## 2 Nanoparticle-Modified Electrodes
Over the past few decades, various studies have reported on the use of electrochemical methods for accurately measuring the presence of antibiotics. These methods have proven to be effective in detecting these substances in a quantitative manner. Primarily, according to [PERSON] et al. [66], gold nanoparticles (\(\sim\)30-60 nm in diameter) were deposited onto the surface of glassy carbon microspheres. Later, [PERSON] et al. [67] reported the use of a tetracycline sensor, using a molecularly imprinted, polymer-modified carbon nanotube-gold nanoparticles electrode. Moreover, [PERSON] et al. [68] developed a label-free electrochemical aptasensor for the determination of chloramphenicol based on gold nanocube-modified, \begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{l c} \hline \hline
**Nanoparticle** & **Reference** \\ \hline Gold nanoparticles & [53; 55; 56] \\ Gold-palladium nanoparticles & [57] \\ Silver nanoparticles & [58; 59; 60; 61] \\ Platinum nanoparticles & [62] \\ Zinc oxide nanoparticles & [63] \\ Copper oxide nanoparticles & [64] \\ Palladium nanoparticles & [46] \\ Antimony nanoparticles & [35] \\ \hline \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table} 
Table 1: Selected examples of metal nanoparticles used for the modification of electrodes. screen-printed gold electrodes. [PERSON] et al. [69] developed an electrochemical sensor for chloramphenicolol determination, using a glassy carbon electrode modified with dendrite-like Fe\({}_{3}\)O\({}_{4}\) nanoparticles, while [PERSON] et al. [70] prepared an electrochemical sensor modified with ruthenium nanoparticles on reduced graphene oxide for the simultaneous determination of amoxicillin. In addition, [PERSON] et al. [71] synthesized a sensor with reduced graphene oxide, modified with antimony and copper nanoparticles for levofloxacin oxidation. [PERSON] et al. [72] introduced a glassy carbon (GC) electrode modified with Printex L6 carbon black (PC) and copper (II) phthalocyanine (CuPh) films for the electrochemical determination of the antibiotic trimethoprim. In 2020, [PERSON] et al. [73] constructed a multi-walled carbon nanotube (CNT) and gold nanoparticle (AuNP)-modified glassy carbon electrode (GCE) for the sensitive determination of cefadroxil antibiotic, while [PERSON] et al. [74] developed a poly(methylene green) film on a Fe\({}_{2}\)O\({}_{3}\) magnetic nanoparticle-modified electrode in sulfuric acid-doped ethaline deep eutectic solvent for the antibiotics dapsoe and [PERSON] et al. [75] used a carbon paste electrode modified with gold nanoparticles for selected macrolide antibiotics determination as standard and in pharmaceutical preparations. Moreover, in 2021, [PERSON] et al. [49] developed a determination method of sulfamethazine (SMZ) in cow's milk using a glassy carbon electrode modified with graphene oxide decorated with Cu-Ag core-shell nanoparticles, [PERSON] and [PERSON] [76] developed a benzene-sourced graphene-gold nanoparticle sensor for the detection of tetracycline. [PERSON] et al. [77] used reduced graphene oxide and a nanogold-functionalized poly(amidoamine) dendrimer for ciprofloxacin determination in real samples, and [PERSON] et al. [78] used a magnetic nanoparticles/MIP-based electrochemical sensor for the quantification of tetracycline in milk samples. Table 2 provides a summary of the above-mentioned studies on using nanoparticle-modified electrodes for measuring antibiotic levels in different types of samples.