## 1 Introduction  
With more constraints on energy resources, coupled with stringent regulations due to fossil fuel pollution, the growth of energy efficient technologies and clean, renewable energy sources is essential for ensuring sustainable practices. When assessing the potential gains from energy efficient technologies, engineering efficiency analysis must consider both the scale of energy flow and the technical component for improvement. As part of this analysis, the industry must thoroughly evaluate and compare the costs and demand trade-offs from a consumer perspective to ensure that the engineering of sustainable products provides optimal consumer satisfaction [1]. With volatility of gasoline prices, the purchase of electric cars has become an attractive option to some, but understanding the actual ownership costs associated with such a purchase requires analysis. Acquisition costs must take into consideration tax credits, while variable fuel costs associated with electric vehicles should be based on the cost per kilowatt hour, usage, and other factors. Further, maintenance and residual value must be investigated to paint a complete picture of life-cycle costs from consumers' perspectives. Some work has been done in the area of ownership and life-cycle costs for vehicles, but the area is relatively new [2]. [PERSON] & [PERSON] addressed the issue of lifecycle costs by developing a detailed model of the performance, energy use, manufacturing cost, retail cost, and lifecycle cost of battery-powered vehicles and comparable gasoline-powered vehicles [3]. They found in their 2001 study that for electric vehicles to be cost-competitive with gasoline-powered vehicles, batteries must have a lower manufacturing cost, as well as a longer battery life. The work provides a reasonable framework for an updated study. In another dated (2006) study, [PERSON] & [PERSON] developed a vehicle simulation cost model to analyze the manufacturing costs, retail prices, and lifecycle costs of hybrid gasoline-electric vehicles, conventional vehicles, electric-drive vehicles, and other alternative-fuel vehicles [4]. Due to its date, it lacks relevance based on the speed of technological change. [PERSON], [PERSON] & [PERSON] contributed to the worldwide methodology for the calculation of fuel consumption and emission factors when regarding emission standards, with distinct driving styles [5]. Using this methodology, they simulated the energy consumption, emissions, and cost of plug-in hybrid vehicles. Their work provides a good framework for cost estimation, but focuses only on plug-in hybrids. [PERSON], [PERSON] & [PERSON] compared the lifecycle costs of electric cars to similar gasoline-powered vehicles under different scenarios of required driving range and cost of gasoline [6]. They found that the electric cars with approximately 150 km range are a technologically viable, cost competitive, high performance, high efficiency alternative that can presently suit the vast majority of consumers' needs. This study uses similar methods. [PERSON] developed a simulation algorithm to explore the effects of different charging behaviors of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) on electricity demand profiles and energy use, in terms of time of day and location (at home, the workplace, or public areas) [7]. The study focused on electrical demand of PHEVs, but did demonstrate consumption of 1.5-2.0 kWh per day when electric chargers were available in the home. [PERSON] et al. introduce a total cost of ownership model for the average car user in Germany to compare the energy consumption of a conventional vehicle versus a plug-in hybrid electric vehicle [8]. This dated study found a break-even time frame of six years with 4 kWh batteries. Many studies have found that electric vehicles might be cheaper or more expensive than combustion engine vehicles depending on assumptions [9; 10]. No studies compared solely battery electric vehicles (BEV) vs. PHEV vehicles. [PERSON] et al.