# Low Power Wide Area Network, Cognitive Radio and the Internet of Things: Potentials for Integration
## 3 Low Power Wide Area Network
### LPWAN Standards
#### IEEE Standards  
The IEEE has established two different standards, namely, 802.15.4 and 802.11 standards, designed to ensure range extension and reduction in the power consumption rates of LPWANs. Under the 802.15.4 standard lies the IEEE 802.15.4 k task group (TG) and the 802.15.4 g TG [44]. The 802.15.4 k option is designed for low energy critical infrastructure monitoring (LECIM) applications intended to operate in the ISM bands (sub-GHz and 2.4 GHz bands) [44]. They propose to use DSSS and FSK modulation techniques at the PHY layer to increase range and node scalability [45]. The MAC layer supports carrier sense multiple access with collision avoidance (CSMA/CA) and ALOHA with priority channel access (PCA) [28; 46]. The 802.15.4 k specifies power levels of about \(-\)130 dBm for base stations [47]. A transmitter power of 15 dBm is proposed in the 433 MHz spectrum. One technology currently complying with this standard is the Ingenu LPWAN technology [28; 46]. The IEEE 802.15.4 g standard is considered for low data rate wireless smart metering utility networks. This TG proposes to use FSK, OFDMA, and QPSK to improve data rate. Similar to 802.15.4 k, the IEEE 802.15.4 g standard is specified for use in the ISM (sub-GHz and 2.4 GHz) bands.  
The 802.11 wireless local area network (WLAN) standard is also considered for IoT applications. In particular, the IEEE 802.11 ah is designed to reduce power consumption rates and to extend the range of long-range low power (LRLP) systems [4; 14]. This standard proposes LPWAN operation in the ISM sub-GHz bands with an intention to provide longer range and lower power consumption rates as against other known WLAN standards such as ZigBee and Bluetooth. Consequently, the 802.11 ah is a favourable technology for IoT applications since it provides low power consumption rates comparable to Bluetooth with an added benefit of higher data rates and wider coverage range.  
\begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c c c c c} \hline \hline
**S/N** & **SDOs** & **Overview** & **Area of Focus** & **Compliant LPWAN** & **Number of Participating** \\  & & & & **Technologies** & **Members \& Organizations** \\ \hline
1 & IEEE 802.15.4 & Addresses protocol development and compatible interconnection for devices requiring low data, low power, low complexity and short range transmission & (1) PHY Layer consideration: OPSK, BPSK, ASK, CS, UWB, GPSK (2) MAC Protocol development (3) Security: Lookup procedures, security operations and header & Zigbee, Bluetooth, Wi-SUN, Sigfox, \(\sim\)216 (Corporate Members) \\ \hline
2 & ETSI & Developing LTN for long-range data transportation, long battery lifetime, high scalability and low throughput services & (1) Application areas such as smart metering  
European Telecommunications Standard Institute (ETSI)  
The ETSI is saddled with establishing bidirectional communication protocols in LPWAN technologies [4; 28]. They are striving to reduce the electromagnetic radiation levels of LPWAN technologies by reducing their payload sizes and ensuring transmission at low data rates. They propose different interfaces and protocols to support communication between end devices, base stations and network servers [48]. The ETSI refers to its LPWAN standard as low throughput networks (LTNs) [4; 28]. The LTN standard does not restrict LPWAN technologies to any particular modulation or access technique. Nevertheless, it supports provision for either ultra narrow band (UNB) or orthogonal sequence spread spectrum (OSSS) methods. With regards to IoT-based applications, the ETSI has published some standards including the standard on the technical characteristics for UNB short range devices (SRD), which operates in the UHF spectrum below 1 GHz, the standard on use-cases and system characteristics for LTN, and the standard on IPv6-based IoT. Some LPWAN developers such as Sigfox, Telensa, and Semtech are presently involved with ETSI in order to standardize their respective technologies.