# A Global Overview of SVA--Spatial-Visual Ability
## 5 Results
### Analysis by the Age Categories and Assessment Tools
#### 5.1.5 Ages 18 Years to 22 Years--University and Graduate Students (A5)
Another Swedish research article [44] administered the Santa Barbara Sense of Direction Scale (SBSOD) [45] to measure spatial orientation and determined that males surpassed females in the test, with no differences according to the field of study. Authors [PERSON], [PERSON], and [PERSON] determined via their study that mathematical and spatial skills were unrelated, whereas performance on 2D and 3D spatial tasks consistently showed a correlation [46]; they emphasised design instruction approaches that enable efficient utilisation of 2D techniques when addressing 3D design challenges. The researchers in an American study [47] employed the PSVT:R [33] and the SBST [6] to conclude that diverse techniques are utilised to tackle cross-section and rotation tasks, encompassing methods such as elimination, cognitive processes, reasoning, instinct, and guiding principles. The results provide valuable insights for creating strategies to enhance students' spatial skills. [PERSON] and [PERSON], in 1997, developed the Purdue Visualisation of Rotations (ROT/PSVT:R) test, an assessment that minimizes analytical processing, and suggested it to be an apt predictor of students' difficulty with spatial tasks, especially in the domain of chemistry, with a verdict that there is a connection between students' success in beginner chemistry lessons and their spatial skills [33]. Another 2022 based research formulated the Santa Barbara Sense of Direction Scale (SBSOD) to assess the environmental spatial ability which exhibited good consistency and reliability. Results were strongly associated with performance on tasks involving orienting oneself in the environment, rather than estimating distances or drawing maps, with spatial knowledge gained from direct experience in the environment in comparison to other measures [45]. In the study of gender differences, the results of an early study conducted in 1987 by [PERSON] and [PERSON] emphasized the significance of incorporating spatial cognitive abilities whilst examining visual illusions and indicated that certain aspects of spatial cognition may play a role in specific illusory distortions; they additionally found sex-related differences in spatial abilities [48]. According to an American study, males have superior verbal and spatial working memory abilities compared to women, which might account for gender inequalities in engagement in science [49]. The authors recommended examining the brain region and neurological correlates of various cognitive functions. Enhanced cognitive function, brain volume, and structural attributes of the white matter like fractional anisotropy are all positively associated with family socioeconomic status [10], as determined by a Japanese study in 2018. All these studies employed a wide range of assessment tools to measure spatial cognitive abilities, including psychological assessments and behavioural data analysis. Studies in the domain of Architecture and Design considering the parameters of gender and other demographic factors was carried out in three research articles. In 1980, [PERSON] and [PERSON] found that college-level coursework in mathematics and physical sciences can enhance spatial ability, with students majoring in these subjects showing significant improvement compared to those majoring in social and humanistic sciences [50]. Another study presents the results of using the 3D Ability Test (3 DAT) [51] to test freshmen students of design, which indicated statistically significant disparities in spatial performance between men and women, with men outperforming the women [52], and emphasized the significance of spatial ability in design education as a predictor of success in graphics-oriented modules.