## 1 Introduction  
A common problem in herbal medicines is the adulteration and contamination by related and/or allied species, as well as those from unrelated genera [1]. It is difficult to identify authentic plant materials from adulterants and substitutes because of their morphological similarity, and confusion arises from the vermacular names of herbal medicines between provinces and countries [1; 2; 3]. Adenophorae Radix (_Sa-Sam_ in Korean and _Nan-Sha-Shen_ in Chinese) is an important herbal medicine that is prescribed as an antitussive and expectorant and has a wide range of immune-altering effects [4]. Adenophorae Radix is a representative herbal medicine that has been adulterated by both closely-related plant species and unrelated genera in both Korea and China [3; 4; 5]. In China, the roots of many _Adenophora_ species belong to the Campanulaceae and related plants have been added to -Adenophorae Radix, including _Adenophora polyantha_ [PERSON] and _Adenophora humanensis_ [PERSON]. (defined as a synonym of _Adenophora petiolata_ subsp. _humanensis_ [[PERSON]] by [PERSON] and [PERSON]), although it is defined as the roots of only _Adenophora stricta_ [PERSON] and _Adenophora tetraphyllla_ (Thunb.) [PERSON]. (defined as a synonym of _Adenophora triphyllla_ [Thun. A. DC.]) [6]. The morphological characteristics of dried roots of these inauthentic species are similar to those of authentic _A. stricata_ and _A. tetraphyllla_[4; 7]. In addition, the roots of _Glehnia littoralis_ [PERSON]. [PERSON]. belong to the Apiaceae, described as Glehniae Radix in the Chinese pharmacopoeia, are also used as Adenophorae Radix because of a similar medicinal name (_Bei-sha-shen_) in China [3; 7]. Even though Adenophorae Radix is described as the roots of _A. stricta_ and _A. triphyllla_ var. _japonica_ (Regel.) Hara in the Korean herbal pharmacopoeia, the roots of diverse _Adenophora_ species and those of _Codonopsis Ianccolata_ ([PERSON] and [PERSON].) [PERSON]. And Hook. f. ex Trautv. (Campanulaceae) and Codonopsis Lanceolatae Radix have also been used as Adenophorae Radix in Korean herbal markets because of the morphological similarity of the species in the same genus and the incorrect or imprecise definition of the botanical origin in ancient medical literature ([[http://boncho.kiom.re.kr/herbarium/codex.php](http://boncho.kiom.re.kr/herbarium/codex.php)]([http://boncho.kiom.re.kr/herbarium/codex.php](http://boncho.kiom.re.kr/herbarium/codex.php))) [8; 9]. Furthermore, because of the similar morphological features of processed herbal medicines, the roots of _Codonopsis pilosula_ (Franch.) Nannf. (Campanulaceae), which is defined as Codonopsis Pilosulae Radix, may also be distributed as Adenophorae Radix in Korea [9]. In traditional medicine, Adenophorae Radix, Glehniae Radix, and Codonopsis Lanceolatae Radix have different medical properties and efficacies. In detail, Adenophorae Radix has been used to nourish the yin of the lung and stomach and generate clear heat and fluids, whereas Codonopsis Pilosulae Radix has been used to tonify the middle burner (digestive system) and to augment the spleen and lung qi. Glehniae Radix also has been used to nourish the yin and generate fluids, but has been characterized for clearing the lungs and augmenting the stomach. By contrast, Cdonopsis Lanceolatae Radix has been traditionally used to detoxify and expel pus and promote milk secretion [10]. As such, the pharmaceutical prescriptions for authentic herbal medicines require quality control of herbal medicines [1]. In previous studies, identifying the botanical origins and quality of the medicines was carried out through morphological and genetic approaches, as well as chemical analysis [3; 4; 5; 9; 11]. However, these approaches have limited utility for authenticating commercially-processed Adenophorae Radix in Korean herbal markets due to degradation of DNA and the removal of morphologic features during processing.