# A Literature Review on the Charging Behaviour of Private Electric Vehicles
## 1 Introduction  
The switch to electric mobility is one of the ways of containing emissions of both greenhouse gas and local pollutants in urban areas. Electric vehicles (EVs) come in different types, such as pure or battery electric vehicles (BEVs), hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs), and fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs). BEVs are electric vehicles that rely solely on batteries to transmit energy. BEVs need an external source of energy to recharge the batteries. HEVs use both an internal combustion engine (ICE) and an electric powertrain, which can be combined in various ways. PHEVs also have both an ICE and an electric powertrain, but unlike HEVs, electric propulsion is the primary driving force. These vehicles require larger battery capacity than HEVs and can be recharged directly from the grid. FCEVs are powered by fuel cells that use chemical reactions to produce electricity. The electricity generated by the fuel cells drives the wheels through an electric motor, and any excess energy is stored in storage systems like batteries or supercapacitors [1]. The focus of the present study is on the charging behaviors of BEVs and, partially, PHEVs. The widespread adoption of electric vehicles hinges on two key factors: technological advancements and market acceptance. In order to optimize vehicle costs, electric vehicle manufacturers strive to select the best battery technology that ensures both safety and performance, including long-range autonomy and high power [2]. To facilitate the adoption of EVs and make their widespread use feasible, it is necessary to develop an adequate charging network [3; 4]; this, in turn, involves the correct planning that satisfies real demand. Elements such as power request, charge duration, and the spatial and temporal distribution of demand influence the planning and subsequent utilization rate of charging infrastructure, the emissions associated with the generation of electricity for charging, and the impact of charging on grid electricity [5; 6]. For these reasons, understanding and predicting charging behaviors with sufficient accuracy are essential. It is thus important to elucidate how the charging decisions of EV owners are influenced by external variables related to charging infrastructure and mobility needs, by intrinsic socioeconomic and psychological factors, and by charging network design, which could also maximize utilization rates and user satisfaction. Electric vehicles can be charged at various locations and speeds, and the costs may differ. EV supply equipment (EVSE) can be composed of one or more charging points (CP), which connect the power grid to the electric vehicles, drawing AC power to charge the EV battery in DC form. The converters can be either onboard or offboard, depending on the type of charging. The chargers can be classified into two categories: 'level' and'mode'. Charging levels have been defined by the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE), while the four charging modes are defined by the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC). 'Level' refers to the power and voltage of the charging system, while'mode' refers to the electronic communication between the vehicle and the power supply. This communication is critical for ensuring safety and proper charge control. The International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) has defined four charging modes [7]. Mode 1 refers to home charging directly from a standard power outlet with a simple extension cord. However, this charging method does not provide shock protection against DC current. Moreover, mode 1 is prohibited in many countries. Mode 2 charging involves the use of a special cable, provided with the EV, with integrated shock protection. Mode 3 charging involves a dedicated charging station or a home-mounted wall box for EV charging. Both provide shock protection against AC or DC currents. In Mode 3, the connecting cable is provided with the wall box or charging station. Mode 4 is mainly used for DC fast-charging applications.