## 1 Introduction  
Across Africa, there has been observations of an increase in near-surface temperatures by 0.5 \({}^{\circ}\)C or more during the last 50 to 100 years [1, 2, 3]. Regionally, North Africa has witnessed annual and seasonal observed increasing trends in mean surface temperatures that are significantly beyond the rates and ranges of change due to natural variability. In the warm season (March-August), an increase in near-surface temperatures is observed over North African, Algeria, and Morocco, not mainly due to natural variability. This region also experienced positive trends in terms of annual minimum and maximum temperatures [2]. West Africa, on the other hand, has also witnessed increased near-surface air temperatures over the last 50 years, while Southern Africa witnessed upwards trends as well in annual minimum and maximum temperatures in the last half of the 20 th century [2; 4]. In terms of temperature projections, it has been projected that temperatures across Africa will rise faster than what has been projected at the global scale during the 21 st century. This is seen as global near-surface air temperatures across Africa are projected to move beyond the 20 th-century projection by 2069 (\(\pm\)18 years) under the RCP4.5 pathway and by 2047 (\(\pm\)14 years) under the RCP8.5 pathway [2; 3; 5]. In West Africa, these changes will be unprecedented, and projections of increased temperatures are likely to occur about 1-2 decades earlier than the global average [2]. This is mainly attributed to relatively small variability in this region that generates narrow climate bounds that can be easily surpassed by relatively small changes in climate [2]. In terms of precipitation, North Africa, including the Atlas Mountains and along the Mediterranean coast of Morocco and Algeria, have shown a strong decrease in the amount of precipitation received in winter and spring. In addition, observed trends show greater than 330 dry days with less than 1 mm of precipitation per day for the period 1997-2008 [2; 6]. West Africa and the Sahel also witnessed an average reduction in precipitation over the course of the 20 th century due mainly to natural variability and increased aerial fertilization effects of carbon dioxide [7; 8; 9]. On the other hand, East Africa witnessed a deceased in precipitation over 30 years. In contrast, Southern Africa witnessed a reduction in precipitation in late summer from the western part extending to Namibia through Angola during the second half of the 20 th century [2]. In terms of projections, precipitation is going to be more uncertain than temperature projections. Indeed, CIMIP5 ensemble projects a decline in mean annual precipitation across the Mediterranean region of North Africa in the mid and late 21 st century based on the RCP8.5 pathway [2]. In Southern Africa, CIMIP5 further projects a decrease in mean precipitation over Southern Africa beginning from the mid to late 21 st century based on the RCP8.5 pathway [2]. For West Africa, CMIP3 and CIMIP5 show projections of a wetter core rainy season; similar projections are held for most of East and Middle Africa with increased precipitation projected from the mid-21 st century for the RCP8.5 pathway [2]. The repercussions of the above observations and projections in climate across Africa are likely to be severe due to the strong dependence on agriculture and the limited capacity to adapt [10]. Africa is the continent that will be hardest hit by climate change. This is already being marked by unpredictable rains, floods, prolonged droughts, and consequent crop failures amid rapid desertification [11; 12]. This is also associated with amplifying extreme events such as droughts, floods, and sandstorms [11]. Despite this information on observed and projected climate across Africa, it is still uncertain how these different regions are ready for climate change adaptation. However, regions witnessing rising temperatures and low precipitation are more likely to be vulnerable to food shortages, droughts, and floods [12; 13].