esa-sceva/satcom-chunk-collection huggingface dataset:
# Comparison of NeQuick G and Klobuchar Model Performances at Single-Frequency User Level +
## 4 Discussion
### Implications of the Results for SF Users  
The implications of the results for SF users are significant, as these users typically have more limited access to multiple GNSS frequency signals and are, hence, more susceptible to the effects of ionospheric disturbances. The study found that in terms of TEC accuracy, TEC availability, and SF position accuracy, the NeQuick G model outperformed the Klobuchar model. It suggests that the NeQuick G model is more effective for mitigating the effects of ionospheric disturbances on SF GNSS signals. For SF users, the improved TEC accuracy and availability offered by the NeQuick G model can result in more accurate position solutions and improved navigation performance. The improved SF position accuracy offered by the NeQuick G model may also lead to increased confidence in the accuracy of positioning solutions in challenging ionospheric conditions. Additionally, the results of this study may be useful in informing future developments of ionospheric models for SF users. Overall, the study highlights the importance of selecting an appropriate ionospheric model for mitigating ionospheric effects on GNSS signals, particularly for SF users who may have limited access to multiple-frequency signals.  
Methodology, U.N., C.P., K.S.J., M.D., N.H., D.H., A.S. and P.G.; software, U.N., K.S.J., M.D., D.H. and A.S.; validation, U.N., C.P., K.S.J., M.D., N.H. and A.S.; formal analysis, U.N., K.S.J., M.D., N.H., D.H., A.S. and P.G.; investigation, U.N., K.S.J., N.H., A.S. and P.G.; resources, U.N., C.P., A.S. and P.G.; data curation, U.N., K.S.J., M.D., A.S. and P.G.; writing--original draft preparation, U.N., C.P., K.S.J., M.D., N.H., D.H., A.S. and P.G.; writing--review and editing, U.N., C.P., K.S.J., M.D., N.H. and P.G.; visualization, U.N., C.P., K.S.J., M.D., N.H. and P.G.; supervision, M.P. and P.B.; project administration, M.P., P.B., U.N. and C.P.; funding acquisition, M.P. and P.B. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.  
We acknowledge the European Union and the European Union Agency for the Space Programme (EUSPA) for supporting the cooperation of the Galileo Reference Centre (GRC) with Member States within the GRC-MS project and co-financed (Grant agreement nr. GSA/GRANT/04/2016), in support of an independent monitoring of the Galileo system performance. The SRC contribution was also co-funded by the Polish Ministry of Education and Science from funds for science in 2020 allocated to the implementation of a co-financed international project.  
Not applicable.
## 2 The Elephant in the Room: Great Diversity
### Nb-IoT  
Cellular networks have been a cornerstone in the evolution of communications over the past few decades, offering uninterrupted connectivity almost anywhere in the world. From their early versions, which primarily supported calls and text messages, to modern high-speed networks facilitating data, video, and other multimedia applications, they have transformed how we communicate and access information.  
However, with the increasing need to connect with people as well as devices within the Internet of Things, there emerged a requirement for specific technologies that could  
Figure 2: **Left**: coordinator node: BeagleBone Black + 6 LoWPAN border–router node; **right**: ambient sensor nodes used in this project.  
adapt to these new demands. In this study, the narrowband IoT (NB-IoT) comes into play as a solution based on cellular networks [27; 28; 29; 30; 31; 32; 33; 34].  
As a modern and meticulously designed technology, the NB-IoT stands out as the optimal solution tailored to meet the specific needs of IoT communication networks. Its recent development allows it to surpass other technologies by optimizing every facet, thus ensuring superior efficiency and performance in the IoT realm. The NB-IoT's youth and thoughtful development make it perform well in its scope. This advantage is further bolstered by the backing of telecommunications operators, who ensure long-term support by investing heavily in this technology. Such investments have made the NB-IoT remarkably affordable and accessible for a wide range of applications. We consider the NB-IoT to be an optimal technology for a wide range of IoT use cases, as explained in the next subsections.
