## 1 Introduction  
Dry-cured ham is a high-value meat product with significant consumer acceptance, and it is typically classified according to its region of origin [1]. The final flavor of dry-cured ham is influenced by unique factors, including climate, geography, pig breed, and production methods specific to each region [2]. For example, in the Mediterranean, Spanish Iberian ham is highly esteemed and produced from Iberian pigs that are fed acorns and pasture [3]. Moreover, among Chinese styles of dry-cured hams, Xuanwei ham, and Jinhua ham are highly valued due to their long history [4]. Quality differences among dry-cured hams are substantial, reflected in their pricing, with Iberian ham often being several times more expensive than other hams. However, the high commercial value of the dry-cured ham with geographical indications has led to increased labeling fraud concerning both the origin and grade of these products [5]. Therefore, comprehensive research into the flavor profiles of various dry-cured hams is essential to protect consumer interests and producers' reputations. Flavor, a key attribute influencing consumer acceptance and economic value, is largely determined by the distinct aroma of dry-cured ham [6]. The quality of dry-cured ham is traditionally evaluated by its aroma intensity and persistence using the \"three sticks\" method, where bamboo sticks are inserted into the sacral vertebra, knee joint, and hip joint of hams [7; 8]. Aroma is thus a crucial sensory characteristic [9]. During the production process, dry-cured hams undergo various chemical and biological reactions, including protein hydrolysis, lipid degradation and oxidation, Maillard-type reactions, and Strecker degradation. These processes generate a complex array of volatile compounds that affect overall acceptance [7]. However, not all volatile compounds are aroma-active due to varying odor thresholds and interactions between compounds [10; 11]. Some volatiles may exist at high concentrations but exert minimal olfactory impact due to their high detection thresholds. In contrast, aroma-active compounds (even at trace levels) can be detected by specialized olfactory cells and play a decisive role in defining product flavor [6]. Therefore, studies on the aroma-active compounds that contribute to the flavor are more important to the development of dry-cured hams. In recent years, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and electronic nose (E-Nose) technologies have been extensively used to analyze the flavor profiles of dry-cured hams [12; 13; 14; 15]. GC-MS is a widely utilized technique for detecting volatile components with high sensitivity and selectivity [16]. However, GC-MS alone can be insufficient for identifying aroma-active volatiles that contribute specifically to ham flavor. To address this limitation, a combination of GC-MS with olfactory (GC-MS-O) has been employed to characterize aroma-active compounds. In this integrated technique, volatile analytes are first resolved on the GC column, after which the effluent is divided so that one fraction enters the mass spectrometer for structural elucidation while the other is simultaneously channeled to a sniffing port [17]. A panel of assessors typically sniffs the GC effluent to provide detailed aroma data. Although considerable research has focused on the aroma composition of dry-cured ham [2; 10; 18], studies utilizing GC-MS-O have predominately centered on describing odors by linking them to known aromatic substances. Beyond odor description, aromas can be quantified by additional dimensions such as intensity and hedonic assessment [19]. Intensity refers to the strength of the aroma sensation, while hedonic assessment evaluates the relative pleasantness or unpleasantness of the aroma. The preferred sensory attributes trigger \"pleasant\" emotions to consumers [20]. Therefore, GC-MS-O experiments incorporating more aroma dimensions are essential for a comprehensive understanding of dry-cured ham aroma.