## 3 Results and Discussion
Additionally, ROS may be generated under high electric fields, and these free radicals can damage the cell membrane and internal components, contributing further to cell death. The effectiveness of this inactivation mechanism depends on several factors, including the frequency, duration, energy density, waveform, and pulse width of the PEF application [34; 35]. Tomato seeds exposed to pulsed electromagnetic fields with pulse energies of 35-80 J/ pulse for 10 to 15 min demonstrated enhanced plant growth [36]. Similarly, tomato seeds subjected to alternating current (AC) electric fields of 4-12 kV/cm and AC magnetic fields of 3-1000 G for 15-60 s germinated 1.1-2.8 times faster than control seeds. However, the application of a 12 kV electric field for 60 s had an inhibitory effect. It was also observed that germination rates increased by 1.1 to 2.8 times following the electric field treatment [37]. Another study reported that tomato seeds treated with an electric field of 20 kV/cm for 20 s achieved a 100% germination rate, compared to 76% in untreated seeds [38]. The disruption of the cell membrane by PEFs leads to an imbalance in the membrane's transport system, resulting in increased permeability. This elevated permeability enhances the nutrient and water uptake from the soil. Permeability is typically assessed by measuring changes in EC. An increase in the EC of the surrounding medium reflects the electrolyte leakage from seeds into water, indicating membrane damage [39]. In corn grains, a significant increase in EC was observed over time, suggesting that cell damage may be more time-dependent, rather than being directly caused by the PEF treatment. Similar results were reported for cucumber [13], corn [12], and wheat grains [18], where EC increases were primarily attributed to time rather than the PEF application itself. Salinity is a major factor reducing crop yields, as high salt concentrations cause hyperosmotic stress and ion imbalance [40], necessitating mechanisms for maintaining homeostasis, detoxification, and growth to develop salt tolerance. Salinity stress adversely affects plant growth by inducing osmotic stress and ionic toxicity, which hinder photosynthesis, nutrient uptake, and the overall development [41]. However, salinity tolerance remains a complex and not fully understood process. The PEF treatment may enhance the salt tolerance under 100 mM and 200 mM NaCl stress conditions, possibly by activating one or more of the plant's stress tolerance mechanisms. An increased salt tolerance following PEF treatments has also been reported in cucumber seeds [13], corn [12], and wheat grains [18]. The natural microflora of seeds, including bacteria, can influence the seed germination and seedling growth. While various chemicals, such as calcium cyanamide (CaCN\({}_{2}\)), are used to disinfect seeds and improve productivity, chemical treatments have drawbacks, including adverse effects on worker safety and the environment [42; 43]. As a more sustainable alternative, the PEF treatment has shown promise for seed surface disinfection. For example, a PEF application resulted in a 63.33% reduction in _Aspergillus parasitic_ in corn seeds [12], a 64.37% reduction in red pepper flakes [16], and a 60% reduction in sesame seeds [17]. Significant reductions in the endogenous microflora of wheat grains [18; 44], cucumber seeds [13], and corn grains [12] were also achieved at higher energy levels. Similarly, the substantial inactivation of the total aerobic mesophilic bacteria (TAMB) and total mold and yeast (TMY) was observed in cabbage, lettuce, garden rocket, wheat [18; 18], cucumber [13], and corn [12] under high-energy PEF treatments. Additionally, PEFs have been effective in inactivating seed-borne pathogens, such as _Drechslera graminea_, _Xanthomonas campestris_ pv. _campestris_, _Fusarium graminearum_, and _Alternaria brassicae_, on red cabbage seeds with an increased treatment time and frequency [14].