# Global Power Dynamics in the Contemporary Space System
## 5 System Dynamics--Global Power Dynamics
### Building Military Power  
Since its origins, the space sector has been utilized for activities related to defense and security. The majority of the major space powers have allocated significant resources to military purposes in the domain of space. Despite the advent of a new era marked by the dissolution of the Cold War, which witnessed a diminution in geopolitical tensions, national space policies have persisted in pursuing dual objectives, encompassing political and economic interests, while concurrently giving due consideration to fundamental security and military considerations. The intensifying geopolitical tensions of recent years have prompted space powers to escalate their investments in the defense sector.  
Throughout history, the primary focus of government spending has been on investments in civil space activities. However, in 2023, a substantial paradigm shift occurred, with defense expenditures now overtaking civil expenditures [46]. In 2023, for the first time, defense expenditures surpassed investments in civilian programs [77]. A substantial portion of the national budget is now allocated to defense expenditures, estimated at USD 59 billion of the total USD 117 billion. A notable surge has been observed in investments related to Security and Early Warning Systems.  
Simultaneously, novel military organizations have been established or re-established in recent years. Notably, China institutionalized a distinct space service in 2015, designated as the People's Liberation Army (PLA) Strategic Support Force (SSF), under the leadership of [PERSON]. The PLA/SSF has integrated China's expanding military space assets into a unified entity, intending to achieve dominance across the domains of air, space, and cyber. In 2024, the PLA/SSF underwent a reorganization, being replaced with a new structure with the creation of the Aero-space Force to support its armed forces [78]. Concurrently, Russia re-established the Russian Space Force after its dissolution in 2011. In 2019, the United States Space Force (USSF) was established as the independent space service branch of the U.S. Armed Forces. The USSF is the smallest branch of the U.S. Armed Forces, yet it is undergoing rapid expansion. For the 2025 fiscal year, the administration requested a budget of USD 29.6 billion for the Space Force, constituting approximately 3.5% of the total budget request for the Department of Defense. This budget request marks the fifth submission since the establishment of the Space Force, and it reflects a substantial increase in the service's budget, which has nearly doubled over this period [79]. This trend has been emulated by other nations, as evidenced by the establishment of analogous space forces in France (2019), Iran (2020), and Spain (2022).  
There is a prevailing determination to establish novel military space policies. In recent years, various world powers have announced their intention to conduct military activitiesin space, including the United States, Russia, China, India, and Japan. Furthermore, a significant number of countries possess their own reconnaissance satellites, including the United States, Russia, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, China, India, Iran, and Israel. Japan and India, long-standing space powers that previously exclusively engaged in peaceful space activities, have transitioned their space policy from a \"non-military\" to a \"non-aggressive\" stance. The United States has developed its inaugural doctrine, designated \"Spacepower\", within the context of its recently established military space branch. The United States considers spacepower to be a vital element of U.S. prosperity and security, and the military space forces are the warfighters who protect, defend, and project this spacepower. According to this doctrine, \"the U.S. must adapt its national security space organizations, doctrine, and capabilities to deter and defeat aggression and protect national interests in space\" [80].