# Virtual Reality or Videoconferencing for Online Learning? Evidence from Comparative Meta-Analyses
## 4 Results and Discussion
### Moderator Analysis for VC Platform-Supported Online Learning  
#### 4.3.1 Research Context in VC Studies  
As shown in Table 5, more studies were conducted in regular-sized classes (80%) compared with small classes (20%). The moderating effect of sample size was obvious (\(Q_{B}\) = 9.660, \(p\) < 0.01). The effect size was significantly larger for small classes (\(g\) = 0.982) than for regular-sized classes (\(g\) = 0.205), which suggests that smaller classes may benefit more from online learning supported by VC platforms. This finding is consistent with previous studies [50; 51]. In smaller classes, each student can engage more, which can prevent marginalization [84]. Due to the increase in the number of students in regularized classes, teachers may find it challenging to pay attention to each student's learning behavior, which could lead to some students being ignored and ultimately disengaging from the classroom. As for the disciplinary domain, humanities and social sciences were the most commonly studied disciplines (51.4%), while engineering and technical sciences were the least studied (5.7%). The \(Q\) statistic revealed a significant difference in effect size across various disciplines (\(Q_{B}\) = 63.695, \(p\) < 0.001). Notably, natural science had the largest ef \begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{l c c c c c} \hline \hline
**Moderator** & \(\mathbf{k}\) & \(\mathbf{g}\) & **95\% CI** & \(\mathbf{Q_{B}}\) & \(\mathbf{p}\) \\ \hline Sample size & & & & 9.660 ** & 0.002 \\ Small class & 7 & 0.982 & [0.512, 1.451] & & \\ Regular-sized class & 28 & 0.205 & [0.064, 0.346] & & \\ \hline Discipline & & & & 63.695 *** & 0.000 \\ Natural science & 6 & 0.732 & [0.311, 1.152] & & \\ Humanities and social sciences & 18 & 0.302 & [0.094, 0.510] & & \\ Medical science & 9 & 0.307 & [0.154, 0.460] & & \\ Engineering and technology sciences & 2 & \(-\)0.583 & [\(-\)0.784, \(-\)0.382] & & \\ \hline Grade level & & & & 9.288 ** & 0.002 \\ K–12 & 5 & 0.801 & [0.447, 1.154] & & \\ College & 30 & 0.208 & [0.065, 0.351] & & \\ \hline Camera option & & & & 4.115 * & 0.043 \\ On & 17 & 0.433 & [0.243, 0.624] & & \\ Off & 18 & 0.148 & [\(-\)0.052, 0.348] & & \\ \hline Platform & & & & 35.887 *** & 0.000 \\ Game & 2 & 1.270 & [\(-\)0.053, 2.594] & & \\ Gather & 3 & 0.927 & [0.648, 1.205] & & \\ Tencent Meeting & 3 & 0.663 & [0.371, 0.955] & & \\ Zoom & 16 & 0.071 & [\(-\)0.080, 0.222] & & \\ Other & 11 & 0.360 & [\(-\)0.002, 0.722] & & \\ \hline Pedagogy & & & & 6.510 & 0.164 \\ Collaborative learning & 4 & 0.709 & [0.189, 1.230] & & \\ Direct instruction & 19 & 0.252 & [0.028, 0.476] & & \\ Experiential learning & 4 & 0.146 & [\(-\)0.105, 0.398] & & \\ Game-based learning & 2 & 1.270 & [\(-\)0.053, 2.594] & & \\ Inquiry-based learning & 6 & 0.144 & [\(-\)0.115, 0.403] & & \\ \hline Learning outcome & & & & 1.480 & 0.687 \\ Affective outcome & 8 & 0.279 & [\(-\)0.103, 0.660] & & \\ Behavior & 1 & 0.657 & [0.046, 1.267] & & \\ Knowledge & 18 & 0.264 & [0.097, 0.431] & & \\ Skill & 8 & 0.294 & [\(-\)0.052, 0.641] & & \\ \hline \hline \end{tabular} Note.* \(p\) < 0.05, ** \(p\) < 0.01, *** \(p\) < 0.001.  
\end{table} 
Table 5: Moderator analysis results for VC platform-supported online learning. fect size (\(g\) = 0.732), followed by humanities and social sciences (\(g\) = 0.302) and medical science (\(g\) = 0. 307), while engineering and technology sciences showed a negative effect (\(g\) = \(-\)0.583). Many concepts in natural science can be taught through diagrams and simple demonstrations, and VC platforms can support this type of presentation, thus allowing teachers to show relevant learning material through screen sharing. In addition, some problems in natural science may be easier to understand through discussion and interaction. VC environments meet this need and provide a means for real-time communication between teachers and students. More studies of online learning supported by VC platforms were conducted at the college level (85.7%) than at the K-12 level (14.3%).