# New Space Engineering Design: Characterization of Key Drivers
## 3 Results and Discussion
### Discussion per Application Domains
#### 3.2.2 Operations and Servicing in Space  
The increase in the number of objects launched into near-Earth space has inevitable implications for both safety and the environment. One of the most evident concerns is the formation of space debris, which poses an ever-growing risk of collision with active or decommissioned satellites or pieces of them. The need to actively remove non-operational objects is becoming urgent [54]. The commercial race characterizing New Space, distinct from earlier state-driven competition, raises questions about the necessity of deploying such large numbers of satellites. Sustainability has then emerged as a new key objective. Unlike past approaches, environmental considerations extend beyond EOL disposal to include pre-launch phases such as component procurement, material sourcing, and supply chain logistics. In this context, the space industry is increasingly focused on developing long-term solutions to protect future investments and ensure the viability of orbital infrastructure. This has led to service activities conducted directly in orbit, known as In-Orbit Servicing (IOS). IOS encompasses a range of operations, including satellite refueling, system upgrades, orbit and attitude adjustments, and repairs, often carried out using self-configurable robotic systems designed for adaptability and to reduce the risk and costs of human intervention, which was common in earlier space programs. System reliability can be re-evaluated: maintenance capabilities introduced by IOS allow for less extensive testing, the use of more cost-effective and non-redundant components, and a shift in focus from absolute system reliability to overall mission reliability. These capabilities offer significant benefits even for satellites that were not originally designed to be serviced in orbit. A clear example is Northrop Grumman's Mission Extension Vehicle-1 (MEV-1), developed to restore propulsion and attitude control to geostationary satellites that have run out of propellant. In 2020, MEV-1 successfully docked with the decommissioned Intelsat-901 spacecraft, extending its service life by five years. The docking was achieved by attaching to the satellite's engine nozzle using a semi-autonomous, telerobotic platform [108]. The mission marked the first commercial demonstration of IOS of a non-prepared system, paving the way for future servicing spacecraft with increasing levels of autonomy and functionality. Mission extension enhances the scientific return and commercial profitability of satellites, while the ability to recover and reuse hardware contributes to a reduction in space debris [109]. In this context, IOS also includes debris removal operations, actively promoted by both industry and space agencies, with plans aiming to make such services fully operational by the mid-2030s [110]. IOS thus emerges as a viable alternative to the continued, large-scale deployment of new satellites, offering instead the opportunity to recover, upgrade, or repurpose existing space assets. Space agencies actively promote initiatives for innovation to keep pace with emerging trends and to safeguard national competitiveness, security, and technological independence. IOS and satellite constellations, among others, often carry a dual-use character, serving both civil and defense applications, and contribute to the creation of a resilient and adaptive in-space ecosystem. This evolving infrastructure includes IOS itself, orbital surveillance, In-Orbit Demonstration (IOD) platforms, fuel depots, and manufacturing testbeds. Together, these elements fall under the broader framework of In-Space Operation and Services (ISOS) [2,111]. Challenges remain in the efficient implementation of fully autonomous operations, robust control, and interoperability in docking and rendezvous, both in cooperative [112] and non-cooperative scenarios [113], which increase operational uncertainty. Nonetheless, successful commercial demonstrations of IOS operations have already been achieved.