# 5G Positioning: An Analysis of Early Datasets
## 1 Introduction  
Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSSs) have been the dominant technology for positioning, navigation, and timing for decades [1, 2]. Our smartphones seamlessly fuse GNSS data with readings from other sensors to improve position estimation accuracy; the deployment of 5G technology across the world is also expected to open new opportunities in the domain of positioning, not just communication. Firstly, 5G networks can broadcast GNSS corrections for improved accuracy. To continue, 5G can augment GNSSs by providing additional range measurements in environments where only a few satellites are visible. The accurate determination of location information is a strategic byproduct of 5G cellular networks [3, 4, 5], as it has the potential to benefit numerous commercial applications, from individual to public services. This covers application domains such as transportation, public safety, retail, and healthcare. The integration with GNSSs [6, 7, 8] becomes relevant in urban areas, where reliance on GNSSs alone could be challenging [9]. Compared to previous mobile generations such as LTE, 5G technology features a new radio-access technology called new radio (NR), which offers several advantages for precise positioning. Designed by the 3 rd Generation Partnership Project (3 GPP), 5G NR is engineered to meet a variety of performance metrics, serving enhanced mobile broadband (eMBB), ultra-reliable low-latency communication (URLLC), and massive machine-type communication (mMTC) applications [10]. Next, we present the most important key enablers for accurate positioning. It is important to realize that while this list is not directly pertinent to thefollowing discussion of our experiment, it could be useful as a summarized introduction to the technological aspects. New positioning reference signals: to enable more accurate positioning than LTE with release 16 [11], the 3 GPP updated the positioning reference signal (PRS) and sounding reference signal (SRS), providing the downlink (DL) and uplink (UL) signals, respectively [12]. Traditional signals such as channel state information reference signals (CSI-RSs) and synchronization signals (SSs) have limitations that make them less suitable for positioning: interference caused by adjacent cells reduces their ability to detect a sufficient number of neighboring 5G base stations; furthermore, the signals of neighboring cells overshadow those from distant ones (near-field effect), hindering the detection of the latter. The new signals are specifically designed to improve audibility thanks to the muting concept [13]: multiple base stations can transmit PRS in a coordinated manner by literally'muting' the less relevant PRS transmissions to avoid interference. New positioning methods: 5G can provide different measurements that are related to the position of the user equipment (UE). In summary, these measurements can be based either on angles or on distances [14; 15]. To elaborate, angular measurements include the UL's angle of arrival (AoA) and DL's angle of departure (AoD), distance-based measurements include time of arrival (\(ToA\)), DL and UL time difference of arrival (\(TDoA\)), round trip time (RTT) and multi-cell round trip time (MC-RTT). The positioning methods (or estimation algorithms) may be implemented in one or more of the following modes: UE-assisted mode, UE-based mode, stand-alone mode, and network-based mode [14]. New spectrum: Frequency Range 2 (FR2) is an ultrahigh-frequency band allocated for 5G in the millimetre-wave (mmWave) region, spanning from 24.3 GHz to 52.6 GHz. This portion of the spectrum complements the existing Frequency Range 1 (FR1), which covers the bands below 6 GHz and recently expanded to 7 GHz. It addresses the issue of spectrum scarcity in wireless communication systems and enables high data rates, capacity, and bandwidth with low latency, while also providing superior positioning accuracy [3; 16].