## 6 Historical and Potential Modern Uses of Acorns in Food  
Regardless of the region of occurrence and species of oak, acorns have been one of the more common components of the diet, with historical reports of their consumption relating to such regions and countries as the Mediterranean Basin [3; 69; 90], Asia Minor and the Middle East, Central America, East and North America [91], and Poland [92] and dating back to the Stone Age (Neolithic) and Bronze Age [2]. Studies on the consumption of acorns in the past, from prehistoric times to the 19 th and 20 th centuries, point to relatively simple forms of their preparation, depending on the cultural conditions and regional traditions [4; 30]. Archaeological studies show the use of acorns in dishes, as stews, and in preparing meals resembling modern-coked porridge. The role of acorn infusions as coffee substitutes is also mentioned [4; 91; 93]. From prehistoric times to modern times, one also finds uses for acorns as a raw material in baking bread. Throughout history, the forms of its baking have changed: historical reports indicate the preparation of bread in the form of flat cakes and scones, whose dough was prepared without the addition of yeast, and whose \"baking\" was carried out in a pan rather than in ovens. Acorn flour was used alone or in combination with cereal flour or flours made from legume seeds [4]. In Sardinia, acorn bread, known locally as \"Pan'Ispeli\", was prepared from acorn flour mixed with clay and ash, and its preparation involved a ceremony to which religious significance was ascribed [3]. [PERSON] and [PERSON] [93] also point to a tradition of acorn bread baking in Sardinia called \"pane di ghiande\", the preparation of which was very complex and began with the harvesting of acorns in autumn, drying and roasting, a special method of removing the pericarp by striking acorns enclosed in a pouch made from goatskin, and then involved preparing the seeds by boiling them in water mixed with red clay. The bread was baked from a dough made from overcooked acorns, resembling oatmeal, in the form of pancakes, which were eaten immediately after baking or dried for further storage. In Asian countries, acorn starch has been used in culinary traditions until modern times and is used to prepare a dish called \"dotorimuk\", translated as acorn jelly or acorn tofu. Powdered acorns combined with water are also used to make acorn noodles (\"dotoriguksu\"), which resemble soba noodles [94]. Today, acorns have lost their importance as a stand-alone food product or even an ingredient and are most often associated with animal feed [6]. With the increasing importance of healthy lifestyle trends linked to changing diets and the resulting consumption of raw materials and products of organic, natural origin with functional properties, there is also a strengthening of the role of acorns as an alternative and competitive food raw material [18]. In the past, the use of acorns has been associated primarily with their high starch content, and thus the use of acorns as a high-energy ingredient and a substitute for traditionally used high-starch raw materials [2], contemporary applications involve not only the use of acorns as a base or enriching recipe ingredient but also include the potential for use as technological additives, e.g., due to the stabilizing properties of acorn starch (Table 4). The use of acorns as a raw material in the production of oils and coffee or the processing of flour and starch are just some examples of the directions of acorn use that are currently being addressed both by scientists in their research and by food producers in preparing market offerings [3; 7; 12; 95; 96; 72; 97]. \begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c c c c} \hline \hline _Quercus_ Species & **Acorn Form/Amount in Product** & **Food Product Type** & **Specified Nutritional Advantage** & **References** \\ \hline \multirow{8}{*}{_Q.