## 1 Introduction  
The increasing prevalence of bone injuries and degenerative diseases, exacerbated by an aging population, accidents, and sports-related trauma, has led to a growing demand for high-quality, high-performance implants [1; 2]. Among the elderly, dental-related issues, particularly tooth loss, represent a significant oral health concern [3; 4]. Dental implants have emerged as the preferred solution, offering advantages such as improved oral health, enhanced phonation and mastication, the preservation of adjacent teeth and bone, and overall quality of life improvement [5; 6; 7]. In the realm of dental implant materials, titanium alloys, particularly Ti-6 Al-4V (Ti64), have gained widespread recognition due to their optimal balance between mechanical properties and biocompatibility [5; 8; 9; 10; 11; 12]. Ti64, a dual-phase (\(\alpha+\beta\)) alloy, exhibits high strength, excellent corrosion resistance, and acceptable biocompatibility [13]. As the ninth most abundant element in the Earth's crust and the fourth most abundant structural metal, titanium has become a cornerstone in biomedical applications since its development in the 1950s [14]. Despite the high success rate of titanium implant surgeries (>90%), a 10% failure rate persists. To mitigate this, implant surface treatments play a crucial role in enhancing osseointegration, defined as the direct structural and functional connection between living bone and the load-bearing implant surface [15; 16; 17; 18; 19; 20; 21; 22; 23; 24]. The osseointegration process comprises four overlapping phases, namely, hemostasis, inflammation, proliferation, and maturation. These phases collectively lead to the formation and remodeling of bone tissue around the implant [25]. However, Ti64 alloys face several challenges in the complex physiological environment of the human body. Long-term use may lead to the release of potentially toxic AI and V ions [26; 27; 28]. The mismatch in elastic modulus between Ti64 and human bone can result in stress shielding, affecting bone tissue growth and repair [29; 30; 31]. Additionally,issues related to friction and wear can generate debris, potentially causing inflammation and adverse reactions. The inherent lack of antibacterial properties in Ti64 alloys also increases the risk of post-implantation infections. To address these challenges, researchers have developed various surface modification techniques, broadly categorized into subtractive and additive processes [32; 33; 34; 35; 36; 37; 38; 39; 40; 41; 42; 43; 44; 45; 46; 47; 48; 49; 50; 51]. Subtractive methods, such as sandblasting and acid etching, aim to create micron- or nano-scale surface roughness to enhance osseointegration. Sandblasting, utilizing compressed air to propel particles like TiO\({}_{2}\), Al\({}_{2}\)O\({}_{3}\), or SiO\({}_{2}\), can increase surface roughness from 0.04 um to 0.3-3 um, significantly enhancing surface area and energy. However, this process may affect bacterial adhesion and biofilm formation. Chemical methods, particularly acid etching, are often employed to remove residual particles and further modify surface properties [52; 53; 54]. The combination of sandblasting and acid etching, known as the SLA (Sandblasted, Large-grit, Acid-etched) technique, has shown promising results in improving surface characteristics conducive to osseointegration [55; 56; 57; 58; 59; 60; 61]. Electrochemical methods, such as anodic oxidation, can create stable, ordered porous TiO\({}_{2}\) layers on the titanium surface. These nanotubular structures enhance the adhesion and osteogenic differentiation of bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells, promoting osseointegration [62; 63; 64; 65; 66; 67]. Furthermore, these porous structures offer potential for drug delivery, improving antibacterial properties [68; 69; 70]. This study aims to compare three distinct surface modification methods for the Ti-6 Al-4V (Ti64) alloy. The methods under investigation are low-temperature immersion corrosion, mechanical treatment followed by chemical etching, and electrochemical corrosion.