## 3 Results and Discussion
### Model Validation and ANOVA Results  
Figures 4-6 show the current and voltage response over time under various ambient temperatures (\(-10\)\({}^{\circ}\)C, \(25\)\({}^{\circ}\)C and \(40\)\({}^{\circ}\)C) across different cases for each temperature condition. In Figure 4, the voltage remains within the range of approximately 2 to 4.5 V, while the current shows varied patterns of charging and discharging with spikes and drops. The different cases appear to be set up to observe the battery's response to distinct operating conditions. The voltage profiles seem relatively stable, albeit with small fluctuations, whereas the current profiles exhibit more pronounced variations. In all cases, the voltage generally stays within a narrow band between 3 V and 4.2 V, which is typical for lithium-ion batteries. The relatively stable voltage profiles across all cases indicate that the battery's State of Charge is being maintained effectively without severe voltage drops, which would suggest significant capacity depletion or over-discharge. Figure 4: Current and voltage results for different cases at ambient temperature of \(-10\)\({}^{\circ}\)C.  
The current profiles are more variable than the voltage profiles, with distinct spikes and drops corresponding to charging and discharging cycles. These variations are likely due to different load conditions applied in each case. Cases 3, 5, and 9 exhibit more extreme current behaviours, with higher peaks or deeper discharges. This could indicate more aggressive charging or discharging scenarios, putting the battery under higher stress. Cases 1 and 7 appear to be more moderate in terms of current fluctuations, which could represent standard or baseline testing conditions where the battery is not overly stressed. At a lower temperature, the voltage drop becomes more abrupt and steeper across most cases compared to 40 \({}^{\circ}\)C. Cold temperatures affect the internal resistance and kinetics of the battery, causing higher voltage drop-offs. This is especially evident in Case 3 and Case 7, where voltage drops sharply after each pulse. The current shows a similar pattern to 25 \({}^{\circ}\)C and 40 \({}^{\circ}\)C, but the voltage is less stable. Figure 5 illustrates the current and voltage results for different cases at an ambient temperature of 25 \({}^{\circ}\)C. In this condition, the voltage behaviour stabilizes compared to \(-\)10 \({}^{\circ}\)C. The voltage curves still show stepwise declines, but they are smoother than at lower temperatures. Case 3 and Case 7, with larger current pulses, continue to show significant drops in voltage after current pulses. The current pulses resemble those at 40 \({}^{\circ}\)C, but the voltage response is more stable. This suggests that 25 \({}^{\circ}\)C may represent a more optimal operating temperature for the battery, where the performance is more predictable, and less stress is imposed on the voltage. In Figure 6, for all cases, the voltage shows a gradual decline, but there are consistent steps or reductions following each pulse in the current. Cases with lower current magni  
Figure 5: Current and voltage results for different cases at ambient temperature of 25 \({}^{\circ}\)C.  
tudes (such as Case 2, Case 4, and Case 6) exhibit a smoother voltage drop, while others with higher or more varied current show more abrupt declines (e.g., Case 3 and Case 7). The current has a pulse-type waveform, with various amplitudes. The more significant current pulses (e.g., Case 7, Case 3) correspond to more pronounced voltage drops. Some cases show a lower magnitude of current pulses (e.g., Case 1), indicating a less aggressive charging/discharging profile, while others have alternating positive and negative current pulses, signifying charge/discharge cycling. While evaluating the temperature effects on voltage response, the experimental results clearly show that temperature plays a critical role in the battery's voltage response and overall performance.