## 5 Results and Discussion
### RQ1: What Cyber-Attacks in the MSCN Have Been Reported in the Academic Literature?
#### 5.1.2 Historical Evidence of Cyber-Attacks in the MSCN  
To discern the recurrence of various cyber-attacks in real-world scenarios, the authors conducted a comprehensive literature review, assembling a historical record of reported cyber-related incidents. A total of 68 events were identified, and Figure 5 illustrates the frequency of these events over the last decade. Figure 5 illustrates the number of cyber-attacks in the MSCN over the years, categorized by type of attack. The categories include DoS and DDoS, malware, ransomware, Trojans, social engineering, tampering, phishing, spear phishing, brute force, identity fraud, watering hole, port scanning, hijacking, jamming, and spoofing. The trend shows that DoS attacks initially appeared sporadically in 2012, 2016, and 2020, with a low frequency. However, starting in 2023, there is a notable increase in DoS incidents, indicating a growing prevalence of this type of attack within the MSCN. This escalation suggests that while DoS was previously a less frequent threat, it has become a more significant issue in recent years. In addition, the graph shows that hijacking, jamming, and spoofing incidents have been significant in 12 of the 15 years analyzed, indicating a persistent threat in the MSCN. In addition, the increase in social engineering, tampering, phishing, and spear phishing attacks shows a growing trend over the period analyzed, suggesting an increasing use of human manipulation techniques in cyber-attacks. On the other hand, brute force incidents have remained relatively stable, with no significant change in their percentage share from year to year. This suggests that while brute force attacks remain a constant threat, their prevalence has not significantly increased or decreased throughout the analysis. The available historical cyber-attack events reveal that hijacking, jamming, and spoofing attacks are the most common, followed closely by malware and ransomware. Importantly, the data suggest an increase in cyber-attacks within the maritime industry over the last decade, despite limited records from 2021 to 2024 in the reviewed literature, as these attacks are generally reported years after their occurrence. As part of this investigation, the authors also collected data regarding the countries where these cyber-attacks occurred. Figure 6 illustrates that the United States reported the highest number of cyber-attacks, with the United Kingdom and Iran following closely behind. It is crucial to acknowledge that the true number of cyber-attacks in the maritime industry is probably greater than officially reported. This is because many incidents go unnoticed or unreported as businesses prioritize protecting their interests or preventing cus \begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c c c} \hline \hline \multicolumn{1}{c}{**Cyber-Attack**} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{**Description**} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{**Example of Historical Evidence**} & \multicolumn{1}{c}{**Frequency References**} \\ \hline \multirow{4}{*}{Port scanning} & Scans network ports to identify & \multirow{4}{*}{Historical evidence was not presented in this reference.} & \multirow{4}{*}{1} & \multirow{4}{*}{[50].} \\  & vulnerabilities and gather & & & \\  & information by employing & & & \\  & methods such as IP & & & \\  & fragmentation to enhance stealth. & & & \\ \hline \multirow{4}{*}{Hijacking/Jamming/Spoofing} & \multirow{4}{*}{Hijacking involves taking control of a ship’s systems.} & In August 2017, the U.S. & \multirow{4}{*}{26} & \multirow{4}{*}{44,47,50,52,57,61-1} \\  & & Maritime Administration & & \\  & & reported an attack in which & & \\  & Jamming disrupts & & & \\  & communications by interfering & & & \\  & with signals, while spoofing & & & \\  & deceives systems with false & & & \\  & data, compromising & & & \\  & navigation and safety. & & & \\  & & & \\ \hline \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table} 
Table 4: _Cont._tomer panic [9; 86; 87]. The scarcity of public resources dedicated to maritime cybersecurity has hindered advancements in this field [68].