## 2 Theoretical Background of Bike-Sharing Systems
### Bike-Sharing System in the Light of Scientific Research
Mobile applications have become the primary interface for users, offering comprehensive platforms for registration, bicycle location, trip monitoring, and payment. Many apps now include user-friendly features, such as gamification, loyalty incentives, and integration with navigation tools. GPS technology, in particular, has been instrumental in improving operational efficiency--especially within dockless and hybrid systems. GPS-enabled smart locks allow operators to manage fleets in real time, ensuring bike availability in high-demand areas and enabling the retrieval of lost or improperly parked bicycles. [PERSON] et al. underscored the importance of GPS in improving fleet distribution and reducing theft, a persistent issue in earlier generations of bike-sharing systems [59; 60; 61]. The integration of bike-sharing into Smart City frameworks has further amplified system efficiency and reach. By linking bike-sharing data with broader urban transport systems, municipalities can leverage real-time analytics to improve traffic flow, reduce congestion, and strengthen multimodal connectivity. Mobility-as-a-Service (MaaS) platforms increasingly incorporate bike-sharing as a core component, allowing users to plan and pay for multimodal journeys through a single digital interface. Bike-sharing programmes have emerged as a key tool for promoting public health by encouraging physical activity through active transportation. By facilitating short cycling trips, they offer a convenient and affordable way for individuals to integrate exercise into daily routines, addressing health risks linked to sedentary lifestyles. Numerous studies confirm the health benefits of bike-sharing use, including reduced risks of cardiovascular disease, obesity, and other inactivity-related conditions [62]. Cycling has also been associated with improved mental well-being, offering stress relief, outdoor exposure, and enhanced social interaction. [PERSON] found that bike-sharing schemes in European cities improved users' health while also contributing to better air quality and urban liability [63]. However, the long-term, population-level public health effects of bike-sharing remain underexplored. While individual benefits are well-documented, few studies have assessed how large-scale adoption impacts broader health indicators, such as healthcare costs or rates of lifestyle-related illnesses. Further research is needed to evaluate these long-term outcomes and assess the economic value of associated health gains. Despite advances in exploring economic, environmental, social, health, and technological aspects of bike-sharing, infrastructure remains comparatively underexamined. In much of the literature, infrastructure is treated as a secondary factor, resulting in limited understanding of its influence on user perceptions, adoption rates, and system performance. Yet, infrastructure is fundamental to operational efficiency and user satisfaction. Key infrastructure components include docking stations, virtual parking zones, bike lane networks, and cyclist-friendly crossings. While some studies (e.g., [64; 65; 66; 67]) stress the importance of locating docking stations in high-demand areas, research has often focused on operational logistics, overlooking how infrastructure quality shapes user experience. The presence and quality of bike lanes are widely acknowledged as essential for safety and accessibility, yet their effects remain insufficiently assessed. For instance, [PERSON] and [PERSON] found that separated lanes reduce accidents and encourage cycling, especially among novice users, while [PERSON] demonstrated a positive relationship between cycling infrastructure and bike-sharing adoption globally [68]. However, little is known about how specific components--such as connectivity between bike lanes and docking stations or integration with public transit--affect perceived benefits and user satisfaction. Dockless and hybrid systems introduce further challenges, relying on virtual parking and geofencing rather than fixed infrastructure.