## 1 Introduction  
Memory is crucial for the proper functioning of human cognition, being essential for the integration and execution of complex behaviors. Any disruption in the capability to encode, store, or retrieve information can lead to significant difficulties in carrying out goal-directed actions and adapting to environmental demands [1]. Visuospatial memory refers to the capacity to retain both visual (i.e., the physical characteristics of the objects and the colors) and spatial information (i.e., the position or movement within a given environment) [2, 3]. Visuospatial memory is an essential component of numerous cognitive tasks, including navigation, mental rotation, mental representation of three-dimensional space, and motor planning, among others [4]. The impairment of this memory system is frequently observed in neurodegenerative processes,including the behavioral variant of frontotemporal dementia and Alzheimer's disease [5]. It is also a feature of other neurological diseases, such as epilepsy [6]. Despite its importance, the number of available tasks for the assessment of visuospatial memory is comparatively limited in comparison to those for the assessment of other memory systems, such as verbal memory [7]. The assessment of visuospatial memory in neuropsychology is frequently conducted through the administration of paper-and-pencil tasks and computer-based tasks [8; 9]. Examples of these tasks include the recognition of previously presented visual complex designs and the recall of complex geometric figures [7]. These visuospatial memory tasks are typically derived from neuropsychological standardized instruments, providing measures with high reliability and validity [10]. However, paper-and-pencil and computerized tests often demonstrate only moderate ecological validity--the extent to which test outcomes reflect real-world performance in everyday activities [10]. A potential explanation for this limitation is the discrepancy between the controlled conditions of clinical assessments and the complexity of real-life scenarios. In clinical settings, memory tasks are administered in quiet, structured environments with clear instructions, whereas in daily life, memory demands frequently occur alongside other cognitive challenges [11]. In this sense, the use of virtual reality (VR) systems has emerged as a promising solution to the problem of ecological validity [12]. VR technology enables the assessment of memory within immersive, naturalistic environments while preserving the safety and reproducibility of experimental conditions. Additionally, it provides researchers with enhanced control over experimental variables, ensuring both ecological relevance and methodological rigor [11]. Nevertheless, the potential of VR technology to enhance ecological validity varies significantly across different VR tools. The degree of immersion, defined as the extent to which an individual is isolated from the real world while engaging with the virtual environment, is a key factor influencing this variation. VR systems can be categorized as non-immersive (niVR) or immersive (iVR) systems, each offering distinct advantages and limitations in replicating real-world experiences [13]. For instance, stereoscopic features in VR environments have been shown to enhance immersion, but they have been demonstrated to negatively impact motor control, particularly in older adults [14]. This emphasized the importance of carefully adapting VR tools to the specific needs of different user populations and task demands, ensuring both effectiveness and usability. In niVR systems, the user interacts with the virtual environment via devices such as a mouse or joystick, with tasks typically displayed on a computer screen [13]. This setup allows for naturalistic 3D tasks viewed from a first-person perspective. However, external environmental distractions can potentially interfere with participants' performance. This limitation is addressed by iVR systems, which employ head-mounted displays (HMDs) to create more realistic and engaging scenarios.