## 2 Materials and Methods  
### Study Area  
The study area is located in the island of Java, within the Girisekar and Jetis private Forest Management Units (FMUs) in Gunung Kidul Region, Yogyakarta Province, Indonesia. The Gunung Kidul Region covers an area of 3133 km\({}^{2}\), has a highest elevation of 2955 m, and receives precipitation of approximately 2681 mm. The two adjacent FMUs cover a cumulative area of 2666 ha and are situated at the geographical coordinates 8\({}^{\circ}\)02\({}^{\prime}\)20.4\({}^{\prime}\) S and 110\({}^{\circ}\)28\({}^{\prime}\)42.6\({}^{\prime}\) E (Figure 1). The greater Gunung Kidul Region has become a major area of private forest activity and has attracted interest surrounding the forestry's community-based certification, management, and contribution to economic development (e.g., [60; 61; 62; 63; 64]). Private forest plantations in Gunung Kidul are comprised predominantly of teak (_Tectona grandis_), although efforts have been undertaken in planting acacia (_Acacia mangium_), mahogany (_Swietenia mahogoni_), munggur (_Ssmania saman_), and sono (_Dalbergia latifolia_) [61]. Deforestation in the island of Java dates back to 300-400 years ago [65] and began to be perceived as a problem from the middle of the 19 th century onwards [66]. Gunung Kidul Region specifically has observed a transition to re-vegetation since the 1970s [67].  
At the country level, Indonesia has suffered intense deforestation and degradation during the last decades primarily due to the conversion of forest into estate crops and agriculture and logging concessions [65; 68]. Despite the fact that the Global Forest Resources Assessment [1] reported reduced deforestation between 1990 and 2015 at a global scale with a few tropical countries transitioning to forest gain, specifically for the tropical counties, the forest loss and degradation persists [69].  
Indonesia has been a main contributor of deforestation globally. [PERSON] et al. [70] estimated that, during the period 2000-2010, 0.82 Mha of forest per year were lost, accounting for 56% of the total forest cover loss in Southeast Asia. The consequent greenhouse gas emissions from deforestation, and the concomitant vulnerability of Indonesia to climatic change, sensitized the Indonesian government to recognize the need for action on climate change in 2009 [71]. Subsequently, a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions by 29% by 2030 compared to the business as usual (BAU) scenario was pledged by taking actions such as sustainable forest management and restoring degraded ecosystems [72]. Mitigation efforts included the REDD project, peat land conversion, and forest management and governance [73]. One specific way of supporting ecosystem and landscape resilience has been through social forestry [72; 74] and community forest management during the last decade in Indonesia, which have fostered important efforts [75].  
Figure 1: Map of the study area in Indonesia depicting the Giraškar and Jetis private FMUs and the field sampling points’ locations therein (main). The inset image shows the island of Java. The background image is a natural color preview (RGB) from Landsat-8 OLI acquired on 13 September 2019 (Path:120, Row:65).