# Use of Vine Shoot Waste for Manufacturing Innovative Reinforced Cement Composites
## 1 Introduction  
Cement is one of the most widely used materials in the construction industry [1]. The cement industry is responsible for approximately 8% of global anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions, making it an important sector for carbon dioxide-emission mitigation approaches [2, 3]. The EN 197-1 standard defines the specifications of 27 common types of cement, including 7 sulfate-resistant types of cement, 3 low early-resistance blast-furrace types of cement and 2 with high sulfate resistance [4]. Portland type I (CEM I) cement is suitable for general use (bridges, buildings, reservoirs, pipe and pre-cast concrete products), where the special properties of other cement types are not required. The composition of CEM I is 95-100 wt.% clinker and 0-5 wt.% additional constituents, while the white CEM I contains 51-72 wt.% tricalcium silicate (C3S), 9-25 wt.% dicalcium silicate (C2S), 5-13 wt.% tricalcium aluminate (C3A) and 1-2 wt.% tetracalcium iron aluminate (C4 AF). Cement hydration is an irreversible and complex chemical reaction between cement and water, resulting in different hydration products such as calcium silicate hydrate (CSH), calcium aluminoferrite hydrate, ettringite, trisulfoaluminate, monosulfoaluminate and other related compounds [5]. Anthropogenic activities generate large amounts of waste, which is a significant concern for environmental protection; the impact can be reduced by reasonable waste control [6]. Approximately 50 million cubic meters of agricultural waste are produced yearly in the European Union due to agricultural activities and various industries, such as forestry and furniture manufacturing [7; 8]. Improved waste management through using waste in various domains as alternative raw materials contributes to reducing greenhouse gas emissions [9]. Recent research has focused on converting waste into valuable products [10]. In this regard, fusing glass powder waste to improve the mechanical properties of cementitious materials is both cost-effective and environmentally friendly [11]. Moreover, the mechanical properties of cement-based materials can be improved using granite cutting residue [12]. The addition of red mud to magnesium phosphate cement resulted in higher fluidity and improved mechanical properties and water resistance [13]. Additionally, the partial replacement of Portland cement with volcanic ash provides a low-cost and environmentally friendly solution to the disposal of volcanic ash [14]. Lignocellulosic waste can be used in cement-based materials as alternative raw material that positively impacts the cement-based structure [15; 16]. Due to the lignocellulosic filler malleability and morphology, adding waste to cement-based materials improves the compatibility between fiber and matrix and thus yields enhanced flexural and tensile strength, lightweight properties, ductility, cracks and fractures of cement-based materials [17]. The increased surface area of the lignocellulosic waste increases the water absorption of the composite cement-based material [18]. The main factors affecting the quality of composite cement-based materials are density, particle size, lignocellulosic material type, aspect ratio, volume, mix design, and the method used for mixing, processing and curing, respectively [15]. Low lignin content offers high hydrophilicity due to the only two free hydroxyl groups, compared with cellulose with three free hydroxyl groups. In addition, using lignocellulosic waste with a low affinity for water might avoid degradation caused by alkaline pore water in cement-based materials [19]. A cement-bonded panel was constructed using pine shavings, sugar cane bagasse particles, eucalyptus, Pinus and bamboo lamination residues [20]. The genus Pinus is the conifer species most widely used cement-based material. Adding Pinus wood residue increases the material's physical properties associated with the particle size. A possible explanation could be that smaller particles are coated better with cement and provide better bonding [21; 22].