## 2 Geology and Data  
### Geological Setting  
The Beishan area in Gansu Province is a significant metallogenic zone in Northwest China. It is situated at the convergence of the three ancient continental systems of Kazakhstan, Siberia, and Tarim. It exhibits a complex geological structure, frequent magmatic activity, and strong metamorphism (Figure 1). The area is of particular interest regarding the formation of gold, copper, iron, lead-zinc, tungsten, vanadium, uranium, nickel, and other ones in China [36, 37, 38, 39, 40]. The stratigraphy in the Beishan area is fully developed, and strata from the Archean to the Cenozoic are all exposed in the area. The exposed strata mainly include the Neoarchean-Paleoproterozoic Dunhuang Group, the Changchengian Qianluzigou Group, and the Gudongjing Group [41]. There are also the Jixianian Pingtoushan Formation; the Qingbaikouan Dahuoluoshan Formation; the Nanhua-Sinian Xichangjing Group; the Cambrian Shuangyingshan Formation and Xishuangyingshan Formation; the Ordovician Luoyachuanshan Formation; Huaniushan Group; Xilinkebo Formation; Baiyunshan Formation; the Sillurian Heijianshan Formation and Gongpoquan Group; the Devonian Sangejing Formation and Dundunshan Group; the Carboniferous Hongliuyuan Formation; Jijitai Formation; Baishan Formation and Saozishan Formation; the Permian Shuangbaotang Formation; Fangshankou Formation; Jinta Formation and Hongyanjing Formation; the Triassic Erduanjing Formation; the Neogene Kuquan Formation; and the Quaternary System [42]. As exemplified in the Beishan metallogenic belt of Gansu Province, the gold mineralization systems are dominantly classified into quartz vein-type, structural altered rock-type, and magmatic-hydrothermal-type deposits. These gold deposits are typically controlled by ductile shear zones and fault systems,with mineralization closely associated with Paleozoicozic magmatic activities and regional metamorphic-hydrothermal processes [43; 44; 45]. Copper deposits in this region primarily manifest as porphyry-type, magmatic-hydrothermal-type, and sedimentary-metamorphic-type mineralization. Notably, the porphyry copper deposits are genetically linked to the Late Paleozoicic (Hercynian) intermediate-acidic intrusive complexes, while sedimentary-metamorphic copper ores are hosted in Proterozoic to Carboniferous marine sedimentary sequences subjected to subsequent tectonic reworking [46; 47]. This metallogenic belt is characterized by its wealth of mineral species, the variety of deposit types, and the prevalence of large-scale deposits. It possesses considerable economic value and holds significant potential for scientific research. The stratigraphic succession in the Beishan area has undergone extensive geological evolution, encompassing distinct evolutionary phases that span two primary geotectonic units: the southern margin of the Tianshan-Xingmeng Orogenic System (I) and the eastern sector of the Tarim Block (III) [48; 49; 50]. The region showcases a diverse paleogeographic environment and a perpetually changing land-sea distribution pattern. It also exhibits a high degree of intrusive rock development, with an exposed area of approximately 20,480 km\({}^{2}\), which constitutes 19% of the total North Mountain region area. These rocks have been formed over an extensive timespan, from the Proterozoic to the Jurassic, and encompass a diverse range of rock types, from ultramafic to granitoid. A majority of these rocks are granitoids, originating from the Silurian to Permian periods [51; 52; 53]. The Beishan region in Gansu Province boasts favorable metallogenic conditions, abundant mineral resources, a diverse array of minerals, and a relatively comprehensive range of mineral types [43; 44; 45]. However, the composition is complex, the sizes vary, and the overall level of exploration remains relatively low. By the end of 2023, a total of 62 distinct solid mineral species had been identified within the Beishan region of Gansu Province, with a total of 622 locations--including mineralization points--having been documented.