## 1 Introduction  
The term Internet of Things (IoT) gained popularity after [PERSON] used it in 1999, in conjunction with the development of Radio Frequency IDentification (RFID) technology [1]. It is used for sensor and actuator networks, usually employed in a distributed manner with a high data volume, using Internet Protocol (IP)-based technologies, e.g., as defined by McKinsey [2]. These definitions imply that the value of IoT networks does not lie in their hardware-capabilities alone, but in the possible combinations of sensors and actuators to obtain multi-dimensional information in the application environment. Consequently, the market for IoT applications is consistently increasing, with a peak of a global market size of 384.70 billion USD in 2021 according to Fortune Business Insights(tm) [3]. A large number of different application areas explain the constant increase in demand. End users employ IoT devices in smart home environments [4, 5]. The principal of control, sensing and automation with distributed devices is employed in smart city [6, 7], smart farming [8, 9] and industrial [10] applications. Smart grids [11] assist in the smart and sustainable distribution of energy. Retail [12, 13] scenarios with IoT assistance provide a more convenient shopping experience, while IoT in healthcare [14] increases efficiency in treating and curing people. In general, IoT applications provide the potential to lower cost and management effort by minimising the need for on-site operations while increasing efficiency by providing insights from measurements and data aggregation. This potential provided by IoT solutions has risks, however. Security is paramount, as vulnerabilities in systems interacting with the physical world provide threats to digital as well as physical assets [15, 16]. Generally, IoT devices are expected to be cheap, with a short time to market [17]. This puts constraints on the development and integration of such devices, leading to code reuse and a consequent vulnerability of devices to the same threats [18]. A strong competition has emerged on the IoT market, highlighted by the growing number \"publicly known IoT platforms\", as analysed by IoT Analctics [19]. As depicted in Figure 1, provided by acid Analctics ([[https://iot-analytics.com/iot-platform-companies-landscape/](https://iot-analytics.com/iot-platform-companies-landscape/)]([https://iot-analytics.com/iot-platform-companies-landscape/](https://iot-analytics.com/iot-platform-companies-landscape/)), accessed on 23 June 2024) [19]. An increase in IoT platforms between 2015 and 2019 can be observed. However, starting 2019, the trend stops and the number of IoT platforms remains stagnant. This fact, combined with the ongoing growth of the IoT market size indicates that IoT is still a sound business model. According to their study, a number of 188 platform operators has ceased business over the years 2019 and 2020. Such platforms are commonly used to orchestrate and manage IoT devices. Apart from the platform, the devices are required. Low-cost embedded hardware platforms are commonly used, providing a number of development environments for easy implementation and set-up, such as Arduino [20], MIKROE [21] and Zephyr [22]. These tools still require a significant amount of coding, but mitigate the need to program hardware bare-metal. The large number of management platforms on the one hand and the still high implementation effort on the hardware-side motivate the need for an end-to-end IoT builder framework that allows an easy implementation as well as set-up and management of devices. In addition to the IoT employed in home environments, the Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT) has been introduced to industrial applications as part of the concept of Industry 4.0. Despite the difference in application scenarios, the use cases are often similar and include distributed, heterogeneous systems that need to provide correct information in a timely matter.