## 1 Introduction  
### Background  
The ongoing fourth industrial revolution (Industry 4.0) is being propelled by rapid advancements in digitalization and information technology [1, 2, 3]. Digital technologies such as the Internet of Things (IoT), Big Data, Cloud Computing, Artificial Intelligence (AI), Machine Learning (ML), Cyber-Physical Systems (CPS), Virtual Reality (VR), Augmented Reality (AR), and robotics are crucial aspects of Industry 4.0, which are transforming the manufacturing environment [4, 5, 6, 7, 8]. These technologies are greatly transforming global socio-cultural and economic environments by interacting across physical, digital, and biological domains, impacting various industries, including manufacturing [1]. Industry 4.0 leverages digital technologies to create smart, connected, and automated systems, optimizing operations, cutting costs, and enhancing sustainability and product quality through real-time insights [3; 6; 9; 10]. The core principle of the Fourth Industrial Revolution is that robots should adapt to humans rather than vice versa [11]. On the other hand, the fifth industrial revolution (Industry 5.0) builds upon Industry 4.0 by emphasizing human-centricity, sustainability, and resilience, and seeks to ensure worker well-being while promoting effective human-machine collaboration, that is, shifting from technology-driven Industry 4.0 to value-oriented Industry 5.0 [4; 6; 9; 12; 13; 14; 15; 16; 17; 18]. Industry 5.0 marks a shift toward human-centered manufacturing that leverages technologies like Extended Reality (XR), Collaborative Robots (COBOTS), and wearable sensors to boost flexibility, safety, and interactive human-machine collaboration [12; 19; 20; 21]. For instance, wearable sensors are used to monitor worker well-being and adapt activity schedules accordingly in real time [22]. Ensuring worker safety, especially in high-risk industries, including manufacturing, is vital for both well-being and workplace efficiency and is legally mandated by the Occupational Health and Safety (OHS) Act of 1970 [23]. OHS remains a persistent concern in industrial sectors, especially manufacturing, where complex environments and high-risk operations increase the potential for accidents and long-term health conditions. Manufacturing environments are inherently hazardous, exposing workers to physical strain, repetitive motion, poor posture, chemical risks, and high-stress conditions, all of which contribute to accidents, injuries, and illnesses, such as work-related musculoskeletal disorders (WMSDs) [7; 13; 24; 25; 26; 27; 28]. Exposure to ergonomic risk factors, such as noise, vibrations, physical and mental strain, and poor posture, can compromise worker safety and lead to WMSDs [13]. Globally, work-related accidents, including fatal and non-fatal injuries, affect millions of workers annually [29]. For instance, in 2018, WMSDs in the manufacturing sector accounted for 14.16% of reported cases across all private sectors [27], and in 2020, manufacturing had the highest rate of non-fatal accidents (18.2%) and the second highest rate of fatal accidents (14.6%) in the EU [17]. WMSDs are prevalent in the manufacturing sector, especially in European countries, where machine operators and assembly workers experience some of the highest rates, that is, 66% [25]. These health risks not only cause work disability [26] but also result in higher absenteeism and presenteeism, reduced motivation, increased employee turnover, and significantly negatively impact productivity and costs [30]. Additionally, workplace accidents can arise from various manufacturing processes [7]. For example, chemical exposure, overheated components, and faulty equipment interactions contribute to workplace accidents and production losses [7; 31; 32]. Chemical-related accidents account for two-thirds of manufacturing injuries in the United Kingdom, costing the manufacturing industry over \(\varepsilon\)627 million annually [32].