# Designing Procedure Execution Tools with Emerging Technologies for Future Astronauts
## 1 Introduction
### Training and Task Execution Research
[PERSON] [5] described five areas that must be met to provide a realistic simulation:  
* Fidelity: the graphics must have an acceptable level of resolution for the task
* Object properties: the objects in the scene must behave with sufficient reality
* Interactivity: the user must be able to interact with the virtual scene
* Sensory input: the user must receive appropriate sensory feedback
* Reactivity: the objects must behave appropriately when the user interacts with them  
At that point in time, computers were only capable of meeting these standards at the most basic level. Despite this, [PERSON] [5] noted recent rapid advances in computing power, and that VR training could be particularly useful \"in this era of animal-fights sensitivity and of fear of exposure to blood-borne diseases such as AIDS and hepatitis\" [5]. Less than ten years later, [PERSON] et al. [7] showed that virtual reality training could improve operating room performance [7]. [PERSON] et al. [7] presented the results of a double-blind study demonstrating that \"virtual reality training transfers technical skills to the operating room (OR) environment\" [7]. In the study, surgical residents were split into either a non-VR-trained control group or a VR-trained group and trained to perform laparoscopic cholecystectomy. The authors showed that, while overall task performance time did not significantly decrease, the VR-trained group made significantly fewer errors. This result indicated that students could be trained to perform better without any risk to patients, and \"validated the transfer of training skills from VR to OR sets the stage for more sophisticated uses of VR in assessment, training, error reduction, and certification of surgeons\" [7]. Figure 1: Astronaut [PERSON], STS-119 commander, looks over checklists from the commander’s station on the flight deck of Space Shuttle Discovery. Courtesy NASA. Around the same time, [PERSON] et al. [9] found significantly improved assembly times for subjects who used VR or AR training over conventional 2D engineering drawings [9]. In their task, subjects had to assemble a water pump after receiving instructions on paper \"conventional\" drawings, in VR, or in AR. Subjects in the VR and AR conditions wore HMDs to see their environment. Subjects who received training in VR or AR performed significantly better than subjects trained with conventional drawings, and subjects who received training with the AR system performed significantly better than the subjects trained with VR. More recently, [PERSON] et al. [10] developed an augmented reality training platform for assembly and maintenance skills [10]. The authors combined an augmented reality video aid with a vibrotactile bracelet to assist with augmented reality training. The video aid was displayed on a tablet computer that combined predefined augmented reality cues with a video feed of the real world. The bracelet had six vibration segments, which could be activated independently, allowing for both translational and rotational \"channels\" that guide the user. [PERSON] et al. [10] ran a study that grouped subjects into two groups to determine if training with the AR system was more effective than traditional training. To measure the effects of the training, the authors investigated both the task completion time and the number of \"unsolved errors.\" The authors found that overall task completion times were not significantly different between the control and AR groups, but the AR group had significantly less unsolved errors. This result is consistent with other studies using VR, including the above-mentioned [PERSON] et al. [7] study. This research has shown that measuring human performance and the effects of training can be challenging. Even in experiments with seemingly improved and subjectively preferred training techniques, the results of training rarely reflect performance changes. While overall task completion times generally do not change as a result of training in VR or AR, the number of task errors has been shown to be decreased [5; 7].