## 3. Lunar Communication Challenges
Specifically, strong reflections from the conductive lunar surface result in deep nulls in signal reception [24]. Lava tubes form when drained lava solidifies on the ceiling, providing robust protection and storage potential due to their sturdy basaltic roof. Repurposing them for storage is feasible due to their size. Resources from nearby volcanic eruptions containing valuable elements could be utilized for construction. Extracting resources from the tunnels could also be explored through drilling and expanding the existing network. Lava tunnels, with stable temperatures around 250 K, are potential deployment sites, despite challenging technology requirements [32; 33; 34]. Effective line-of-sight communication within lava tubes is impeded by the substantial pit depth and shadowed areas along the walls. In this context, the free-space model is inapplicable due to the significant impact of reflections and diffractions on received signal strength, resulting in substantial propagation losses [35]. Researchers discovered a persistent dust cloud around the moon from fast-moving comet particles, contrasting with slower asteroid impacts. This occurs during meteor showers like the Geminids and could extend to other airless celestial bodies [36; 37]. The moon's dust cloud can affect equipment function, necessitating careful instrument design to protect delicate components from lunar conditions [27]. Sand and dust have a more pronounced impact at higher frequencies, especially at millimeter-wave frequencies. Their effects include signal backscattering, interference related to received signal time delays, shifts in signal polarization, and the absorption of transmitted signal energy [38]. The moon's magnetic field variations stem from rocks with permanent magnetization formed during its strong core field dynamo phase, also indicating changes in the moon's rotational axis during the era of the active core magnetic field dynamo [39]. The magnetic field is roughly one thousand times lower than on Earth [27]. The moon's surface becomes charged with an electrostatic potential that seeks to minimize the total incoming current [40]. Four primary sources contribute to charging currents on the moon, shown in Figure 2: photoemission of electrons, plasma electrons, plasma ions, and secondary electrons. Photoemission is the main daytime source, leading to a positive charge on the dayside, while plasma electrons dominate at night, causing the lunar surface to become negatively charged. Lunar surface charging processes are still inadequately comprehended, carrying uncertainties about potential variations in space and time [41]. A denser plasma can cause radio waves to scatter. The most recent Indian lunar mission Chandrayaan-3 revealed that the lunar surface plasma is sparse, allowing radio waves to easily penetrate it. For a considerable duration, space scientists have extensively examined the challenges of lunar communication, recognizing their substantial impact on wireless communication such as harsh temperatures between 100 \({}^{\circ}\)C and \(-\)173 \({}^{\circ}\)C, depending on the landing sites, intensive solar radiation, the interference of lunar dust with hardware, long-distance communications with Earth stations, the importance of line-of-sight (LOS) requirements, signal propagation delays, and antenna orientation to keep a strong signal connection, including the data rate and power transmission that must comply with international regulations. These challenges possess the capability to both enhance and degrade the quality of signal transmission, in which the SNR (signal-to-noise ratio) values in lunar communications can vary significantly based on specific mission parameters, hardware, frequencies used, and environmental conditions. The SNR values for a particular lunar communication link can be determined through link budget analysis, which considers the full range of system parameters and environmental factors to ensure reliable communication in lunar missions [42].