###### Abstract  
Free-space optics (FSO) communication enjoys desirable modulation rates at unexploited frequency bands, however, its application is hindered by atmospheric turbulence which causes phase shifting in laser links. Although a single deformable mirror (DM) adaptive optics (AO) system is a good solution, its performance remains unsatisfactory as the proportion of tilts aberrations becomes relatively high. This condition happens when the incident angle of the laser beam for the optical receiver dynamically shifts. To tackle this problem, we introduce a fast steering mirror (FSM), DM cascaded AO architecture, based upon which we also propose an atmospheric turbulence compensation algorithm. In this paper, we compare the compensation ability of FSM and DM towards tilts aberrations. Furthermore, we gain model matrices for FSM and DM from testbed and simulatively verify the effectiveness of our work. For a [PERSON] theory-based atmospheric turbulence disturbed incident laser beam where the tilt components take up 80% of the total proportion of wavefront aberrations, our proposed architecture compensates the input wavefront to a residual wavefront root mean square (RMS) of \(\frac{1}{16}\) wavelength, compared to \(\frac{1}{6}\) wavelength for single DM architecture. The study intends to overcome atmospheric turbulence and has the potential to guide the development of future FSO communications.  
FSO communication; AO architecture; atmospheric turbulence; compensation algorithm 2022  
27 February 2022  
28 April 2022  
Published: 5 May 2022
# Bioinspired Kirigami Structure for Efficient Anchoring of Soft Robots via Optimization Analysis
## 3 Results and Analysis
### Stroke Length Variation in Microcontroller-Controlled Experiments  
#### 3.4.1 Experimental Conditions  
To further evaluate the locomotion performance of the soft robotic crawler, a series of experiments was conducted to analyze the stroke-to-crawl efficiency across varying actuation strategies. In this context, efficiency was defined as the ratio between the total crawling distance achieved by the robot and the total extension performed by the actuator over the duration of the test. The actuator extension was calculated as the product of the actuator's stroke length and the number of actuation cycles completed within the 30-second experiment window. The goal of this study was to understand how different combinations of stroke length and cycle timing influence the conversion of actuator motion into forward locomotion, thus complementing the density-based structural study detailed in Section 3.3. Four configurations were tested, all using triangular kirigami skin patterns fabricated from 100 \(\upmu\)m thick PET sheets (with a [PERSON]'s modulus of 4.33 GPa and [PERSON]'s ratio of 0.4) and operated on a compliant polyurethane (PU) foam surface at a constant actuation speed of 15 mm/s. The tested stroke configurations were as follows: St10, which employed a 10 mm stroke and completed 15 cycles; St20, with a 20 mm stroke and 12 cycles; St30, which used a 30 mm stroke across 7 cycles; and St30h1s, which also used a 30 mm stroke but with an added 1-second hold time at the end of each stroke, completing 5 total cycles. These configurations resulted in total actuator extensions of 150 mm (St10), 240 mm (St20), 210 mm (St30), and 150 mm (St30h1s), respectively.
## 4 Discussion
### Areas where NDVI and WUE Increased at the Same Time  
The statistical findings show that, among the four categories, the area where NDVI and WUE rose simultaneously increased from 68.45% of the entire area of the Loess Plateau in 2001-2010 to 74.64% in 2011-2020. This clearly demonstrates how the Loess Plateau's program of converting cropland to forests has had an impact on vegetation restoration and led to an improvement in vegetation WUE.  
With regard to GPP and ET, NDVI displayed a favorable connection. Because of the increased vegetation cover, both GPP and ET were improved to a certain extent, which eventually led to a significant increase in WUE [29]. The precipitation temperature in this region had a relatively obvious increase from 2011 to 2020 (Figure 7), and the temperature and precipitation in this region had a relatively obvious positive correlation. Therefore,  
Figure 8: Spatial distribution and statistical images of correlation between precipitation and WUE (**a–c**), WUE, and temperature (**d–f**). (**a,d**) are correlations for 2001–2010, (**b,e**) are correlations for 2011–2020; The upper right corner is the image without excluding significant \(p>0.05\) elements. (**c,f**) are statistical maps of the correlation between WUE and meteorological factors.  
under the significant improvement of various driving factors in recent years, the WUE also increased significantly.
