## 3 Corrosion Properties
found extensive structural damage, including crack initiation from pitting, intergranular surface cracking inside the crevice, and more [42]. Galvanic corrosion has been observed in dental implants when two metal elements (such as in a Co-Cr alloy) are combined to manufacture implants [43]. In orthopedic applications, crevice corrosion has been observed in bone fixation implants at the contact interface between bone plates or between screws and bone tissue. Studies have shown that a larger crevice size leads to a higher implant corrosion rate [44]. Due to the adverse effects of toxic products on patients leading to implant restriction or denial, there is a growing need for corrosion-resistance materials to ensure the longevity of implant materials in physiological conditions. The electrochemical resilience of these alloys must be strong enough to accommodate corrosion rates that can adversely affect the composition of these materials. These alloys should be capable of withstanding low pH values and exhibit minimal degradation under physiological conditions to ensure the mechanical integrity of the implant remains intact until the bone or tissue has adequately healed [37]. [PERSON] et al. studied the microstructure, tensile properties, and corrosion behavior of Mg-4 Zn-1.2Y-0.8 Nd alloy undergoing thermal extrusion processes. The findings indicated that elevating extrusion passes leads to improved corrosion resistance. Moreover, extrusion ratio and pass alterations affect mechanical properties, with varying impacts on tensile strength and elongation. Clinical observation of a 29-year-old female patient's 1-year follow-up using X-rays revealed a complete degradation with bone healing after 1 year. [PERSON] et al. assessed the properties of magnesium-based alloys, specifically those alloyed with aluminum, zinc, calcium, zirconium, yttrium, and rare-earth elements, for biomedical implant applications. These degradable biomaterials offer lightweight composition, fracture toughness, and an elastic modulus close to bone density. They can be alloyed to develop biodegradable metals with controlled corrosion rates; however, the study also emphasizes carefully selecting alloying elements to maintain biocompatibility [37]. Furthermore, applying Mg-pretreated peritoneum (M-P) in anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) reconstruction presented an innovative approach to enhance tendon-bone healing. Different types of Mg implants have varying degradation rates and mechanical properties. The time it takes for the implant to degrade and for the bone to integrate with the surrounding tissue can depend on specific characteristics of the Mg alloy. Moreover, the initial condition of the bone, the nature of the injury, and the patient's overall health can affect the healing process. A too-rapid degradation rate may compromise the mechanical integrity, whereas too-slow degradation may impede the natural healing and remodeling of the bone. From a toxicological standpoint, an implant material should not release toxic ions into the body unless such release is intentionally desired. Thus, the implant material should exhibit controlled chemical stability in the complex chemical environment of the human body [45]. Nevertheless, released toxic elements entering body tissues are virtually inevitable, even if implant materials are believed to possess robust corrosion resistance [46; 47]. Studies have shown that the release of metal ions due to implant wear in the human body is a leading cause of toxic effects related to implant materials, including tissue sensitization, damage to local blood vessels supplying the bone, bone necrosis, and more [48]. The deposition of non-matching metallic ions at the implantation site can trigger allergic and toxic responses, leading to inflammatory reactions and tissue damage [49]. Generally, the Mg\({}^{2+}\) ion is naturally present throughout the body and plays a crucial role in numerous biochemical reactions.