## 4 Conclusions  
This study presents a novel approach for quantifying the impact of open-pit mines on surface SM in arid and semiarid regions by integrating Landsat-based TVDI with climate factor separation. By employing the GTWR model, distance decay analysis, and DTW for disturbance year detection, the study effectively isolates mining-induced surface SM disturbances from climatic variability. The findings not only enhance the scientific  
\begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c c} \hline \hline
**Disturbance Years** & **Number of Pixels** & **Area(hm2)** \\ \hline
2015 & 500 & 450.00 \\
2016 & 2703 & 2432.70 \\
2017 & 1675 & 1507.50 \\
2018 & 1745 & 1570.50 \\
2019 & 555 & 499.50 \\
2020 & 964 & 867.60 \\
2021 & 798 & 718.20 \\ \hline \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table}
Table 2: Statistical analysis of TVDI disturbance occurrence years.  
Figure 10: **(a)** TVDI disturbance year identification distribution; **(b)** time series curve and satellite images in the area.  
understanding of mining's hydrological effects but also provide practical insights for sustainable mining and ecological restoration.  
1. This study developed an advanced TVDI-CFS approach for quantifying mining-induced SM disturbances by separating mining impacts from influences and employing the GTWR model, addressing a key challenge in remote sensing-based environmental monitoring.
2. We quantified the spatial and directional impacts of mining activities on SM, revealing the distance decay effect, directional heterogeneity, and cumulative impacts between adjacent mining areas, offering new insights for environmental monitoring, and sustainable mining management.
3. The application of DTW at the pixel level enables a more refined detection of disturbance years, revealing the temporal evolution of mining impacts on SM and further demonstrating TVDI's effectiveness in monitoring these changes.  
These contributions provide a scientific framework for assessing mining-induced surface SM variations that are adaptable to open-pit mines. This framework supports sustainable resource extraction, effective land reclamation, and ecological restoration, while also assisting policymakers and mining companies in mitigating long-term environmental impacts.  
Conceptualization, B.L. and X.L.; methodology, X.L.; software, X.L.; validation, B.L., X.L. and H.W.; formal analysis, Y.M.; investigation, H.W.; resources, B.L.; data curation, X.L.; writing--original draft preparation, X.L.; writing--review and editing, L.L.; visualization, H.W. and L.L.; supervision, L.L.; project administration, L.L.; funding acquisition, L.L. and Y.M.; All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.  
This research was funded by National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 42301288), and open funds from the Laboratory for Earth Surface Processes, Ministry of Education, Peking University.  
Not applicable.  
The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article; further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.  
We would like to thank the editors and reviewers for their valuable suggestions. We also extend our gratitude to the team members and professors for their guidance and support throughout the research process.  
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.