# Evaluation of the Radiological and Chemical Risk for Public Health from Flour Sample Investigation
## 2 Materials and Methods  
### Sample Description  
Five samples for each type of flour (wholemeal, semolina, rice, coconut, almond, chestnut, Mallorcan wheat, oat, corn, rye, and pistachio) were analyzed in this study. Wholemeal flour is a powdered substance, a basic food ingredient derived from the stone grinding of the whole wheat grain. It has a dusty consistency and is aimed toward mixing with liquid and/or fatty ingredients (water, oil or eggs) to give rise to many doughs of typically Mediterranean origin, such as bread and pasta. The benefits for human health deriving from the use of this flour mainly consist of the reduction of cardiovascular risk and arteriosclerosis, overweightness and obesity, and diabetes risk, as well as anti-inflammatory action [21]. Semolina flour is produced by grinding durum wheat. It is typical of the southern regions of Italy, such as Puglia and Sicily, and other areas of the southern and eastern Mediterranean. Semolina flour is mainly used for the production of bread and pasta, but also for typical sweets. It can be used for biscuits and cakes, as well as pizzas and focaccias. It is rich in fibers, vitamins, and minerals, and has a relatively low glycemic index, thanks to the presence of complex carbohydrates. It also contains antioxidants, particularly beneficial in counteracting cellular aging. It is gluten-rich, though, and therefore not suitable for the diet of people with celiac disease [22,23]. Rice flour is obtained from the ground seeds of the _Oryza sativa_ plant, i.e., rice. It is one of the most-used alternative flours in gluten-free cuisine, being suitable for the preparation of many recipes. As an example, it is excellent in the dough of biscuits, cakes, pies, pizzas, bread, and home-made pasta, because despite having a poor aptitude for leavening, it gives a pleasant crispness. This flour is recommended for cardiovascular health, due to its very low fat and cholesterol content, and low sodium content as well. It can be part of the diet of hypertensive patients. Rice flour also provides a high content of minerals, such as calcium and iron compounds, and vitamins [24]. Coconut flour is the powder obtained by grinding dried coconut pulp. It is a fairly versatile ingredient, so it can be used for different preparations, taking into account its tendency to absorb a lot of liquids. This means that the dishes containing it are and remain  
Figure 1: Schematic block diagram. more humid than those made with other flours. For this reason, coconut flour is highly appreciated, especially in gluten-free cuisine, where the products tend to dry out very quickly. This kind of flour has several health benefits, since it is a rich source of fiber and protein, does not contain gluten, and has a low glycemic index [25]. Almond flour is a product easily obtained by grinding shelled and peeled almonds. It is used, as is, for the preparation of baked goods, especially sweets, or in combination with sugar for the preparation of the well-known almond and marzipan paste, rich ingredients of granita or artisanal ice cream, as well as malleable pastes for the decoration of cakes or biscuits. It is gluten-free, a source of vegetable protein, and contains magnesium and iron. It is also source of good fats, helps to reduce cholesterol, is a source of energy for the body, and has restorative properties [26]. Chestnut flour is the product of the drying and subsequent grinding of chestnuts. It is a very versatile ingredient, which can be useful for the preparation of both sweet and savory recipes. Beyond some traditional recipes, this flour is nowadays used quite rarely in the kitchen, while in the past it represented a staple food, replacing the fine wheat flour in poor cuisine. This flour is rich in proteins, fiber, and vitamins, and is useful for the intestinal bacterial flora and against cholesterol [27].