## 1 Introduction:  
Notwithstanding the Paris Agreement, a technological transient from a hydrocarbon-based economy to the post-petroleum era, there is less tangible projective evidence of declining fossil-fueled based economies all over the world. For instance, recent investigation into the projection period, conducted in 2017 by the U.S. Energy Information Administration [1], indicates that the demand for liquid fuels will increase from 95 to 113 million barrels per day. The proportion of the transportation demand to the petroleum demand and other liquid fuels has been predicted to increase from 54% to 56%, leading this sector to be the main topic of electrification [2]. Nevertheless, the electrification of the transportation sector with existing electrical infrastructure leads the power system to collapse. However, it can be prevented if electric vehicles are coordinated and scheduled for a proper charging time-period and rate. In addition, recent progress in harnessing renewable energy sources (RESs), and improving battery characteristics shows that it is possible to completely mitigate the impact of connecting a large fleet of electric vehicles (EVs) on the power system. The majority of scientists have reached a consensus on viable alternatives for fossil fuels, mainly wind and solar energy, which have relatively low generation costs as well as high generation potential, respectively. However, their fluctuations in output are a serious problem [3]. To alleviate the oscillations of renewable generation sources, the following four possible approaches have been proposed:1. Coupling renewable energy systems with different generation characteristics in wider distribution via the transmission grids;
2. Responding to the demand by adapting consumption patterns;
3. Employing fossil-fueled utilities as a traditional back-up (either for meeting peak demand or providing spinning reserve); and
4. Equipping the grid with storage devices such as compressed air storage, battery storage, and hydro pump storage. Nevertheless, these approaches suffer from different drawbacks and limitations. For instance, dealing with the uncertainties of the renewable energy sources with different characteristics that are subjected to their inherent dependency on the weather conditions is a challenging task. Concerning the second approach, adapting consumers' patterns would require a new infrastructure to control the consumers' equipment. Regarding the main drawback of the third solution, fossil-fueled utilities would increase the environmental concern, which is contradictory to the objective of the Paris Agreement. Moreover, electrical vehicles and electrical energy storage systems equipped with lithium-ion batteries assume important roles as both back-up supply systems and primary energy sources. Indeed, energy storage systems (ESS) and electrical vehicles can be used to manage the demand in response to severe times (e.g., when RESs have fluctuations and load exceeds generation). Therefore, ESSs and EVs (in vehicle-to-grid [V2G] services) have been considered as great candidates to provide regulation services for frequency fluctuation, voltage deviation, and ancillary services. However, EVs and ESSs whose V2G capability decreases because the battery performance degrades over time, decreasing both the energy and power capabilities as a result of the dynamic nonlinear nature of the electrochemical reactions, which are impacted by external states such as charge and discharge methods, usage, temperature, and the chemical makeup of the cell. In the meanwhile, battery technology is developing rapidly and battery cells with higher energy and power densities are becoming available. Hence, improving the performance of the battery management system (BMS) is an equally important task to make the battery reliable, safe, and cost-effective [4].