## 3 Results and Discussion
### Region-Specific Climate Extremes and Threats to Environmental Stability
#### 3.2.1 North and South America  
Globally, climate extremes are conceptualised as natural hazards, including hurricanes, severe storms, floods, heatwaves, wildfires, and winter weather. [PERSON] et al. (2018) emphasise the socio-economic impacts of these hazards, focusing on South Florida, where they have caused extensive damage to infrastructure, homes, and businesses. Such natural hazards can severely disrupt living and non-living environmental elements, destabilise ecosystems, displace communities, and result in substantial business losses. [PERSON] et al. (2018) analysed a significant extreme weather event in western North America in 2020; according to the author, this event was intensified by a forceful tropospheric wave pattern, resulting in the Rossby wave breaking. Environmental impacts included historic, wind-driven wildfires in the Pacific Northwest and record cold and snowfall across the Rocky Mountains. This combination of extremes threatens ecological balance, degrades air and water quality, and contributes to biodiversity loss.  
In addition, [PERSON] et al. (2018) opened that the co-occurrence of two extreme weather events simultaneously (compound events) could catalyse the effects of heatwaves and stagnation on ozone via nonlinear effects, stating that the impact of compound extreme weather events on ozone enhancements in neighbouring parts of the United States was explored. They observe that, on average, compound events have a larger effect on ozone when compared with heatwaves, stagnation, or non-extreme days. While probing further, simulations found a reduced mean positive nonlinear effect of compound events (NLRE)  
Figure 5: Map showing the distribution of climate externalities research, highlighting regions with reported extreme climate threats to environmental stability based on papers included in the review.  
in the United States, and future emission reduction can be beneficial to ozone pollution control by limiting the impacts of compound events on ozone.  
In a study by [PERSON] et al. [87], climate change and associated extremes are highlighted as serious threats to Argentine viticulture. Key manifestations of these climate extremes include rising temperatures and heatwaves, which can damage leaves and grapes, as well as severe weather events like storms, hail, and heavy rainfall that threaten vine-yards. Drought is identified as one of the most critical climate hazards. Like other forms of agriculture, viticulture relies on essential environmental conditions, many of which have been disrupted by climate variability. Furthermore, climate change introduces new threats, such as intense, localised rainfall events and the expansion of vineyards into higher elevations in the Andes.  
Similarly, the Xingu River basin in the Brazilian Amazon is recognised for its national and international significance, notably in hydroelectric power generation and forest conservation. [PERSON] et al. [88] analysed climate extremes in the Xingu River basin, finding an overall increase in air temperature, although rainfall indices showed few significant trends. These findings are considered valuable for strategic decision-making in water resource management and planning.