###### Abstract  
Telerobotics involves the operation of robots from a distance, often using advanced communication technologies combining wireless and wired technologies and a variety of protocols. This application domain is crucial because it allows humans to interact with and control robotic systems safely and from a distance, often performing activities in hazardous or inaccessible environments. Thus, by enabling remote operations, telerobotics not only enhances safety but also expands the possibilities for medical and industrial applications. In some use cases, telerobotics bridges the gap between human skill and robotic precision, making the completion of complex tasks requiring high accuracy possible without being physically present. With the growing availability of high-speed networks around the world, especially with the advent of 5G cellular technologies, applications of telerobotics can now span a gamut of scenarios ranging from remote control in the same room to robotic control across the globe. However, there are a variety of factors that can impact the control precision of the robotic platform and user experience of the teleoperator. One such critical factor is latency, especially across large geographical areas or complex network topologies. Consequently, military telerobotics and remote operations, for example, rely on dedicated communications infrastructure for such tasks. However, this creates a barrier to entry for many other applications and domains, as the cost of dedicated infrastructure would be prohibitive. In this paper, we examine the network latency of robotic control over shared network resources in a variety of network settings, such as a local network, access-controlled networks through Wi-Fi and cellular, and a remote transatlantic connection between Finland and the United States. The aim of this study is to quantify and evaluate the constituent latency components that comprise the control feedback loop of this telerobotics experience--of a camera feed for an operator to observe the telerobotic platform's environment in one direction and the control communications from the operator to the robot in the reverse direction. The results show stable average round-trip latency of 6.6 ms for local network connection, 58.4 ms when connecting over Wi-Fi, 115.4 ms when connecting through cellular, and 240.7 ms when connecting from Finland to the United States over a VPN access-controlled network. These findings provide a better understanding of the capabilities and performance limitations of conducting telerobotics activities over commodity networks, and lay the foundation of our future work to use these insights for optimizing the overall user experience and the responsiveness of this control loop. telerobotics; teleoperations; latency; analysis; network topology; VPN 2024 16457 10.3390/fi16120457 10.3390/fi16120457 10.3390/fi16120457 10.3390/fi16120457 10.3390/fi16120457 10.3390/fi16120457 10.3390/fi16120457 10.3390/fi16120457 10.3390/fi16120457 10.33390/fi16120457 10.3390/fi16120457 10.3390/fi16120457 10.3390/fi16120457 10 literally meaning robotics at a distance. In telerobotics, there is always a human operator-in-the-loop aspect in order to carry out various operational aspects--from high-level task planning and related decisions that leave the robot with the responsibility for the actual task execution [1], down to low-level command and control communications that directly operate the robotic platform. Regardless of the level of involvement of the remote operator, the need remains for a control feedback loop between the operator remotely observing the robot's environment via a variety of sensor feeds and control communications that send operational commands to the robot for execution. In the military domain, telerobotics can enhance safety by allowing soldiers to control unmanned vehicles for reconnaissance, hazardous material disposal, and combat missions from a safe distance.