## 1 Introduction  
Carbon dioxide storage and sequestration in underground geological formations such as saline aquifers, depleted oil and gas reservoirs, and coal seams is a critical strategy for mitigating anthropogenic CO\({}_{2}\) emission and reducing atmospheric greenhouse gas levels [1; 2]. Carbonate reservoirs are considered attractive CO\({}_{2}\) storage sites as they hold the majority of the world's oil and gas reserves, making them a primary storage target when CO\({}_{2}\) based enhanced oil recovery (CO\({}_{2}\)-EOR) is incorporated [3; 4]. Furthermore, it can be assumed that CO\({}_{2}\) can be stored in a carbonate reservoir for an indefinite period since the hydrocarbons have been held in these reservoirs for millions of years [5]. Compared to conventional sandstone reservoirs, CO\({}_{2}\) storage in carbonate reservoirs is much more difficult and challenging for the following reasons. First, carbonate rocks are known to be structurally heterogeneous, with dual or triple pore-throat systems, and exhibit a range of wetting behaviors, all of which strongly impact CO\({}_{2}\) storage performance [3; 6]. Second, carbonate rocks are very reactive with injected CO\({}_{2}\), thus undergoing a series of physical and chemical changes that may affect the reservoir's integrity, injectivity, and storage capacity [7; 8]. The CO\({}_{2}\)-brine-carbonate rock interactions can cause mineral precipitation or rock dissolution in the carbonate reservoir, depending on the chemical species present in the formation brine [1; 9]. Mineral precipitation, which solidifies the injected CO\({}_{2}\) as carbonate minerals, is one of the major CO\({}_{2}\) trapping mechanisms [10]. It happens when the brine pH is high and alkaline elements are present in the formation brine [11]. The precipitated carbonate minerals can occupy the reservoir pore spaces and block the flow paths leading to a reduction in porosity and permeability [11; 12]. Another pronounced phenomenon is rock dissolution when injected CO\({}_{2}\) reduces the pH in formation water, converting CO\({}_{3}^{2-}\) to HCO\({}_{3}^{-}\)[13]. On the plus side for CO\({}_{2}\) storage and sequestration, dissolution of carbonate rocks facilitates injectivity, increases storage capacity, and enhances the performance of carbonate hosted CO\({}_{2}\) storage reservoirs [14]. Sometimes, the dissolution of carbonate minerals may result in the formation of highly porous and conductive channels or wormholes [5; 15]. On the down side, dissolution creates concern for the long-term storage security of CO\({}_{2}\) in carbonate reservoirs [15; 16]. The injected CO\({}_{2}\), being a less dense fluid than the formation fluids in subsurface pore spaces, will move laterally or migrate vertically after injection until it is restricted by a caprock or seal [3]. The dissolution and reactivity of carbonate reservoirs exposed to CO\({}_{2}\) may negatively affect their storage integrity, thus jeopardizing the long-term security of CO\({}_{2}\) sequestrated in the carbonate reservoirs [3; 17]. The impacts of mineral dissolution in carbonate reservoirs due to CO\({}_{2}\) injection have been extensively investigated. It is found by [PERSON] et al. that the interfacial tension between calcite and gas decreases after the introduction of supercritical CO\({}_{2}\) (scCO\({}_{2}\)) into the carbonate pore spaces, and the decrease level is highly related to the reservoir pressure, temperature, and formation water salinity [18]. [PERSON] et al. experimentally investigated dissolution in two different carbonate rocks with different levels of heterogeneity. They observed that both rocks exhibited channel widening at the millimeter scale, and the dissolution was more focused and progressed along the flow direction [16]. Similarly, it is claimed by [PERSON] et al. that the formation of high permeability pathways due to rock dissolution is only observed in pre-existing open fractures where most injected scCO\({}_{2}\) flowed through [19].