## 3 Results and Discussion
### Size  
In Figure 4(b1,c1), the heights and lengths of the raw 3D-printed square pillars are very close to those of the designed 3D models for the four treatments. These values are within the acceptable range established as \(\pm\)10% of the designed dimensions. These results confirm the successful single- and multi-material extrusion-based 3 DFP process. Figure 4(b2,c2) show the %H\({}_{\text{reduction}}\) and %L\({}_{\text{reduction}}\) of the four treatments, respectively. After WOC, the heights (%H\({}_{\text{reduction}}\)) of the NCD-WOC and NCD + CP-WOC decreased by 4.56% and 9.64%, respectively, with respect to the height of the raw 3D-printed square pillar. Additionally, the height of the steam-cooked square pillars was reduced by 16.81% and 8.11% for NCD-SC and NCD + CP-SC, respectively. Regarding the length (%L\({}_{\text{reduction}}\)) of the 3D-printed square pillars, major reductions of 7.06% and 4.70% in the NCD-WOC and NCD + CP-WOC treatments, respectively, were observed for the square pillars subjected to WOC. In contrast, the length of the square pillars subjected to SC only decreased by 0.26% in the NCD + CP-SC treatment and even increased by \(-\)5.26% in the NCD-SC treatment. This study hypothesized that WOC would lead to a higher %H\({}_{\text{reduction}}\) and %L\({}_{\text{reduction}}\) owing to a higher loss of water in comparison with SC, where slighter %H\({}_{\text{reduction}}\) and %L\({}_{\text{reduction}}\) were expected. This behavior could be observed in multi-material treatments including NCD + CP-WOC and NCD + CP-SC, where the larger loss of water in the square pillars of NCD + CP-WOC might have led to a larger %H\({}_{\text{reduction}}\) and %L\({}_{\text{reduction}}\) in comparison with the square pillars of NCD + CP-SC, where the loss of water was lower. However, NCD-SC treatment did not present the same behavior since a large %H\({}_{\text{reduction}}\) and a negative value of %L\({}_{\text{reduction}}\) indicating an increase of length were presented. This specific behavior of NCD-SC treatment may be due to localized condensation during SC, leading to wetting and the eventual weakening and collapse of the structure. Regarding the influence of F1 and F2 on the means of %H\({}_{\text{reduction}}\) and %L\({}_{\text{reduction}}\), Table 2 shows that no significant difference was found between the means of %H\({}_{\text{reduction}}\) and %L\({}_{\text{reduction}}\) in F1. This means that %H\({}_{\text{reduction}}\) and %L\({}_{\text{reduction}}\) were not influenced by the type of material used, that is, either NCD or NCD + CP. In contrast, a marked difference was found between the means of %H\({}_{\text{reduction}}\) and %L\({}_{\text{reduction}}\) in F2, indicating that the type of cooking process influenced the %H\({}_{\text{reduction}}\) and %L\({}_{\text{reduction}}\) of the 3D-printed foods. For instance, in Table 2, the %H\({}_{\text{reduction}}\) in F2 was higher in SC (12.46%) than in WOC (7.10%), while the %L\({}_{\text{reduction}}\) in F2 was higher in WOC (5.88%) than in SC (\(-\)2.50%) where the negative value of %L\({}_{\text{reduction}}\) in SC indicates that the length of the square increased after SC. A previous study observed that the shape fidelity and shrinkage of rice starch 3D-printed foods were higher after steaming than after dry-heat cooking processes, such as roasting or microwaving [24]. These findings are similar to those presented in NCD + CP-WOC and NCD + CP-SC, where a slightly lower %H\({}_{\text{reduction}}\) and %L\({}_{\text{reduction}}\) were obtained for NCD + CP-SC than for NCD + CP-WOC (Figure 4(b1,b2,c1,c2)). These behaviors may be attributed to the cooking medium, as moist-heat cooking processes like steaming may enhance moisture retention [24]. Furthermore, [PERSON] et al.