# Positioning Methods and the Use of Location and Activity Data in Forests
###### Abstract
In inventory and asset tracking applications, the location and timing of resources at checkpoints along a supply chain can be scanned using RFID tags, QR codes, or other near-range mobile scanning methods; thus, RFID tags and QR codes are also forms of positioning [3; 4; 5]. Additionally, in many cases, communication technologies such as Bluetooth, very high frequency (VHF), UWB, and other radio frequencies or protocols may be used to (1) determine the location of an individual or object through trilateration; (2) transmit positions or other data among devices such as a fitness watch sending data to a smartphone via Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE) or ANT wireless; or (3) both 1 and 2 simultaneously. After reviewing and summarizing search results from our initial systematic review of positioning systems, we supplemented preliminary materials with related literature from radio and acoustic telemetry in wildlife and fisheries management and added the concepts of video object detection, optical positioning, and relative positioning in reference to drones and equipment automation. Improvements in the accuracy of affordable, GNSS-based devices combined with the emergence of other localization techniques are enhancing our ability to map people, animals, equipment, and other resources at high spatial and temporal resolutions. For example, integration of multiple positioning methods such as a combination of GNSS and INS, can increase positioning accuracy under forest canopies [6; 7]. Additionally, with developments in off-the-grid communications for areas that lack conventional cellular data access, we can share real-time position information in forests and other remote environments using networked two-way radios and direct satellite data transfer. After reviewing common positioning and location- or data-sharing methods, we conducted a second review of several broad data science concepts that may influence natural resources in the future. We considered the most relevant of the first twenty results in our initial searches, and then expanded the review to additional, related literature that helped broaden or clarify themes. Search terms initially included _location-based services (LBS), geofences, wearable technology, activity recognition, mesh networking, the Internet of Things (IoT), and big data. Location-based services_ are algorithms, apps, or other networked processes that perform a specific function based on the current location or heading of a user. Similarly, _geofences_ quantify, inform, or influence resource movements or positions based on real-time coordinates. _Activity recognition_ refers to the growing use of _wearable technology_ such as fitness bands, GNSS-enabled smartwatches, and other devices, to self-monitor personal movement and physiological status [8; 9; 10]. Common smartphones, equipped with a range of inertial sensors, can also be used for activity recognition [11; 12; 13; 14]. The concept of the _quantified self_[15], in which individuals are empowered to study their lifestyles and behaviors with increasingly available data, is widespread in fitness, recreation, and sports, and activity monitoring is quickly moving into the workplace to increase employee wellness, reduce corporate healthcare costs, and improve productivity [16; 17; 18]. Parallel developments in animal telemetry are generating detailed data on animal behavior based on accelerometer and inertial sensor data capturing movement and activity [19]. There are several possibilities for sharing the kinds of high-resolution data that are created by activity recognition and other mobile device applications. For example, using either advanced digital radios or miniaturized antennas that pair with smartphones via Bluetooth or BLE, users can share location and other types of data through local _mesh networks_, even in remote, off-the-grid areas lacking cellular or Internet services [20; 21]. Alternatively, devices that use satellite data networks for two-way communication have global connectivity.