# A Comprehensive Study on the Expansion of Electric Vehicles in Europe
## 4 Result and Discussion
### EV Charging Stations  
Table 1 lists the top ten countries in Europe in terms of electric car sales in 2020 [76]. Grid electricity price [77], interest rate [78], selected station in the country, geographical coordinates, altitude from sea level, carbon tax [79; 80; 81; 82; 83; 84; 85; 86; 87; 88; 89], average annual wind speed, and average annual solar radiation are other parameters presented in Table 1. The station under study was selected as the capital of each country. The data in Table 1 are input to HOMER software for technical-economic-environmental-energy simulation over 25 years. The methodology of the performed simulations as well as the schematic of the studied systems (wind and solar) are given in Figures 5 and 6. As can be seen, the systems under study are connected to the national electricity grid and also use batteries as a backup [90]. Table 2 shows equations governing the different parts of wind-grid and solar-grid systems. The information on pollutants produced by the national electricity grid is given in Table 3. \begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c c c c c c c c c} \hline \hline \multirow{2}{*}{**Country**} & \multirow{2}{*}{**Capital**} & \multirow{2}{*}{**Grid Price (\%/kWh)**} & \multirow{2}{*}{**Interest Rate (\%)**} & \multirow{2}{*}{**GMT**} & \multirow{2}{*}{**Coordinates**} & \multirow{2}{*}{**Elevation (m)**} & \multirow{2}{*}{**Carbon Tax (\%/Tonnes)**} & \multirow{2}{*}{**Anual Werged (\%/kWh/m*-Day)**} & \multirow{2}{*}{**Anual Werged (\%/kWh/m*-Day)**} \\  & & & & & & & & & \\ \hline Norway & Oslo & 0.141 & 0.75 & +2 & \begin{tabular}{c} 59\({}^{\circ}\)54\({}^{\prime}\) N \\ 10\({}^{\circ}\)44\({}^{\prime}\) E \\ \end{tabular} & 17 & 57.52 & 2.5 & 2.75 \\ \hline Iceland & Reykjavik & 0.140 & 3.75 & 0 & \begin{tabular}{c} 64\({}^{\circ}\)08\({}^{\prime}\) N \\ 21\({}^{\circ}\)56\({}^{\prime}\) W \\ \end{tabular} & 61 & 32.16 & 6 & 2.10 \\ \hline Sweden & Stockholm & 0.176 & 0.25 & +2 & \begin{tabular}{c} 59\({}^{\circ}\)19\({}^{\prime}\) N \\ 18\({}^{\circ}\)47\({}^{\prime}\) E \\ \end{tabular} & 44 & 122.21 & 3.6 & 2.87 \\ \hline Netherlands & Amsterdam & 0.199 & 0 & +2 & \begin{tabular}{c} 52\({}^{\circ}\)22\({}^{\circ}\) N \\ 4\({}^{\circ}\)45\({}^{\prime}\) E \\ \end{tabular} & \(-4\) & 96.48 & 5 & 3.03 \\ \hline Finland & Helsinki & 0.179 & 0 & +3 & \begin{tabular}{c} 60\({}^{\circ}\)10\({}^{\prime}\) N \\ 24\({}^{\circ}\)56\({}^{\circ}\) E \\ \end{tabular} & 56 & 82.55 & 3.9 & 2.73 \\ \hline Denmark & Copenhagen & 0.344 & \(-\)0.6 & +2 & \begin{tabular}{c} 55\({}^{\circ}\)54\({}^{\prime}\) N \\ 12\({}^{\circ}\)24\({}^{\prime}\) E \\ \end{tabular} & 28 & 164.21 & 3.8 & 2.91 \\ \hline Switzerland & Bern & 0.206 & \(-\)0.75 & +2 & \begin{tabular}{c} 46\({}^{\circ}\)56\({}^{\prime}\) N \\ 7\({}^{\circ}\)26\({}^{\prime}\) E \\ \end{tabular} & 540 & 130 & 4.3 & 3.52 \\ \hline Portugal & Lisbon & 0.239 & 0 & +1 & \begin{tabular}{c} 38\({}^{\circ}\)43\({}^{\prime}\) N \\ 9\({}^{\circ}\)9\({}^{\prime}\) W \\ \end{tabular} & 95 & 25.5 & 3.7 & 4.86 \\ \hline Germany & Berlin & 0.331 & 0 & +2 & \
\begin{tabular}{c} 52\({}^{\circ}\)31\({}^{\prime}\) N \\ 13\({}^{\circ}\)24\({}^{\prime}\) E \\ \end{tabular} & 47 & 64.31 & 3.9 & 2.74 \\ \hline Luxembourg & Luxembourg & 0.221 & 0 & +2 &
\begin{tabular}{c} 49\({}^{\circ}\)36\({}^{\prime}\) N \\ 6\({}^{\prime}\)7\({}^{\prime}\) E \\ \end{tabular} & 376 & 21.44 & 3.5 & 3.01 \\ \hline \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table} 
Table 1: European countries with the highest EV sales in 2020. Figure 5: Schematic of systems under study in HOMER (**a**) (Solar-based system (**b**)) Wind-based system. Figure 6: Electricity profile: (**a**) DC fast charge, (**b**) AC fast charge, (**c**) AC slow charge. Figure 6a shows the daily electrical charge for fast DC charging, and Figure 6b depicts the daily electrical charge for fast AC charging. Moreover, Figure 6c illustrates the daily electrical charge for slow AC charging. HOMER V2.81 software uses daily or hourly variability in synthesizing artificial data.