###### Abstract  
Peripheral nerve injury is a common medical condition that has a great impact on patient quality of life. Currently, surgical management is considered to be a gold standard first-line treatment; however, is often not successful and requires further surgical procedures. Commercially available FDA- and CE-approved decellularized nerve conduits offer considerable benefits to patients suffering from a completely transected nerve but they fail to support neural regeneration in gaps > 30 mm. To address this unmet clinical need, current research is focused on biomaterial-based therapies to regenerate dysfunctional neural tissues, specifically damaged peripheral nerve, and spinal cord. Recently, attention has been paid to the capability of graphene-based materials (GBMs) to develop bifunctional scaffolds for promoting nerve regeneration, often via supporting enhanced neural differentiation. The unique features of GBMs have been applied to fabricate an electroactive conductive surface in order to direct stem cells and improve neural proliferation and differentiation. The use of GBMs for nerve tissue engineering (NTE) is considered an emerging technology bringing hope to peripheral nerve injury repair, with some products already in preclinical stages. This review assesses the last six years of research in the field of GBMs application in NTE, focusing on the fabrication and effects of GBMs for neurogenesis in various scaffold forms, including electrospun fibres, films, hydrogels, foams, 3D printing, and bioprinting. graphene-based materials; nervous system; nerve tissue engineering; nerve proliferation; nerve differentiation; surgery; plastic surgery; regenerative medicine; biomedicine; functionalized graphene oxide; drug delivery; spinal cord injury +
Footnote †: journal: Biomediciines  
restricted, particularly in long-gap injuries. Following injury, the axonal membrane breaks apart, causing degradation of the myelin sheath and infiltration of macrophages; within the site of degeneration, the macrophages clear the debris where axonal regeneration should start. Schwann cells are the main glial cells in the nervous system and the PNS, providing a pathway for axonal regeneration and remyelination [7]. Schwann cells are available in PNS and play a critical role when an injury occurs, responding to trauma by detaching the myelin sheath and phagocytosis debris, encouraging cellular proliferation, and releasing further cytokines to continue to recruit inflammatory cells to the damaged area [8; 9]. The mature myelinating Schwann cells dedifferentiate by regaining the expression pattern related to immature Schwann cells, proliferate, and then redifferentiate, which induces nerve repair (Figure 2) [10]. On the contrary, due to the lack of Schwann cells in the CNS, the clinical treatments for CNS injuries are ineffective [1]. There are different types of nerve injury with various factors involved, creating a challenge against 'one size fits all' conventional treatment and promoting precision treatment tailored for the injury suffered by each patient. Several strategies offer potential treatment for neural disorders, including anti-inflammatory (M2) medications, physiotherapy, nerve grafting, and rehabilitation. Among these methods, autologous superficial cutaneous nerves are known as the gold standard for bridging the nerve gap (>30 mm); however, there are several drawbacks, including major surgical risks, autologous graft rejection, infection, donor shortage, and the likelihood of further surgeries [11]. Tissue engineering (TE) proposes a promising alternative approach to overcome the existing challenges in tissue regeneration [12; 13; 14]. To successfully achieve neural regeneration, various factors, including topographical, chemical, mechanical, and electrical cues, should be considered. There have been ongoing attempts to develop biomaterial-based therapies to regenerate dysfunctional neural tissues, primarily for a damaged PNS and spinal cord [15; 16].