## 1 Introduction  
Emerging contaminants (ECs) or trace pollutants are natural or artificial substances that are present in the environment at trace concentrations (at nanogram and microgram per dm\({}^{3}\) levels in the matrix). At such low concentrations, certain ECs have been scientifically proven to induce adverse impacts on the environment and cause health damage to humans and animals. However, the potential negative effects resulting from the presence of numerous ECs on receptors remain unknown or subject to speculation [1,2]. The presence of these trace pollutants in the environment has generated growing public attention and concerns globally, especially among the scientific community in recent decades. This is because before this period, ECs have been released into the environment unregulated and unmonitored. Among them, pharmaceuticals such as carbamazepine (CBZ) have been extensively investigated regarding their potential impact on biological systems. Carbamazepine is an emerging contaminant of the pharmaceutical category that has gained notoriety in the scientific literature due to its frequent detection in the environment globally [3,4]. It is mainly used as an antiepileptic medicine, with many non-epileptic uses, including the treatment of depression, neuropathic pain, mental disorders, alcohol and drug withdrawal syndrome, diabetes, and restless leg syndrome [5, 6, 7]. The wide-ranging therapeutic usage of CBZ has culminated in its high worldwide consumption of over 1000 tonnes per year [8], and its massive consumption pattern leads to its continuous release into the environment. Moreover, this substance is highly refractory to all forms of degradation (physical, biological, and chemical) in the environment, and its removal from wastewater and sewage sludge treatment processes is limited, representing <45% for water, and <30% for sewage sludge [9, 10, 11, 12]. From a global perspective, CBZ has been quantified (ng/L to ug/L levels) in various water resources, including freshwater bodies [4,13,14], marine environments [11,15], and groundwater [10,16, 17, 18]. It has also been detected in drinking water globally [19, 20, 21]. In the Czech Republic, CBZ has been detected in drinking and surface waters, where the highest CBZ levels in drinking water reached up to 18.5 ng/L [22,23]. At environmentally relevant concentrations, the toxic effects of this drug on non-target terrestrial animals have been speculated. However, few studies have been conducted to demonstrate its toxicity in model laboratory animals. For example, CBZ contained in drinking water at environmentally relevant concentrations is reported to have crossed the biological barriers of pregnant mice to the foetus's brain, a situation the authors speculated can induce functional disabilities in the neurological system of the foetus [24]. There is also empirical scientific evidence that shows impairment of early-stage development in embryos of chicks exposed to CBZ at concentrations reported in treated wastewater [25]. However, based on a comprehensive literature review, studies to assess bioaccumulation, metabolic pathways, and potential health risks from exposure to CBZ at subtherapeutic concentrations in non-target small terrestrial mammals are limited. Furthermore, thus far, although there have been just a few, these toxicity or risk assessment studies have focused on terrestrial small mammals' exposure to CBZ alone at environmental concentrations under laboratory conditions [26]. On the contrary, in their natural terrestrial environment, these animals are often exposed to mixtures of different pollutants via food, accidental soil ingestion, and drinking water.