# Setting Up and Operating Electric City Buses in Harsh Winter Conditions
## 2 Theoretical Background  
### Challenges and Opportunities for Wider Dissemination of Electric City Buses  
Previous technology-driven research has covered various crucial aspects of electric buses, such as the performance of battery technologies [14; 15], energy-efficient heating, ventilation, air-conditioning (HVAC) systems [16; 17] and optimised charging infrastructure settings [18; 19; 20; 21; 22; 23]. For example, [PERSON] et al. [14] studied the time-dependent low-temperature power performance of a lithium-ion battery. Their study shows that the interfacial charge-transfer resistance of the anode (graphite) and the cathode (lithium cobalt dioxide) greatly impact the low-temperature power decline. Other non-technical studies have focused on incentives, such as contracting and financing mechanisms, to increase the adoption of electric buses in cities [2; 13; 24]. For example, [PERSON], [PERSON], et al. [13] found three contracting and financing mechanisms to accelerate electric bus adoption: (1) public and private grants, (2) less costly sources of financing and (3) innovative ways of structuring contractual implementation.  
Several studies have also examined the lifecycle assessment (LCA) of the energy and carbon dioxide emissions and calculated lifecycle costs (LCC) of city buses [6; 7; 12; 25; 26; 27]. For example, [PERSON] and [PERSON] [12] conducted an economic comparison of four different battery charging methods based on the total cost of ownership (TCO), including all investment and operating costs in the bus service. They found that electric buses are economically competitive under favourable conditions. [PERSON] et al. [28] developed a simulation tool to calculate the optimal type and number of buses and charges and predict the TCO of city bus fleets. On the other hand, [PERSON] et al. [26] created an integrated LCA and LCC model to compare the lifecycle performance of plug-in charging versus wireless charging of an electric bus system. It turned out that the wireless charging bus system had the lowest LCC per bus kilometre and had the potential to reduce use-phase carbon emissions due to the light-weighting benefits of onboard battery downsizing compared to plug-in charging [26].  
Based on the previous studies, the wider dissemination of battery electric vehicles (BEVs) in cities requires two decisions by authorities. The first is that the city decision makers identify the right contracting and financing mechanisms for replacing conventional buses with BEVs. The second decision is selecting the optimal infrastructure setting for electric city buses. For example, some buses can run almost the whole day with a big enough battery. In contrast, other buses are slow or fast charged in specific charging stations, overnight or in dedicated bus stops. Some researchers have created models for determining the optimal number and location of required charging stations for a bus network and the adequate battery capacity for each bus line [10; 18; 29; 30]. Some studies also report efforts to quickly change the battery in a battery-changing station [20]. In addition, wireless charging technology for electric buses might be an option in the future [26].