## 1 Introduction  
The mining industry plays a vital role in the economic development of nations, through employment, nation building, and providing trading opportunities with the rest of the world. According to World Bank data, global natural resources contribute 0.8% of gross domestic product (GDP), whereas coal contributes 0.3% of GDP [1]. It becomes a challenge when mining is irresponsibly conducted and affects the environment. Several research works have been conducted to assess the cost associated with the social and environmental impacts of mining, as well as the regulatory frameworks in South Africa [2; 3; 4]. This includes almost ZAR 100 million, which is about USD 7.7 million (2017 United States dollars), spent by a mining company on a drainage, storage, and treatment system to improve water quantity and quality, plus an additional ZAR 300 million, which is about USD 23 million (2017 United States dollars), to realize a water reclamation plant that decontaminates water from three defunct mines and an active mine in order to adhere to drinking standards [2]. South Africa has recognized itself as a global frontier in mining, with its mines accounting for approximately 53 minerals and accounting for 96% of global reserves of platinum group metals, (PGMs), 74% of chrome, 32% of manganese, 26% of vanadium, and 11% of gold reserves [6]. However, the effects of mining have been recorded as land subsidence [7], severe surface disturbance that changes the land pattern of the mining area [8], deformed upper layer rocks due to the action of gravity [9], and over exploitation that has caused surface collapse and seepage, soil texture damage, water pollution, and waste accumulation [10]. Various authors [11; 12] have expressed concerns about land degradation detection and assessment at local and regional scales in Southern Africa. Examples of case studies include land degradation monitoring in Namibia, where indicators such as population pressure, livestock pressure, seasonal rainfall, and erosion hazards were calculated annually from 1971 to 1997. The results revealed a general trend toward increased land degradation risk in the defined period. Another study was conducted in northeastern South Africa, where large areas of former homelands regarded as degraded were measured against non-degraded rangelands [13]. According to [PERSON] et al. [14], the notable primary effects of open mining included the appearance of tension cracks at the surface and crown hole development. Secondary effects included spontaneous combustion of the coal, as air had accessed the mine; the deterioration of groundwater quality, leading to the decimation of vegetation; and the eradication of aquatic flora and fauna [14]. The need to understand land-use patterns is necessary to implement policies and social intervention programs for the sustainable management of natural resources. The modeling of land-use changes keeps policymakers informed of possible future conditions [15; 16]. [PERSON] et al. [17] used the residual trend (RESTEND) analysis method to monitor degradation induced by human activity in China and realized a positive residual trend related to shrub encroachment. According to [PERSON] et al. [18], most of Sub-Saharan Africa's ecological environment and natural resources are depleting due to the dynamics of land degradation. South Africa like many other countries is endowed with many natural resources of international importance. The income generated by mining, particularly gold mining, has helped to fuel the country's development [19]. Coal mining has been a primary source of energy production in South Africa, which plays a critical role in the country's economic development and energy generation. The coal commodity has significantly impacted the South African economy, by meeting the country's primary energy requirements and bringing foreign direct investment into the country [20].