## 4 LoRaWAN-Based Outdoor Positioning in Application-Specific IoT Domains
### Smart City  
With the expansion of information and communication technologies, the smart city developed to improve the quality of life (QoL). The purpose of a smart city is to adopt modern technologies (Cloud/Edge computing, Cyber-Physical Systems (CPS), IoT, big data, security protocols, Information communication and technology, Artificial Intelligence (AI), Blockchain, and Geospatial technology) to convert every entity of a conventional city into an autonomous object performing its operation automatically without any substantial external help [125]. The authors in [126] mentioned four important characters of a smart city consist of sustainability, QoL, urbanization, and smartness. A smart city is composed of different components depending on the areas of interest. Smart industry, smart transportation, smart healthcare, and smart community. The first three mentioned components are considered and discussed separately in this paper due to their importance. In this context, the smart community covers smart city assets and services management. Transmission layer of the smart city act as a backbone that provides communication between other layers by adopting communication technologies. A communication technology with a low cost of deployment, low power consumption, and long-range coverage makes the deployment of smart cities more efficient. The authors in [127] mentioned that commonly used cellular networks suffer from the high cost and poor battery life. In addition, local RF technologies, including Bluetooth and Wi-Fi, do not meet the range requirements to support smart cities applications. Therefore, the authors design and implement a wireless sensor network based on the LoRaWAN protocol for a smart city. The authors in [128] optimize the transmission parameters of a LoRaWAN system in a smart city environment. Their approach significantly improves the success rate and enables more nodes to use lower spreading, which results in lower delay and power consumption. Localization Methods in Smart City  
LoRaWAN technology provides robust, non-expensive, and effective methods for smart city assets localization. On the other side, it provides a long-range position method for lost people. In this subsection, a review of the proposed method for lost people and assets positioning is provided. The authors in [129] point out that for an advanced smart city, technology may remotely monitor, optimally control (like street lighting, the timing of traffic lights, access to and price of public parking, garbage collection) and track the location and movement of public assets (like garbage collection vehicles and roadway barriers). The authors address the problem of using IoT technology within a smart city to track the location of relatively small and inexpensive non-powered assets. In the evaluation, four objectives of Cost (asset tracker costing less than 5% of the resource with which it is partnered), Distance (2.5 km), Durability, and Sustainability (operation for 5+ years without manual intervention in most geographical areas) is addressed. Bike-sharing systems are another part of cities and bikes are assets and resources of cities. The authors in [130] mentioned that one of the problems that afflicts bike-sharing systems are the loss of bikes. They study in simulation the scalability limits of a typical LoRaWAN for bike-sharing systems and showed that the performance of LoRaWAN in crowded scenarios can be quite limited when using high SFs and that fading has a moderate impact on the cell capacity. Then, they design and realize a prototype of a LoRaWAN tracker module that can be embedded in a bike and test its use in a large area city. On the other hand, LoRaWAN is an effective technology for object tracking as well in a smart city. The authors in [131] aims to verify the possible use of the LoRaWAN for mobile applications with attention to timing performance, which can greatly affect the overall service.