## 3 Information and Communication Technology Solutions for Precision Agriculture
### Data Analysis and Artificial Intelligence
#### Visualization Techniques  
Visualization techniques are frequently used in conjunction with computer vision technologies. Data visualization revolves around representing (e.g., through diagrammatic/pictorial representations) large amounts of data in order to enhance situation awareness. Augmented reality (AR) and virtual reality (VR) are two technologies gaining increasing traction nowadays. Both of them utilize data visualization methods. AR encompasses linking physical and virtual objects (e.g., in a computer or a smartphone screen). VR refers to submerging the user in a full three-dimensional experience, where physical objects are linked to the virtual world [54]. [PERSON] et al. demonstrate an extensible architecture for data visualization and analysis in PA. This architecture has three main constituent elements: (1) a module for importing data from various sources, (2) a data-processing and visualization subsystem, and (3) an overall client-server architecture design. The proposed solution offers both 2D and 3D visualization capabilities for serving different needs in PA. One example of a 2D visualization functionality includes a map image overlaid with a 2D image with photosynthetically active radiation data [55]. Okayama and Miyawaki demonstrate an AR-based advanced gardening system aiming to support new farmers/gardeners in executing complex agricultural tasks based on data from sensors and various databases. This system provides visual guidance for several farming operations and is capable of recording the farmers' positions/viewpoints during the operations. In addition to this, it overlays virtual plants on the field where the farmer is working and enables comparisons between real and virtual plants [56]. [PERSON] et al. propose a method for creating 3D panoramic models from image pairs captured with mobile stereo machine vision systems. These 3D models are then integrated in existing GIS platforms to create a virtual reality geographic information system (VRGIS). VRGIS is capable of efficiently retrieving spatial information, enabling navigation in VR. Several technologies are utilized for the proposed solution encompassing: image processing, pattern-matching algorithms, data fusion, 3D surface model building, database management, etc. The integrated VRGIS can serve as a platform for establishing field information for PA [57]. [PERSON] et al. demonstrate an immersive VR greenhouse simulation. The proposed solution enables training of students through realistic interfaces for controlled environment agriculture (CEA) and several physical greenhouse tasks. Through these interfaces, costs related to wrong management of a CEA system by untrained users can be prevented [58]. [PERSON] and [PERSON] demonstrate a framework which integrates IoT data into an AR environment, thus facilitating the interpretation of this information as well as simple and effective monitoring of agricultural crops. Field testing of the proposed solution indicated smaller error proneness compared to other visualization methods as well as a potential for saving time and reducing waste [59].