## 2 Literature Review and Hypothesis Development
### Cultural Differences in the TAM and Privacy  
The TAM has been widely applied to explain how individuals adopt and use technology across various contexts. The TAM posits that two primary factors--perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use--influence users' attitudes toward using a technology, which then shape their behavioral intentions to adopt the technology and ultimately predict actual usage behavior [34; 35]. Perceived usefulness refers to the extent to which a person believes that using a technology will enhance their job performance or personal productivity, while perceived ease of use refers to how effortless and uncomplicated the technology is to operate [36]. These cognitive assessments form the basis for users' affective evaluations and behavioral decisions regarding technology use. Although the TAM was originally developed in the U.S. and has been widely tested in Western contexts, it has also been applied in various cultural settings, including South Korea [34; 37]. For example, [PERSON] and colleagues [37] found that both perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use significantly influenced older South Korean adults' attitudes toward adopting smart healthcare wearables. These findings demonstrate the TAM's generalizability but also highlight the potential for cultural factors to shape the strength and nature of these relationships. Cultural values and norms can profoundly influence individuals' perceptions of technology adoption. Different cultures prioritize distinct values, goals, and social expectations, which may affect how individuals assess both the benefits and ease of using emerging technologies [7; 38; 39]. Cultural orientations influence communication styles, cognitive processes, and evaluations of risk or social acceptance, all of which may modify how the TAM's core constructs function across different societies [40]. For example, in highly individualistic societies like the United States, individuals may prioritize autonomy, personal benefit, and innovation when adopting new technology. In contrast, collectivist cultures such as South Korea may place more weight on group norms, social harmony, and conformity when evaluating technology adoption decisions. [PERSON] et al. [40] systematically reviewed cultural dimensions--such as individualism-collectivism, power distance, and uncertainty avoidance--in shaping technology adoption across cultures. Their review demonstrated that cultural values directly affect how people perceive the usefulness and ease of use of new technologies. In individualistic cultures, people are likely to focus on personal advantages and convenience, whereas in collectivist cultures, decisions may be influenced more strongly by group norms, social expectations, and authority figures. For example, social approval and conformity may serve as stronger predictors of technology adoption in collectivist cultures, potentially moderating the pathways proposed by the TAM. Similarly, [PERSON] and [PERSON] [41] extended this line of research by applying the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) to compare technology acceptance between the U.S. and China. They found that while performance expectancy (similar to perceived usefulness) and effort expectancy (similar to perceived ease of use) were significant predictors in both countries, social influence and facilitating conditions played a larger role in China's more collectivist culture. Their findings support the view that technology acceptance is not culturally neutral and that sociocultural factors must be considered when applying models like the TAM across diverse cultural contexts. [PERSON] et al. [42] provided further evidence by conducting a large-scale cross-cultural study across 20 countries, including the U.S. and South Korea. They argued that the TAM's universal validity may be overstated if cultural variations are not explicitly considered. Their study demonstrated that key TAM constructs--perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use--may carry different meanings and weight across cultures.