## 4 Conclusions  
Techniques capable of detecting milk fraud are of great interest not only for economic reasons but mainly for health purposes. Therefore, the bioimpedance technique, based on resistance to electrical conductivity, should be improved and explored as an alternative in detecting fraud involving compounds that modify the electrical properties of milk. It should also be noted that temperature is a variable that directly influences impedance measurements and should be considered for a more reliable analysis and in the construction of mathematical models. In this context, electrical bioimpedance emerges as a promising technology for the food sector, particularly for dairy products, such as detecting milk adulteration, monitoring milk quality during storage and transportation, and evaluating the nutritional composition of dairy products. Compared to other analytical technologies, bioimpedance offers significant advantages, including being faster and having lower operational costs, the ability to perform real-time and on-site analyses, and producing accurate and reliable results. Additionally, it presents an attractive cost-benefit ratio for the production chain, not requiring highly skilled labour for its operation. It can be used by both producers and regulatory agents, making it an accessible and practical technique. Bioimpedance is also distinguished by its lower environmental impact, being more environmentally friendly as it does not require the use of reagents for analysis. Case studies have demonstrated its effectiveness in various applications, and the technology complies with regulatory standards to ensure food safety and quality. This technology has the potential to promote a more technical and less empirical approach to livestock farming, increasing  
Figure 12: Measured impedance values to predict impedance values using the proposed mathematical modelling and measured test frequencies: (**A**) \(10^{1}\), (**B**) \(10^{3}\), and (**C**) \(10^{6}\) Hz. The straight line represents the ideal relation between the measured impedance and the respective impedance value predicted by the proposed mathematical models. predictability, reducing losses, and ensuring preventive animal health. Consequently, it contributes to improving the quality of products and processes, and promotes environmental sustainability. Future developments in the technology may lead to advancements in analysis accuracy and new applications, further establishing bioimpedance as a valuable tool in the food sector. In this context, the present research constitutes a pilot project for developing a portable bioimpedance device with unique configurations aimed at food analysis. Conceptualisation: W.d.C.O. and R.W.P. ; methodology: W.d.C.O., R.W.P., A.M.G., R.H.N. and L.C.A. ; validation, W.d.C.O., A.M.G., R.H.N., L.C.A. and C.W.C. ; formal analysis, W.d.C.O., A.M.G., H.M.H. and M.B.P.P.O. ; investigation, W.d.C.O., R.W.P., A.M.G., R.H.N., L.C.A. and C.W.C. ; writing--original draft preparation, W.d.C.O. and R.W.P. ; writing--review and editing, W.d.C.O., R.W.P., H.M.H. and M.B.P.P.O. ; funding acquisition: W.d.C.O. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. This work was supported by Sul-rio-grandense Federal Institute of Education, Science and Technology Pro-Dean of Research, Innovation and Postgraduate Studies (PROPESP-IFSUL), project no. PE01191019/125 and PE01191019/127, and the National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq). This work has been also supported by FAPERGS--Fundacao de Amparo a Pesquisa do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul, project no. 24/2551-0000610-9. Not applicable. The data supporting the findings of this study are available upon request from the corresponding author, Dr. [PERSON] ([EMAIL_ADDRESS]). Data is not publicly available due to privacy restrictions. However, abstracts or de-identified datasets may be made available upon request to the corresponding author. The authors declare no conflicts of interest.