# The Invisible Threat of Antibiotic Resistance in Food
## 4 Antibiotic Resistance in Drinking Water
### Antibiotic Resistance Gene Migration Between Micradgae and Bacteria  
Microalgae constitute a diverse group of single-celled photosynthetic organisms, encompassing both prokaryotic (_Cyanobacteria_--blue-green algae) and eukaryotic (e.g., Chlorophyceaeeae--green algae; Porphidiophyceaeeae--red algae; Bacillariophyceaeeae--Diatoms) species [315; 316; 317]. Microalgae are regarded as future food and feed due to their high nutritional values (protein, polyunsaturated fatty acids, and vitamin content) [318; 319; 320], the capacity for rapid proliferation in a diverse range of habitats under photoautotrophic conditions, their simpler genetic manipulation, and their more straightforward scale up processes [321; 322]. The cyanobacterium _Arthrospira platensis_ (also known as Spirulina) and the eucaryotic _Chlorella_ species have been used as food sources or ingredients in several countries all over the world for a long time [323; 324]. Therefore, these microalgae are not considered as novel foods [311]. _Arthrospira platensis_ and _Chlorella vulgaris_ obtained in the U.S.'s regulation GRAS status from the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) [325]. Other eucaryotic microalgae such as _Haematococcus phylidalis_, _Schizochytrium_ sp., or _Ulkenia_ sp. are recognized as novel food in the EU and obtained GRAS status in the U.S. [326]. Microalgae are employed in a variety of ways for human consumption. They can be incorporated into foodstuffs like dairy products, fish products, cereals, and meat products as whole dry biomass [320; 327]. However, in addition to the beneficial effects (antimicrobial activity [328], source of dietary fiber, promotion of growth of probiotics), its application \begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{p{142.3 pt} p{142.3 pt}} \hline \hline \multicolumn{1}{c}{**Categories of Novel Food**} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{**Examples**} \\ \hline Foods with new or modified molecular structure & D-Tagatose, salatrim \\ \hline Foods consisting of, isolated from or produced from material of mineral origin & clinoptiolite (zeolite) \\ \hline Foods consisting of, isolated from or produced from microorganisms, fungi, algae & algae oil from the microalgae _Ulkenia_ sp. \\ \hline Foods consisting of, isolated from or produced from plants or their parts & noni juice (_Morinda citrifolia_), chia seeds (_Salvia hispanica_) \\ \hline Foods consisting of, isolated from or produced from animals or their parts & insects, oil from Antarctic krill (_Euphasia superba_), peptides from the fish _Sandinops sagax_ \\ \hline Food consisting of, isolated from or produced from cell culture or tissue culture derived from animals, plants, micro-organisms, fungi, or algae & extract from cell cultures of _Echinacea angustifolia_, in vitro meat \\ \hline Food resulting from a production process not used for food production within the Union before 15 May 1997 & high pressure pasteurized fruit preparations, UV-treated food: mushrooms (_Agaricus bisporus_), baker’s yeast (_Saccharomyces cerevisiae_), bread, milk \\ \hline Food consisting of engineered nanomaterials & nanosilver provides antimicrobial properties to food packaging, nanocapsules (containing flavor or color enhancers, or added vitamins) \\ \hline Vitamins, minerals and other substances used in accordance with Directive 2002/46/EC, Regulation (EC) No 1925/2006 or Regulation (EU) No 609/2013 & iron (II) ammonium phosphate, vitamin K2 (menaquinone), chromium picolinate \\ \hline Food used exclusively in food supplements within the Union before 15 May 1997 & maqui berry (Aristotelia chilensis), rose root (Rhodiola rosea) \\ \hline \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table} 
Table 3: Categories of novel food according to Regulation (EU) 2015/2283 [306] and examples [311; 312; 313; 314]. is limited due to the sensory characteristics (namely, fish taste and strong color) [326; 329]. The use of microalgal extracts is an effective method for enhancing the nutritional value of food products [330; 331].