# Electric Vehicles: Benefits, Challenges, and Potential Solutions for Widespread Adaptation
## 4 Strategies for Overcoming Challenges
### Improved Battery Technology
#### 4.3.1 Battery Type
* Sodium sulfur batteries (Na-S) are made of sulfur and sodium liquid (S). This kind of battery has a large life cycle, a high energy density, and great loading and unloading efficiency (88-92%). They also have the benefit of these materials being relatively inexpensive. They may operate at temperatures between 300 and 350 \({}^{\circ}\)C, but the Ford Ecostar, a vehicle that debuted in 1992-1993, uses these batteries [54]. * Rechargeable lithium-ion batteries are a widespread energy storage system for computers, cellphones, and electric vehicles. They are renowned for having a high energy density, allowing for greater electric car driving ranges and longer battery life for electronic gadgets. To enable the movement of electrical current, the batteries employ lithium ions to transmit energy between the positive and negative electrodes. * Batteries made of lithium-sulfur (Li-S), zinc-air (Zn-air), and lithium-air (Li-Air) are among the battery types used in the third category of batteries. Li-S is the least expensive of them all, thanks to the low price of sulfur, and it also has a high energy density [61]. When examined independently, Li-S has a rapid life cycle and a high discharge rate. Zn-Air is a \"potential\" future option for EV battery technology because its \"theoretical/in-lab experiments\" show a high energy density of 1700 W/kg, which is comparable to the conventional internal combustion engine [38]. However, the major drawback of a Zn-Air battery is its low power density and short life cycle. However, it is still a prototype and not ready for purchase. Similar circumstances apply to Li-Air, which is still in the prototype stage and not yet on the market. For a detailed comparison of the various battery types, see Table 2.  
Lithium-ion battery operation's temperature and voltage windows define the battery's safe and dependable operating range. As electrolytes begin to self-destruct above 150 \({}^{\circ}\)C, going over these limits would quickly reduce battery efficiency and may even cause a safety consequence (e.g., trigger a fire or explosion) [64]. The majority of EVs and PHEVs currently use this sort of battery. Lead and zinc batteries perform worst in specific power (up to 100 W/kg), whereas Ni-MH and Li-ion batteries perform best (up to 1000 W/kg and 3000 W/kg, respectively). In terms of cell voltage, lithium-ion and sodium batteries (Na-S and Na-NiCl) need a higher voltage than batteries made of nickel and zinc. On the other hand, lead-acid and Ni-MH batteries provide the worst performance in terms of life cycles. Finally, whereas lithium batteries can sustain up to 3000 cycles, Na-S batteries perform better and can support up to 4500 cycles [68; 69; 70; 71; 72]. Since these battery types could increase the range of electric vehicles, further study is being done to enhance them. To guarantee the successful operation of electric vehicles, additional subsystems are included inside the battery system, such as a system to manage the batteries and an adequate thermal management system. When all the considerations are considered, current electric cars employ lithium-ion technology for their batteries since it performs the best across most of the analyzed qualities.