## 2 Wireless Communication Technologies  
Wireless communication systems offer a versatile solution for various communication needs, providing a viable alternative to expensive and inflexible cable network systems. These wireless communication systems can be categorised into different types based on their range and transmission speed, including short-range, cellular, and long-range networks. Furthermore, they include outdoor and indoor positioning systems, further highlighting their diverse applications and capabilities [32, 33]. Indoor environments pose a significant challenge for navigation systems, as they account for up to 80% of human activities. While reliable and widely used outdoor navigation systems like \"Global Positioning Systems (GPS), the Global Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS), and the Bei Dou Navigation Satellite System (BDS)\" offer precise location services, their accuracy diminishes indoors due to signal losses caused by buildings, the multipath effect, and time-delay issues. Consequently, the demand for positioning technologies falls short of meeting the requirements of an indoor system. To address this, an Indoor Positioning System (IPS) was developed which continuously and in real-time provides accurate locations of people or objects within enclosed spaces. IPSs serve multiple purposes, including object detection and tracking, assisting the daily routines of the elderly and disabled, and enabling medical and vital signs monitoring during emergencies. Indoor positioning services are crucial in various public areas, as they assist visitors in finding their desired destinations and offer navigation support for individuals who are blind or have impaired mobility. Moreover, hospitals may use IPSs for effective patient tracking [34]. Indoor positioning systems, including hardware platforms and localisation algorithms, have received great attention. Several sensing technologies, such as RFID, Wi-Fi, acoustic signals, and Bluetooth, have emerged as viable options. Different parameters can be used to create various subcategories within these IPSs. One common categorisation is based on the types of sensors employed. These include camera-based, infrared-based, tactile, polar, sound-based, Wi-Fi and WLAN, RFID systems, UWB, Assistant GNS, pseudo-based satellite systems, as well as other RF-based devices such as ZigBee, Bluetooth, digital television, cellular-based networks, radar, inertial-based navigation, and magnetic-based systems. This diverse range of sensor technologies contributes to the wide array of options available for indoor positioning and tracking purposes. Table 1 illustrates the available wireless technologies that are used in the literature for several applications. In [35; 36], researchers evaluated power consumption and the quality of the data exchange in WBAN systems. RFID plays a significant role in numerous applications within short-range wireless networking. Although not as commonly used as RFID, Near Field Communication (NFC) is compatible with smartphones and tablets. In addition to Wi-Fi for short-range high-speed communication, cellular wireless systems like GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications), GPRS (General Packet Radio Service), and 3G, 4G, and 5G (third-, fourth-, and fifth generation) wireless technology for mobile telecommunication enable long-range wireless connectivity. GPRS-based systems are employed in various cellular wireless communication networks. Various researchers employed a design based on Wi-Fi and GPRS to monitor multiple wireless communication applications, achieving minimal data loss. For long-range networks, LPWANs (low-power wide-area networks) have been specifically designed to be compatible with the Internet of Things (IoT) devices.