## 2 Soil and Water Conservation Programmes in Indonesia: Past, Present, and Future
During these years, the government-owned company managing forest resources in Java, PERHUTANI, collaborated with local farmers to launch an agroforestry programme in their concession area ([PERSON], 2018). The local farmers established a Community Agency for Forest Resources Management known as Lembaga Masyarakat Pengelola Number Daya Hutan (LMPSDH) to secure mutual advantages from the programme as a company. The agroforestry system was initially conducted in Malang, East Java, when the company began to plant pine trees for wood supplies. During the early period, farmers planted corn, coffee, and cassava in plant line spaces until the fifth year of establishment. This system was sustained for a long time by carefully selecting the combination of crop plants and tree species that would benefit the community economically and reduce soil erosion and sedimentation in agroforestry areas ([PERSON], 2018; [PERSON], 2018). In the 1980s, Indonesia's government and the US-ASEAN Watershed Management Project called UPSA (Natural Resources Conservation Effort) developed a big programme covering three main fields in the land use system: agricultural, animal husbandry, and fishery sectors. The programme was directed to more than just SWC; it was also set to support better agricultural production to achieve food self-sufficiency in the country. The dam construction in Kedungombo has been one of the well-known relics in Central Java until today. In 1983, the Directorate General of Forestry, originally under the auspices of the Ministry of Agriculture, moved apart and formed the new Ministry of Forestry. In 1984, the new Ministry of Forestry developed a watershed protection programme in 22 priority areas ([PERSON], 2018; [PERSON], 2018). As part of the reforestation and revegetation efforts in these areas, a list of fast-growing tree species was compiled for use in the programme. SWC technical activities were also implemented in production forests with the obligation to rehabilitate forest areas with low potential and plant TPN (temporary log yard) and TPK (permanent log yard) areas ([PERSON], 2018). Basically, SWC efforts can be carried out through vegetation (land and forest rehabilitation) and mechanical (terracing system agriculture and the construction of ponds or reservoirs) systems ([PERSON], 2018; [PERSON], 2018). During the 2015-2021 period, a realization of forest rehabilitation activities and the land reached an area of 1.26 million ha, with details per year presented in Table 1 ([PERSON], 2018). Another benchmark regarding progressive changes in SWC was in the 1990s when Indonesia joined the International Soil-Water Conservation Organization (ISCO). The organization was designated to advocate for the sustainable, productive, and efficient use of soil and water resources globally. Since then, SWC practically turned into an integral part of watershed management in Indonesia under the administration of the Ministry of \begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c c} \hline Year & Area (ha) & Cumulative Area (ha) \\ \hline
2015 & 200,452 & 200,452 \\
2016 & 198,346 & 398,797 \\
2017 & 200,990 & 599,776 \\
2018 & 188,630 & 787,603 \\
2019 & 395,169 & 995,253 \\
2020 & 112,419 & 1,108,226 \\
2021 & 151,073 & 1,259,299 \\ \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table} 
Table 1: Forest and land rehabilitation achievements in 2015–2021 ([PERSON], 2018). Forestry. Although watershed management was formerly considered nearly synonymous with SWC, it goes far beyond it today, comprising a variety of further activities that attempt to improve the living conditions of the people existing within the respective watershed area (e.g., building social infrastructures such as schools) [33]. After the fall of the New Order regime, the National Movement for Forest and Land Rehabilitation (GNRHL) was launched in 2003 with a target of planting 3,000,000 ha over five years of activities [20]. Even though it did not achieve its target, the movement became the pillar of forest and land area rehabilitation activities on a large scale, along with various community involvements.