# Utilizing Sentinel-2 Satellite Imagery for LULC and NDVI Change Dynamics for Celephu, Bhutan
## 3 Results and Discussions
### Discussions  
#### 3.7.1 Land Cover Changes  
Gelephu has seen significant LULC changes in recent years. According to this study, within a short period of seven years, urban settlement area change increased by 5.65% (13.03% in total) and vegetation cover decreased by 11.99% due to land use practices, a situation that is in line with the main trend of LULC, which is urbanization in developing countries [47]. The results underline the complex interplay between urban development and environmental changes in the region. In this regard, [PERSON] et al. [48] indicated that the results could vary depending on the geographical characteristics of the study area. Although several factors influence urbanization, one of those detected in our research is migration, which played a crucial role in determining the Celephu's LULC dynamics. With the growing population and increasing economic activity in Celephu, there has been a remarkable transformation of agricultural and rural areas into urbanized ones. A related context has been identified, indicating that population growth and economic activities play a significant role in influencing urban expansion and the arrangement of built-up areas [49; 50]. One of the biggest LULC changes in Celephu is the conversion of wet farmland to dry land for building purposes. Due to increasing demand for residential and commercial infrastructure, agricultural land has been repurposed for the development of buildings, roads, and other urban facilities. These multiple factors have led to the changes, impacted traditional farming practices, and contributed significantly to the decline in farmland. As expected, the key changes in the LULC dynamics come from the implementation of Local Area Plans (LAP) and policies. The construction of road networks has further augmented the impact on the dynamics of LULC in Celephu. As the city is one of the main gateways to Bhutan and borders Assam in India, transport infrastructure has been upgraded to facilitate connectivity and trade. This has resulted in significant changes in land cover structure, including the clearing of vegetation and remodelling of surrounding areas to accommodate transport networks, in addition to the construction of buildings and other service infrastructures. An in-depth analysis of land cover changes within Celephu Thromode over the same period confirms the overarching trends observed in the wider Celephu area. The significant decrease in vegetation cover by 29.93%, from 67.04% to 37.11%, raises concerns about environmental sustainability. At the same time, the significant growth of the built-up area by 15.05% and barren land by 14.76% highlights the impact of rapid urbanization on the local landscape. Overall, these results suggest a transformative shift in land use patterns that may pose challenges for future environmental protection and land management strategies.  
Other factors that cause the land cover changes in Celephu are due to natural factors such as flooding and landslides. Due to the topography and monsoon climate, the region is prone to natural hazards leading to river course changes, erosion, and sediment deposition. These events have contributed significantly to the loss of vegetation and changes in water bodies. It is also important to note that the LULC changes observed in the maps are not solely due to human activity. The region's vulnerability to natural hazards such as floods and landslides was reflected in changes LULC map in certain areas resulting in vegetation loss and changes in the watercourse. To this end, the LULC maps for Celephu provide important evidence and valuable insight into the dynamic nature of LULC and illustrate the significant transitions that have occurred within a relatively short time frame. In addition, the use of finer RS products allows differentiation of more subtle geometric differences in land cover types than coarse or medium spatial resolution images [51], thereby leveraging the use of Sentinel-2 satellite imagery for current studies.