## 1 Introduction
### Effective ICT Integration into Pre-Service Teacher Education  
Incorporating ICT meaningfully into pre-service teacher education is a key priority for 21 st-century learning. Effective ICT integration is not merely about using digital tools, but about understanding how, why, and when to use them to enhance student learning. For pre-service science teachers, this requires an epistemologically integrated approach that links disciplinary content with pedagogical and technological knowledge.  
The Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) framework [51; 52] has become a foundational model for guiding technology integration in education. Built upon [PERSON]'s Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) [53], TPACK emphasizes the dynamic interplay between three core components: content, pedagogy, and technology. Rather than treating these domains in isolation, TPACK highlights the need to understand their complex relationships, particularly in context-specific applications like science education [54; 55].  
In science education, this framework has evolved into what some scholars refer to as Technological Pedagogical and Science Content Knowledge (TPASK), underscoring the specificity of scientific disciplines and the need for contextualized instruction [54]. TPASK calls for a deeper understanding of how technology can support inquiry-based learning, the visualization of complex phenomena, and the development of scientific literacy through real-world problem-solving.  
Accordingly, the effective preparation of future teachers must go beyond technical training in digital tools. Pre-service teachers should be equipped to make informed, pedagogically grounded decisions about the use of ICT--ranging from learning management systems to multimodal media [56]. Meaningful integration entails designing student-centred, inquiry-driven experiences where technology is not simply an \"add-on\" but a transformative element that enables active, reflective, and contextual learning [57; 58].  
Yet many ICT training initiatives remain overly focused on operational skills, often neglecting the pedagogical and disciplinary rationale behind technology use. This imbalance can result in superficial or disconnected uses of technology that fail to enhance learning [54]. To overcome this, teachers must understand not only how to use ICT, but also how it can support strategies such as hypothesis testing, argumentation, and collaborative inquiry--particularly vital in science classrooms.  
Science education is especially well positioned to benefit from ICT-enhanced pedagogies. It inherently supports problem-based learning, real-world application, and multimodal representations of abstract concepts. Technologies such as simulations, visualizations, and digital storytelling help bridge the gap between theoretical knowledge and practical understanding, making chemistry more accessible and relevant to learners [54; 55].  
Both TPACK/TPASK frameworks provide a reflective structure for pre-service teachers to develop competence in aligning technology with curricular goals, student needs, and disciplinary practices. This is crucial for preparing educators who can navigate evolving educational landscapes and select appropriate tools for meaningful integration.  
Complementing the aforementioned models, the European Framework for the Digital Competence of Educators (DigCompEdu) [59] adds a broader, profession-wide perspective to what digital competence entails. DigCompEdu responds to the growing need for educators to act not only as users of digital tools, but also as digital role models for their students. It outlines six areas of competence: (1) professional engagement, (2) digital resources, (3) teaching and learning, (4) assessment, (5) empowering learners, and (6) facilitating learners' digital competence. These areas reflect the multifaceted nature of digital teaching and reinforce the idea that educators must be prepared to manage digital technologies for communication, personalization, and innovation in learning environments.