## 3 System Model
### Proposed Dynamic Distributed Load-Balancing Algorithm
The \(CIO_{n}(i)\) value for each neighboring cell(\(i\)) identified during the selection process is calculated using the following equation: \[CIO_{n}(i)= \begin{cases}|CIO_{s}+\beta(i)|&\text{if }\beta>0,\\ |CIO_{s}-\beta(i)|&\text{otherwise},\end{cases} \] (5) where \(\beta(i)\) is a factor that adjusts the offset for neighboring cell(\(i\)) which can be calculated using an equation like the following: \[\beta(i)=RSRP_{\textit{limit}}*\sigma-event_{\textit{Thr}}(i)\] (6)where the Scaling Factor (\(\sigma\)) as presented in Table 1 is represented by a value that varies based on the different network deployments. It ensures the \(CIO\) values do not cause the effect of HOPP. The \(event_{Thr}(i)\) is the RSRP threshold used for triggering the HO process at the neighboring cell(\(i\)). The CIO values for neighboring cells are limited based on their load condition. This limitation ensures that overloaded neighboring cells do not receive a large number of offloaded UEs. By following these steps, which are presented in Algorithm 1, the DDLB algorithm selects UEs for offloading from the congested cell and calculates the appropriate CIO values for both the congested cell and its identified neighboring cells. This facilitates the handover process and helps distribute the network load more efficiently. \begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{l l} \hline \hline
**Parameters** & **Values** \\ \hline Cell Type & 5G cell \\ Number of Cells & 24 \\ Number of tested cell & 7 \\ Number of Users & 385 Concentrated UEs, each UE simulates a group of UEs reflecting ultra dense occasions \\ Simulation Steps & 530k step \\ Number of simulations & 56 \\ Transmit Power [dBm] & 15 \\ Antenna Gain [dBi] & 12 \\ Carrier Frequency [GHz] & 1.8, 1.9, 2.0, 2.1 \\ System Bandwidth [MHz] & 25 \\ Cell Radius [m] & 450 \\ BS Antenna Height & 10 \\ Resource Distribution & Distributed as user needs across all active UEs \\ UE Height [m] & 1.5 \\ UE Speed [km/h] & [3 to 20] \\ Mobility Model & non-uniform random mobility \\ Thermal Noise [dBm] & \(1.380649\times 10^{-23/K}\times\Delta f\) \\ Shadow Fading Model & A Gaussian-distributed random variable with zero mean and \(\sigma_{dB}\) \\  & standard deviation in \(dB\) \\ Path Loss \({}_{UMi-LOS}\) [dB] & \(32.4+40\log_{10}(d_{3D})+20\log_{10}(f_{c})-9.5\log_{10}((d^{\prime}{}_{BP})^ {2}+(h_{UT}-h_{UT})^{2})\) \\ Path Loss \({}_{UMi-NLOS}\) [dB] & \(22.4+35.3\log_{10}(d_{3D})+21.3\log_{10}(f_{c})-0.3\) (\(h_{UT}-1.5\)) \\ Shadowing STD [dB] & LoS = 4, NLoS = 7.82 \\ A1/A2 Threshold [dBm] & \(-40.5\) \\ A1/A2 Hysteresis [dBm] & \(1.75\) \\ CIO Range [dBm] & [\(-20\) to \(20\)] \\ TTT values [ms] & \(360\), \(450\) \\ \(Threshold_{initial}\) & \(53\%\) \\ \(T_{interval}\) [s] & \(60\), \(180\) \\ Scaling Factor (\(\sigma\)) & \(1.07\) \\ \hline \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table} 
Table 1: Simulation parameters. ```
Data: -cells: List of all cells in the network - \(T_{interval}\): Dynamic interval for periodic execution (seconds) - \(Threshold_{initial}\): Load threshold for identifying congested cells Result: - Updated CIO values for congested cells and their neighboring cells whiletruedo forcell\(\in\)cellsdo Phase1: Monitor and store real-time load condition\(load(cell)\) end if if\(T_{interval}\)is reachedthen Phase2: Periodic Load-Balancing (with Dynamic Interval)for\(cell\in\)cellsdo if\(load_{Av}(cell)>\)\(Threshold_{initial}\)then Calculate flexible load threshold\(load_{Tmesh}(cell)\) Calculate \(RSRP_{limit}\) and identify the \(Serving\_Sectors\) Identify neighboring cells for offloading based on \(Serving\_Sectors\) end if Phase3: Cell Individual Offset (CIO) Determination and Update forcell\(\in\)Congested_Cellsdo if\(load(cell)>load_{Tmesh}\)then Calculate \(CIO_{s}(cell)\) using Equation (4) with \(RSRP_{limit}(cell)\) for\(Ncell_{Off}\in\)neighboring cells identified for offloadingdo Calculate \(CIO_{n}(Ncell_{Off})\) using Equation (5) with \(CIO_{s}(cell)\) end if end end if end
```  
**Algorithm 1**Dynamic Distributed Load-Balancing (DDLB) Algorithm