# Mobile Learning and Its Effect on Learning Outcomes and Critical Thinking: A Systematic Review
## 4 Results
### Critical Thinking
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**Main Focus** & **Relevant Findings** \\ \hline Adaptive mobile learning systems & Adapting the content and format (video or text) according to the students’ learning style had the potential to improve their knowledge of the programming language [44]. \\ \hline Chatbot & Using this tool improved the scores in the final test. Significant differences exist between the scores obtained by the CG and EG [45]. \\ \hline Cloud-based m-learning & It had a positive effect on students’ creative performance [46; 47]. It improved both the creative process (problem presentation and answer generation and validation) and the development of creative products. \\ \hline Educational application/platform with multiple functionalities & Using educational applications with multiple functionalities (e.g., including class material, forum, chat room, multimedia material, interactive exercises, games, and others) had the potential to positively influence student learning outcomes [25; 48; 49; 50; 51; 52; 53; 54; 55; 56]. \\ \hline Immersive experiences & Using augmented reality (AR) technology on mobile devices improved students’ learning performance, especially in the areas of observation, including a deeper understanding of physical objects [13], and retention [57]. The use of mobile device-based augmented reality can be just as good at helping to improve outcomes as other more complex technological equipment (e.g., Microsoft HoloLens) [58]. Using 3D image-based mobile learning [59] and virtual simulation applications [60; 61] also helped to improve final test scores. \\ \hline Interactive tool versus traditional textbooks & Employing an interactive app to identify sedge species was found to be more effective in improving student test scores than using a conventional textbook [15]. Meanwhile, no statistically significant differences in mean test scores were found between users and non-users of an interactive iBook, although a low student use of the initiative was highlighted [62]. \\ \hline Game-based learning & Students who used the game/quiz app obtained higher pass rates and improved their test scores, generally outperforming those who did not use the tool [63; 64; 65]. However, one study [66] revealed that the conventional version of the game, without the advanced functionalities, showed better results in terms of learning achievement, suggesting that the benefits of these improvements may depend on the context and specific needs of the students. \\ \hline Mobile instant messaging & EG participants who used instant messaging applications (WhatsApp, WeChat) to view and share multimedia material, check doubts, and interact with peers, among others, obtained better results in the final tests than the CG [67; 68; 69]. However, this difference was not observed in the delayed test [69]. \\ \hline Mobile peer assessment & WSQ (watch–summary–question)-based peer assessment via a mobile app improved students’ vocal music skill [70]. \\ \hline Mobile-based word cards & Both EG and CG improved vocabulary learning; however, EG had better test scores [71]. \\ \hline Mobile-supported learning analytics interventions & Customized interventions (feedback, hints, and others) based on learning analytics helped students achieve better final test scores [72]. \\ \hline Mobile-supported reflective learning & Mobile device-supported learning with a significant component of reflection (self-guided or facilitated by a virtual expert) contributed to improved student achievement [73]. \\ \hline Mobile-supported task-based teaching & Task completion via mobile devices improved students’ reading comprehension [74], conversational comprehension, and vocabulary [75] in English. \\ \hline Location-based contextual learning systems & A mobile instructional game positively affected language learners’ learning outcomes (reading, writing, and vocabulary) [76]. Correspondingly, a ubiquitous guidance-learning system improved students’ learning achievements in the Cultural Heritage course [12]. \\ \hline M-learning (general) & M-learning positively influenced students’ knowledge acquisition [77] and content retention [32]. \\ \hline Technology-enhanced sports instruction & Using mobile applications and multimedia content improved students’ sports skills and knowledge [14; 78]. \\ \hline \hline \end{tabular}
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