# Trends in LPWAN Technologies for LEO Satellite Constellations in the NewSpace Context
## 3 Architectures and Protocols for IoT Communications via Satellites
### Lpwan
#### 3.2.2 LoRa/LoRaWAN
\begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c c} \hline \hline
**Criterion** & **LoRa/LoRaWAN** & **NB-IoT** \\ \hline \multirow{2}{*}{Definition} & A low-power, wide-area & A low-power cellular network \\  & networking technology for IoT. & technology for IoT, based on LTE. \\ \hline Satellite & \multirow{2}{*}{Yes, with CSS and LR-FHSS.} & Yes. From Release 17 of 3 GPP. \\  & & \\ \hline \multirow{2}{*}{Frequency} & Operates in license-free ISM & Uses licensed LTE frequency bands. \\  & bands. & \\ \hline \multirow{2}{*}{Bandwidth/speed} & Limited bandwidth; low data & Limited bandwidth; low data rates. \\  & rates. & \\ \hline \multirow{2}{*}{Energy consumption} & Very low. & Low, generally higher than \\  & & LoRaWAN. \\ \hline \multirow{2}{*}{Cost} & Lower due to the use of & Higher due to licensed spectrum \\  & unlicensed spectrum and less & and more sophisticated hardware. \\  & expensive hardware. & \\ \hline \multirow{2}{*}{Applications in  NewSpace} & Ideal for remote sensors and IoT & Ideal for remote sensors and IoT \\  & devices in small satellites and & devices in small satellites and \\  & isolated locations. & isolated locations. \\ \hline \multirow{2}{*}{Companies using it} & IoT and NewSpace companies, & IoT and NewSpace companies, like \\  & like Lacuna or Fossa Systems. & Sateliot or Ligado Networks. \\ \hline \multirow{2}{*}{Advantages} & Low cost, low power & Low cost, low power consumption, \\  & consumption, ideal for & ideal for low-bandwidth IoT \\  & low-bandwidth IoT devices. & devices. \\ \hline \multirow{2}{*}{Disadvantages} & Bandwidth and speed limitations; & Higher cost and energy \\  & dependent on LoRa network & consumption; dependent on a \\  & coverage. & licensed spectrum. \\ \hline \multirow{2}{*}{Standards and  regulations} & Complies with ISM standards; & Based on LTE standards; \\  & regulations vary by region. & telecommunications regulations. \\ \hline \multirow{2}{*}{Security and  encryption} & Integrated security protocols, but & Robust security, advanced \\  & less robust than NB-IoT. & encryption, authentication. \\ \hline \multirow{2}{*}{Interoperability with  terrestrial networks} & Compatible with terrestrial & High interoperability with existing \\  & networks, but uses an LR-FHSS & terrestrial networks from \\  & modulation. & Release 17. \\ \hline \multirow{4}{*}{Scalability} & It supports a large number of & It supports a large number of \\  & devices, including millions in a & devices, including millions in a \\  & satellite constellation, making it & satellite constellation, making it \\  & highly scalable. & highly scalable. \\ \hline \multirow{2}{*}{Latency} & Higher latency compared to & Lower latency, suitable for \\  & NB-IoT. & applications requiring a quick \\ \hline \multirow{2}{*}{Resilience and  reliability} & Good under ideal conditions, & \\  & varies with the environment, and & \\ \cline{1-1}  & can be affected by interferences as & Very high as it uses licensed bands. \\ \hline \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table} 
Table 4: Comparative summary between LoRaWAN and NB-IoT for satellite communications. The LoRaWAN is a communication protocol widely used in IoT applications. In this protocol, a LoRaWAN network server (LNS) manages devices connected to the network. The LNS collects device data, contextualizes them, and prepares them for use in business applications and IoT platforms. The communication process in IoT devices occurs in several steps, as shown in Figure 5. First, the IoT devices send data periodically to orbiting satellites. These satellites act as relays that forward the information to ground stations. Within the operator's cloud, three crucial components facilitate the efficient functioning of the LoRaWAN network. The network server manages devices, security, and monitoring to ensure the seamless integration of satellite-relayed data. The application server interprets and processes these data for various business applications. The join server handles the incorporation of new devices, focusing on authentication and security.