# An Overview on Management and Valorisation of Winery Wastes
## 2 Winery Waste Composition and Source of Bio-Active Compounds
\begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c c c} \hline \hline
**Parameter/Compound Class** & **Component** & **Dry Matter Content** & **Ref.** \\ \hline \multirow{8}{*}{Physico-chemical} & Moisture content & 3.3 g/100 g & \\  & Ash & 1.7–9.1 g/100 g & \\  & Carbohydrates & 12.2–40.5 g/100 g & \\  & Fructose & 0.4–8.9 g/100 g & \\  & Glucose & 0.2–26.3 g/100 g & \\  & Lipids & 1.1–13.9 g/100 g & \\  & Proteins & 3.6–14.2 g/100 g & \\  & Fibre & 17.3–88.7 g/100 g & \\ \hline \multirow{8}{*}{Bio-active substances} & TPC 1  & 60.1 mg GAE/g 3  \\  & TAC 2  & 131.4 mg/100 g & \\  & Quercetin & 133.6 mg/g & \\  & Catechin & 1991.0 mg/g & \\  & Galile acid & 615.0 mg/g & \\  & Prosorandidin B2 & 1088.7 g/100 & \\  & Tannins & 13.9 mg CE/g 4  & 56–58] \\  & Vitamin C & 26.3 mg AAE/g 5  \\  & Vitamin E & 5.0 mg/kg & \\ \hline \multirow{8}{*}{Minerals} & Na & 87.0–244.0 mg/100 g & \\  & K & 1184.0–2718.0 mg/100 g & \\  & Ca & 91.0–961.0 mg/100 g & \\  & Mg & 92.0–644.0 mg/100 g & \\  & Mn & 6.0–1356.0 mg/100 g & \\  & Fe & 5.0–5468.0 mg/100 g & \\  & Cu & 39.0–130.0 mg/100 g & \\  & Zn & 2.0–2254.0 mg/100 g & \\  & P & 4.0–3157.0 mg/100 g & \\ \hline \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table} 
Table 3: Main components of grape pomace. Grape pomace, due to its antioxidant activity, can be helpful in atherosclerosis development and progression management, preventing LDL cholesterol oxidation and having anti-inflammatory effects. In this respect, red grape pomace effect was studied on ischemic heart disease in rats with induced atherosclerosis [69]. The results showed that it had anti-inflammatory activity, resulting in the decrease in TNF-\(\alpha\) (tumour necrosis factor \(\alpha\)) and IL-10 (interleukin 10) levels. Moreover, it was observed that, by adding red grape pomace to the diet, the concentration of HDL cholesterol increased, leading to an anti-atherogenic effect and to the decrease in atherosclerotic lesions size and number [69]. Other in vitro and in vivo investigations observed that that grape pomace, due to its antioxidant activity, is helpful in the management of the pro-oxidant status, by increasing SOD (superoxide dismutase), CAT (catalase), GPx (glutathione peroxidase), and GRx levels (glutathione reductase) [70; 71], and reducing GSH (glutathione), ROS (reactive oxygen species), and TBARS (thiobarbituric reactive substances) [72]. The grape pomace antioxidant effect was studied by UV radiation-induced oxidative stress in human keratinocytes, highlighting that the cells pre-treated with grape pomace manifested a significantly lower increase in protein levels and ROS, specific to the apoptosis process [73]. The antioxidant activity of white grape pomace was also studied on H\({}_{2}\)O\({}_{2}\)-induced oxidative damage in human colonic epithelial cells; the grape pomace was found to play an important role in reducing ROS levels [59]. Grape pomace has been used for the fortification of meat products, including pork burgers or sausages, pork loin marinade, and chicken meat (Table 4). The investigation of meat product fortification highlighted grape pomace's effects on meat product life, lipid oxidation, and stability. The fortification was achieved by grape pomace extract or powder addition to the recipe [74; 75; 77; 78] or by soaking the product in a grape pomace solution [76]. For example, 0.06% of grape pomace extract was added to pork burgers [74], with a positive effect on the inhibition of lipid oxidation and on the colour stability [74]. Additionally, 0.5 and 1% grape pomace was included in pork sausages [75], leading to decreased colour lightening and to lipid oxidation inhibition after 10 days of refrigerated storage [75]. The effects of a grape pomace marinade on pork loin quality was studied using concentrations of grape pomace solution of 0.5, 1.0, 2.0, 20.0, and 40.0% [76]. It was observed that the marinade led to lipid oxidation inhibition after 10 days of storage [76].