# Transforming Petrochemical Processes: Cutting-Edge Advances in Kaolin Catalyst Fabrication
## 7 Kaolin in Petrochemical Catalysis: From Fundamentals to Innovations
### Kaolin-Driven Catalysis in Petrochemical Processes
#### 7.4.1 Fluid Catalytic Cracking (FCC)  
FCC reactions are considered essential processes in the petrochemical industry and are designed to convert heavy petroleum fractions, such as vacuum residue, into lighter, more valuable products like gasoline and diesel (Figure 15) [164,165]. This process employs a solid catalyst in a fluidized bed to break down large hydrocarbon molecules into \begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{p{56.9 pt} p{113.8 pt} p{113.8 pt} p{113.8 pt}} \hline \hline
**Catalytic Process** & **General Description** & **Role of Kaolin** & **Key Benefits of Kaolin** \\ \hline \multirow{4}{*}{Hydroracking} & Upgrades heavy oil fractions into lighter products by reacting with hydrogen under high pressure and temperature & Kaolin improves the dispersion of active metal sites and retains structure under harsh conditions. & - Cost-effective support - Improved catalytic activity and product selectivity - Higher thermal stability \\  & Converts methanol into light olefins like ethylene and propylene using zeolite-based catalysts (ZSM-5 and SAPO-34). & Kaolin improves the dispersion of active metal sites and retains structure under harsh conditions. & - Enhanced mass transfer - Lower production costs - High selectivity and catalyst lifetime \\  & Removes sulfur compounds from petroleum fractions to reduce sulfur dioxide emissions and meet environmental standards & Kaolin serves as a raw material in synthesizing microporous SAPO molecular sieves. & - Cost-effective and environmentally friendly - Efficient sulfur removal - Long catalyst life \\  & Removes oxygen from organic compounds to upgrade renewable feedstocks into high-value hydrocarbon fuels & Kaolin-based catalysts improve desulfurization efficiency due to high surface area and customizable acidity profiles. & - Cost-effective and environmentally friendly - Efficient sulfur removal - Long catalyst life \\  & Removes oxygen from organic compounds to upgrade renewable feedstocks into high-value hydrocarbon fuels & Acid-treated kaolin shows high deoxygenation efficiency in transforming renewable oils into hydocarbons. & - Reduction of undesired aromatic compounds - Lower production of byproducts \\  & Rearranges hydrocarbons to improve fuel quality, often applied to convert linear alkanes into branched ones, improving octane rating & Kaolin-derived catalysts enhance the dispersion of active sites, improving isomerization reactions. & - Increases fuel quality - High thermal and mechanical stability - Enhanced activity under reaction conditions \\  & Combines isobutane with alkenes to produce high-octane gasoline components & Kaolin serves as a component in zeolitic catalysts, providing a high surface area and favorable acidity for the reaction. & - High selectivity for desired products - Improved catalyst lifespan - Increased production efficiency \\ \hline \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table} 
Table 2: _Cont._  
Figure 14: Applications of kaolin-based catalysts in reactions of interest to the petrochemical industry. smaller, lighter ones through catalytic cracking [166]. Operating at high temperatures (500-550 \({}^{\circ}\)C) and utilizing an acidic catalyst, FCC significantly enhances the yield of desirable light hydrocarbons, thereby optimizing the overall efficiency and profitability of the refining process. Zeolite cracking catalysts are the most used in FCC processes and were introduced commercially in the early 1960s, initially incorporating type X or type Y zeolite within various matrix compositions that evolved from the amorphous catalysts of the 1940s and 1950s [167]. These early matrices moderated the zeolite's high activity to prevent rapid deactivation due to coke formation. From the 1960s to the mid-1970s, FCC catalysts were modified to enhance conversion and liquid yield and reduce coke production, leading to improved gasoline octane, activity, and metal tolerance. The evolving demands for increased yields of light olefins and branched isomers in reformulated gasoline necessitate varied catalyst compositions, with over 150 catalyst grades available today.