# Antioxidative and Photoprotective Activity of _Pinus nigra_, _Pinus strobus_ and _Pinus mugo_
## 1 Introduction
The main component of the needles is alpha-pinene [18]. In medicine, like other pine species, it is used to treat the respiratory tract, has an expectorant and antiseptic effect, and supports the immune system. In cosmetology, it is used to slow down aging and to moisturize the skin. Like the other trees from the Pinaceae family, it is used in aromatherapy due to its relaxing effects [19]. _Pinus nigra_ is an evergreen and long-lived tree of the Pinaceae family, which is found in the southern Balkans and Turkey, usually reaching 30 m to 40 m in height. Needles grow in pairs, are 8-16 cm long and 1-2 mm in diameter and can be straight or curved. They usually stay on the tree for 3-4 years but sometimes last for up to 8 years [20; 21]. Pine wood is a very valuable natural raw material. Although data on _Pinus nigra_ are scarce, its antibacterial, antioxidant, and antiproliferative activity has been found [22] It can be used in medicine and cosmetology [23]. Essential oil extracted from _Pinus nigra_contains mainly \(\alpha\)-pinene (about 50%). This oil has anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, and relaxing effects on physical and mental fatigue. In aromatherapy, it has a calefacient effect especially for rheumatic pain [19; 24]. Pine extracts are rich in terpen, polyphenols, catechins, epicatechins, and taxifolin, and have good antioxidant properties and support the cardiovascular and respiratory systems. _Pinus nigra_ needles contain large amounts of polyphenols and flavonoids. It was found that the antioxidant capacity of these needles is higher compared to other species of evergreen trees in the Pinaceae family [22; 25]. _Pinus mugo_ is a species of shrub or tree, whose main area of occurrence is the mountain regions of the Central and Southern Europe. Mountain pine grows at altitudes from 200 m to 2700 m. _Pinus mugo_ is a low, coniferous tree with many stems. It reaches 3-6 m in height. _P. mugo_ needles have many beneficial properties. They have wax on their surface, which allows the accumulation of lipophilic organic compounds [26]. Extracts from needles, bark, buds, and cones, as well as essential oils, contain large amounts of secondary metabolites, which can be applied in respiratory and rheumatic diseases, as well as anti-inflammatory and expectorant agents. These extracts are rich in active ingredients, including volatile compounds, higher alcohols, vitamins, minerals, and tannins. In addition, due to the polyphenols content, _P. mugo_ extracts have high antioxidant activity, which gives them anticancer and antiproliferative properties [27; 28]. Another important factor for protecting an organism against aging is the use of photoprotective agents [29; 30]. Most of the preparations available on the market are based on synthetic compounds. However, there is little information regarding the widespread use of plant extracts. As mentioned, such extracts also have antioxidant properties, which would be beneficial for human health [31]. Due to the variety of raw materials containing substances with valuable health-promoting properties, a number of extraction methods can be used to isolate active ingredients. The selection of an appropriate method should ensure a fast process and the isolation of compounds of the highest possible activity, should avoid degradation or change in the properties of the isolated valuable ingredients, and, if possible, should minimize the co-extraction of undesirable compounds, especially contaminants. For this purpose, classic extraction techniques, such as maceration, digestion, percolation, or Soxhlet extraction, are often used [32; 33]. In order to eliminate certain unfavorable features of these methods, modern extraction methods, classified as so-called green extraction techniques, which are eco-friendly and economical, are increasingly used. These methods include supercritical fluid extraction, pressurized liquid extraction, ultrasound-assisted extraction, microwave-assisted extraction, enzyme-assisted extraction, and others [33; 34].