# Cybersecurity Vulnerabilities in Off-Site Construction
## 3 Importance of Cybersecurity in Manufacturing and Construction
### Manufacturing  
Additive manufacturing is one of the emerging technologies adopted in OSC. The shortage of skilled labor in the construction industry partly contributes to its adoption as it minimizes the labor force required for operation [30]. Additive manufacturing allows the production of near-net-shape components based on a CAD system. It has been used to produce beam connections with enhanced stress-distribution properties.  
As such, complexity and automation can be achieved by this technology with minimized raw material usage and time of operation, especially for components that require frequent repeatability [31]. Contrary studies indicate that utilizing this technology accrues costs higher than traditional construction because of unique functional property requirements in high-performance concrete [32]. The benefits of this technology relate to the added value to construction, which can be projected to cost savings over an extended period.  
Additive manufacturing is a processing parameter-sensitive process, and a cyber-attack can result in remotely altering one condition, such as the raw material fill level and adjusting printing temperature [20]. These security breaches have more significant impacts than currently perceived, and they include the stealing of CAD/design files. This potentially leads to the unlawful production of components by an unauthorized party, which can ruin a company's reputation. Alternatively, a cyber-attack can alter printing parameters to introduce flaws in the printing.  
In addition, a DOS can be issued until a ransom is paid. It is imperative to develop frameworks that can prevent, detect, and mitigate the undesirable effects of such attacks. Traditionally, manufacturing has been more concerned with blocking attacks on intellectual property. However, it is evident from the evolution of IoT in manufacturing and industry, which relies on cloud service and software, that the presented threats will be the most significant inhibitor in the future [33]. Cybersecurity concerns pose as weak links that threaten the survival of Industry 4.0 in construction.  
According to [PERSON] [3], Incident Response Procedures (IRP) is one of the critical areas that have not been fully explored to the fullest potential. The Industry 4.0 concept in manufacturing, as in construction, seeks to improve its productivity and efficiency to by an estimated 15% to 20% [3]. As such, the high level of connectivity and internet dependence has resulted in an increase in the data volumes in the respective value chains in multiple uses [1]. These data exchanges can be seen in:  
1. Processing of data for predictive maintenance and remote monitoring.
2. Enhancing service delivery and product quality.
3. Exchange of information among devices belonging to factories, contractors, and customers.
4. Mechanization and reduction of supplies.
5. Acquisition and storage of data for digital performance management.  
As Industry 4.0 is currently promoting the application of its digital technologies resulting in complex connectivity, cybersecurity concerns are to take a mandatory approach in the setup stage rather than being a mere preference. As previously mentioned, the improvements brought by Industry 4.0 can prove futile because of the exponentially increasing security breaches [33; 34]. According to Figure 2, the more the systems are integrated, the more malicious and subtle the security breaches can become.  
Figure 2: The growth and nature of attacks over the years [33].