# E-Eye-Based Approach for Traceability and Annuality Compliance of Lentils
## 1 Introduction  
Lentils (_Lens culinaris_ Medik.) are a traditional and ancient staple food of the Mediterranean basin, representing an inexpensive and important source of plant-based protein [1, 2, 3]. The annual production is around 4.5 million tons, and they are majorly produced in Canada, the United States, Turkey, Australia, and India [3]. This pulse is a source of biologically active proteins such as lectins and protease inhibitors [3]. Additionally, lentils present a remarkable protein nitrogen content, despite their main components being carbohydrates. Interestingly, [PERSON] et al. have demonstrated that this legume is a relevant source of prebiotic carbohydrates [4]. Furthermore, lentils contain fibers, oligosaccharides, and mineral ingredients [3]. The high and valuable nutritional properties of this legume have been [2], and are still being, widely decalamped and promoted by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) [5] and the scientific community. These qualities make lentils a sustainable and resilient crop that could also help address diet-related diseases, from malnutrition to obesity [6]. The great interest in this legume is demonstrated by the large amount of literature on it [4, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11] and is resulting in an increase in consumption and production worldwide. In Italy, numerous different cultivars of pulses are commonly cultivated. [PERSON] et al. investigated several types of lentils grown in various Italian areas and demonstrated that these legumes present a large genetic variation [12]. This leads to the fact the different ecotypes (grown relatively close to one another) have very dissimilar chemical (and,consequently, organoleptic) characteristics. Despite this richness in lentil cultivars, and although production has almost doubled in the last ten years, their cultivation has suffered a considerable decline and is now based on a multitude of traditional ecotypes well adapted to the severe conditions of marginal mountainous rural areas [12]. This circumstance makes Italian lentil production inefficient in meeting the internal demand, turning Italian landraces into niche products, valuable in terms of cost, quality, and uniqueness. In addition to this scenario, there are the effects that climate change could have on these typical varieties; although this research area is still unexplored, two different studies have confirmed the adverse effects that climate change (increased temperatures and reduced water availability) can have on the quantitative yield (size and number of seeds) and nutritional quality of different lentil varieties [13,14]. Therefore, this context, combined with reduced yields, could dramatically affect the economy of small producers and the entire production of high-value lentils, leading producers to commit illegal practices such as adulteration and counterfeiting. Accordingly, several studies in the literature have aimed at the control and authentication of Italian lentils against imported varieties by employing chemometrics and different analytical techniques such as Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometry (IRMS) [15], Proton nuclear magnetic resonance (\({}^{1}\)H-NMR) [16], Inductively Coupled Plasma-Optical Emissions Spectrometry (ICP-OES) [17], or Infrared Spectroscopy [18]. On the other hand, numerous studies have focused on the genetic wealth of Italian varieties by developing a method helpful in safeguarding the on-farming-survival landraces that are easily exposed to genetic erosion [19, 20, 21]. For example, [PERSON] et al. developed a non-destructive fingerprint approach, coupled with chemometrics, to verify autochthonous materials and prevent genetic contamination [22]. [PERSON] and colleagues extensively characterized several Italian landraces, paying particular attention to the Abruzzo varieties traditionally selected by growers around Santo Stefano di Sessanio (a locality in the province of L'Aquila) [23].