## 1 Introduction  
Recently, more than ninety-nine percent of the world's transport vehicles (TVs) are internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs), and ninety-five percent of their energy comes from liquid fuels as well as the petroleum industry [1]. The growth of electric vehicles (EVs) in most developed countries has taken centre stage and has seen rapid uptake growth from consumers. However, this trend is not similar in other parts of the world, especially in developing and underdeveloped economies. As indicated in [2], China, Europe, and the United States of America account for 2/3 of the overall car market, but currently, 90% are EVs. In other parts of the world, EVs account for less than 2% of overall car sales. Whereas, in developing economies such as Brazil, India, and Indonesia, the EV share is less than 1% and without any increase. Although sales of electric scooters and buses are growing in these nations, the price tag attached to EVs and the lack of charging infrastructure is the main reason for the lack of adoption [3]. Despite the drive for sustainability to decarbonise the transport sector by moving from conventional fossil fuel internal combustion engine vehicles to EVs, this move may take a long time for developing and underdeveloped economies. The big success for EVs in the whole world is challenged by limited supplies of components and increases in prices for energy storage materials. Therefore, ICEVs will remain the vehicle of choice in the coming years for many consumers in developing and underdeveloped economies [4]. These ICEVs include micro-hybrid vehicles (MHEVs),hybrid EVs (HEVs), and plug-in hybrid EVs (PHEVs). The ICEVs position lead-acid batteries (LABs) as major energy storage to start, ignite, and light (SLI) as well as for backup power supply because they have dominated the market share due to their ability to meet the needed cold-cranking of the internal combustion engine (ICE), robustness, and high-temperature endurance [5; 6]. LABs have seen industrial machinery applications in forklifts, locomotives, uninterrupted power supplies, electric substations, etc. They have proven reliability, lower cost, lower self-discharge rate, extra-ordinary safety performance, and compact enclosure [7]. However, the increase in electronic functions such as sensors, and control units, amongst others, to improve vehicle comfort, safety, start/stop and go, and reliability have resulted in increased battery load demand. Furthermore, additional systems, including driver assistance, autonomous driving, recuperation of braking energy, vehicle stabilisation, and acceleration, require high peak electric power [8; 9]. This increase in battery load demand increases battery degradation, thus affecting the battery performance by shortening its lifespan and reducing the storage capacity [10; 11]. The short lifespan, relatively lower depth-of-discharge (DoD), and slow charging rate create an unfavourable environment in recent vehicle applications [12]. Additionally, LABs' performance in terms of lifespan and storage capacity is affected by the way they are charged/discharged, which results in softening and shading of positive active material [13]; from a chemical point of view, negative electrode failure during discharge, positive active material corrosion, and premature capacity loss during deep discharge occur [14]. While more research looks at different ways to develop lightweight batteries that have a longer lifespan and enhanced safety, such as in [15], where polyaniline-modified lignocellulosic is added to a negative material of LAB, to improve its lifespan. Subsequently, in Ref. [16], the authors use stereotaxically constructed graphene to prevent sulfation and enhance the high rate of discharge capability, battery capacity, and lifespan. Further studies on chemistry development are included in [17]. Yet, these methods are expensive, time-consuming, and require complex equipment, correspondingly.