## 4 Discussion
The island of Barbuda began a comprehensive Blue Halo Initiative marine spatial planning process in 2012 and regulations were adopted in 2014 [73]. A number of other Caribbean countries have engaged in the  
Figure 17: Comparison of mapped coral reef extent using the current UNEP-WCMC Global Distribution of Coral Reefs (Version 4.1) data (left side) and the PS-derived coral reef maps for three areas in **(a)** Cuba; **(b)** The Bahamas; and **(c)** Turks and Caicos Islands. Reef area in Cuba is overrepresented in the global maps and underrepresented in The Bahamas and Turks and Caicos. MSP process, such as Pedro Bank, Jamaica [74] and the Grenadine Islands [75]; however, adoption of recommendations or zoning plans is still pending. An MSP design conducted in Samana Bay, Dominican Republic [76], in 2012 has resulted in the declaration of six fish reserve (no take zones) and mangrove restoration efforts. In 2008, the Caribbean Challenge Initiative was launched, an ambitious and multi-country effort to declare 20% protection of marine space by 2020 and implement sustainable financing for maintaining revenue streams to carry out management activities. There are currently eleven countries and territories that have made the commitment, including The Bahamas, British Virgin Islands, Dominican Republic, Grenada, Haiti, Jamaica, Puerto Rico, Saint Lucia, Saint Kitts and Nevis, and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines. To date, five of the eleven members have reached the 20% goal and the remaining members continue make progress. The current status of these protection goals can be explored at [[http://caribbeanchallenge.tnc.org](http://caribbeanchallenge.tnc.org)]([http://caribbeanchallenge.tnc.org](http://caribbeanchallenge.tnc.org)) (accessed on 19 October 2021). While declaration of marine protected and managed areas is a critical first step, the actual management objective activities that are carried out and enforcement implemented within these areas is what promotes and fosters ecological health and resilience of these habitats. While many jurisdictions have MPA declarations, the reality is that management actions across many of these areas may not be directed at specific habitat protection or may be completely absent while stresses to these habitats continue unabated. The area calculations presented are based on all types of protected and managed areas across the Caribbean, regardless of management objectives, enforcement, or effectiveness of management practices implemented. For this reason, these reported levels of benthic habitat protection are likely an overestimate of actual management conditions with low levels of implementation. For example, EEZ-wide declarations on marine mammal and shark sanctuaries encompass very large areas to accounts for life-cycle requirements and transboundary issues; however, the sanctuary objectives are often not focused on the management and monitoring of marine habitats. Additionally, many MPA spatial boundaries are derived from lower resolution or older shoreline data, so these GIS boundaries may slightly impact calculated management percentages of shallow benthic habitats. Furthermore, many of these MPAs are ineffectively managed 'paper parks' [77], meaning that although they are legally established, they are not well enforced. In addition to continued MPA expansion in strategic areas, management effectiveness surveys on a regular basis are needed to accurately track protection, health status, and management levels of specific habitats. These surveys provide critical input on required resources and steps needed to improve management actions. Despite these limitations, these recent and freely available datasets will catalyze more effective conservation actions and provide support to government decision makers seeking to embark on a variety of marine and coastal projects, including MSP and site prioritization for coral reef restoration and climate change adaptation projects that utilize nature-based solutions.