## 1 Introduction  
The increasing integration of lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries in the automotive industry and consumer electronics has marked a significant technological advancement. These batteries are favored for their high energy density, light weight, and long lifecycle, making them ideal for a wide range of applications [1]. However, the widespread use of Li-ion batteries is accompanied by serious safety concerns. One of the most critical issues is thermal runaway, a dangerous condition that can lead to fires or explosions. This phenomenon occurs when the battery's temperature rises uncontrollably, often triggered by physical damage, overheating, or internal short circuits [2, 3]. Given the potential hazards,ensuring the crashworthiness of Li-ion batteries is paramount. Crashworthiness refers to the ability of a battery system to withstand impact or collision without leading to catastrophic failures like thermal runaway. This aspect is crucial for the safety of electric vehicles and other battery-powered devices [4; 5]. Extensive research has been conducted to enhance the safety of lithium-ion battery packs, focusing on various aspects such as ground impact, cell jelly roll layer failure to prevent the thermal runaway, nail penetration, static press loading, indentations, and energy absorption solutions. Studies on ground impact have demonstrated the importance of robust casing and structural integrity to mitigate damage during collisions [6]. Research has also investigated layer failure for prevention methods and the mechanisms of thermal runaway, highlighting the need for effective thermal management systems to prevent catastrophic failures [7; 8; 9]. Nail penetration tests are commonly used to simulate internal short circuits and assess the battery's response to physical damage, providing insights into improving internal protection mechanisms [10; 11; 12]. Additionally, static press loading and indentation tests evaluate the structural resilience of battery packs under compressive forces, leading to better design strategies for enhancing durability [13; 14; 15]. Furthermore, the arrangement of cells within the pack is a critical area of study, with different configurations being tested to optimize both safety and performance [16; 17; 18]. Another direction of research is developing energy absorption packs and incorporating energy absorption elements between batteries, which have shown promise in reducing intrusions and preventing the propagation of damage within the pack [19; 20]. The use of the finite element method (FEM) has been instrumental in advancing these safety improvements by enabling detailed simulations and analyses of various crash scenarios. By using FEM explicit analysis, we simulate various compression load scenarios to evaluate and improve the deformation and energy absorption characteristics of the cell packs. The FEM simulations allow for the modeling of complex interactions and mechanical responses during compressive loads, which is crucial for identifying critical behavior points and optimizing design for improved safety [19; 21; 22]. Several international standards regulate the mechanical safety of lithium-ion battery packs, including pack-crushing tests designed to assess structural integrity under extreme conditions. A common aspect among standards such as IEC 62660, ISO 12405, SAE J2464, and GB/T 31485 [23; 24; 25; 26] is the evaluation of pack stiffness, ensuring that batteries can withstand compressive loads without excessive deformation or failure [27]. In the current paper, we address the safety issues of lithium-ion battery cell packs by leveraging the capabilities of the finite element method (FEM) and homogenized models under compression load scenarios. Building on our previous work, where we developed a material model for the whole cylindrical cell under compression [13], this study extends the approach to assess and enhance the crashworthiness of battery packs.