## 5 Test Results and Analysis
In the case of low-high loading, the error between the results obtained by the three models and the actual value is smaller than the error obtained in the case of high-low loading. Like the results of 18 CrNiMo7-6, both reflect that under high-low loading, as the proportion of high load continues to increase, the relative error value is higher than under low-high loading, and the proportion of low load continues to increase. It can be seen from Figures 13 and 14, for (Al-2024), under high-low loading, as the proportion of high load continues to increase, the relative error stability of the results obtained by the ductile dissipation model is better than that of the Miner's rule. Under the same conditions, the accuracy of the results from the proposed model is higher than that of Miner's rule and the ductile dissipation model. Under low-high loading, the results of each model are relatively stable. The accuracy of the improved model is the highest. From the data in Tables 4-6, the linear damage accumulation model (Miner's rule) assumes that damage is not related to the load state, damage accumulation is similarly not related to the load sequence, the interaction between loads cannot be considered, and the deviation from the test results is the largest. The relative error stability of the results obtained by the ductile dissipation model is better than that of the Miner's rule. The improved model, proposed in this paper, increases the influence factors of the sequential stress sequence and magnitude and the error is smaller than the original ductile dissipation model. In this paper, the improved model is extended and applied to commonly used 45# steel and Al-2024 aluminum alloy. The error is larger than that of 18 CrNiMo7-6, but it is still smaller than the original toughness dissipation model, indicating that the model in this paper has better material applicability.
# Measuring Gas Flaring in Russia with Multispectral VIIRS Nightfire
## 4 Discussion
### Effect of Gas Composition and Combustion Efficiency  
As mentioned in Section 3.1, approximately a third of detected gas flares in Russia are located at natural gas and gas condensate upstream facilities. In the case of natural gas facilities, it can be expected that the flaring characteristics will be different, as flaring is either a product of preliminary natural gas treatment to meet the gas transportation requirements or it occurs during maintenance or commissioning procedures. Gas condensate treatment implies liquid phase stabilization, which may produce associated gas products that cannot be transported or used on site and are thus flared instead.  
Figure 11a presents relative frequency of Nightfire estimated mean flare temperatures at oil and natural gas upstream facilities in Russia separately in 2019. It is evident that flaring at natural gas upstream facilities tends to be noticeably lower in temperature with a peak occurring at 1400 K; conversely, the peak mean temperature for the oil upstream facilities is 1800 K. This phenomenon cannot be explained by the difference in atmospheric conditions or a shift in gas composition as natural gas producing facilities are often located in the same regions as oil upstream. However, the vast majority of detected upstream natural gas flares are ground flares located at well clusters on the largest natural gas fields. Such flares are rarely detected (presumably active only during the commissioning or maintenance phase), their ground and oblique basing may result in partial loss of satellite retrievable heat or increased chance of smoking or sooting obscuring the flare, and their combustion efficiency may in general be lower. Figure 11b confirms the negligible role of infrequently detected low temperature natural gas upstream flares in terms of combined flaring volumes.  
Figure S5 in the Supplementary Materials text section presents worldwide regional Nightfire temperature estimates distribution. Figure S6 is a scatterplot of Nightfire temperature estimates vs. heating value based on the reported gas composition for several oil and natural gas fields in Russia.
## 2 Material and Methods
### Specim Preparation  
This research was approved by the Institutional Review Board (E-23-8135) and College of Dentistry Research Center (FR 0707), King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Sample size calculation was performed using G*Power 3.1.9.4 software at an alpha error probability of 0.05 with an effect size of 0.4 and power of 0.9. The power analysis showed that a total of 96 specimens (24 per group) were required. One hundred single-rootedextracted human permanent teeth with a single root canal were used in this study. Roots exhibiting anatomical variations, curvature, or prior endodontic therapy were excluded. The crowns were sectioned off to achieve a standardized root length of 16 mm. Root canals were prepared with Protaper Next system (Dentsply, Sirona, Charlotte, NC, USA) up to instrument X3, which corresponds to tip ISO size 30 and 7% taper. Canals were irrigated with 5 mL 5.25% sodium hypochlorite followed by 1 mL 17% ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid.
# Intelligent Target Design Based on Complex Target Simulation
## 2 Design Principle
### Corner Reflector  
The corner reflector is generally composed of two or three metal plates that are orthogonally combined with one another. The trihedral angle has three anti-planes, which form a strong triple internal reflection. This provides a wide scattering pattern in the three-dimensional space.  
