## 5 Discussion: Can Microl plastics and Microbioplastics Act as Vectors of Pathogens?
Additionally, the use of infected plant materials, such as seeds,transplants, or debris left in the field after harvest can also contribute to the spread of pathogens. These organisms can survive on plant residues and infect subsequent crops. Micoplastic particles, whether they are made of biodegradable or non-biodegradable polymers, are becoming more prevalent in soil. As a result, these particles can have a significant impact on soil physical and chemical properties, as well as soil ecology. Changes can occur in soil grain size, soil aggregate formation capacity, soil water levels, and soil biodiversity [88; 91; 96; 100]. These changes can ultimately lead to issues such as soil erosion, eutrophication and disruption in soil metabolism and nutrient cycling [77]. It is becoming increasingly evident that the presence of MPs in soil, known as the 'plastisphere' or'microplastisphere', can alter the microbial and fungal communities present in the soil, potentially introducing new species and impacting the spread of pathogenic microorganisms in both aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems [107; 133]. The inappropriate soil management exacerbates the problem of pathogen spread. In undisturbed soils, soil-borne pathogens are generally controlled by natural predator-prey relationships and do not pose a significant risk to the environment [131]. However, soil disturbance through contamination by MPs and MBPs, combined with soil erosion, can disturb this balance, potentially allowing pathogens to proliferate and spread to other ecosystems or infect humans, either directly or indirectly [131]. As suggested by the literature reviewed in this work, MBPs are particularly susceptible to microbial biofilm formation, which, together with faster erosion and rapid colonization, could lead to higher risks of disease spread, impacting both plant and animal health. In addition, the biofilm formed on MBPs will have different properties compared to MPs [134] and therefore attract a more diverse array of organisms [135]. As a result, MBP biofilms contain a larger biomass, respond differently to environmental stress, and have a higher potential pathogenic bacteria index compared to MPs (based on the comparison of PLA MBPs with PP and PE MPs [134]). In marine ecosystems, biofilms on some MPs release noxious signals, known as infochemicals, into the environment, which attract the organisms for ingestion [136]. It remains unclear whether this attraction also occurs in soil ecosystems, because this would potentially increase the transport of MBPs by soil biota. Recent reviews have also summarized the uptake of MPs and nanoplastics by plants and their accumulation in plant tissues [137]. The transport mechanisms include endocytosis, apoplastic transport, crack entry, and stomatal entry. However, current studies do not address the potential uptake of pathogenic microorganisms and viruses to plants, either by MPs or MBPs. Another factor that must be considered is climate change, which increases outbreak risks by altering pathogen evolution and host-pathogen interactions, facilitating the emergence of new pathogenic strains [130]. However, the response of pathogenic fungi and microorganisms to altered environmental conditions and elevated atmospheric CO\({}_{2}\) concentration could be very diverse [138; 139] As a result, the inclusion of soil-borne pathogens with MPs/MBPs adds to the intricacy of crop-climate-environment relationships, making it challenging to accurately predict the overall impact of climate change on agriculture. Therefore, the effect of MPs on soil properties may be a critical question with regard to the increasing utilization of biodegradable plastics in agriculture and other fields. Their use in agriculture introduces a large amount of microbiologically labile substrate, which is nutrient-poor and leads to the proliferation of a microbiota that can better lead to stress conditions. Therefore, their possible adverse effect on soil ecosystem services should not be overlooked [140].