## 1 Introduction  
Vehicle emissions, known to be a significant source of air pollution, can be classified into distinct categories: (1) combustion products of fuel, (2) products resulting from incomplete combustion, (3) unburned fuel and decomposition products, (4) combustion products of fuel additives, (5) combustion products of impurities, and (6) major air components chemically transformed within high-temperature combustion chambers [1, 2]. Emissions of PM\({}_{2.5}\) (Particulate Matter Less Than 2.5 \(\upmu\)m) from vehicles pose severe risks to human health and contribute to climate change due to their small size and complex physicochemical characteristics [3, 4]. Diesel vehicle exhaust has been designated as a carcinogen due to an increased incidence of lung cancer associated with exposure [1, 5]. While petroleum-based fuels such as gasoline and diesel theoretically produce only water vapor and carbon dioxide upon complete combustion, in reality, incomplete combustion leads to the emission of hazardous compounds. Hazardous substances predominantly compprise PM (particulate matter), NOx, polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), hydrocarbons (HCs), carbon dioxide (CO\({}_{2}\)), and aldehydes [6]. Among these, PM, PAHs, and HCs contribute to vehicle emissions. In addition, the proportion of carbon components in exhaust emissions is particularly high in PM\({}_{2.5}\)[2; 7; 8]. Table 1 presents the findings of previous studies investigating exhaust gas emissions from diesel and gasoline vehicles. These studies have consistently demonstrated that diesel vehicles emit higher levels of NOx compared with gasoline vehicles [9; 10; 11; 12; 13; 14; 15]. Furthermore, as emissions regulations were strengthened, carbon monoxide (CO) emissions exhibited a decreasing trend, with EURO4 > EURO5 > EURO6. [PERSON] et al. [16] conducted a chassis dynamometer test to examine the emission characteristics of HCs, CO, and NOx from vehicles using gasoline, diesel, and liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) fuels. The results revealed that gasoline, diesel, and LPG vehicles emitted 0.334 g/km, 0.267 g/km, and 0.304 g/km, respectively, when considering the total emissions comprising HC, CO, and NOx. Diesel vehicles emitted negligible amounts of HC, while LPG vehicles emitted 125% more HC compared with gasoline vehicles. Moreover, diesel vehicles exhibited the lowest CO emissions, while gasoline vehicles exhibited the highest. Notably, diesel and LPG vehicles emitted 523% and 100% more NOx, respectively, than gasoline vehicles, indicating the significant impact of fuel type on emissions. Previous studies have employed chassis dynamometer testing to comparatively analyze exhaust gas emissions during regulatory mode testing for each fuel type [17; 18]. Currently, the PM mass emitted as exhaust gas is regulated, but not in terms of emissions of harmful compounds present in PM [19]. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are products of incomplete combustion of organic matter and are ubiquitous in city air [20]. Due to its low vapor pressure, it is easily adsorbed on combustion emissions and airborne particles. Human exposure to PAHs is problematic because many PAHs are mutagenic and carcinogenic. PAHs are present in gasoline and diesel engine exhaust, cigarette and wood smoke, and emissions from natural gas and oil-fired burners. Vehicles are a major source of PAHs in the air in many cities worldwide. n-Alkanes are one of the most abundant classes of organic compounds identified in PM exhaust emissions [21]. Even when organic markers such as PAHs are present in trace amounts in the total mass of PM, they can have significant negative effects on human health. Therefore, quantifying emissions of unregulated trace pollutants from vehicles is a key aspect of controlling the health effects of PM pollution. Biodiversity loss can occur when excess nitrogen from NH\({}_{3}\) emissions is deposited in terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems through wet and dry deposition [22; 23]. As a result, it causes soil acidification and eutrophication of the aquatic environment.