## 3 Results
### Effects of SHE on Inflammation Markers in DSS-Treated Mice  
Lipocalin 2 is an immune protein that increases in response to intestinal inflammation and mucosal damage [48]. DSS treatment significantly increased the level of lipocalin 2, whereas SHE treatment had no effect when compared to the lipocalin 2 level of the DSS group (Figure 5A). MPO is a marker of neutrophil infiltration [49] that indicates the intensity of inflammation. MPO activity was higher in DSS-induced UC mice than in control mice but significantly decreased in the DSS-SHE-H group (Figure 5B). Inflammatory cytokines, such as TNF-\(\alpha\), IL-6, and IFN-\(\gamma\), are produced by immune cells (T cells, dendritic cells and intestinal epithelial cells) and are important factors of inflammation in UC. In the DSS-treated group, TNF-\(\alpha\), IL-6, and IFN-\(\gamma\) levels were significantly elevated, whereas they were significantly decreased in the DSS-SHE-H group (Figure 5C-E).  
Figure 4: Effects of _S. horneri_ extract (SHE) on DSS-induced colitis. (**A**) Experimental timeline for the mouse model of DSS. (**B**) Body weight was measured weekly throughout the experiment, and (**C**) body weight changes (%) for four weeks were calculated. Measurements included (**D**) colon lengths, (**E**) a representative image of colon lengths, and (**F**) spleen weights. (**G**) Histological alterations of colon tissue were determined. The score was based on a 0–6 scale. Colon images stained with hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) were used to assess the level of inflammation and ulceration. (**H**) Representative photographs of H&E-stained colonic tissues (magnification \(\times\)400). All data are expressed as means \(\pm\) SD (\(n\) = 8). * \(p\) \(<\) 0.05, **_w_ \(<\) 0.01, ***_p_ \(<\) 0.0001, significantly different compared with DSS group by one way ANOVA followed by Dunnett’s test. CON: control group; DSS: 2.5% DSS in drinking water for the last 7 days; DSS-SHE-L: DSS + _S. horneri_ extract low dose group (100 mg/kg bw/day); DSS-SHE-H: DSS + _S. horneri_ extract high dose group (200 mg/kg bw/day).  
Effects of SHE on the Gene and Protein Expressions Involved in Inflammatory Markers, Tight Junctions, and the mTOR Axis in DSS-Treated Mice  
The expression levels of the genes involved in inflammatory markers, tight junctions, and the mTOR axis were measured (Figure 6A-J). For the inflammatory markers, the DSS group showed increased _N/Rb p65_ mRNA (Figure 6A) levels compared to those in the control group, whereas the DSS-SHE-H group showed decreased _N/Rb p65_ and _Cox2_ mRNA levels compared to those in the DSS group. DSS treatment significantly decreased the expression of all tight junction-related genes, whereas the DSS-SHE-H group showed increased _Occludin_ and _Claudin1_ mRNA levels compared to those in the DSS group (Figure 6D-F). To investigate the underlying mechanisms of SHE, mRNA and protein expressions associated with the mTOR axis were investigated. DSS treatment significantly increased _Akt_ and _Mtor_ mRNA expressions compared to those in the control; however, DSS-SHE-L significantly decreased the gene expression of _Pi3k_ and _Akt_ mRNA, and DSS-SHE-H significantly decreased the gene expression of _Pi3k_ and _Mtor_ mRNA compared to those in the DSS group (Figure 6G-J). Additionally, protein levels of the mTOR axis were measured. DSS treatment significantly increased the relative ratios of p-mTOR/mTOR and p-S6K/S6K compared to those in the control, whereas SHE-H significantly decreased these ratios compared to those in the DSS group (Figure 6K-M).