## 3 Mechanisms of Action of Antimicrobial Compounds
\begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c c c c c} \hline \hline
**Plant Source** & **Compound** & **Mechanism of Action** & \
\begin{tabular}{c} **Susceptible** \\ **Microorganism** \\ \end{tabular} &
\begin{tabular}{c} **Concentration** \\ **(\#g/mL)** \\ \end{tabular} & **Reference** \\ \hline \hline \multicolumn{5}{c}{Antimicrobial peptides} \\ \hline _Nigella sativa_ & Thionins NsW1 & Disruption of cell & _Bacillus subtilis_ and & 3.25 & \\  & and NsW2 & membrane integrity & _Staphylococcus aureus_ & 6.25 & \\  & & Disruption of cell & & \\  & & membrane & & \\  & & integrity/Inhibition of & _Xanthomonas_ & \\  & & protein biosynthesis/Interferring with & _campestris_ & 12 & [121] \\  & & nucleic acid synthesis or & & \\  & & expression & & \\ \hline \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table} 
Table 2: Mechanism of action of some important compounds extracted from plants. \begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c c c c c} \hline
**Plant Source** & **Compound** & **Mechanism of Action** & \begin{tabular}{c} **Susceptible** \\ **Microorganism** \\ \end{tabular}  & \begin{tabular}{c} **Concentration** \\ **(ug/mL)** \\ \end{tabular}  & **Reference** \\ \hline \multicolumn{5}{c}{Phenolic compounds} \\ \hline \multirow{4}{*}{_Camellia sinensis_} & Epigallocatechin-3- & \multirow{4}{*}{\ \begin{tabular}{c} Inhibition of bacterial \\ biofilm formation \\ \end{tabular}  } & \multirow{4}{*}{_Escherichia coli_} & \multirow{4}{*}{100} & [122] \\  & (EGCG-S) & & & \\ \cline{1-1} \cline{5-5}  & Wogonin & & & & \\ \cline{1-1} \cline{5-5}  & Mixture of & \multirow{4}{*}{ \begin{tabular}{c} \\ gallic acid \\ \end{tabular}  } & Disruption of cell & \multirow{4}{*}{_S. aureus_} & \multirow{4}{*}{0.625} & \multirow{4}{*}{[4]} \\  & ocularic acid, and & & & \\ \cline{1-1} \cline{5-5}  & chlorogenic acid & & & \\ \cline{1-1} \cline{5-5}  & & & &  
II. Inhibition of bacterial biofilm formation: A biofilm is a structured community of bacteria that encases itself in a self-produced matrix made up of extracellular DNA, polysaccharides, and proteins. This matrix not only supports bacterial growth but also provides protection against external threats [135]. Recent studies have highlighted the anti-biofilm and anti-adhesion properties of various plant-based extracts and phytochemicals. These natural agents can effectively inhibit bacterial adhesion, prevent biofilm maturation, disrupt the extracellular matrix, and eliminate bacteria within established biofilms. The formation and regulation of biofilms are largely controlled by a bacterial communication system known as \"quorum sensing\" [136]. \begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c c c c c} \hline \hline
\begin{tabular}{c} \\ \end{tabular} \\ \hline \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table} 
Table 2: _Cont._For instance, wogonin, a plant-derived compound, has been shown to suppress the expression of quorum sensing-related genes and reduce the production of virulence factors, such as elastase, pyocyanin, and proteolytic enzymes. Additionally, wogonin decreases the synthesis of extracellular polysaccharides and inhibits bacterial motility, including twitching, swimming, and swarming, ultimately preventing biofilm formation [2]. Similarly, carvacrol and 2-aminobenzimidazole (2-ABI) have demonstrated significant antibiotic film activity against _Salmonella_ serovars. Notably, 2-ABI effectively inhibited biofilm formation at a concentration of 1.5 mM, making it a promising new option for combating _Salmonella_ biofilms, particularly in poultry-related infections. These findings suggest that both compounds could serve as supportive or alternative treatments for biofilm-associated infections [137]. Another example is limonene, which has been shown to inhibit the growth of both planktonic and mono/polymicrobial biofilms formed by _P. aeruginosa_ and _S. aureus_[138]. Similarly, the phenolic compounds extracted from pomegranate peel (PPE) exhibited notable antibiotic film activity against a range of microorganisms, including _S. aureus_, _L. monocytogenes_, _Salmonella bongori_, _E.