# Innovations in Wheat Bread: Using Food Industry By-Products for Better Quality and Nutrition
## 3. Dough Rheology
A similar increase in dough development time was observed by [PERSON] et al. [106] and [PERSON] et al. [103] after adding apple pomace powder to wheat dough. The authors attributed this effect to the elevated dietary fiber content in apple pomace, which slowed gluten development in the dough, resulting in increased development time. Additionally, [PERSON] et al. [106] suggested the possibility of fiber-gluten interaction, preventing protein hydration. [PERSON] et al. [107] also noted a reduction in dough stability time with the addition of apple pomace. However, there was no significant difference in the stability time of wheat dough with varying particle sizes of apple pomace, and the defatting process applied to the apple pomace showed no discernible impact. [PERSON] et al. [103] also reported a decrease in dough stability, while, in contrast, [PERSON] et al. [106] observed an increase in dough stability, possibly explained by higher interaction among dietary fiber, water, and flour proteins. Also, when using by-products obtained from pressing oilseeds, a significant influence of supplementation on the studied rheological properties is evident, although it is not always possible to establish clear dependencies. In the study by [PERSON] et al. [18], a fluctuating trend was observed for dough development time when wheat dough was supplemented with olive pomace. Initially, there was an increase in dough development time with up to 10% supplementation, followed by a subsequent decrease. This indicates that at high levels of supplementation with non-gluten components, gluten dilution can play a crucial role in influencing dough development time. Additionally, there was also an increase in dough stability and farinograph quality number, along with a decrease in the softening degree. These trends were similar to the effect of adding grape pomace to dough observed in a previous study by [PERSON] et al. [20]. The increase in dough stability and decrease in softening degree can be attributed to the hydroxyl groups present in phenolic compounds, which can directly bond with wheat flour proteins and affect the functional properties of the food. The study by [PERSON] et al. [72], on the other hand, showed a decrease in dough development time and dough stability with increasing olive pomace content. However, at low supplementation levels (1-3%, depending on the olive variety), the changes in dough stability were insignificant compared to the control sample. Such a level of addition was also recommended by the above authors due to the rheological properties of the dough. [PERSON] et al. [19] point to similar tendencies, namely a decrease in dough development time and stability when supplementing dough with flaxseed cake. [PERSON] et al. [17], also indicate a decrease in stability with increasing supplementation levels. Moreover, increased supplementation from 5 to 15% leads to a decrease in dough development time, although the dough development time for supplemented dough remains higher in each case compared to the control. Increased water absorption, combined with a low degree of dough softening, is considered favorable, indicating good dough tolerance to mixing. [PERSON] et al. [111] noted that bread made from softened wheat dough lacks a firm structure. The inclusion of high-fiber ingredients in the dough can weaken its structure, leading to an increase in the degree of dough softening [104]. However, as demonstrated in the study by [PERSON] et al. [20], supplementing wheat dough with 10% grape pomace led to a decrease in the degree of softening. On one hand, the addition of grape pomace, rich in insoluble fibers and other constituents that strongly interact with gluten proteins, can disrupt the development of desirable rheological properties. On the other hand, phenolic compounds in grape pomace, including tannins, which have a notable ability to form hydrogen bonds and hydrophobic interactions with gluten fractions in wheat flour, may enhance the production of doughs resistant to mechanical stress [20; 112].