine due to their potential therapeutic properties in treating various health conditions, such as gastrointestinal disorders, respiratory issues, and inflammatory diseases. In recent years, due to its important edible and medicinal values, extensive research has been conducted on every aspect of _Ferula_, such as its geographical distribution, physiological ecology, genomics, metabolomics, taxonomy, phytoconstituents, biosynthesis, pharmacological activity, traditional uses, clinical efficacy, and industrial applications [250; 251; 252; 253; 254].  
Figure 10: The anticancer mechanisms of umbelliprenin (**150**) and galbanic acid (**213**). MMPs (matrix metalloproteinases), HUVEC (human umbilical vein endothelial cell), HIF (hypoxia-inducible factor), VEGF (vascular endothelial growth factor), EGFR (epithelial growth factor receptor), AKT (protein kinase B). “Red arrow” respresent upregulation or downregulation.  
_Ferula_ is known for its production of sesquiterpenes. Sesquiterpenes are a subclass of terpenes, which are natural hydrocarbons synthesized by plants, including the _Ferula_ species, through the mevalonic acid pathway. Sesquiterpenes are composed of three isoprene units, giving them a 15-carbon structure. Sesquiterpenes and their derivatives have antibacterial, antifungal, and antiviral activities, which are characteristically related to plant defense mechanisms [255]. In this work, information on 454 sesquiterpenes and their derivatives from various parts of this plant, including resins, stems, aerial parts, seeds, and roots have been summarized. The specific sesquiterpenes found in _Ferula_ species can vary between different plant varieties, and even within the same species, and they are influenced by factors such as environmental conditions and geographic location. These compounds not only give _Ferula_ plants their unique aromas but also contribute to their potential therapeutic properties, making them of interest to researchers and practitioners in the fields of herbal medicine. Sesquiterpenes are known for their diverse biological activities, including antioxidative, antibacterial, and anti-inflammatory properties. Ferutinin (**18**), umbelliprenin (**150**), and galbanic acid (**213**) are sesquiterpenes from _Ferula_ which have undergone extensive pharmacological activity research, and investigating these activities can help uncover potential treatments for a wide range of health conditions. They have also shown promise in drug discovery and development.  
It should be noted that the specific biological activity of sesquiterpenes is related to their chemical structure. Researchers should understand their structure-activity relationships to design compounds with better activity, fully tap into their therapeutic potential, and develop standardized applications in medicine industries.  
In summary, _Ferula_ plants offer a wealth of research opportunities in fields such as phytochemistry, pharmacology, agriculture, ecology, and biotechnology. The diverse sesquiterpenes produced by _Ferula_ species have the potential to yield novel drugs, making them a valuable subject of study for researchers across the globe.  
Conceptualization, C.F. and J.S.; software, J.W., Q.Z. and H.W.; writing--original draft preparation, J.W. and Q.Z.; writing--review and editing, J.W., H.W., L.S., G.W., [PERSON], [PERSON] and [PERSON]; visualization, [PERSON] and [PERSON]; supervision, [PERSON] and [PERSON]; project administration, [PERSON] and [PERSON]; funding acquisition, [PERSON], [PERSON] and J.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.  
This research was funded by the CAMS Innovation Fund for Medical Sciences (CIFMS, Grant No. 2022-I2M-1-017), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 81903920), and the Natural Science Foundation of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, China (Grant No. 2022D01B190).  
Not applicable.  
The authors declare no conflict of interest.