## 1 Introduction  
At the beginning of the 21 st century, 50% of the world's population resided in urban areas and this figure is predicted to increase to 60% by 2030 [1]. In particular, the developing world has experienced rapid urbanization. By 2050, approximately 65% of the global population will live in urban areas in developing nations. From 2000 to 2030, the urbanization of Asian and African cities is expected to increase at the highest rate, double the current rate [2]. Urbanization results from the relocation of people from rural areas to cities because of (i) higher salaries, (ii) better health services, and (iii) superior educational opportunities [3]. The growth of urbanization (and therefore, urban passenger and freight transportation) leads to an increase in CO2 emissions and energy consumption in both developed and developing countries [3, 4, 5, 6, 7]. Transport activity in urban areas is a principal generator of global CO2 emissions and energy consumption, and this trend continues to increase despite vast improvements in advanced vehicles, engines, and fuel technologies. The transport sector accounted for 51.9% of global oil demand in 2022 [8] and 23% of global CO2 emissions in 2021 [9]. Moreover, the transport sector still relies on oil products for more than 90% of its final energy needs [10]. Many countries have been attempting to promote various international laws and regulations for climate change mitigation, aiming to limit the rise in global temperature to below 2 \({}^{\circ}\)C compared to pre-industrialized levels [11]. In 2015, the UNDP announced 17 sustainable development goals (SDGs) associated with 169 targets to promote an equilibrium among economic, societal, and environmental constituents of the sustainable development principle and stimulate the implementation of important actions over the next 15 years [12]. The SDGs directly related to global warming and climate change include SDG 11: \"Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts\", and Target 11.6: \"Reduce the adverse environmental impact of cities\" [12]. The SDGs and their associated targets were set up to encourage both developed and developing countries to combat global climate change and energy utilization crises. More recently, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) [13] indicated the need for rapid decarbonization, requiring increased attention to planning more adaptive and resilient cities, with the revised aim of limiting the global temperature rise to no more than 1.5 \({}^{\circ}\)C above the 20 th century levels by 2050. However, CO2 emissions and energy consumption reductions in the transport sector may be difficult and complex to achieve [14]. Therefore, it is crucial to propose potential integrated transport and land-use strategies and policies for both developed and developing cities to minimize greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and energy usage from transport. Several transport strategies and policy instruments have been proposed to reduce private car dependency, decrease transport energy consumption, and consequently minimize GHG emissions. [PERSON] and [PERSON] [15] proposed three important sustainable transport strategies to mitigate GHG emissions from the transport sector: avoid (A), reducing or eliminating unnecessary travel demand; shift (S), shifting necessary travel to lower GHG-intensive modes, and improve (I), improving the GHG emission reduction performance, together with four individual policy instruments related to each mentioned strategy, including technology (T), regulation (R), information (I), and economics (E). More recently, a fourth strategy, share (Se), shifting from individual to communal car ownership and use, has been proposed in response to new developments in modal choice and vehicle ownership (car sharing, ride sharing, bike sharing, etc.) spurred on by the new capabilities of information technologies [16; 17]. The impacts of these strategies have not been as expected.