## 2 Literature Review
Therefore, industrial activities have recorded significant development in the Thies region, and mining is a significant driver of deforestation. While mines simultaneously clear native forests for mineral extraction, they also establish new infrastructure, indirectly facilitating further clearing [35]. Further, mining operations require significant land clearing to access underground resources. These activities not only lead to the direct loss of forest cover,but also cause soil erosion. The mining activities in the commune of Taiba Ndiaye, in the northern part of our study area, significantly influence the local population's socio-economic life [36]. In addition, road construction contributes to the loss of forest areas [37]. The connection between transportation infrastructure and forest vulnerability is noteworthy. The development and presence of transportation infrastructure can impact forests by leading to habitat fragmentation, increased human access, and changes in land use, all contributing to the heightened vulnerability of forest ecosystems. Dependence on forest resources for fuelwood, timber, and non-timber forest products may lead to overharvesting and degradation, making forests more vulnerable to disturbances. **Hypothesis 1 (H1). **_Deforestation, expansion of agriculture, and population growth coupled with manufacturing activities can increase the vulnerability of forests by reducing their extent and altering their composition._  
Climate change causes substantial vegetation shifts across the world [38]. Climate and environmental risks related to rainfall shortages [8] are common in Senegal, particularly in the north. Variability in rainfall, especially reductions, can make forests more susceptible to deforestation. So, as temperatures rise, there may be shifts in the vegetation zones in Senegal. These changes can result in altered ecosystem dynamics and increased vulnerability to disturbances. Previous research findings have indicated that elevation and topography influence the orientation of cultivated land ridges [39]. Consequently, the physical characteristics of the land, such as its topography, influence the vulnerability of forests. Factors such as slope, elevation, and soil types can affect water drainage and susceptibility to erosion, impacting overall forest health. In essence, slope and elevation can affect the amount of water an area receives, influencing the types of vegetation that can thrive. High-elevation forests on steep slopes may be particularly susceptible to landslides and soil erosion during extreme weather events, such as heavy rainfall. Additionally, forests on steep slopes are more prone to erosion because runoff water moves more rapidly, carrying soil away. Notably, the Thies region's topography exhibits significant elevation, which may have various implications for surrounding natural environmental elements. Therefore, the relationship between slope, elevation, and forest degradation is complex. Understanding these interactions is essential for effective forest management and formulating strategies to mitigate degradation. Furthermore, in the context of climate change, rising temperatures and fluctuations in rainfall pose significant challenges to the natural environment. A decline in vegetation index indicates vegetation loss, which can result from deforestation activities. Drought leads to plant cover, soil, runoff, and accentuation acidification [11]. In essence, prolonged periods of drought can make forest landscapes more susceptible to fragmentation. Several previous analyses have documented the impacts of deforestation on precipitation across the tropics [40; 41]. Africa's temperature is predicted to increase by 3 \({}^{\circ}\)C to 4 \({}^{\circ}\)C by the end of the 21 st century [38], posing a threat to the natural ecosystem. Altered climate conditions, such as rising temperatures, extended droughts, or changes in rainfall patterns, can stress forests.