# Current Challenges in _Yersinia_ Diagnosis and Treatment
## 6 Animal Reservoirs of _Yersinia_
### Reservoirs of Yersinia pseudotuberculosisis
\begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c} \hline \hline
**Human Activity** & **Animal and Plant Sources of _Yersinia_ spp.** \\ \hline \multirow{7}{*}{Food consumption} & _Yersinia enterocolitica_ \\  & \(\bullet\) & Food prepared from raw pork products (the main food source), treated sausage, \\  & \(\bullet\) & Chicken [57]; \\  & \(\bullet\) & Raw or medium-done pork [58]; \\  & \(\bullet\) & Imported fruits and berries [58]; \\  & \(\bullet\) & Iceberg lettuce, radicchio rosso [83]; \\  & \(\bullet\) & Unpasteurized milk [62; 64]; \\  & \(\bullet\) & Raw minced pork (young children in Germany) or prepared minced pork in the \\  & household [84]. \\ \hline \multirow{7}{*}{Risky behavior} & _Yersinia enterocolitica_ \\  & \(\bullet\) & Eating in a canteen [58]; \\  & \(\bullet\) & Playing in a sandbox [84]; \\  & \(\bullet\) & Contact with birds [84]. \\ \hline \multirow{7}{*}{Possible zoonotic exposure} & \(\bullet\) & Association with the backyard slaughter of pigs; \\  & \(\bullet\) & Flies carrying antibiotic-resistant _Enterobacteriaceae_ strains of the bacteria (Libyan \\  & & hospitals) [85]. \\ \hline \multirow{7}{*}{Animal contact} & The enteropathogenicer serotypes of _Yersinia_ include BT2, O:9; BT2 O:5.27; and BT4, O:3 isolated from various animal species. \\  & \(\bullet\) & Cattle (fattening pigs)—principal reservoir for human infection [61; 86]; \\  & \(\bullet\) & The feces of cows, sheep, and goats [62; 64]; \\  & \(\bullet\) & Red or roe deer, wild bours (isolated the _Ail_ gene in rectal swabs—suggestive of virulence gene for _Y. enterocolitica_) [70; 86]; \\  & \(\bullet\) & Brown hares (European countries) [66]; \\  & \(\bullet\) & Wild bours (Spain) [71]; \\  & \(\bullet\) & Bats (Germany) [67]; \\  & \(\bullet\) & Wild rodents (interspecies carriers between reservoirs in European pig farms) [68]; \\  & \(\bullet\) & Flies carrying antibiotic-resistant _Enterobacteriaceae_ strains of the bacteria (Libyan \\  & & hospitals) [85]. \\  & Secondary sources \\  & \(\bullet\) & Contact with domestic animals [59; 62; 63]. \\ \hline \multirow{7}{*}{Human-to-human transmission (possible route)} & \(\bullet\) & Rarely transmitted; \\  & \(\bullet\) & _Y. enterocolitica_ transmitted by a food handler [87]; \\  & \(\bullet\) & The nosocomial outbreak of _Y. enterocolitica_ diarrneal infection. \\ \hline \multirow{7}{*}{Waterborne transmission} & \(\bullet\) & The consumption of untreated drinking water (an outbreak of _Y. enterocolitica_ due to tap water from a small-scale water system in Japan) [88]; \\  & \(\bullet\) & Environmental waters and sewage (pathogenic _Y. enterocolitica_ in water sources and sewage in Brazil) [89]; \\  & \(\bullet\) & Contact with untreated water, unreticulated sewerage; \\  & \(\bullet\) & Environmental water types (reservoirs and creeks). \\ \hline \multirow{7}{*}{Food consumption} & \(\bullet\) & This foodborne pathogen is rarely isolated from food. \\  & \(\bullet\) & Fresh produce; \\  & \(\bullet\) & Vegetable juice [42]; \\  & \(\bullet\) & Untreated surface water [42]; \\  & \(\bullet\) & Homogenized milk [43]. \\ \hline \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table} 
Table 1: The possible sources and reservoirs of _Yersinia_.