## 5 Conclusions  
Sprouted grains represent a promising dietary strategy for improving insulin sensitivity and preventing MetS. The germination process enhances the nutritional and functional profiles of grains by increasing the bioavailability of vitamins, minerals, and bioactive compounds such as GABA, polyphenols, \(\beta\)-glucan, and ferulic acid. These compounds contribute to improved glucose metabolism through multiple mechanisms, including inhibition of carbohydrate-digesting enzymes, enhancement of insulin signaling, suppression of pro-inflammatory cytokines, scavenging of ROS, modulation of gut microbiota, and regulation of lipid metabolism.  
Evidence from _in vitro_, _in vivo_, and clinical studies consistently supports the metabolic benefits of sprouted grains, particularly in relation to glycemic control, inflammation, and lipid homeostasis. Given their accessibility, safety, and compatibility with whole-food-based diets, sprouted grains offer a practical and functional intervention for individuals at risk of or living with IR, obesity, and T2 DM. To clarify the current evidence, Table 4 summarizes representative studies on sprouted grains, detailing their key bioactive compounds, metabolic effects, and mechanisms related to IR.  
Future research should aim to optimize germination conditions for maximal health benefit, explore grain-specific bioactivities, and validate long-term effects in diverse populations. As interest in functional foods grows, integrating sprouted grains into nutritional guidelines may contribute meaningfully to the prevention and management of chronic metabolic diseases.  
Writing--original draft preparation, Y.S., C.L., and A.L.; writing--review and editing, A.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.  
This research received no external funding.  
No new data were created or analyzed in this study. Data sharing is not applicable to this article.  
During the preparation of this manuscript, the authors used ChatGPT-4o to enhance English language clarity. The authors have reviewed and edited the output and take full responsibility for the content of this publication.  
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.  
The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript:  
\begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c c c c} \hline
**Sprouted Grain** & **Key Bioactive(s)** & **Metabolic Effect(s)** & **Mechanistic Insight** & **Reference** \\ \hline Adzuki bean & \(\gamma\)-Aminobutyric acid & \(\bullet\) \(\downarrow\)Fasting glucose & \(\bullet\) \(\uparrow\)GABA signaling & [50] \\ cv. “Pearl Red’ & (GABA) & \(\bullet\) \(\downarrow\)Weight gain & \(\bullet\) \(\uparrow\) Shift in gut microbiota & [50] \\ \hline Red rice & \(\bullet\) \(\uparrow\)Antioxidant activity & \(\bullet\) Supports glycemic & [28] \\ (_Oryza sativa_) & Flavonoids & \(\bullet\) \(\uparrow\)Histone Deacetylase & & \\ \hline Oat & & \(\bullet\) \(\uparrow\)Histone Deacetylase & & \\ (_Averna sativa_, & \(\beta\)-glucan & \(\begin{array}{c}\$\text{(HDAC3)}/\text{Nuclear}\\ \text{factor kappa }\text{B (NF-kB)}\end{array}\) & \(\bullet\) \(\uparrow\) Insulin signaling & \\ cv. “Meeri’ & & & & \\ \hline Quinoa & & & & \\ (_Chnopodium quinoa_) & Dietary fiber, & \(\bullet\) \(\uparrow\)Protein and fiber & \(\begin{array}{c}\$\text{(HDAC3)}/\text{Nuclear}\\ \text{action}\end{array}\) & & \\ White, red, and black & Amino acids & \(\bullet\) \(\downarrow\)Prbtic acid & \(\bullet\) \(\downarrow\) Antinuutrient & [5] \\ varieties & & & & \\ \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table}
Table 4: Summary of reviewed studies on sprouted grains and insulin resistance.