); [EMAIL_ADDRESS] (C.K. ); [EMAIL_ADDRESS] (T.J.); [EMAIL_ADDRESS] (E.D.) Carole Karakasyan  
Laboratory Polymers, Biopolymers & Surfaces, Normandie Universite, UNIROUEN, INSA Rouen, CNRS, PBS, 76000 Rouen, France; [EMAIL_ADDRESS] (H.L. ); [EMAIL_ADDRESS] (C.K. ); [EMAIL_ADDRESS] (T.J.); [EMAIL_ADDRESS] (E.D.) Carole Karakasyan  
Laboratory Polymers, Biopolymers & Surfaces, Normandie Universite, UNIROUEN, INSA Rouen, CNRS, PBS, 76000 Rouen, France; [EMAIL_ADDRESS] (H.L. ); [EMAIL_ADDRESS] (C.K. ); [EMAIL_ADDRESS] (T.K. ); [EMAIL_ADDRESS] (E.D.) Carole Karakasyan  
Laboratory Polymers, Biopolymers & Surfaces, Normandie Universite, UNIROUEN, INSA Rouen, CNRS, PBS, 76000 Rouen, France; [EMAIL_ADDRESS] (H.L. ); [EMAIL_ADDRESS] (C.K. ); [EMAIL_ADDRESS] (T.J.); [EMAIL_ADDRESS] (E.D.) [PERSON]  
Laboratory Polymers, Biopolymers & Surfaces, Normandie Universite, UNIROUEN, INSA Rouen, CNRS, PBS, 76000 Rouen, France; [EMAIL_ADDRESS] (H.L. ); [EMAIL_ADDRESS] (C.K. ); [EMAIL_ADDRESS] (T.J.); [EMAIL_ADDRESS] (E.D.) Carole Karakasyan  
Laboratory Polymers, Biopolymers & Surfaces, Normandie Universite, UNIROUEN, INSA Rouen, CNRS, PBS, 760000 Rouen, France; [EMAIL_ADDRESS] (H.L. ); [EMAIL_ADDRESS] (C.K. ); [EMAIL_ADDRESS] (T.J.); [EMAIL_ADDRESS] (E.D.) [PERSON]  
Laboratory Polymers, Biopolymers & Surfaces, Normandie Universite, UNIROUEN, INSA Rouen, CNRS, PBS, 76000 Rouen, France; [EMAIL_ADDRESS] (H.L. ); [EMAIL_ADDRESS] (C.K. ); [EMAIL_ADDRESS] (T.J.); [EMAIL_ADDRESS] (E.D.) [PERSON]  
Laboratory Polymers, Biopolymers & Surfaces, Normandie Universite, UNIROUEN, INSA Rouen, CNRS, PBS, 760000 Rouen, France; [EMAIL_ADDRESS] (H.L. ); carole.karakasyan@univ-rouen. bacteria grow in matrix-enclosed biofilms, representing a physical barrier that can delay the penetration of the antimicrobial agent [4]. Additionally, various bacteria can take shelter and persist in mammalian cells, causing persistent or recurrent infections. However, the current treatment of intracellular infections remains challenged mainly due to the poor intracellular penetration of most antibiotics [5]. Ultimately, bacteria possess diverse defense systems (intrinsic or adaptive) against the penetration of toxic xenobiotics or render them ineffective [6]. For instance, some bacterial enzymes can modify or destroy the active compound, rendering the antibiotic unable to interact with its site of action (e.g., AmpC \(\beta\)-lactamases). For antibiotic compounds with targets located in the cytoplasm, the membrane barriers, particularly the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria, can inhibit their penetration (e.g., reductions in antibiotic transport porin expression). Once an antibiotic has successfully entered the cell, it will then face bacterial efflux pumps (membrane proteins) that extrude these xenobiotics back outside the cell before reaching their target (e.g., NorA, LmrS in _Staphylococcus aureus_, AcrB in _Escherichia coli_, MexB in _Pseudomonas aeruginosa_). All of these mechanisms create a concentration gradient of antibiotics dwindling from the outside environment to the interior of the bacterial cell. Notably, the spatiotemporal heterogeneity in the antibiotic exposure has been shown to facilitate the antibiotic resistance evolution and enable pathogenic populations to obtain a higher level of resistance than in homogeneous antibiotic concentrations [7]. Collectively, all these obstacles highlight the need for research to find effective antibiotic delivery platforms. A suitable dosage form of antibiotics improves not only therapeutic efficacy but also reduces off-target effects, systemic toxicity, and the development of resistance, thereby extending the lifespan of current antibiotics. This is crucial, at least in the short term, as novel antibiotics are not likely to enter widespread clinical practice in the immediate future [8; 9]. In this context, polymeric nanoparticles (NPs) are attractive as an effective antibiotic delivery vehicle for obtaining desirable drug-like pharmacokinetic properties [10].