## 1 Introduction  
Photovoltaic solar energy systems represent a reliable and efficient source of electricity generation. Globally, photovoltaic solar energy accounts for 13% of the total installed capacity for electricity production, generating 4% of the world's electricity. By 2050, photovoltaic solar energy is expected to constitute 49% of the installed power if current policies continue. In this way, photovoltaic solar energy would increase from 31% of the installed renewable capacity to 66%, making it the renewable energy source with the most significant growth among the main sources [1]. Alongside this expansion, wind power continues to play a complementary role, with the global installed capacity surpassing 1170 GW in 2024, led by strong deployment in China [2]. Meanwhile, green hydrogen is emerging as a key solution for storing excess renewable energy and decarbonizing hard-to-electricity sectors. Although hydrogen is currently the most expensive form of hydrogen, compared to gray and blue hydrogen, recent techno-economic studies suggest that green hydrogen can benefit from declining renewable electricity costs, improvements in electrolyser efficiency, and government incentives. These factors are expected to reduce costs over time, supporting the broader integration of photovoltaic solar energy and other renewable sources into the energy system [3]. However, multiple environmental and physical factors significantly affect the performance of photovoltaic solar panels [4]. Elevated operating temperatures, for instance, can reduce panel efficiency by approximately 0.52% per degree Celsius increase in operating temperature, with a total efficiency drop of 27.4% when the temperature rises from 25 \({}^{\circ}\)C to 75\({}^{\circ}\)[5]. In addition, working with suboptimal tilt angles can reduce the efficiency of photovoltaic panels. According to a numerical and experimental investigation by [PERSON] et al. [6], for every 5\({}^{\circ}\) increments in the angle of surface tilt, efficiency falls by 0.35% and 0.33% for experimental and numerical cases, respectively. Ageing is also an important factor. A study conducted in Baghdad, Iraq, observed that monocrystalline photovoltaic modules exhibited a degradation rate of approximately 0.593% per year over an eight-year period, leading to a total performance loss of approximately 4.74% [7]. One of the most important factors in the production of solar photovoltaic plants is the presence of dust. The presence of suspended particles in the atmosphere precipitates on the earth's surface, taking into account environmental factors such as wind or relative humidity, among other physical factors. These particles, once settled on the solar panel, cause a reduction in the effective solar irradiance of the solar cells, thus decreasing the performance of the panel due to natural causes. This effect can decrease the performance of a PV plant by almost 20%, thus reducing the profitability of the installation [8]. In a 50 MWp plant, these losses can account for a monthly reduction in production of up to 500 MWh with annual losses of more than EUR 220,000 [9]. Mitigating these effects can also lead to a reduction in benefits, as it increases operational costs and the capital invested. This is especially notable in regions with arid and semi-arid climates, such as desert areas, where solar radiation levels are particularly high and airborne dust is highly intrusive [10]. The role of meteorological variables in the influence of soil loss is crucial. For example, humidity has a negative impact on the power output of photovoltaic panels, turning dust into mud as it increases [11]. It can also alter the irradiance non-linearly and irradiance itself causes large variations in short-circuit current linearity, affecting efficiency [12]. Meanwhile, the wind speed can influence both the dust deposition and the cooling of the panels, leading to positive or negative effects depending on the speed and direction of the wind [13].