## 1 Introduction
At the end of July 2019, the centre of Portugal was again struck by major fires. The municipalities of Vila de Rei (Castelo Branco district) and Macao (Santarem district) were particularly affected by the fire of 20 July 2019, destroying 9249 ha of forest [22]. This burnt area bordered with Serta (Castelo Branco district), where a big wildfire occurred on 23 July 2017. Table 1 summarizes the largest and most severe wildfires that occurred in mainland Portugal from 1986 to 2019. \begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c c c} \hline
**Date of Wildfire** & **Burnt Area [ha]** & **Municipality (DISTRICT)** & **Source of Data** \\ \hline July, 1986 & 10,032 & Vila de Rei (CastELO BRANCO) & [18] \\ September, 1987 & 10,013 & Aragnil, Oliveira do Hospital (COIMBRA) & [18] \\ August, 1992 & 12,814 & Aragnil (COIMBRA) & [18] \\  & & Oleiros, Proenca-a-Nova, Serta, Vila de Rei (CASTELO \\ August, 2003 & \textgreater{}20,000 & BRANCO); Alter do Chao, Crato, Gaviao, Nisa, Ponte de Sor & [18] \\  & & (PORTALEGRE); Chamusca, Macao (SANTAREM) & \\ August, 2003 & \textgreater{}66,000 & Odemira (BEJA); Aljezur, Monchique, Portimao, Silves (FARO) & [18] \\ July, 2004 & 27,452 & Almodovar (BEJA); Loule, Tavira, São Bras de Alportel (FARO) & [18] \\  & & Aragnil, Oliveira do Hospital, Pampilhoosa da Serra \\ July, 2005 & 15,837 & (COIMBRA); Seia (GUARDA); Coviilla, Fundao (CASTELO \\  & & BRANCO) & [18] \\ August, 2005 & \textgreater{}11,000 & Arouca, Vale de Cambra (AVEIRO) & [18] \\ August, 2005 & \textgreater{}12,000 & Pombal (LEIRIA); Ourém (SANTAREM) & [18] \\ August, 2005 & \textgreater{}12,000 & Pampilhosa da Serra (COIMBRA) & [18] \\ \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table} 
Table 1: List of major wildfires in mainland Portugal from 1986 to 2019. The 2019 wildfire in Macao basically burnt the entire remaining unaffected forested area. According to the map presented by the European Forest Fire Information System (EFFIS), and with information provided by the ICNF [19; 22], approximately 90% of the Macao municipality burnt between 2017 and 2019. Municipalities in deeper central Portugal, but particularly the municipality of Macao, have suffered from major fires in the last three decades. This reflects drastic changes in landscape caused by the collapse of the agrosilvopastoral system [26]. In the 1950s, this territory was characterized by the intensive use of viable lands for agriculture and herding. There was also intensive use of shrubbery to fertilize the land, and as flooring material for cattle pens. Basically, only hilly areas were left for forestry. Since then, new generations from deep central Portugal sought different forms of economic subsistence. As they moved to the large cities of Portugal or emigrated, those agricultural lands gave way to highly combustible forest species, such as _Eucalyptus globulus_ Labill. and _Pinus pinaster_ Ait. [14; 26]. This has contributed to the strong susceptibility of those territories to large wildfires. Macao is important for its archaeological heritage, ecological, economic, and therapeutic value. In the Ocreza River valley, southwest of the municipality, an outdoor rock art complex of engravings from between the Palaeolithic and the Bronze Age can be found [27]. The high temperatures caused by the wildfires severely affect some of the rock figures, causing cracks and detachments [28]. Macao is also crossed by the Tejo River, and both rivers are habitat of the Iberian Barbel (_Luciobarbus boacgei_), which is particularly affected by ash transported to rivers [29]. The hydromineral system of Ladeira de Envendos, located in the parish of Envendos (Macao), is a source of mineral water (bottled and supplied nationwide), and a thermal installation for thermal-therapeutic purposes (thermal baths with hydrotherapy). Wildfires negatively impact the runoff, infiltration, and groundwater-recharge processes, thereby affecting the chemical composition of surface water and groundwater [30].