## 4 Discussion
\begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c l c c c c c} \hline  & **Path** & **B** & **S.E.** & **C.R.** & \(\beta\) & \(p\) \\ \hline Model 1 & Digital Technology \(\rightarrow\) Classroom Participation & 0.072 & 0.014 & 5.279 & 0.108 & 0.000 \\  & Digital Technology \(\rightarrow\) Perceived Usefulness & 0.105 & 0.005 & 19.931 & 0.506 & 0.000 \\  & Perceived Usefulness \(\rightarrow\) Classroom Participation & 1.841 & 0.070 & 26.187 & 0.572 & 0.000 \\  & Digital Technology \(\rightarrow\) Academic Self-efficacy & 0.298 & 0.031 & 9.524 & 0.258 & 0.000 \\  & Academic Self-efficacy \(\rightarrow\) Classroom Participation & 0.148 & 0.012 & 11.947 & 0.256 & 0.000 \\  & Perceived Usefulness \(\rightarrow\) Academic Self-efficacy & 2.436 & 0.151 & 16.120 & 0.436 & 0.000 \\ \hline Model 2 & Digital Technology \(\rightarrow\) Classroom Participation & 0.090 & 0.014 & 6.478 & 0.135 & 0.000 \\  & Digital Technology \(\rightarrow\) Perceived Ease of Use & 0.099 & 0.005 & 18.974 & 0.487 & 0.000 \\  & Perceived Ease of Use \(\rightarrow\) Classroom Participation & 1.755 & 0.073 & 23.971 & 0.535 & 0.000 \\  & Digital Technology \(\rightarrow\) Academic Self-efficacy & 0.303 & 0.031 & 9.852 & 0.261 & 0.000 \\  & Academic Self-efficacy \(\rightarrow\) Classroom Participation & 0.152 & 0.013 & 11.850 & 0.263 & 0.000 \\  & Perceived Ease of Use \(\rightarrow\) Academic Self-efficacy & 2.524 & 0.150 & 16.776 & 0.445 & 0.000 \\ \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table} 
Table 5: Path coefficients analysis. broadly associate technology use with engagement, our findings highlight the specific impact of subject-specific and management software, which exhibited synergistic effects. This suggests that digital tools should be strategically implemented, rather than used indiscriminately, to optimize learning outcomes. While websites and mobile devices also contribute to engagement, their effects are relatively weaker. In contrast, multimedia technology has a more limited influence on classroom engagement. This may be because subject-specific software is typically designed for specific disciplines, providing highly relevant resources and tools that enhance students' understanding and interest in course materials, thereby fostering more active classroom participation. Similarly, management software facilitates the organization and administration of learning processes, improving instructional efficiency and effectiveness [38] and providing timely feedback, which in turn promotes student engagement. In contrast, multimedia technology has become a standard component of teaching, offering limited additional benefits beyond its routine use. A comparative study of four types of classroom digital technologies--electronic lectures, classroom response systems, classroom chat, and mobile virtual reality--found that classroom response systems had the highest acceptance, whereas mobile virtual reality had the lowest. After three months of use, students' PU and behavioral intention declined significantly [19]. This suggests that the impact of digital technology on student engagement may diminish over time [39,40]. Furthermore, this study highlights the existence of a threshold effect in digital technology usage. Increasing the frequency of digital technology use enhances student engagement only up to a certain point. For instance, the use of mobile devices alone does not significantly improve engagement unless accompanied by frequent use of subject-specific or management software. This finding supports previous research indicating that the intensity of digital technology use must remain within an optimal range to maximize classroom effectiveness. Additionally, disparities in students' digital literacy levels may contribute to unequal classroom experiences, causing some students to feel frustrated in the learning process, thereby impacting educational equity [41,42]. Therefore, effectively integrating digital technology into PE classrooms to ensure equitable access and benefits for all students remains a crucial challenge requiring further investigation.