# A Literature Review on the Charging Behaviour of Private Electric Vehicles
## 1 Introduction
In this mode, AC is converted to DC in an external charger, which is then used to charge the EV battery. In the first three modes, the EV is directly connected to the AC distribution network, and the conversion to DC takes place in the vehicle. In mode 4, the conversion takes place in the charger. Level 1 charging corresponds to 120 AC voltage with a power of 2 kW; it is typically used in residential settings and does not require special equipment. It is not allowed in the EU. Level 2 corresponds to the standard European 230/240 V AC plug. It can be used for domestic charge or in public charging poles. The delivered power usually ranges from 3 kW to 20 kW. Level 3 indicates quick-charging stations using high-voltage direct current (DC), typically 400 V DC. The charging power of these stations ranges from 50 kW up to 130 kW. Level 4 charges use 400-800 V DC voltage, with a power level up to 500 kW, and are mainly intended for long-distance driving and heavy vehicles [8; 9]. The need for an in-depth analysis of the real and potential charging demand has led to a significant number of studies on EV energy demand modeling, conducted at different levels of aggregation depending on the purpose of the study. Disaggregated approaches directly consider individual patterns of mobility and EV recharge, whilst aggregated ones often start from the energy demand of the EV supply equipment (EVSE). These approaches are not mutually exclusive, and the data from different sources are often combined to model EV loading. The characterization of charging behavior is inextricably linked to the diffusion of EVs. Indeed, the individual characteristics of EV users also influence charging behaviors. EV users are often male and middle-aged and typically have higher levels of education, an above-average income, and multiple cars per household [10; 11; 12], corresponding to the profile of early EV adopters [13]. With the spread of electric mobility, this audience tends to widen and include different user groups with presumably diverse needs and behaviors. Some research refers to a relatively immature phase of the adoption of electric mobility, and their results must be analyzed considering that the behaviors of EV early adopters may not coincide with those emerging from mass adoption. In fact, the propensity to adopt EVs depends on many factors, both economic and psychological, investigated in the literature. Economic studies usually compare the alternatives between different types of vehicles described by their characteristics, based on which consumers make decisions by making trade-offs between attributes. Psychological studies focus on motivations by examining the influence of a broad range of individual-specific psychological or social constructs [14]. Financial, technical, and infrastructural factors have a significant impact on the choice of switching to EVs, while psychological variables have a stable effect demonstrated by several studies. The influence of socioeconomic and demographic variables is still unclear and sensitive to small changes [14]. However, early EV users show some prevalent characteristics, such as a high level of education and a high income, being predominantly young or middle-aged males, living in large families that own more than one car, and living in small to medium-sized cities [10]. Having experienced EV driving and one's awareness of environmental values are factors that dispose one to the purchase of an electric car [15], as well as satisfaction with use, which appears to be high among both experienced and novice EV users [16]. Adding vehicle-to-grid functionality seems to be an option that tends to favor EV adoption, probably because it can represent a possible economic income for owners [15]. The self-perception of belonging to a specific category of people and the perception of the electric car as a status symbol seem to positively influence the decision to purchase [17; 18]. Increasing experience with EVs raises awareness of many aspects of electric mobility.