## 5 Results and Discussion
### Results from Integrated Consideration and Footfall Model
#### 5.2.1 Omitted Variable Bias and Fit Loss Due to Linearity and Normality Assumptions
A marginal increase in the hourly footfall during the PM peak could be attributed to an increased share of non-work trips during the evening peak. The transit operating characteristics of both bus and train appear to have a significant role in footfall. The negative coefficient of the metro cost (\(-\)0.74) shows that public transit commuters are cost-sensitive, as the metro is more expensive than other transit modes. For example, the metro fare for an average trip distance of 11.4 km is approximately INR 1.52 per km, compared to suburban (INR 0.23/km) and bus (INR 0.3-0.6 per km) fares [33]. An increase in headway (reduced frequency) between consecutive trains reduces the footfall (\(-\)0.25) as it directly affects the waiting time. Similarly, an increase in the frequency of buses operating in the vicinity (influence area of 1.5 km) of the metro train has a negative impact on footfall (\(-\)0.15). Thus, there is further evidence of competition between buses and the metro. By better coordinating metro and bus schedules and routes, and adjusting headways accordingly, multimodal integration and train footfall can be enhanced. The role of the metro in enhancing urban and regional connectivity can be inferred based on the higher footfall observed in multimodal and intermodal stations. The positive coefficients of interchange stations, terminal stations, and stations with airport connectivity (1.13, 2.64, and 4.71, respectively) on footfall signify the importance of effective multimodal connectivity between different transport modes. The population in the buffer area of these multimodal hubs has a greater influence on footfall compared to population density at other stations. The effectiveness of the multimodal integration of metro services with the transport network also depends on the nature and quality of roads in the vicinity of metro stations. This variable also significantly affects its footfall. An increase in the proportion of primary roads in the buffer area positively affects metro footfall (0.10). An increase in the density of primary roads can be seen as a proxy for the supply of good-condition motorable roads. Hence, they can help in reducing the out-of-vehicle access and egress time to the metro station by motorized modes. A negative effect of residential road density on metro footfall (\(-\)0.11) is observed, as these roads are narrow and more susceptible to congestion. Unlike existing aggregate models, the joint model, which uses disaggregate data, makes it possible to capture differences in the effect of first- and last-mile connectivity across individuals in the buffer area of the same station. It is found that effective pedestrian infrastructure (adequate and usable footpaths near metro stations) has a positive impact on footfall (3.71). The average out-of-vehicle travel time has a negative effect on metro footfall (\(-\)0.02). Thus, for those who live near the stations, walkability is crucial, whereas for residents who stay farther, the availability of fast first- and last-mile modes with low waiting time and adequate affordability is important. The presence of adequate parking facilities at the metro station has a positive impact on hourly footfall (0.24) and cycle-for-hire (0.23, but not significant), indicating the importance of park-and-ride facilities and micro-mobility options. The proposed joint model is also able to capture inter-person differences in footfall through the use of disaggregate data. For example, with an increase in average household income in the buffer area, the footfall in the nearby metro station decreases. Providing metro train connectivity in high-income areas may, therefore, be less effective in increasing the reach of train services than in middle and lower-income neighborhoods, which are underserved by other public transit means. Also, as the fraction of women commuters who consider trains increases, the hourly footfall also increases, indicating it as a potential segment to enhance ridership.