## 2 Application of Membranes in Contamination Situations
### Surface Water Contamination
\begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c c c} \hline \hline
**Technique** & **Type of Membrane** & **Conditions** & **Ref.** \\ \hline UF & PPSU/TBF & Transmembrane pressure of 1 bar; a flow rate of 300 & \\  & & mL/min along the lumen side; a velocity range of & [35] \\  & & & 2.58–2.81 m/s & \\ \hline Gravity-driven & & & \\ filtration & NiCo-LDH/PVDF composite & Glass sand core filter device; water-in-oil emulsions & \\  & & & (soybean oil, petroleum ether, 1,2-dichloroethane, \\  & & & n-hexadecane)—the volume ratio of 1:99 & \\ \hline Filtration & APTES@PVDF/GO & Polymerization with ATRP; a volume ratio of organics & \\  & & and water: 1:99; the pressure of 0.05 MPa; complex & \\  & & environments, such as 2 M HCl, 2 M NaOH and & \\  & & saturated NaCl; permeation flux 1000 \(\pm\) 44 L/m\({}^{2}\cdot\)h-bar & \\ \hline Gravity-driven & & & Permeability 88 166 \(\pm\) 652 L/m\({}^{2}\cdot\)h-bar; water-in-oil & \\  & & & emulsions (chloroform, toluene, dichloromethane and \\  & & high viscosity oils: D4 and D5) & \\ \hline Photoreactor & TiO\({}_{2}\)-NPs/PVDF-TrFE & The flow rate 100.8 L/h; pH = 4–5.5; oily industrial & [39] \\ \hline Separation & SiO\({}_{2}\)-NPs/PVDF & The pressure of 0.9 bar; fluxes of over 10,000 L/m\({}^{2}\) h & [40] \\ \hline RO & PES or PVDF (EM006, ES209, ES625, FP100, FP200) & The cross flow velocity 2 m/s; operating pressure 60 bar; & \\  & & crossflow membrane sequencing batch reactor & \\  & & & inoculated with isolated tropical halophilic & \\  & & microorganisms & \\ \hline VDF system & CS-SiO\({}_{2}\)–GA & & \\  & composite/PVDF & Separation area \(\sim\)1.6 cm\({}^{2}\); the pressure 0.03 MPa. & [42] \\ \hline Separation & TiO\({}_{2}\)-NP/PVDF & Pressure difference of 0.09 MPa; separation area 1.77 & \\  & & cm\({}^{2}\); the permeation flux for SDS/oil/H\({}_{2}\)O emulsion & \\  & & (oil: petroleum ether; n-hexadecane; & \\  & & 1,3,5-trimethylbenzene; diesel oil): 428 L/m\({}^{2}\cdot\)h, 605 & \\  & & L/m\({}^{2}\cdot\)h, 524 L/m\({}^{2}\cdot\)h, 382 L/m\({}^{2}\cdot\)h respectively & \\ \hline PPSU—sulfonated polyphenylenesulfofone polymer; TBF—triangle-shape tri-bore hollow fiber membranes; NiCo-LDH—nickel cobalt & layered double hydroxide; PVDF—the polydopamine modified polyvinylidene membrane; APTES—3—aminopropyltriethoxysilane; ATPRE—atomic transfer radical polymerization; PVDF—poly(vinylidenefluoride); TFF—trifluor ethylene; PSH—poly(3-(N-2-methoxy-N,N-dimethyl)ammoniumatoppanesultone)-co-2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate; CS—chitosan; GA—glutaraldehyde; VDF—a vacuum driven filtration system; SDS—Sodium Dodecyl Sulfate. & \\ \hline \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table} 
Table 1: Examples of the use of membranes to remove oil from surface water. liquid membranes, emulsion liquid membranes (ELMs), and membrane-based solvent extraction [44]. Based on the tests performed, it was found that the polymeric material of the membrane, in order to obtain high separation efficiency, should have certain general characteristics, such as high chemical stability, good formability, reasonable purchase cost, and desirable thermal and mechanical stability. The properties of the isoelectric point and surface charge of membrane materials play an important role in the efficiency of reverse osmosis and nanofiltration processes, while in the case of electro-membranes and liquid membranes, electrical resistance and membrane stability are important [45].