# Riboregulation in Nitrogen-Fixing Endosymbiotic Bacteria
## 1 Introduction  
Some soil-dwelling species of the large classes of \(\alpha\)- and \(\beta\)-proteobacteria, collectively referred to as rhizobia, establish mutualistic symbioses with legumes. The outcome of these interactions is the organogenesis of specialized nodule structures on the roots or, less frequently, the stems of their specific host plant. Invading rhizobia colonize nodules intracellularly and differentiate to bacteroids that achieve the nitrogenase-mediated reduction of the atmospheric dinitrogen to ammonia for the benefit of the plant. Symbiotic nitrogen (N) fixation thus renders plant growth independent of exogenously applied combined N, which is commonly provided to crops in the form of pollutant and costly chemical fertilizers. Besides this doubtless agronomical and ecological significance, the rhizobia-legume symbiosis provides a complex biological experimental model to explore the molecular mechanisms underlying bacterial adaptations during chronic intracellular infection of eukaryotic hosts [1; 2; 3]. The saprophytic and symbiotic competence of free-living rhizobia in soil is largely determined by their capacity to cope efficiently with the abiotic variables shaping this environment, e.g., oligotrophy, drought, salinity or acidity, which are known to influence negatively the physiology of both symbiotic partners and the N fixation process itself [4]. Competitive rhizobi strains actively colonize the rhizosphere of their compatible legume and initiate infection upon synthesis of lipo-chitooligosaccharide signal molecules (i.e., Nod factors) in response to species-specific root exuded flavonoids [3; 5]. Nod factor signaling triggers major nodule developmental pathways and root hair invasion through tubular structures made of plant cell-wall material known as infection threads. Besides Nod factors, other signaling molecules of bacterial origin such as surface polysaccharides or effector proteins selectively contribute to the infection of certain legume species by their rhizbial partners [6]. During early symbiotic infection, invading rhizobia elicit a defense response in the host, which is initially featured by the release of reactive oxygen species (ROS) [7]. Compatible rhizobia counteract and survive this oxidative stress by specific mechanisms, being subsequently delivered from the branched infection threads into the cells of the nodule primordia. Inside the plant cells, rhizobia differentiate into N-fixing polyploid bacteroids that end up surrounded by a membrane of plant origin. In some legume lineages, irreversible terminal bacteroid differentiation is directed by plant-secreted nodule-specific cysteine rich (NCR) peptides [8]. Finally, mature bacteroids sense the microoxic environment inside the plant nodule, driving expression of the nitrogenase-coding gene clusters. This complex rhizobial lifestyle demands an adaptive flexibility that is supported by both large genomes and continuous gene expression shifts during host infection, cell cycle progression or in response to nutrient availability [9; 10]. To date, symbiotic regulatory networks in rhizobia have been studied almost exclusively from the perspective of the transcriptional control orchestrated by proteins, i.e., transcription factors and alternative RNA polymerase holoenzymes (\(\sigma\) factors) [11]. Indeed, the inventory of genes encoding transcription-related proteins is particularly rich in rhizobial genomes. However, proteins are far from being the only players in the regulation of gene expression in bacteria. The development of high-throughput sequencing technologies has revolutionized our classic view of the prokaryotic transcriptome. Different, well-established strategies for the generation and deep-sequencing of cDNA libraries (RNA-Seq) allow for genome-wide mapping of transcription start sites (TSS), thus uncovering unexpected operon structures and novel transcribed regions systematically overlooked in the primary genome annotation [12] (Figure 1).