# Physical and Microbiological Characteristics and Antioxidant Activity of Honey Bee Pollen
## 1 Introduction  
Latvia is an ideal setting for nectar plants in forests, natural meadows, shrubs, and bogs due to its location in a temperate climate zone. Therefore, beekeeping has been an ancient tradition. In addition to producing honey, about 27% of beekeepers produce bee pollen pellets [1], which worker honey bees (_Apis mellifera_ L.) collect from flowers of various plants and mix with nectar and bee salivary secretions. Bee pollen is collected in special traps located at the hive entrance. Its main components are carbohydrates such as fructose, glucose, sucrose, and fibre (13-55%); proteins (9-40%); lipids (4-10%); minerals such as K, P, Mg, and Ca. [PERSON]\(\ddot{\rm a}\)an et al. [2] confirmed that bee pollen differs in composition depending on botanical origin, place of collecting, processing, and storage conditions. Bee pollen is considered a high-value health product, which is discussed in several recent reviews [3; 4; 5; 6; 7], indicating its nutritive value and therapeutic properties. Phenols are listed among important bioactive compounds present in bee pollen, which have antioxidant activity [8; 9]. The phenolic compounds observed in bee collected pollen belong to the flavonoid group and compounds derived from benzoic and cinnamic acids [10].  
According to [PERSON] et al. [7], food safety risks of bee pollen include contamination from environments with pesticides, metals, and mycotoxins, as well as pyrrolidine alkaloids from specific plants. The microbiological quality of bee pollen, especially the absence of fungi and pathogens, should also be considered an important criterion [11; 12]. [PERSON] [13] reported that mycelium (_Penicillium verrucosum_, _Aspergillus niger_, _A. carbonarius_, _A. ochracus_, _A. parasiticum_, and _Alternaria_ spp.) can cause the development of toxins in bee pollen. For control of microorganisms, it is suggested to strictly follow hygiene rules, collect pollen every day, and reduce moisture content or freeze it for further storage. [PERSON] et al. [14] indicated _Bacillus cereus sensu strico_ (50%), _Bacillus megaterium_ (40%), and _Bacillus subtilis_ (40%) as the most dominant species among aerobic spore-forming bacteria identified in bee pollen samples intended for human consumption in Argentina. [PERSON] and [PERSON] [15] also found toxigenic species in bee pollen such as _Aspergillus flavus_, _Alternaria alternate_, _Fusarium graminearum_, etc. which, according to [PERSON] et al. [16], make microbial contamination a critical quality parameter for human consumption. [PERSON] et al. [17] also confirmed that additional steps should be taken alongside good manufacturing practices to reduce contamination risks. Since worker bee microbiota is dominated by eight bacterial phylotypes [18], [PERSON] et al. [19] suggested that other microorganisms isolated from bees and bee products could be derived from the environment.  
Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is observed when bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites acquire new resistance mechanisms and no longer respond to medicines, which may become ineffective. There are various drivers of possible antimicrobial resistance and resistance gene transmission to humans [20]. Antimicrobial-resistant organisms can move between ecosystems--people, food, animals, environment--thus causing particular concern [19]. This becomes an important issue in the case of bee pollen, which is typically collected from the surrounding area.  
This study aimed to evaluate the physical, chemical, and microbiological characteristics of bee-collected pollen in Latvia, with special consideration to the antimicrobial resistance of the isolated microorganisms to the selected antibiotics.