## 2 Materials and Methods  
### Study Areas  
The Brazilian Amazon rainforest (Figure 1b) is located in the northern region of Brazil and covers the territory of 9 states (Figure 1a). It experiences a tropical climate (A-Zone in the Koppen classification) with average temperature in the coldest month exceeding 20 \({}^{\circ}\)C in the center of the Amazon basin. Rainfall can reach over 3000 mm annually, and in some areas, it may even exceed 8000 mm [25]. The forest is dominated by evergreen broadleaved trees and forest structure is typically described as having multiple layers, with structures that could reach heights of around 20-30 m. Dominant tree species include _Eschweilera coriacea_, _Euterpe precatoria_, and _Protium altissimum_[26]. Figure 1: Location of (**a**) Brazilian Legal Amazon (BLA) inside Brazil; (**b**) Types of conservation units inside the BLA states territory; (**c**) Manaus city and its conservation units; (**d**) Porto Velho district and its conservation units. This study incorporates two areas within the Brazilian Amazon region: Manaus City and the district of Porto Velho (Figure 1). Manaus is the capital city of Amazonas state (Figure 1c), and its area encompasses the urban area and its surrounding forest, covering approximately 1,142,000 ha. Manaus is situated in the heart of the Brazilian Amazon. It is a major urban center with a population exceeding two million people. The area's location at the confluence of the Negro and Solimoes rivers makes it a critical hub for transportation and commerce. Manaus has experienced rapid urban expansion, leading to increased pressure on surrounding forested areas [27]. The district of Porto Velho (Figure 1d), within the municipality of Porto Velho, capital of Rondonia state, is located on the east bank of the Madeira River in the southwestern part of the Brazilian Amazon. The area encompasses the urban area and its environs, spanning approximately 923,000 ha. Unlike Manaus, Porto Velho is more rural, with a strong reliance on agriculture and livestock farming. The construction of major infrastructure projects, such as highways and hydroelectric dams, has contributed to deforestation in the region [27]. The district area of Porto Velho was chosen for this study, rather than the entire municipality, due to logistical and computational constraints. The district represents an important region of the Madeira River basin (Medio Madeira). Additionally, it houses the urban administrative hub of the municipality, and is comparable in size to Manaus, allowing for a more balanced comparison. The district contains 13 conservation units within its boundaries. This study examines a total of 29 conservation units (Table 1) across different management levels--sustainable use and full protection--and administrative scales--local, regional, and national--to assess their effectiveness in preventing deforestation and forest degradation. According to the SNUC legislation [28], in full protection units, only indirect use of natural resources is allowed, and the rules and regulations are restrictive. Sustainable use units, on the other hand, reconcile nature conservation with the sustainable use of part of natural resources. Buffer zones around these conservation units were also included in the analysis, as they play a crucial role in the management and protection of these areas [29]. According to the SNUC, buffer zones are areas surrounding conservation units where human activities are subject to specific rules and restrictions to minimize negative impacts on the protected area. For this study, a three-kilometer buffer was considered based on the management plans of most units. However, it is important to note that the SNUC excludes Environmental Protection Areas (a subcategory of sustainable use units) from having buffer zones, as these areas often cover large territories with diverse land uses, including private properties and urban areas.