## 5 Stability of Carotenoids and Betalains
\begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c c c c} \hline
**Pigment** & \multicolumn{2}{c}{**Stabilizing Study**} & **Results** & **Reference** \\ \hline \multirow{8}{*}{**Betalain**} & Antioxidants & Ascoustic and isosotrophic acids (40 mM) & Ascorbic and isosocorbic acids (0.003-1\%) allowed the & [PERSON] et al. [94] \\  & Storage conditions: 100 \({}^{\circ}\)C (3 min) and 10 \({}^{\circ}\)C (24 h) & greatest regeneration yield at pH 3.8. & \\ \cline{2-4}  & Chelating agents & EDTA (10,000 ppm) & Increased 1/12 of betanium by 1.5 times. & [PERSON] et al. [79] \\  & Storage conditions: 75 \({}^{\circ}\)C, pH 5 & Increased 1/12 of betanium by 1.5 times. & [PERSON] et al. [79] \\ \cline{2-4}  & Mallectrathin and combination with pectin, GA, guar gum, and xanthan gum (XG) & +21\% increased stability of betalin. & [PERSON] et al. [95] \\  & GA, malodextrin, modified starch (MS), chitosan and their combination & Extracts encapsulated in GA–MS revealed the best & [PERSON] et al. [96] \\  & Storage conditions: 40 \({}^{\circ}\)C (10 weeks) & colorimetric parameters. & [PERSON] et al. [96] \\  & Native potato starch and its modification (e.g., & Suocnirylated potato starch was the best alternative for stabilizing betalin. & [PERSON] et al. [97] \\  & Phosphorylation and succinylation). Storage conditions: 40 \({}^{\circ}\)C, pH 46 (93 days) & Microapsules obtained by freeze-drying were & \\  & Malodextrin and XG by freeze and spray drying & characterized by greater stability in terms of betanin and color parameters. & [PERSON] et al. [98] \\  & Storage conditions: non temperature and pH 3-6 & and color parameters. & 7\% pea protein protected the most content of the & \\  & Psa protein (3.5-7\%) as an encapsulating agent using spray & 7\% pea protein protected the most content of the & [PERSON] et al. [99] \\  & Drying (SD 125-150 \({}^{\circ}\)C) & studied bioactive compounds. & [PERSON] et al. [99] \\ \hline \multirow{8}{*}{**Additives**} & Catching (2.5-10 mM), ascorbic acid (0.025-0.1\% \(\approx\) \(\approx\) \(\approx\) \(\approx\) \(\approx\  
Considering the stabilization methods applied for carotenoids and betalains (Table 2), it is clear that the methodology which ensures the best results is encapsulation, regardless of the nature of the pigment. Irrespective of the encapsulation technique, our outcomes prove that gum Arabic [89; 90; 95; 96; 98], cyclodextrin [86; 87; 88], and modified polysaccharides (e.g., starch) [89; 90; 93; 96; 97] are the most commonly used wall material. In detail, native or combined carbohydrates enhanced the encapsulation efficiency from 50 to 95% with respect to the other encapsulating materials [90]. From the critical analysis of the proposed works, it emerges that the encapsulation process offers countless advantages: (i) simple manipulation converting liquid into solid form; (ii) the possibility of masking unpleasant sensory appearances; (iii) controlled release through the gastrointestinal tract; (iv) increased of water solubility (especially for carotenoids); and (v) enhanced bioavailability. Considering the effect of antioxidants applied for improving pigment stability, there are some discrepancies in their real effects and range of concentrations [85; 86], especially on the betalains [94]. [PERSON] et al. [100] proved that the addition of ascorbic acid acted as a prooxidant, reducing the storage stability of betalains, as highlighted by the value of half time (t\({}_{1}\)/2), which is reduced by about 1.5 times compared to the control (119.5 days vs. 78.8 days). Furthermore, antioxidants (mixed tocopherols and sodium ascorbate) were not able to inhibit carotenoid degradation when exposed to ambient oxygen [85]. Although the use of additives [84], such as chelating agents [79] (e.g., EDTA, citric acid), has demonstrated a good stabilizing effect, the high dose required may affect the sensory attributes of foods.