## 1 Introduction
and external (density of buildings, availability of meaningful landmarks, etc.) [18, 19, 20]. However, there is little consensus in the literature regarding the most important factors for predicting wayfinding ability and how to measure it [1]. Many researchers have investigated factors focusing on components of spatial ability, such as mental rotation skill tests, spatial visualization and spatial relations tasks [21]. Spatial ability is the ability to precisely visualize and recognize the visual-spatial world and the cognitive processes involved to achieve transformations (such as locating a target in space, directional relationships, perceiving distance, and mentally transforming objects based on orientation in space) on those perceptions. Spatial abilities are applied in everyday activities while finding a way [22]. According to research, individuals differ in their ability to process and visualize spatial information [23]. Some studies reported that people who have a good sense of direction (SOD) are faster wayfinders, show better performance, make fewer errors and make flexible use of strategies compared to people who have bad SOD [24, 20]. Moreover, research has found that self-reported SOD measures quite highly predict the objective measures of these abilities [25]. However, only a few research studies have explored the relationship between spatial ability and wayfinding in the real world, and these studies have shown mixed results [21, 26]. Overall, these studies can be grouped into self-assessment (in which researchers ask participants about their ability) studies and behavioral studies (in which researchers ask participants to solve tasks), with very few studies that have examined wayfinding tasks in the real environment [2]. More detailed research is required to investigate different variables in spatial ability skills and wayfinding and understand their influence on wayfinding performance to design more legible wayfinding systems [22]. Due to technological advancements, there is an increased reliance on navigation systems for wayfinding, but research focusing on the use, effects and evaluation of these approaches is still limited [22]. Therefore, in this study, we aim to examine Google Maps (an outdoor navigation app) in comparison with MazeMap (an indoor-door navigation app) for wayfinding on a university campus. The study focuses on understanding the role of navigation aids and spatial ability skills on perceived workload and wayfinding performance in indoor-outdoor campus navigation tasks. Moreover, the study also aims to identify the challenges in the use of current navigation systems for wayfinding in complex environments such as large university campuses requiring indoor-outdoor navigation. These results could provide empirical evidence and insights supporting the future design of integrated indoor-outdoor navigation systems. To achieve this, the study aims at answering the following research questions. * Does indoor-outdoor navigation aid improve university campus wayfinding performance and reduce workload in comparison with outdoor-only navigation systems? * Do spatial ability skills of wayfinders affect workload and wayfinding performance in university campus navigation? * What are the main challenges in indoor-outdoor university campus navigation using mobile navigation aids? The rest of this paper is structured as follows: Section 2 presents the related work. Section 3 describes the method used for this study. Section 4 presents the results from the wayfinding experiment concerning the three research questions. Section 5 discusses the results, presents design implications, and highlights the limitations of the study. Lastly, Section 6 concludes the paper and gives directions for future research.