The RCS value of the corner reflector is obtained by comparing with the calibration body as follows:  
\[\sigma=4\pi r^{2}\frac{\left|E^{S}_{\phi}(\mathbf{a})\right|^{2}}{\left|E^{S} _{i}(R)\right|^{2}} \tag{2}\]  
where \(\sigma\) is the RCS value, a is the side length of the right angle reflector, \(R\) is the side length of the size of the calibration body, \(E^{S}_{\phi}\) is the radar cross-sectional area of the corner reflector, and \(E^{S}_{i}\) is the radar cross-sectional area of the calibration body.  
Equation (2) shows that if the angle between the two metal plates of the corner reflector is decreased, the vector difference between \(\overset{\Lambda}{i}\) and \(\overset{\Lambda}{s}\) will be reduced accordingly. Consequently, the stable space angle range corresponding to the corner reflector will be reduced. The RCS value will also decrease accordingly, which can be more in line with the sharp-angle RCS distribution characteristics of the target to be simulated.
## 7 Conclusions and Future Works
Moreover, the adoption of Explainable Artificial Intelligence (XAI) techniques, such as SHAP and LIME, is envisioned to promote transparency and interpretability, thereby facilitating the deployment of these models in critical infrastructure environments. From a practical perspective, it is essential to measure detection latency under simulated real-world conditions and move toward operational validation in industrial or urban networks. This step is crucial to ensure the robustness, adaptability, and feasibility of the proposed approach in dynamic and heterogeneous environments. Finally, we propose extending the detection scope beyond DDoS attacks by incorporating multiclass classification strategies and behavior-based analysis techniques to identify advanced threats such as ransomware, insider threats, and data exfiltration. This would enable the development of a comprehensive and intelligent cybersecurity framework tailored to the complexity of modern IoT/Cloud infrastructures. Conceptualization, S.B. and P.H. ; methodology, S.B. and P.H. ; formal analysis, S.B., P.H. and H.A.-C.; investigation, S.B., P.H. and S.G.; data curation, S.B. and S.G.; writing--original draft preparation, S.B., S.G. and P.H. ; writing--review and editing, S.B., P.H. and H.A.-C.; visualization, S.B. and S.G.; supervision, P.H. and H.A.-C.; project administration, P.H. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. This research received no external funding. Not applicable. The original data presented in the study are openly available in Canadian Institute of Cybersecurity (CIC) and N-BaloT dataset at [[https://www.unb.ca/cic/datasets/index.html](https://www.unb.ca/cic/datasets/index.html)]([https://www.unb.ca/cic/datasets/index.html](https://www.unb.ca/cic/datasets/index.html)), accessed on 12 December 2025 and [[https://www.unb.ca/cic/datasets/ddos-2019.html](https://www.unb.ca/cic/datasets/ddos-2019.html)]([https://www.unb.ca/cic/datasets/ddos-2019.html](https://www.unb.ca/cic/datasets/ddos-2019.html)), accessed on 12 December 2025, respectively. The authors extend their appreciation to the Doctorate Program in Ingenieria Informatica and Doctorate Program in Intelligent Industry at the Pontifical Catholic University of Valparaiso for supporting this work. [PERSON] is supported by the National Agency for research and development (ANID)/ Scholarship Program/Doctorado Nacional/2024-21240489 and Beca INF-PUCV. The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
## 3 Results and Discussion
### The Effect of the Alkaline Activator on AGW Materials  
The effect of the alkaline activator on the waste glass has been determined for selected fractions of both AGW types (0.16-0.25 mm, 0.4-0.63 mm, 1.25-2 mm and 2-5 mm). The glass waste after exposure to the alkaline solution has been investigated by SEM analysis.  
Figure 4 shows the AGW1 particles of different fractions after exposure to the alkaline solution at the same magnification (10,000\(\times\)). The image reveals surface degradation in the form of oval, almost parallel grooves. The larger the original particles, the greater the degradation. Similar degradation traces have also been found in AGW2 (Figure 5). In comparison with AGW1, the incisions are almost parallel, but wherever they cross, the local damage is deeper. A comparison of the two images shows that AGW2 has more surface deterioration than AGW1, in both the extent and depth of damage.  
The SEM study has confirmed the effect of the alkaline solution, with partial degradation occurring in the areas that were probably disrupted during crushing. However, it cannot be assumed that the same effect will be observed when the glass is embedded in the geopolymer matrix because no free-alkali activator will act on the glass after solidification (6-12 h). To confirm this hypothesis, geopolymer samples were prepared and subsequently analyzed.
