# Current Research on the Effects of Non-Digestible Carbohydrates on Metabolic Disease
## 5 NDCs and MDs
### Diabetes
Other cohort studies have shown that cereal fiber intake has a strong inverse association with the risk of T2 DM (relative risk (RR) = 0.75; 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.65-0.86), whereas only a very weak association was observed for fruit soluble/viscous fiber (RR = 0.95; 95% CI 0.87-1.03) unlike other soluble fibers, such as psyllium and \(\upbeta\)-glucans, although many studies clearly indicated that soluble fibers, including fruit fiber, reduce glycemic response [94; 99]. In addition to the type of NDC, the amount and feed period of NDC intake are also associated with a reduction in the risk of developing T2 DM. A randomized, crossover study of 13 patients with T2 DM showed that the intake of a high-fiber diet (50 g/day; 25 g of soluble fiber and 25 g of insoluble fiber) for 6 weeks lowered plasma glucose, insulin, and cholesterol levels by 6-12%, compared with the diet recommended by the American Diabetes Association (24 g/day; 8 g of soluble fiber and 16 g of insoluble fiber) [100]. Cereal fibers, especially \(\upbeta\)-glucans in oats, barley, psyllium and rye, have been shown to lower glycemia in healthy people, but only when the daily dose of \(\upbeta\)-glucans is at least 4 g [94]. A soluble fiber diet of 10 g and 20 g/day for one month reduced the risk of developing T2 DM and may have therapeutic effects, as per a study conducted on 117 patients with T2 DM aged between 40 and 70 years. In particular, soluble fibers such as pectin, GOS, HPMC, and hemicellulose were also shown to improve T2D [101; 102; 103; 104; 105; 106] Fasting blood glucose, insulin resistance, TG, and connected (C)-peptide levels in patients with T2 DM were lowered by the soluble dietary fiber diet for the short-term intervention period. However, there were no significant differences in these effects between the 10 g/day and 20 g/day groups [107]. \begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{l l l l l l l l l} \hline \hline  & **Types** & **Model** & \ \begin{tabular}{l} **Dosage** \\ **(g/day or \%)** \\ \end{tabular}  & \begin{tabular}{l} **Duration** \\ **(weeks)** \\ \end{tabular}  & **Related Disease** & **Physiological Effects** & **References** \\ \hline \multicolumn{6}{l}{_Soluble dietary fiber_} \\ \multicolumn{6}{l}{_Guar Cum_} & \multicolumn{1}{l}{Human} & \(\geq\)15 & 96 & L/M & \(\downarrow\) Serum LDL-C and TC with \\  & & & & & & & \\ \hline
**Pectin** & & & & & & & \(\downarrow\) Fasting BG, TG, cholesterol, AIP, \\ - & Pectin & Human & 650 or 1300 & 12 & Cb & HOHMR-IR, insulin level, BV, body mass, \\  & & & & & & & \(\downarrow\) length and rhythm. \(\downarrow\) Adspection \\ - & Pectin (soybean) & Human (Man) & 10 g & 3 h & IR & \(\downarrow\) Plasma glucose, insulin, and iAUC & [101] \\ - & Pectin (citrus peel) & Mice & 2\% & 8 & Cb & \(\downarrow\) Body and at length gain, dyslightedema, \\  & & & & & & & \(\downarrow\) hyperglycemia, and insulin resistance \\  & & Rat (DB) & 0.25-2 (g/kg/day) & 4 & T2D & \(\downarrow\) Pressure glucose tolerance, hepatatic glycogen & \\  & & & & & & & \(\downarrow\) constant, BG, and blood lipid level. \(\uparrow\) PAbA & [87] \\ - & High-sterified pectin (HEP, apple) & Rat/Mice & 2-10\% & 6-8 & Cb/NAFLD & \(\downarrow\) Pressure/reduced adjusted