### UHI Effect in India  
One of the earliest observations of the UHI effect in Indian cities was conducted in the 1960s-1980s at Pune, Bombay, Calcutta, Visakhapatnam, and Delhi, using meteorological networks and mobile surveys that established the existence of warm and cold pools [40]. The study implied that the strength, size, and shape of these warm and cold pockets varied based on topography, urban morphology, proximity to water bodies, prevailing season, wind speed, and direction. The horizontal structure of Pune based on a mobile survey of dry and wet bulb temperature data indicated that at night, the core of the city appeared as hot and humid, while in daytime, as hot and dry islands [41]. A study on the heterogenous cooling rates between the urban and adjacent suburban region and its effect on the UHIin Thiruvananthapuram city in peninsular South India revealed a significant difference in cooling rates of 1.5 \({}^{\circ}\)C/h in city centers and 3.4 \({}^{\circ}\)C/h in rural areas [42]. The nearby city of Kochi, one of the fastest-growing urban centers, exhibited a heat island intensity of 2.2 \({}^{\circ}\)C and 2.8 \({}^{\circ}\)C during summer and winter, respectively, in 2011 [43]. The moderate intensity of UHI was inferred to be the effect of wetlands. Measurements conducted throughout June, July and August 2013 to examine the intra-city temperature fluctuations in Guwahati revealed the presence of UHI with a temperature difference exceeding 2 \({}^{\circ}\)C [44]. Several similar UHI studies were carried out for south Indian cities such as Bangalore, Mumbai, Hyderabad, and Chennai [45; 46; 47; 48; 49; 50; 51]. The LST study over Patna city revealed that the urban built-up area doubled in the past 25 years, and the mean surface temperature rose by 2.5 \({}^{\circ}\)C for January and February for the years 1989, 1993, 2003, 2005, 2010, and 2014 [52; 53]. Studies found that the heat island effects in Delhi were dominant in built-up areas, with greater intensity during afternoon and night hours. There exists a high correlation between land use-land cover (LULC) categories and UHI intensities. A peak UHI intensity with maximum hourly magnitude peaking at 10.7 \({}^{\circ}\)C and an average daily maximum UHI reaching 8.3 \({}^{\circ}\)C were found in densely built-up regions. This maximum and average UHI intensity is similar to that of other global metropolises such as London, Tokyo and Beijing [7; 54; 55]. An effort was undertaken to employ an anomaly-based method to assess UHI intensities on a seasonal and annual basis in Delhi for the period 2010-2011, utilizing Landsat TM data. The results revealed that the highest and lowest seasonal UHI intensities were in summer (16.7 \({}^{\circ}\)C) and winter (7.4 \({}^{\circ}\)C) [56]. The UHI intensity over different cities of Bihar considering two different years, 2004 and 2012, using nighttime land surface temperature MODIS satellite [57] datasets, and for the years 2001 to 2014 [58], revealed stronger UHI intensity during winter months and a significant relationship between urban size and UHI intensity. A UHI study in the city of Varanasi based on the land use-land cover pattern of Landsat 8, emphasized the influence of impervious surface and green cover on surface temperature [59]. The heat island effect along the riverside cities over the Gangetic Plains was also investigated using Terra-MODIS satellite data [58; 60; 61]. They found that moderate to heavy loading of PM2.5 (particulate matter) lead to a decrease in SUHI. SUHI development and its relationship with normalized difference built-up index (NDBI) changes in Prayagraj, India, were examined using seasonal Landsat images from 1987 to 2018. An analysis of NDBI dynamics indicated that the built-up areas maintained a higher surface temperature by 1.8-3.9 \({}^{\circ}\)C compared with other parts of the urban area.