## 1 Introduction  
As a stronger action to reduce anthropogenic CO\({}_{2}\) emissions, which are responsible for the rise in global temperatures linked to climate change, the systematic and sustained reduction of fossil fuel utilization in combustion engines is mandatory [1]. To achieve this, not only has been proposed the gradual replacement of combustion engines with electric motors but also the production of renewable fuels to replace fossil diesel in the global vehicle fleet, which currently exceeds one billion units [2]. Biomass is currently considered one of the safest sources for producing renewable fuels, commonly referred to as biofuels, which can be used in compression ignition (C.I.) engines. In this sense, it should be noted that, while for spark combustion engines ethanol is the most suitable biofuel, for C.I. engines, vegetable oils are the most appropriate raw materials to produce advanced or carbon-neutral fuels [3]. In the coming decades, as the transition from fossil fuels to renewable alternatives progresses, vegetable oils (VOs) will become the primary raw material for producing advanced biofuels for internal combustion engines. Triglycerides, which are abundant and low-cost, can be sourced in significant quantities from agriculture as well as from waste generated by the food and livestock industries and household food waste. Furthermore, the industrial production of these advanced biofuels does not depend on the development of new technologies, as current methods are already capable of addressing the major challenge of straight vegetable oils (SVOs), their high viscosity, which limits their direct use as a biofuel. Currently, conventional biodiesel is practically the only biofuel being produced on an industrial scale. However, various technologies have been developed that also use vegetable oils as the primary raw material to produce biofuels to be used in C.I. engines. These new processes have emerged due to the economic limitations of conventional biodiesel production, the challenges associated with managing the excess of glycerol produced, and the difficulties in producing fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) blends that meet the European regulations standard EN 14,214 or the American ASTM D6751 standard [4]. The effective utilization of waste cooking oil and similar raw materials requires extensive pre-treatment. This involves the removal of solid impurities, reduction of free fatty acid (FFA) content, and elimination of water to avoid complications during the transesterification process. Techniques like neutralization and acid esterification are essential for converting waste oils into viable biodiesel feedstocks, addressing both technical and sustainability challenges [5]. However, these methods are complex and expensive, which significantly limits the economic feasibility of biodiesel production through transesterification, particularly at an industrial scale. As a result, thermal conversion and/or hydrogenation of triglycerides from various sources are now considered the best alternative routes for obtaining renewable fuels with properties similar to those of fossil diesel. These biofuels, derived from triglycerides, are produced through catalytic processes such as cracking, pyrolysis, hydrodeoxygneation, or hydrotreatment. The resulting renewable fuels consist of hydrocarbon mixtures that are very similar to fossil fuels but with significant advantages, particularly in reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions [6; 7; 8]. At present, biofuels derived from triglycerides share common characteristics, including the use of catalytic processes with relatively high energy costs and the loss of a portion of biofuel material due to the removal of oxygen molecules, such as H\({}_{2}\)O and CO\({}_{2}\)[6; 7; 8]. However, these catalytic processes offer better management of gaseous wastes compared to the glycerol generated in transesterification, even though the mass loss of biofuel is similar.