# Production of Fungal Pigments: Molecular Processes and Their Applications
## 5 Application of Pigments: Market Analyses and Future Trends
ruber_ under various amino acid supplementation in liquid media. Cittrinin was totally absent in the _M. ruber_ culture where histidine was supplied as the sole nitrogen source. The elimination of cittrinin was thought to be from its degradation, due to the presence of hydrogen peroxide and the action of peroxidase, the latter two being involved in the assimilation of histidine. Taken together, histidine was suggested to be the most valuable amino acid, since it could lead to the remarkably high production of red pigments, yielding 715 mg/L after 150 h, and almost complete eradication of mycotoxin cittrinin [155]. In addition to the above-stated approaches for cittrinin-free pigments in _Monascus_ species, abundant work has demonstrated that non-_Monascus_ species, such as _Talaromyces_ species, may be good alternatives for red pigment production at an industrial scale [156]. A novel _Talaromyces_ species, namely _T. atroroseus_, was documented to be non-toxicogenic and capable of secreting large amounts of _Monascus_ red pigments [156]. Of note, the favorable traits of fungal pigments also make them attractive for cosmetic industries, for instance, by serving as active ingredients/additives in sunscreen/sunblock facial creams and body lotions, as well as in anti-aging facials/masks [157]. Carotenoid pigments, including astaxanthins, canthaxanthins, carotenes, and lycopene, produced by _B. trispora_ and _Phaffia rhodozyma_, have anti-oxidative and photoprotective properties. Melanins from _Aspergillus nidulans_ and _Alternaria alternata_ possess antimicrobial, antioxidative, and UV-light protective activities. Cosmetic companies such as NINGXIA R.D. and L'OREAL S.A. have licenses for using _Monascus_ spp. pigments and _Monascus_-like pigments for manufacturing skin conditioning and skincare products targeting the Asian market [158]. Red (rubropunctamine) and yellow (monascin, ankaflavin) pigments produced by _M. purpureus_ NMCCPF01 are naturally occurring sun protection factor (SPF) enhancers when supplementing commercial sunscreen lotions and creams as well as aloe vera extracts [159]. These above-described pigments were found to have antioxidant activity based on DPPH (1,1-Diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl) radical scavenging assay and ferric reduction potentials, and to be safe based on human keratinocyte and erythrocyte cytotoxicity assays. The SPF of commercial sunscreens exhibited an increase of 36.5% with red pigment supplementation in contrast to the 13% increase by yellow pigment addition. Thus, pigments from _M. purpureus_ may serve as promising candidates to improve the quality of commercial sunscreen products. Natural colorants, especially hydroxyanthraquinones such as emodin, dermocybin, and dermorubin, including those produced by the ectomycorrhizal fungus _Dermocyhe sanguinea_, have been reported as potential hair dyes for coloring human hair [160]. In addition, there are increasing strains and species of marine fungi being exploited for anti-ageing, anti-acne, and skin-tone-adjusting agents, which represent an important future trend of fungal pigments as cosmeceuticals [157; 161]. While there has been a long history of use of fungal-pigmented wood in intarsia and marquetry crafts, the use of fungal-pigmented wood for personal aesthetics is a relatively recent phenomenon. However, the application of wood decay fungi as coloring agents to wood, so-called spalting, represents a novel means to increase forestry revenue in a sustainable and green way, particularly prevalent in the Pacific Northwest of North America, which includes parts of the United States and Canada [162; 163; 164]. Indeed, this is an exciting area of development for decorative wood products and the wood coating industry. Spalting fungi are a selection of soft-rotting ascomycetes that have been found to stain a variety of materials, including wood [162; 163; 165], bamboo [166], and textiles [167; 168].