# An Alternative Globalization Barometer for Investigating the Trend of Globalization
## 3 Results
### Spatial Variations  
For further analysis, we have systematically analyzed the level of _de facto_ and _de jure_ globalization and barometers for all sample economies. The spatial variations of _de facto_ and _de jure_ globalization and their barometers in 2020 are illustrated in Figure 4. We observe that the variations of _de facto_ and _de jure_ globalization are characterized by regional spatial agglomeration.  
Figure 3: Globalization barometer. (**a**) _De facto_ globalization barometer. (**b**) _De jure_ globalization barometer.  
Figure 2: Barometers and trend terms of _de facto_ and _de jure_ globalization. (**a**) _De facto_ globalization trend term. (**b**) _De facto_ globalization barometer. (**c**) _De jure_ globalization trend term. (**d**) _De jure_ globalization barometer.  
Figure 4: _Cont._  
For _de facto_ globalization and its barometer in 2020, we can observe the following, as illustrated in Figure 4a,b:  
1. Economies with higher _de facto_ globalization tend to cluster in the North America, North-Eastern Asia, and Europe. For instance, the _de facto_ globalization of the United Kingdom, the United States, Germany, China, and France were higher than 1.0, which indicates that their participation level surpassed the global average by at least one standard deviation.
2. Comparatively speaking, South America, Central Asia, Central, and Eastern Europe, and Africa were less involved. For instance, the _de facto_ globalization of Uganda, Nepal, Venezuela, and Sri Lanka were less than \(-0.50\).
3. The Barometers of different regions and countries were also differentially impacted by the pandemic. Interestingly, we have found a greater impact in economies with more involvement in globalization. Economies with traditionally high _de facto_ globalization values, such as China, Russia, and the US, ranked lower in the barometer, scoring 97.74, 97.55, and 97.53, respectively. Meanwhile, countries with lower _de facto_ globalization were less exposed to shocks, especially those in South America, Central Asia, and Africa as well as Oceania, with economies sitting at or above trend. These results indicate that the impact of the pandemic on globalization is not uniform across the globe, serving as an equalizer of sorts, leveling the differences in globalization participation in the post-COVID world. Second, let us focus on the _de jure_ globalization and its barometer in 2020. From Figure 4c,d, we can observe: 1. Economies in Western Europe, Northern Europe, and North America tend to have higher _de jure_ globalization scores, with the _de jure_ globalization of France, Germany, Netherlands, Belgium, and the United Kingdom higher than 1.0. 2. Certain countries or regions showed lower _de jure_ participation, especially those in South America, Central Asia, and Africa, with the Philippines, Myanmar, Fuji, Sri Lanka, and Uzbekistan scoring less than \(-0.50\). 3. Of note, the _de jure_ globalization of most countries has not been significantly hampered by the pandemic. The proportion of countries with the barometer of _de jure_ globalization above or in trend was about 74.6%. Only North America and a few countries in Asia and Europe were below trend, including Germany, Japan, and the  
Figure 4: Spatial variation of the globalization index and globalization barometer in 2020. (**a**) Spatial variations of _de facto_ globalization. (**b**) Spatial variations of _de facto_ globalization barometer. (**c**) Spatial variations of _de jure_ globalization. (**d**) Spatial variations of _de jure_ globalization barometer.  
United States, scoring 97.86, 97.77, and 97.55 in 2020, respectively. Compared with _de facto_ globalization, _de jure_ globalization was more stable.