## 3 Mechanisms of Action of Antimicrobial Compounds
coli_, _Lacticasebiacillus casei_, and _Limosilactobacillus reuteri_. The primary compounds identified in these extracts are punicalagin, ellagic acid, gallic acid, and chlorogenic acid [139]. Other study focused on the antimicrobial effects of sulfur derivatives of camphor, specifically rac-thiocamphor (**1a**) and (S, S)-(+)-thiocamphor (**2a**), against various bacterial strains, including both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. Both compounds were evaluated for their ability to eradicate biofilms formed by bacterial strains. Compound **2a** showed superior efficacy compared to compound **1a**, particularly against _Staphylococcus epidermidis_, achieving up to 94% biofilm reduction at 4 \(\times\) MIC. The authors suggest that these compounds could be useful in the treatment and prevention of skin infections, highlighting the need for further research to explore their use in antiseptics and disinfectants, especially in the context of increasing antibiotic resistance [140]. III. Inhibition of cell wall synthesis: The bacterial cell wall is a fundamental structure that plays an essential function in maintaining cell shape, integrity, and protection, ensuring the survival of bacteria under various environmental conditions [141]. Composed primarily of peptidoglycan (PG), a cross-linked polymer, the cell wall forms a rigid layer that surrounds the cytoplasmic membrane, shielding it from osmotic stress and mechanical damage. This unique structure not only defines the bacterial shape but also provides the strength needed to withstand the high intracellular osmotic pressure, preventing cell lysis. Because the cell wall is exclusive to bacteria and absent in human cells, it has become a prime target for antibiotics and antimicrobial agents [142]. Beyond its architectural function, the cell wall acts as the primary interface between the bacterium and its external environment, regulating interactions with surrounding substances and protecting internal cellular components. Plant-derived compounds have emerged as valuable tools in targeting the bacterial cell wall, offering innovative therapeutic strategies to inhibit its synthesis and disrupt its integrity [143]. For instance, compounds like dihydromyricetin have been shown to compromise the cell wall and membrane, leading to the leakage of intracellular components, such as alkaline phosphatase (AKP), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), and alanine aminotransferase (ALT). This loss of structural integrity ultimately results in bacterial cell death. By targeting the cell wall, these plant-based compounds provide a promising approach to combating bacterial infections while minimizing harm to host cells [128]. For instance, diterpenes extracted from _Lepechinia meyenii_, including carnosol, along with its derivatives 20-methyl carnostate and carnosic acid-\(\gamma\)-lactone, disrupt the activity of the enzymes MurA and MurF. These enzymes participate in the cell wall synthesis of bacteria such as _S. aureus_ and _E. coli_[144]. IV. Inhibition of protein biosynthesis: Bacterial protein synthesis is a primary target for many natural and synthetic antibacterial agents [145]. Plant compounds inhibit protein synthesis by interfering with various stages of the process, including activation, initiation, disruption of peptide chain elongation, blockage of the ribosome's A site, misreading of the genetic code, and prevention of the binding of oligosaccharideside chains to glycoproteins [146]. Terpinen-4-ol may interfere with protein synthesis by inhibiting the synthesis of DNA [8]. Plant compounds such as berberine, matrine, and sanguinar interfere with various stages of this process, including ribosomal function, tRNA binding, and the activity of aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases [6; 132]. For example, berberine binds to the 50S ribosomal subunit, preventing peptide bond formation, while matrine disrupts ribosomal activity, halting protein synthesis in bacteria like _E. coli_ and _S.