## 2 Materials and Methods  
The chemical composition of the investigated steel AISI 316 Ti is given in Table 2. The as-received state of materials was annealing after hot deformation. The initial microstructure of the steel, which is shown in Figure 1, was fully recrystallized. As one can see from XRD-pattern (Figure 1b), the microstructure mainly consists of austenite grains with an average size of 54 \(\pm\) 4 \(\upmu\)m (Figure 1a).  
The mechanical testing at elevated temperatures (tension, compression, and torsion with tension) was carried out using the thermomechanical simulator Gleeble 3800 (DSI Systems, Dallas, TX, USA). Samples for compression were cylinders with a height of 15 mm and a diameter of 10 mm. The specimens with cylindrical deformation zone with a diameter of 5 and 10 mm and lengths of 10 and 20 mm were used for tensile and torsion with tension tests, respectively. A high vacuum of 10\({}^{-3}\) Pa was created in the chamber before heating to prevent oxidation at high temperatures. The heating rate up to the deformation temperature was 5 K\(\cdot\)s\({}^{-1}\). Hot deformation was carried out in the temperature range of 1173-1473 K and at strain rates of 0.1-10 s\({}^{-1}\). The samples were immediately quenched after the deformation by compressed air. Compression stress-strain curves were recalculated to consider the friction and adiabatic heating during deformation [49; 50].  
The grain microstructure of the samples was investigated using a scanning electron microscope (SEM) Tescan-VEGA3 LMH (TESCAN, Czech Republic) equipped with an energy dispersive X-ray spectrometer (EDS) (X-MAX80), and an EBSD-HKL detector (NordlysMax EBSD) and light microscope Carl Zeiss Axiovert 200 (Carl Zeiss, Germany). The microstructure investigation samples were mechanically polished and electrochemically etched at 5 V for 110-120 s in the 10% solution of oxal acid in water. The average grain size was measured by the linear intercept method at three images for each deformation condition. Diffractometer Bruker Advance D8 (Bruker, Germany) was used to investigate the phase composition of the steel. The X-ray scanning was done in the range of the 20 angle of 20-90\({}^{\circ}\) with a step of 0.1\({}^{\circ}\) and a holding time of 10 s.  
Setaram LabSys calorimeter (Setaram, France) was used for the determination of the phase transformation temperatures. Differential thermal analysis (DTA) was performed at heating and cooling rates of 0.33 K\(\cdot\)s\({}^{-1}\) in the temperature range of 1273-1773 K. Thermodynamic calculations were carried out using thermodynamic database TCFe7 of the Thermocal software.  
\begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c c c c c c c c} \hline \hline
**C** & **Si** & **Mn** & **Cr** & **Ni** & **Mo** & **Ti** & **Co** & **Fe** \\ \hline
0.08 & 0.5 & 1.9 & 16.8 & 10.5 & 2.0 & 0.24 & 0.16 & Balance \\ \hline \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table}
Table 2: Chemical composition of the AISI 316 Ti steel (wt. %).  
Figure 1: Initial microstructure of the investigated steel: (**a**) light microscopy (LM) image and (**b**) X-ray diffraction (XRD) pattern.  
FE calculations of the deformation behavior, fracture, and microstructure evolution were performed using the Deform 3D software. The FE simulation objects have the same sizes, such as real samples for mechanical testing using thermomechanical simulation. The objects were meshed into 30,000 and 100,000 tetrahedral elements for the tension and torsion with tension tests, respectively. During calculation, the deformation conditions completely followed the actual testing process: the movement boundary conditions were applied to one of the simulated sample edges, while another edge was fixed.