## 3 Legal Challenges Posed by Mega-Constellations to Existing International Space Law Regime
### Transfer of Satellite Ownership in Orbit
Thus, even if it will not be able to use it, the transferring state (launching state) will continue to be the state of registry and maintain de jure power and jurisdiction over the transferred space object. Because of this de jure jurisdiction and control, the transferring state will still be liable for any harm that the space object causes [12], even if the recipient state has de facto control over it, despite not having registration rights or being held liable for damages caused by the space object. Therefore, even if, at the time of the drafting of the space conventions, there was a very limited number of space actors (states), the space conventions did not and still do not deter the transfer or purchase of space objects in orbit [81]. They do create inconsistencies between the legal and factual/actual status of a space object and the consequences therein, since this transfer of ownership is more to the acquiring state's advantage. As explained previously, states are held responsible for all national activities and are required to exercise legal control in the form of the obligation to authorize and continuously supervise these national activities normally by way of licensing [86]. Therefore, based on this background, if the satellite is transferred, there will be issues with licensing or the continued applicability of the original license, whether it is an international transfer or not. The Outer Space Treaty requires comprehensive compliance by virtue of Article 3; therefore, the control of a satellite requires conformity with other rules of space treaties, including the ITU regime on the allocation, allotment, and assignment of orbital frequenciesand slots. Therefore, regardless of whether the space object is owned, controlled, or operated by a third party, states are internationally liable for space objects for which they qualify as the launching state, according to the Liability Convention. Because of this, a transfer of ownership in orbit may raise concerns about the applicability of the license-handling liabilities. In the case of international transfers, the jurisdiction of the launching state would have to cover damages caused by the transferred object under the Liability Convention. This is because of the nature of state liability, i.e., once a launching state, always a launching state, and it is always liable. The same is true for registration-related concerns, as they stem from the same launch. A state may exercise quasi-territorial jurisdiction over a satellite based on the same launching state criteria. However, in the event of an international transfer, the acquiring state may not be able to register the space object because it is not the launching state. In summary, there is a higher likelihood of complete system disruption when the private ownership of a satellite in orbit translates into private control, giving rise to questions of jurisdiction and control, which, as has been noted, have not been legally addressed by the standing space treaties. This is especially important now, with the increased commercialization of space and the sheer number of satellites launched per constellation. The challenges discussed herein, despite some having been present earlier (before the rise in mega-constellations), have been magnified by the introduction of mega-constellations, especially given the fact that the governance policy for mega-constellations has been found to be lacking, especially with regard to legally binding, unambiguous definitions and also the limited regulation of private entities. This has been seen to escalate and undermine state sovereignty and also question the idea of global governance. While some non-binding guidelines exist, there is an urgent need for new international regulations and norms to be developed to specifically address the challenges of mega-constellations and ensure the sustainable and equitable use of outer space. Proposals include creating new regulatory bodies, developing satellite design standards, and clarifying liability and environmental assessment rules.