# PFAS: The Journey from Wonder Chemicals to Environmental Nightmares and the Search for Solutions
###### Abstract  
Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are diverse synthetic chemicals manufactured over seven decades. It is an aliphatic molecule with a basic hydrophobic structure of carbon and fluorine linked to a hydrophilic end group. Due to their physicochemical properties associated with the unique structure, PFAS has been used in a wide variety of applications including aqueous film-forming foams (AFFF), paper, carpets, non-stick cookware, etc. as they make products resistant to water, heat, and stains. These molecules have drawn great attention recently for their unique properties, high stability and low degradability, and so-called \"Forever Chemicals\". PFAS has the strongest carbon-fluorine bond which makes them persistent in the environment. Hence it contaminates natural resources and endangers public health. This review discusses the discovery, development, and evolution of PFAS from the wonder chemical era to a nightmare chemical era, exposure and its impacts on human health and the environment, current remediation techniques, and future trends of PFAS molecules and related products. The primary objective of this review is to identify knowledge gaps on PFAS contamination, remediation methods, and possible PFAS alternatives. per- and polyfluoroalkyl substance (PFAS); history; toxicity; evolution of PFAS; remediation and future trends +
Footnote †: journal: Applied Sciences  
**Citation:** Perera, D.C.; [PERSON]. PFAS: The Journey from Wonder Chemicals to Environmental Nightmares and the Search for Solutions. _Appl. Sci._**2024**, 14, 8611. [[https://doi.org/10.3390/appl4198611](https://doi.org/10.3390/appl4198611)]([https://doi.org/10.3390/appl4198611](https://doi.org/10.3390/appl4198611))  
Academic Editor [PERSON]  
Received: 16 August 2024  
Revised: 17 September 2024  
Accepted: 18 September 2024  
Published: 24 September 2024  
**Copyright**\(\copyright\copyright\copyright\copyright\copy\right\copy\right\copy\right\copy\right\copy\right\copy\right\copy\right\copy\right\copy\]  
Polychlorortrifluoroethylene (PCTFE) was discovered in 1934 by [PERSON] and [PERSON] as the first form of the PFAS molecule and it was commercialized in the early 1950s. While working in DuPont laboratories in searching for an alternative to existing fluorocarbon-based refrigerants, [PERSON] and his assistant [PERSON] accidentally found polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), a white waxy solid [5], which was later trademarked as Teflon and used in World War II, the Apollo space mission to the Teflon-coated kitchen pan in the modern world. During the Manhattan Project, DuPont used Teflon in warheads, liquid-fuel tanks and in pipes to hold toxic uranium hexafluoride at the uranium plant in Oak Ridge, Tennessee. Tetraftuoroethylene (C\({}_{2}\)F\({}_{4}\)) (TFE) was used as the monomer to synthesis polymerized TFE or Teflon using either suspension polymerization or emulsion polymerization. At the same time a multinational company, Minnesota Mining and Manufacturing Co. (3M) developed the PFAS by producing perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS) which can be used in fabric stains and water-repellant sprays including Scotchgard. Teflon was used in the Apollo space mission as seals on ventilators and in emerging medical technologies as a coating material for catheters [6; 7]. Dupont started to produce Teflon on a commercial scale after the Second World War to facilitate it in other products such as cookware, stain repellents in fabrics and textiles, industrial coatings, and countless other products [7; 8]. Meanwhile, [PERSON] worked on making more complex fluorocarbons under mild conditions to minimize the explosion during working with chemicals, referred as the \"Simons Process\". This process involves electrochemical fluorination of hydrocarbons. When manufacturing PFOA, octanoyl chloride or octanoic acid was used as the starting material. In 1945 3M utilized the Simons Process to manufacture perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), which has properties that resist heat, oil, stains, grease, and water.