## 1 Introduction  
Climate change, with rising temperatures and frequent heatwaves, significantly impacts thermal comfort and energy consumption in residential buildings [1]. Global warming is leading to more intense and prolonged heatwaves, exposing populations to extreme heat and increasing the risk of heat-related mortality [2]. This issue is worsened in cities by the urban heat island effect, where localized areas experience elevated temperatures [3]. Ensuring thermal comfort is vital, not only for well-being and productivity but also to mitigate health risks, particularly for vulnerable populations facing energy poverty [4]. Energy poverty is a growing concern in various regions. In Europe, over 50 million households are unable to meet basic energy needs, severely impacting their ability to achieve thermal comfort during extreme temperatures [5]. Portugal, for example, faces one of the highest rates of energy poverty in the European Union, with 22.5% of the population affected [6]. Similarly, in Turkey, about a quarter of households are energy poor, although recent trends show some improvement [7]. Brazil also struggles with this issue, with 27.8% of households living in energy poverty, with many lacking access to basic cooling mechanisms like fans [8]. In Portugal, as in other European countries, building refurbishment has been steadily increasing in the last few years [9]. The rising global demand for cooling is another critical challenge. Space cooling alone accounts for nearly 17% of global electricity consumption, and this figure is rapidly increasing due to higher temperatures and heatwaves [10]. In 2022, energy consumption for cooling rose by more than 5% compared to the previous year [11]. This growing demand not only complicates efforts to decarbonize but also strains power grids during peak hours, leading to potential outages and increased energy costs for consumers [12]. Consequently, countries are under pressure to adopt measures to reduce energy consumption and achieve carbon neutrality, as seen in Europe's goal of becoming climate-neutral by 2050 [13]. In light of these challenges, passive design strategies have emerged as a crucial approach to reducing energy dependence. These strategies utilize natural elements and architectural techniques to maintain indoor comfort without relying on active mechanical systems like air conditioning [14]. Research indicates that passive solutions, when tailored to specific climates, can significantly lower energy demand. For instance, in Portugal's Mediterranean temperate climate, near-zero-energy buildings can be achieved using appropriate passive measures [1]. As heating and cooling account for a substantial share of global energy use and CO\({}_{2}\) emissions [15], adopting passive design is a critical step towards sustainable building practices and achieving long-term energy goals. Natural ventilation, one of the key passive strategies, plays a significant role in improving energy efficiency by allowing fresh air to circulate and reducing the need for mechanical cooling. However, the effectiveness of natural ventilation can vary, especially in urban environments with high pollution levels [16]. In areas with significant outdoor air pollution, the potential benefits of natural ventilation must be carefully evaluated. While natural ventilation is a highly effective passive cooling strategy in low-pollution areas, its application in polluted urban settings may require additional considerations [17], such as the integration of air filtration systems or hybrid ventilation solutions. These systems allow for the use of natural ventilation when air quality is acceptable while switching to mechanical filtration when pollution levels are high. Therefore, the role of natural ventilation is context-dependent, and its application must be tailored to the specific environmental conditions of each location.