## 3 Emission Reduction Measures at Ports
### Landside Interface  
The port landside interface refers to the connecting areas between inland transport and port/terminal. External trucks access the port via gates, whereas trains access the port via seaport rail terminals. Therefore, the decarbonisation in the landslide interface focuses on trucks, trains, associated equipment, and facilities. The relevant solution measures to mitigate GHG in landslide interface areas for six solution categories are discussed below and summarized in Table 7.  
Operational measures: The efficiency of gate operations can be improved through a variety of strategic, tactical, and operational planning measures including gate layout design, vehicle booking systems (i.e., truck appointment systems), extended gate hours, automated gate systems, optimising vehicle use and loading, and empty equipment (vehicle or container) logistics ([1, 48, 49]; www.epa.gov, accessed on 20 December 2023). For example, appropriately controlling truck arrivals can reduce congestion and emissions at the gates [48]. Extended gate hours can reduce peak period activity and avoid road congestion and long waiting times at ports. Empty container repositioning and empty vehicle runs not only incur costs but also generate emissions and congestion. Minimising empty container repositioning and optimising vehicle use and loading are effective measures to cut costs and reduce emissions [49]. The efficiency of rail service operations can be improved through rail terminal layout design, rail service slot scheduling, wagon shunting, container pre-staging, and equipment coordination. [PERSON] and [PERSON] [50] optimised the container prestaging and dynamic discharging/loading at seaport rail terminals under uncertainty and showed that appropriate pre-staging can reduce the expected cost and avoid the misses of import containers that are designated to the trains. Technical measures: Most American seaports have initiated replacement/retrofit programs for diesel and gasoline vehicles with hybrid or alternative fuel-powered vehicles [46]. Hutchison Ports introduced Westwell's Q-Trucks in Thailand's Laem Chabang Port in 2020, and then rolled the system out in the UK by deploying 100 autonomous electric trucks in Felixstowe port in 2023. The electric trucks can increase the operational efficiency and consistency and contribute to decarbonising port operations (www.eadt.co.uk, accessed on 20 December 2023). In several US ports, such as New York/New Jersey, Corpus Christi, and Long Beach, locomotives are retrofitted to decrease diesel emissions [46]. Fuel and energy measures: Truck electrification with batteries has been applied in many countries. However, it is only feasible for trucks for short-distance transportation due to the relatively low energy density of the current battery technologies [51]. The Port of Houston started a pilot program to use hydrogen-powered trucks to transport 20-foot containers in December 2022. It is noted that the hydrogen fuel cells are larger than traditional engines, which led to smaller carry capacity compared to diesel-powered trucks  
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**Measures** & **Cases and Effect** & **References** \\ \hline  
(www.houtsonchronicle.com, accessed on 20 December 2023). Houston is one of the largest producers of hydrogen in the US. It is expected that hydrogen can help decarbonise the shipping and trucking sectors. Infrastructural measures: Brittlebank [38] reported that Siemens' eHighway system aimed to electrify selected highway lanes to supply external trucks with electric power near the Ports of Los Angeles and Long Beach via a catenary system. The Port of Gothenburg in Sweden expanded a double-track rail line in 2020 to increase rail service capacity and prompt modal shifts of cargo from road to rail [52]. The Port of Barcelona promoted a railway line to transport automotive components and new cars between the port facilities and the inland factory plant [52].