## 2 Carotenoids and Betalains: Bioactivity and Health Benefits
\begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c c} \hline \hline
**Pigment** & **Source** & **Bioactivity/Health Benefits** & **Reference** \\ \hline \multirow{8}{*}{**Carotenoids**} & Waste biomass & [PERSON] et al. [17] \\  & Microalsals & [PERSON] et al. [18] \\  & Agro wastes & [PERSON] et al. [19] \\  & Persimmon & [PERSON] et al. [20] \\  & Bell peppers & [PERSON] et al. [21] \\  & Carrot and tomato by-products & Antioxidant, Anti-mutagenic, \\  & Carrot waste & anti-proliferative, \\  & Tomato waste & anti-inflammatory, \\  & Vegetable waste & anti-hypertension and \\  & Tomato by-products & anti-atherogenic activities. \\  & Pomegranate wastes & Radical scavenging activity. \\  & Tomato peel & [PERSON] et al. [28] \\  & Pumpkin & [PERSON] et al. [29] \\  & Tomato and tomato byproducts & [PERSON] et al. [30] \\  & Tomato peel & [PERSON] et al. [31] \\  & Tomato & [PERSON] et al. [32] \\ \hline \multirow{8}{*}{**Betalains**} & Amaranthus, Prickly pear, Red dragon fruit, & [PERSON] et al. [33] \\  & Red pitaya, Red betroot & [PERSON] et al. [34] \\  & Agro-industrial wastes & Antiocarbinate, \\  & Pitaya fruit & Antioxidant, anticarcinogenic, \\  & Red betroot & hepatoprotective, \\  & Prickly pear, beetroot & antibacterial, and \\  & Pitaya pear & anti-inflammatory activities. \\  & Amaranthus, Prickly pear, Red dragon fruit, & Intestinal and immune \\  & Red pitaya, Red betroot & regulatory effects and prevent \\  & Prickly pear & cardiovascular diseases. \\  & Red dragon fruit peel & [PERSON] et al. [41] \\  & Red beet, Cacti fruits, Dragon fruits, \\  & Swiss chard & \\  & Beetroot pomace & [PERSON] et al. [43] \\ \hline \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table} 
Table 1: Studies on the bioactivity and health effects of carotenoids and betalains from vegetable sources. prevent the oxidation of biological molecules induced by active oxygen and mediated by free radicals; moreover, betalains possess antioxidant and antiproliferative activity [34; 35]. [PERSON] et al. [36] reported that the pitaya extract, rich in betalain, showed good antioxidant activity resulting from the presence of betalamic acid in the moiety of betalain molecule. Indeed, it is an aromatic amino compound able to stabilize free radicals and is, therefore, able to inhibit the oxidation of lipids, proteins, DNA and enzymes involved in the generation of highly reactive molecules that are associated with chronic degenerative diseases. [PERSON] et al. [37] reported that red beets are a rich source of bioactive compounds, especially betalains, and can be used as functional ingredients in food and medical industries. This is due to their numerous beneficial effects on health and for the possible treatment of certain pathologies: cancer, cardiovascular diseases, asthma, arthritis, intestinal inflammation and diabetes. [PERSON] et al. [38] tested the biological activity (e.g., antioxidant, cytotoxic, anti-genotoxic and influence on enzymatic activities) of extracts from differently pigmented varieties of two vegetable species: prickly pear (yellow, orange and red) and red beet (white and red). The results showed that biological activities do not strictly depend on the concentration of betalain but on their ratio in the plant matrix. [PERSON] et al. [39] suggested red pitaya peels as a valuable manufacturing by-product to be exploited for nutraceutical formulations and food applications due to the reducing and radical-scavenging capacities of betacyanin fractions. Other studies [40; 41; 42; 43; 44] showing the health effects of betalains are reviewed in Table 1.  
In this context, their global market (USD 9.1 billion in 2022) is expected to grow at a Compound Annual Growth Rate of 4.7% over the period of 2022-2032 [45].