## 2 Theoretical Background  
The Internet of Things (IoT) is a pioneering technology that provides an efficient and accurate automation solution for modernizing agriculture with minimal human interference [13]. The advancement of sensor technology, wireless communication technologies, and remote sensing technologies encourages precision agriculture (PA). In the attempt to enhance the yield and quality of crops, wireless transmission is necessary to transfer data to information processing centers. Wireless communication empowers the effective utilization of limited resources in agriculture, thereby allowing the development of agriculture in terms of reliable connectivity [14]. Generally, most agricultural fields are located in remote areas, where internet connectivity is unstable. To overcome these limitations, the implementation of a wireless sensor network (WSN) is required. In a WSN, open-licensed band communication protocols are embedded in the sensor node and the communication protocol for transmitting the agricultural field data to an area in which the internet connectivity is sufficiently strong to allow communication with the cloud server [15]. In [16], IoT- and WSN-based agriculture systems based on a CC3200 single chip for monitoring the humidity and temperature of the crop field were implemented. Additionally, a camera module was integrated with a CC3200 single chip to capture visuals and communicate a multimedia message (MMS) to a farmer. The WSN-based smart agriculture system was implemented by utilizing the Zigbee network and communicating the crops' status to farmers and a cloud server [17; 18]. A Wi-Fi, GSM, and WEMOS D1 controller-based agriculture monitoring system has been implemented for monitoring the parameters of crops, such as pH, soil moisture, soil type, and weather conditions, and communicate these to a cloud server [19]. A low-cost information-based system was implemented for agriculture using 2G GSM and orang-pi [20]. In the agriculture scenario, wireless communication protocols such as ZigBee, Wi-Fi, and GPRS have been implemented for transmitting data to processing centers. Sensor-based data acquisition has been achieved using Bluetooth, ZigBee, and cloud servers. Because sensor nodes are energy-constrained devices, the implementation of GPRS and Wi-Fi communication protocols is challenging because they consume large quantities of power, as shown in Table 1. Because its communication is characterized by low power consumption, ZigBee is also implemented in agriculture. However, its transmission range is limited. Of the above-mentioned communication options, LoRa is a reliable and feasible communication technology used in agriculture to implement the effective WSN-based IoT. To implement the WSN, LoRa communication is chosen because it can transmit data to an Internet-connected area [21]. LoRa communication has been integrated into agriculture to capture and communicate real-time images of farms [22]. A wireless sensor network includes small, low-energy consumption sensor nodes for various applications. The task of localization is to determine the physical coordinates of the sensors. Because each application has specific requirements, several localization algorithms are used. WSN localization plays a significant role in the agriculture IoT. Tiny and cheap devices with low energy consumption and limited computing resources are being heavily used in agriculture applications. To deploy sensor nodes in fields, localization algorithms, such as time on arrival (TOA), time difference of arrival (TDOA), and received signal strength indication (RSSI), are required to estimate the number of sensor nodes and their position in a particular field [23]. A statistical method has been implemented to identify the non-line of sight (NLOS) nodes in the WSN network [24; 25]. A combination of range-based, range-free-based, and hybrid-based localizations can be emphasized. A combination of range-based and range-free algorithms has been studied concerning the sensor node distance, density, and reliability.