\begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c c} \hline \hline
**Characteristic** & **Antimicrobial Peptides** & **Ceragenins** \\ \hline \multirow{2}{*}{Structure} & Short peptides, typically \textless{} 100 amino acids & Non-peptide molecules based on the chemical structure of cholic acid \\ \hline Charge & Cationic allowing to interact with negatively charged membranes \\ \hline Molecular weight (MW) & Mostly \textless{} 10 kDa & MW often \textless{} 1 kDa \\ \hline Amphiphilic nature & Present \\ \hline Main mechanism of action & Targeting the microbial cell membrane leading to membrane disruption, depolarization, and cell death \\ \hline Spectrum of activity & A broad spectrum of activity against bacterial, fungal, and viral pathogens, including drug-resistant ones \\ \hline \multirow{2}{*}{Potency of activity} & \multirow{2}{*}{High antimicrobial activities} & In most cases, high activity, greater than those reported for AMPs or conventional antimicrobial \\ \hline Susceptibility to proteases & Susceptible to proteolytic degradation & Resistant to proteases due to non-peptide chemical structure \\ \hline \multirow{2}{*}{Activity in the presence of body fluids} & Varied, often inhibited by components of body fluids & Typically preserved \\ \hline \multirow{2}{*}{Hemolytic activity} & Varied, sometimes detected in antimicrobial concentration ranges & Detected at higher concentrations, mostly non-hemolytic at antimicrobial concentration ranges \\ \hline \multirow{2}{*}{Ease of synthesis and purification} & \multirow{2}{*}{Costly ways of synthesis and purification} & Easier and more cost-effective to synthesize \\ \hline \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table} 
Table 2: Main similarities and differences between endogenous AMPs and ceragenins. with both inhibiting the formation of microbial--both single and dual species--biofilms and disrupting those already established. Most recently published studies demonstrated that ceragenins, apart from their inhibiting abilities against biofilm, actively alter the mechanical properties of these bacterial communities by increasing their fluidity, and thus, making them more prone to the killing action of antimicrobials and easier to eradicate mechanically [135]. Such abilities are highly beneficial in the prevention and treatment of biofilm-associated infections, including those spreading in the oral environment. It is crucial to acknowledge that ceragenins, in addition to their antimicrobial properties, exhibit a range of non- antimicrobial actions analogous to other AMPs, including regenerative, anti-inflammatory, and immunomodulatory effects (Figure 1). Although the data on regenerative properties of ceragenins are limited, reports demonstrate their ability to stimulate the proliferation of human keratinocytes [136] and human osteoblasts [137] at concentrations that are non-hemolytic and bactericidal. Moreover, one study performed by [PERSON] et al. [136] demonstrates that ceragenins promote tube formation via a VEGFR2-dependent mechanism increasing their regenerative potential. The ability of ceragenins to sequester LPS and neutralize its cellular effects was confirmed by [PERSON] et al. ; as demonstrated, the preincubation of LPS with CSA-13 resulted in a loss of pro-inflammatory activities of LPS to endothelial cells, and this effect was comparable to the activity of the naturally occurring human LL-37 peptide [138]. In another study, immunomodulatory activities of ceragenins were demonstrated; [PERSON] et al. showed that ceragenins exhibit antiviral activities, which are attributed to the stimulation of antiviral cytokines, such as type I interferons via TLR3/pIRF3 signaling pathway. Concurrently, the binding of IFN I to its receptor (IFNAR) activates the downstream JAK/STAT pathway, leading to the generation of interferon-stimulated genes (ISGs) such as IL-6 and IL-8 [139]. Although those data were obtained in COVID-19-mimicking experimental settings, they  
Figure 1: The biological activities of ceragenins.