## 5 Cannabis Flavor Profiling Framework
### Extraction and Quantification Methods for Aroma and Flavor Compounds  
Accurately extracting and quantifying aroma and flavor compounds in _C. sativa_ L. is essential for both understanding and standardizing its sensory characteristics. Cannabis extraction techniques encompass a wide range of methods. These include conventional approaches such as solvent-based extractions (e.g., ethanol and hexane) and supercritical CO2 extraction, and innovative techniques such as microwave-assisted extraction, ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE), and pulsed electric fields, each of which can be tailored to optimize the recovery of cannabinoids, terpen, flavonoids, and other bioactive compounds while preserving their biological properties [27; 28; 109]. Furthermore, advanced analytical techniques, such as GC-MS, gas chromatography-olfactometry (GC-O), and HPLC, are typically used to measure the volatile and non-volatile compounds that contribute to the cannabis aroma (olfactory properties) and flavor (multisensory experience) [27; 110]. Here, we summarize recent research related to the extraction and quantification to highlight current scientific directions in this field.  
A recent study comparing the effects of supercritical and liquid CO2 extraction methods on hemp seed oil demonstrated that supercritical CO2 extraction achieved higher oil yields (93%) and an enriched carotenoid content, while liquid CO2 extraction preserved more cannabinoids, alongside polyphenols and tocopherols, making both methods effective and environmentally friendly alternatives to traditional solvent-based techniques [111]. Another study coupled supercritical CO2 extraction with on-line fractionation to separate aroma compounds. This method effectively isolated volatile terpen such as myrcene, limonene, and \(\beta\)-Caryophyllene, demonstrating its ability to selectively extract and fractionate these while preserving their quality [112]. The findings highlight the potential of supercritical CO2 extraction for producing high-purity terpene-rich extracts suitable for downstream quantification methods. Other studies have employed UAE to recover volatile aroma compounds from industrial hemp infloresances. The method demonstrated high efficiency in isolating terpen and other volatiles, offering a fast, low-temperature alternative to conventional techniques [113; 114]. This highlights the potential of UAE as a sustainable and effective approach for extracting aromatic profiles from hemp.  
GC-MS yields the detailed identification and quantification of volatiles, such as terpenes and esters, by separating and analyzing their molecular structures [115]. GC-O enhances this analysis by correlating specific compounds with sensory perceptions through human olfactory evaluation [14]. HPLC is typically used to measure less volatile compounds like cannabinoids and flavonoids, which also contribute to flavor and aroma profiles [115].  
Standardizing quantification methods is critical for achieving consistent and reproducible data across studies and industries. Variability in sampling, preparation, and analytical protocols can lead to discrepancies in readings, which can complicate comparisons and applications. Establishing best practices for quantification--such as defining optimal extraction methods, calibration standards, and reporting conventions--ensures reliability and facilitates the creation of tools like aroma and flavor wheels, bridging subjective experiences with objective analysis.