# Positioning Methods and the Use of Location and Activity Data in Forests
## 4 Location-Based Services, the Internet of Things, Wearable Technology, and Big Data
### Mesh Networking  
Devices can form local networks that connect indirectly to Internet services through wireless mesh networks (WMN). In a mesh network, some devices, referred to as routers, form a wireless backbone to transmit data from users to wired access points [200]. Meshing may be full, in which all devices (nodes) are connected to every other device in the network, or partial, in which some devices connect to all and some only transmit to a single node [201]. Any device that joins the network creates additional opportunities for hops, or relay points for sending data through the network, thus increasing network coverage [200; 202]. Multihopping also increases bandwidth, which is higher at shorter ranges [200; 203]. Since the nodes create multiple pathways of communication, WMNs  
Figure 13: Activity recognition modeling and application, using tree planting as an example. Initial sensor data is collected during completion of specified activities: swinging a hoedal planting tool, bending to place a seedling, or walking to the next site. Patterns in the raw sensor data are used to compute activity recognition, which can then be incorporated into apps for use on mobile devices in the field to quantify work activities, such as number of trees planted. This figure is adapted from [PERSON] et al. [14]. are relatively immune to single point failure, in which failure of one node disrupts communication through the whole system [200; 202]. WMNs are intended for permanent or semi-permanent network connections with some wired infrastructure. In contrast, mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs), do not require any infrastructure and are intended for temporary connections of highly mobile devices with variable arrangements (topology) within the network (Figure 2, panels D and F) [200; 202]. MANETs have primarily been used for military applications or specialized civilian operations, such as disaster recovery [200]; whereas, lower-cost WMNs have been applied more widely. WMNs have been used, for instance, to provide cost-effective Internet connectivity, especially for remote or scarcely populated communities [200; 203], to create intelligent transportation systems which provide real-time travel information about public transit [200], to enhance communications for public safety and first response [201; 203], and to improve utility company services, such as more accurate automated meter reading systems and quicker detection of gas or water leaks [203]. Wireless sensors can use mesh networking to transmit field measurements in remote areas to local data loggers, and then on to wired access points (Figure 14). In forest science, wireless sensor networks (WSNs) are used to accomplish a variety of management and safety goals, such as measuring forest health or detecting wildfires. For example, sensors collecting data on temperature, humidity, soil moisture, light intensity, nitrogen concentration, carbon dioxide levels, and canopy closure can provide remote observations of forest health [204; 205; 206]. Real-time data from environmental sensors at known GNSS coordinates may help detect and locate wildland fires, either by reporting weather conditions conducive to fire ignition and spread (e.g., temperature, humidity, wind speed, and wind direction) or by alerting a central server of the presence of smoke or infrared radiation [207; 208; 209; 210; 211; 2012]. Wireless sensor networks in forested environments are prone to transmission error, as radio signals are disrupted by vegetation and trees [209; 23], so diagnostic tools that can identify network faults are valuable for recognizing incomplete data sets [204]. Figure 14: Wireless sensors in a mesh network in which individual units (the temperature sensors) transmit data to local nodes (the data loggers), which in turn transfer data to a station that is connected to outside resources via the Internet.