## 3 Results and Discussion
### Health Risk Assessment
It is important to note that this study did not include certain hazardous substances, such as chromium (particularly Cr(VI)), which are known carcinogens associated with PM exposure [30]. Therefore, the calculated _ILCR_ values should be considered conservative estimates, as they are based on a limited set of monitored substances. Including additional carcinogens, such as Cr(VI), could lead to higher _ILCR_ values. The study by [PERSON] et al. [70] demonstrated that the calculated _ILCR_ value of 4.5 \(\times\) 10\({}^{-4}\) for metals contained in TSP for adults is primarily influenced by Cr(VI) (approximately 55%) and As (43%). The _ILCR_ value for this metalloid was found to be 1.9 \(\times\) 10\({}^{-4}\). The contributions from the other components (Pb, Ni, Co, and Cd) were found to be 3.8 \(\times\) 10\({}^{-7}\), 1.9 \(\times\) 10\({}^{-8}\), 5.2 \(\times\) 10\({}^{-6}\), and 9.6 \(\times\) 10\({}^{-8}\), respectively. Nevertheless, other factors can also influence and increase the risk of lung cancer, such as smoking, indoor emissions from burning solid fuels (coal and wood) in stoves, occupational exposure, or genetic factors of individuals [60]. [PERSON] et al. [125] suggest that the risk of developing cancer associated with inhaling PAHs via particulate matter through the oral and nasal pathways is negligible. However, [PERSON] et al. [119] demonstrated that the lifetime cumulative cancer risk is influenced almost equally by inhalation (33%), ingestion (31%), and dermal contact (37%). Further studies support the substantial contribution of oral and dermal exposure routes to cancer risk in both children and adults [125]. Therefore, neglecting these additional exposure pathways could lead to an underestimation of the overall health risk in this study. \begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c c c c c} \hline \hline \multicolumn{1}{c}{**Country, City**} & \multicolumn{2}{c}{**Compounds**} & \multicolumn{2}{c}{**Estimated**} & \multirow{2}{*}{**Reference**} \\  & & & & **Carcinogenic Risk** & \\ \hline China, & Male & & & 1.61 \(\times\) 10\({}^{-4}\) \(\div\) 8.11 \(\times\) 10\({}^{-4}\) & \\ Bengbu & Female & PM\({}_{10}\) & 16 EPA priority PAHs & 1.51 \(\times\) 10\({}^{-4}\) \(\div\) 7.59 \(\times\) 10\({}^{-4}\) & [114] \\ Children & & & & 3.98 \(\times\) 10\({}^{-5}\) \(\div\) 6.09 \(\times\) 10\({}^{-4}\) & \\ USA, & Worst case & & & 3.36 \(\times\) 10\({}^{-6}\) & \\ Los Angeles & Best case & & & 2.07 \(\times\) 10\({}^{-6}\) & \\ Greece & Worst case & PM\({}_{2.5}\) & PAHs and Ni, Cd, Pb, & 6.51 \(\times\) 10\({}^{-6}\) & \\ Thessaloniki & Best case & & As Cr(VI) & 4.02 \(\times\) 10\({}^{-6}\) & \\ Italy, Milan & Worst case & & & 14.92 \(\times\) 10\({}^{-6}\) & \\  & Best case & & & 12.11 \(\times\) 10\({}^{-6}\) & \\ Cyprus, Nicosia & Lifetime & PM\({}_{2.5}\) & PAHs & 2.55 \(\times\) 10\({}^{-7}\) & \\  & Children & & As, Cd, Co, Ni, Pb & 5.29 \(\times\) 10\({}^{-5}\) & \\ Iran, Zabol & Adult & TSP & Ni, Cr, Cd, Co, Pb & 4.5 \(\times\) 10\({}^{-4}\) & \\ Children & PM\({}_{2.5}\) & and As & 5.0 \(\times\) 10\({}^{-5}\) & [70] \\  & Adult & & 2.7 \(\times\) 10\({}^{-4}\) & \\ Belgrade, Serbia & Lifetime & PM\({}_{2.5}\) & PAHs & 5.77 \(\times\) 10\({}^{-5}\) \(\div\) 227 \(\times\) 10\({}^{-4}\) & [120] \\  & Smog episodes & PM\({}_{10}\) & B(a)P and As, Cd, Pb, & 1.13 \(\times\) 10\({}^{-5}\) & [121] \\ Poland & No smog episodes & & and Ni & 1.04 \(\times\) 10\({}^{-5}\) & [121] \\ Poland, Silesian & Heating season & PM\({}_{10}\) & B(a)P & 6.72 \(\times\) 10\({}^{-6}\)\(\div\)9.74 \(\times\) 10\({}^{-5}\) & [86] \\ Voivodeship & Non-heating season & PM\({}_{10}\) & PAHs and Ni, Cd, Pb, & 2.69 \(\times\) 10\({}^{-6}\) \(\div\) 1.02 \(\times\) 10\({}^{-5}\) & \\ Poland, & Male & PM\({}_{10}\) & As & 1.20 \(\times\) 10\({}^{-6}\) \(\div\) 4.87 \(\times\) 10\({}^{-6}\) & [This study] \\ Agglomerations & Female & & As & 1.20 \(\times\) 10\({}^{-6}\) \(\div\) 4.87 \(\times\) 10\({}^{-6}\) & \\ \hline \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table}