## 5 Autonomous Vehicle Vulnerabilities
### Countermeasures for Autonomous Vehicles
* Opportunistic networking protocols: Novel networking protocols in vehicular ad hoc networks (VANETs) are being developed to provide data to autonomous trans and buses in a smart city [87]. Opportunistic networking protocols are used to bridge the gap between fully distributed vehicular networks based on short-range vehicle-to-vehicle communication and cellular-based infrastructure for centralized solutions [87]. The state-of-the-art MaxProp algorithm outperforms the benchmark, as well as other more complex routing protocols, in most of the categories [87]. * Blockchain-based architecture: A blockchain-based architecture could provide a promising solution to the threats of cyber attacks that jeopardize the security and connectivity of CAVs [89]. Blockchain technology can be used to secure communication between vehicles and infrastructure and to ensure the integrity and confidentiality of data [89]. It can also be used to provide a secure and decentralized platform for vehicle-to-vehicle and vehicle-to-infrastructure communication [89]. These countermeasures aim to address the security challenges facing AVs, including trustworthiness, security, safety, and complexity. By developing and deploying these solutions, AVs can become more reliable and safe, which is crucial for the adoption of such technology in smart projects [88]. Specific cyber security measures and examples of security solutions implemented in autonomous vehicles include:  
* Secure communication protocols: Implementing secure communication protocols, such as transport-layer security (TLS), can help protect the vehicle's connectivity and prevent unauthorized access to the vehicle's network [90]. * Encryption: Utilizing encryption techniques can safeguard the data transmitted between different components of the autonomous vehicle system, including sensors, controllers, and communication interfaces [91]. * Intrusion Detection systems (IDS): IDS can be deployed in autonomous vehicles to monitor the network and detect any suspicious or malicious activities. IDS can identify potential cyber attacks and trigger appropriate responses to mitigate the risks [92]. * Secure over-the-air (OTA) updates: OTA updates allow for the remote updating of software and firmware in autonomous vehicles. Implementing secure OTA mechanisms ensures that updates are authenticated, encrypted, and tamper-proof, reducing the risk of unauthorized modifications or malware injection [91]. * Access control and authentication: Implementing strong access control mechanisms and multifactor authentication can prevent unauthorized access to critical vehicle systems. This includes securing access to the vehicle's control systems, sensors, and communication interfaces [90]. * Secure sensor fusion: Sensor fusion is crucial for perception in autonomous vehicles. Ensuring the security of sensor data fusion is important to prevent the injection of false or manipulated sensor data, which could lead to incorrect decisions by the autonomous system [93]. * Behavioral anomaly detection: Implementing behavioral anomaly detection techniques can help identify abnormal behavior in the vehicle's network or system, indicating a potential cyber attack. This can include monitoring network traffic patterns, system performance, and sensor data consistency [94]. * Redundancy and fail-safe mechanisms: Building redundancy and fail-safe mechanisms into autonomous vehicle systems can help mitigate the impact of cyber attacks. This includes redundant sensors, controllers, and communication channels to ensure that the vehicle can still operate safely, even if one component is compromised [93]. * Continuous monitoring and updates: Regularly monitoring the security of the autonomous vehicle system and applying security updates and patches is essential to address newly discovered vulnerabilities and protect against emerging cyber threats [92]. These cyber security measures are crucial to ensure the safety and integrity of autonomous vehicles in the face of potential cyber attacks.