# Exploring the Use of Landmarks to Aid Pedestrian Wayfinding
## 2 Literature
Self-location occurs when the map user is able to locate their current location on the map; this process happens at the commencement of a wayfinding task. The physical surroundings, landmarks in particular, are matched to their location on the map, enabling orientation to occur. This is a problem-solving activity [14]. Visualization, an ongoing cognitive process when wayfinding, refers to another form of map and environment interaction whereby the map's two-dimensional representation of the surroundings is matched to the three-dimensional real-world environment. For [PERSON] [14], unlike matching the environment to the map, as with self-location, visualization involves matching the map to the environment while moving through it. The \"mental representations [thus] formed and the patterns people see are closely linked to expectations they bring to a given situation\" [17] (p. 101). Matching the map to the surroundings gives the map-user the ability to predict upcoming spatial configurations in the real world, which is continually repeated as wayfinding continues. Automation is defined as \"the execution by a machine agent (usually a computer) of a function previously carried out by a human\" [18] (p. 231). When using mobile maps, two theoretical spatial procedures are irrelevant: map rotation and self-location are handled by the automated system [14]. This means that the cognitive effort of paper map rotation is not required as the mobile map system provides a heads-up map, also known as a track-up map. At the simple touch of a button, the map region located directly in front of the user is displayed, which may or may not be north [19]. The GPS automatically locates the user, which removes the need for self-location. The third of [PERSON]'s [14] spatial processes, namely visualization, still occurs with mobile maps. Visualization matches the map to the surroundings as the user moves through the region. However, the amount of visualization provided via a mobile map is probably less than what occurs with a paper map. The small size of the map on mobile phones reduces one's ability effectively to match the map to the surroundings [9; 11], which can result in the so-called keyhole problem. Landmarks present an opportunity for use in the constrained interface of mobile maps as they have been proven to aid our understanding of routes and the surrounding environment [20; 21; 22; 23]. Research indicates that landmarks are vital environmental elements used when wayfinding. According to some researchers, we use landmarks when we follow a route, in particular at intersections [24], as landmarks can usefully provide orientation in unfamiliar environments [20]. We also tend to use them when giving verbal route instructions [21; 22] and when drawing sketch maps of a route [23]. Currently, landmarks do not feature in digital mapping systems. With contemporary mobile maps, it appears that technology may exist for depicting landmarks on screen. Here WeGo Map Version 2017), in particular, appear to be the most advanced in this regard. As Figure 2 shows, the turn-by-turn instructions in Here WeGo Maps use 3D renderings of buildings, and while these buildings may be landmarks in a general sense (i.e., they are prominent buildings/landmarks within cities), they are not used as decision points or confirmation points in route instructions. At present, no technology exists that successfully identifies landmarks based on salience or appropriateness for route instructions and integrates them into a commercially available mapping system [25; 26]. [PERSON] [1] investigated if landmarks presented in a street map would enhance the available spatial information and aid route following. To address this, participants were assigned to one of three participant groups, all of which used a conventional street map. Twenty salient landmarks, all located at intersections, were used.