## 4 Results  
This section reports the results of simulations conducted on the developed electric vehicle model. The simulations were conducted based on the urban route detected and shown in Figure 5, executed in the city of Naples. The detected route, as presented in the previous section, is characterized by a speed profile and an altitude profile, the two input elements required by the model to simulate vehicle dynamics during its operation. The vehicle with which the experimental survey was carried out is the Citroen Ami; based on the surveys conducted, validation of the vehicle dynamics model was performed with respect to the State of Charge (SoC) variable, comparing experimental data with simulated data and quantifying the model's goodness through evaluation of root mean square error (RMSE). Before showing the results obtained in the validation process, some of the main data of the Citroen Ami are reported. Table 1 reports the main data in terms of arrangement of elements that compose the battery (number of elements in series and parallel), the allowable voltage range on the single element, and the overall capacity of the entire battery. \begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c c c} \hline \hline Elements & N\({}_{\text{serie}}\) & 12 & [-] \\  & N\({}_{\text{parallel}}\) & 1 & [V] \\ \hline Voltage & Min & 3.4 & [V] \\  & Max & 4.2 & [V] \\ \hline Capacity & - & 120 & [Ah] \\ \hline \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table} 
Table 1: Citroen Ami battery characteristics. Figure 7 reports the curve defined as OCV, namely open circuit voltage, relative to the single cell that composes the battery. Furthermore, Figure 8 reports two key performance maps characterizing the electric motor and battery system adopted for the Citroen Ami, which served as a reference vehicle in this study. The left-hand plot illustrates the torque versus speed behaviour of the e-motor in both motoring (positive torque) and generating (negative torque) modes. It can be observed that maximum torque is available at low rotational speeds and gradually decreases with increasing speed, consistent with the typical behaviour of small permanent magnet electric motors. The right-hand plot shows the power limits during battery charge and discharge as a function of the state of charge. The discharge power capability increases with SoC until a saturation threshold is reached, while the charging power progressively decreases as the battery approaches full charge. This mapping plays a crucial role in defining the dynamic limits imposed by the battery management system and is integrated into the AVL CRUISETM M simulation to ensure realistic energy flow calculations. The validation process was conducted by comparing SoC values monitored during the route performed with the Citroen Ami and the values obtained from simulation of the same route on the vehicle dynamics model. Figure 9 reports the graph of the state of charge detected experimentally and that simulated. The comparison between experimental and simulated SoC values highlights excellent adherence of the model to the vehicle's real behaviour. The root mean square error (RMSE) value of 1.28%, along with the man absolute error (MAE) of 0.82 and the coefficient of determination (R2) equal to 0.97, confirms the good capacity of the model developed in AVL CRUISETM M to reproduce the system's  
Figure 8: Left: Motor/generator torque vs. speed map for the Citroen Ami. Right: Battery charge/discharge power as a function of the state of charge (SoC). Figure 7: Open circuit voltage (OCV) curve of the cell that composes the battery installed on the Citroen Ami. energy dynamics. The discrepancy observed starting from approximately 1000 s can be attributed not so much to a modelling deficiency but to dynamic vehicle conditions that prevent regeneration activation.