## 1 Historical Overview of Antibiotic Use  
In the early 20 th century, the discovery of antibiotics was a humongous turning point in the world of medicine. The root of the term \"antibiotic\" goes back to ancient Greek, and its literal meaning is \"against life\", as antibiotics are utilized to kill bacteria [1]. Their true history also goes back to ancient times, even before the term of antibiotic originated, when natural extracts of some molds and plants were used for their healing features [2, 3]. Later, an American microbiologist called [PERSON], along with his team, introducedthe concept of antibiotics by succeeding in separating chemical substances from some microorganisms that could prevent the growth of other microbes. Ultimately, the discovery of penicillin by [PERSON] in 1928 is known as the starting point of novel antibiotic therapy, which linked ancient knowledge of using mold against infections to the modern era [4; 5]. Within the following decades, the development of new classes of antibiotics, like chloramphenicol, cephalosporporins, erythromycinycin, vancomycin, and others, and their widespread use to treat fatal infections, have been marked as huge progress [4; 6]. During the Second World War, penicillin was widely used, especially among troops, in order to treat infected wounds. Meanwhile, its efficacy against gonorrhea and syphilis boosted its usage in military units to prevent sexually transmitted diseases [3]. Antibiotics like amoxicillin and quinolones were also contributory post-World War II, with their effects on a broader spectrum of infections. With the innovation of daptomycin, third-generation cephalosporporins, and linezolid to combat Gram-negative bacteria, the development of antibiotics continued, and made surgical operations and organ transplants safer by preventing post-surgery infections [7]. The introduction of antibiotics also decreased infant and maternal mortality rate remarkably by aiding the treatment of infections during pregnancy [5]. Cephalosporins were first discovered in 1945, extracted from _Acremonium_ mold to function as a bactericidal antibiotic; then, in 1946, streptomycin was released to the market for the treatment of tuberculous meningitis and tuberculosis. This antibiotic, isolated as a product of _Streptomyces griseus_, can inhibit protein synthesis. Chloramphenicol is another protein synthesis-inhibiting antibiotic that was refined from _Streptomyces venezuelae_ in 1947, and due to its profound permeability in tissues, was found to be effective for a broad spectrum of infections. However, because of the numerous toxicities reported in 1960, it is now rarely prescribed. The discovery of macrolides started with erythromycin, which was produced from _Saccharomyces erytharea_ in 1952, and they are now the second most-used and -prescribed antibiotics. One of the most essential antibiotics is vancomycin, which still counts as a last-resort for resistant infections. It was discovered as a glycoptide product of _Amyclatoppsis orientalis_ in 1956, and has the ability to interrupt the synthesis of bacterial cell walls [3; 8; 9]. Antibiotics can be categorized based on their mechanism of action; some exert their effect by disrupting the synthesis of bacterial cell walls, some cause impairments in protein or nucleic acid production, and some may disrupt folate metabolism. Another way to classify antibiotics is based on the spectrum of infections against which they are functional and effective; for instance, antibiotics of the broad-spectrum category are practical for infections caused by both Gram\({}^{+}\) and Gram\({}^{-}\) groups [3]  
As advantageous as they are in clinical practice, over time, with the overuse of antibiotics, antibiotic resistance has become an alarming concern. The ability of pathogens to survive against antibiotics that threaten their existence and restrain their proliferation is called antibiotic resistance [10].