## 5 Study 2: Resilience of Roof-Mounted Solar Panels to High Wind Loads  
### Wind Effects on Roof-Mounted Photovoltaic Panels  
In contemporary society, a notable facet of infrastructure subject to heightened wind forces encompasses roof-mounted solar panels. This is particularly pertinent given that solar energy constituted a 56% of newly added electricity-generating capacity within the United States during the initial half of 2021. The installation rates of residential solar panels reached historically elevated levels in 2020 and 2021. Consequently, a pressing imperative arises to scrutinize, assess, and benchmark the structural robustness of the solar panels and the underlying roof assemblies. This diligence is crucial to forestall any prospective failures, thereby averting the potential hazard of these components becoming airborne debris in scenarios of high intensity wind [65]. Rooof-mounted solar arrays represent appendages to buildings, engineered to withstand challenging wind events. Since their advent in the residential sphere, instances have been documented wherein solar systems have successfully weathered severe storms [66, 67, 68, 69]. A notable illustration is observed in Puerto Rico, an island affected by the ravages of Hurricanes Irma and Maria in 2017. An evaluation report on mitigation affirms that most impairments to residential solar panels were attributable to deficiently anchored roofs, suboptimal panel-to-frame junctions, or intrinsic panel failures. Remarkably, there was a conspicuous absence of reported incidents wherein roofs bearing solar panels failed outright [66]. This indicates that the wind-induced loads channelled through the solar array were sufficient to precipitate the failure of the array's internal connections before any structural compromise of the underlying roof. Figure 6: Mean pressure coefficients were observed in three distinct test configurations: (**a**) 1:100 TPU wind tunnel, (**b**) 1:26 LSU open-jet, and (**c**) 1:13 LSU open-jet. Figure 7: Ninety-fifth percentile minimum pressure coefficients under varying test conditions: (**a**) in a 1:100 TPU wind tunnel, (**b**) in a 1:26 LSU open-jet, and (**c**) in a 1:13 LSU open-jet. Illustratively, Figure 8 encapsulates a scenario wherein a roof housing solar panels incurred damage--specifically, the roof covering experienced uplift at the peripheries due to inadequacies in fastening. Notably, the covering beneath the solar array remained secure due to the anchoring system integral to the array (Figure 8a). Tornado damage to buildings is a concern [70]. A pertinent illustration of the comparative efficacy between roofs outfitted with PV panels and those without arises from a reconnaissance investigation of tornado-induced damages close to Ottawa, Canada [65]. Empirical evidence revealed that a roof equipped with solar panels exhibited no discernible damage or loss of cladding, in contrast to an adjacent residence with an unadorned roof, which suffered severe failure [67] (see Figure 8c,d). Following a thorough evaluation of the aftermath of recent storms, the Rocky Mountain Institute and the Clinton Foundation conducted a comprehensive analysis of the failure of PV racking systems. This examination yielded a set of recommendations delineating optimal practices for robust roof-mounted solar panels in hurricane-prone environments [71]. These recommendations encompass enhancements in hardware design and selection, the augmentation of panel load rating, the implementation of stringent QA/QC protocols to guarantee precise connection installation, and the incorporation of wind testing for racking designs to ascertain resilience and structural integrity. Notably, the report refrained from providing directives on roof configurations tailored to enhance solar panel performance. Further investigation is warranted into the interplay between wind dynamics and residential roofs outfitted with solar panels.