## 3 Results
### Specific Findings
#### 3.2.3 Cross-Cultural Impact on Drivers' Emotions
Asia and the Middle East are predominantly collectivist, with strong emotional dependency and a preference for implicit, indirect communication [74; 78; 81; 82]. In these high-context cultures, rich communication and content guidance are necessary for managing emotional changes [93]. Asians show a higher sensitivity to auditory cues and prefer symbols over text in emotion modulation processes [79; 80; 84]. Europeans, known for their high well-being and self-awareness, are found in studies [71; 78] to prefer clear and explicit methods for emotion regulation, typical of individualistic and low-context cultures [72; 73; 74; 76; 78; 87; 91; 95]. Westerners are effectively regulated by visual means and tend to focus on core content [79; 80; 84]. Furthermore, the extent of cultural exposure affects the effectiveness of emotion regulation among European Americans and Asian Americans [71; 76; 79], as shown in Table 4. \begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c c c c c c} \hline \hline
**Reference** & **Participants** & **Number of Participants** & **Description of Participants** & **Method** & **Findings of Driver Emotion** & **Human** & **Factor(s)** \\ \hline \multirow{4}{*}{[106]} & \multirow{4}{*}{drivers} & \multirow{4}{*}{823} & 287, 329, and 207 participants & \multirow{4}{*}{behavior} & emotion modulation & \multirow{4}{*}{driving style} \\  & & & recruited from & & & \\  & & & Israel, Turkey, and & & & \\  & & & United States of & & & \\  & & & America, & & & \\  & & & respectively & & & \\ \hline \multirow{4}{*}{[107]} & \multirow{4}{*}{drivers} & \multirow{4}{*}{187} & 92 participants & \multirow{4}{*}{visual search of the (21 males, 71 females), 95 participants} & \multirow{4}{*}{visual} & \multirow{4}{*}{visual, (95 participants and 5 situational awareness)} \\  & & & & & & \\  & & & & 62 females) & & & \\ \hline \multirow{4}{*}{[108]} & \multirow{4}{*}{drivers} & \multirow{4}{*}{118} & 32 Chinese, 35 Indians, 44 Americans, 7 participants & \multirow{4}{*}{cultural experiences} & higher-context cultures & \multirow{4}{*}{physiological and preference} \\  & & & & & & \\  & & & & & & \\  & & & & other countries & & & \\ \hline \multirow{4}{*}{[109]} & \multirow{4}{*}{drivers} & \multirow{4}{*}{30} & 30 & Malaysia & cultural experiences & \multirow{4}{*}{different or preference} & \multirow{4}{*}{physiological and preference} \\  & & & & & & \\ \cline{1-1}  & & & & & & \\ \cline{1-1}  & & & & & & \\ \hline \multirow{4}{*}{[24]} & \multirow{4}{*}{drivers} & \multirow{4}{*}{30} & 187 Singapore, 313 Malaysians & social norms & higher traffic risk perception & \multirow{4}{*}{physiological} \\  & & & & & & and willingness \\ \hline \multirow{4}{*}{[27]} & \multirow{4}{*}{drivers} & \multirow{4}{*}{—} & participants & \multirow{4}{*}{the level of aggression or} \\  & & & recruited from & & & \\ \cline{1-1}  & & Egypt, United & & & \\ \cline{1-1}  & & Kingdom, India, & & & \\ \cline{1-1}  & & China, Japan, and & & & \\ \cline{1-1}  & & & the United States & & & \\ \cline{1-1}  & & & of America & & \\ \hline \hline \end{tabular} Note. –: the numbers are not mentioned.  
\end{table} 
Table 3: _Cont._The influence of cultural exposure on emotion modulation is evident in the following points. Different cultures exhibit distinct patterns in how emotions are perceived, expressed, and regulated. For instance, Asian cultures, including Japanese and Chinese, effectively regulate emotions more under stress using specific strategies and have a preference for auditory modalities [95; 99]. Western cultures, represented by UK and US participants, are more visually oriented [85; 94; 107] and exhibit a more direct expression of emotions [96; 97]. They also use cognitive reappraisal less frequently compared to participants from India when faced with high-intensity negative stimuli [86; 98; 107]. These differences in sensory processing and preferences influence behaviors, including driving, where the use of symbols versus words, and the interpretation of emotional cues, significantly affect driving behaviors [102].