## 1 Introduction
An innovation-based integrity monitoring scheme by using an Extended Kalman Filter (EKF) with the help of C/N\({}_{0}\) weighting reduces the horizontal positioning error and protection level in an urban environment by 1.15 and 7.5 m, respectively [15]. Positioning errors computed with precise-point positioning (PPP) in a kinematic test drive for different mass market GNSS chipsets is less than about 0.35, 0.8 and 1 m in open sky, suburban and highway environments, respectively [16]. Positioning performance of several mass-market receivers along standardised road environments are explained in [17]. A RTK fixed solution is available at 50% of the time with a probability of continuity loss of 0.54 compared to 98% availability with a continuity loss probability of 0.045 for standard code phase positioning [18]. Different challenges with GNSS positioning in urban areas are explained; the performance improvement with multi-GNSS constellations has been demonstrated with both simulated and real data [19]. The change in the dynamics and environment in a kinematic scenario affects the functionality of GNSS receivers. In highly kinematic applications, the impact of improper receiver clock synchronisation leads to a bias in baseline estimation and also attitude determination. The attitude herein refers to the orientation of the object with regards to the local-level frame and typically comprises of the roll, pitch and yaw angles [20]. Different studies to compensate for the baseline bias and determine the attitude have been reported in [21; 22]. In order to achieve high precision relative positioning in the case of extremely high velocity vehicles (e.g., spacecraft), a DD model is proposed in [23]; apart from the standard DD formulations, it includes additional terms considering the single difference range rate for each receiver. The dynamic performance of different GNSS receivers evaluatedin open sky conditions with a drone (maximum operating velocity approximately 15 m/s) is explained in [24] and for acceleration determination with a 100 Hz data rate in [25]. In order to contribute to the GNSS carrier phase characterisation in kinematic applications, we present the performance analysis of carrier phase observations in kinematic terrestrial and aerial environments for high sensitivity and geodetic-grade GNSS receivers. Multiple receivers are configured together with an external clock, which has a high frequency stability. We can thus observe if there is any particular difference in the number of observations or estimated noise levels of the observations. The remainder of the paper is structured as follows. At first, the measurement configuration and experimental details of the urban test drive and flight test are explained in Section 2. In Section 3, the DD computation algorithm is described. Also, the importance of time synchronisation and consideration of user velocity while computing the DDs for relative positioning is highlighted. The analysis of the DD carrier phase observations with respect to different parameters is discussed in Section 4. Based on the analyses of DDs, stochastic models of carrier-phase observations are derived for kinematic terrestrial and aerial applications in relation to the different environments and receiver types. Finally, on the basis of the performance of different receiver combinations and different GNSS systems, conclusions are drawn in Section 5.