## 2 Literature Review
### Digital Divide Concept and Prior Research
\begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c p{284.5 pt}} \hline \hline
**Factor** & \multicolumn{2}{c}{**Background Research**} \\ \hline \multirow{8}{*}{_Major_} & Educators have recognized that students’ ICT skills and needs also vary by major/discipline [12]. While most colleges and universities have ICT courses designed for non-majors, a number of them offer discipline/major-specific courses. For example, the Computer Science Department at the University of Furman offers separate sections of its information literacy course for four different majors: art, business, education, and the natural sciences [5]. They find that these specific sections enable discipline specific needs to be addressed while still covering the essential ICT concepts. \\ \hline \multirow{8}{*}{_English language level_} & International students may find language barriers when using technology, as many computer programs utilize English and can be expressed in an unusual way. Therefore, before a student uses technology to complete his/her homework, he/she must first learn the basics of the language used in that software [5]. [PERSON] [12] conducted research on English language skills as an influence on students’ attitudes. Students having a better knowledge of the English language claimed to have more positive attitudes towards computers. [PERSON] [32] compared the opinions of Chinese and British students on the Internet; some Chinese students said they did not want to utilize the Internet because many websites were in the English language, and they have no cultural interchange because of language barriers. \\ \hline \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table} 
Table 1: Cont. started to put their attention on user behavior once access has been provided. As for access, income and education eventually remained the significant predictors of the use of ICT. Researchers have also shown that some models of technology adoption can be used to understand the digital divide. [PERSON], [PERSON], and [PERSON] [37] partitioned the theory of planned behavior (TPB) to get insight into the user adoption of ICT in the social-economically advantaged groups and the not advantaged. The authors suggested that various factors influence the intention of continued use for the two groups, where hedonic outcomes and attitude possessed a more significant influence on the not advantaged groups. [PERSON] and [PERSON] [45] compared two theories, namely the unified theory of acceptance and use of technology (UTAUT) and the model of adoption of technology in households (MATH). In the aspect of the digital divide related to age in the acceptance of the Internet by the elderly, MATH and UTAUT could both describe Internet acceptance. However, UTAUT was more likely feasible while MATH showed a more significant explanation. Recently, the debate on the digital divide focused on other factor elements, namely the skills for using ICT and digital inclusion--defined as a way to empower people through ICTs [46]. However, the existing digital divide due to differential access to ICT tools, low digital literacy, and lack of sustainable usage is the greatest hindrance to digital inclusion. [PERSON] [46] conducted a study aimed at finding a suitable location-specific strategy to bridge the digital divide in India. His study revealed that the problem and solution for the local communities are different with respect to access, skills, and usage of ICT. Therefore, he concluded that there is no suitable overall digital inclusion strategy for the whole developing world, which is on the way to becoming tech savvy. [PERSON] [38,41] conducted a study that revealed that the digital divide is composed of four categories of access: skills, physical, motivational, and usage. He concluded that the first three are the essential condition for the actual ICT use. [PERSON], [PERSON], and [PERSON]'s [47] research claimed that the impact of ICT literacy on Internet use is more influential than age, income, and owning a home personal computer. According to these authors, ICT literacy is considered as a factor of the digital divide.