Nevertheless, the public lighting environment (PLE) is about more than energy efficiency and consumption reduction. PLEs are a crucial design factor in urban areas [38]. Lighting is often described as encompassing art and science [39]. Light at night affects human life [40], health [41; 42] and work [43]. Light influences the way humans see and feel [44], and when designing lighting systems, it is necessary to reconcile physical, physiological, and psychological requirements [45]. These effects/issues must be taken into account when designing the PLE of urban spaces. Appropriate PLE enhances visibility [46], comfort [47], safety [33], and crime prevention [48], and instills a sense of security among citizens [49]. PLE is a multifaceted tool that can also enhance the quality of urban life during the night. This part is essential for urban nightlife, where individuals congregate in public spaces, parks, and entertainment districts. In this sense, PLE also has a crucial aesthetic component [50]. The aesthetic aspect of lighting has a key role to play in improving the overall ambience and the visual attractiveness of an urban area [51]. PLE can contribute to the creation of an exciting and attractive night-time environment. Light makes it possible to create spaces through which observers can view the city, which allow them to develop personal feelings based on the experience [52]. If the lighting design of an urban space meets the expectations and needs of citizens, illumination can become a source of inspiration, admiration, and emotion [53] by providing experiential information [54]. Thoughtful planning, energy-efficient technologies, and consideration for aesthetics and inclusivity play a fundamental role in creating a positive and sustainable urban environment for nightlife. PLE has undoubtedly improved the quality of life in urban areas, but the downside of increased urbanisation and industrialization is the alarming rise of light pollution. This phenomenon occurs when artificial light is excessively used, leading to obtursive light that interferes with the natural darkness of the night sky [55]. Unfortunately, over 50% of the world's population is affected by light pollution [56], with urban areas being the most affected due to the overuse of artificial lighting. Light pollution has become a significant environmental issue, affecting astronomical observations [57] and the well-being of ecosystems [58], wildlife [59], and human health [60]. The potential health impacts of light pollution have widened [61], with concerns ranging from sleep disorders [62] to severe illnesses such as obesity [63], mental disorders [64], and cancers [65]. Given the considerable concern about the impact of PLEs on human health and activities [57] and the influence of energy expenditure on sustainable urban development, quantifying the impact of PLEs on public perceptions has become crucial [36]. Thus, the connection between PLE and citizens' perceptions has become a centre of interest [66; 33; 67]. In order to establish the interconnections between PLE and citizens' perceptions, research have usually employed a combination of data obtained in evaluations made by citizens and in surveys. In these studies, evidence has been collected about the relationship between public evaluations and the physical measurements of lighting attributes, such as brightness [67; 68; 69; 70; 71; 72], uniformity of spectral power distribution, colour temperature [73], and glare [74; 75]. Moreover, when designing PLE, it is essential to contemplate the influence of individual characteristics and the personality dimension of having confidence in one's physical environment [76]. The utilisation of urban spaces at night varies significantly among different segments of society, which are distinguished by various parameters, such as cultural background [51], age [77], gender [78], and mobility/disability [76]. An additional challenge is the identification of users' impressions about lighting.