## 3 Results
### Feasibility Assessment  
A socio-economic and environmental impact assessment for the study area was conducted with the Impact Assessment Tool of SPIS [50]. Figure 2 represents the SPIS output graph with the results obtained. Categories on population change and migration, women's role, and minority and indigenous groups were not specifically investigated (Figure 2). However, the introduction of solar-powered groundwater pumping schemes operated as MUS will undoubtably improve employment and economic opportunities, which may contribute to a decrease in population migration from the study area, and improvements in the social status of women through the provision of water supply and service, market opportunities, integration and equitable access to resources and institutions and time relief for other activities such as education, leisure and training. Similarly, the reliable water supply will impact positively on the lifestyle and livelihoods of minority and indigenous groups. A major positive impact of the intervention is expected in terms of income and amenities (Figure 2) through economic changes, improvements of livelihoods and well-being, equitable distribution of income and business opportunities with spin-offs in terms of diversification of production, technical services and markets, creation of agricultural services, employment opportunities and building of infrastructure. The intervention is not expected to substantially impact political changes, social harmony or regional effects in the country due to its localized nature (Figure 2). However, although the improvement of food supply is targeted to local communities, there is a realistic chance that produce will be marketed outside the study area, in markets in Limpopo and other provinces. The intervention can also contribute to strengthening the agricultural products value chain (transport, marketing and processing). The category of user involvement scored high in the impact assessment (Figure 2) through the engagement of stakeholders, public participation, discussions with the community on credit and marketing opportunities, their needs and preferences, as well as the training of communities in the use of the solar-powered water supply systems. Concerning the impacts on natural resources and the environment (Figure 2), the intervention will certainly modify the water balance (evapotranspiration, groundwater storage, baseflow) through increased groundwater abstraction. Sustainable water abstraction limits can be set for each specific site (borehole, well), for example by switching off the pump automatically when a certain groundwater level has been reached. Groundwater quality as a result of irrigation return flow is not deemed to be a problem, mainly because small-holder farms are spaced apart. Salinization and other impacts on the soil (acidification, alkalinisation, waterlogging) are not expected in the short-term, however this should be monitored in the long-term. Land degradation through soil erosion represents a big problem in the area and it manifests through sheet, gulley erosion and soil compaction below the ploughing layer. The increased use of fertilizers and pesticides will have to be monitored. Water requirements for the case study farms (Table 1) were calculated with the Water Requirements Tool of SPIS. The output results are shown in Table 2. Monthly crop water requirements vary depending on the season, the atmospheric evaporative demand, effective rainfall and overlapping crop growing seasons (planting dates). The highest values were recorded in the summer months (December to March) and the lowest in winter (April to July). The maximum crop water requirement of 33.4 m\({}^{3}\)/d was calculated in December whilst the minimum was in May (10.4 m\({}^{3}\)/d) (Table 2). Livestock water requirement was negligible compared to irrigation water requirement. The seasonal patterns of total water requirement for the farm were therefore similar to crop water requirement with a peak in December (33.9 m\({}^{3}\)/d).