# A Review of Recent Advances in Roll Stability Control in On-Road and Off-Road Vehicles
## 1 Introduction  
Road vehicles and off-road vehicles, as the two major categories of modern transportation and working machinery, play vital roles in various application scenarios. Road vehicles (such as passenger cars, commercial trucks, and buses) are primarily designed for paved roads, with performance requirements focused on ride comfort, handling stability, and safety [1, 2, 3, 4]. In contrast, off-road vehicles (such as agricultural machinery, construction vehicles, and all-terrain vehicles) operate in unstructured environments, where their operational conditions are more complex, demanding higher levels of adaptability, robustness, and maneuverability [5, 6, 7, 8, 9]. Despite significant differences in their operating environments and technical requirements, rollover stability remains a critical safety control metric for both vehicle types. For road vehicles, rollover stability directly impacts safety during high-speed cornering and emergency obstacle avoidance maneuvers [10, 11]. For off-road vehicles, theinfluence of dynamic load distribution and terrain irregularities makes rollover control a core technology to ensure safe operation in rugged environments [12; 13]. Vehicle rollover accidents are a critical safety issue affecting both road and off-road vehicles, with high global incidence and fatality rates. According to statistics from the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA), rollover accidents account for only 3% of all traffic accidents, yet they result in over 30% of passenger vehicle fatalities. This risk is particularly elevated in high-center-of-gravity vehicles, such as SUVs and light trucks, where the likelihood of rollover significantly increases [14; 15]. A report by the European Road Safety Council highlights that rollover accidents account for as much as 20% of heavy commercial vehicle crashes, often occurring during high-speed cornering or emergency obstacle avoidance maneuvers. In the off-road vehicle sector, agricultural machinery and construction vehicles also experience a high frequency of rollover accidents due to unstable terrain and load transfer [16]. Data from the Australian Agricultural Safety Foundation indicate that approximately 40% of fatal accidents involving agricultural machinery are related to rollovers [17]. These statistics underscore the critical importance of enhancing roll stability control (RSC) to improve the safety of both road and off-road vehicles. The roll stability control technology of road vehicles has undergone a profound evolution, transitioning from passive designs to active control systems. The core objective is to enhance vehicle stability and safety during high-speed driving, emergency obstacle avoidance, and complex maneuvering environments [18; 19; 20; 21]. Traditional passive measures, such as optimizing the vehicle center of gravity, increasing track width, and utilizing anti-roll bars, provide limited inherent stability and struggle to adapt to complex dynamic conditions. To overcome the limitations of passive measures, active roll stability control technologies have been extensively researched and applied. The Electronic Stability Program (ESP), as one of the fundamental active safety systems, effectively mitigates rollover risk by applying independent braking forces to individual wheels, especially during high-speed steering or emergency lane changes [22]. Active suspension systems, such as magnetorheological dampers (MR dampers) and hydraulic actuators, adjust suspension stiffness and damping characteristics based on real-time driving conditions, dynamically suppressing roll angles and improving vehicle stability. Furthermore, active steering and torque vectoring control technologies enhance vehicle stability under extreme conditions by optimizing wheel angles and drive force distribution [23]. In recent years, integrated stability control methods based on model predictive control (MPC) have become a research focus.