The Preparation Phase of the 2023 Kahramanmaras (Turkey) Major Earthquakes from a Multidisciplinary and Comparative Perspective  
[PERSON]  
1 Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e VULanologia (INGV), 00143 Rome, Italy; [EMAIL_ADDRESS] (G.C. ); [EMAIL_ADDRESS] (M.C. ); [EMAIL_ADDRESS] (A.P. ); [EMAIL_ADDRESS] (S.D. ); [EMAIL_ADDRESS] (C.F. ); [EMAIL_ADDRESS] (D.S. ); [EMAIL_ADDRESS] (M.O. ); [PERSON](L.P.); siao.aquaquaquaquaqu  
Among co-seismic observations, the ionospheric perturbations (CIPs) are believed to have originated from shock-acoustic waves: these cause variations in the total electron content (TEC), producing travelling ionospheric disturbances (TIDs). The gravity waves instead are believed to be originated by tsunami waves and/or Rayleigh surface waves [6; 7; 8]. Studies on these kinds of perturbations can now highlight and correlate the spatial asymmetry of these waves to the rupture geometry of the main fault ([9; 10])  
For what concerns the periods preceding strong earthquakes (EQs), there has been exhaustive literature on pre-seismic phenomena, for example, summarised in [11]: in their work, the coupling between the lithosphere, where the processes are supposing to have originated, and the atmosphere/ionosphere is subtly already presented. Over the following years, the evidence in the scientific literature supporting the coupling hypothesis became stronger, based on analyses performed on multiple physical observables from both ground- and satellite-based instruments (e.g., [12; 13; 14], among the most recent). As a matter of fact, since the early 1960s (when the drive to achieve earthquake prediction was stronger), different kinds of anomalies were found not only in the lithosphere, but also in the atmosphere and ionosphere. For instance, VLF modulation and emissions of ULF radio waves were reported to have anomalous characteristics (e.g., [15; 16]); the statistically significant increasing of thermal energy is observed before large seismic events in multiple parameters, with the skin temperature (SKT), outgoing longwave radiation (OLR), and surface latent heat flux (SLHF) being among the most prominent ([17]). Because of such thermal anomalies and pressure gradients, wave-like structures may appear in the atmosphere in the frequency bands of the acoustic gravity waves (AGWs) (e.g., [18]). Several comprehensive models have been developed over the years to explain these phenomena. Among them, two widely accepted models are those proposed by [PERSON] et al. [19] and [PERSON] [1], both grounded on the rock dilatancy diffusion model [20]. The preparatory phase within the nucleation volume of a main rupture involving fluids, particularly water, has been modelled by [21], providing a detailed description of chemical activity. [PERSON] et al. [19] delineates three channels of energy transmission between geospheres: chemical, thermodynamic via AGWs, and electromagnetic emissions (EMs). [PERSON] and [PERSON] [1] formulated a very similar comprehensive model where the unique source is the release of radon, the radioactive gas produced in the decay chain of uranium or thorium and released from bedrock material. The charged particles emitted during radon decay ionise air molecules, triggering the aggregation of aerosols through vapour condensation. This process is accompanied by the release of latent heat, pressure variations, and disruptions in atmospheric conductivity. Thus, their model defines both the electrical (direct) and thermal (indirect) channels for these disturbances. According to [19], the \"chemical channel\" involves the release of gases in the epicentral area (e.g., radon) or variations in the water level which, in turn, cause the modification of both the air content and conductivity (and, consequently, of the atmospheric electric field), which is reflected in the changes in density and temperature in the ionospheric plasma.