# Genetic Parameters for Selected Traits of Inbred Lines of Maize (_Zea mays_ L.)
## 4 Discussion  
Maize is a model plant, so it is an excellent research object [20]. This species, along with rice, is the most commonly grown crop for human and animal consumption. It is a species grown for herb and forage [21]. According to USDA, the world's maize production in 2019/20 was 1116 million tons, and in 2020/21 increased by 42 million tons. Climate change and the massive demand for maize, conditioned by the natural increase, lead the research on genomic regions, which are significant for agronomy [22]. The modern approaches to maize cultivation predominately crosses plants between inbred lines. These hybrids test white vigor (heterosis) and more broad agronomic properties than parents. However, the heterosis effect cannot be estimated based on the phenotype parents line because its basis is unknown. The hypothesis is that heterosis based on completed damaged homozygous alleles is hidden in one line in inbred parents [23]. Heritability, in all its complexity, always gives us an answer in the end. However, fully predicting the outcome before it happens is still out of our reach. One of the missing pieces of information may be found in higher-order genetic interaction studies [24]. The main effects of genes in maize were analyzed by [PERSON] et al. [25]. However, epistasis was estimated by [PERSON] et al. [26], [PERSON] et al. [27], and [PERSON] et al. [28]. A different, heuristic approach to assessing the effects of genes has been presented by [PERSON] et al. [29]. One of the best-known applications of heritability in quantitative genetic studies of traits is its predictive role, which helps determine the reliability of phenotypic value as an indicator of breeding value. High genetic progress and high heritability scores provide the best conditions for selection [30]. Genotype can be assessed by phenotype, representing the genotypic value in the dynamic environment. Gene expression results from additivity, dominance, and epistasis, affecting the expression of quantitative traits in a population. Inheritance results from the interaction of genotype and phenotype, the variation of which is useful in the selection process [31]. In the analysis shown by [PERSON] et al. [32], phenotypic and genetic correlations showed similar trends for the traits analyzed. According to [PERSON] et al. [33], a combinations of genes with the diverse large of effects and modes of action (additive, dominance, and epistasis) are involved in the inheritance of complex quantitative traits such as grain yield and the features of the yield structure, including a significant non-crossover/crossover interaction with the environment [33]. Complex maize traits are defined by polygenes exhibiting additive, dominance, epistasis, and gene-environment interaction effects. An example of such traits can be the ones of the leaf. Many statistical methods such as the additive and full genetic models have been developed to discover complex plant traits. However, most genetic association studies focus on additive effects, ignoring non-additive epistasis, environment-gene interactions, and interaction effects [34]. It leads to the absence of the heritability problem, which can significantly impact phenotypic variation [35]. [PERSON] et al. [36] presented that the values of the additive effect of the genes were greater than the non-additive effects. Plant height and ear height were easily affected by environmental factors. The broad-sense heritability and narrow-sense heritability of kernel depth are higher. They are significantly affected by non-additive effects so that they can be selected in the late generation. Similar results for 1000-kernel weight in spring barley hulled and hull-less lines obtained [PERSON] et al. [10]. Results show that 67% of the total three-way epistasis effect and 58% of two-way interactions were statistically significant in the studied cases. These outcomes highlight the importance of including such information in similar studies.