## 2 Literature Review
The results indicated that the EKC hypothesis was supported for \(CO_{2}\) and \(N_{2}O\) emissions, showing clear turning points where economic growth led to reductions in these pollutants. For CH4 emissions, the EKC hypothesis did not hold, suggesting that other factors, such as agricultural practices and land-use patterns, dominate methane emissions in Brazil. Deforestation in the Amazon remains a critical driver of emissions, offsetting gains made in the energy sector. Contemporary urbanization has been reshaping territories and socioeconomic relationships across the Brazilian Amazon. [PERSON] et al. [25] sought to identify a general typology of relationships between urbanization and deforestation in the region, framed through EKC theory. The analysis focused on 144 municipalities in the state of Para over the intercensal period from 2000 to 2010. The EKC framework was applied using geographically weighted regressions as a spatial analysis method. Deforestation, measured by the PRODES program of the Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais (INPE), served as the metric for environmental degradation. Two principal typologies emerged from the results. These municipalities are characterized by urban-based economies with significant income contributions from the diverse rural production systems historically present in the Amazon. Such systems balance economic activities with ecological preservation. These municipalities have urban-based economies heavily reliant on agrarian production systems supported by extensive, homogeneous landscapes. These systems often exhibit predatory relationships with natural resources, leading to increased deforestation. India could draw lessons from Brazil's successful implementation of hydropower and bioenergy while avoiding environmental degradation through stringent policies on land use and forestry. Diversifying India's renewable energy portfolio, with an emphasis on large-scale hydropower, could accelerate its transition toward sustainable growth. Indonesia shares many structural similarities with India, including a high dependency on coal for electricity generation. Both countries are grappling with the dual challenge of meeting growing energy demands and reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Indonesia's EKC is likely similar to India's, with emissions increasing rapidly during early industrial ization and urbanization. A study by [PERSON] and [PERSON] [26] investigated the presence of an advanced stage of the EKC, characterized by an N-shaped pattern, in Java Province, Indonesia. Using a panel data regression model with \(CO_{2}\) emissions and GDP per capita as key variables, the analysis reveals that, in the short term, income growth per capita leads to environmental degradation. However, over the long term, the relationship evolves, ultimately forming an N-shaped curve. Policies targeting coal dependency and the adoption of renewable energy are critical for moving toward the declining segment of the EKC. Indonesia's efforts to phase out coal through policies like the moratorium on new coal-fired power plants and incentives for renewable energy development provide valuable insights. India could enhance its focus on transitioning from coal to renewables through subsidies, grid modernization, and international collaborations. China's rapid industrial growth has been accompanied by significant environmental degradation. However, stringent government interventions and technological advancements have played a key role in reducing emissions intensity in recent years. A study by [PERSON] and [PERSON] [27] investigated the relationships among \(CO_{2}\) emissions, per capita GDP, energy use, and trade openness. The study established the long-term effects of economic activity and trade openness on \(CO_{2}\) emissions, while identifying short-term effects of energy use. Furthermore, the study confirmed the existence of the EKC hypothesis, demonstrating an N-shaped relationship between \(CO_{2}\) emissions and per capita GDP.