# Diet, Polyphenols, and Human Evolution
## 2 Diet and the Evolution of the Human Species
\begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c c c} \hline \hline
**Genus/Species** & **Period** & **Geographical Area** & **Other Information** \\ \hline _Australophicines_ & Around 4.2 to 3–2 \(\times\) 10\({}^{6}\) years ago & Eastern and southern Africa & Bipedal, small brain, scavenger, use of tools \\ \hline _Homo habilis_ & 2.4–1.4 \(\times\) 10\({}^{6}\) years ago & Eastern and southern Africa & Nomadic, with large braincase, small face and teeth. Probably the first species making stone tools \\ \hline _H. rudofensis_ & Around 1.9–1.8 \(\times\) 10\({}^{6}\) years ago & Eastern Africa & Very large braincase, long face, large molar and pre-molar teeth \\ \hline _H. erectus_ & 1.89 \(\times\) 10\({}^{6}\) to 110,000 years ago & Africa, Western and East Asia & Body proportions similar to those of modern humans. Lived on the ground and was able to walk and run. Probably this species produced the first hand-axe, a prehistoric stone tool. \\ \hline _H. heidlergenensis_ & About 700,000–200,000 years ago & Europe, Eastern and Southern Africa and possibly Asia & Very large browr ridges, large braincase and flatter face. First old human species living in cold regions, used fire and hunted large animals with wooden spears \\ \hline _H. neanderthalensis_ & About 400,000–40,000 years ago & Europe, and Southwestern to Central Asia & The closest extinct human relative. Big nose, large middle part of the face, short body and large brain. Used sophisticated tools, controlled fire, made and used clothing. Skilled hunters, collected plants as food. Buried their dead. \\ \hline _H. naledi_ & 335,000–256,000 years ago (most recent dating) \({}^{\text{a}}\) & South Africa & Not very tall, rather slim, very small brain, perhaps buried their dead \\ \hline _H. foresiensis_ & Around 100,000–50,000 years ago & Asia (Indonesia) & Short, with small brain, relatively large teeth and feet. Used stone tools, hunted medium-sized animals and may have used fire \\ \hline _H. sapiens (archatic)_ & & & Compared to earlier humans, _H. sapiens_ had a lighter skeleton, large brain, low or no heavy brow ridges and progmatism, smaller teeth. Archatic _H. sapiens_ gathered and hunted food and evolved behavior, allowing survival in unfavorable conditions \\ \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table} 
Table 1: Human evolution and related characteristics [1; 2]. made to correlate the time spent by hominids in activities related to nutrition and the evolution of behavior, but there are no accurate data on this topic [9; 10]. More precise information could be derived from the remains of food found in pre-historic sites. However, food is preserved at different levels. For example, fish have very fragile bones that completely disintegrate over time [11]. There have been strong discussions regarding the most suitable diet for humans and how this has varied during evolution. Human beings are usually considered omnivorous, thus making it easy to adapt to different environmental conditions and availability of food. Some authors believe that primitive hunter-gatherers used a diet that was at least 50% based on fish and meat [12]. Given the arid savannah in which humans first appeared, other research contends that they consumed food of vegetable origin: fruit in the seasons in which it was available, and bulbs [13; 14]. In the savannah, foods of animal origin were less available and excessive consumption would still have led to kidney and liver problems, due to the high protein content. Moreover, it is known that humans preferably use carbohydrates and fats for energy purposes and limit the caloric intake from the protein fraction. Balancing the two opinions, it seems reasonable to think that human beings need an omnivorous diet [15]. In fact, humans synthesize vitamin A from beta caroten, unlike pure carnivores that obtain it preformed from meat. Humans also require vitamin B\({}_{12}\), which is obtained exclusively from foods of an animal origin.