# The Carbon Footprint of Milk Production on a Farm
###### Abstract  
The environmental impact of milk production, particularly its share of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, is a topic under investigation in various parts of the world. This paper presents an overview of current knowledge on the carbon footprint (CF) of milk production at the farm level, with a particular focus on technological, environmental and organisational factors affecting emission levels. The analysis is based on a review of, inter alia, 46 peer-reviewed publications and 11 environmental reports, legal acts and databases concerning the CF in different regions and under various production systems. This study identifies the main sources of emissions, including enteric fermentation, manure management, and the production and use of feed and fertiliser. It also demonstrates the significant variability of the CF values, which range, on average, from 0.78 to 3.20 kg CO\({}_{2}\) eq kg\({}^{-1}\) of milk, determined by the farm scale, nutritional strategies, local environmental and economic determinants, and the methodology applied. Moreover, this study stresses that higher production efficiency and integrated farm management could reduce the CF per milk unit, with further intensification having, however, diminishing effects. The application of life cycle assessment (LCA) methods is essential for a reliable assessment and comparison of the CF between systems. Ultimately, an effective CF reduction requires a comprehensive approach that combines improved nutritional practices, efficient use of resources, and implementation of technological innovations adjusted to regional and farm-specific determinants. The solutions presented in this paper may serve as guidelines for practitioners and decision-makers with regard to reducing GHG emissions. c 2025158446 19 June 202515 July 2025158446 19 June 202515 July 2025158446 19 June 202515 July 2025158446 19 June 202515 July  
consumption [1; 2; 3]. The dominant greenhouse gas is methane (CH\({}_{4}\)), produced during digestion in ruminants, followed by nitrous oxide (N\({}_{2}\)O) originating from fertilisation and fertiliser management, and carbon dioxide (CO\({}_{2}\)) associated with land use and fuel combustion [4; 5]. The carbon footprint is sometimes defined as the weight of CO\({}_{2}\) eq attributed to a functional unit of a product (most frequently, 1 kg of fat- and protein-corrected milk (FPCM), calculated based on the GHG emissions (CO\({}_{2}\), CH\({}_{4}\), N\({}_{2}\)O) generated throughout the entire life cycle of the product [6; 7]. Various stages of milk production, such as fertiliser and feed production, manure management, fuel consumption, and the animals' digestive processes themselves, contribute, to varying degrees, to the total CF. For example, enteric fermentation in dairy cows can account for up to 40-60% of the total CH\({}_{4}\) emissions [8]. Currently, life cycle assessment (LCA) is a recognised tool for assessing the environmental impact of milk production systems. LCA enables analysis of both direct and indirect emissions, considering, inter alia, the production of feed, energy and fertiliser, animal husbandry, manure management, and even milk cooling [5; 9]. This methodology allows different systems, technologies and management practices to be compared, and the key emission areas and possibilities for their reduction to be identified. LCA analysis, conducted in accordance with standards ISO 14040 and 14044 [10; 11] and the GHG Protocol, provides a basis for reliable carbon footprint reporting in the context of the requirements of the Environmental, Social and Governance (ESG) Directive and the Corporate Sustainability Reporting Directive (CSRD) [12; 13]. Recent years have seen increasing pressure on agriculture and the dairy sector, forcing them to adapt to climate regulations and EU strategies, such as the Green Deal, the \"From Farm to Fork\" strategy, and the new European Sustainability Reporting Standards (ESRS) under the CSRD.