## 3 Satellites and the Space Law Framework
### Responsibilities of Space Actors  
While humankind as a whole is envisaged as the beneficiary of what Outer Space has to offer, States are the parties with obligations to uphold with respect to Outer Space activities. With regards to satellite usage, States' obligations pertaining to the registration of the space objects under their responsibility are outlined in the 1974 Registration Convention,5 as well as any obligations regarding liability that may be invoked if a satellite causes damage being enshrined in the 1972 Liability Convention.6  
Footnote 5: Convention on Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space (concluded 12 November 1974, entered into force 15 September 1976) UNTS vol. 1023, p. 15 (1974 Registration Convention).  
Footnote 6: Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects (concluded 29 March 1972, entered into force 1 September 1972) UNTS vol. 961, p. 187 (1972 Liability Convention).  
However, the plans for the previously discussed satellite mega-constellations are being spearheaded by private corporations, such as SpaceX. As a commercial private actor, SpaceX, while subject to regulation in domestic law by the United States Federal Communication Commission (Code of Federal Regulations 2022), is not subject to regulation under international space law in the same way as States' space agencies. This begs the question as to where the burden of responsibility for private actors' satellites and soon-to-be satellite mega-constellations falls. Article VI of the 1967 Outer Space Treaty provides the answer that \"States Parties to the Treaty shall bear international responsibility for national activities in outer space, including the moon and other celestial bodies, whether such activities are carried on by governmental agencies or by non-governmental entities, and for assuring that national activities are carried out in conformity with the provisions set forth in the present Treaty\" (1967 Outer Space Treaty, art VI). Thus, States bear the responsibility for satellites belonging not only to their national space agencies but also those belonging to private actions within their State. This is further consolidated by the provisions of the 1972 Liability Convention, with Article I outlining that liability for damage caused by space objects would lie with the 'launching State', which is defined as \"(i) A State which launches or procures the launching of a space object; (ii) A State from whose territory or facility a space object is launched\"(1972 Liability Convention, art I). The latter instance would likely apply to private actors whose space objects, including satellites, are launched from the facilities of a State, with that State then taking responsibility for any damage caused by the launched space object. Consequently, the 1972 Liability Convention serves as another example, alongside the foundational 1967 Outer Space Treaty, that illustrates that, while regulated under domestic law, in the international space law framework, the burden of responsibility from private space actors' activities lies with the States in which these actions are conducted.  
However, while States bear this burden or responsibility for satellite registration and liability should damage be caused, neither of these instances results in the obstruction of astronomy--the mere presence of satellites in some of Earth's orbits does this alone. The designation of satellite orbits and the standards surrounding communications satellites, in general, are the responsibility of the ITU.