## 4 Discussion
### Sex Ratio of Copepods
\begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c c c c} \hline \hline
**Species** & **Sex Ratios** & **Period** & **Location** & **References** \\ \hline _Undinula vulgaris_ & 0.33 &
\begin{tabular}{c} September/1971- \\ August/1973 \\ \end{tabular} & St Vincents, Barbados & Moore and Sander [105] \\ Family & & & & \\ Candacidae & & & & \\ _Candacia armata_ & 0.39 & September/1986-June/1988 & Golfe du Lion, Mediterranean & Kouwenberg [47] \\ _C. armata_ & 0.75 & September/1986-June/1988 & Golfe du Lion, Mediterranean & Kouwenberg [47] \\ Family & & & \\ Centropagidae & & & \\ _Lentropages_ & 1.78 & March-October/1933 & Loch Striven, Scotland & Marshall [96] \\ _hamatus_ & 1.04 & January/1970-October/1971 & Kiel Bay, Baltic & Schnack [94] \\ _C. hamatus_ & 0.37 & March-December/1993 & Southampton Water, UK & [PERSON] et al. [95] \\ _C. hamatus_ & 1.13 & June/1933–May/1934 & Oslo Fjord, Norway & Wiborg [103] \\ _Centropages_ & 0.81 & September/1986-June/1988 & Golfe du Lion, Mediterranean & Kouwenberg [47] \\ _C. typicus_ & 0.79 & September/1986-June/1988 & Golfe du Lion, Mediterranean & Kouwenberg [47] \\ _C. typicus_ & 0.85 & January-October/1947 & Plymouth Area, English & Digby [97] \\ _C. typicus_ & 0.72 & 3 seasons & North Aegean Sea & Moraitou-Apostolopoulou [104] \\ _C. typicus_ & 0.72 & February/1965– & North Aegean Sea & Moraitou-Apostolopoulou [106] \\ _Centropages_ & 0.59 & 3 seasons & North Aegean Sea & Moraitou-Apostolopoulou [104] \\ _violacous_ & Family & & \\ Clausocalanidae & & & & \\ _Clausocalanus_ spp. & 0.15 & September/1986-June/1988 & Golfe du Lion, Mediterranean & Kouwenberg [47] \\ _Clausocalanus_ spp. & 0.18 & September/1986-June/1988 & Golfe du Lion, Mediterranean & Kouwenberg [47] \\ _Microcalanus_ & 1.4 & January-October/1933 & Loch Striven, Scotland & Marshall [96] \\ _pygmaeus_ & 0.03 & August/1950–August/1951 & Scoresby Sound, East & Digby [101] \\ _M. pygmaeus_ & 0.25 & June/1933–May/1934 & Oslo Fjord, Norway & Wiborg [103] \\ _Pseudocalanus_ & 0.43 & October/1985– & Balsfjorden, Norway & Norrbin [99] \\ _acuspes_ & 0.27 & January–December/1947 & Plymouth Area, English & Digby [97] \\ _eplongatus_ & 0.28 & January–October/1933 & Loch Striven, Scotland & Marshall [96] \\ _P. minutus_ & 0.03 & August/1950–August/1951 & Scoresby Sound, East & Digby [101] \\ _P. minutus_ & 0.25 & June/1933–May/1934 & Oslo Fjord, Norway & Wiborg [103] \\ _Pseudocalanus_ sp. & 0.39 & January/1970–October/1971 & Kiel Bay, Baltic & Schnack [94] \\ Family & & & \\ _Euchaeta_ & & & & \\ _marina/acuta_ & 0.22 & September/1986–June/1988 & Golfe du Lion, Mediterranean & Kouwenberg [47] \\ _E. marina/acuta_ & 0.19 & September/1986–June/1988 & Golfe du Lion, Mediterranean & Kouwenberg [47] \\ _Euchaeta norvegica_ & 0.12 & September/1971– & Loch Etive, Scotland & Hopkins [107] \\ Family & & & \\ Metridiidae & & & & \\ _Metridiidae_ & & & \\ _Metridiidae_ & 0 & August/1950– & Scoresby Sound, East & Digby [101] \\ _M. longa_ & 0.54 & June/1933–August/1938 & Oslo Fjord, Norway & Wiborg [103] \\ _Pleuroamma_ & & & \\ _ gracilis_ & 0.52 & September/1986–June/1988 & Golfe du Lion, Mediterranean & Kouwenberg [47] \\ _P. gracilis_ & 0.41 & September/1986–June/1988 & Golfe du Lion, Mediterranean & Kouwenberg [47] \\ \hline \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table} 
Table 4: Cont. The sex ratio of pelagic copepods is typically female biased. Species of the copepod families Oithonidae and Paracalanidae were often recorded with extremely female-skew sex ratios [40,111,112]. [PERSON] et al. [112] estimated that predation contributed to more than 69% of the field mortality rate in adult males, whereas in adult females it was about 36%.