## 3 Results and Discussion
### Region-Specific Climate Extremes and Threats to Environmental Stability
#### 3.2.2 Asia and Oceania  
[PERSON] et al. [89] examined forecasting strategies for extreme weather events in Myanmar and the Philippines to scale up anticipatory action for climate change-related disasters. Their study highlights that Southeast Asian countries have, in recent years, faced extreme weather events that have escalated into disasters. Notable climate extremes threatening environmental stability include intense rainfall, cyclones, river floods, and storm surges. The study reveals that extreme rainfall can lead to significant damage and socio-economic repercussions through fluvial and pluvial flooding. Flooding as a socio-economic outcome disrupts livelihoods, displaces communities, and exposes populations to numerous risks. Additionally, the Philippines is identified as one of Southeast Asia's most vulnerable countries to tropical cyclones.  
Similarly, in the south-central coastal region of Bangladesh, [PERSON] et al. [90] emphasise the impact of climate change on rising salinity levels. This increase in salinity is attributed to factors such as sea level rise, irregular rainfall, tidal flooding, capillary salt intrusion, cyclones, storm surges, reduced freshwater flow from upstream, and ineffective management of polders. These factors collectively exacerbate the salinity issue, further challenging agricultural and community resilience in the region. While global temperatures continue to rise, compound extreme climate events (CECEs)--such as the combined impact of droughs and heatwaves--are increasingly observed. [PERSON] et al. [91] analysed these events with reference to ecological indicators in Southwestern China, finding that global warming has intensified the stress on ecosystems in this region. Their research indicates that compound warm-dry events in spring and summer can initially encourage vegetation growth in one season, but persistent spring events may lead to reduced yields in summer due to a delayed response in vegetation. This cyclical impact underscores the complexity of climate change's effects on ecosystems and agriculture.  
The potential effect of extreme climate conditions on autumn phenology (end of the growing season) in Central Asia grassland was investigated by [PERSON] et al. [86] using eight climate indices representing average and extreme local climate conditions. According to the study, there was an increase in drought and heat events during the pre-growing season in Central Asia. Drought and heat events can affect environmental stability in various ways, including the potential for soil degradation and desertification because of the loss of moisture, lower groundwater levels and a decline in surface water, loss of biodiversity and ecosystem disruption, and increased wildfires.  
A projection of extreme climate change in the Asian arid region and the Tibetan Plateau in the early and middle 21 st century predicated using NEX-GDDP-CMIP6 was carried out by [PERSON] et al. [13], and findings suggest that both the frequency and the intensity of the extreme indices will assume an increase, which can also culminate in accelerated growth under higher-emission scenarios. An inquiry into the current state of climatic trends in the Australian cotton region and their implications for the growing season was carried out by [PERSON] et al. (2012). It was found from the study that climate changes are in various dimensions, such as a reduction in early-season shocks sold, an increase in minimum temperatures and frequency of high temperatures and evapotranspiration, and an increase in season-long heat accumulation from 1961 to 2020, which impact cotton production by affecting its growth and development. As revealed in the study, the interplay of all the climatic factors can encourage longer reproductive periods for cotton and the potential for increased yields, which is a positive implication with respect to environmental stability.