## 3 Results and Discussion
### Proton NMR  
The chemical structure of a molecule is very helpful to interpret its proton NMR, so the structure of GEF was represented in Figure 5. The proton NMR of GEF pure (Figure 6a), GEF-TPGS SDs, i.e., F1 (Figure 6b), the physical mixture (PM) of GEF, TPGS and HP \(\beta\)-CD (Figure 6c) and the GEF-TPGS SDs complexed with HP \(\beta\)-CD i.e., F3 (Figure 6d) were evaluated to investigate the formation of the complexes. The GEF belongs to the class of quinazolines. The proton NMR values for the GEF pure exhibited at \(\delta\) scale a chemical shift of 9.57 ppm, which corresponds to the deshielded proton of aromatic hydrogens. It also exhibited multiple peaks at \(\delta\) 7.22 ppm to 8.51 ppm for the quinazoline ring. The peaks for halogens viz., fluoro- and chloro- were also observed at \(\delta\) 4.20 and 3.59 ppm. Singlet methoxy peaks were observed at \(\delta\) 3.95 ppm. The morpholine peaks were observed in the range of \(\delta\) 2.4 ppm to 2.51 ppm. The singlet amine peak was observed at \(\delta\) 2.10 ppm and the aliphatic methyl peak was observed at \(\delta\) 2.01 ppm. Now, switching to our binary complex or SDs of GEF with TPGS (F1), the spectra exhibited the peaks of GEF-pure without any significant changes in the peaks, along with the peaks of TPGS at \(\delta\) 3.52 ppm and 3.34 ppm, which exhibited methylene peaks.  
Additionally, the proton NMR confirms the formation of a ternary complex of the physical mixture (GEF-TPGS complexed with HP \(\beta\)-CD (F3)) by having the peaks of GEF-pure, TPGS, with the slightly altered methylene peak at \(\delta\) 3.52 ppm and 3.35 ppm. The HP \(\beta\)-CD peaks were observed at \(\delta\) 5.04 ppm, which represents the peaks of position 1 of the glucose moiety. Finally, the formulation (F3) exhibited similar peaks for the pure drug but a slight change in the HP \(\beta\)-CD peaks at \(\delta\) 5.05 ppm. In the formulation, other peaks were also observed in the range of \(\delta\) 4.36 ppm to 4.85 ppm and 1.03 ppm to 1.25 ppm, which confirms the formation of the ternary complex. In reference to the above spectral values, it was concluded that the formation of GEF-TPGS with HP \(\beta\)-CD (F3) as a ternary complex occurred successfully.
# Analyzing Key Features of Open Source Software Survivability with Random Forest
## 3 Analyzing the Relationship Between OSS Survivability and Features
### Experimental Setup
#### 3.1.3 Data Collection  
This study collected the necessary data from various OSS projects to analyze seven key features and the target variable, OSS survivability. The data collection process involved using Python's PyGitHub library to access project data via the GitHub API. Additionally, SonarCloud, a tool for analyzing code quality, was used to gather supplementary code-related data.  
Features such as stars, contributor count, forks, and watchers were collected from the GitHub API using the PyGitHub library. These indicators were used to evaluate project popularity, community activity, and development engagement. These data points represented the repository information available on GitHub and served as metrics for assessing project growth and maintenance capacity.  
Since the GitHub API alone did not provide sufficient information for analyzing LoC and cyclomatic complexity, these metrics were collected using SonarCloud. SonarCloud analyzed the size and complexity of the code, offering critical insights into the project's maintainability.  
To measure OSS survivability, issue data was collected from the issue tab on GitHub using PyGitHub. The data included the issue creation date, resolution date (or the current date if unresolved), and resolution status. The issue creation date represents when the issue was initially reported, while the resolution date indicates when it was resolved. For unresolved issues, the collection date was used as the resolution date. The resolution status captures whether the issue is closed on GitHub. Projects with fewer than 20 issues were excluded from the analysis to ensure data reliability.  
Through this data collection process, 218 OSS projects were ultimately selected for this study. These projects varied in size and community activity, providing sufficient data for analyzing OSS survivability. The distribution of the collected data is visualized in Figure 1. Figure 1 shows the distribution of the LoC and other features. These visualizations reveal significant differences in the features' magnitudes and the presence of outliers, highlighting the need for models unaffected by feature scaling during the analysis phase.