## 1 Introduction  
Energy conversion generates significant environmental impacts, regardless of its renewable or non-renewable origin. These impacts include ecological disturbances, greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions such as carbon dioxide (CO\({}_{2}\)), and problems associated with climate change, whose global temperature has risen by \(1.1\)\({}^{\circ}\)C since the end of the 19 th century [1]. The predominant use of fossil fuels as a primary energy source (84.3% of the global energy matrix) aggravates these problems, with transportation and electricity generation mainly responsible for emissions. This causes environmental damage, public health problems, and global challenges such as the increase in respiratory diseases, especially in the Global South [2, 3]. Despite international efforts to accelerate decarbonization, many economies continue to struggle with fossil fuel dependency. The industrial sector, which accounts for a significant proportion of global energy consumption, faces challenges in transitioning to lower-carbon alternatives, particularly in emerging economies where industrialization remains closely tied to energy intensity and emission growth. Studies show that in the 25 largest emerging economies, energy intensity correlates directly with higher carbon intensity, suggesting that industrial expansion in these regions has not yet achieved decoupling from fossil fuel reliance. Furthermore, the global energy trade has facilitated the redistribution of emissions, meaning that nations exporting energy-intensive products bear a disproportionate share of the carbon footprint of wealthier industrialized economies [4]. This highlights the complexity of global decarbonization, as efforts to reduce domestic emissions in developed nations may partially shift the carbon burden to exporting economies, necessitating a more integrated approach to emission accountability. The expansion of renewable energy is widely regarded as the most viable strategy to mitigating these environmental impacts. Hydropower, wind, and solar energy have experienced significant growth, contributing to a net reduction in global emissions. Between 2004 and 2013 alone, renewable energy sources added approximately 760 GW of new capacity, demonstrating their increasing role in the global energy transition. Hydropower remains particularly important, accounting for 16% of global electricity production and 78% of all renewable electricity generation, with estimates indicating that it prevents nearly 3 gigatons of CO2 emissions annually compared to conventional fossil fuel sources. However, while hydropower is an essential component of the clean energy transition, it is not without challenges. Climate change-induced alterations in precipitation patterns and river discharge could reduce hydropower output by up to 6% by the 2070s, raising concerns about its long-term stability as a primary energy source. Additionally, the environmental and social costs of large-scale hydropower projects, including biodiversity loss, land displacement, and disruptions to aquatic ecosystems, underscore the need for sustainable hydropower planning that balances both energy security and ecological conservation [5]. The role of government policies in shaping the energy landscape cannot be overstated. In Europe, targeted policy interventions have led to a substantial decrease in the environmental footprint of electricity generation, with the impact of energy production decreasing from 464 UBP/1 kWh in 1990 to 204 UBP/1 kWh in 2020 [6]. This decline reflects the success of renewable energy incentives, carbon pricing mechanisms, and advancements in clean technology. However, while European nations have pioneered large-scale renewable energy adoption, other regions face structural and economic barriers to transitioning away from fossil fuels.