## 2 Methodology  
### Wall Modelling Description  
To accurately simulate the behaviour of the precast wall analysed in this study, a numerical model was developed using the software SeismoStruct [17]. The modellingstrategy employed builds upon methodologies previously validated by the research group at the Instituto Superior Tecnico (University of Lisbon) and has demonstrated reliable results in similar studies [16; 18; 19].  
The numerical model represents the precast wall by employing a strut element with two structural nodes at the top and bottom extremities (Figure 1). Since the main goal was to assess the strength capacity of an individual wall under seismic loads, the boundary condition at the bottom node was defined as fully fixed, meaning no rotations or displacements were allowed. This simulates the wall is rigidly connected to the foundation, which is a common assumption in earthquake engineering to reflect the fixed base condition that many walls experience in practice. This approach aims to replicate the restraint that would be provided by the foundation during an earthquake, ensuring that the wall's response to lateral loading is accurately captured. An inelastic force-based element was selected for this numerical simulation to reflect the wall's behaviour accurately. Seven integration sections were defined for the element, and each integration section was discretised into 500 fibres to ensure high fidelity in capturing the stress and strain distribution. The number of fibres and integration points were defined based on preliminary validation and calibration studies performed [16; 18; 19]. This modelling strategy enables a simplified and efficient simulation of the precast walls' nonlinear behaviour under lateral (cyclic and monotonic) loadings.  
A distinguishing feature of the work presented herein is the numerical simulation approach, which focuses on precast concrete walls with dry connections. Unlike wet connections, which form monolithic bonds and engage the entire wall base under tensile forces, dry connections exhibit markedly different behaviour. When tension is applied to a precast wall with a dry connection, a separation occurs at the base between the wall and its supporting structure. In this case, the mechanical steel rebars are critical to transferring tensile forces, serving as the sole mechanism for force transmission between the precast wall and the foundation.  
To accurately replicate this behaviour, a near-zero tensile strength concrete approximation was employed in the model to simulate the performance of dry connections. However, due to numerical convergence reasons in SeismoStruct [17], which does not allow defining a material with absolute zero tensile strength, a representatively low tensile strength value of 0.1 MPa was assigned. This approximation effectively simulates the near-zero tensile capacity observed in dry connections.  
The structural integrity and load transfer across the precast wall were ensured through mechanical connections, specifically by incorporating [PERSON] and [PERSON] (1973) steel  
Figure 1: Wall modelling strategy.  
rebars [20; 21]. These rebars play a critical role in the load-bearing capacity of the precast wall, particularly under tensile loading, where they serve as the primary means of force transfer. This modelling approach provides a realistic representation of the behaviour of precast walls with dry connections and facilitates a detailed investigation of their mechanical performance under various loading scenarios.