## 1 Introduction  
A proficient and well-trained maritime workforce is essential for a thriving and effective shipping industry [1]. The availability of highly skilled human capital to perform maritime labour is enhanced by the globally acknowledged maritime education and training (MET) model, which aims to standardise maritime education curricula, learning outcomes, and certifications in alignment with the Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping (STCW) Convention [2, 3, 4]. Today, rapid changes in global business and operational dynamics within the maritime industry and the recent COVID-19 pandemic have prompted significant shifts in MET approaches, including the advocation and integration of innovative technologies, such as fully immersive VR training simulators, into MET curricula [5, 6, 7]. Virtual reality is a computer-generated environment that allows users to engage with and alter their perceptions by obtaining 3D sensory information through isolated screens or wearable displays, such as head-mounted displays. Generally, VR technology can be categorised into three main types: non-immersive, semi-immersive, and fully immersive. Non-immersive VR utilises standard computer monitors, allowing users to indirectly interact with a digital 3D environment through input devices such as a mouse, keyboard, or controller. Semi-immersive VR utilises a concave screen or wall projectors, providing more holistic sensory experiences (e.g., conventional maritime simulators). Fully immersive VR involves tracking users' movement and adjusting the displayed virtual content accordingly through an HMD. There is a widespread consensus that fully immersive VR offers significant advantages over non-immersive and semi-immersive VR due to its elevated perceptual fidelity and an enhanced sense of perceived immersion, allowing users to interact with virtual environments in a manner similar to real-world experiences [8, 9, 10, 11]. Driven by constant advancements in computing power and declining equipment costs, the VR industry is experiencing rapid expansion, with its global market projected to grow from less than USD 18 billion in 2024 to over USD 60 billion by 2029 [12]. The increasing adoption of VR technology is evident across various educational and professional training sectors [13, 14, 15, 16, 17]. VR technology is also increasingly being integrated into the maritime education and training industry [6, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22], reflecting a broader global shift in the maritime industry toward the adoption of innovative technologies [10]. However, integrating high-tech digital technologies (e.g., HMD-VR engine room simulators) in MET curricula presents a particularly complex challenge. This complexity stems from the necessity to effectively bridge theoretical knowledge with practical skills while ensuring compliance with the STCW training and certification standards [6, 23]. To address these challenges, a structured approach to understanding students' adoption and acceptance of innovative technologies in MET is essential [24]. One of the most widely used theoretical frameworks for understanding end-users' acceptance of technology or systems is the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) [25]. This framework posits two key variables, perceived usefulness (PU) and perceived ease of use (PEU), as fundamental determinants affecting individual behavioural intention (BI) to accept a technology or information system [26, 27]. To date, the original TAM framework and its extended modifications have been employed within various educational and technological domains [28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33], including Educational Virtual Environments (EVEs) [34, 35, 36, 37, 38]. While TAM is well documented in the maritime industry [39, 40, 41], its application in maritime higher education remains very limited [23, 42], particularly in the context of understanding students' acceptance of cutting-edge technology such as HMD-VR maritime simulators.