## 5 Conclusions  
(1) The overall ecosystem services in Liaoning Province are predominantly characterized by four types of relationships: strong trade-offs, weak trade-offs, high synergies, and low synergies. Among these, strong trade-offs have the highest proportion at 35.51%, followed by weak trade-offs, which account for 33.17%. Low synergy regions constitute 29.09%, while high synergy areas have the smallest share, making up only 2.24%. As a result, the regions with high synergy between ecosystem services are very limited across the entire study area. (2) In examining local ecosystem services, it is evident that areas with synergistic relationships among different ecosystem services outnumber those with trade-offs. Specifically, there are notable trade-offs between food production and the other four services, while soil conservation, water yield, habitat quality, and carbon storage generally display synergistic relationships. Notably, the spatial synergy between soil conservation and water yield is the most pronounced. (3) Within each ecological restoration zone, the relationships between local services vary. The southwestern part of WSFR, the eastern part of SWCR, and the southeastern part of WCR exhibit the strongest synergistic effect between water yield and soil conservation. The trade-off between food production and soil conservation is the strongest, with spatial characteristics similar to those observed between water yield and soil conservation in WSFR, SWCR, and WCR. (4) On a global scale, trade-off areas between ecosystem services in all land ecological restoration zones are significantly larger than synergistic areas, especially when compared to high-synergy areas, which are almost exclusively found in WCR. However, on a local scale, the synergistic areas between pairs of ecosystem services are larger than the trade-off areas, reflecting a notable distinction. WCR's designation as an area with high water and soil conservation capabilities aligns with this phenomenon, which is particularly pronounced in each zone's specific characteristics. These measures aim to align with the goals of the Liaoning Provincial Land Spatial Planning (2021-2035) and address the specific environmental challenges identified in our research, contributing to the sustainable development of the region. (SWR) Prioritize vegetation restoration and soil conservation, with a special emphasis on rejuvenating forests and grasslands in western Liaoning's low mountains and hills. (SWCR) Fortify the northwestern forest belt, advance desertification control, and manage soil erosion, focusing on Horqin Sandy Land's southern region and Nuru Erhu Mountains for vegetation restoration and desertification prevention. (CR) Enhance water conservation and ecological safeguards in the Liao River's upper basin, emphasizing urban and rural ecological restoration and the integrated management of coal mining subsidence areas to optimize national land use. (WCR) Bolster forest conservation and restoration, augment carbon sequestration in eastern Liaoning's forests, and protect the region's ecological security, with a focus on water conservation and biodiversity in the southern Changbai Mountains and eastern Qianshan Mountains. (IR) Intensity efforts to curb marine and terrestrial pollution, expedite the restoration and protection of coastlines, islands, and wetlands, and prioritize the swift recovery of key habitats' quality. Conceptualization, P.D. and L.W. ; methodology, Q.W. ; software, Q.W. ; validation, Q.W., T.W. and P.D. ; formal analysis, P.D. ; investigation, H.C.; resources, H.C.; data curation, Q.W. ; writing--original draft preparation, Q.W. ; writing--review and editing, T.W. ; visualization, T.W. ; supervision, P.D. and L.W. ; project administration, T.W. ; funding acquisition, P.D. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. This research was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China, grant number 41701123. Not applicable.