## 3 Results and Discussion
### Weight  
The weights of the raw 3D-printed square pillars were 9.83 g, 8.22 g, 10.16 g, and 9.31 g in NCD-WOC, NCD-SC, NCD + CP-WOC, and NCD + CP-SC, respectively (Figure 4(a1)). However, after WOC, the weight decreased to 6.35 g in NCD-WOC and 7.00 g in NCD + CP-WOC, while after SC, the weight increased to 8.34 g in NCD-SC and 9.58 g in NCD + CP-SC. In addition, Figure 4(a2) shows that WOC caused a weight decrease of 35.53% and 31.13% in NCD-WOC and NCD + CP-WOC, respectively. In contrast, the negative values of %Wloss in NCD-SS and NCD + CP-SC showed that the weight of the steam-cooked square pillars did not decrease but increased after SC, with %Wloss values of \(-\)1.39% and \(-\)3.19%, respectively. Additionally, extensive differences between the means of F1 (type of material used) and F2 (cooking process) in Table 2 show that both factors affected the %Wloss. Regarding F1, a higher %Wloss in NCD was observed in comparison with the %Wloss of NCD + CP treatments. This behavior might have occurred due to higher water content in NCD which caused a greater water loss during cooking processes, resulting in a higher %Wloss in comparison to NCD + CP treatments, where the water content was smaller, resulting in less water loss and %Wloss. As for F2, the weight decrease of the water oven-cooked square pillars may have been due to the loss of water during the cooking process. In contrast, the weight increase during the SC process may have been due to the addition of moisture during SC [26]. A study observed a greater weight decrease in rice starch 3D-printed foods after dry-heat cooking processes, including roasting and microwaving, in comparison with steaming [24]. This was attributed to the increased void gaps and moisture loss during roasting and microwaving [24]. However, one main difference between the results reported by [PERSON] et al. [24] and the results of this study is that rice starch 3D-printed foods also exhibited a weight decrease after steaming, whereas the weight of 3D-printed foods made of NCD and CP increased after SC. Additionally, a weight increase after steaming 3D-printed foods made of jaggery was also reported by [PERSON]  
Figure 3: Photographs of the raw and cooked 3D-printed square pillars (NCD: Nixtamalized corn dough, CP: Chickpea paste).  
et al. [26]. The reason for these different behaviors of %W loss after SC might be attributed to the different steaming times. Rice starch 3D-printed foods [24] were steamed for two min, whereas in this study and the one presented by [PERSON] et al. [26], steaming times of 40 and 15 min, respectively, were used. Moreover, [PERSON] et al. [31], reported that %W loss is influenced by the water-holding capacity of the materials. Therefore, studying the water-holding capacity of the food materials used could provide a more comprehensive understanding of the food material's behavior during different cooking processes.  
Figure 4: \(Cont.\)  
Figure 4: _Cont_.  
Figure 4: **(a1)** Weight of the raw and cooked 3D-printed square pillars; **(a2)** Weight loss percentage after cooking; **(b1)** Height of the raw and cooked 3D-printed square pillars; **(b2)** Height reduction percentage after cooking; **(c1)** Length of the raw and cooked 3D-printed square pillars; **(c2)** Length reduction percentage after cooking (NCD: Nixtamalized corn dough, CP: Chickpea paste, WOC: Water oven cooking, SC: Steam cooking) (plots and error bars represent the mean and standard deviation of five repeated measurements for each treatment) (Different alphabets in the bars indicate that the data are significantly different with \(p<0.05\) by [PERSON]’s test).