## 1 Introduction
Numerous studies have claimed that the CO\({}_{2}\) emissions from building material production are the most dominant contributor during this phase [24; 27; 28; 29; 30]. As building material production is the main source of carbon dioxide emissions, various approaches are being taken to alleviate the impacts from building materials. According to [PERSON] et al. [31], replacing building materials to low embodied carbon materials in Dutch residential buildings might achieve almost 50% reduction of carbon dioxide emissions, compared to the traditional method. Likewise, one of the most effective and prevalent approaches to lower the emissions of carbon dioxide emissions in the construction stage is the application of high-strength building materials. High-strength building materials not only lessen the input amount of building materials, but also enhance the durability of the entire structure or building [6]. Moreover, the strengthening of building materials would be beneficial to prolong the lifespan of buildings from the whole life cycle perspective. [PERSON] et al. [6], for example, maintained that high-strength concrete would make it possible to reduce the emissions of carbon dioxide, owing to the quantity reduction of concrete and rebars, as well as the extension of building life span. In a similar vein, [PERSON] and [PERSON] [32] indicated that the utilisation of high-strength rebars would contribute to reduction of the carbon dioxide emissions regardless of the structural type of office buildings in South Korea, even though the amounts of splice and development in reinforcement were slightly increased. Along with the utilisation of high-strength building materials, it is important to produce building materials with high recycling potential to mitigate the emissions of carbon dioxide. For instance, [PERSON] et al. [33] studied three buildings with different recycling ratio of building materials. The results indicated that approximately 25% of CO\({}_{2}\) could be decreased with the maximum recycling ratio. Moreover, [PERSON] [34] maintained that from a theoretical perspective, about 12% CO\({}_{2}\) emissions reduction would be achieved, when the recycling rate increased to 100%. While various studies have claimed the usefulness of increasing the recycling ratio for building materials production, application of by-products is also suggested to mitigate the environmental impacts from building materials. As stated in the previous section, enhancement of material strength is a practical method to reduce the carbon dioxide emissions to a certain extent. According to [PERSON] et al. [6], high-strength concrete of more than 24 MPa compressive strength would have a negative consequence, compared to high-strength concrete of less than 24 MPa. In order to deal with this matter, the authors suggested that applying industrial by-products, such as fly ash or blast furnace slag, would not only enhance the strength of concrete, but also reduce fuel consumption during the manufacturing of the concrete. While a number of studies have considered replacing conventional building materials by alternative ones, approaches to the design of structural systems to mitigate the amount of building materials have been suggested. Structural systems are one of the core elements for the entire building to sustain the external forces, such as lateral loads, and service and permanent loads. According to [PERSON] and [PERSON] [35], comprehensive assessment of embodied carbon and operating carbon during the structural design stage would be a significant factor to assess the life cycle carbon of a building. The authors indicated that the embodied carbon from steel structure buildings is less than that from reinforced concrete structure ones, but the operating carbon of steel structure buildings is higher than that of reinforced ones. Similarly, [PERSON] et al. [36] compared apartment buildings with different structural systems and building materials.