## 4 Discussion
Thus, a species resistant to an antibiotic may be able to transmit its resistance to unrelated species. Consequently, antibiotic resistance can spread throughout the food chain and between individuals [105]. In this investigation, the different isolates of _E. coli_ showed the highest level of resistance (100%) to ampicillin and penicillin. They also exhibited 35.29% resistance to tetracycline. Additionally, 55.89% of the isolates had the _blaTEM_ resistance gene, while 45.1% had the _tet(A)_ resistance gene. This indicates that the _E. coli_ isolates were highly resistant to ampicillin and penicillin, and moderately resistant to tetracycline. The presence of the _blaTEM_ and _tet(A)_ genes likely played a significant role in the development of antibiotic resistance in _E. coli_, which could explain the high rates of resistance to ampicillin and penicillin observed in this study. A previous study by [PERSON] [82] indicated that _E. coli_ isolates recovered from meat samples were completely resistant to penicillin and amoxicillin-clavulanic acid. Nearly all amoxicillin-clavulanic-acid-resistant strains of _E. coli_ contained the _blaTEM_ gene. [PERSON] et al. [106], reported that over 80% of _E. coli_ isolates from food samples carried the _blaTEM_ gene. Similarly, [PERSON] et al. [107] found that _E. coli_ strains from Egypt exhibited the highest resistance to ampicillin. These isolates also showed resistance to gentamicin, tetracycline, and sulfamethoxazole/trimethoprim. These findings emphasize the importance of closely monitoring antibiotic-resistant bacteria in retail ground beef. The prevalence rate of _S. aureus_ isolated from shawarma and chicken burger samples was 30%, as shown by our findings. Similar results have been reported in other studies on _S. aureus_ contamination of meat. Studies conducted in Poland [108] and Tehran [109] found that 20% and 25% of hamburger samples, respectively, were contaminated with _S. aureus_. [PERSON] et al. [110] conducted an investigation in Egypt and found that 10% of beef burger samples and 30% of minced beef meat samples tested positive for _S. aureus_ contamination. Several publications have noted that _S. aureus_ isolates are highly resistant to penicillin, ampicillin, nalidixic acid, and tetracycline [111; 112; 113], which aligns with the findings of our antimicrobial susceptibility test. Another study by [PERSON] and [PERSON] [114], found that _S. aureus_ isolates recovered from various meals, including uncooked meatballs, were resistant to penicillin (62.9%) and ampicillin (59.3%). A study conducted in the Iranian region of Isfahan using raw retail meat samples found that _S. aureus_ isolates showed resistance to multiple antibiotics, including tetracycline (79%), penicillin (73%), and doxycycline (41.7%) [115]. In the current study, it was found that 21.5% of the _S. aureus_ isolates possessed the _blaZ_ gene, while 47.31% had the _mecA_ gene. Previous studies conducted by [PERSON] et al. [109] and [PERSON] et al. [108] on hamburger samples found that all methicillin-resistant _S. aureus_ isolates had the _mecA_ gene. Another study by [PERSON] et al. [110] discovered that 85.7% of _S. aureus_ isolates in minced beef and burger samples had both the _mecA_ and _blaZ_ genes. [PERSON] et al. [115] also found that 58.33% of isolates from raw retail meat samples carried the _blaZ_ gene. These two genes play a crucial role in the development of antibiotic resistance in _S. aureus_ found in fast food, as well as their ability to survive in food and potentially cause foodborne illnesses. During the food manufacturing process, antibiotic resistance genes can be transferred via a variety of channels, which raises concerns about food safety [116]. Genetic material can be exchanged and communicated between bacteria throughout the food supply chain. Determining the extent of antimicrobial resistance transmission in food chains is challenging, and little attention has been given to the role of food in the transfer of antibiotic resistance genes, as reported by [PERSON] et al. [117].