# The Role of Beetroot Ingredients in the Prevention of Alzheimer's Disease
## 2 General Characteristics of Alzheimer's Disease
### Individual Bioactive Compounds from Beetroots in the Prevention and Treatment of AD Nitric Pigments  
Beets are a source of specific nitric pigments in the form of betalamic acid derivatives containing nitrogen. Two distinct groups of betalain pigments can be distinguished--betacyanins (red-violet color) and betaxanthins (orange-yellow color). Examples of betacyanins include betanin, isobetanin, and nebotanin, while betaxanthins include vulgaxanthin I, vulgaxanthin II, and indiaxanthin [22]. Betalain pigments are the compounds responsible for the characteristic color of beetroots. The most popular betacyanin present in beets is betanin (betanidin 5-O-D-glucose). It is the only one approved for use in food, cosmetics, and pharmaceuticals [35]. Figure 1. presents a breakdown of the main pigments present in beetroots. In the opinion of [PERSON] [36], it is due to the presence of those betalain pigments that beets show such strong antioxidant properties. Indeed, betalain pigments have been analyzed in numerous studies in terms of such effects. [PERSON] et al. [37] described betalain pigments as natural pigments that may be viably used in the production of functional food. [PERSON] and [PERSON] [24] reported that betanin shows strong antioxidant properties, and [PERSON] et al. [38] verified that betanin has antioxidant effects as it protects lipids present in cellular membranes against peroxidation. [PERSON] et al. [39] confirmed, in a test using ABTS and DPPH radicals (TEAC equivalent antioxidant capacity), that the antioxidant capacity of betalain pigments was, respectively, 7.5 and 3.0 times higher than in the case of vitamin C. [PERSON] et al. [40] analyzed beet pulp from five plant cultivars in terms of antioxidant activity. Based on the recorded results, they concluded that the highest antioxidant capacity was observed for the Detroit cultivar. The results were confirmed using the DPPH free radical method (EC50 = 2.06 \(\pm\) 0.10 \(\upmu\)g/mL). [PERSON] et al. [41] conducted an experiment to determine the neuroprotective properties of betanin in the context of neurotoxicity induced in rats using sodium fluoride (80 mg/L water). The therapeutic doses of betanin were 0.25, 0.5, and 1 mM. The results revealed that sodium fluoride induced a decrease in glutathione levels (GSH) in synaptosomes, as compared to the control, from 0.57 \(\pm\) 0.11 to 0.31 \(\pm\) 0.34 \(\upmu\)mol GSH/mg protein. It was further observed that all three of the betanin doses showed neuroprotective effects, but the best results in terms of improving GSH levels were recorded for the 0.5 mM dose (0.54 \(\pm\) 0.11 \(\upmu\)mol/mg protein). The applied toxic dose of sodium fluoride increased the oxidation of lipids on the synaptosomes, and consequently the levels of malondialdehydedehyde (MDA)--the marker of lipid peroxidation. The level of synaptosomal MDA in the control group and the group receiving sodium fluoride was, respectively, 5.76 \(\pm\) 1.53 and 8.21 \(\pm\) 2.68 \(\upmu\)mol/mg of protein. All the therapeutic doses of betanin induced a reduction in the values of synaptosomal MDA relative to the group receiving only sodium fluoride. The best effects were reported for the 1 mM dose (5.97 \(\pm\) 1.26 \(\upmu\)mol MDA/mg protein). The toxic dose of sodium fluoride reduced catalase activity by approx. 11 units/mg of protein relative to the control group's 17.53 \(\pm\) 2.44 units/mg of protein. All betanin doses increased the activity of the enzyme, and the best results were recorded for the dose of 1 mM (17.81 \(\pm\) 2.35 units/mg of protein). However, betanin doses of 0.25 and 0.5 mM also increased the catalase activity, respectively to 12.25 \(\pm\) 1.61 and 17.28 \(\pm\) 1.89 units/mg of protein. On the basis of the recorded results, the researchers concluded that betanin shows neuroprotective activity in cases of neurotoxicity induced by fluorine compounds. [PERSON] et al. [42] analyzed the neuroprotective activity of betanin against stress caused by the overdose of paracetamol (400 mg/kg) and diclofenac (10 mg/kg) in rats.