## 4 Results
### Physical and Economic Dimensions  
This section discusses how smart mobility innovations can contribute to the alleviation of the physical and economic dimensions of transport disadvantage. Based on the reviewed literature smart mobility could alleviate the physical and economic dimensions of transport disadvantage by: (a) improving accessibility to transportation for those unable to access or operate a vehicle; (b) creating a transportation system in which services are more responsive to user needs; (c) reducing the cost for users by improve the efficiency of the transportation system and promoting a move towards shared mobility; and (d) improving the \"value of time\" (VOT) spent in transit. A list of all reviewed literature is shown in Appendix A.  
Firstly, various smart mobility innovations have been shown to improve accessibility for those physically unable to access transportation or operate a vehicle. Access to a vehicle is an important factor in maintaining a good standard of living and providing security and freedom of movement to access social activities, employment, and other services, including healthcare [57; 66], particularly in low-density areas [67]. DRT services that provide door-to-door transportation have been shown to improve user accessibility by reducing issues surrounding the first- and last-mile access of public transport [68]. In fact, when compared to traditional public transport services, one study showed high satisfaction with flexible DRT services resulting in a doubling of older users [69]. Furthermore, when operated as a shared service they have been shown to increase social interactions resulting in reduced feelings of isolation [68]. Figure 3: Relationship between smart mobility innovations (source: authors). Despite the benefits of DRT, another commonly cited innovation to improve accessibility relates to AV [57; 70]. As AV are able to drive without human input, the elderly, disabled, young, unlicensed, and those unfamiliar with local conditions may no longer be excluded from operating a PMV [51; 71; 72; 73]. Even in a semi-AV setting, in-vehicle technologies such as crash avoidance; warnings for lane departure, collision, and blind spots; navigation systems; parking assistance; and adaptive cruise control may result in more elderly residents being able to hold onto their license for longer [52; 74]. Some may also benefit from improved access to FFM including bike sharing, which would add additional accessibility options--particularly for short distance trips [75]. Due to these advantages, it is important that these services are implemented with regulations to ensure equal access [40]. Nevertheless, increased accessibility means that there is a risk of increasing accessibility to PMV. This could result in more demand for car ownership and increased per capita \"vehicle kilometers traveled\" (VKT) [10]. This premise is supported by research which predicts that AV will result in a mode shift away from public and active transport, increasing total VKT by 15-59% [57]. This could lead to increased externalities including congestion and urban sprawl and result in greater infrastructure and transit costs [53; 57; 76]. Due to this potential impact, researchers consistently highlight the benefits of shared mobility [53; 56]. If fact, research shows that SAV would actually decrease VKT by 10-25% [57]. However, this shift is dependent on how shared mobility appeals to consumers and will require a significant cultural shift supported by policy and regulation, public awareness campaigns, and land use interventions--particularly in areas where PMV is the dominate mode choice [66; 77]. Secondly, smart mobility innovations present an opportunity to provide services to the transport disadvantage populations that are more responsive to their specific needs.