# Prediction of Blast-Induced Ground Vibration Using an Adaptive Network-Based Fuzzy Inference System
## 2 Mechanism of Ground Vibration and the Vibration of Buildings  
Stress waves generated by blasting cause a displacement of the ground, which is expressed in the form of periodic and non-stationary fluctuations. When stress waves hit a building, some of the energy in the ground is transferred to the building's foundation. The concentration of vibrations can lead to permanent foundation settlement and partial failure of the building's construction elements. Vibrations are seismic waves that travel through a material, and seismic waves caused by blasting are usually referred to as vibrations, shocks, or blast-induced vibrations. There are three types of seismic waves generated by blasting:  
* Pressure waves that produce oscillating compressive stress and shear stress--these stresses are propagated in the wave direction. In rock masses, pressure waves propagate both through the mineral structure and through the pores, which is why the pressure wave velocity is increased in a saturated hard rock. * Shear waves oscillating perpendicular to the wave direction propagate only through the mineral structure, therefore, water saturation only has a small influence on the velocity of the shear waves. The energy of shear waves is less easily transmitted through rock mass in comparison to the energy of primary waves. * Surface waves. The result of blasting depends more on the properties of the rock than on the explosives used to break the rock. These properties are tensile and compressive strength, density,and seismic velocity. High-density rock is generally more difficult to blast than lower-density rock. Cracks, fissures, and other weak zones also influence seismic waves. The properties of various types of rock are shown in Table 1[19]. However, these properties apply to intact rock, which must be reduced due to the properties of joints in a rock mass. Therefore, several empirical equations have been developed to estimate the value of an isotropic rock mass deformation modulus. The most important classification systems for the characterization of rock mass are the Geological Strength Index (GSI) [20], the Rock Mass Rating (RMR) [21], and the Tunneling Quality Index (Q) [22]. Several studies have related pressure wave velocity (\(V_{p}\)) with mechanical and physical properties such as stiffness, strength and density of rock mass [23]. The \(V_{p}\) for elastic and isotropic media is calculated with Equation (1) [24]:  
\[V_{p}=\sqrt{\frac{K_{b}+\frac{4}{3}\cdot G}{\rho}} \tag{1}\]  
where \(K_{b}\) is the bulk modulus, \(G\) is the shear modulus, and \(\rho\) is the bulk density. The summary of relationship between pressure wave velocity with density and uniaxial compressive strength was presented by [PERSON] [25]. Blasting is a demanding and exact form of engineering, which is why proper planning is required. This includes the following:  
* Choosing the depth, spacing, and geometry of blast holes;
* Choosing the type and optimal amount of explosives;
* Choosing the maximum quantity of charge per initiation interval. In the vicinity of listed and historic buildings, any necessary blasting should be carried out by a series of small chain explosions. In this way, the effects of vibrations on buildings can be kept to a minimum. If the blasting procedure is correctly designed, most of the energy will be absorbed in the blast field. Since there are several ways in which a building can vibrate due to the effect of surface waves, it is desirable that the vibration components in the three principal directions are measured simultaneously in order to make the accurate assessment possible. The concept of maximum resultant motion is widely used. The information on the vibration levels required for damage is contained in several standards, such as the standard DIN 4150 Vibrations in Buildings [26], the SN 640 312a standard on the vibration effects on buildings [27], and the USBM RI 8507 code/guideline/ recommendations.