## 1 Introduction
The impact of the EoL stage of NMC batteries has been found to only have been studied in a few works [23; 24; 25], in which three recycling processes were considered as alternatives (Pyrometallurgic, Hydrometallurgical and Direct) and in PEFCR [26], in which only one Pyrometallurgic-Hydrometallurgical cascade process was considered for a generic Li-ion battery. As regards the Use stage, LIBs and electrification with low emissions play a central role in reducing emissions from road transport. In 2019, just under 8.5 Gt CO\({}_{2}\) was produced by the transport sector [27]. Light-Duty Commercial Vehicles (LDCV), as well as Medium- and Heavy-Duty Lorries were responsible for about 2.3 Gt CO\({}_{2}\)[27]) thus confirming that road cargo transportation is the most energy-intensive freight mode (per tkm) and that it runs almost exclusively on fossil fuel [28]. According to the IEA Sustainable Development Scenario (SDS), electric passenger car sales in the European Union are expected to rise from around 2% of the market in 2019 to more than 50% in 2030 and to cover virtually all sales in 2050 [27]. This shift towards electro-mobility has also been witnessed in light-dutylories, urban buses, and motorbikes. Moreover, it has also affected medium- and heavy-dutylories to a certain extent. Around half of the EU road freight involves journeys of no more than 200-300 km, for which EVs are a competitive option [24; 29]. According to IEA SDS, by 2050, around 40% of medium- and heavy-dutylories will be electric [27]. The relative benefits of electriclories depend to a great extent on the vehicle efficiency associated with the drive cycle, travel demand, electric drive battery replacement, electricity generation, transmission efficiency, etc. [30]. Operating in an urban environment in which a significant portion of their travel time is spent idling, conventional light-duty vehicles result in a low fuel economy [30]. Increasingly serious congestion in cities causes vehicles to travel for a long period of time under low-speed conditions, thereby resulting in a lower fuel economy and more serious negative effects, such as congestion, GHG emissions, and noise [24]. Moreover, the frequent deceleration and stops that are typical of urban driving make regenerative braking a suitable option, and since these lorries usually operate on almost the same route every day and return to a company garage at the end of every operation, systematic central recharging is feasible [30]. Despite the importance of the electrification of commercial vehicles, almost 90% of the scientific publications about the environmental assessments of battery vehicles has focused on passenger cars, whereas the other vehicle types appear in less than 5% of the papers [31]. When LDCVs have been addressed, only a few selected impact categories have been considered for comparison purposes. For instance, [PERSON] et al. [30] and [PERSON] et al. [24] provided an analysis on deliverylories in which they focused only on GHG emissions and energy use. As explained in [8], [PERSON] [32] discussed and compared alternative fuel technologies for LDCVs, albeit only in terms of GHG. In [33], the comparison was carried out in terms of GHG and costs. Overall, no application of NMC batteries to LDCV has been analysed in great detail, in terms of environmental impact. The two studies that are closest to this aspect, as far as methodological aspects are concerned, are the one conducted by USEPA [34] and the PEFCR one on batteries conducted by Recharge [26]. They include all the life cycle stages of the battery and a wide comparison of different impact categories. Nevertheless, the former [34] was oriented towards specific emissions in the United States and considered EVs in general and not specifically LDCVs. This is a relevant aspect because of the different characteristics of LDCVs (e.g., vehicle mass) and their usage (e.g., the driving missions). Finally, the latter study [26] did not include NMC-specific impacts since it only considered generic Li-ion batteries.