## 5 Conclusions  
Based on the Landsat TM/ OLI satellite images and LUCC dataset in 2004-2020, the study explored the spatial-temporal dynamic of landscape patterns and FVC, and evaluated the positive and negative impacts of urbanization on vegetation growth across the severe region, Harbin. In the past 17 years, 660.48 km\({}^{2}\) or 26.67% of the total land has undergone change, with the conversion of non-urban to urban land accounting for 43.12%. The rate of expansion varied in different periods, and dynamic changes were most significant in the period of 2015-2020. The two main resources that were transformed for urban growth were crops and water. Urbanization and related policies exerted significant impacts on the spatiotemporal dynamic of LUCC. Additionally, urban expansion exhibited a compact sprawl pattern, and the diversity and homogeneity of the landscape composition increased. Spatially, the distribution of FVC in Harbin exhibited that the urban fringe region was higher than the central region, and vegetation coverage was dominated by very high and high coverage. Temporally, the FVC in Harbin was stable but fluctuated on the local scale. The FVC continued to exhibit an overall decrease trend, but that trend was not significant. The FVC was observed to decrease with the increase of urban intensity, and the analysis of urbanization showed the positive impact of urbanization on vegetation growth in Harbin. Additionally, the growth enhancement of FVC resulting from the urban environment and human management was about 2.26%-2.71%, which was higher at the medium urbanization level, but lower in the low- and high-urbanized areas.  
This study demonstrates the potential of our research approach as the first successful attempt to use the fraction of vegetation coverage rather than normal vegetation indices (e.g., EVI, NDVI, and production) to explore the impacts of urban expansion on vegetation growth in the severe cold region, China. Although the findings of this study are limited to Harbin, the methodology presented here could be easily implemented in many other cities to investigate whether urban vegetation growth is linked with distinct geographical settings and urban development, which can help to understand the factors that contribute to the growth and preservation of urban green spaces. Furthermore, quantifying the spatial variation of urban areas, landscape patterns, and vegetation coverage over time are crucial for guiding future urban planning and policy decisions toward sustainable urban development.  
The following supporting information can be downloaded at: [[https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/f14040801/s1](https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/f14040801/s1)]([https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/f14040801/s1](https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/f14040801/s1)), Figure S1: The proportion of FVC significance grade area in Harbin from 2004 to 2020; Figure S2: Relationships between FVC and urban intensity in Harbin; Figure S3: Indirect impacts of urbanization (\(w_{i}\)) on FVC along urbanization intensity in Harbin.  
Conceptualization, X.C., D.W. and Y.X.; Date curation, D.W.; Formal analysis, X.C. and D.W.; Funding acquisition, Y.X. and X.C.; Investigation, X.C., D.W. and J.W.; Methodology, X.C. and D.W; Project administration, Y.X. and X.C.; Writing-original draft, X.C.; Writing-review & editing, X.C., W.G. and Y.X. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.  
**Funding:** This work is supported by the National Key R&D Program of China (Grant Number: 2021 YFE0117700-6), the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities, Northeast Forestry University (Grant Number:2572020 AW54), the Special Project for Double First-Class-Cultivation of Innovative Talents (Grant Number: 000/41113102).  
**Data Availability Statement:** We have added links in the article to download the data.  
**Conflicts of Interest:** The authors declare no conflict of interest.