## 2 State of the Art
### Stakeholders' Perspectives and Interactions  
The success of access management strategies and sustainable urban logistics policies hinges on the alignment and collaboration of multiple stakeholders, each characterized by distinct roles, interests, and levels of influence. These stakeholders can be considered from three overarching perspectives--Demand, Supply, and Urban Governance--with further distinctions that help clarify the complexity of their interactions [27]. Customers represent the Demand side of the system. Their decisions are primarily driven by convenience, speed, and cost, typically preferring rapid, reliable, and low-cost or free delivery services. Their consumption habits, especially the growing expectation for next-day or same-day delivery, exert pressure on logistics operators to increase delivery frequency and fragmentation, often at the expense of environmental and social sustainability. Customers might express dissatisfaction if restrictions lead to delays or additional charges, unless adequately informed about environmental benefits or offered alternative delivery options that preserve convenience. Courier, Express, and Parcel (CEP) companies, falling under the logistics operators category, are key actors on the Supply side. Their primary objective is to minimize delivery costs while maximizing operational efficiency. This frequently results in high vehicle turnover, suboptimal load factors, and a prioritization of route efficiency over environmental impact. These firms are also subject to municipal regulations and may resist measures that increase delivery times or operating costs. In response to restrictive access management policies, logistics operators might initially resist, perceiving them as cost-increasing constraints that hinder delivery efficiency. To mitigate such opposition, compensatory measures, such as micro-consolidation centers or special access permits for low-emission vehicles, may be necessary. Beyond CEP operators, construction companies and their suppliers are crucial Supply side stakeholders. These actors manage significant transport flows with heavy vehicles, gen erating notable impacts on urban infrastructure and the environment. Their need to access sites in densely populated areas makes dialog and collaboration with municipal authorities essential for integrating their needs into sustainable urban logistics strategies [28]. Shippers and e-commerce platforms (retailers) act as strategic intermediaries within the Supply side, facilitating the connection between customer demand and the physical provision of services. Their competitive strategies revolve around satisfying individualized consumer preferences, ensuring rapid fulfillment, and maintaining customer loyalty. In this context, they often delegate logistics operations to CEP companies while retaining strategic control over service standards and pricing. Their influence is central in shaping logistics models, particularly through the definition of delivery conditions, return policies, and warehouse location strategies. Shippers and retailers might respond to restrictions by adapting their distribution networks, for instance, by shifting to local pickup points or increasing reliance on urban warehouses, but they may also pressure logistics providers to absorb new costs, thereby transferring tensions down the supply chain. Local governments and urban authorities, identified here as municipalities, are responsible for regulating urban logistics activities in the broader community's interest, exercising Urban Governance. Their objectives include improving air quality, reducing traffic congestion, enhancing road safety, and promoting equitable access to public space. From their perspective, access management policies serve as instruments to rebalance the utilization of urban space and minimize negative externalities. However, they face the challenge of balancing these objectives with the economic viability of freight activities and the expectations of other stakeholders.