## 3 Results and Discussion
### Health Risk Assessment
\begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c c c c c} \hline \hline
**Agolomeration** & **2018** & **2019** & **2020** & **2021** & **2022** \\ \hline \multicolumn{6}{c}{MALES} \\ \hline Tricity & \(5.46\times 10^{-6}\) & \(3.09\times 10^{-6}\) & \(3.08\times 10^{-6}\) & \(3.53\times 10^{-6}\) & \(3.05\times 10^{-6}\) \\ Upper Silesia & \(1.11\times 10^{-5}\) & \(9.47\times 10^{-6}\) & \(9.47\times 10^{-6}\) & \(7.42\times 10^{-6}\) & \(8.41\times 10^{-6}\) \\ Cracow & \(8.48\times 10^{-6}\) & \(7.26\times 10^{-6}\) & \(6.64\times 10^{-6}\) & \(6.36\times 10^{-6}\) & \(4.70\times 10^{-6}\) \\ Lublin & \(4.41\times 10^{-6}\) & \(3.95\times 10^{-6}\) & \(4.35\times 10^{-6}\) & \(4.71\times 10^{-6}\) & \(2.69\times 10^{-6}\) \\ Löddz & \(8.30\times 10^{-6}\) & \(6.18\times 10^{-6}\) & \(5.43\times 10^{-6}\) & \(6.36\times 10^{-6}\) & \(5.84\times 10^{-6}\) \\ Szczecin & \(8.80\times 10^{-6}\) & \(4.75\times 10^{-6}\) & \(4.59\times 10^{-6}\) & \(3.88\times 10^{-6}\) & \(4.41\times 10^{-6}\) \\ Warsaw & \(3.91\times 10^{-6}\) & \(3.14\times 10^{-6}\) & \(2.73\times 10^{-6}\) & \(3.30\times 10^{-6}\) & \(2.72\times 10^{-6}\) \\ Wroclaw & \(1.02\times 10^{-5}\) & \(8.14\times 10^{-6}\) & \(8.98\times 10^{-6}\) & \(8.33\times 10^{-6}\) & \(6.44\times 10^{-6}\) \\ \hline \multicolumn{6}{c}{FEMALES} \\ \hline Tricity & \(2.41\times 10^{-6}\) & \(1.735\times 10^{-6}\) & \(1.33\times 10^{-6}\) & \(1.50\times 10^{-6}\) & \(1.32\times 10^{-6}\) \\ Upper Silesia & \(4.87\times 10^{-6}\) & \(4.12\times 10^{-6}\) & \(4.08\times 10^{-6}\) & \(3.14\times 10^{-6}\) & \(3.61\times 10^{-6}\) \\ Cracow & \(3.82\times 10^{-6}\) & \(3.25\times 10^{-6}\) & \(2.94\times 10^{-6}\) & \(2.79\times 10^{-6}\) & \(2.10\times 10^{-6}\) \\ Lublin & \(1.98\times 10^{-6}\) & \(1.77\times 10^{-6}\) & \(1.91\times 10^{-6}\) & \(2.02\times 10^{-6}\) & \(1.20\times 10^{-6}\) \\ Löddz & \(3.63\times 10^{-6}\) & \(2.70\times 10^{-6}\) & \(2.69\times 10^{-6}\) & \(2.69\times 10^{-6}\) & \(2.51\times 10^{-6}\) \\ Szczecin & \(3.89\times 10^{-6}\) & \(2.10\times 10^{-6}\) & \(2.01\times 10^{-6}\) & \(1.68\times 10^{-6}\) & \(1.93\times 10^{-6}\) \\ Warsaw & \(1.75\times 10^{-6}\) & \(1.40\times 10^{-6}\) & \(1.20\times 10^{-6}\) & \(1.43\times 10^{-6}\) & \(1.22\times 10^{-6}\) \\ Wroclaw & \(4.54\times 10^{-6}\) & \(3.61\times 10^{-6}\) & \(3.95\times 10^{-6}\) & \(3.59\times 10^{-6}\) & \(2.82\times 10^{-6}\) \\ \hline \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table} 
Table 2: Incremental lifetime cancer risk from inhalation exposure in Polish Agglomerations (2018–2022) by sex. in Upper Silesia (1.11 \(\times\) 10\({}^{-5}\)) and Wroclaw (1.02 \(\times\) 10\({}^{-5}\)). The _ILCR_ values for women were slightly lower but comparable overall. Although some studies suggest that women may be at a higher risk of carcinogenesis due to their lower body weight, our results consistently show higher inhalation rate coefficients (_IRC_) for men across all investigated agglomerations. The difference is primarily due to the higher inhalation rates assumed for men (20.9 m\({}^{3}\cdot\)day\({}^{-1}\)) than for women (16.2 m\({}^{3}\cdot\)day\({}^{-1}\)), based on exposure factors commonly used in environmental risk assessments. When normalised by body weight, the inhaled air volume per kilogram of body weight is slightly higher for men (0.24 m\({}^{3}\cdot\)kg\({}^{-1}\cdot\)day\({}^{-1}\)) than for women (0.22 m\({}^{3}\cdot\)kg\({}^{-1}\cdot\)day\({}^{-1}\)). This means that, despite men's higher body weight, the greater air intake rate is the dominant factor influencing the _ILCR_. Other studies have observed similar relationships, with differences in inhalation rate outweighing the effect of body weight in _ILCR_ calculations [114]. The finding indicates that factors such as inhalation rate can greatly affect risk estimates and should be considered when examining differences in _ILCR_ between sexes. Furthermore, [PERSON] et al. demonstrated that exposure levels were significantly higher in the winter than in the summer [114]. Studies by [PERSON] and [PERSON] [86] and [PERSON] et al.