## 6 Vulnerabilities of Grid-Dependent Power Conversion Systems
### Potential Effects on Energy Infrastructure  
As one of [PERSON]'s equations describes, the longer the conductor used to deliver electric energy, the higher the amplitude of voltage perturbances. Because of the solar wind polarization, the effects of such geomagnetic storms could be mitigated or amplified, depending on the power grid orientation [123]. Past events, such as the Carrington event from 1 September 1859, have shown the potency of these events to damage communication networks, while minor communication perturbations have been reported as early as 2022.  
Without Earth's magnetic field, the magnetic field perturbations from solar wind reach the surface. The disruption comes from charged ions as electromagnetic perturbing, with electric and magnetic field vectors as components. The wavelengths of different electromagnetic radiation categories are shown below in Figure 24.  
An important point is represented by the solar flare and CME (Coronal Mass Ejection) emission spectrums. In the event of a solar flare, the charged particles carry only electromagnetic radiation, while for CMEs, the two factors are separated into ions and magnetic field disruption. Studies have shown that the Sun may emit gamma radiation during solar flares or CMEs [124], rendering the Faraday cage partially or non-protective against such events. Because gamma radiation may have a wavelength smaller than the spacing of the atoms, in such a case, the radiation would bypass the Faraday shielding, affecting the electric circuit that is supposed to be protected. Studies have shown that values as reduced as 10 nT per second of magnetic field disruption temporarily turned off the power line supply [125].  
Although the occurrence probability of such an event remains low, the actual Hyperloop and magnetic levitation railway may not benefit from some features presented earlier during such events. Because the hyperloop relies on stator inductors energized from the grid, the main propulsion mechanism would be disabled [126; 127]. Restoring physical grid supply lines also affects the necessary time to restore the transportation infrastructure [128]. Permanent magnets could be an option to increase robustness; however, rare-earth materials require intensive processing and energy consumption based on railway length [129].  
Implementing wireless energy transfer conversion circuits is the solution for avoiding such situations or minimizing the impact, as well as reducing wire lengths and using integrated circuits, such as ASICs (Application Specific Integrated Circuits). In the absence of physical conductors, the effect of a CME would be minimized. Depending on severity, a geomagnetic storm may affect only a small part of the power grid, and maintenance could easily cover the affected area [130]. However, grid loads are distributed, and the uneven energy transfer may propagate problems in functional sections; the consequences of the absence of grid energy would possibly involve restricting economic development by disabling the transportation infrastructure as well as most of the essential utilities. The electric power grid is a critical infrastructure in most countries, and its capability to remain operational after perturbing events should be improved to prevent consequences related to the transportation sector [131; 132; 133]. The improvement in the actual circumstances would involve an enhanced energy management system distributing power as required by certain sections connected to the energy grid.  
When establishing such transportation networks on any planet or outside the Solar System, the studies show that, even when shielded using a Faraday cage, the actual magnetic levitation designs could be affected by electromagnetic perturbing. Studies have  
Figure 24: The electromagnetic spectrum.  
been conducted to develop wireless energy transfer circuits for electric vehicles, and this topic is still being addressed.