# The Development of Teleoperated Driving to Cooperate with the Autonomous Driving Experience
## 5 Results and Discussions  
The delay values recorded during testing, correlated with the vehicle's latitude and longitude, are illustrated in Figure 8. LED color coding was used to represent different delay levels at the control station. The average and maximum actual delay values were 109.7 ms and 316.65 ms, respectively. A simulated delay exceeding 500 ms, marked in red, was intentionally introduced to trigger the emergency stop mechanism at designated safe locations (points 1 and 3) for system testing. This simulated delay was excluded from the analysis of real latency values. The autonomous vehicle followed a predefined waypoint reference path, created by logging the actual on-road positions. Figure 9 compares the real path of the autonomous and remote-control systems to the reference path, showing successful path adherence. Linear deviation from the reference path was analyzed across four segments. In the initial remote-control segment (start to point 1), shown in Figure 10a, average and maximum deviations were 0.25 m and 0.41 m. The straight nature of this section aided control accuracy. From points 1 to 2, under autonomous control, the route featured curves and intersections, leading to a higher maximum deviation of 0.88 m, as displayed in Figure 10b. The segment from points 2 to 3 (Figure 10c), also remote-controlled, showed the lowest average deviation at 0.19 m. Lastly, from points 3 to 4, autonomous control produced an average and maximum deviation of 0.34 m and 0.83 m, as shown in Figure 10d. Overall, remote control yielded slightly lower average deviations, but autonomous mode exhibited larger peak deviations--up to twice as high. Speed and steering data from the test vehicle's sensors were compared to commands issued by Autoware and a Logitech G29 controller, along with latency measurements for each phase of the control transition test, as shown in Figure 11a,b. During the first phase (start to point 1) under remote control, minimum and average latencies were 89.24 ms and 115.69 ms, respectively, with a maximum of 217.11 ms. Despite intermittent spikes above 200 ms, control performance remained stable. Upon detecting the simulated 500 ms delay at point 1, the emergency monitoring system activated the braking mechanism, stopping the vehicle and entering emergency mode. When switched to autonomous control, the vehicle continued from points 1 to 2, experiencing average and minimum latencies of 110.18 ms and 83.68 ms and a peak of 316.65 ms. However, this delay did not affect vehicle control. At point 2, an obstacle prompted Autoware to command a stop. After 20 s on standby, the  
Figure 8: Signal latency vs. map coordinates. Figure 9: Trajectory comparison: actual vs. reference route during vehicle testing. system entered emergency mode. Remote control resumed for points 2 to 3 with an average latency of 106.49 ms and a maximum of 284.8 ms. A simulated high delay was detected at point 3, and triggered emergency mode like at point 1. Autonomous mode resumed from points 3 to 4, with an average, minimum, and maximum latency of 110.39, 89.01, and 266.29 ms, respectively. Upon detecting an obstacle at point 4, the vehicle decelerated and stopped before entering emergency mode. In the final phase (point 4 to the end), the vehicle returned to remote control, showing a stable latency profile with maximum latency at 120.56 ms--lower than previous remote-control phases. Emergency braking tests were conducted with the vehicle traveling at approximately 0.83, 1.39, 2.78, and 4.17 m/s (approximately 3, 5, 10, and 15 km/h, respectively; e.g., 10.8 km/h \(\approx\) 3 m/s), activated via the emergency button. When the controller remotely  
Figure 11: Response latency: (**a**) latency analysis of speed commands from Autoware and Logitech G29 compared to wheel rotation sensor measurements; (**b**) latency analysis of steering input: comparison between measured steering angle and commands from Autoware and Logitech G29.