## 3 Results
### Push Force  
Physiological timing of the push force measurement is important to classify lodging. We measured the plants two weeks after flowering and again at grain maturity. These time points represent the beginning and end of the physiological stages where plants are most vulnerable to lodging [1]. At heading, all cereals irrespective of lodging type expressed a similar level of push force required to make the stems bend to 45 degrees. However, at grain maturity, with the exception of 2-row barley, the cereals required less force to be bent at 45 degrees (\(R^{2}=0.19\); \(p<0.001\)) (Table 3) corresponding with lodging classification. Stems of susceptible cultivars of 6-row barley, oat, and wheat are stronger at heading than at grain maturity, whereas resistant cultivars do not change stem strength over time.  
Figure 6: Comparison of means for lodging angles of pooled resistant and susceptible lines of all small cereal grains, where the angle of 90 degrees is upright and 0 degrees is perpendicular to the ground. N = 8.  
\begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c c c c c c c c c c c c} \hline  & & & & & & & & & & & & & \\ \hline
**Growth Stage** & **Crop** & **Lodging Type** & **LS Mean** & **SE** & **LS Mean** & **SE** & **LS Mean** & **SE** & **LS Mean** & **SE** & **LS Mean** & **SE** \\ \hline \multirow{2}{*}{Heading} & 2-row & Resistant & 0.72b & 0.02 & 5.25a & 0.81 & 0.51a & 0.02 & \(-\)8.64a & 9.7 & 3.51c & 1.3 \\  & & Susceptible & 0.74b & 0.02 & 6.53a & 0.99 & 0.52a & 0.02 & \(-\)40.09b & 11.9 & 5.83b & 1.6 \\  & & Resistant & 0.75b & 0.04 & 6.51a & 0.85 & 0.53a & 0.02 & \(-\)12.25a & 10.6 & 2.60c & 1.4 \\  & & Susceptible & 0.77 ab & 0.03 & 7.20a & 0.88 & 0.52a & 0.03 & \(-\)10.08a & 10.6 & 4.75b & 1.4 \\  & & Restrant & 0.66c & 0.01 & 7.19a & 0.89 & 0.47b & 0.01 & \(-\)14.03a & 10.6 & 5.08b & 1.4 \\  & & Susceptible & 0.78a & 0.03 & 8.44a & 0.85 & 0.53a & 0.02 & \(-\)21.90a & 10.1 & 4.03 bc & 1.4 \\  & & Resistant & 0.69b & 0.02 & 6.98a & 0.06 & 0.47b & 0.01 & \(-\)4.31a & 7.9 & 3.06c & 1.0 \\  & & Susceptible & 0.71b & 0.01 & 8.20a & 1.15 & 0.48b & 0.03 & \(-\)23.73a & 13.7 & 4.98 bc & 1.8 \\ \hline \multirow{2}{*}{Mature} & 2-row & Resistant & 0.73b & 0.02 & 5.00a & 0.81 & 0.50a & 0.02 & \(-\)5.43a & 9.7 & 6.33b & 1.3 \\  & & Susceptible & 0.75b & 0.02 & 5.30a & 0.81 & 0.52a & 0.02 & \(-\)39.85b & 9.6 & 11.60a & 1.3 \\  & 6-row & Resistant & 0.78a & 0.04 & 5.47a & 0.81 & 0.51a & 0.03 & \(-\)5.48a & 9.7 & 7.12b & 1.3 \\  & & Susceptible & 0.78a & 0.03 & 4.70b & 0.81 & 0.52a & 0.02 & \(-\)85.6a & 9.7 & 6.69b & 1.3 \\  & & Resistant & 0.68b & 0.02 & 7.29a & 0.85 & 0.44c & 0.02 & \(-\)15.08a & 10.1 & 7.76b & 1.4 \\  & & Susceptible & 0.78a & 0.03 & 4.89b & 0.81 & 0.51a & 0.02 & \(-\)15.97a & 9.7 & 5.18b & 1.4 \\  & & Resistant & 0.69b & 0.02 & 6.83a & 0.66 & 0.46b & 0.01 & \(-\)25.71a & 7.9 & 8.23b & 1.0 \\  & & Susceptible & 0.72b & 0.01 & 1.87c & 1.15 & 0.48b & 0.01 & \(-\)1.95a & 13.70 & 3.56c & 1.8 \\ \hline \multirow{2}{*}{**F-values**} & **DF** & **Height** & **Force** & **Displacement** & **Energy** & **Power** & & & & & \\ Growth Stage & 1 & n.s & 18.36 *** & & n.s. & n.s. & 17.68 *** & & & & \\ Crop & 3 & 4.61 * & n.s. & & 4.86 * & n.s. & & n.s. & \\ Lodging [Crop] & 4 & 5.33 * & 2.86 * & 2.95 * & n.s. & & & & & \\ CS*Crop & 3 & n.s. & n.s. & n.s. & & n.s. & & & \\ GS*L [C] & 4 & n.s. & & 4.15 ** & n.s. & n.s. & & n.s. \\ Model R2 & 15 & 0.19 ** & 0.21 *** & 0.17 ** & n.s. & & & & & \\ \hline \end{tabular} 1
[FOOTNOTE:1]Footnote 1: Values followed by the same letters indicate within each trait are not significantly different using Tukey HSD (\(\alpha\) = 0.05): 2
[FOOTNOTE:2]Footnote 1: Values followed by the same letters indicate within each trait are not significantly different using Tukey HSD (\(\alpha\) = 0.05): 2  
\end{table}
Table 3: Crop trait least square means calculated by the push-force meter organized by growth stage and lodging classification nested within the cereal crop.