## 5 Summary and Conclusions  
For a real scale man-made slope in a cold region, a practical monitoring system has been established to measure and observe slope behaviors, i.e., pore pressure, air and ground temperature, inclination, and surface displacement. Slope stability analyses were performed with the measured data to evaluate factors of safety during the winter season from November 2019 to March 2020. As a result, it was found that:  
1. Measured pore water pressure underground increases proportionally to the decrease of ground temperature. It is explained that the frozen ground absorbs unfrozen water, developing a gradient in the water potential in the same direction as the temperature gradient and formulating ice lenses, which can cause soil heaving. The frozen ground might increase the level of the groundwater table, but the ice lenses were not formulated because the temperature was often fluctuating above and below 0 \({}^{\circ}\)C.
2. Measured ground temperature from PVT agreed with the temperature of the integrated sensor pack showing 2-4 \({}^{\circ}\)C at 1-4 m depth from the ground. While the ground temperature at 8.55 m  
Figure 14: Coupled analysis using the modules TEMP/W, SEEP/W, and SLOPE/W. (**a**) Full thermal model analysis, (**b**) seepage and slope stability analysis.  
depth remained constant of 5 \({}^{\circ}\)C. It means that the ground temperature deeper than 8 m from the surface remains constant, and is not influenced by the change of temperature in the air.
3. Slope stability analyses versus time were performed, taking the measured pore pressure and ground temperature into account. Full thermal and saturated/unsaturated models were applied to simulate ground temperature distribution and water flow into the soils. The factors of safety of the man-made slope from November to March were calculated, ranging between 2.24 to 2.61. The slope stability in a cold region is affected by the weather condition, i.e., freezing-thawing action and precipitation, and this phenomenon should be continuously observed over the years by an installed monitoring system.
4. The continuously measured data from not only piezometers and integrated sensor packs, but also water potential sensors and Lidar, can be applied to update soil parameters and provide much of the information necessary to monitor slope behavior and to obtain some of the necessary parameters for mitigation and remediation.  
[PERSON] is the first author who have done a conceptualization, draft writing, site investigation, sensor installation, and numerical analyses. [PERSON] has done funding acquisition, review and editing. [PERSON] has done site investigation, review and editing. [PERSON] has done data acquisition and laboratory testing. [PERSON]-[PERSON] have done review and editing. [PERSON] has done funding acquisition and supervision. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.  
This study was performed under a research contract between the Norwegian Geotechnical Institute (NGI) and Korea Infrastructure Safety and Technology Corporation (KISTEC) in connection with the project of \"Development of site-inspection, risk assessment, monitoring and overall maintenance methods based on ICT technology for slope safety of Ice-melting season\". This research was funded by KISTEC (KAIA project number: 18 CTAP-C145146-01). The authors would like to thank KISTEC and the Norwegian GeoTest Sites for access to the Oysand research site.  
The authors declare no conflict of interest.