## 1 Introduction
### Spatial Ability and STEM Learning  
Research shows that visual representations play an essential role in improving STEM learning [25]. According to the National Research Council (NRC) [26], STEM content areas involve the integration of multiple visual representations for teaching and learning. Based on the multimedia learning theory and cognitive learning theory, the visual representation may help students to learn better because they make abstract concepts accessible [27]. That is, students can understand the concept by integrating them into a mental model of the content.  
[PERSON], [PERSON], and [PERSON] [28] used a mixed-methods study combining qualitative and quantitative methods to investigate the use of VIEs to aid students' understanding of complex spatial models in structural engineering. Results showed that students were able to identify and visualize complex models more accurately, and there was a significant increase in average mean scores of the posttest of students who experienced CAVE-like VIE.  
Another example is when researchers investigated the effects of direct manipulation of a virtual anatomical structure versus passively viewed an interaction in a stereoscopic 3D environment. The results showed that participants in the manipulation group were more successful in generating the observed structure than the viewing group. It also showed that manipulation benefited students with low spatial ability more than students with the high spatial ability [29].  
Other research also shows the use of VIEs in higher education science classrooms and its positive impact on class learning experiences, including an increase in motivation and interactivity [30; 31].  
Therefore, STEM-related lessons should be noted as highly engaging. The current research project was concerned about how people engage with the VIEs and if users' experiences with the learning of STEM lessons can be modified for the better through the use of the current research design.  
For example, to create a framework of best practices for designing VIEs, [PERSON] and [PERSON] [3] incorporated different instructional design strategies for constructive learning, including lesson design, space, and technology. In their design, [PERSON] and [PERSON] [32] considered a major factor, namely spatial ability. Other research has also shown the importance of designing instructional design strategies that are aligned with the spatial ability of students [16; 33]. This factor is essential for designing a lesson for students with low or high spatial ability, and research shows that VIEs are well suited to deliver 3D spatial concepts [34].  
Other researchers have created experimental virtual environments for training different skills. Students were divided into two groups: a traditional computer with a screen for the control group and VR for the experimental group. The results of the study confirmed that the design of VR learning activities can help students to improve their spatial ability skills [35].  
One of the affordances of VIEs is the spatial presence. Research shows that the individual's spatial presence in VIEs is different from physical reality, and spatial presence and spatial ability are linked [36]. Research shows that individuals feel more present in VIEs, and there is a positive attitude change associated with it as well [13].  
[PERSON] [37] pointed to perceived self-efficacy as a factor that may have a direct effect on the choice of activities and eventual success. According to [PERSON] [38], three factors may influence individual attitudes toward computers and computer use: computer playfulness, computer self-efficacy, and computer anxiety. Additionally, it is reported that higher self-efficacy affects individuals' spatial ability [12; 39]. The importance of these three factors and self-efficacy in students' academic success, specifically in STEM areas that have spatial frameworks, have been investigated through many research studies [40; 41] to determine how they connect with student learning and success.