## 4 Results and Discussion
### Sample Code for Accuracy Assessment
#### Landscape Metrics  
4.3.1 Patch Level
* **CAI:** The core area index indicates what percentage of a patch is made up of the core region. The CAI values range from 0 to 100, where 0 indicates no core area, and 100 indicates a core area. Here, when values increase from 0 to 100, it indicates increasing values in different variables and vice versa. In the study area during 2011-2021, the values of CAI ranged almost identically in waterbodies (7.69, 8.48), cropland (23.01, 23.48), and other classes (4.31, 6.02). However, in 2021, the urban and built-up class values (11.90) increased, as shown in Figure 7. The urban land patches [50] grew larger. This increase in the CAI for urban and built-up areas reflects the rapid urbanization occurring in the NCR, indicating a significant transformation of the landscape. As urban land patches expand, they encroach upon surrounding areas, potentially leading to habitat fragmentation and altered ecological dynamics. These changes underscore the need for effective urban planning and land management strategies to mitigate negative impacts on the environment. The results align with findings from [51], which reported similar patterns of urban growth and its implications for landscape ecology. Figure 6: LULC classification accuracy assessment. Figure 7: Graphical and pictorial representation of the highest and lowest values of a CAI, patch-level landscape metric. * A related circumscribing circle metric is the ratio of the patch area to the patch's smallest circumscribing circle [52]. The diameter of the patch connecting the opposite corner points of the two farthest cells equals the diameter of the smallest circumscribing circle. The value ranges from 0 to 1, where 0 indicates the circular patch, and 1 indicates the linear patch. Here, values increase from 0 to 1. This indicates the changing pattern in given variables, i.e., from circular to linear and vice versa. Figure 8 shows that the urban and built-up class had the lowest value (0.50) in 2011, and the other class showed the highest value (0.55). Fragmentation occurred in 2021 because the values of the classes increased except for waterbodies. The increase in values across most classes by 2021, particularly for cropland and other land uses, signifies a transition from circular to more linear configurations. This shift highlights the fragmentation of the landscape, driven by urban expansion and the encroachment of development on previously contiguous patches. The decrease in waterbodies indicates their relative stability amidst increasing fragmentation elsewhere. Similar studies, such as those by [53], have documented these trends, emphasizing the interconnectedness of urbanization and land use changes in shaping ecological patterns. * ENN shows the distance between the patch and the nearest patch of the same class. The value range starts at zero and goes to unlimited. Here, when value ranges are equal to zero, the distance to the neighbor is the least, but when it increases above zero, it shows the more isolated patches. The lowest nearest-neighbor values of 2021 suggest that the distance to the nearest neighbor is decreasing, as compared to the values from 2011. Figure 9 shows that the patches were more isolated in 2011 than in 2021. Figure 8: Graphical and pictorial representation of the highest and lowest values of a CIRCLE, patch-level landscape metric. * The shape index value ranges from 1 and increases without limits. When values increase above 1, the patch shape becomes more complex. The values of the study area indicate that all values increase without limit. Since the patch shape of the landscape was more complex in 2011, the values of some classes, such as waterbodies (1.29) and cropland (1.47), decreased in 2021 (Figure 10). * The patch complexity is described by FRAC, which is based on the patch perimeter and patch area. Here, the range remains between 1 and 2, where 1 indicates the squared patch, and 2 indicates the irregular patch. When the range moves toward 2 from 1, it tends to indicate irregular patches.