## 5 Automation and Teleoperation
### Technology Description
#### 5.2.2 LTE and 5G Cellular Networks  
Cellular networking is a fundamental backbone of various mining operations. The deployment of the fifth generation of the \"Long Term Evolution\" (LTE) for telecommunication is called 5G. It offers improved data rates from the 4G LTE's 100 Mbit/s up to 10 Gbit/s for 5G. Furthermore, the new standard reduces the latency to a level of one to a few milliseconds. This allows for real-time remote-controlled units, which function as a major incentive for industrial applications [11]. This 5 th Gen standard for broadband cellular network began installation worldwide in 2019 [54]. Prior to 2019, the mobile network standard consisted mainly of 3G and 4G, with 4G Advanced added in 2010. As the name \"Long Term Evolution\" suggests, it was set as a standard to overlap the use of 3G and 4G, which also led to an adjustment of the 4G standard [55]. However, it is common to just refer to LTE as the precursor to 5G. Backward compatibility is included in the 5G standard, extending the use and spectrum range for mobile network devices. These hybrid wireless networking systems separate the standardsin their specified applications. 4G is sufficient for voice calls and (relatively in this use case) low data transmission. This frequent and semi-irregular workload for the network can take advantage of the longer range or distance between the network basis of the 4G compared to the 5G. The successive approach of 5G in terms of use and maintenance of the bands, i.e., the frequencies used by the predecessors 4G and 3G, becomes very clear when talking about the range bands that have been allocated and designated for 5G [56]. The most used terms for the division of the spectrum used and its effective characteristics and application areas are low-band 5G, mid-band 5G and high-band 5G. Low-band, sometimes called \"Nationwide 5G\" (by Verizon) or \"Extended Range 5G\" (by T-Mobile), is used to combine and preserve old 1G and 2G, as well as unused spectrum in the 600 MHz to 1 GHz range with an estimated 10 to 20 Mbit/s with the 5G standard. The exact frequencies used always depend on national regulations [57], but there is also the term Ultra High Frequency (UHF) 300 MHz-3 GHz [56] by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) in general. These decimetre radio waves propagate mainly in a straight line and are reflected by smooth obstructions like walls whose surface satisfies the Rayleigh criterion [58; 59]. Mid-band 5G ranges from 1 GHz to 6 GHz, but it is more widely considered to be in the 2.4 GHz to 4 GHz range. Here is where the well-known C-band for satellite communication lies [60], from 3.7 GHz to 3.98 GHz. It can cover large areas and provide fast speeds ranging from 300 Mbps to 1 Gbps [61]. It combines speed, range, penetration, and capacity. The main application for mid-band 5G will be in suburbs and cities where demand is significantly high. High-band 5G spans new frequencies made available in the millimetre wave spectrum. It ranges from 24 to 39 GHz. Here the largest gains in terms of bandwidth and latencies can be found. It provides 1 Gbps speeds but can reach up to 10 Gbps [54] under optimal conditions. Latency can be as low as 1 ms [54], but all this only with lower ranges. Waves with millimetre wavelength can only travel short distances and do not penetrate walls [60]. Waves are easily jammed. To relay these signals inside buildings, whether for signal boosting or 5G internet, 5G antennas and equipment will be needed. Development of applications in mining in the low band is difficult due to needed viable network properties conflicting with local regulations that apply even underground. At this point of technology development and 5G adoption, the mid-band is being utilized for first-use cases in underground spaces. The high-band (that has fantastic performance parameters) lacks robustness, in the understanding of the authors, for the application in harsh and changing underground environments, especially because the properties would be most valuable for remote control at the face.