## 1 Introduction
Its growing importance in recent years has compelled educators to adapt to a medium that is increasingly present at all levels. ICTs have permeated different spheres of education, including assessment, which, in turn, have had to forego in many circumstances various traditional classroom techniques and instruments [24; 34]. Being able to do exams online has opened many possibilities, allowing for greater flexibility and de-centering the whole educational process [32; 35; 36]. Physical constraints disappear when evaluation can take place remotely from home [37; 38]. The new changes, however, have generated new problems related to the capacity that testing has of reflecting student learning, and thus of being a diagnostic tool of the teaching-learning process [38; 39]. Some studies have been tentatively exploring this issue [35; 40; 41; 42] and the results have shown that online assessment is possible according to current educational quality standards. However, more data needs to emerge on the characteristics of online assessment and its effectiveness in providing information on student learning. The widespread application of online assessments in most universities came with the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic. The online evaluation had been very isolated until that moment, but the crisis forced important steps to be taken and online assessment became the only method for students and degrees [43]. These advances must take place in combination with further consideration on the role of evaluation and how it shapes education reform, in order to ascertain whether online testing can also play this role [44; 45; 46]. In the Spanish university system, few institutions had even considered online exam-based evaluation prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, a position that closely reflected that of all major higher education organizations across the world [47]. Spring 2020, however, forced everyone to embrace remote learning almost immediately, accelerating a process that was perhaps foreseen, but not in the near future. This prompted a deluge of scientific research on this situation [48; 49; 50], but most of it focused on other educational aspects, or used provisional assessment data, without providing any comparative data from analogous evaluation conditions. According to [PERSON] et al. [51], most countries are migrating education to an online environment: around 89% of the World student population. The greatest caveat is the quality of evaluation and controlling for fraud, warranting electronic supervision tools that can offset these dangers, at least to a classroom standard [52]. The exceptional situation generated by the COVID-19 pandemic led the Alfonso X the Wise University to focus strongly on online exam-based assessment, making use of the _Respondus Monitor_ and _LockDown Browser_, both applications owned by _Respondus Inc._, Redmond, WA, USA [53]. This decision enabled the university to keep the evaluation calendar in all university degrees which had previously required on-site assessment. According to the authors, the combination of both _Respondus Monitor_ and _LockDown Browser_ enables students to take exams remotely while guaranteeing the integrity of the process [53]. The remote proctoring system has generated great controversy since its use has been extended in the university sector during the COVID-19 pandemic. For example, [PERSON] et al. [54] show in their study a summary of the arguments against institutional adoption of remote proctoring services with a focus on equity, an account of the decision to avoid remote proctoring on the University of Michigan. This software, once installed, activates the student's webcam and executes certain prior steps: a short recording of the user, a picture of the student and his ID, and a recording of the student's environment [53]. After this, the _Browser_ blocks the window in full screen, impeding toggling windows, copying, printing, or accessing other programs during the exam.