## 1 Introduction
Building on this theoretical framework, previous research has found that digital tools, such as fitness trackers, interactive applications, and online platforms, can effectively capture students' attention and improve their engagement in PE classes [12; 13]. Technologies such as VR and augmented reality (AR) create immersive learning environments that enable students to experience diverse sports scenarios, thereby fostering greater interest and participation in class [14]. Classroom management software enhances students' learning motivation by improving the efficiency of instructional organization and facilitating access to educational resources. Additionally, the use of social media in classrooms has been shown to promote collaborative learning and discussions. However, some studies have also highlighted potential drawbacks associated with digital tools in higher education settings. Over-reliance on digital technologies, digital literacy disparities, and potential distractions may divert students' attention and negatively impact their classroom engagement [15; 16]. Despite the increasing integration of digital technology into PE instruction, there remains a lack of empirical research that precisely analyzes and predicts the specific effects of different digital technologies on university students' engagement in PE classes. Therefore, further empirical investigation is necessary to bridge this research gap. In addition to digital technologies, students' psychological factors profoundly influence their classroom engagement behavior. Research indicates that perceived usefulness (PU) and perceived ease of use (PEU), as core constructs of the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM), significantly influence students' attitudes, motivations, and actual technology usage behavior [17]. Specifically, higher levels of PU and PEU toward digital tools are associated with more active adoption of these tools in class, thus enhancing students' classroom behaviors and overall engagement [18]. A survey conducted among undergraduate students revealed that the integration of digital technologies in flipped classroom settings affects students' PU, PEU, and consequently their classroom participation. Among various digital tools, students rated classroom response systems most positively in terms of PU and acceptance, followed by electronic lectures and classroom chats, while mobile virtual reality (mobile VR) received the lowest ratings [19]. Moreover, PU significantly influences students' academic self-efficacy (ASE). Specifically, when students perceive digital tools as beneficial, their confidence in their academic capabilities increases, leading to enhanced satisfaction and improved outcomes in online learning contexts [20]. However, the direct impact of PEU on ASE remains inconclusive. Some studies argue that PEU may not directly affect self-efficacy, but instead fosters positive attitudes toward digital tools, indirectly influencing self-efficacy through these favorable attitudes [21]. According to social cognitive theory, an individual's cognitive processes, including perceptions and beliefs about their capabilities, play a crucial role in shaping their behaviors [22]. Research has demonstrated that employing feedback technologies, such as virtual reality, in PE classes enables students to directly observe their progress in knowledge and skills, subsequently boosting their ASE [23]. Numerous studies have indicated that higher ASE positively influences students' learning motivation and classroom engagement. Particularly in virtual or online classrooms, students who experience enhanced self-efficacy, either due to successful interactions with digital tools or a perceived improvement facilitated by these technologies, generally exhibit higher levels of classroom participation [24; 25]. In PE contexts, ASE is recognized as a critical determinant of student interest and participation, significantly influencing their learning success [26]. In summary, the current study proposes the following hypotheses (Figure 1):  
**Hypothesis 1**.