# Global Power Dynamics in the Contemporary Space System
## 4 System Actors--Space Powers
### Major Space Actors
#### 4.2.1 The United States  
The United States has historically occupied a vanguard position in the domain of space exploration since the nascent days of the space age. During the 20 th century, in the context of the Cold War, the United States engaged in fierce competition with the Soviet Union, which reached its zenith with the Moon landing. This period of intense competition between the two superpowers persisted until the conclusion of the Cold War in 1991, marking the end of a significant era in global politics and the exploration of space. In the 1990s, the United States successfully established a coalition of space powers, including Russia, several European countries, Japan, and Canada, to create the most significant cooperative endeavor in outer space: the International Space Station. At the beginning of the 21 st century, the United States was at the vanguard of a coalition of countries in the International Space Station (ISS) experience. Concurrently, however, new competitors began to express interest in outer space and challenge the UnitedStates' space leadership. The United States delayed its response until 2017, when Space Directive 1 was signed, paving the way for the creation of the Artemis Program in 2019. This new American space program was developed in response to the emergence of new and formidable competitors in the global space sector. The explicit goal of the Artemis Program is to revitalize the American space program and maintain the nation's leadership position in outer space [42]. In 2019, the government confirmed this strategy with another space directive. In 2020, the United States released a revised National Space Policy under the [PERSON] administration. This space policy advocates for the expansion of the United States leadership in space, the encouragement of private sector growth, the expansion of international cooperation, and the establishment of a human presence on the Moon, with an eventual human mission to Mars. In December 2021, President [PERSON] ratified a new space strategy, entitled 'The United States Space Priorities Framework', which has served as the nation's space policy until the present day [43]. The second [PERSON] administration that is taking office appears to intend to continue the space policy and programs established during the previous administration, with the possibility of certain adjustments. The field of human and private spaceflight may experience an increase in funding, while the allocation for space science remains uncertain. The recently developed American strategy in space includes the establishment of an international coalition to support the Artemis program, formally known as the Artemis Accords [44]. These accords are non-binding bilateral agreements between the United States government and other states. The initial accords were signed in October 2020 by eight nations, and as of 2025, the accords had encompassed 52 countries, representing most continents and including numerous prominent space powers such as India, Brazil, Japan, and France. Furthermore, the United States' strategic approach involves the establishment of the United States Space Force (USSF), which was inaugurated on 20 December 2019, as an autonomous service within the U.S. Armed Forces. In 2020, the United States Space Force (USSF) established its inaugural doctrine: Spacepower. This doctrine acknowledges the significance of outer space as a crucial element contributing to the United States' economic prosperity and national security. Additionally, it underscores the necessity for the nation to adapt its national security space organizations, doctrine, and capabilities to deter and defeat aggression and safeguard national interests in space [45]. As is the case today, the United States has maintained its position at the forefront of the global ranking of governmental investment in space. In 2024, the U.S. government allocated over USD 79 billion to space-related activities, thus establishing its position as the country with the highest space expenditure worldwide.