## 3 Results and Discussion  
### Appearance  
Successful extrusion-based 3 DFP was achieved in the four treatments: (1) NCD-WOC, (2) NCD-SC, (3) NCD + CP-WOC, and (4) NCD + CP-SC (Figure 3). After WOC, cracks on the surface of the 3D-printed square pillars were visible in both the NCD-WOC and NCD + CP-WOC treatments. Cracks on the surface of 3D-printed foods made of rice starch and cookie dough prepared with tapioca flour, shortening, and non-fat milk were also observed after roasting and microwaving [24], and baking [20], respectively. This was attributed to the increased void gaps and moisture loss during roasting and microwaving [24]. In contrast, no formation of cracks was observed on the surface of the steam-cooked 3D-printed square pillars (NCD-SC and NCDP + CP-SC treatments). Similar results were obtained after steaming 3D-printed foods made of rice starch [24], rice flour [25], and a mix  
\begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c c c c c c} \hline \hline \multirow{2}{*}{**Factor/Variable**} & \multirow{2}{*}{\begin{tabular}{c} **Weight Loss** \\ **Percentage (\%)** \\ \end{tabular} } & \begin{tabular}{c} **Height** \\ **Reduction** \\ **Percentage (\%)** \\ \end{tabular} & \begin{tabular}{c} **Length** \\ **Reduction** \\ **Percentage (\%)** \\ \end{tabular} & \begin{tabular}{c} **Force at 40\%** \\ **Strain (N)** \\ \end{tabular} & \
\begin{tabular}{c} **Force at 80\%** \\ **Strain (N)** \\ \end{tabular} \\ \hline F1: Material \({}^{*}\) & NCD & 17.07 \(\pm\) 18.68 A & 10.69 \(\pm\) 6.89 A & 0.90 \(\pm\) 6.75 A & 28.61 \(\pm\) 6.56 B & 154.27 \(\pm\) 13.81 B \\  & NCD + CP & 13.97 \(\pm\) 17.29 B & 8.87 \(\pm\) 1.37 A & 2.48 \(\pm\) 2.90 A & 84.64 \(\pm\) 33.79 A & 246.62 \(\pm\) 29.11 A \\ \hline F2: Cooking & WOC & 33.33 \(\pm\) 2.56 A & 7.10 \(\pm\) 3.15 B & 5.88 \(\pm\) 1.95 A & 46.32 \(\pm\) 22.70 B & 193.77 \(\pm\) 41.75 A \\ process \({}^{*}\) & SC & \(-\)2.29 \(\pm\) 3.39 B & 12.46 \(\pm\) 5.17 A & \(-\)2.50 \(\pm\) 4.03 B & 66.92 \(\pm\) 45.02 A & 207.12 \(\pm\) 58.92 A \\ \hline F1 \& F2: Material & NCD-WOC & 35.53 \(\pm\) 1.67 A & 4.56 \(\pm\) 2.38 C & 7.06 \(\pm\) 2.12 A & 29.64 \(\pm\) 6.22 B & 158.39 \(\pm\) 16.42 B \\  & NCD-SC & \(-\)1.39 \(\pm\) 3.64 B & 16.81 \(\pm\) 3.79 A & \(-\)5.26 \(\pm\) 3.27 C & 27.57 \(\pm\) 6.73 B & 150.14 \(\pm\) 8.82 B \\ process \({}^{**}\) & NCD + CP-WOC & 31.13 \(\pm\) 0.81 A & 9.64 \(\pm\) 1.14 B & 4.70 \(\pm\) 0.57 AB & 63.01 \(\pm\) 20.87 B & 291.95 \(\pm\) 26.70 A \\  & NCD + CP-SC & \(-\)3.19 \(\pm\) 2.84 B & 8.11 \(\pm\) 1.12 BC & 0.26 \(\pm\) 2.57 B & 106.26 \(\pm\) 30.21 A & 264.10 \(\pm\) 19.27 A \\ \hline \hline \end{tabular}
\begin{tabular}{c} NCD Naturalized Cornb, CP Chickpa paste. WOC Water oven cooking. SC Stean cooking, F1: Material Factor 1: Type of material used. F2: Cooking process Factor 2: Cooking process. F1 \& F2: Material \& Cooking process Combination of factor 1 and factor 2. \({}^{*}\) Each value is expressed as mean \(\pm\) SD of 10 replicates for F1 and F2, while for F1 \& F2, the number of replicates is 5. \({}^{*}\) Different alphabets in the same column of each factor indicate that the data are significantly different with \(p\) \(<\) 0.05 by [PERSON]’s test.  
\end{table}
Table 2: Mean differences for weight loss percentage, height reduction percentage, length reduction percentage, force at 40% strain, and force at 80% strain in factor 1: Type of material used, factor 2: Cooking process, and the combination of factors 1 and 2.  
of rice flour, jaggery, and water [26], where steaming did not cause the formation of cracks on the surface of the 3D-printed foods. The formation of cracks on the surface of the water oven-cooked 3D-printed square pillars may be attributed to the loss of water during the WOC process, whereas during the SC process, the steam surrounding the 3D-printed square pillars does not allow the loss of water, avoiding the formation of cracks on the surface of the food. These results showed that the appearance of the steam-cooked 3D-printed square pillars was better than that of the water oven-cooked pillars.