## 3 Results
### The Roggero Study: Newborns  
A significant (\(p<0.002\)) association between the fecal concentration of \(\alpha\)-defensin at the baseline and the change in these concentrations after 3 months of consumption was observed in both groups (Figure 1), being inverse (the higher the baseline concentration the lower the increase). Moreover, throughout the range of baseline values, the changes were significantly (\(p<0.02\)) larger (more positive) for the postbiotic than for the control product. The method of delivery (spontaneous versus caesarian section) had an impact as well (\(p<0.02\)) with larger changes in the former. No significant association between the (squared) fecal concentration of \(\beta\)-defensin at the baseline and the change in these concentrations after 3 months of consumption was observed (Figure 2). Only at higher baseline values the increase became significantly (\(p<0.003\)) larger (more positive) for the postbiotic than for the control product, acknowledging the parabolic fit in both groups. The bodyweight at the start showed a significant (\(p<0.03\)) effect on the change in \(\beta\)-defensin as well demonstrating the higher the weight the lower the change. A significant (\(p<0.001\)) association between the fecal concentration of cathelicidin at the baseline and the change in these concentrations after 3 months of consumption was observed in both groups (Figure 3), being inverse (the higher the baseline concentration the lower the increase). There were no differences in these changes between the postbiotic \begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{l c c c c c c c c} \hline
**[PERSON] et al.** & \multicolumn{4}{c}{**Placebo**} & \multicolumn{4}{c}{**Postbiotic**} \\ \hline
**Parameter** & **Mean** & **s.d.** & **N** & **s.e.m.** & **Mean** & **s.d.** & **N** & **s.e.m.** & \(p\)**-Value** \\ \hline \(\alpha\)-defensin (ng/g) & 2.23 & 1.98 & 24 & 0.41 & 2.21 & 1.94 & 25 & 0.39 & 0.97 \\ \(\beta\)-defensin (ng/g) & 58.92 & 29.09 & 24 & 5.94 & 65.44 & 29.32 & 25 & 5.86 & 0.44 \\ Cathelicidin (ng/g) & 2.66 & 2.03 & 24 & 0.41 & 2.47 & 1.48 & 25 & 0.3 & 0.71 \\ s-IgA (\(\mu\)g/g) & 31.1 & 39.54 & 24 & 8.07 & 25.32 & 19.4 & 25 & 3.88 & 0.52 \\ \hline
**Corsello/Nocerino** & \multicolumn{4}{c}{**Placebo**} & \multicolumn{4}{c}{**Postbiotic**} \\ \hline
**Parameter** & **Mean** & **s.d.** & **N** & **s.e.m.** & **Mean** & **s.d.** & **N** & **s.e.m.** & \(p\)**-Value** \\ \hline \(\alpha\)-defensin (ng/g) & 1.01 & 1.04 & 73 & 0.12 & 1.01 & 1.18 & 60 & 0.15 & 0.98 \\ \(\beta\)-defensin (ng/g) & 31.18 & 22.03 & 80 & 2.46 & 29.36 & 21.25 & 60 & 2.74 & 0.62 \\ Cathelicidin (ng/g) & 12.97 & 10.29 & 80 & 1.15 & 16.93 & 19.61 & 64 & 2.45 & 0.15 \\ s-IgA (\(\mu\)g/g) & 23.12 & 19.99 & 86 & 2.16 & 23.01 & 18.1 & 69 & 2.18 & 0.97 \\ \hline \end{tabular}  
* The \(p\)-value shows the result of Student’s t-test evaluating the difference between the outcome of the postbiotic product versus that of the placebo.  
\end{table} 
Table 2: Descriptive values of the baseline levels of the various immunological factors in the stool samples collected from newborns and from young children. and the control product established. No impact of any confounder on the change in concentrations was noted. In both groups, a significant (\(p<0.001\)) association between the fecal concentration of s-IgA at the baseline and the change in the concentration after 3 months of consumption was observed (Figure 4), being inverse (the higher the baseline concentration the lower the increase). Moreover, throughout the range of baseline values, the changes were significantly (\(p<0.001\)) larger (more positive) for the postbiotic than for the control product. No impact of any confounder on the change in concentrations was noted. Overall, after consumption for 3 months the changes in all biomarkers, except that of \(\beta\)-defensin, were inversely associated with the baseline value of the respective biomarker while the increase in values of \(\alpha\)-defensin and s-IgA was significantly larger after consumption of the postbiotic than after that of the placebo.