# Applications of Deep Learning to Neurodevelopment in Pediatric Imaging: Achievements and Challenges
## 3 Results
### Identifying Brain and Tissue Structures
\begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c c c c c c c} \hline \hline
**Study** & **Year** & **Structure** & **Population** & **Technique** & **Preprocessing** & **Method** & **Results** \\ \hline
[107] & 2020 & Brain Mask & 197 fetuses (gestation age 24–39 weeks) & rs-fMRI & FSL & U-net &
\begin{tabular}{c} Dice \\ score 0.94 \\ \end{tabular} \\ \hline
[98] & 2020 & Brain Mask & 71 scans of fetuses & rs-fMRI & AFNI & GAN &
\begin{tabular}{c} Dice score \\ 0.973 \(\pm\) 0.013 \\ \end{tabular} \\ \hline
[108] & 2020 & Brain Mask & \
\begin{tabular}{c} 37 healthy fetuses (gestation age 27.3 \(\pm\) 4.11 weeks) \\ 32 fetuses with spina bifida \\ pre-surgery (gestation age 23.06 \(\pm\) 1.64 weeks) \\ 16 fetuses post-surgery \\ (gestation age 25.69 \(\pm\) 1.21 weeks) \\ \end{tabular} & sMRI & -N4 ITK & U-net &
\begin{tabular}{c} Dice score \\ 0.9321 \\ (healthy), \\ 0.9387 \\ (pre-surgery), \\ 0.9294 \\ (post-surgery) \\ \end{tabular} \\ \hline
[101] & 2021 & Brain Mask & \
\begin{tabular}{c} 214 fetuses (gestation age 22–38 weeks) \\ \end{tabular} & sMRI & - & 3D U-net &
\begin{tabular}{c} Testing dice \\ score 0.944 \\ \end{tabular} \\ \hline
[109] & 2021 & Brain Mask & \
\begin{tabular}{c} 30 subjects \\ (ages 2.34–4.31 years) \\ \end{tabular} & sMRI & - & CNN &
\begin{tabular}{c} Dice score \\ 0.90 \(\pm\) 0.14 \\ \end{tabular} \\ \hline
[110] & 2019 & Brain Tissue & \
\begin{tabular}{c} 29 subjects \\ (age 9.96 \(\pm\) 7.16 years) \\ \end{tabular} & sMRI & - & 3D CNN &
\begin{tabular}{c} Dice score \\ 0.888 (gray \\ matter), 0.863 \\ (white matter), 0.937 (CSF) \\ \end{tabular} \\ \hline
[111] & 2019 & Brain Tissue & \
\begin{tabular}{c} 12 fetuses (gestation age 22.9–34.6 weeks) \\ \end{tabular} & sMRI & - & CNN &
\begin{tabular}{c} Dice \\ score 0.88 \\ \end{tabular} \\ \hline
[112] & 2019 & Brain Tissue & \
\begin{tabular}{c} 95 very pre-term infants \\ (gestation age 28.5 \(\pm\) 2.5 weeks, scan at term age), \\ 28 very pre-term infants \\ (gestation age 26.8 \(\pm\) 2.1 weeks, scan at term age) \\ \end{tabular} & sMRI & - & CNN &
\begin{tabular}{c} Dice score \\ 0.895 \(\pm\) 0.098 \\ testing dice \\ score 0.845 \(\pm\) 0.079 \\ \end{tabular} \\ \hline
[113] & 2020 & Brain Tissue & \
\begin{tabular}{c} 47 patients with pediatric \\ hydrocephalus (age 5.8 \(\pm\) 5.4 years) \\ \end{tabular} & sMRI & - & CNN &
\begin{tabular}{c} Dice \\ score 0.86 \\ \end{tabular} \\ \hline
[114] & 2021 & Brain Tissue & \
\begin{tabular}{c} 35 subjects \\ (age 4.2 \(\pm\) 0.7 years) \\ \end{tabular} & sMRI & - & 3D CNN &
\begin{tabular}{c} JS = 0.83 for \\ gray matter \\ JS = 0.92 for \\ white matter \\ \end{tabular} \\ \hline
[25] & 2021 & Brain Tissue & \begin{tabular}{c} 98 preterm infants \\ (gestation age \(\leq\) 32 weeks) \\ \end{tabular} & DTI & \
\begin{tabular}{c} In-house \\ pipeline \\ \end{tabular} & 3D U-net &
\begin{tabular}{c} Dice score \\ 0.907 \(\pm\) 0.041 \\ \end{tabular} \\ \hline
[102] & 2022 & Brain Tissue & \
\begin{tabular}{c} 106 fetuses (gestation age 23–39 weeks) \\ \end{tabular} & sMRI & FSL & 3D U-net &
\begin{tabular}{c} Dice \\ score 0.897 \\ \end{tabular} \\ \hline
[115] & 2022 & Brain Tissue & \
\begin{tabular}{c} dHCP dataset: 150 term \\ (gestation age 37–44 weeks ) \\ 50 preterm (gestation age \(\leq\) 32 weeks) \\ \end{tabular} & sMRI & - & CNN &
\begin{tabular}{c} Dice \\ score 0.88 \\ \end{tabular} \\ \hline
[116] & 2022 & Brain Tissue & \
\begin{tabular}{c} 23 infants \\ (age 6 \(\pm\) 0.5 months) \\ \end{tabular} & sMRI & In-house & U-net &
\begin{tabular}{c} Dice score \\ 0.901 \(\pm\) 0.057 \\ \end{tabular} \\ \hline
[117] & 2022 & Brain Tissue & \
\begin{tabular}{c} 23 infants \\ (age 6 \(\pm\) 0.5 months) \\ \end{tabular} & sMRI & In-house & U-net &
\begin{tabular}{c} Dice \\ score 0.901 \(\pm\) 0.057 \\ \end{tabular} \\ \hline \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table} 
Table 3: _Cont._