## 3 Results and Discussion
### VOCs Profile of Honey

Table 3: _Cont._Most of the compounds identified were previously recognized in different kinds of honey of diverse geographical origins and obtained via various extraction and detection approaches. Twenty-five VOCS were common to all five legume honeys: nonanal (Ald4); benzaldehyde (Ald6); benzene acetaldehyde (Ald8); 2-ethyl-1-hexanol (A7); 2-furanmethanol (A8); benzyl alcohol (A11); phenyl ethyl alcohol (A12); dl-limonene (T3); \(p\)-cymene (T6); p-cymenene (T7); cislinal oxide (T8); translinal oxide (T10); linalool (T11); hotrienol (T14); \(\alpha\)-terpineol (T16); thymol (T23); 5-isoprenyl-2-methyl-2-vinyl letrahydrofuran (Herboxide: F3); 2-acetylfuran (F5); acetic acid (Ac1); butanoic acid (Ac3); octanoic acid (Ac6); nonanoic acid (Ac7); benzoic acid (Ac9); dimethyl disulphide (S1); 2_A_-di-tert-butylphenol (Ph3) (Table 3). The volatile profile of carob, alfalfa, and sailorin honeys is mainly composed of terpen and norisoprenoides, ranging from 38% of the total peak area of alfalfa honey to 90% of the total peak area of carob honey (sainfoin honey: 71.31%) (Table 3). Among terpenes, hotrienol (T14) shows the highest content, accounting for 52.98 and 38.36% of all the terpenoid peak areas in sailorin and carob honey, respectively (Table 3). The primary terpene compound present in the alfalfa honey sample is cis-linalo oxide (T8), with a content of 14.05% of the total terpene area. T8 is also strongly present in carob honey, with a content equal to 30.67% of the total terpenoid peak area (Table 3). Consistent with the literature data, among the most common honey terpenes, linalool derivatives, such as cis- and trans-linalo oxides, linalool, and hotrienol, are the most abundant. Hotrienol, which gives a sweet flower aroma reminiscent of the plant of origin, was already identified in other studies among the terpene compounds present in significantly high concentrations in different types of honey (lavender, rhodo-dendron, chestnut, carob, heather, citrus, thyme, eucalyptus, and wild flora). T14 and T8 are compounds derived from honey's thermal degradation, although studies report their occurrence without prolonged storage or heat treatment [91; 92]. The percentage of terpenoids in the honey of astragalus and indigo remains high (around 26%). However, for the astragalus honey, the class of compounds most present is aldehydes (around 31%), while for indigo honey, acids (around 27%) are most present (Table 3). The VOCs responsible for the versatile biological activity of honey mainly belong to the class of terpenes and isoprenoids, which are well represented in the samples we studied. In particular, the antiradical activity of honey has been linked to norisoprenoids, which are efficient free radical scavengers and improve the vertebrate immune system as they possess potential antioxidant capacity [27; 93]. In addition to showing antimicrobial properties and preserving beneficial microorganisms such as lactic acid bacteria, various terpen also exert antioxidant and antitumor activities [91; 93; 41]. In particular, there are data for \(\alpha\)-pinene (T1) and linalool (T11) suggesting their effects on diseases, including stroke, ischemia, neuropathic pain, cognitive impairment (relevant to Alzheimer's disease and aging), anxiety, and depression [41]. Medicinal value in the treatment of anxiety syndromes has also been reported for dl-limonene (T3) and \(\alpha\)-terpineol (T16) [94]. For thymol (T23), a potent anti-inflammatory agent, a specific cognitive enhancement activity has also been suggested in a rat model with dementia [95]. Furthermore, p-cymene (T6) acted as a potential anti-inflammatory agent in cytokine production by blocking NF-kB and MAPK signalling pathways [95]. Acids in all samples constitute 26.85% and 17.16% of the total peak area in the indigo and astragalus samples, respectively. For the other three honeys analyzed, the percentage of acids ranged from 7.66 of the total peak area of the alfalfa sample to 2.82% of caroh honey (Table 3).