## 1 Introduction
However, due to the practical implementation and the use of frequency shift keying (FSK) modulation, our methodology presents higher computational complexity, reflecting the robustness and capability of our system to operate in real-world scenarios. Although the proposed method does not achieve the same level of accuracy as the system in [19], it focuses on 2D positioning to offer a simplified yet accurate solution with low computational complexity. This provides similar results in comparison with more advanced methods but with reduced computational overhead. Unlike complex 3D positioning systems, our 2D approach reduces the need for intricate equations and high computational power, making it more practical for real-world applications. Additionally, it provides a balance between accuracy and system complexity, as demonstrated in [17; 18], and could be extended to 3D positioning with minimal adjustments by slightly increasing the complexity. This work presents significant advancements in indoor positioning by introducing an innovative system that employs a semi-spherical distribution of photodiodes. This approach allows us to improve the accuracy of position and orientation estimation, surpassing traditional configurations. Additionally, trilateration and angular diversity techniques have been implemented, optimizing the detection of luminaires in complex environments and ensuring superior performance in situations where other methods might fail due to the arrangement of light sources or environmental conditions. To validate the effectiveness of the proposed system, experimental tests were conducted in a controlled environment, demonstrating an average accuracy of 3 cm in position estimation, confirming the system's reliability and precision in practical applications. In the following, the contributions of this work are summarized. \begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c c c c c c c c c} \hline \hline
**Ref.** & **Year** & **Error** & **No. LEDs** & **No. PDs** & **Angle** & **I/S** & **Modulation** & **Complexity** & **Method** \\ \hline [19] & 2021 & 4.74 mm & 4 & 4 & No & I & FDM & High & RSS-based in fingerprinting \\ \hline [17] & 2022 & 3.2 cm & 1 & 1 & No & S & - & Low & CSA-RSS \\ \hline [18] & 2023 & 0.1264 m & 2 & 4 & Yes & S & - & Low & RSS \\ \hline This Work & 2024 & 3 cm & 4 & 9 & Yes & I & FSK & High & RSS-based in fingerprinting \\ \hline \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table} 
Table 1: Compilation of relevant VLP studies in the reviewed literature. * An innovative indoor positioning system using visible light communication (VLC) technology is proposed in this work. It is specifically designed to overcome the limitations of navigation systems in indoor environments. * It introduces a unique configuration of photodiodes arranged in a semi-spherical setup, which significantly improves both positional accuracy and the estimation of the receiver's orientation. * Trilateration techniques based on the received signal strength have been integrated, and angular diversity has been leveraged to enhance orientation accuracy. * Experimental results indicate that the proposed system achieves an average positioning error of less than 3 cm and angular accuracy within 10 degrees, demonstrating its robustness even in obstructed line-of-sight conditions. * Experimental tests were conducted in a controlled environment to validate the system's effectiveness, confirming its reliability and precision in practical applications. * This system has great potential for applications in the localization of autonomous indoor robots, such as in warehouses or supermarkets, where high navigation accuracy is required.