## 5 Energy Optimization Approach Based on MAC/Routing Cross-Layer (EOAMRCL)
### Clusters Formation Phase (Network Layer)
This is attributed to the protocol's strategic approach to clustering and routing, which dynamically adjusts to the network's energy states and communication demands. The robust objective function plays a vital role in selecting the most suitable CHs, ensuring that energy resources are utilized efficiently and effectively throughout the network's operation. Future work will explore the applicability of EOAMRCL in mobile sensor networks, where node mobility introduces additional challenges to energy management and network stability. Incorporating mobility into our protocol will require further refinement of the objective function to account for dynamic changes in node positions and energy levels. Additionally, we plan to evaluate the impact of incorporating more parameters into the objective function, such as node density and traffic load, to enhance its robustness and adaptability. We also intend to experiment with varying the weights assigned to different parameters within the objective function. This will help us understand how different prioritizations can affect the overall performance of the protocol, allowing for more tailored and context-specific implementations. Conceptualization, M.K. and M.O. ; methodology, M.K. and M.O. ; software, M.K. ; validation, M.K. and M.O. ; formal analysis, M.O. ; investigation, K.S. and A.A.; resources, M.K. ; data curation, M.K. and M.O. ; writing--original draft preparation, M.K. and M.O. ; writing--review and editing, K.S. and A.A.; visualization, M.K. and M.O. ; supervision, M.K. ; project administration, M.O. ; funding acquisition, M.K., M.O., K.S. and A.A. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. The research was funded by the Algerian National Agency of Research and Development (DGRSDT-PRFU project number C00L07 UN010120200001) and Mohammed Bin Rashid Smart Learning Program, United Arab Emirates (MBRSLP/06/23). Not applicable. **Data Availability Statement:** No new data were created, and all simulation results are presented in this paper. **Conflicts of Interest:** The authors declare no conflicts of interest. ## References

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