## 3 Results and Discussion
### CO\({}_{2}\) Benefits of GCI Ehicles and Life Cycle Assessments  
A life cycle assessment (LCA) is a methodology to assess the environmental impacts of a product or service throughout its life. The final CO\({}_{2}\) benefits, expected emission targets, and cost requirements of the GCI hybrid simulations are summarized for each vehicle in Table 3. The CN35 vehicle variant was showcased by Aramco in a recalibrated Peugeot 308, where it was possible to decrease the CO\({}_{2}\) emissions by 7% (vs. the original diesel engine) while complying with Euro 6d emission standards. From the HEV simulation, a potential of 24.1% in CO\({}_{2}\) reduction was demonstrated through the optimization of the ICE and adapted ATS models. The expected new EU pollutant emission standards will be able to be fulfilled using a 48 V 1 kWh battery and P2 architecture and will be cheaper compared to conventional ICE vehicles. During the full HEV simulations with different hybrid architectures for CN25 engines, the serial/parallel configuration showed some fuel consumption potential with more energy management flexibility compared to other hybrid configurations. In this case, the total CO\({}_{2}\) benefits reached 37%. The complexity of the HEV and the additional hybridization costs are the disadvantages of this approach. The CN15 engine was matched to a serial hybrid configuration, and a total of 75% CO\({}_{2}\) benefits were able to be reached in the case of the plug-in hybrid. PHEVs are also promoted worldwide as a solution to improve local climate issues in the transport sector. However, BEVs and PHEVs require a larger battery package and have higher costs. Figure 12 shows a life cycle analysis of different GCI hybrids compared to conventional ICE vehicles (ICEVs), gasoline engines (SI) and diesel engines (CI), and pure battery electric vehicles (BEV) with a 24 kWh battery package. The accumulated GHG were calculated based on a life cycle analysis [33]. The lifetime o vehicle mileage average is assumed to be 200,000 km for all vehicle types, and the battery lifetime is 130,000 km, part of the constituent materials of which can be recycled for all of the tested electrified vehicles. For PHEV, the annual mileage on e-driving mode can be determined by the electric driving modes and based on the literature is around 80% on WLTC. The accumulated tank to wheel (TTW) GHG emissions can be calculated using the HEV simulation, and the results are similar to those obtained in the previous chapter for conventional ICEVs and BEV. The  
Figure 11: Energy-weighted operating point distribution of CN15 engine on WLTC and serial hybrid configuration. \begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c c c c c c c} \hline \hline \multirow{2}{*}{**Vehicle**} & **Proposed** & \multirow{2}{*}{**Pollutant** **Emissions**} & **ATS** & **Hybrid Cost** & **CO\({}_{2}\) Benefits from** & \multirow{2}{*}{**CO\({}_{2}\) Benefits from** **ICE (Compare** **with Reference)**} & **CO\({}_{2}\) Benefits from** **Real CO\({}_{2}\)** **Benefits** \\  & & **Emissions** & **Cost** & **Devices)** & **with Reference)** & **CO\({}_{2}\) Benefits from** **Hybridization** & **Total CO\({}_{2}\)** **Benefits** \\ \hline CN35 & Mild HEV & Euro 7 & \(\Circarrow\) & + & 7\% & 24.1\% & 31\% \\ CN25 & Full HEV & Euro 7 & \(-\) & ++ & 9\% & 28.1\% & 37\% \\ CN15 & PHEV & Euro 7 & \(-\) & +++ & 9\% & 70\% & 75\% \\ \hline \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table} 
Table 3: Summary of HEV simulation results and cost estimation of the proposed GCI hybrid vehicles (\(-\) low cost, \(\Circarrow\) similar cost like reference, \(+\) high cost). average carbon intensity of the electricity used for PHEV and BEV uses the EU mix 2020 base case (241 gCO\({}_{2\text{eq}}\)/kWh), and thermal energy sources are used throughout all of the energy production and logistics processes. The reference vehicle assumed for all of the vehicles in the study is based on a C-Segment medium car, such as the VW Golf, Ford Focus, or Opel Astra.