## 1 Introduction  
With the rising median age of the population, there is an increasing need to improve the performance and effective lifetimes of dental and orthopedic implants. The global dental implant market reached USD 6.2 billion in 2022 and is estimated to reach USD 9.3 billion by 2028 [1]. The orthopedic implant market is projected to reach nearly USD 9 billion by 2025 [2, 3]. Ossoeintegration, a direct structural and functional connection between ordered living bone and the surface of implants, is considered the physiological basis of successful endoscopes implantation [4]. The speed of bone-implant sealing and the amount of bone remodeling are determined by osseointegration [5]. Insufficient bone-implant contact can lead to fibrous scar tissue formation, leading to loosening at the bone-implant interface, and is an important cause of implant failures [6]. Titanium is widely used as a dental and orthopedic implant material due to its beneficial mechanical properties and excellent corrosion resistance [2, 7]. Titanium commonly occurs in two crystalline lattice structures: a hexagonal close-packed (HCP) structure and a body-centered cubic (BCC) structure [8]. The HCP structure is referred to as the alpha phase and is the most stable at lower temperatures [8]. The BCC structure is referred to as the beta phase and is the most stable at higher temperatures [8]. Alloys with alpha-phase microstructures exhibit good ductility and formability [9]. As a result, alpha-phase alloys are commonly used for implant applications such as dental, cardiovascular stents, spinal devices, trauma fracture fixation plates, and screws [9; 10]. Beta-phase titanium alloys exhibit even higher ductility and lower elastic moduli compared to their alpha-phase counterparts [11; 12]. As a result of the lower elastic moduli, beta-phase alloys somewhat reduce concerns over stress-shielding effects on bone growth and are commonly utilized as spinal implants and trauma fracture fixation devices [8; 13]. Titanium alloys are also commonly processed into duplex microstructures consisting of various combinations of alpha and beta phases [10]. Duplex alloys typically exhibit higher strengths compared to their single-phase alloy counterparts and thus are routinely used for applications such as total joint replacement components and intramedullary nails [9; 14]. When exposed to the external environment, titanium alloy surfaces rapidly form an amorphous oxide layer. This amorphous oxide layer provides excellent corrosion resistance but is less than ideal for bone growth around implants [15; 16]. Thus, surface modifications are often used to enhance bioactivity and osseointegration. Plasma-sprayed hydroxyapatite coatings on titanium implants are commonly utilized by clinicians as a means to stimulate bone growth [17]. The plasma-sprayed coatings are formed by spraying hydroxyapatite particles onto titanium implant surfaces at high temperatures, followed by subsequent rapid cooling to ambient temperatures [18]. Since the hydroxyapatite layer and the titanium substrate exhibit very different coefficients of thermal expansion (CTE) values, this rapid cooling during the process often leads to less-than-desirable coating adhesion strengths and subsequent coating delamination [18; 19]. Anodization is another electrochemical surface modification technique that can modify the oxide surface roughness, chemistry, and crystallinity within a single processing step [20; 21; 22]. Anodization processes enable the creation of complex micro-nano-scale surface topographies on titanium, which have previously been shown to promote mechanical bone interlocking, increase protein absorption, promote osteoblast cell attachment and differentiation, and ultimately provide faster osseointegration [21; 22].