## 1 Introduction  
Current world energy scenarios suggest that the electrical energy demand will increase substantially in the future. Apart from comfort, the quality of life, and promising technologies, electric power is another significant factor with regard to modern living, especially in this era of technological advancement. To this end, alternative energies are beneficial because they generate sufficient electricity for meeting energy needs; they are also clean, i.e., they do not lead to environmental pollution. According to the Statistical Review of World Energy 2021, reported by BP PLC, primary energy consumption rose by 1.3% last year, less than half its rate in 2018 (2.8%). Oil continues to hold the largest share of the energy mix (33.1%). Coal was the second-largest energy source in 2020, accounting for 27.2% of the total primary energy consumption, representing a slight increase from 27.1% in the previous year. The Annual Energy Outlook 2022 report provided by the U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) revealed that the proportion of energy consumption in the transportation sector is the third highest. Thus, energy consumption has continued to increase over time [1, 2]. Therefore, it can be concluded that energy demand is likely to increase further in the future. Consequently, energy conservation plans and the implementation of renewable energy technologies should be the emphasis of research and development worldwide. Although alternative energy production can generate electricity without causing pollution, it suffers from certain limitations. Energy harvesting entails the accumulation of natural energy from human activities and machine operations and the transformation of this energy into a usable form that is flexible and convenient for installation [3]. Considering the numerous reports on this topic, it is evident that researchers are keen on investigating and developing alternative energy technologies. For instance, a dynamic model substitution of non-renewable energy with an alternative energy source determined that the productivity gap between oil and renewable energy represented its substitutability and encouraged a change in energy shares, enhanced economic growth, and reduced carbon emissions [4, 5, 6]. The comprehensive policy framework and assessment for discovering sustainable development compared their advantages and disadvantages to determine the most appropriate role for each fuel, analyzing their performance and economic feasibility [7; 8; 9]. Thus far, several studies have discussed the role of energy harvesting technologies, e.g., solar energy, wind energy, vibrational energy, and thermoelectric generators in supporting energy generation; the optimization of the energy sources and their efficiency across reliability were determined [10; 11; 12; 13; 14; 15; 16; 17; 18]. The performance and economic evaluation of a renewable energy system achieved a profitability index, IRR, and DPP under the feed-in tariff scheme proposed [19]. The monitoring systems for prolonging the lifetime of wireless sensors by using energy from energy harvesting are also being studied. Owing to its ease of installation, pricing, and capabilities, energy harvesting technology has been tested for numerous everyday applications. In view of this, energy harvesting technology was further researched in this study. Transportation accounts for 30% of all energy consumption, and numerous studies have focused on the growth rate of energy consumption in the transportation sector and explored the potential of reducing energy consumption [20; 21; 22; 23]. Mathematical models have been created to estimate the energy demand of the transportation sector [24; 25]. Therefore, ensuring the production of clean energy and the implementation of energy-saving measures is crucial for the transportation sector. The use of alternative energy sources, including new technologies for energy conservation and the adoption of vehicle-sharing policies, is being considered worldwide [26; 27; 28].