# Maternal-Foetal Effects of Exposure to Bisphenol A: Outcomes and Long-Term Consequences
## 1 Introduction  
On a daily basis, human beings are exposed to a wide variety of chemicals, including endocrine disruptors (EDC). The prevailing definition of EDCs is \"An endocrine disruptor is an exogenous substance or mixture that alters function(s) of the endocrine system and consequently causes adverse health effects in an intact organism, or its progeny, or (sub) populations\" [1]. They have the ability to interfere with biosynthesis, metabolism and hormonal action, affecting the homeostasis of these processes. According to the World Health Organisation (WHO), EDCs are mostly artificial and are widely found in materials such as metals, pesticides, food additives and personal hygiene products [2]. EDCs modulate the body's endocrine functions by mimicking hormones such as oestrogens, androgens and thyroid hormones. In addition, they can alter their metabolism by binding to receptors on the cell membrane and intracellularly. Bisphenol A (BPA) stands outamong the various endocrine disruptors because it can interfere with maternal and foetal physiology, with consequences for both. There are several forms of human exposure: ingestion of food, inhalation of air particles and gases, and skin contact. Another important form of exposure is the maternal-foetal passage. Included in the term \"prenatal exposure\", \"foetal exposure\" impacts the growing foetus while \"maternal exposure\" impacts the pregnant woman [3]. Recently, several studies have linked various chemicals ubiquitously present in our daily lives to significant changes in biological functions, including growth, development and reproduction. These effects are even more visible in more susceptible populations, such as pregnant women and developing foetuses, with consequences that will only become apparent in the long term [3; 4]. With an annual production of about 3.8 million tons and a release of 100 tons into the atmosphere, BPA is one of the most manufactured synthetic substances globally among all endocrine disruptors [5; 6]. BPA is a monomer used in the production of plastics and epoxy resins, utilised in the manufacture of thermal paper, dental fissure sealants, water supply pipes, adhesives, water bottles, food containers, electronic devices, toys for kids, medical devices and more [5; 7]. Consumers are most frequently exposed to BPA through the reuse of polycarbonate bottles and kitchenware, such as baby bottles and containers used for food and drink preparation and preservation. Still, they can also be exposed to this EDC through atmospheric air in the gaseous state [8]. BPA is a ubiquitous xenoestrogen whose ubiquity increases the potential for exposure of the developing foetus as well as the neonate. They are susceptible indirectly, through maternal exposure, and directly, through eating tinned food, breastfeeding and infant formula [9]. Due to BPA's widespread use and endocrine-disrupting (mostly osteogenic) qualities, daily exposure to BPA has been shown to be a serious public health problem. Numerous research has already documented the effects of BPA on multiple systems in both humans and animals. In recent years, numerous studies have spoken of the outcomes of BPA exposure, including abnormal development of the urethra/penis, an increase in neurobehavioral problems such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and autism spectrum disorders (ASD), an increase in type 2 diabetes in children and adults, a decrease in sperm count and an increase in hormone-mediated cancers such as breast cancer [8; 9]. In this context, increasing reports have also mentioned maternal-foetal effects related to exposure to bisphenols, including BPA. It has been shown that BPA is transferred to foetal tissues as a result of maternal exposure [10], where the placenta can absorb this EDC from the mother's blood [3].