## 3 Materials and Methods
### Location-Aided Routing Protocol (LAR)  
LAR was proposed by [PERSON] and [PERSON] [12; 41] as one of the first routing protocols that consider location information during routing in MANETs. The LAR was based on the source node (\(S\)) and relies on the location information of the destination node (\(D\)). The expected zone in this operation has been estimated as the destination area for \(D\). The expected zone is illustrated in Figure 2, with \(t_{1}\) being the S velocity of \(D\) at \(L_{0}\ (X_{0},Y_{0})\) within time \(t_{0}\) while \(V\) is the mean velocity of \(D\). Thus, the radius, \(V\ (t_{1}-t_{0})\) is the area in the mid-point of \(L_{0}\ (X_{0},Y_{0})\) for the expected zone. Figure 2: Expected zone in LAR protocol. LAR floods the network with RREQ, making sure the packets are neither reaching the \(D\) node nor increasing the rate of packets forwarding. For LAR to work properly, the nodes must be aware of the nodes within the request zone; hence, the nodes can either keep forwarding the flooded packet or drop it. In this study, two methods of detecting the existence of nodes within the request zone were proposed. The first method, as shown in Scheme 1, requires the transmitter to propagate an RREQ that has rectangle coordinates with the request zone; here, the route request is ignored by the nodes outside the rectangle (in Scheme 1) but forwards it if it is inside the request zone Once the route request has reached the destination, it replies with the route reply message and this procedure called Scheme 1. Scheme 2 uses the distance from the previous location of \(D\) and considers it as a parameter to locate a request zone. Hence, if any middle node \(J\) receives the RREQ packet it is forwarding if \(J\) near the previous destination location node \(I\) transmitting the request packet to \(J\). In other words, the implied request zone of scheme 2 is suitable if the RREQ when reproducing the number of nodes presented in Scheme 2. **Scheme 2. ** LAR protocol scheme 2 [12]. Optimized Particle Swarm Optimization Algorithm-Location Aided-Routing Protocol (OPSO-LAR). The proposed model of the LAR protocol is termed OPSO-LAR, which adapts the optimized PSO algorithm. The optimization algorithm aids in searching the space for the individual solutions to be fed into the LAR simulator for the generation of network measures. Then, the fitness values of the generated solution are calculated after feeding the solutions into the objective function. Figure 3 presents the procedure inside the network of OPSO-LAR. The source node (blue) generates the data packet and broadcasts the RREQ packet to find a route toward the destination. The destination node (the yellow node) is the node to which the data packet must be delivered. The intermediate node (the green nodes) holds the RREQ packet and has to broadcast it to its neighbors. The baseline is the vector that connects the source and destination nodes. Distance (\(x\). destination) is the Euclidian distance between the node \(x\) (intermediate node) and the destination node. Angle \(x\) is the angle between the baseline and the vector that connects the source node and the node \(x\) to the destination. Furthermore, the current position of each node is known as the network that maintains an updated record of the position and energies of each node and its neighbors. The position of the destination node is the source node; hence, this position will be added to the position of the source node, and the position of the source node will be added to the RREQ packet. This information guarantees that each node holding the RREQ packet in the network knows the positions of the source and destination nodes.