# Electrification in Maritime Vessels: Reviewing Storage Solutions and Long-Term Energy Management
## 4 Maritime Battery Projects  
Battery technologies' use in automotive transportation as a source of energy has paved the way for their applicability to the marine industry. Battery technology research and development have generally taken place in the consumer electronics and automotive sectors due to dominance in the market. The maritime industry has evaluated and integrated these developed technologies into a marine environment [27].  
Battery system design must be performed before being implemented on a marine vessel. All batteries can be used for all types of ships; some of them are more appropriate than others. The suitability depends on the weight, volume, and costs of batteries. Furthermore, the characteristics required by vehicles should not be overlooked when evaluating their suitability. Maritime battery systems are categorized as depicted in Figure 11, based on  
\begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{p{56.9 pt} p{56.9 pt} p{56.9 pt} p{56.9 pt} p{56.9 pt} p{56.9 pt} p{56.9 pt} p{56.9 pt}} \hline
**Battery Type** & **Cost (USD/kWh)** & **Energy (Wh.g\({}^{-1}\))** & **C-Rate** & **Degradation Rate** & **Cycle Life** & **Safety** & **Applications** \\ \hline Lithium-Ion (Li-Ion) & 150–300 & 150–250 & 1–5 C & Moderate & 500–1500 & Moderate (thermal runaway risk) & Hybrid and fully electric propulsion systems \\ \hline Lithium & 100–200 & 90–120 & 1–3 C & Low (better stability) & 1500–3000 & High (stable, safer) & Electric vehicles, grid storage, maritime \\ (LiFePO\({}_{4}\)) & & & & & & & \\ \hline Lead–Acid & 100–150 & 30–50 & 0.1–0.5 C & High (rapid capacity loss) & 300–500 & Low (can be hazardous) & Emergency backup, auxiliary power systems \\ \hline Nickel– & 200–300 & 40–60 & 1–3 C & Moderate to high & 1000–1500 & Moderate (toxic & Marine applications, aerodynamic aerospace \\ (Ni-Cd) & & & & & & & \\ \hline Nickel– & 250–500 & 60–120 & 0.5–2 C & Moderate & 500–1000 & Moderate (less toxic than Ni-Cd) & Hybrid vehicles, medical equipment \\ (NiMH) & & & & & & & \\ \hline Solid-State & 500–1000 & 250–500 & 1–5 C & Very low (due to solid electrolyte) & High (no plantmability) & Emerging tech, flammability & flammability \\ \hline Flow Batteries & 200–400 & 20–40 & 0.2–1 C & Low & 5000+ & High (liquid-based, scalable) & Large-scale energy storage, offshore platform \\ \hline Hydrogen Storage & 400–600 & 33000 (by weight) & - & - & 3000–5000 & High (flammable) & Long-range cargo, ferries, backup systems \\ \hline Fuel Cells (PEMFC) & 1000–5000 & 800–1500 (system level) & - & - & 5000–10,000 & High (but controlled) & Passenger ships, cruise ships, auxiliary power \\ \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table}
Table 2: Batteries regarding various aspects [110; 120].  
their energy density and maximum C-rates for discharging, which shows how quickly they discharge. Thus, the properties of the battery system may vary depending on the operating conditions of marine vessels [119]. Table 3 demonstrates the change in a broad picture of the variation of expectations in the battery systems according to the requirements of the vehicles (customer devices, automotive, or ships). While vessels and cars need batteries having high energy and medium life, Ampere as the first modern electric car ferry and Aurora and Tycho Brahe, the world's largest electric vessels, were designed with medium-power and long-life batteries.