## 1 Introduction  
Humans' pharmaceutical compounds make their way into the soil through several routes, including wastewater for irrigation and sewage sludge as fertilizer. After administration, unaltered drugs and their metabolites can also undergo further alteration in sewage due to biological, chemical, and physical processes [1, 2]. Municipal wastewater treatment plants could remove microbiological organisms and biodegradable carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus compounds but have not been built to deal with complex pharmaceutical compounds [3, 4]. The soil and groundwater contamination level with drugs depends on soil properties (such as pH, organic matter content, and clay content) and physico-chemical properties of the medicines and their metabolites [5, 6]. All NSAIDs have a low acidic character (as their pKa is 4.5 for indomethacin, 4.15 for diclofenac and naproxen, and 9.38 for paracetamol) and may dissociate in solution [7]. As log K\({}_{\text{OW}}\) range from 0.46 for paracetamol to 4.27 for indomethacin, the transport of those drugs in the soil is mainly ruled by the absorption-desorption mechanism [7]. A recent study said that only 31% of hospital wastewater was treated in India [8]. Trace concentration of antibiotics has been found in different hospital effluents in South Africa [9], Brasil [10], and Sweden [11]. Ketoprofen, naproxen, indomethacin, and diclofenac have recently been found in sewage treatment plant effluents in France, Greece, Italy, and Sweden [12]. Relatively high concentrations of diclofenac have been found not only in rivers and lakes [13; 14] but also in groundwater and drinking water [15; 16; 17], with a maximum of 4.9 \(\upmu\)g L\({}^{-1}\) reported in Pakistan's lakes [18]. Paracetamol occurrence in the surface waters is quite common and has been found in approximately 75% of natural water [19; 20; 21]. The highest concentration of paracetamol found in a small river Seke La Paz Bolivia was 227 \(\upmu\)g L\({}^{-1}\)[21]. Indomethacin has been detected in the primary influents in concentrations between 20 and 100 \(\upmu\)g L\({}^{-1}\)[22; 23]. Ketoprofen is found in rivers, effluents, and wastewater at a level of \(\upmu\)g L\({}^{-1}\)[24]. The levels of naproxen found in river water and sediments ranged from 0.59 to 2.3 \(\upmu\)g L\({}^{-1}\)[25]. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are toxic to ecosystems. Numerous studies indicate that NSAIDs may harm aquatic life and human health. Compounds can generate oxidative stress in plants at high concentrations or induce hormesis in plants at low concentrations, depending on the kind, concentration, and duration of exposure and the species and stage of development of the plant. For example, diclofenac and ketoprofen are highly toxic for cultures [26]. It has been shown that NSAIDs influence the plant's development. [PERSON] et al. [27] discovered that paracetamol has a detrimental effect on _Zea mays_ growth and development. When the dose of paracetamol was raised, the accumulation of paracetamol in maize grain and root grew linearly; however, the protein content of the grain was not impacted by the dose increase. Plants may absorb NSAIDs, water, and nutrients, where they can be stored and transformed into tissues. Research on spring barley (_Hordeum vulgare_ L.) seedlings found that naproxen has significantly influenced the plant's growth and development. The mixture of diclofenac and naproxen had a moderate effect, and diclofenac had the least impact [28]. After a prolonged period of exposure, the low concentration of paracetamol slowed the development of wheat plants. The paracetamol treatment affected the chlorophyll accumulation with 1.4-22.4 mg L\({}^{-1}\) after a 21-day exposure [29]. Separate research showed that lettuce plants (_Lactuca sativa_ L.) treated with high quantities of paracetamol had a considerable drop in photosynthesis and chlorophyll fluorescence, suggesting a possible influence on photosystem II quantum efficiency [30].