# Stacked Ensembles Powering Smart Farming for Imbalanced Sugarcane Disease Detection
## 1 Introduction  
Agriculture plays a fundamental role in food security and has always been crucial in human civilizations [1, 2]. Technological advancements are therefore essential to address the different challenges facing this domain [3, 4]. Among these challenges, plant diseases remain one of the most significant threats to crop productivity and quality. The research in [5] shows that 20-40% of global agricultural productivity losses are caused by plant diseases, which not only affect food security but also trade, policies, and social structures. Furthermore, the study in [6] discusses the effects of plant diseases such as rice blast,magnaporthe oryzae, the citrus rust greening of wheat stems, and the lethal necrosis of maize on crop yields and explains the importance of better management practices and technologies to mitigate these losses. Sugarcane, rich in cellulose and hemicellulose, is a critical industrial crop utilized for sugar and bioethanol production [7; 8; 9; 10; 11]. Beyond ethanol and sugar, modern biorefineries employ integrated technologies to process sugarcane bagasse and straw into second-generation (2G) ethanol, bio-based materials, and biogas, enhancing sustainability and energy security [12]. These advancements make sugarcane-based biorefineries economically attractive and environmentally friendly, positioning them as key players in the transition toward a low-carbon economy [12; 13]. Despite its economic importance, sugarcane is particularly threatened by a wide range of diseases that significantly affect its yield and economic value. Additionally, sugarcane production is exposed to the threats posed by many insects and pests, which cause 20 to 25% losses as a result of direct crop destruction and pest-carried diseases [14]. Major insects are stalk borers (Lepidoptera: Crambidae, Nocutiade, Pyralidae), sap-chewing insects (aphids, planthoppers, and thrips), and supra soil insects like white grubs and termites, which lower the economic value of sugarcane by lowering sugar recovery by 10 to 15% [14; 15; 16]. There are growing concerns over the widespread application of organophosphate and neonicotinoid pesticides due to the loss of biodiversity, soil erosion, water pollution, and threats to public health [17]. In addition, these pesticides are overused, which results in the target pests becoming resistant, rendering standard chemical measures ineffective [17]. The importance of pests in sugarcane is different from region to region. In South Asia, early shoot borers (_Chilo infuscatellus_) and top shoot borers (_Scirophaga excertalis_) are the most important, while _Diatrea_ spp. may be more important in South America. Eldana saccharina stalk borers are the most economically damaging to crops in Africa, while white grubs and longhorn beetles are a problem in Australia. These differences across regions require different approaches in controlling pests sustainably [18]. Sugarcane pests are very dangerous because they can attack the plants at any stage of maturity, restraining their yield potential. Young plants (1 to 3 months) show \"dead heart\" symptoms due to the damage caused by early shoot borers (_Chilo infuscatellus_) [14]. Internode borers (_Chilo saccharighgus_) further drill into the plant, which leads to a reduction in the sucrose content of sugarcane. Leaf feeders like armyworms or locusts are known to traverse the fields a few weeks after harvest [16]. The appearance of such herbivores is more common at high humidity levels (26 to 30 degrees Celsius), under monocropping, and with the use of nitrogen fertilizers, which are conducive to infestation. On the other hand, low temperatures and drought conditions are detrimental to the proliferation of these pests. Effective integrated pest management (IPM) is crucial to reduce these risks [15]. The farming of sugarcane is crucial in meeting multiple Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).