# A Review of Modelling and Simulation Methods for Flashover Prediction in Confined Space Fires
## 1 Introduction
Then, as the fuel is burned away, the energy level begins to decay. Once the fully developed phase is achieved, in most cases the fuel mass release rate becomes so high that the air supply rate becomes insufficient to  
Figure 2: Flashover and ventilation induced flashover. (**a**) Flashover representation as a transition phase in the fire standard curve before the fully developed fire stage in an enclosure (**b**) Ventilation induced flashover representation. \begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{l l} \hline \hline
**Approximate Radiant** & \\
**Heat Flux (kW/m\({}^{2}\))** & **Comment or Observed Effect** \\ \hline
170 & Maximum heat flux as currently measured in a post-flashover fire compartment. \\
80 & Heat flux for protective clothing Thermal Protective Performance (TPP) Test. [1] \\
52 & Fiberboard ignites spontaneously after 5 s. [2] \\
29 & Wood ignites spontaneously after prolonged exposure. [3] \\
20 & Heat flux on a residential family room floor at the beginning of flashover. [4] \\
16 & Human skin experiences sudden pain and blisters after 5-s exposure with second-degree burn injury. [5] \\
12.5 & Wood volatiles ignite with intended exposure [6] and piloted ignition. \\
10.4 & Human skin experiences pain with 3-s exposure and blisters in 9 s with second-degree burn injury, [7; 8] \\
6.4 & Human skin experiences pain with a second exposure and blisters in 18 s with second-degree burn injury, [9; 10] \\
4.5 & Human skin becomes blistered with a 30-s exposure, causing a second-degree burn injury. [11] \\
2.5 & Common thermal radiation exposure while fire fighting. [12] This energy level may cause burn injuries with prolonged exposure. \\
1.4 & Thermal radiation from the sun. Potential sunburn in 30 min or less. [13] \\ \hline \hline \end{tabular} \({}^{1}\) From NFPA 1971, Standard on Protective Ensemble for Structural Fire Fighting.[2] From [PERSON], “Fire and the Atomic Bomb.”,[4] From [PERSON] and Breese, “Fire Development in Residential Basement Room.”,[5] From NFPA 1971, Standard on Protective Ensemble for Structural Fire Fighting.[6] From [PERSON] and Stimulus, “The Ignition of Wood by Radiation,” pp. 288–292, [7] From NFPA 1971, Standard on Protective Ensemble for Structural Fire Fighting.[8] From [PERSON], “Fire and the Atomic Bomb.”,[9] From NFPA 1971, Standard on Protective Ensemble for Structural Fire Design Simplified,” pp. 172–176, [11] From NFPA 1971, Standard on Protective Ensemble for Structural Fire Fighting.[12] From U.S. Fire Administration, “Minimum Standards on Structural Fire Fighting Protective Clothing and Equipment.”,[13] From Bennett and Myers, Momentum, Heat, and Mass Transfer.  
\end{table} 
Table 3: Approximate radiant heat flux [4]. consume all released pyrolysis gases (fuel-controlled to ventilation-controlled) [5] and the energy level begins to decay. On the second one (see Figure 2b), classified as under-ventilated situations, flashover stage can be reached after a fire dynamics change. It can be produced as a consequence of an induced ventilation or opening a vent in the structure such as door or window. Furthermore, due to the high quantity of radiation necessary to reach the flashover stage a minimum amount of fuel is necessary to produce it. In addition, the value of the energy generated by indoor fires with a single opening through which the air inlet and gas outflow are channelled can be approximate using the Kawagoe equation [6]. Currently, fire services use thermal image cameras (TIC) in different types of emergencies related with fire and rescue [7]. Furthermore it can provide value real-time information during a enclosure fire. However, the prediction of this phenomenon is not easy and on many occasions it could be a problem for firefighter teams who risk their lives in this situations. The focus of this review is on certain types of fires in confined spaces where flashover phenomenon is likely to occur [4]. In these emergencies, firefighters try to anticipate this situation by reading enclosure fire dynamics (e.g., see Figure 3) tracks.