# Electric Vehicles: Benefits, Challenges, and Potential Solutions for Widespread Adaptation
## 4 Strategies for Overcoming Challenges
### Improved Battery Technology
#### 4.3.1 Battery Type  
Technology for EV batteries must advance significantly to meet this demand. A good EV battery should be lightweight, affordable, safe, and long-lasting. It should also have a high energy density and a high-power density. The ability of a battery to hold energy is referred to as energy density. A gadget can be maintained and charged longer with a massive energy-density battery since it can store more energy [59]. Cycle durability is also an important phenomenon in batteries. This is the number of \"full\" charge/discharges cycles the battery can tolerate before its capacity drops to under 80% in terms of its life cycle. If a battery is only 60% discharged and fully charged, it has not gone through a charge/discharge cycle. Depending on the battery type, the percentage may vary. The conclusion is that an EV battery shouldn't have a short life cycle [61], as shown in Table 2.  
The battery's memory effect describes a situation in which it retains the rate of its most recent discharge and won't produce any more than that (even throughout a fresh charge/discharge cycle). Alternatively, the battery \"remembers\" how much of its capacity was used up the prior time and won't supply it anymore. The memory effect is no longer a concern because of advancements in battery technology [61; 62; 63; 64; 65; 66]. The discharge rate is the pace at which a battery expends or discharges energy. A high-discharge-rate battery is inappropriate for EVs since it cannot be utilized for extended durations while being charged. Numerous EV battery technologies exist; some are listed below:  
* Lead-acid batteries are the first kind of batteries used in electric vehicles. These batteries are made of acid that produces electricity and lead electrodes. The electrolyte level needs to be checked frequently, and these batteries are hefty and have a low energy density. Additionally, they are not environmentally friendly. * The second sort of battery is nickel-based, which is thought to be better developed and has a comparatively greater energy density. However, its shortcomings include low power density and poor charge/discharge efficiency. The memory consequences and insignificant performance in cold temperatures are further issues with nickel-based batteries. * Batteries that are made of nickel metal hydride (Ni-MH) have negative electrodes, which are made of an alloy that can store hydrogen rather than cadmium (Cd) [67]. Many hybrid cars, such as the Toyota Prius and the second-generation GM EV1, employ these batteries even though they exhibit more self-discharge than nickel-cadmium batteries. Along with a lead-acid model, the Toyota RAV4 EV also came in a nickel-metal hydride model. \begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c c c c c c c} \hline \multirow{2}{*}{**Battery Type**} & **Working** & **Specific** & **Energy** & **Specific** & **Cell Voltage** & **Cycle** & **Durability** & **Memory** \\  & **Temperature** & **Energy** & **Density** & **Power** & **(V)** & **(V)** & **Durability** & **Effect** \\ \hline Lead acid & \(-\)20–45 & 30–60 & 30–50 & 180 & 2.1 & 1000 & No \\ \hline Ni-cd & 0–50 & 60–80 & 60–150 & 120–150 & 1.35 & 2000 & Yes \\ \hline Ni-MH & 0–50 & 60–120 & 100–300 & 250–1000 & 1.35 & 500 & No \\ \hline Zn-Br2 & 20–40 & 75–140 & 60–70 & 80–100 & 1.79 & \(>\)2000 & No \\ \hline Na-S & 300–350 & 100–130 & 120–130 & 150–290 & 2.08 & 2500–4500 & No \\ \hline Zn-Air & 300–350 & 100–130 & 460 & 80–140 & 2.1 & 200 & No \\ \hline Li-S & 300–350 & 100–130 & 350–650 & - & 2.1 & 300 & No \\ \hline Li-Air & 300–350 & 100–130 & 1300–2000 & - & 2.1 & 200 & No \\ \hline Li-ion & \(-\)20–60 & 100–275 & 200–735 & 150–300 & 3.6 & 400–3000 & No \\ \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table} 
Table 2: Battery Types [62; 63]. * Batteries made of zinc and bromine (Zn-Br2) are batteries that employ a zinc-bromine solution kept in two tanks and in which the positive electrode undergoes a bromide-to-bromine conversion. In 1993, a prototype named \"T-Star\" used this technology [59].