## 5 Fraud Risk Management in the Honey Sector--The VACCP Approach and Innovative Technologies  
The effective prevention of honey fraud requires not only modern analytical tools but also well-designed risk management systems. Critical here are systems like HACCP (Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points), which focus on identifying and controlling health hazards throughout the supply chain, as well as VACCP (Vulnerability Assessment and Critical Control Points) and TACCP (Threat Assessment and Critical Control Points). These extend the HACCP concept by including the assessment of economic, reputational, and intentional threats. VACCP focuses on identifying and minimizing the risk of economic and reputational fraud, taking into account the integrity of the supply chain, while TACCP is primarily concerned with protection against intentional acts such as sabotage or terrorism. These systems have been adopted in many international standards, such as BRCGS (British Retail Consortium Global Standard), IFS Food (International Featured Stand-ards Food), and FSSC 22000 (Food Safety System Certification), which integrate HACCP, VACCP, and TACCP into comprehensive food safety management systems [3,11,26]. The potential for integrating advanced digital technologies, such as artificial intelligence (AI) and predictive analytics, with the VACCP approach is discussed further in this section, with a focus on increasing the operational resilience of the honey sector against fraudulent practices. The implementation of the VACCP system constitutes a targeted response to the in-creasing scale of food fraud, affecting high-risk commodities, such as olive oil, meat, fish, spices, and honey. According to data published by FoodChain ID, these products represent some of the most frequently adulterated food categories, highlighting the critical need for robust vulnerability assessment and mitigation systems [70,71]. In countries such as Italy, Spain, and France, sector-specific VACCP guidelines have been developed, providing structured threat scenarios and preventive control measures, as emphasized in the FoodDrinkEurope recommendations [72]. Similar strategies have been adopted at the national level, an illustrative example being the United Kingdom, where the National Food Crime Unit (NFCU) operates as a dedicated agency responsible for detecting and counteracting food-related criminal activities [73]. An essential element supporting risk evaluation in this context is the use of analytical tools such as the Food Fraud Database, which compiles detailed records of documented fraud incidents. This resource facilitates the identification of vulnerability hotspots within the food supply chain, thereby enhancing the effectiveness of preventive strategies implemented by food business operators [74]. The effectiveness of the VACCP system depends largely on its alignment with the specific risks of a given sector. In the honey industry, this includes challenges such as the globalization of supply chains, a large number of intermediaries, and the difficulty of detecting certain types of fraud, such as blending honeys with similar chemical profiles [5,11,75]. Given these challenges, a process-oriented approach based on data triangulation, including chemical, palynological, documentary, and external data, is recommended [13,76]. The VACCP vulnerability assessment process typically includes six key steps: (1) gathering information on the product and supply chain; (2) identifying potential authenticity threats; (3) assessing vulnerability to fraud; (4) prioritizing identified risks; (5) defining preventive and corrective actions; and (6) conducting periodic system reviews to evaluate effectiveness [3,26,77]. In practice, tools such as checklists, risk matrices, and scoring systems are widely used in the assessment of food fraud vulnerability. However, there is a risk that these tools may be overly generic, which limits their effectiveness in sectors characterized by highly specific risks, such as the apicultural industry [78].