## 4 IoT Deployment Opportunities in Developing Countries  
There are potential business-to-consumer (B2C) and business-to-business (B2B) opportunities of using LPWAN IoT technologies in developing countries, as shown in Figure 1. For example, the digital transformation of the farming sector in developing countries will ensure food security for the increasing population, and may increase the gross domes  
Figure 1: IoT deployment opportunities in developing countries. tic product (GDP) and return on investment (ROI) [26; 27] as well as support aspects of investment decision making through intelligent computing and big data analytics [28]. Other opportunities include improved security monitoring, increased productivity, quality control, transportation and supply chain optimisation. A well-established GSM and LTE cellular infrastructure could enable IoT to be more widely deployed in developing countries. In LTE and 5G, a 3 GPP-standardised machine-to-machine (M2M) IoT solution can be relied on to deliver more bandwidth and device connection density per cell at lower latency. LoRa is also standardised, although perhaps to a lesser extent, towards co-existing with 4G and 5G ecosystems for IoT applications [29]. The requirements of massive, broadband and critical IoT applications can be met by different aspects of LPWAN technologies. Generally, massive IoT applications are delay-tolerant infrequent IoT devices of small data volumes used in challenging network connectivity and energy supply environments. Examples include smart metering and asset management where network roaming, extended coverage, and long battery life capabilities are required to reach all assets seamlessly. EC-GSM-IoT, NB-IoT, and LTE-M are the 3 GPP-standardised protocols that meet the requirements of low-complexity IoT devices through GSM and LTE enhancements. This is the IoT application segment where the unlicensed LPWANs are also applicable. Broadband IoT technology supports high-throughput IoT devices that deliver large data volumes at low latency based on mobile broadband MTC. The broadband IoT segment relies on pure LTE device capabilities to offer better performance than massive IoT. LTE-based IoT devices often support multiple antennae, carrier aggregation, scheduling mechanisms, spectral efficiency, and as a result can operate in extended coverage and power-saving mode. Examples include drones and wearables that require real-time operation and control. 5G NR broadband IoT will offer additional capabilities that can improve bandwidth and throughput mechanisms such as ultra-short duration transmission and retransmission, seamless base station handover, transmission diversity, and improved link budget and adaptation [30]. Frequencies greater than 6 GHz have extremely low latency, limited coverage and are suitable for local area services with high capacity and ultra-high reliability demand. The disadvantage of high frequency is the cost due to additional radio resources needed to increase signal coverage; with higher frequencies being used, a denser distribution of cells is required in order to provide coverage, compared with lower frequencies. The mid bands ranging from 1 to 6 GHz are suitable for wide-area IoT services with extremely low latency and ultra-high reliability. Frequency bands as low as sub-1 GHz are also suitable for wide-area IoT applications but these devices must have limited capacity requirements, due to the reduced availability of spectrum in these bands. Critical IoT, on the other hand, is suitable for addressing the extreme IoT connectivity requirements of many applications of ultra-low latency, ultra-reliable, and very highly available IoT services. Examples of these use-cases include traffic control systems, smart grid automation, and automobile control which requires low latency (5-20 ms) [31] and high reliability (99.9999%) [32]. The automation segment covers industrial digital transformation supplemented by cellular networks.