## 2 Data and Methods  
### Data and Study Area  
The CMIP6 models and DAMIP type that we used here are listed in Tables 1 and 2, respectively. CMIP6 DAMIP data were provided by the Earth System Grid Federation (ESGF). The study period was selected from 1850 to 2010, and data were aggregated daily or monthly to annual data for the analysis. All additional estimations, including evapotranspiration fraction, water balance, and water-use-efficiency (WUE), were calculated from the model list. The number of models for each ensemble can be small by utilizing the combination. All data, including the observations, were re-gridded onto a finite-volume grid (100 km, 192 \(\times\) 288 grids) with a 0.9 \(\times\) 1.25 degree scale.  
erroneous and varied among the models as reported in a previous study [32]. However, the CMIP6 model was improved from CMIP5, and the long-term SSM trend in this model was similar to that in a previous study [32]. Hence, CMIP6 SSM was assumed to be appropriate for our study.  
The study area was limited to global land for highlighting land surface activities. East Asia (EAS) and South Asia (SAS), which include many developing countries, were also selected for regional analysis, which shows significantly different results from a global-scale analysis. The sub-regional Asian domains were chosen with reference to [PERSON] et al. [46].  
\begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c l} \hline \hline
**Name** & **Descriptions** & **Periods** \\ \hline CMIP6 & CMIP6 historical simulation (\(\sim\)2014): WMGHGs, BC, OC, SO\({}_{2}\), SO\({}_{4}\), NO\({}_{\times}\), NH\({}_{3}\), CO, NMVOC, nitrogen deposition, ozone, stratospheric aerosols, solar irradiance, and land use \\ \hline hist-NAT & Natural-only historical simulations (solar irradiance and stratospheric aerosol) \\ \hline hist-GHG & Well-mixed greenhouse-gas-only historical simulations (WMGHGs) \\ \hline hist-AER & Anthropogenic-aerosol-only historical simulations (BC, OC, SO\({}_{2}\), SO\({}_{4}\), NO\({}_{\times}\), NH\({}_{3}\), CO, and NMVOC) \\ \hline \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table}
Table 1: List of DAMIP experiments analyzed in this study (from [PERSON] et al. [3]).  
\begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c c c c c} \hline \hline
**Model** & **PR** & **T** & **ET, SH** & **GPP** & **SSM(TSM)** & **RUNOFF** \\ \hline ACCESS-ESM1-5 [33] & \(\circ\) & \(\circ\) & & \(\circ\) & \(\circ\) & \\ BCC-CSM2-MR [34] & & & & \(\circ\) & & \\ CanESM5 [35] & & & \(\circ\) & \(\circ\) & \(\circ\) & \(\circ\) \\ CESM2 [36] & \(\circ\) & & \(\circ\) & \(\circ\) & \(\circ\) & \\ CNRM-ESM2-1 [37] & \(\circ\) & \(\circ\) & & \(\circ\) & \(\circ\) & \\ FGOALS-g3 [38] & \(\circ\) & \(\circ\) & \(\circ\) & & \\ GFDL-ESM4 [39] & \(\circ\) & \(\circ\) & & \(\circ\) & \\ GISS-E2-1-G [40] & & & \(\circ\) & \(\circ\) & \\ HadGEM3-GC31-LL [41] & \(\circ\) & \(\circ\) & \(\circ\) & & \\ IPSL-CM6A-LR [42] & \(\circ\) & \(\circ\) & & \(\circ\) & \(\circ\) & \(\circ\) \\ MIROC6 [43] & \(\circ\) & \(\circ\) & \(\circ\) & & \(\circ\) & \(\circ\) \\ MRI-ESM2-0 [44] & \(\circ\) & \(\circ\) & \(\circ\) & & \(\circ\) & \(\circ\) \\ NorESM2-LM [45] & \(\circ\) & \(\circ\) & \(\circ\) & \(\circ\) & \(\circ\) & \(\circ\) \\ \hline \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table}
Table 2: CMIP6 DAMIP model list used in this study where PR is precipitation, T is 2 m air temperature, ET is evapotranspiration, SH is sensible heat flux, SSM and TSM are surface and total soil moisture, and RUNOFF is runoff.