# Current Promising Strategies against Antibiotic-Resistant Bacterial Infections
## 1 Introduction  
Since the discovery of penicillin, the first antibiotic, by [PERSON] in 1928, bacterial infectious diseases have ceased to be the leading cause of death worldwide, and the average human life expectancy has almost doubled [1]. However, antibiotic resistance has quickly emerged in numerous clinical bacteria, compromising the initially overwhelming effectiveness of antibiotics. Furthermore, the overuse and misuse of antibiotics have exacerbated this problem of resistance. In 2017, the World Health Organization published a list of twelve bacteria that were of concern as they were all resistant to a notable number of currently marketed antibiotics [2]. These bacteria included the following: _Acintebacter baumaniii_ (carbapenem-resistant), _Pseudomonas aeruginosa_ (carbapenem-resistant), _Enterobacteriaceae_ (carbapenem-resistant, extended-spectrum \(\beta\)-lactamase), _Enterococcus fieeium_ (vancomycin-resistant), _Staphylococcus aureus_ (methicillin-resistant), _Helicobacter pylori_ (clairithromycin-resistant), _Campylobacter_ spp. (fluoroquinolone-resistant); _Salmonellae_ (fluoroquinoline-resistant) and _La Neisseria gonorrhoeae_ (cephalosporin-resistant, fluoroquinoline-resistant), _Streptococcus pneumoniae_ (penicillin-non-susceptible), _Haemophilus influenzae_ (ampicillin-resistant), and _Shigella_ spp. (fluoroquinoline-resistant). Six of these are common nosocomial pathogens (_E. ficeium, S. aureus, Klebsiella pneumoniae, A. baumaniii, P. aeruginosa_, and _Enterobacter_ spp., termed ESKAPE) that often escape the lethal action of antibiotics, as highlighted by the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA) as representative paradigms of pathogenesis, transmission, and resistance [3].  
Antibiotic and antimicrobial stewardship is indispensable for combating antibiotic resistance. Netherlands and Sweden, where antibiotic stewardship has been applied in the outpatient setting, are the countries that have the lowest rates of antibiotic resistance in Europe [4]. In England, the reduction in antibiotic prescriptions has greatly attenuated an already increasing incidence of antimicrobial resistance in the subsequently identified _E. coli_ bloodstream infections [5]. A systematic review reported that ASPs (antibiotic stewardshipprograms) could reduce the use of antibiotics, antibiotic costs, treatment duration, and local antibiotic resistance rate without adversely affecting the mortality of patients who require ICU [6]. However, certain limitations still exist that hinder the accurate implementation of antibiotic stewardship. In fear of inadequate coverage of the causative pathogen, physicians empirically prescribe broad-spectrum antibiotics to their patients. As a result, this treatment usually lasts too long or is too broad [7]. Moreover, the high management cost and the patient's unwillingness to pay hospitalization expenses limit the applicability of antibiotic stewardship in low- and middle-income countries [4].  
Many scientists worldwide are now focusing on the development of solutions to combat antibiotic-resistant bacteria (ARB) as a means to prevent the situation of effective antibiotics from becoming clinically unavailable in the future. This review discusses the recent advances in strategies to combat the emergence of ARB based on the literature reporting meritorious chemical, microbiological, and immunological techniques (Figure 1).