## 4 Results and Discussion
### Long- and Short-Run Effect Test Analysis
Industrialization, especially in sectors like steel, petrochemicals, and electronics, plays a crucial role in driving emissions due to the high carbon intensity of these industries ([PERSON] et al. [74]; [PERSON] et al. [75]). Over the long term, the positive relationship between CO2 emissions, economic growth, urbanization, and industrialization gradually weakens. This is due to several factors, including structural shifts toward a service-based economy, improvements in energy efficiency, and an increasing reliance on renewable energy. As the economy evolves, technological advancements and policy measures, such as the Korean Emissions Trading System, mitigate the environmental impact of these factors. Although economic activities still contribute to emissions, the long-term effects are less pronounced compared to the short-term impacts. This observation is supported by [PERSON] et al. [76] and [PERSON] et al. [77], who find that industrial expansion initially leads to higher emissions, but over time, technological and structural changes reduce these effects. Foreign direct investment follows a similar trajectory. In the short term, FDI typically results in greater industrial activity and emissions, as foreign capital often flows into energy-intensive sectors that are central to South Korea's economy. The increased production fueled by FDI elevates energy consumption, thereby contributing to higher CO2 emissions. However, in the long run, FDI has the potential to reduce emissions by facilitating the transfer of cleaner, more energy-efficient technologies. Studies by [PERSON] et al. [78] and [PERSON] and [PERSON] [79] highlight the critical role FDI plays in introducing advanced technologies that help reduce the carbon intensity of industrial processes. As these technologies are integrated into South Korea's industrial base, the long-term impact of FDI on CO2 emissions becomes negative, with emissions decreasing as energy efficiency improves. Green technology innovation exerts a negative influence on CO2 emissions in both the short and long term. In the short term, the introduction of green technologies, such as renewable energy systems, energy-efficient industrial processes, and carbon capture technologies, begins to lower the carbon intensity of production and consumption. These early effects, although initially modest due to the time required for widespread adoption, contribute to emissions reductions. Over the long term, however, the impact of green technology innovation becomes increasingly significant. As innovation accelerates and these technologies are more widely adopted across industries, the reductions in CO2 emissions become more substantial. This is consistent with studies by [PERSON] and [PERSON] [80] and [PERSON] [81], which emphasize that sustained innovation in green technologies, particularly when supported by favorable policy frameworks, is crucial to long-term emissions reductions. When comparing these findings with the existing literature, both convergence and divergence can be observed. The short-term positive relationship between economic growth, urbanization, and industrialization with CO2 emissions is consistent with studies by [PERSON] [82], [PERSON] and [PERSON] [83], and [PERSON] et al. [84], which underscore the immediate environmental costs associated with rapid industrial expansion and urban development. These studies, like the present analysis, emphasize that the short-term benefits of economic growth in terms of emissions reductions are constrained by the significant energy demands that accompany early-stage industrialization and urbanization. However, this study distinguishes itself by offering a more nuanced perspective on the varying effects of these factors over time, particularly regarding green technology innovation.