## 3 Results and Discussion
### Nutritional Composition of Soybean Seeds
\begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c c c c c c} \hline \hline \multirow{2}{*}{**Characteristic**} & \multicolumn{2}{c}{**2022**} & \multicolumn{2}{c}{**2023**} & \multicolumn{2}{c}{**2024**} \\ \cline{2-7}  & **FFS** & **ESC** & **FFS** & **ESC** & **FFS** & **ESC** \\ \hline Oil content (\%) & 20.79 \(\pm\) 0.35 \({}^{\text{a}}\)\({}^{\text{a}}\) & 11.56 \(\pm\) 0.56 \({}^{\text{b}}\) & 21.35 \(\pm\) 0.25 \({}^{\text{a}}\) & 13.33 \(\pm\) 0.51 \({}^{\text{b}}\) & 22.40 \(\pm\) 0.54 \({}^{\text{a}}\) & 12.05 \(\pm\) 0.25 \({}^{\text{b}}\) \\ Crude protein (\%) & 34.48 \(\pm\) 0.58 \({}^{\text{b}}\) & 38.98 \(\pm\) 0.68 \({}^{\text{a}}\) & 34.30 \(\pm\) 0.90 \({}^{\text{b}}\) & 37.57 \(\pm\) 0.22 \({}^{\text{a}}\) & 32.40 \(\pm\) 0.67 \({}^{\text{b}}\) & 37.40 \(\pm\) 0.40 \({}^{\text{a}}\) \\ Ash (\%) & 4.82 \(\pm\) 0.10 \({}^{\text{a}}\) & 4.99 \(\pm\) 0.11 \({}^{\text{a}}\) & 5.05 \(\pm\) 0.45 \({}^{\text{a}}\) & 5.50 \(\pm\) 0.13 \({}^{\text{a}}\) & 5.10 \(\pm\) 0.35 \({}^{\text{a}}\) & 5.05 \(\pm\) 0.15 \({}^{\text{a}}\) \\ Sugar (\%) & 9.23 \(\pm\) 0.24 \({}^{\text{b}}\) & 10.98 \(\pm\) 0.15 \({}^{\text{a}}\) & 8.75 \(\pm\) 0.05 \({}^{\text{b}}\) & 10.83 \(\pm\) 0.23 \({}^{\text{a}}\) & 7.80 \(\pm\) 0.16 \({}^{\text{b}}\) & 10.75 \(\pm\) 0.25 \({}^{\text{a}}\) \\ Crude fiber (\%) & 5.57 \(\pm\) 0.42 \({}^{\text{b}}\) & 6.49 \(\pm\) 0.11 \({}^{\text{a}}\) & 5.65 \(\pm\) 0.35 \({}^{\text{a}}\) & 5.88 \(\pm\) 0.28 \({}^{\text{a}}\) & 5.40 \(\pm\) 0.31 \({}^{\text{b}}\) & 6.10 \(\pm\) 0.50 \({}^{\text{a}}\) \\ Dietary fiber (\%) & 13.63 \(\pm\) 1.36 \({}^{\text{b}}\) & 16.19 \(\pm\) 0.37 \({}^{\text{a}}\) & 14.30 \(\pm\) 0.30 \({}^{\text{b}}\) & 15.84 \(\pm\) 0.54 \({}^{\text{a}}\) & 14.00 \(\pm\) 0.65 \({}^{\text{b}}\) & 16.30 \(\pm\) 0.90 \({}^{\text{a}}\) \\ TOT Carb (\%) & 43.70 \(\pm\) 1.08 \({}^{\text{a}}\) & 31.48 \(\pm\) 0.91 \({}^{\text{b}}\) & 37.80 \(\pm\) 0.20 \({}^{\text{a}}\) & 31.64 \(\pm\) 0.90 \({}^{\text{b}}\) & 43.00 \(\pm\) 0.67 \({}^{\text{a}}\) & 31.10 \(\pm\) 2.10 \({}^{\text{b}}\) \\ Dig Carb (\%) & 12.81 \(\pm\) 0.25 \({}^{\text{b}}\) & 22.84 \(\pm\) 1.90 \({}^{\text{a}}\) & 13.35 \(\pm\) 0.25 \({}^{\text{b}}\) & 19.03 \(\pm\) 1.67 \({}^{\text{a}}\) & 14.20 \(\pm\) 0.23 \({}^{\text{b}}\) & 19.35 \(\pm\) 0.95 \({}^{\text{a}}\) \\ EV (kcal 100 g\({}^{-1}\)) & 410.2 \(\pm\) 5.41 \({}^{\text{a}}\) & 379.4 \(\pm\) 5.02 \({}^{\text{b}}\) & 416.5 \(\pm\) 13.50 \({}^{\text{a}}\) & 380.5 \(\pm\) 6.70 \({}^{\text{b}}\) & 432.0 \(\pm\) 9.04 \({}^{\text{a}}\) & 389.5 \(\pm\) 0.50 \({}^{\text{b}}\) \\ Water (\%) & 11.93 \(\pm\) 0.42 \({}^{\text{a}}\) & 12.13 \(\pm\) 0.16 \({}^{\text{a}}\) & 12.35 \(\pm\) 0.05 \({}^{\text{a}}\) & 10.70 \(\pm\) 0.40 \({}^{\text{a}}\) & 12.50 \(\pm\) 0.05 \({}^{\text{a}}\) & 10.20 \(\pm\) 0.10 \({}^{\text{a}}\) \\ \hline \hline \end{tabular}  
*–small superscript letters (a, b) indicate significant differences between FFS—full-fat soy and ESC—expanded soybean cake within each year according to [PERSON]’s HSD test (\(p<0.05\)). TOT Carb—total carbohydrates, Dig Carb—digestible carbohydrates, EV—energy value.  
\end{table} 
Table 5: Nutritional composition (mean \(\pm\) SE) of full-fat soy (FFS) and expanded soybean cake (ESC) produced via hydrothermal processing, 2022–2024. The calculated energy value (EV) decreased significantly in ESC, ranging from 379.4 to 389.5 kcal/100 g, while FFS provided higher caloric density (410.2-432.0 kcal/100 g), primarily due to the higher residual oil content. The elevated fiber content may support glycemic regulation, microbiota modulation, and stool bulk, which are relevant for both feed and functional food applications [30]. Soluble and insoluble fiber fractions in soy-based matrices can also influence viscosity and bile acid binding, contributing to cholesterol-lowering potential [31; 32]. The inverse relationship between fiber and digestible carbohydrates aligns with energy-reduction goals in high-fiber diet formulations [33].