## 1 Introduction  
Three-dimensional (3D) food printing (3 DFP) represents an emerging technology in food production that is gaining popularity due to its capability to personalize food products in accordance with the nutritional requirements and preferences of individual consumers or special groups, such as older individuals [1], athletes, or kids [2]. This customization can be achieved through the creation and production of intricate foods featuring specific textures, flavors, shapes, and compositions [3, 4]. Moreover, 3 DFP can be considered an environmentally friendly technology, as it has the potential to reduce food waste and minimize environmental impact by utilizing low-quality fruits and vegetables [5], low-value byproducts, and low-carbon food ingredients such as algae [6], insects [7], and alternative proteins [8]. At present, four techniques are used to conduct 3 DFP: extrusion-based 3 DFP, selective laser sintering, binder jetting, and inkjet printing [9]. Among these methods, extrusion-based 3 DFP is the most used technique [3]. In this technique, food materials are pushed through a nozzle, forming a filament. Afterwards, this filament is deposited in a pattern on the \(x\)-\(y\) plane, thereby forming a single layer. The process is then repeated layer-by-layer until a 3D food product is formed [10]. The number of nozzles on a 3D food printer determines the number of food pastes that can be used alternatively to form a food product. This feature permits the simultaneous use of various food materials (e.g., different types of protein, fat, dietary fiber, vitamins, and minerals [11]) during extrusion-based 3 DFP, thereby diversifying the composition, texture, shape, and taste of the 3D-printed foods and improving and benefitting their customization. In our previous study, the printability of nixtamalized corn dough (NCD) during screw-based 3 DFP was investigated [12]. NCD is a soft dough that is produced by rehydrating nixtamalized corn flour (NCF). The industrial production of NCF is based on the traditional maize preparation process from Mexico and Central America, known as \"nixtamalization\". In this process, maize kernels are cooked in a solution of Ca(OH)\({}_{2}\) for 1 h and steeped in cooking water with subsequent washing and grinding to produce NCD [13; 14]. Currently, this process has been systemized for large-scale production, wherein the Ca(OH)\({}_{2}\) solution utilized in the traditional nixtamalization method is replaced by lye to cook the maize kernels. Afterwards, the cooked maize kernels are ground to produce a dough that is dehydrated, sifted, classified, and packaged, thereby obtaining NCF [15; 16]. Then, NCF is rehydrated to obtain NCD. NCD owes its color to the type of corn from which it is made (e.g., yellow, white, blue, and red). NCD of different colors is commonly used in Mexico and other Latin American countries as raw material to produce tortillas and other corn-based products including soups, tamales, and beverages. NCD products must be cooked to make them edible. Cooking processes of NCD might include gridding, steaming, frying, or baking [12]. In our previous study, stable printability was achieved at a specific range of NCF content in the NCD, thereby permitting the obtainment of stable 3D-printed foods [12]. However, it is also necessary to study the cooking processes since they influence the stability of the printed shape [11] and the final characteristics of 3D-printed foods by modifying their texture, size, appearance, flavor, and/or composition. [PERSON] et al. [17] and [PERSON] et al. [18] demonstrated that the texture of 3D-printed foods could be controlled using extrusion-based 3 DFP. In addition, most of the studies focusing on the effects of cooking processes on the shape, stability, and texture of 3D-printed foods include air-frying [19], baking [20], freeze-drying [21; 22], and oven-drying [22].