## 1 Introduction  
Agriculture is constantly changing and progressing, and a fundamental factor shaping the direction and effectiveness of these changes is biodiversity [1, 2]. However, the unquestionable productive success of industrial agriculture (which began in the 18 th century), directed solely at economic purposes, has pushed the limits of reproduction and the sustainability of the natural environment [3]. Consequently, the prospect of the growing demand for food due to demographic growth and increasing environmental and climate problems is one of the most critical challenges of the 21 st century [4, 5, 6]. Global anthropopressure is an inevitable consequence of the development of civilization. However, the strength and extent of this challenge can be corrected by making the right decisions, taking into account both economic and environmental welfare aspects [7]. The need to transform conventional agriculture towards sustainable agriculture has become a priority objective of the European Union's agricultural policy. Restrictive reduction in pesticide use, a strategic element in determining crop yields, necessitates the search for alternative methods in agricultural production [4, 5, 8]. Among the pro-ecological farming practices that increase crop production potential is crop rotation [9, 10]. A planned crop rotation system that varies year to year creates a diverse soil with balanced nutrient cycling and good structure. In addition, a properly implemented crop rotation can eliminate or reduce the appearance of diseases, pests, and weeds without the use of mineral fertilisers and pesticides. This ensures high yields and the resilience of agricultural ecosystems [9].  
It is important to carefully select the crops that will follow each other to ensure successful crop rotation. This decision significantly affects the outcome of the rotation [8, 11]. The potato is an essential component of global food security [12, 13, 14, 15]. Due to its versatile use, the potato is one of the most important food crops in the world, cultivated in 150 countries (over 20 million hectares) [12, 16]. In recent years, the cultivation of potatoes in Europe has become less profitable due to climate change and high storage costs. As a result, the average dedicated to potato cultivation has decreased. However, the potato can nevertheless be an important alternative to agricultural landscapes impoverished by cereal monocultures, as its cultivation leaves weed-free soil, rich in nutrients. This makes potato cultivation a good forecrop for following crops and is the basis for a rational crop rotation [15, 16, 17].  
Changes in the natural environment are assessed by analyzing the responses of living organisms [18, 19]. A model group used to understand the functioning and direction of ongoing changes in agricultural ecosystems is ground beetles (Coleoptera, Carabidae). These insects are both predators of crop pests and effective bioindicators [20, 21, 22, 23, 24].  
This study aimed to evaluate the impact of pesticide use on the ground beetle assemblages in potato crops grown under a four-year crop rotation system.  
The following hypotheses were tested: (i) ground beetle abundance and species richness are lower in chemically protected fields due to increased habitat disturbance and reduced food availability, and (ii) the use of chemical plant protection reduces the abundance of larger carnivores, which require more prey and are more sensitive to disturbance; macropterous species, which tend to colonize disturbed habitats; and autumn-breeding species, whose larvae are exposed longer to chemically treated soils.