# Virtual Reality or Videoconferencing for Online Learning? Evidence from Comparative Meta-Analyses
## 1 Introduction  
Online learning has gained increasing attention from educators in the post-pandemic era for its potential to overcome temporal and spatial constraints, support real-time teacher-student interaction, and facilitate personalized learning [1]. However, online learning still faces some challenges, including low participation [2] and rapid fatigue [3]. Students may also experience psychological health issues, including social isolation as well as a lack of interaction and emotional support [4, 5]. Participation in online learning requires the use of various technologies to ensure its success [6, 7, 8]. Technological advances have greatly enriched the form and content of online learning, from artificial intelligence-assisted instruction to the application of virtual reality (VR). VR and videoconferencing (VC) platforms are two widely used technologies that support online learning. VR for online learning typically refers to a three-dimensional virtual learning environment with immersion, interaction, and imagination created by the computer. It is generally classified into two categories based on the devices utilized. The first is called immersive VR, which uses head-mounted displays (HMDs) like Meta Quest and HTC Vive and allows for a fully immersive experience [9, 10]. While full-immersion VR generally uses HMDs, there are notable exceptions, such as cave automatic virtual environment (CAVE) systems. These are room-sized setups in which the walls, floors, and ceilings are covered with projections that create an immersive virtual space without the need for head-mounted hardware [11]. The second type is non-immersive VR, which is also called desktop-based VR. The use of computers or displays with interactive devices (e.g., mouse, data gloves) can create a semi-immersive experience [12, 13]. Platforms commonly applied in instructionsuch as Second Life and Virbela fall into this category. Many researchers have conducted experiments to investigate the impact of VR-enhanced online learning environments, and the results have shown that they can be more effective than traditional teaching modalities (e.g., lectures, texts, and videos) in increasing the sense of presence [14; 15] and acquiring knowledge [16; 17; 18]. VC platforms allow students in various locations to participate in classes through synchronous online learning. This technology greatly enhances the accessibility and flexibility of online learning. Online communications often face delays and poor quality due to technical limitations; however, with advances in internet technologies such as broadband, smart devices, and communication algorithms, high-definition video communication has become a reality. Online learning enhanced by VC platforms has become a common teaching mode, and its use was particularly common during the COVID-19 pandemic, when it played an irreplaceable role [19]. Commonly used VC platforms such as Zoom and Tencent Meeting have become the preferred alternatives [20; 21; 22]. Zoom has a global user base, while Tencent Meeting dominates the Chinese market, with a high usage rate and a diverse user group. Researchers have reported the advantages of online learning supported by VC platforms, including an unrestrictive learning space [23], the convenience and effectiveness of communication [24], and an enhanced sense of belonging and motivation [25; 26]. The effectiveness of VR and VC platforms in online learning refers to measurable learning outcomes, which are commonly evaluated by standardized test instruments, observed student performance during learning activities, and samples of students' work. However, the ways in which these technologies influence learning can be quite distinct, as each provides unique affordances and learner experiences. The benefits of VR in online learning are primarily reflected in its ability to create an immersive learning environment that enhances students' sense of belonging and presence.