# Using Educational Chatbots with Metacognitive Feedback to Improve Science Learning
## 2 Related Work  
### Educational Chatbots and Science Education  
In addition to providing conversation-based interactions, the advantages of chatbots include around-the-clock availability and immediate response [22; 23]. The adoption of ECs is on the rise due to their efficiency in engaging students and providing personalized learning experiences [24]. Hence, ECs are suitable as a medium for dynamic assessment because they can engage learners and provide instant responses automatically [25]. Dynamic assessment is an engaging approach that connects the assessment and instruction [26]. The agent first identifies a learner's mistakes and then provides corrective instructional feedback continually [25; 27]. A few studies indicated that EC-based dynamic assessment could identify students' mistakes and provide feedback to improve their learning experience [28] and knowledge retention [25] in language learning. However, the types of feedback provided by ECs are primarily cognitive, such as corrective feedback. There is still limited exploration of noncognitive feedback and its potential impact on enhancing learning, especially in the field of science education. In addition to being used for dynamic assessment of language learning, ECs are also widely used in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education. The majority of ECs in STEM education studies have focused on improving knowledge retention, skill training, and collaborative learning. For example, the ECs improved students' academic performance and learning experience in computer courses by providing cognitive feedback [29; 30]. In addition, [PERSON] et al. [31] implemented a multiagent system integrated with a chatbot to facilitate the coordination of group tasks and support students in collaborative software development. It was found that the system could support group task execution, providing quick and consistent responses to students' requests [31]. Furthermore, some studies have also shown evidence that ECs can improve psychological variables. For example, a study found that the EC significantly improved the students' learning achievement and self-efficacy compared to the conventional learning approach in the vaccine training program [32]. [PERSON] and [PERSON] [33] investigated the effect of the EC and peer feedback mechanisms integrated into instructional videos as a feedback tool on intrinsic motivation. The results showed that the intrinsic motivation scores of EC-based and peer feedback groups were higher than the traditional learning group. In science education, ECs have primarily been used for enhancing learning experience and performance. For example, the EC with a high level of communication immediacy increased confidence and self-directed studying behaviors in online chemistry course [9]. In addition, [PERSON] et al. [10] integrated the EC with augmented reality technology in a biology course to increase learning motivation. Further, [PERSON] and [PERSON] developed a chatbot to provide biology learning resources including learning video, exercises, assistant, and record, which enhanced learning achievements [34]. While ECs have been gaining popularity in science education, limited research has explored the impact of ECs with metacognitive feedback on students' knowledge retention, transfer, and intrinsic motivation. Therefore, this study first developed an EC-based dynamic assessment model integrated with metacognitive feedback (ECDA-MF model). Specifically, the dynamic assessment in this study consisted of students' self-assessment of knowledge mastery and EC provision of metacognitive feedback. Then, two types of ECs were developed to explore the impact of metacognitive feedback on science learning. According to [PERSON] [35], there are two major goals of learning: remembering and understanding.