## 3 Results  
Figures 9 and 10 show the throughput performance of AODV, AODV:TOM, AODV:DEM, GPSR, GPSR:TOM, and GPSR:DEM in city and highway scenarios, under different traffic generation rates. The throughput is observed to increase proportionally with traffic generation for all simulated protocols. Among the AODV-based protocols, AODV:DEM outperformed both AODV and AODV:TOM in both environments, achieving approximately 40 Mbps in city and 55 Mbps in highway at a traffic rate of 10 packets/sec, compared to 37 Mbps for standard AODV. On the other hand, GPSR:TOM recorded the highest overall throughput, reaching 65 Mbps in highway scenarios at 25 packets/sec, outperforming both GPSR and GPSR:DEM. The throughput trends indicate that the integration of the TOM and DEM modules enhances the performance of both reactive and geographic protocols in dynamic vehicular networks. Throughput variations between city and highway scenarios show distinct behaviors across protocols. AODV:TOM and AODV:DEM exhibit higher throughput differences between environments when traffic generation rates are low, with a difference of around 7-10 Mbps at 6 packets/sec, decreasing to 3-6 Mbps at higher traffic rates. Conversely, GPSR:TOM maintains a small difference between city and highway throughput across all traffic rates, demonstrating better adaptability. For GPSR:DEM, throughput steadily increases with higher traffic generation rates, indicating that DEM modules optimize packet forwarding and improve protocol performance under high-traffic conditions. These observations suggest that TOM and DEM modules help reduce protocol sensitivity to environmental differences, particularly in high-mobility scenarios. Comparing the performance of TOM and DEM across protocols shows that these optimization modules significantly enhance throughput. AODV:DEM improves throughput by 15-20% over standard AODV in both city and highway scenarios, while GPSR:TOM achieves a 10-12% improvement over GPSR at higher traffic generation rates. The results highlight the benefits of TOM and DEM in improving routing decisions, reducing packet loss, and enhancing data delivery efficiency in vehicular ad hoc networks (VANETs). These findings align with literature reports such as [1,2], which emphasize the impact of optimization techniques on throughput and scalability in VANET environments. Thus, integrating TOM and DEM modules improves the throughput of AODV and GPSR in vehicle interconnection scenarios, particularly under dynamic traffic conditions. GPSR:TOM demonstrates the best overall performance, showing stability and high throughput in both city and highway environments. Meanwhile, AODV:DEM shows notable improvements over baseline AODV, especially in highway scenarios. These results are consistent with studies by [27,28], which report that incorporating optimization techniques can increase throughput by up to 20% and 1% less than the current research, making the chosen protocols more efficient and reliable in real-world VANET applications. Figures 11 and 12 present the throughput performances of AODV, AODV:TOM, AODV:DEM, GPSR, GPSR:TOM, and GPSR:DEM under varying packet sizes in city and highway scenarios. The observed throughput increases with larger packet sizes for all protocols, confirming that higher packet sizes generally improve data transfer efficiency in vehicle interconnection scenarios. AODV:DEM and GPSR:DEM achieve the highest throughput among the protocols, with AODV:DEM reaching 62 Mbps at 1500 bytes in highway scenarios, compared to 55 Mbps for AODV:TOM and 48 Mbps for standard AODV. Similarly, GPSR:DEM records 68 Mbps at 1500 bytes in the highway, surpassing GPSR:TOM at 65 Mbps and GPSR at 60 Mbps. These results demonstrate that integrating DEM modules leads to better throughput performance across all packet sizes in both environments. The variation in throughput between city and highway scenarios differs significantly depending on the packet size.