# Information and Communication Technologies and Agricultural Production: New Evidence from Africa
## 4 Results and Discussion
### Granger Test for Panel Causality  
After examining whether there is a long-run relationship among our variables, it is appropriate to examine potential causal relationships among these variables. In determining the causal relationships among these variables, we employed the Dumitrescu and Hurlin [77] Granger test. Since the panel ARDL results (Table 8) establish the existence of long-run relationships among the variables, we are certain that Granger causality exists in at least one direction for each two-variable combination. Notice that the lag error terms \((ECT_{t-1})\) for internet patronage, mobile cellular subscription, fixed telephone subscription, adjusted net national income per capita, domestic credit to private sector by bank, and rural population were significant at the 1% significance level. This confirms the existence of at least a bidirectional causal relationship among the covariates and the response variables. From the Dumitrescu and Hurlin test (Table 9), it can be seen clearly that majority of the Granger-causality relationship type found among the variables is bidirectional. Notice that bidirectional causality is found between crop production and internet patronage by populace of the 32 aforementioned African countries. Thus, crop production Granger causes internet patronage and internet patronage; also, Granger causes crop production. It can also be seen that there exists a bidirectional causality between livestock production and individuals using internet. From this knowledge, it can be said that livestock production Granger causes internet patronage, whereas internet patronage Granger also causes livestock production. The evidence provided from the analysis is not alien to the recent literature on agriculture production. In recent times, the use of internet in households and workplaces has been on the rise. The internet has become an integral part of life; it is now an essential global communications technology for business that aids in optimum dissemination of information and reduces the cost associated with interactions [95]. The adoption of internet in the agricultural industry has improved the efficiency and effectiveness in the sector [96]. The use of internet in the agricultural sector has aided in the following: access to market prices and products' information, access to government and academic reports and research results, interaction with other farmers and agricultural specialists, purchase of inputs, sales of produce, communication with suppliers and buyers, and access to software applications [96; 97; 98]. Similar to the relationship found between crop production and internet patronage, the relationship between crop production and mobile cellular subscription is bidirectional. Thus, crop production Granger causes mobile cellular subscription and mobile cellular subscription Granger also causes crop production. With regards to the other livestock production, the relationship type found with mobile cellular subscription is unidirectional. Thus, livestock production Granger causes mobile phone subscriptions; however mobile phone subscriptions Granger does not cause livestock production. Higher livestock production may lead to higher incomes that allow more mobile subscriptions and, at the same time, if non-subscribers see that subscription owners have higher production efficiency, that may be a motivation for them to subscribe too. Like the internet, mobile phones also give greater access to information. It has become the fastest and easy way of conveying information. Many studies of agricultural production have established a relationship between mobile phone usage and agriculture [99; 100; 101; 102]. [PERSON] et al. [100] emphasized that the patronage of mobile phones has become the most effective communication tool that has brought changes not only to the agriculture sector, but to the other industries as well. This sector is one of the sectors that rely mostly on information to be abreast with current farm practices to enhance productivity.