## 1 Introduction  
Renewable energy technologies are increasingly becoming viable options for achieving global electricity access efficiently and consistently. Renewable energy systems have become essential alternatives to conventional energy sources due to increasing environmental concerns and the limited availability of fossil fuel supplies, playing a crucial role in advancing sustainable development [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7]. Solar energy is one of the most abundant and widely available renewable energy sources. Photovoltaic (PV) systems and solar thermal technologies may both harvest the sun's energy [8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14]. The widespread availability and scalability of solar energy make it particularly appealing, as it can be used in a variety of applications, from modest residential installations to large-scale solar farms. Solar power has emerged as a prominent participant in the global transition to renewable energy due to the advancement of technology and falling costs [15, 16, 17, 18, 19]. The global renewable energy generation by source in 2023 is depicted in Figure 1[20]. The share of solar energy in production, among renewable energy sources, began to develop significantly in the early 2000s and has continued to grow rapidly with a sharp increase since 2010, approaching the 2000 TWh level. Modern renewable energy generation by source, World  
Figure 1: The global distribution of power generation by renewable energy source in 2023. Figure 3 depicts the operating block diagram of the MPPT in a PV system. It includes the interactions between the PV modules, the DC-DC converter, the MPPT controller, and the load. The figure outlines how the MPPT controller continuously monitors the PV system's generated voltage and current values, processes these data to identify the MPP, and sends appropriate control signals to the DC-DC converter to adjust the duty cycle, ensuring the system operates at MPP. As shown in Table 1, MPPT algorithms can be mainly categorized into two groups, based on their tracking characteristics: traditional and advanced approaches. Figure 3: Block diagram of a PV system with MPPT. Figure 2: Current–Voltage characteristic of a PV cell. The development of MPPT algorithms demonstrates a significant progression from simple techniques to advanced approaches. Early traditional MPPT techniques are founded on clear principles and have been extensively used because of their simplicity and low cost in stable conditions. However, their performance may be affected in dynamic or unpredictable scenarios, resulting in less-than-optimal achievements. With advancements in computational power and the growing understanding of complex systems, there has been a shift in focus toward advanced MPPT algorithms. The methods described use machine learning and optimization techniques to improve the accuracy and adaptability of tracking. The latest advancements in MPPT algorithms are focusing on hybrid approaches that combine traditional methods with metaheuristic MPPT techniques. In a review study, a concise classification and evaluation of various MPPT methods for PV systems, highlighting their efficiency, performance, complexity, and tracking speed are presented. It categorizes the methods into conventional, advanced, and hybrid approaches [25]. Another study provides a comprehensive review of MPPT algorithms for PV systems, categorizing them into measurement-based, calculation-based, intelligent schemes, and hybrid methods. It compares the performance, applications, advantages, and disadvantages of various algorithms, offering valuable insights for selecting the most suitable one [33]. In another study, the methods used for MPPT in PV systems are reviewed. These methods are classified into