## 5 Simulation-Based Performance Evaluation
### Comfort and Energy Analysis Under WLTC Conditions  
To evaluate the internal performance of different controllers, Figure 6 and Table 4 present a detailed comparison in terms of energy consumption, acceleration behavior, and adaptive control activity under WLTC conditions. A key advantage of DWMPC lies in energy efficiency. As shown in Figure 6a, it consistently maintains a higher battery state-of-charge (SOC) than both Fixed-MPC and PI throughout the cycle. By the end of the drive, its SOC level is approximately 6.5% higher than fixed-MPC and 12.1% higher than PI. This improvement stems not from passivity  
Figure 6: Energy-saving mechanism and adaptive coordination behavior of the DWMPC controller. (**a**) Battery state of charge; (**b**) longitudinal acceleration response; (**c**) driving mode transitions; (**d**) evolution of dynamic weights. The results demonstrate how the proposed method achieves smoother acceleration, preserves energy, and adaptively adjusts controller weights and modes in response to varying traffic demands, ensuring a balance between efficiency and responsiveness. but from the controller's ability to anticipate dynamic demands and avoid unnecessary high-power events under stable conditions. Equally important is its contribution to ride comfort. Figure 6b shows that DWMPC produces a smoother acceleration trajectory with fewer spikes and oscillations. In contrast, the PI controller frequently exhibits abrupt transitions, while fixed-MPC displays delayed responses during transients. DWMPC not only suppresses these behaviors but also keeps acceleration values tightly clustered around zero. Its acceleration distribution confirms this: most values lie within \(\pm\)2.5 m/s\({}^{2}\), indicating enhanced stability and control balance. These observations are supported by the numerical results in Table 4. DWMPC achieves the lowest standard deviation in acceleration (1.12 m/s\({}^{2}\)) and the smallest average jerk (2.81 m/s\({}^{3}\)), significantly outperforming the alternatives. Lower jerk indicates fewer abrupt control changes, contributing to improved comfort, reduced mechanical wear, and greater drivetrain durability. Furthermore, the mean acceleration under DWMPC stabilizes around 0.40 m/s\({}^{2}\), reflecting a well-balanced response without persistent bias toward acceleration or braking. Its acceleration extremes range from \(-\)3.84 m/s\({}^{2}\) to 2.68 m/s\({}^{2}\), markedly narrower than those of the PI controller, which range from \(-\)9.68 m/s\({}^{2}\) to 2.78 m/s\({}^{2}\). This reduced range suggests that DWMPC effectively avoids excessive braking or acceleration, resulting in smoother and more predictable behavior. The statistical distribution shown in Figure 7 further supports these findings. Compared with the broader, asymmetric distributions of PI and fixed-MPC, the acceleration histogram of DWMPC is compact and symmetric around zero. Most values fall within \(\pm\)2.5 m/s\({}^{2}\), indicating tighter control modulation. The overlaid Gaussian curves visually confirm this trend, and the embedded table summarizes the key statistics: DWMPC exhibits the lowest standard deviation and highest probability density near zero, reflecting smoother actuator dynamics. Underlying these improvements is DWMPC's internal adaptive coordination. As shown in Figure 6c, the controller actively switches modes based on real-time traffic risk, quantified by the fuzzy-derived emergency coefficient. These transitions occur precisely during high-demand periods, such as sharp acceleration or emergency braking. This behavior is governed by the control logic in Section 3.2, where Equation (21) defines the nonlinear exponential mapping of the emergency coefficient to the velocity tracking weight \(C_{1}\), enhancing responsiveness under critical conditions. Table 1 specifies the mode-switching mechanism based on threshold segmentation of the emergency coefficient, enabling smooth and situation-adaptive coordination of acceleration and jerk penalties.