# Production of Fungal Pigments: Molecular Processes and Their Applications
## 5 Application of Pigments: Market Analyses and Future Trends  
Fungal pigments have been documented for a broad range of potential applications in different industrial sectors. Compared to their initial uses in food, animal feeds, cosmetics, textiles, leather, and pulp and paper industries, there are increasing uses in agrochemical and pharmaceutical industries [130; 131]. However, among the diverse fungal pigments and the expanding areas of application, only a few are currently produced at the industrial scale and commercialized for their applications. There is a long journey from the laboratory to the marketplace for most fungal pigments. Carotenoids have bright orange to reddish colors and have gained popularity in multifaceted fields for decades. Carotenoids of natural origins can be obtained from plants, algae, animals like aphids, and microorganisms, with fungi accounting for a large proportion of microbial sources. Fungal carotenoids are derived from 3-hydroxy-3-methyl-glutaryl-CoA (HMG-CoA) in the mexolonate (MVA) pathway, regulated by sophisticated genetic mechanisms. Previous studies have shown that species of _Mucoronycota_ are excellent carotenoid producers. Among _Mucoronycota_ species, _Mucor cicinelloides_ and _Blakeslea trispora_ are the two most prominent industrial producers of \(\beta\)-carotene [132; 133]. However, other _Mucoronycota_ species such as _Mucor hiemalis_, _Mucor rouxii_, _Mucor uncedo_, _Phyomyces blakesleaanus_, and _Umbelopsis isabellina_ have also shown great promise [93]. The pioneering biotechnological company that initiated the production of \(\beta\)-carotene at the industrial scale was the Dutch company Gist-brocades (currently DSM) between 1995 and 2001. However, the former Soviet Union launched the production of \(\beta\)-carotene a decade earlier than Gistbrocades [134]. In 2003, the Spanish company Vittaten (now DSM) began the manufacture of lycopene from _Blakeslea trispora_ to supply the European market [127]. The global market for carotenoids reached $1.5 billion in 2017 and, at a compound annual growth rate of 5.7%, it is projected to reach up to 2.0 billion by 2026 [135]. Fungal melanin is a major protective constituent against adverse environmental stresses such as UV radiation, oxidation, desiccation, high saline levels, and heavy metals [136]. Melanin has a low solubility in aqueous or organic solvents, which, to some degree, can hamper the extraction procedures for high yield in industrial settings. However, there have been well-established processes for extracting a variety of fungal melanins [14; 137]. For example, melanin up to ca. 10% of the dry biomass has been extracted from commercial and waste mushrooms [48; 51]. Melanin excels for its biocompatibility and biodegradability traits, together with scavenging properties, metal chelation, and electronic conductance. As a soft biocompatible functional material with antioxidant properties, it can be used for engineering high-performance optoelectronic devices with low impact, such as memory devices, light-emitting diodes, and field-effect transistors [138]. Research in material engineering often involves a multidisciplinary approach, in which the exploitation of natural melanin producers, especially those of melanized fungi, constituting an indispensable part of melanin engineering. Anthraquinones are naturally occurring pigments bearing wide-spectrum hues from yellows to reds and even blue shades, mainly due to their relatively short, conjugated chromophores. These pigments have been used as food colorants, laxatives, antimicrobials, anticancer and anti-inflammatory agents, and as textile dyes. Indeed, their outstanding lightfastness, arising from their chemical structure stability, makes them desirable dyes applicable for wool, cotton, and other fibers in the textile industry [139]. For example, fruit bodies of fungi _Cortinarius sanguineus_ and _Cortinarius sensisquineus_ were used as sources of anthraquinone dyestuffs [139].