## 3 Materials and Methods
### Data Sources  
The data sources used in this study included the following:  
* Demographic questionnaire: This included questions related to bio-demographics (such as age, gender, education, and role) and experience using outdoor and indoor-outdoor navigation tools. * Spatial ability test: The measurement of spatial ability skills depends on multiple factors focusing on multiple spatially relevant abilities. While different researchers have focused on different factors, the two that are most often cited include spatial orientation (also referred to as spatial relations) and spatial visualization (Spatial reasoning) [42]. Therefore, we included two tests, a \"spatial reasoning test\" and a \"spatial orientation test\", to assess participants' visuo-spatial ability. A spatial reasoning test (shown in Appendix A) was used to determine the participant's ability to manipulate 2D and 3D objects, visualize movements and changes between shapes, and spot patterns between those shapes. This test consisted of 9 questions, each consisting of abstract shapes, which participants had to mentally manipulate and choose the correct option out of the four choices. There is a limit of 40 s for each question. The spatial orientation test was used to test participants' ability to imagine different perspectives or orientations in space. The test used for this study was adopted from the version used by [43]. There were 12 items in this test, one on each page. Each question contained a picture of an array of objects and an \"arrow circle\" with a question about the direction between some of the objects. The task was to draw an arrow from the center object showing the direction to a third object from the facing orientation. Participants had 5 min to complete this test. * Santa Barbara Sense of Direction scale (SBSOD): According to [44], three substantially correlated factors emerged after examining the structure of spatial ability, and this included navigation in addition to object manipulation and visualization. Therefore, we used the Santa Barbara Sense of Direction Scale (SBSOD) scale [25] to access navigation. This is a self-report scale of environmental spatial ability and is a useful instrument for measuring the construct of Sense of Direction (SOD). It contained 15 statements asking about participants' spatial and navigational abilities, experiences, and preferences. The participants had to rate each statement that describes the participant's sense of direction on a 7-point Likert scale from \"1\" (strongly agree) to \"7\" (strongly disagree). * NASA Task Load Index (TLX) rating: NASA-TLX [45, 46] is a multi-dimensional scale that provides an overall workload score using six workload-related factors consisting of mental demand, physical demand, temporal demand, performance, effort and frustration). This study aimed to use NASA-TLX as an objective measure of the workload of the wayfinding task [47]. * Subjective workload rating (SWR): In addition to the NASA-TLX, a second instrument was used as a subjective measure of workload. A Subjective Workload Rating (SWR) questionnaire developed by [42] was administered to all participants to evaluate how they felt about the wayfinding task on a scale of 1 to 10. This instrument consists of the following sub-scales: Easy/difficult, relaxing/stressful, required minimal effort/labor intensive, pleasant/annoying, calming/frustrating and simple/complex. * Field Notes: This was used to record the parameters of wayfinding performance [48] and observation notes. The following parameters were recorded for the wayfinding task: start time, end time, number of times asked for help/assistance, took a wrong direction (e.g., turned back after taking a direction), frequency of hesitations (i.e., every time participant stopped to think about the way to take), task completion and observation notes regarding campus navigation during the task.