# Cybersecurity Vulnerabilities in Off-Site Construction
## 3 Importance of Cybersecurity in Manufacturing and Construction
### Off-Site Construction  
As previously alluded to, OSC combines the aspects of remote manufacturing and construction, enabling site work to progress with the prefabrication of building elements simultaneously. This is facilitated by multiple Industry 4.0 technologies, such as cloud services, sensors, GPS, and networks that involve the exchange of information in close to real time between different stakeholders, such as in BIM (building information management), which gives physical and functional digital reality to support the scheduling, design, building, operation, and upkeep of physical infrastructure, such as bridges and apartments [35]. One of the most extensively adopted technologies in OSC, more than any other digital technology, is BIM, which constitutes about 70% of 113 conducted research studies [26]. It has five main attributes (visualization, coordination, simulation, optimization, and plotting ability) that enable the digital simulation and modelling of a construction project during its entire lifecycle. This technology provides a pathway for the digitalization of OSC, and the key elements of this digitalization can be categorized as follows: digital data and access, automation, and connectivity. In digital data and access, information is collected, processed, and analyzed to obtain new perspectives related to the value chain and giving information to be shared between stakeholders on a network. Stakeholders are enabled to operate electronic procurements and material accounts, leading to automation that engenders independent and self-ordering operations [27]. The installation of a 3D-printed parabolic exterior shaped wall module has been performed with precise dimensions being critical to fit the onsite assembly [31]. This work compares the accuracy of three formworks: a manual formwork, CNC formwork, and 3D-printed formwork, as depicted in Table 1.  
In the manual formwork, the most significant deviation of 5.23 mm was observed at the points of maximum curvature. In terms of the dimensional accuracy, 3D-printed panels with CNC post-processing had a deviation of 1.29 mm and could sustain about 200 repeatable operations. Accuracy is an essential factor, and it is more critical during installation. Furthermore, secure information transfer and exchange become a greater priority since any falsification in the information can disrupt real-time information. IoT in OSC has been used to perform supply chain supervision to track real-time work progression. Benefits have been realized regarding time savings, cost savings, and more efficient information sharing. However, studies have shown that the management of such complex systems experiences delays due to unstable networks and complex data handling [35]. This intrinsic weakness is an opportunist window for cyber-attacks that can compromise an already unstable system, which reflects the system's effectiveness [36]. A considerable investment is required to secure such a system. This often becomes the most \begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{p{85.4 pt} p{113.8 pt} p{113.8 pt} p{113.8 pt}} \hline \hline
**Parameter** & **Manual Wood Formwork** & **CNC Formwork** & **Additively Manufactured Formwork** \\ \hline
**Application** & All shell wall panels & All roof panels & Sample formwork of the shell wall panel \\ \hline
**Machine** & CNC cutting machine, woodworking tools & CNC cutting and milling machine & BAAM system, CNC milling machine \\ \hline
**Material** & Wood board, eepoxy plaster & Rigid EPS foam, epoxy plaster & 20\% carbon fiber with reinforced ABS polymer \\ \hline
**Accuracy** & Low & Low & High \\ \hline
**Production Cost** & Low & High & High \\ \hline
**Material waste** & High & High & Low \\ \hline \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table} 
Table 1: Comparison of manual, CNC, and 3D-printed formwork [31]. significant barrier to adopting Industry 4.0 in construction, given the compilation, securing, and processing of sensitive information on such systems [37].