## 4 Discussion  
In the present study, a model for a realistic estimation of the residual driving range of a BEV has been developed including the effects of battery pack temperature and battery ageing level, HVAC consumption and battery pre-heating. Accordingly, an L-7 BEV has been modelled through a backward-facing approach and validated by means of real-world data acquired during the STEVE project [23]. Since the experimental driving missions included real driving data, this meant that driver behaviour, road and traffic conditions could also be exploited in the analyses. Therefore, the results presented in this paper can be considered as representative of the combined effect of the above-mentioned factors on the real driving range of a BEV and follow-up research based on [12]. An ECC method was chosen to perform the estimation of the battery SoC to be used for calculating the vehicle residual driving range. In this paper, differently from [PERSON] et al. [39], the validation of the experimental battery SoC profiles related to real-world driving missions allowed for optimizing the usage of the ECC method, since real information about the initial battery SoC could be exploited, and no approximations were required to be introduced in the analyses. Once the validation of the BEV model on several experimental driving missions had been completed, the first set of analyses was aimed at assessing the battery ageing influence on the real residual driving range of the vehicle. To this end, two distinct DoD levels (80% and 100%) were considered. For each, four battery ageing levels (i.e., number of life-cycles completed) were evaluated and their influence on the battery available capacity was assessed. From a practical perspective, a variation of the correction factor \(\lambda_{SoH}\) was made. Furthermore, the presence of a BTMS failure was assumed to include a variation of the second correction factor \(\lambda_{t_{\text{by}}}\) in the analysis. This condition was exploited to define the relative importance of each sub-correction factor on the global correction factor \(\lambda_{tot}\). First, the predominance of the battery ageing level correction factor on the global correction factor (with respect to the battery pack temperature) was proved. Then, reducing the DoD from DoD100 to DoD80 demonstrated that a higher battery life-span and smaller variations of the battery available capacity could be achieved before achieving the battery  
Figure 35: Comparison of residual driving range estimated with (blue curve) and without (red curve) thermal management of the BTMS for DM09 for an initial battery pack temperature of -10 \({}^{\circ}\)C.  
EoL. In fact, roughly two thirds of the entire life-span of a battery could be operated with a negligible loss of the battery available capacity, in the case of DoD80, whereas only one third could be operated in the same condition when DoD100 was considered. It is worth highlighting that range anxiety and safety buffer are directly linked to trip mileage [40], therefore, experiencing a fast decay of the battery performance (i.e., available capacity) might lead to a deterrent effect for new BEV drivers. Of note, the selection of a higher DoD (e.g., DoD100) would lead to temporarily larger driving ranges which would be lost in the long term. Another important analysis focused on the effect of HVAC consumption on the entire system, both for heating and cooling the vehicle cabin (i.e., cold and hot ambient temperatures). HVAC consumption was modelled assuming an optimal cabin temperature of 24 \({}^{\circ}\)C, and that the HVAC power demand would increase when the cabin temperature moved below or above the optimal temperature. Additional auxiliary power was included in the study, but HVAC was assumed to claim the main auxiliary power demand, according to [22]. As expected for a BEV, the battery SoC evolution and the residual driving range estimations proved to be largely affected when the HVAC system was turned on.