## 3 Results and Discussion
### Analysis of Adulterated Milk and the Influence of Temperature
\begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{l l l l l l l l l l} \hline \hline  & \multicolumn{4}{c}{**Percentage of Water in Milk**} & \multicolumn{4}{c}{**75\%**} & \multicolumn{2}{c}{**97.9\%**} \\ \hline \multicolumn{1}{c}{\(f\) (Hz)} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{\(|\mathbf{\left|Z\right|}(\Omega)\)} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{\(\theta\)} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{\(|\mathbf{\left|Z\right|}(\Omega)\)} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{\(\theta\)} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{\(|\mathbf{\left|Z\right|}(\Omega)\)} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{\(\theta\)} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{\(|\mathbf{\left|Z\right|}(\Omega)\)} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{\(\theta\)} \\ \hline \(10^{1}\) & \(172.9\pm 1.2\) & \(-19.8\pm 1.8\) & \(202.5\pm 1.6\) & \(-19.3\pm 0.6\) & \(255.8\pm 1.0\) & \(-18.5\pm 0.5\) & \(392.7\pm 3.4\) & \(-16.5\pm 0.9\) & \(2180.4\pm 139.3\) & \(-8.3\pm 0.6\) \\ \(10^{2}\) & \(1457.3\pm 3.4\) & \(-14.8\pm 1.3\) & \(172.8\pm 6.4\) & \(-14.3\pm 1.5\) & \(220.8\pm 6.2\) & \(-12.5\pm 1.3\) & \(350.9\pm 3.9\) & \(-10.3\pm 0.3\) & \(2078.1\pm 152.8\) & \(-4.7\pm 0.3\) \\ \(10^{3}\) & \(132.5\pm 3.3\) & \(-6.2\pm 2.0\) & \(156.1\pm 5.9\) & \(-5.0\pm 1.3\) & \(208.2\pm 0.9\) & \(-47.5\pm 1.7\) & \(335.2\pm 4.3\) & \(-4.2\pm 0.3\) & \(1964.8\pm 97.8\) & \(-1.7\pm 1.2\) \\ \(10^{4}\) & \(122.1\pm 1.0\) & \(-4.2\pm 0.3\) & \(146.6\pm 2.3\) & \(-5.2\pm 0.3\) & \(193.0\pm 2.5\) & \(-40.0\pm 0.5\) & \(307.7\pm 11.7\) & \(-3.3\pm 0.8\) & \(1872.3\pm 67.3\) & \(-2.5\pm 1.3\) \\ \(10^{5}\) & \(108.7\pm 1.2\) & \(-5.0\pm 0.5\) & \(135.1\pm 1.1\) & \(-4.3\pm 0.8\) & \(173.6\pm 2.8\) & \(-4.0\pm 0.0\) & \(291.2\pm 3.1\) & \(-3.0\pm 0.5\) & \(1788.5\pm 5.8\) & \(-5.5\pm 1.0\) \\ \(10^{6}\) & \(97.6\pm 1.2\) & \(1.3\pm 0.3\) & \(119.4\pm 0.5\) & \(0.5\pm 0.5\) & \(158.2\pm 2.5\) & \(0.2\pm 0.3\) & \(269.8\pm 8.3\) & \(-1.5\pm 0.0\) & \(1427.7\pm 54.2\) & \(-2.77\pm 4.6\) \\ \(2.3\times 10^{6}\) & \(96.5\pm 0.9\) & \(8.7\pm 0.3\) & \(117.4\pm 1.5\) & \(7.3\pm 0.3\) & \(156.8\pm 2.2\) & \(5.5\pm 0.0\) & \(260.6\pm 1.1\) & \(0.3\pm 1.6\) & \(967.9\pm 47.4\) & \(-41.5\pm 2.6\) \\ \hline \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table} 
Table 3: Impedance magnitude and phase values measured at 37 \({}^{\circ}\)C for the different dilutions with distilled water in milk (% \(V/V\)) and unadulterated milk (0%). bioimpedance values. For an increase in temperature, the mobility and the number of ions increase in solution, causing a decrease in the electrical impedance value [42]. The mean values obtained from all \(Z_{L}\) impedance magnitude measurements were 820.96 \(\Omega\), 633.44 \(\Omega\), and 563.04 \(\Omega\) for temperatures of 16, 28, and 37 \({}^{\circ}\)C, respectively. The determination of a usual impedance value for milk samples is difficult to predict, as it depends on conditions such as breed of animal, seasonal changes, composition, storage conditions, lactation period, and the health and nutrition status of the animal [28, 29, 43, 44]. The impedance behaviour profile, along with the increase in frequency of diluted samples, was the same for all temperatures, despite the variations in the impedance magnitude values. The linear behaviour with a slight decline was observed up to 83.3% dilutions and at all tested frequencies (Figures 8-10 and Table 4) and it was also verified by [PERSON], [PERSON], [PERSON], and [PERSON] [45], both for low and medium frequencies (between \(10^{3}\) Hz and \(10^{6}\) Hz) with or without water adulteration, or even hydrogen peroxide (H\({}_{2}\)O\({}_{2}\)) up to 10% \(V/V\). The electrical impedance values decrease as the frequency increases, suggesting a resistive model for milk, due to the type of ions in its matrix [44, 46]. A similar result of impedance stability at high frequencies was observed by [PERSON] and [PERSON] [29] in milk samples. However, in dilutions from 87.5% there is a greater decline at higher frequencies. The frequency variation (\(10^{1}\) to \(2.3\times 10^{6}\) Hz) also interferes with the values and behaviour of the bioimpedance (Figures 8-10 and Table 4).