## 3 Results
### Scaffold Fabrication  
All included studies described the techniques used for fabricating ceramic scaffolds. The methods for fabricating ceramic scaffolds can vary depending on the desired characteristics of the final product and the specific properties of the ceramic material in question [11; 13]. Seven of the eleven included studies employed a 3D printing method to fabricate ceramic scaffolds [26; 27; 29; 31; 32; 35; 36], ensuring controlled porosity and the standardization of the printing process. [PERSON] et al. (2021) [26] employed a Robotic Deposition process (where a paste or gel is extruded through a robotically controlled nozzle to build a structure layer by layer) to fabricate the TCP scaffolds. For the poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid (PLGA)/TCP scaffolds, the LTRP (Low-Temperature Rapid Prototyping) was used. This technique prints the mixture at low temperatures, followed by freeze-drying to remove the solvent [26]. [PERSON] et al. (2021) [27] opted for computer-aided design (CAD) 3D printing, which combines computer-aided modeling and design techniques with AM to create customized scaffolds (HA/TCP combined with DPNCC/BMA) that meet the specific needs of the bone defect and biological requirements [27]. [PERSON] et al. (2022) [32] employed the drop-on-demand 3D printing method to fabricate \(\beta\)CP scaffolds, where molds were designed and constructed layer by layer using a 3D printer with drop-on-demand deposition. Once printed, the molds were impregnated with biphasic calcium phosphate (BCP) ceramic slurry and sintered to consolidate the ceramic structure [32]. The Polycaprolactone (PCL)/\(\beta\)-TCP scaffolds utilized by [PERSON] et al. (2022) [36] were fabricated using the Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) 3D printing method. On the other hand, the TCP scaffolds were manufactured using the foam-casting method, a traditional technique that uses foam as a support to create a porous structure [36]. [PERSON] et al. (2019) [30] and [PERSON] et al. (2009) [33] utilized scaffolds manufactured via the foaming method using hydrogen peroxide (H\({}_{2}\)O\({}_{2}\)) and high-temperature sintering. [PERSON] et al. (2006) [28] tested materials manufactured by a sol-gel process to fabricate \begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c c c c c c} \hline \hline \begin{tabular}{c} **Characteristics** \\ **Studies** \\ \end{tabular} & **3D Printed** & \begin{tabular}{c} **Scaffold Size** \\ **(mm)** \\ \end{tabular} & **Groups** & **Porosity \%** & **Pore Size** & **Macroscopy** \\ \hline \multirow{4}{*}{\begin{tabular}{c} [PERSON] et al. 2007 \\ [35] \\ \end{tabular} } & \multirow{4}{*}{Yes} & 30 mm \(\times\) 15 & Group 1: BMSCs/\(\beta\)TCP & \multirow{4}{*}{\begin{tabular}{c} GPU 1: BMSCs/\(\beta\)TCP \\ constructs (n = 6); Group \\ 2: autograft group (n = 4); \\ Group 3: \(\beta\)TCP (n = 6). \\ \end{tabular} } & BCP scaffolds = & BCP scaffolds = & \multirow{4}{*}{Cuboid} \\  & & & Group 1: Control & PTMC scaffold = & PTMC scaffold = \\  & & & (unfilled); Group 2: & 70\%; & 200–435 \(\mu\)m; \\  & & & PTMC; Group 3: & PTMC-TCPc = & PTMC-TCPc = \\  & & 20 mm in & PTMC-TCPc; Group 4: & 70\%; & 200–435 \(\mu\)m; \\  & & & PTMC-TCPc; Group 5: & PTMC-TCPc = & PTMC-TCPc = \\  & & & PTMC-TCPc; Group 6: & 70\%; & 200–435 \(\mu\)m; \\  & & & & PTMC-TCPc; & PTMC-BCP = \\  & & & This study did not report & composite = 70\%; & 200–435 \(\mu\)m; \\  & & & the number of animals & \(\beta\)TCP scaffold = & b-TCP scaffold = \\  & & & used in each group. & 60\% & 400–700 \(\mu\)m \\ \hline \multirow{4}{*}{\
\begin{tabular}{c} [PERSON] et al. \\ 2019 [30] \\ \end{tabular} } & \multirow{4}{*}{No} & \multirow{4}{*}{NS} & Group 1: HA (n = 3); & \multirow{4}{*}{NS} & HA and BCP CaP \\  & & & Group 2: BCP CaP (n = 3). & & ceramics = & Trapezoid \\ \hline \multirow{8}{*}{
\begin{tabular}{c} [PERSON] et al. \\ 2019 [30] \\ \end{tabular} } & \multirow{4}{*}{No} & \multirow{4}{*}{NS} & Group 1: HA (n = 3); & \multirow{4}{*}{NS} & HA and BCP CaP \\  & & & Group 2: BCP CaP (n = 3). & & 300–400 \(\mu\)m \\ \hline \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table}