# Physico-Chemical and Melissopalynological Characterization of Czech Honey
## 3 Results and Discussion
### Physico-Chemical Characterization of Czech Honey
A statistically significant difference between honeys was confirmed, as the fructose content was lower in HD compared to BH, FH, PH and RH (\(p<0.05\)). This finding is in line with [32] and confirms the possibility of using this carbohydrate for honey classification. Another important carbohydrate is glucose (Figure 2). Compared to European honeys, the fructose content was slightly higher for HD, LH, and RH, and slightly lower for BH. The glucose content was highest in BH, which differed statistically significantly from all other Czech honeys (\(p<0.05\)). Differences between PH and HD were further confirmed for Czech honeys. The sum of F + G and F/G ratio (fructose to glucose ratio) are also used for honey characterization purposes. The sum of reducing honey sugars of F + G is important especially as an indicator of the addition or occurrence of other carbohydrates, and must not fall below 60 g/100 g for blossom honey and below 45 g/100 g for honeydew honey and blends of honeydew [27]. The F/G ratio is used as an indicator of the crystallization rate [34]. These parameters can also be used for honey classification. Compared to European honeys, F + G in Czech honeys was slightly higher for HD and slightly lower for BH, RH, and TH (Figure 2). Differences between Czech honeys were also confirmed for this parameter. HD was statistically significantly different from other honeys (\(p<0.05\)). Compared to European honeys, the F/G ratio in Czech honeys was higher for BH, RH, and HD, and slightly lower for LH (Figure 2). Within Czech honeys, a statistically significant difference between BH and all other honeys was confirmed, and there were also differences between HD, LH, RH and TH, and BH, FH and PH honeys (\(p<0.05\)). Sucrose is a carbohydrate that occurs naturally in small amounts in honey. For Czech honeys, the content was up to 1 g/100 g (min. 0.1, max. 0.8 g/100 g). EU legislation allows a maximum of 5 g/100 g for honey or 10 g/100 g for _Robinia pseudoacacia_, _Medicago sativa_ and other sucrose-rich species that are not produced in the Czech Republic. The highest permissible content is for lavernder honeys and borage honeys (Borago officinalis), where a maximum of 15 g/100 g is allowed. There was a statistically significant difference in Czech honeys between TH and other honeys. The sucrose content in TH was 0.9 g/100 g, where a higher value is attributed to botanical relationships (_Fabacae_) in _Trifolium_ (_Trifolium_ species) and _Medicago sativa_ ( alfalfa), where a higher sucrose content is described. In addition to monosaccharides and sucrose, honey also contains other disaccharides and trisaccharides [35]. With regard to the connection of these carbohydrates to the origin of honey, disaccharides (maltto, melibiose, turnanose, trehalose) and trisaccharides (maltotriose, meleitose) were analysed in our study (Table 2). These carbohydrates were not detected in all samples. Therefore, we also provide the number of occurrences for individual carbohydrates. Separate groups of honeys did not differ significantly in the content of maltose (\(n=317\)), and the total content was below 8 g/100 g. Melibiose was present in honey in small amounts (\(n=4\)), and in most honey samples it was below the detection limit of the method used. Melibiose has not been confirmed at all in BH, FH, PH, LH, or RH. It was confirmed at low concentrations in HD (0.02 g/100 g, \(n=3\)) and TH (0.01 g/100 g, \(n=1\)). Another disaccharide confirmed in Czech honeys was turnanose (\(n=315\)), where the total content was below 5 g/100 g. Higher amounts were confirmed in HD, LH, RH, and TH honeys compared to BH and FH. Among these groups, there was no statistically significant difference confirmed (\(p<0.05\)). Trehalose was also confirmed in Czech honeys (\(n=266\)), but the total content was below 3 g/100 g. A significant difference was confirmed between BH, FH, PH, LH, and HD. Of the confirmed trisaccharides, the content of Melezitose was higher (max. 14 g/100 g, \(n=194\)) compared to Maltotriose (max. 1 g/100 g, \(n=64\)).