## 2 Related Literature and Contribution  
There are various opportunities and challenges of adopting IoT technology in both developed and developing countries. Many global climate change events in 2020 and early 2021 have revolved around how human activities and waste impact climate and water bodies and has created an increasing research interest in the field of IoT. Internet of Things [9] solutions have been used to monitor, collect and analyse different environmental measurements such as water quality data from small remote locations. In the Fiji Islands [10], IoT and remote sensing (RS) techniques were used to monitor the potential hydrogen, oxidation and reduction potential, temperature and conductivity levels of four different water sources. A wireless sensor network (WSN), as reviewed in [11], considered the use of LoRa and Sigfox technologies over Internet/3G/LTE to deliver an energy-efficient wireless sensor system for water quality monitoring. Other LoRaWAN studies for water quality monitoring were carried out due to its long-range data transmission in difficult terrains and low power consumption rate, as proposed by [PERSON] et al. [12]. For instance, Lake Dardanelle in the United States [13], the Facilities of South Africa Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) [14], and Dong Lake in National Dong Hwa University China [15] have all been used as test beds for LoRaWAN technology with regard to various characteristics of water quality monitoring.  
A GSM-based IoT solution has also previously been used to monitor the pH and turbidity level of water tanks in India [16]. The water quality of fish ponds and aquarium systems have also been monitored using IoT solutions. FishTalk enabled the remote feeding of fish and intelligent water quality control [17]. The study augmented the network with more IoT services, such as smart agriculture, where farm owners will remotely receive feedback on the health status of their farms. An early mathematical study on energy abundant vehicle-based relays for using NB-IoT to support crowded IoT deployment was proved to increase the link reliability and energy utilisation of IoT devices [18]. All these studies are based on mobile network operator (MNO) networks, which are not readily available in rural areas. GSM and cellular network standards that are older than LTE are mostly deployed in more rural areas, where these remote monitoring activities will be required. These are aspects of IoT applications in developing countries that would require both licensed and unlicensed LPWANs. Our contribution in this article will leverage a mix of LPWANs to bridge the IoT network connectivity gap surrounding IoT application opportunities in developing countries, as shown in Figure 1. An integrated IoT solution is needed that would offer improved quality of service (QoS) of NB-IoT and LoRaWAN, be cheaper to deploy with redundancy, and specifically promote the reuse of IoT radio access infrastructure. The power consumption, latency, throughput, and latency performance of NB-IoT and LoRaWAN are compared with measurements of environmental temperature and humidity that could be replaced with other applications of IoT in developing countries. These aspects of QoS requirements consider both the uplink (path between the IoT device and the server) and downlink (server-to-device) transmissions.