# Innovations in Wheat Bread: Using Food Industry By-Products for Better Quality and Nutrition
## 4 Head Quality
### Texture  
Textural parameters are crucial for assessing the sensory characteristics of food products. Among the fundamental texture parameters evaluated for bread, hardness or firmness, springiness, cohesiveness, and chewiness stand out [17; 18; 45; 120]. Hardness of the crumb is particularly significant in bread assessment, serving as a primary indicator of its freshness [115; 120]. It is typically defined as the maximum force experienced during the initial compression of the crumb. Springiness reflects the material's ability to recover after stress, indicating its delayed rebound following compressions. Cohesiveness measures the extent to which a material can deform before rupturing [45], and low values typically indicate susceptibility to fracture and crumb, which may negatively affect consumers' acceptance of bread [126; 136]. Chewiness, meanwhile, signifies the time required to chew a food item until it reaches a suitable consistency for swallowing [137]. In Texture Profile Analysis (TPA), chewiness originally referred to the energy needed to masticate a solid food product, while gumminess described the energy required to disintegrate a semisolid food for swallowing [138]. It is essential to note that gumminess and chewiness are mutually exclusive, and therefore, when reporting TPA measurements, either chewiness or gumminess values should be provided, but not both for the same food. The available literature examining the impact of non-conventional ingredients added to bread formulations, such as residues from pressing oilseeds and fruit residues, suggests significant alterations in textural properties for both fresh and stored wheat bread [17; 18; 45]. According to [PERSON] et al. [45], the inclusion of grape pomace at levels above 5% led to a notable increase in the hardness of fresh bread (measured 2 h after baking). This effect was attributed by the authors to the higher fiber content, which, by binding water,contributes to the observed increase in hardness. In the same study, there were generally no discernible differences in terms of springiness and cohesiveness between fresh bread with and without grape pomace. However, during consecutive days of storage (1 and 2 days), hardness gradually increased in all samples, with a greater range of changes observed as the proportion of grape pomace increased. For instance, after two days of storage, the hardness of the control sample increased by 60%, whereas for bread with a 10% addition of grape pomace, it increased by over threefold. While slight changes were noted for springiness and cohesiveness, with generally lower values observed as a result of storage, significant differences were not observed in most cases. Similarly, in the study by [PERSON] et al. [123], an increase in grape pomace resulted in increased firmness and no changes in springiness. The increase in firmness with the addition of grape pomace is explained by the authors as a result of decreased volume. The reaction between gluten and fiber at high levels leads to a weakened gluten network, resulting in increased bread density and hardness. Additionally, an increase in chewiness was observed with the increase in grape pomace content. [PERSON] et al. [20] and [PERSON] et al. [112] reported a similar increase in the firmness of bread crumb, with grape pomace supplementation up to 10% and 15%, respectively. This, as suggested by the authors, may result from weak gluten network formation with poor gas retention ability, contributing to the hardening effect of bread crumb. [PERSON] et al. [120] investigated the effects of incorporating whole and milled apple pomace (up to 15%) into wheat bread on its textural attributes. The study assessed the texture of the bread immediately after baking (fresh) and after 24 and 48 h of storage, a timeframe similar to that used by [PERSON] et al. [45] in their study on grape pomace addition, facilitating a direct comparison between these two additives.