## 1 Introduction  
The rapid growth in the use of vehicles [1], such as passenger cars, motorbikes, buses, trucks, and off-the-road vehicles, has led to a significant increase in the production of tires [2]. However, this surge in tire production has also resulted in a substantial number of end-of-life tires (ELTs) [3], posing challenges to effective disposal and environmental sustainability. In this context, the recycling and proper management of ELTs have become critical issues [4], prompting various approaches and perspectives on their handling. In the past, a straightforward practice for disposing of ELTs involved landfilling, which was a simple and low-cost approach but significantly contributed to environmental issues and concerns. ELTs, when buried in landfills [5; 6], not only take up considerable space but also pose risks such as pest breeding, leaching of harmful materials into the environment, and the potential for devastating tire fires [7]. The environmental impact of landfilling ELTs has become a central concern for regulatory bodies and environmental advocates [8], leading to legislative changes and discouragement of this disposal method in various countries. Globally, an estimated one billion tires reach the end of their useful lives every year, and an estimated 4 billion ELTs are currently in landfills and stockpiles worldwide. ELT recovery provides cost-effective and environmentally sound energy for several industries. ELTs can replace other limited natural resources. In Europe, 95% of ELTs in 32 countries were collected and treated for material recycling and energy recovery. Statistical data from 2019 indicates that about 1.95 million tons of ELTs were treated through material recovery (52%). These data include 1.36 million tons sent to the granulation process, while 1.43 million tons of tires went through energy recovery (40%) [9]. New recycling [10] methods have been developed through increasing pollution brought by tire disposal. Other approaches to solving the ELT problem involve incineration for heat recovery in industry or cement production [11]. This method addresses the energy recovery potential of tires, with certain industries, including cement factories and large combustion plants, utilizing ELTs as fuel [12]. This not only reduces traditional fuel consumption but also lowers energy costs. However, this approach has raised concerns about carbon dioxide (CO\({}_{2}\)) emissions [13]. Upon incineration, a passenger car tire releases 22 kg of CO\({}_{2}\), and a truck tire emits 110 kg of CO\({}_{2}\)[11] for environmental implications [14] associated with the combustion process [15]. By incinerating ELTs, 3.02 MJ/kg of waste electricity or 6.11 MJ/kg of waste thermal energy can be produced [16]. The newest recycling approach is associated with the recovery of ELT materials as secondary materials for the market. Recycling includes shredding of ELTs to produce crumb rubber [17], steel, and textile [18] materials for use in various applications [19]. This approach, while offering a way to repurpose tire components, also raises questions about the environmental impact of the recycling process [20] and the potential for recycling by-products, such as tire textiles, which pose challenges in terms of recyclability [21]. To recycle 1 ton of ELT, 347-372 kWh of electricity is consumed, and 300 kg of water is needed [22]. The output is reclaimed rubber, waste steel wire, and waste fiber. This means that high amounts of extra energy and resources are required in order to initiate the recovery of the ELT. To comprehensively assess the environmental impact of these approaches, the life cycle assessment (LCA) [23] was utilized with the OpenLCA software 2.0. 2 and EcoInvent database v.3.8. [4]. LCA involves considering factors such as resource consumption [24; 25; 26], emissions, and energy use [27]. This analytical approach provides valuable insights into the sustainability of tire recycling methods and aids in identifying environmentally [7] friendly practices.