compatible with 5G were introduced to the market and the deployment of 5G supporting infrastructure commenced in most developed countries. The vision of 5G encompasses three use cases, namely: enhanced mobile broadband (eMBB), ultrareliable low latency communications (URLLC) and massive machine-type communications (MMTC) [11]. 5G and beyond, like other generations of cellular technologies, demands a major paradigm shift in communications [12]. For high data-rate communication, 5G and beyond systems require massive bandwidth (up to 100\(\times\)) more than the previous systems, high base station (BS) to support high device density and an unprecedented number of antennas at the BS [7]. However, for the requirements of IoTs and MMTC, the 5G and beyond technology needs to support high spectral efficiency, massive connectivity of users/devices, significantly low latency, short packet duration, low power, high mobility and diverse service types [13]. From the above two examples it can be observed that the 5G standardization does not prescribe a single enabling technology to support all the 5G and beyond application requirements [12]. Moreover, supporting technologies for 5G were reviewed over 10 years ago. Coupled with this, the rapid increase in the use of mobile IoT devices has created a challenge for wireless networks to meet the requirements of new applications, thus making it imperative that continuous effort is made to optimize energy efficiency (EE) and spectral efficiency (SE) to meet the data-rate and quality of service (QoS) of each user's equipment [11; 14; 15; 16]. Presently, sub-6 GHz bands are being utilized for wireless communications. To maximize the potential for 5G and beyond, the frequencies in the millimeter wave band, between the range of 10 GHz to 70 GHz, has been approved by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) [17; 18; 19; 12]. A 100-fold increase in the bandwidth is achievable by increasing the frequencies for transmission to the millimeter wave (mmWave) spectrum [20; 21]. Until recently, mmWave was deemed unfit for mobile communications due to the hostile propagation qualities such as path loss, atmospheric and rain absorption, low diffraction and penetration through objects, strong phase noise and high cost [22]. The general notion for unlicensed bands around 60 GHz is for short-range transmission. At mmWave frequencies, objects and humans contribute to blockage and less diffraction occurs [20]. However, the miniaturization of semiconductors with reduced cost and power consumption has enabled us to surmount the limited range and propagation effects [23]. Moreover, specific frequencies suffer from absorption by gases with colliding resonance frequencies, such as 60 GHz for oxygen [12]. In addition, the radio environment in the current paradigm of wireless network optimization remains uncontrollable, and the propagated signal experiences reflection, diffraction, scattering and fading, which consequently becomes a limitation in maximizing the EE and SE of wireless networks [24]. One approach to overcome the poor propagation effects of the radio environment, especially in the mmWave band, is through the use of large antenna arrays with narrow beams to steer the beam energy coherently [12; 19; 20; 25]. To overcome the large free space path loss in the mmWave band, the beamforming technique used in massive multiple input and multiple output (mMIMO) has been adopted for this purpose [26]. Beamforming techniques at 60 GHz, using mmWave integrated circuits, have shown support for wireless transmission of multi-Gb/s data, see [18; 20; 27; 28] and references therein. Even with beamforming, the outdoor-to-indoor coverage is very limited in mmWave bands. With increasing frequency, rain causes a higher attenuation [12; 19].