[14] employed a liquid-based battery thermal management system (BTMS) in an EM to investigate cooling system designs under aggressive conditions such as fast charging. The study formulated multiple objectives, including reducing pressure drop, mitigating hot spots, and maintaining average temperature, to optimise system geometries with various channel structures. The results showed that the proposed BTMS can improve the battery heat exchange rate compared to a benchmark model of a multi-pass parallel channel. Ref. [15] studied the performance of Li-Ion battery packs in an EM with air cooling in the battery compartment. The study found that thermal runaway is a potential problem, and an air-cooled BTMS scheme was thus tested to mitigate the probability of thermal runaway. It was found that the air-cooled BTMS with a well-tuned setup could increase mileage by 12% compared to no cooling. Ref. [16] provides a methodology for sizing battery packs for electric vehicles, with a case study on thermal management in the design of a battery pack for an EM. The paper emphasises the importance of thermal management in preventing thermal runaway, and the use of phase change material (PCM) is discussed as a passive thermal management solution that also adds mechanical protection to the cells. Ref. [17] presents a new thermal interface for cylindrical cells using busbar-integrated cooling channels, namely, a stand-alone refrigerant circuit for battery thermal management. The simulations of an electric two-wheeler battery system show that the busbar cooling can maintain the required temperatures and offer performance and efficiency increases compared to existing BTMSs. However, busbar design has a significant impact on volumetric energy density, which requires further investigation. Ref. [18] demonstrates an experimental study on the heat generation effects of NMC and LiFePO4 battery packs in EMs. The study discusses how additional cooling components can help maintain the batteries' temperature, which is crucial for optimal performance and a long range. The paper also investigates the adverse effects of excessive heat generation on battery performance. However, there is no proposed solutions to address the issue of heat generation. There are limited references, [12; 13; 14; 15; 16; 17; 18], where system-level thermal management is discussed in the context of EMs. These studies indicated that the performances of HV components, the battery in particular, are severely constrained by their operating temperatures and, as such, demonstrated the importance of thermal management in the development of EMs. The literature mentioned above describes significant advancements on thermal management of electric motorcycles. However, there are research gaps as summarised below:  
1. In all the mentioned literature [12; 13; 15; 16; 18], battery models are lumped at the pack or module level, which fails to capture the thermally induced performance variations in individual cells, such as temperature differences. However, in practical thermal management, knowing only the average temperature of a battery pack or module is insufficient, as there are often temperature gradients among individual cells within a module. It is crucial to have specific temperature information for each individual cell to prevent potential overheating, thermal runaway, and accelerated ageing in specific cells. 2. Temperature differences among individual cells also lead to variations in state of charge (SOC), voltage, and power. From the perspective of cell balancing, variations in SOC or voltage among cells can result in some cells being overcharged or over-discharged, leading to a reduced lifespan and even safety hazards. Additionally, lower consistency among cells can result in reduced available capacity and energy efficiency of the entire battery pack. However, no existing study explores how thermal management affects the consistency/inconsistency of individual cells, particularly in terms of SOC, open circuit voltage (OCV), and state of power (SOP) variations in an EM application.