# Electrification of a Class 8 Heavy-Duty Truck Considering Battery Pack Sizing and Cargo Capacity
## 4 Conclusions  
In this paper, a parametric analysis is performed to assess the effect of battery pack sizing and cargo capacity of a truck on its energy performance. As the case study, the electrification of a class 8, 41 tons' truck is performed by modelling and simulation of its battery electric powertrain in AVL CRUISE M software. The experimental lab battery testing data is used to parametrize the battery pack model in this study. Issues such as weight changes due to the addition of battery packs to the truck are also addressed. A parametric study is employed consisting of various case scenarios to evaluate the impacts of the battery pack size and cargo capacity on truck performance and energy consumption. The main conclusions drawn from this study can be listed as:  
* Electrification of the Mercedes-Benz Actros 41-ton truck resulted in decreasing of its cargo capacity from 13.5 tons to 12.27 tons, 11.86 tons, and 11.46 tons by increasing battery pack size from 399 kWh to 456 kWh and 513 kWh, respectively.
* Employment of dual electric motors in the powertrain resulted in gaining desired torque at various speeds during travel in long haul driving cycle.
* Increasing the battery size boosted the overall voltage of the pack, while an increment in occupied cargo capacity resulted in a decreased battery pack voltage due to faster discharging of the pack, leading to a sharp decrease in voltage.
* The greatest decrease in voltage was achieved in battery packs when the cargo capacity was equal to 100% and the lowest size of battery pack was used. This leads to a sharper decrease in the battery pack voltage due to high power demand, resulting in a lower SOC at the end of travel compared to other scenarios.
* The highest charging peaks were achieved for the scenario with the biggest battery pack size and full cargo capacity due to recovering higher values of regenerative brake energy.
* Regenerative brake energy increased from 6.94 kWh to approximately 9.87 kWh by incrementing the truck occupied cargo capacity up to 100%.
* Increase of total battery packs size from 399 kWh to 456 kWh and 513 kWh resulted in energy recovery increases of 1.73% and 3.46% for 10% load, 0.98% and 2.2% for 50% load and 0.41% and 0.74% for 100% load, respectively.  
Figure 14: (**a**)The regenerative brake energy recovery and (**b**) battery pack energy output during travel for different scenarios.  
As a limitation of this research, it can be mentioned that the employed second-order ECM used to model the battery packs is not capable of predicting their capacity fade after driving in various number of cycles, which should be addressed and solved in future steps of this research. The developed methodology coupled with the experimental data presented in this paper would assist the future research and development activities aiming to truly optimize the performance of heavy-duty trucks to tackle the global net-energy targets as well as the local air quality requirements.  
Conceptualization, methodology, software, validation, A.T.L. and F.S.; formal analysis, S.R., A.A. and F.S.; resources, S.R. and A.A.; writing--original draft preparation, A.T.L., F.S. and S.R.; writing--review and editing, F.S., A.T.L. and S.R.; visualization, A.T.L. and F.S.; supervision, S.R., A.A. and F.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.  
This research received no external funding.  
Not applicable.  
The related data are presented within the manuscript.  
Special thanks to AVL List GmbH for providing the simulation tools through their University Partnership Program with Oxford Brookes University.  
The authors declare no conflict of interest.