## 4 Conclusions  
The use of the LCCA framework highlights asphalt-based High Friction Surface Treatments (HFSTs) as a viable alternative to traditional epoxy-based treatments. While epoxy-based HFSTs have demonstrated stable texture retention, their limitations, including high installation and removal costs, reduced durability, and compatibility issues with existing pavements, make them less favorable over time.  
CB consistently outperformed Rhy in various evaluations, particularly in coarse aggregate gradations. PG88-16 exhibited better retention compared with epoxy resin, with a 19% reduction compared with epoxy's 23%. Larger aggregate sizes improved  
Figure 11: NPV for HFST applications using various binders and aggregates based on DFT20 and CTM input data.  
durability and effectiveness, with Rhy benefiting most from PG88-22 (PM), which had a reduction of only 38% at 140 K cycles, compared with epoxy's 77%. Texture retention was more stable in the epoxy-based treatments, with gradual MPD reductions as polishing cycles progressed. However, asphalt-based binders like PG82-22 (PM) also showed strong performance, particularly with larger aggregates, where MPD reductions were less severe. For example, in HFST-sized CB, MPD decreased by 29% after 140 K cycles, while coarse CB saw only an 8% reduction. As the aggregate size increased, the slope of the MPD decreased with more polishing cycles, becoming more stable and linear. This trend was particularly evident in PG82-22 (PM), which showed enhanced performance with larger aggregates as the polishing cycles progressed. This behavior can be attributed to the property differences between epoxy, as a thermosetting binder, and asphalt-based binders, as they exhibit distinct viscoelastic characteristics, influencing their performance under polishing conditions and aggregate loss.  
The net present value (NPV) analysis further supported the advantages of asphalt-based HFSTs. PG82-22 (PM) and PG88-16 (PM) demonstrated the lowest NPVs across various aggregate sizes, particularly for CB in the HFST gradation. Emulsion performed poorly, resulting in the highest NPV among the options due to its failure at 30 K polishing cycles.  
Based on data inputs and modeling, PG88-16 consistently held the top position for CB across all aggregate sizes. In contrast, emulsion ranked highest (least favorable) in NPV. The modified binders, PG82-22 (PM) and PG88-16 (PM), followed as the next best economic choices. For Rhy, PG88-16 maintained the lowest NPV in both HFST and medium sizes, while PG82-22 (PM) and PG88-16 (PM) excelled with coarse aggregates.  
This analysis underscores the advantages of employing asphalt-based binders combined with optimized aggregate gradations for HFST applications. Such a combination provides a balanced approach to performance and cost-effectiveness, especially in sections with marginal substrate conditions. The improved stability and enhanced performance of larger aggregates, particularly when paired with asphalt-based binders, offer a practical solution for achieving durable, skid-resistant surfaces even under challenging conditions.  
Conceptualization, A.R. and M.A.; methodology, A.R. and M.A.; software, A.R.; validation, A.R. and M.A.; formal analysis, A.R.; investigation, A.R. and M.A.; resources, M.A.; data curation, A.R. and M.A.; writing--original draft preparation, A.R.; writing--review and editing, M.A.; visualization, A.R.; supervision, M.A. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.  
This research was funded by the Missouri Department of Transportation (MoDOT) under Project number TR202206.  
The data used in this study are available from the authors on reasonable request.  
The authors wish to extend their sincere gratitude to the Missouri Department of Transportation (MoDOT) and the Missouri University of Science and Technology for their invaluable support and assistance throughout this research.  
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.