## 4 Layered Models
### Cognitive Layer  
The IoV and the IoFV cognitive layer is a key component in the implementation and planning of these networks. The cognitive layer has the task of providing the vehicles with the ability to perform complex tasks and to interact securely, efficiently, and intelligently with their environment and network [52]. In the context of the IoV, the cognitive layer can offer a range of services and functionalities that enable the vehicles to manage traffic, communicate with other vehicles and other objects, and utilize cooperative intelligent transportation systems (C-ITSs). The cognitive layer in the IoV can be presumed to be the layer that gives the underlying communication and control systems intelligence [53]. It also permits the vehicles to make rigorous decisions based on the information they receive from their surroundings. The cognitive layer in the IoFV has the responsibility for providing the vehicles the ability to communicate with one another and the infrastructure, as well as to make defensible decisions based on the information they gather from their surroundings. The cognitive layer, sometimes referred to as a cognitive radio [54], is likewise vital in the IoFV; however, it is primarily focused on providing the flying vehicles with the ability to sense and interact with their surroundings and the network in a safe and effective manner. Applications including collision avoidance, autonomous flight, and traffic management are frequently supported by this layer. The discussed layer provides flying vehicles with the ability to carry out enumerated tasks by providing them with the capability to sense their surroundings and the network's conditions and react to them in a secure and effective way [55]. This layer can be seen as a shared responsibility between the vehicles, infrastructure, and network. Vehicles feed sensor data and control signals to the layer; the infrastructure collects and shares environmental data to the layer and also enables the vehicles to communicate and cooperate with each other. Furthermore, the data from the network operation are processed in the cognitive layer to ensure a safe, efficient, and reliable network connection [56]. As such, this layer is vital for the further development of vehicular networks due to the fact that it allows the vehicles to perform advanced applications and interacts with the environment and network in a safe, efficient, and intelligent manner. Within the realm of the Internet of Vehicles (IoV), the cognitive layer plays a role in applications including traffic prediction, management adaptive routing, and decision making for autonomous vehicles. By leveraging real-time data from interconnected vehicles, the cognitive layer can analyze traffic patterns to predict congestion and dynamically adjust routes to optimize traffic flow [57]. Additionally, it enables maintenance by monitoring vehicle health data, thereby reducing downtime and improving operational efficiency [58]. In the domain of the Internet of Flying Vehicles (IoFV) the cognitive layer tackles challenges associated with mobility. It facilitates navigation, collision avoidance, and airspace management for drones and other flying vehicles [59]. Through algorithms, the cognitive layer ensures efficient flight paths by considering factors like weather conditions, airspace regulations, and the presence of other aerial vehicles [60]. This capability is crucial for integrating flying vehicles into environments to enable applications such as aerial deliveries, surveillance operations, and emergency response. In both the IoV and IoFV contexts alike, the cognitive layer also plays a role in communication protocols that enable intelligent vehicle-to-vehicle communication as well as interaction with infrastructure components. This communication is essential for synchronized decision-making processes and enhancing system resilience [61].