# Physiological Effects of Green-Colored Food-Derived Bioactive Compounds on Cancer
## 2 Physiological Effects and Mode of Actions (MoA)  
### Sulforaphase  
Sulforaphase is a sulfur-containing amino acid derivative belonging to a group of phytochemicals known as isothiamate [11]. Chemically, sulforaphase is composed of an isothiamate functional group and a methylsulfonyl butyl group as a side chain [12]. Sulforaphase is generally found in broccoli sprout, kale, cabbage, and other cruciferous vegetables [13]. This phytocompound was first discovered in the 1950s in red cabbage and in a rangeland weed as an antibiotic [13]. Later, sulforaphase was isolated from broccoli by [PERSON] and [PERSON], and was identified as a cancer preventing agent [14]. The most abundant source of sulforaphase is known as broccoli sprout, in which it is stored in its chemically stable form, called glucoraphanin [15]. Its biosynthesis begins with the formation and the elongation of the methionine side chain, followed by the generation of the glucosinolate structure and the modification of its side chain [13]. While processing, an endogenous enzyme called myrosinase hydrolyzes glucoraphin to produce sulforaphane, which is metabolized in the gut through the mercapturic acid pathway [16]. Sulforaphane enters the circulation through passive diffusion and reaches the highest concentration within 1-3 h after consumption [17]. Chemically, sulforaphase is composed of an isothiamate functional group and a methylsulfonyl butyl group as a side chain, and it has very high pharmacological activity in the intestinal ambiance due to its electrophilic structure and water solubility [17]. Although sulforaphane has been described as a highly bioavailable compound, its bioavailability can be hindered by the presence of epithiospecific protein present in the plant, which can be eliminated with mild heating [18]. The role of erucin in the bioavailability of sulforaphane has also been mentioned elsewhere [18; 19]. Sulforaphane is the most prominent isothiamate that shows anti-carcinogenic effects against various forms of cancers, including prostate, ovarian, lung, bladder, stomach, and oral cancers in preclinical and clinical studies [20]. Sulforaphane can block or attenuate the proliferation, maturation, and migration of human cancer cells by targeting multiple cellular signaling pathways [21]. Primarily, sulforaphane's anti-cancer effects are attributed to its ability to suppress the phase 1 metabolizing enzymes and to activate the phase 2 detoxification/antioxidant enzymes [22]. Sulforaphane can also regulate the inflammatory responses and activate the genes associated with apoptosis and cell cycle arrest, including p21 and cyclin D1 [22]. In addition, the role of sulforapahane as an epigenetic regulator and a HDAC inhibitor in cancer prevention cannot be overemphasized [23]. According to the literature, the critical mechanism that sulforapahane exerts its chemo-preventive effects is the Nrf2-mediated activation of the metabolizing enzymes, which can detox or neutralize the carcinogens and their metabolites [24]. In preclinical studies, sulforapahane-enriched diet increased the detox enzymes, such as GST and NQ01 in plasma, and the carcinogens, including acrolein and benzene in urinary excretion [13; 25; 26]. Thus far, clinical trials have focused mainly on sulforapahane's preventive effects on prostate cancer [27]. Recurrent prostate cancer patients, when treated with Prostphane(r) (400 umol sulforapahane), experienced a drastic reduction of the serum PSA level [27]. A more extended treatment (5 months) with 200 umol sulforapahane showed very similar results [27]. Remarkably, supplementation of GFN BroccoMaXTM (30 mg glucoraphanin) to women with breast cancer showed promising results by modulating the expression of Ki-67 and HDAC3 [28]. Clinical studies regarding the effects of sulforapahane against the other forms of cancer should be conducted to utilize the potential anti-cancer benefits of sulforapahane (Table 1).