## 1 Introduction  
### Mine Tailings Storage Facility Dam Failures: Geotechnical Human Errors or Unavoidable Accidents  
The dam failures of mine tailings storage facilities (TSFs) recorded in recent decades in Los Frailes Aznalcollar, Spain, 1998; Ajka Alumina Plant, Kolontar, Hungary, 2010; Mount Polley, Canada, 2014; Samarco Fundao, Brazil, 2015; Brumadinho Feijao, Brazil, 2019; Jagersfontein, South Africa, 2022; and Williamson, Tanzania, 2022, have caused significant social, environmental, and economic effects, as well as harming the reputation and credibility of mining companies due to the loss of human lives and causing serious environmental damage [1; 2; 3; 4]. Many studies have been conducted in recent years to understand the causes of these disasters related to mine tailings management. Some of the findings that researchers and engineers have reported include (i) inadequate dam construction procedures, (ii) the instability of the upstream construction method, (iii) inefficient management of mine TSF operations, (iv) discontinuous engineering companies in technical studies and changes in construction contractors, and (v) an increase in the generation of mine tailings due to a decrease in ore grade in mining deposits [5; 6; 7; 8; 9; 10; 11; 12]. Considering these causes, it is important to note that the generation of mine tailings worldwide increases every year due to the increasing demand for the metals necessary to decarbonize the economy through the development of digital age information, the implementation of electromobility, and the use of renewable energies to address the global threat of climate change [13; 14]. Society in general and governments worldwide demand sustainable development to leave a better world for future generations and reduce their ecological footprint. This is how the United Nations (UN) has defined its sustainable development goals (SDGs) for the year 2030; it has also established decarbonization and renewable energy plans for 2050, seeking to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions to zero to achieve carbon neutrality [15; 16; 17]. This energy transition and efforts to achieve the SDGs will demand large quantities of minerals from both metallic mining (Cu, Ag, Au, Fe, C, REEs, and others) and non-metallic mining (Li, I, B, salts, and others), which will harm mine localities due to the increase in mining waste [18; 19; 20]. For example, the demand for copper will increase in the coming decades, and the quantities of mine tailings generated in the main source countries for this metal, such as Chile, Peru, China, the USA, Australia, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and Mexico, have been increasing commensurately [19]. This is reflected by the size of mine TSFs and their dams in these countries, which in some cases exceed 100 m in height, and in Chile and Peru, currently reach 200 m in height [21]. Considering the copper demands by 2050 to achieve the energy transition and sustainable development objectives, some TSF dams in both Chile and Peru are expected to exceed 300 m in height, something unprecedented in this type of infrastructure [21]. Furthermore, the effects of climate change on mine TSFs must be considered, as extreme hydrometeorological events will continue to occur in various territories, and intense rainfall, frost, heat waves, changes in wind generation patterns, increased evaporation rates, snowfall, etc., will make these structures vulnerable to accidents, spills, or failures [22]. In this scenario, monitoring the structural health and safety management of mine TSFs with the best available technologies (BATs) becomes crucial for the responsible management of mine tailings and the sustainability of the mining business. Therefore, sensor technologies and Industry 4.0 technologies emerge as attractive alternatives to foster safety and reduce the risks of mine TSF failure.