## 3 Results and Discussion
### Antimicrobial Activity of Essential Oils  
The antibacterial activity of essential oils derived from lemon, laurel, clove, nutmeg, anise, and oregano was assessed in vitro against both Gram-positive bacteria, including _Enterococcus faecalis_ and _Staphylococcus aureus_ (ATCC 25923), and Gram-negative bacteria such as _Escherichia coli_ (ATCC 25925), _Klebsiella pneumoniae_, and _Pseudomonas aeruginosa_ (ATCC 27853). The efficacy of these essential oils was compared to that of standard antibiotics, ceftazidime (CAZ) and ciprofloxacin (CIP). Minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) were determined, and the results for selected oils are summarized in Table 7. The antibacterial evaluation indicated that lemon, clove, nutmeg, and anise exhibited minimal inhibitory effects on the tested Gram-positive and Gram-negative strains. In contrast, laurel and oregano demonstrated significant antibacterial activity, particularly against _K. pneumoniae, P. aeruginosa, and S. aureus_. Bay leaf and oregano essential oils demonstrated antimicrobial activity likely due to the presence of bioactive compounds, such as phenols, terpen, and flavonoids, which are known for their strong antimicrobial properties. Oregano oil, for example, contains high levels of carvacrol and thymol, two phenolic compounds with potent antibacterial effects, particularly against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. These compounds disrupt bacterial cell membranes, leading to leakage of cellular contents and eventual cell death. Bay leaf oil, on the other hand, is rich in eucalypt, which also exhibits antimicrobial activity by interfering with bacterial cell walls and inhibiting essential enzymes. The synergistic interaction of these compounds likely enhances the antibacterial efficacy of bay leaf and oregano oils. The antimicrobial efficacy of essential oils can be directly attributed to their complex chemical constituents, dominated by bioactive constituents such as phenolics, terpenes, and various volatile compounds [91]. These molecules, synthesized by plants in response to biotic and abiotic stressors, often possess highly specific biochemical activities, making them potent antimicrobial agents. Each constituent may employ a unique mode of action within bacterial cells, allowing essential oils to target bacteria via diverse and often complementary mechanisms. The primary mode of action is generally linked to membrane destabilization. Essential oils, due to their lipophilic nature, integrate readily into bacterial membranes, where they disrupt membrane integrity and increase permeability. This destabilization compromises membrane functions crucial to cell viability, such as nutrient uptake, energy transduction, and waste efflux, and is particularly effective because essential oils can permeate both the outer envelope and the cytoplasmic membrane. The resultant increase in membrane permeability typically leads to leakage of vital ions and intracellular metabolites, which can trigger osmotic imbalances and cellular stress responses that bacteria cannot sustain [92]. On a molecular level, essential oils are known to disrupt membrane potential, inhibit proton motive force, and deplete ATP reserves. This energy depletion severely impacts bacteria's ability to maintain homeostasis. For instance, in studies by [PERSON] et al. [93], tea tree oil was shown to effectively compromise _Staphylococcus aureus_ and _Escherichia coli_ by inducing potassium ion leakage, which directly impacted cellular respiration. Essential oils also interfere with membrane lipid organization, often disturbing the phospholipid bilayer and polysaccharide matrix. This action may lead to the coagulation of intracellular materials, further compromising cellular structure and function. Importantly, the structural composition of the target bacteria influences their susceptibility. Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, with differences in cell wall thickness and outer membrane structure, display varying sensitivities to essential oils [94].