## 4 Comparative Analysis of AI Language Models Based on Scholarly Literature
### Comparative Analysis of AI Chatbots Using Mindmap  
Figure 6 provides a mindmap that summarises the Comparative Analysis of AI Chatbots collected from the 28 articles included in this study. The mindmap, which was developed using Whimsical [32], provides a structured summary of these studies in evaluating the performance, ethical considerations, and applications of the AI chatbots involved in this study.  
This comparative analysis highlights several key insights and findings across different domains as follows:  
**Ethical and Security Concerns:** One of the primary concerns addressed is the ethical implications and cybersecurity risks associated with the use of AI chatbots. Over-reliance and over-trust in these systems can lead to significant security vulnerabilities. Implementing robust ethical practices is suggested to mitigate these risks.  
**Performance in Various Fields:** The performance of AI chatbots varies across different fields. For example, in the Jeopardy Challenge, ChatGPT and Bard provided different answers to the same questions, thus demonstrating variability in their responses. In medical physiology, ChatGPT generated less difficult multiple choice questions compared to Bard. ChatGPT also excelled in providing coherent scientific writing but raised concerns about the accuracy and integrity of the generated text.  
**Specific AI Models:** This analysis included evaluations of specific AI models such as ChatDoctor (based on the Llama 7B model) and DRG-LLaMA. ChatDoctor demonstrated  
\begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c c c} \hline \hline
**Chatbots** & **Unique Features** & **Target Audiences** & \begin{tabular}{c} **Potential Future** \\ **Developments** \\ \end{tabular} \\ \hline ChatGPT & \begin{tabular}{c} Multiple choice questions, Jeopardy!, academic text, \\ patient education materials; tends to be an \\ absolutist; superior in academic and practical tasks \\ \end{tabular} & \begin{tabular}{c} Academic researchers, \\ students, educators \\ \end{tabular} & \
\begin{tabular}{c} Integration with educational \\ platforms, enhanced natural \\ language understanding \\ \end{tabular} \\ \hline \multirow{4}{*}{
\begin{tabular}{c} \multirow{2}{*}{\begin  
superior knowledge in medical terms, while DRG-LLaMA excelled in predicting diagnosis-related groups for hospitalised patients.  
**Academic Integrity:** AI chatbots present both opportunities and challenges for academic integrity. They can generate various content types, thus potentially leading to issues like plagiarism. An ethical approach is essential to address these challenges effectively.  
**Examination Performance:** ChatGPT 4.0 consistently outperformed other models in radiology and psychiatric licensing examinations, thus demonstrating superior accuracy and response times. It also achieved high scores in neurosurgery oral board preparations and nephrology board renewal standards.  
Figure 6: Composition of language models and chatbots Mindmap.  
**Knowledge Representation and Natural Language Processing:** Models like BERT and Llama 2 Chat showed promising results in enhancing natural language processing capabilities, thus furthering their applications in knowledge representation tasks.  
**Cooking and Recipe Management:** In practical applications such as cooking, Chat-GPT 4 excelled in recipe correction, time management, and presentation, thus showcasing its utility beyond traditional academic and clinical settings.  
**Impact on Higher Education:** The overall impact of AI chatbots on higher education was found to be significant, with ChatGPT leading in performance, while models like BingChat and Bard showed relatively lower effectiveness.  
These insights from the mindmap illustrate the diverse applications and varying performance levels of AI chatbots, thus emphasizing the need for ethical considerations and highlighting areas where these technologies excel or require improvement.