## 2 Incorporating OSI Layers in WSN Clustering
SA is used to deploy network topologies that meet coverage and connectivity requirements, ensuring sensor nodes are placed to maximize coverage while maintaining necessary connections. Power control is enhanced by implementing Error Correction Codes (ECCs) at the MAC layer, reducing energy consumption during data transmission. At the physical layer, power usage is managed to further improve energy efficiency. The study demonstrated that using SA for optimal topology significantly reduces power consumption and improves network coverage compared with random sampling heuristics. The integration of ECC at the MAC layer enhances data transmission reliability, minimizing retransmissions and saving energy. [PERSON] et al. 's layered approach shows that combining SA with energy-efficient protocols can significantly improve WSN performance, offering valuable insights into systematic optimization for energy consumption and network reliability. [PERSON] et al. [25] proposed EAP-CMAC, an Energy Aware Physical-layer Network Cooperative MAC protocol for ad hoc wireless networks. This protocol blends collaborative communication with physical layer network coding (PNC) and dynamically selects the optimal transmission mode among classic collaboration, direct transmission, and PNC-based transmission. The selection process considers source-to-destination connection quality and destination queue status. EAP-CMAC optimizes power allocation and relay selection based on residual energy and node position, significantly extending network lifespan. A 3D Markov model evaluates the protocol's performance, estimating the probability of successful data transfer. The introduction of a precise NAV parameter increases spatial reuse, further enhancing network efficiency. Analytical research and simulations show that EAP-CMAC improves network lifespan by 7% compared with equal power distribution methods. This adaptability and strategic power management make EAP-CMAC an effective solution for enhancing ad hoc wireless network longevity and performance. [PERSON] et al. 's work underscores the importance of integrating collaborative communication and advanced network coding techniques for superior energy efficiency and network lifespan. [PERSON] et al. [26] proposed the Geographic Cross-layer Routing for Disaster (GCRAD) protocol, a novel cross-layer geographic routing approach for WSNs tailored for disaster relief operations. GCRAD integrates routing, and MAC layer functions through a unified relay selection method, evaluating criteria such as the number of prospective relay nodes, node queue state, and distance from the BS. This streamlined approach eliminates inefficient transmissions, shortens communication processes, and minimizes collision probabilities, enhancing routing efficiency. GCRAD's design focuses on rapid and reliable communication, which is crucial for disaster scenarios. Simulation results using NS2 show that GCRAD significantly reduces power consumption and end-to-end latency and improves delivery rates compared with advanced inter-geographic routing strategies. The protocol's ability to reduce power consumption is vital in energy-constrained disaster situations. By lowering end-to-end latency, GCRAD ensures the swift relay of critical information, which is essential for effective disaster response. [PERSON] et al. 's research demonstrates the importance of cross-layer integration in optimizing WSN performance for disaster relief, providing valuable insights into geographic routing strategies. GCRAD sets a precedent for future research, showing that cross-layer approaches can effectively meet the complex requirements of disaster operations, ensuring energy efficiency, reduced latency, and high delivery rates. [PERSON] et al. [27] analyzed four representative connected coverage algorithms for Industrial WSNs (IWSNs): Adjustable Range Set Covers (AR-SCs), Optimized Connected Coverage Heuristic (OCCH), Greedy Coverage Weighted Communication (GCWGC), and Overlapping Target and Connected Coverage (OTTC).