## 5 Results and Discussion
### RQ1: What Cyber-Attacks in the MSCN Have Been Reported in the Academic Literature?
#### 5.2.1 Practices to Manage Information Security  
Nine significant practices were identified during the review of information security management practices in the MSCN. Table 5 presents a concise summary of these practices, and we provide further explanations for each below:  
Risk Management Tools: Techniques such as those developed by ref. [97; 98] use opacity and dual-layer mechanisms to protect ship information systems. The authors of ref. [99] introduced MITIGATE, a risk management methodology that facilitates collaboration between maritime industry actors and scientists in detecting potential attack paths under specific conditions. The authors of ref. [94] adapted the FMECA and the MITRE ATT&CK framework to assess risks in marine systems, particularly for an inertial navigation system (INS), identifying numerous risks associated with different components. Programming digital tools to guarantee cybersecurity during the use of the IoT: In the programming field, academics have emphasized the need for creating specialized computational tools that can effectively integrate the IoT into the MSCN. For instance, ref. [100] proposed a physically unclonable function for mutual authentication between mobile users and IoT devices via a cloud gateway. The authors of ref. [47] developed a security-by-design algorithm for the IoT in port vehicle transport supply chains. Additionally, ref. [101] designed a network attack detection system to defend against DoS attacks, whereas ref. [63; 102] advanced the cyber-ship-IoT framework, with a particular emphasis on automated cyber-attack mitigation and network-level defense for ship communication networks. Detection-blocking techniques: The authors of ref. [53] developed an encryption algorithm for ship propulsion systems to ensure that access is limited to authorized systems. The authors of ref. [103] developed an algorithm for detecting anomalies in National Marine Electronics Association (NMEA) signals used in maritime communications. The authors of ref. [104] improved communication within vehicles by implementing cryptographic techniques, whereas ref. [70] presented Auth-AIS, a secure protocol for AIS communication. On the other hand, ref. [105] supported the adoption of blockchain technology in Latin American ports, suggesting the implementation of the CrowdBC framework to integrate cyber-technological, social, and cognitive components to enhance the efficiency of port operations. Multi-factor authentication: To enhance email security in marine supply chains, it is crucial to implement strong passwords and multi-factor authentication [97], which are essential for preventing security breaches given the interrelated nature of enterprises [99]. Additionally, the importance of antivirus solutions in protecting maritime industry software has been highlighted [83; 106]. The authors of ref. [107] developed a framework for conducting software security testing in naval combat systems, covering various system components to enhance cybersecurity measures for complex weapons systems. Physical barriers, advanced antivirus solutions, and control access communication in port interfaces: Implementing physical barriers in control systems for ports and vessels is essential to enhance cybersecurity [35; 57; 61]. These measures effectively reduce cyber-physical attacks by utilizing intelligent sensors to regulate access to communication interfaces at the ports. Radio frequency identification (RFID) technology management: Efficient management of RFID technologies is critical for protecting the personal information of watchkeeping officers and captains [92]. A detailed assessment of shipboard systems identifies potential vulnerabilities, improving security measures and reducing the risk of cyber-attacks on AIS systems [52]. Use of virtual private networks (VPNs): The use of VPNs, hard disk drive encryption, and intrusion detection systems are advocated to bolster maritime cybersecurity [108]. The authors of ref.