# Comparing a Fuzzy Hybrid Approach with Invariant MGCFA to Study National Identity
## 2. Nationhood as a Construct  
[PERSON] and [PERSON] [15] contended that national identity was studied from two different analytical perspectives: political and sociological. Both depart from the positive force that can create a nation integrating the citizens into a modern political entity. Nevertheless, the approaches differ on the focus of the stakeholders involved in the process. The political approach is focused on the political institutions and the national identity is left in the background, meanwhile the sociological approach considers the characteristics that transcend a national identity into a collective identity. The authors aligned these two approaches with the civic/political and ethnic/cultural ideas of nationhood, and they cast some doubts about whether some dimension makes national identity more or less restrictive. [PERSON] [16] analysed trends from a series of cross-national surveys made over a period of 30 years that included questions about national identity, and in some other instances at various subnational and supranational level. The ISSP was one of them, but also relevant surveys were the following: the European Values Survey and the World Values Survey. The author provided a categorization of national and related identity in mass public opinion studies according to: \"(1) the object of identification (national, subnational, or supranational); (2) the nature of the relationship between the respondent and the object; (3) the nature of the response demanded by the question; and (4) the nature of the scale (if any) used in measuring the response (p. 212)\". Regarding the third category, the author distinguished between measures based on a ranking or a rating. With respect to the second category, the author found two main types: identification and proximity. The ISSP national surveys were characterized by ratings in terms of proximity. [PERSON] et al. [17] assessed the validity of national identity measures that were widely used with an emphasis on the effects of measuring the scale items through ratings or rankings. The authors concluded that rating measures can be used to find a national identity typology, and that the results are not constrained by using ratings or rankings in the national identity measurement. [PERSON] and [PERSON] [18] proposed an index to measure national identity as the subtraction of the mean values on ethnic-cultural items (nativity, living, language, religion, and ancestry) and the mean values on civic items (citizenship, respect and feeling). The ISSP nationhood construct has been broadly studied using different countries and ISSP waves [3; 7; 18; 19; 20; 21; 22; 23; 24; 25; 26; 27; 28]. Civic and ethnic factors have been underpinned on theoretical approaches on nationalism and citizenship. [PERSON] [27] suggested that these constructs have been taken for granted and that reliability tests need to be applied to contrast them with other theories such as the [PERSON]'s ideas on social closure. In this sense, the author admitted that it is necessary to go beyond the group threat and cultural affinity theories. The Weberian approach distinguishes between citizens who present very restrictive preferences to in-group membership (credential's vision of the nation) and those who are certainly laxer (post national citizens). [PERSON] and [PERSON] [28] contended that the prevailing models of nationhood are intertwined with: (1) flexible and restrictive immigration policies; (2) open and xenophobic societies; (3) assimilationist and multiculturalist integration policies; (4) citizenship models dominated either by jus sanguinis or jus soli; and (5) policies that equate immigrants' rights at the same level of citizenship rights. The authors also argued that, in the early 1990s, there was a shift in social research from nationalism to citizenship, and that a Marshallian focus (civil, political, and economic rights) was substituted by a Weberian focus (inclusion and exclusion of the others--out-group citizens).