## 1 Introduction  
The Internet of Things (IoT) is revolutionizing industry and society worldwide, with an estimated 500 billion connected devices expected by 2030 [1, 2, 3]. The Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT) is a key enabler of Industry 4.0, providing ubiquitous connectivity and innovative services and applications [4]. The industrial environment is always a difficult challenge for wireless communication and wireless sensing. They present a series of constraints and difficulties that make the environment unique and different from other situations, such as offices, buildings, and indoor environments. Usually, the presence of high temperatures, excessive dust and particles, different obstacles, and metallic devices make it difficult to send data over long/medium distances at the right data rate and bandwidth [5]. Large numbers of IoT devices have been integrated into numerous specialized solutions and applications, connected by wireless Low-Power Wide-Area Network (LPWAN) technologies [6, 7]. There are several competing LPWAN technologies today, adopting various techniques to achieve long-range, low-power consumption, and high scalability [8]. LPWAN networks have been designed to overcome the challenges of handling IoT and IIoT applications, enabling them to sense their surroundings, respond as required, and activate at any time to upload data to the cloud in real time [9]. LoRaWAN, a protocol in LPWAN, is widely regarded as one of the most effective and successful technologies in the field [10]. Defined by the LoRa Alliance, LoRaWAN uses the Long-Range (LoRa) physical layer to provide long-range wireless communications at low data rates and minimal power consumption, operating in unlicensed bands [11]. By 2026, LoRa will be used for more than 50% of LPWAN connections because of its adaptability for both indoor and outdoor applications [12]. It makes low-speed data transfer possible over great distances with little infrastructure and low power usage. It is employed in energy management, asset tracking, environmental monitoring, and machine monitoring applications [13]. Indeed, several issues can make implementing wireless communications in industrial settings challenging. Transmissions are altered, on the one hand, by interference brought about by signal reflection, echoes, and multipath attenuation. Multipath propagation is the outcome of these interferences, which are brought on by reflecting surfaces or obstructions. Furthermore, the interference caused by other wireless devices operating within the same frequency band also affects the overall performance of communication. Wireless communications have interfered with high noise levels produced by electromagnetic emissions from numerous industrial sources, such as large equipment, strong generators, and lasers [14; 15]. In this direction, effective implementation of LoRa in IIoT applications requires careful consideration of several critical factors, including network coverage, signal strength, sources of interference, and specific data transmission requirements. To ensure optimal performance and seamless integration, it is essential to evaluate these factors in detail. Key metrics such as Signal-to-Interference-plus-Noise ratio (SINR) and Bit Error Rate (BER) are typically used to evaluate LoRa systems. The SINR plays a crucial role in determining the quality of communications, with higher values indicating stronger signals relative to interference and noise, resulting in improved data transmission efficiency and reduced errors. On the other hand, BER quantifies the accuracy of data transmission, with lower values indicating higher data reliability and quality. In the dynamic IIoT landscape, where robust communication solutions are essential to overcome interference problems, LoRa is emerging as a promising approach [16]. However, uncertainties remain regarding its performance in challenging Non-Line-of-Sight (NLoS) conditions, which are prevalent in the complex tapestry of urban environments.