## 3 Model Establishment
### The Method of Modelling Process
In particular, future studies may explore

Figure 8: Comparison of data before and after optimization of five stations. (**a**) Working proportion; (**b**) waiting proportion. advanced AGV routing algorithms, design more dynamic and adaptive material supply systems, and develop intelligent task allocation models to balance workloads across workstations, thereby reducing idle time and mitigating production bottlenecks. Additionally, future work should consider comparing the proposed approach with other state-of-the-art optimization methods to comprehensively evaluate its effectiveness and scalability in diverse manufacturing environments. Conceptualization, H.S. ; Data curation, S.Y. ([PERSON]); Formal analysis, S.Y. ([PERSON]); Funding acquisition, Z.X. ; Investigation, S.Y. ([PERSON]); Methodology, H.S. ; Resources, Z.X. ; Software, S.Y. ([PERSON]); Supervision, Z.X. ; Validation, S.Y. ([PERSON]); Visualization, H.S. ; Writing--original draft, H.S., S.Y. ([PERSON]) and S.Y. ([PERSON]). All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. This research received no external funding. Not applicable. The original contributions presented in this study are included in the article. Further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author. The authors declare no conflicts of interest. ## Abbreviations

AGV Automated Guided Vehicle

MIP Mixed-Integer Programming

DJSP Dynamic Job Shop Scheduling Problem

MDP Markov Decision Process

DQN Deep Q-Network

DES Discrete event simulation

KPI Key Performance Indicator

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