## 2 Method for Comparing ICEVs and BEVs--Life Cycle Assessments (LCAs)
For example, battery production in Sweden is associated with relatively low emissions of 45 kg CO\({}_{2}\)e/kWh, while in countries such as China, the emissions range between 79 and 108 kg CO\({}_{2}\)e/kWh, depending on the specific battery chemistry. Notably, the higher values are based on battery types that do not contain nickel, while others with higher nickel content generally have lower emissions. As mentioned above, the average global emissions amount to 97 kg CO\({}_{2}\)e/kWh, highlighting variability based on geography and material composition. The average vehicle's fuel and energy consumption values vary according to the size of the vehicle (small, medium, or large), influencing the operational emissions throughout the vehicle's useful life (see Table 6). The ICE operational emissions were derived from both the production and combustion of the fuel. Together, the WTT and TTW emissions form the WTW emissions. Table 7 provides these values for Europe. The emissions per kWh from electricity production vary significantly from country to country, reflecting differences in the energy sources used in the electricity mix (see Table 8). Countries with a greater dependence on fossil fuels for electricity production will have higher emissions per kWh, while those using more renewable energy will have lower emissions. The emissions from electricity consumption during vehicle operation were adjusted for charging inefficiencies. To reflect real-world conditions, the energy drawn from the grid was adjusted by a factor of 1/0.857 (approximately 1.167) because only 85.7% of the grid electricity is efficiently stored in the vehicle's battery. This adjustment ensures that the total emission calculation reflects the grid electricity consumed, not just the net battery energy. In fact, during the process of charging a BEV, in 95% of the energy inflow at home (95%, not 100% due to WTT losses), there is a loss of 5% of the 95%, resulting in 90.25%, and the AC/DC inversion causes a loss of an addition 5% of the 90.25%; thus, the battery charging efficiency is 85.7% [30]. \begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c c c c} \hline \hline \multirow{2}{*}{**Size of Vehicle**} & **ICEVs-Petrol** & **ICEVs-Diesel** & **BEVs** & **Battery Capacity of** \\  & **(L/100 km)** & **(L/100 km)** & **(kWh/100 km)** & **ESVs (kWh)** \\ \hline Small & 6.5 & 5.4 & 16.0 & 45.0 \\ Medium & 7.5 & 6.2 & 17.5 & 60.0 \\ Large & 8.8 & 6.7 & 19.0 & 75.0 \\ \hline \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table} 
Table 6: The average vehicle’s fuel and energy consumption values (adapted from [30]). \begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c c c c c c} \hline \hline
**Fuel** & **WTT (gCO\({}_{2}\)e/L)** & **TTW (gCO\({}_{2}\)e/L)** & **WTW (gCO\({}_{2}\)e/L)** \\ \hline Petrol & 680 & 2240 & 2920 \\ Diesel & 980 & 2440 & 3420 \\ \hline \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table} 
Table 7: WTT and TTW GHG emissions in Europe from petrol and diesel (adapted from [30]). \begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c c c c c c c} \hline \hline
**Emissions** & **Portugal** & **USA** & **China** & **Norway** & **Poland** & **Sweden** & **EU 27** & **France** \\ \cline{2-8}
**[gCO\({}_{2}\)e/kWh]** & 166 & 369 & 582 & 30 & 662 & 41 & 229 & 56 \\ \hline \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table} 
Table 8: Emissions in grams of CO\({}_{2}\)eq for every kWh of electricity produced in different countries in 2023 (adapted from [23]). Maintenance emissions represent the GHG emissions produced during vehicle maintenance throughout its lifetime. These values reflect the lower maintenance requirements of BEVs, around 4.17 g of CO\({}_{2}\) equivalent per km, as they have fewer moving parts and typically require less frequent maintenance compared to ICE-powered vehicles (around 8.34 g of CO\({}_{2}\) equivalent per km) [24]. Recycling a BEV at the end of its useful life can reduce its total carbon footprint. The end-of-life emissions, expressed in tonnes of CO\({}_{2}\)e, are shown in Table 9.  
The code used in the current study was designed to compare the life cycle CO\({}_{2}\)e emissions of BEVs and ICEVs in various scenarios.