# The Environmental Impact of Inland Empty Container Movements Within Two-Depot Systems
## 2 Literature Review
[40,41] proposed an appointment system alongside a mathematical planning model to mitigate port-related truck emissions. Their approach focused on enhancing collaboration among truckers and trucking companies in a real-world case. Additionally, [PERSON] and [PERSON] [42] developed a method to integrate cost and environmental objectives within a unified objective function. The authors derived costs of emissions by summing up emission-related costs such as fuel consumption. Their model quantifies emission-related costs; for example, regulators may charge companies with a certain fee for their produced emissions. According to [PERSON] et al. [43], land transportation emissions differ between trains and trucks, with trucks being more carbon intensive due to lower efficiency and reliance on diesel fuel. In contrast, trains, with higher capacity and lower energy consumption, offer a more sustainable option, especially for long-distance freight. Heavy-duty trucks, which are extensively used for transporting empty containers within two-depot systems, are a major source of pollutants. Additionally, [PERSON] and [PERSON] [44] ensured that these vehicles are responsible for approximately 6% of total emissions in the European Union. Although rail transport offers clear environmental advantages over road trucks, an immediate transition remains challenging due to the substantial infrastructure and investment requirements. Nevertheless, many countries are actively promoting rail initiatives as part of broader efforts to reduce carbon emissions and support environmental sustainability. In parallel, stakeholders in the maritime sector are focusing on the development of smart ports to address climate change impacts and to adapt to evolving socio-economic conditions [45; 46; 47]. In this context, [PERSON] et al. [48] highlight that integrating electric vehicles within port operations can generate notable spatial spillover benefits, contributing to both environmental objectives and operational efficiency. The challenge is multifaceted; the shipping industry is vast, there are numerous players and countries involved, and every change to the shipping process impacts the global economy. Additionally, all the percentages increase when inland transit is included. Millions of empty containers are being transported annually around the world, producing enormous amounts of CO\({}_{2}\). Assessing the magnitude of these emissions can assist in comprehending their contribution and developing strategies to minimize their effects. Additionally, policymakers can implement cost-effective measures to mitigate the associated economic burdens, including loss of productivity, healthcare expenses, and damage to infrastructure [49]. However, failing to take action in a timely manner could result in serious consequences. By utilizing improved modeling techniques to manage empty container movements, both costs and emissions could be substantially lowered. A reduction in empty container movements by major shipping companies could lead to a yearly reduction of a million kg of CO\({}_{2}\). Therefore, it is essential to find ways to reduce the global transport of empty containers. Although the importance of empty container movements is well documented in the literature, there remains a lack of approaches incorporating environmental considerations. Most existing models focus primarily on logistical optimization without accounting for the emissions and ecological impact associated with frequent movements of trucks. To address this gap, the ABM approach proposed in this study aims to ensure there are enough empty containers in inland depots to meet customer demand, while simultaneously minimizing a wide array of inland movements in the hinterland network. This reduction is crucial not only for improving operational efficiency but also for mitigating adverse impacts on air quality and climate change.