## 8 Remediation Strategies and Methods
### Physical Remediation Methods  
Physical methods utilize filtration, sedimentation, magnetic separation, ultrasonic treatments, coagulation, and their combinations with different materials like graphene-based filters, where these methods may have limitations in eliminating all types of plastic particles [224; 225; 226]. Membrane filtration methods are used in secondary or tertiary treatment of WW and utilize methods with different pore sizes such as ultrafiltration, nanofiltration, reverse osmosis and membrane bioreactor. Removal of MPs depends on some parameters such as shape, size, and mass of plastic particles. Briefly, reverse osmosis (RO) is a widely used membrane filtration technique that applies pressure (10-100 bar) to force water molecules through a semi-permeable membrane, effectively removing MPs based on their size and weight [227]. Compared to other filtration methods, RO is particularly used for desalination, removal of heavy metals, and other impurities. Therefore, this method is generally used in water filtration [180; 181]. Ultrafiltration  
\begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c c c} \hline \hline
**Material \({}^{\star}\)** & \begin{tabular}{c} **Type of** \\ **Remediation** \\ \end{tabular}  & **Used Techniques** & **Refs. ** \\ \hline PE & Physical & Fe-Based Cagulation and UF & [182] \\ MPs & Physical & RO and Nanofiliration & [183] \\ Fiber MPs & Physical & UF & [184] \\ MPs & Physical & RO & [185] \\ MPs & Physical & Dynamic Membrane & [186] \\ polyacrylamideamide & & Sedimentation and Coagulation & [187] \\ (PAM) & Physical & Primary Sedimentation & [179] \\ PET & Physical & Coagulation (FeCls, PAC) and Sedimentation & [188] \\ PS and PE & Physical & Coagulation with PAC and FeCl\({}_{3}\) & [189] \\ PET/weathered & & Coagulation with AICl\({}_{3}\) & [190] \\ PET and TC & Physical & Coagulation with AICl\({}_{3}\) & [190] \\ MPs & Physical & Pre-sedimentation, Coagulation, Flocculation, and Sedimentation, RSF & [191] \\ PE & Physical & Ultrasound Treatment & [192] \\ PET & Chemical & Photolysis & [193; 194] \\ PE, PS, PET, and & Chemical & UV Radiation & [195] \\ PVC & & TiO\({}_{3}\) Photocatalysts Under UV Illumination & [196] \\ EDPE & Chemical & (Pt)-Deposited ZnO Nanorods & [197] \\ PE & Chemical & Polypyrrole-Coated TiO, Catalysts Under Solar & [198] \\ PKC & Chemical & Reduction & [199] \\ PVC and PP & Chemical & Electron-Endic System with TiO\({}_{3}\)/C & [199] \\  & & Heterogeneous Photo-Fenton Degradation using ZnO & \\  & & Nanorods Cated with Oxide Layer and FeO & [200] \\  & & Nanoparticles & \\ PE, PS, PP, and & Chemical & & \\ PET & Chemical & & \\ Marine Plastics & Bioremediation & _Kocuria_ plants M16, _Rudoxoxoxoxoxoxox_ \$. 36, and _ Bacillus_ strains & [203] \\ PET & Bioremediation & _Iaconella sakaiensis_ 201-F6 strain & [204] \\ Thermost & Bioremediation & _Bacillus_, _Pseudomonas_, and _Micrococcus_ & [205; 206] \\ Polymers, PU & & Bioremediation &  
(UF) is another membrane filtration technique that operates in low-pressure (1-10 bar) and utilizes asymmetric pores between 1-100 nm [180]. This method allows the passage of water and smaller molecules while retaining MPs [223]. Nanofliltration (NF) technique lies between RO and UF in terms of pore characteristics and transport model [228]. It enables the separation of particles based on size and charge interactions. NF membranes have shown promising results in the removal of MPs (>0.005-0.02 \(\upmu\)m) by effectively rejecting particles of larger sizes while allowing the passage of smaller molecules [181]. The limitation of the filtration techniques is membrane fouling or contamination. Dynamic membrane (DM) technology is gaining popularity for WW treatment due to its affordability, easy maintenance, and low energy consumption [229]. Unlike traditional methods, DM utilizes the contaminants present in WW to form a filtration layer, eliminating the need for additional chemicals [230].