## 1 Introduction  
Over time, the fundamental mission of engineers has been to create safe, strong, and resource-efficient structures. However, this goal has been complicated by the need to integrate new materials, methods, and technologies that can ensure the sustainability (i.e., economic, environmental and social) of building projects in a society with limited natural resources [1, 2]. In this context, sustainability refers to meeting today's societal needs without endangering future generations, guaranteeing a balance between economic, social, cultural, and environmental aspects [3]. The amount of waste generated in construction by the demolition of existing buildings is considerable [4, 5]. This increasing waste production represents a major challenge in many developing cities, which are experiencing remarkable growth due to increasing urban population and widespread urban development projects [6, 7]. Globally, 35% of all solid waste is made up of construction and demolition waste (CDW) [8], with more than 80% of this waste corresponding to concrete rubble, bricks, tiles, decorative materials, dust, and other materials used in construction [9]. With over 25 billion tons produced each year, concrete is the most frequently used building material in the world [10]. The volume of concrete comprises 70% to 80% aggregates, and in 2023 the estimated extraction of natural aggregates (NA) for use in concrete worldwide was close to 47.5 billion tons [11, 12]. This is one of the reasons that has led to a shortage of natural aggregates around the world [13; 14], posing a major challenge for future generations if natural resource consumption continues at the current rate. In addition, there has been growing concern regarding the environmental repercussions of concrete production, primarily related to cement, as it is thought to be the source of about 90% of concrete's CO\({}_{2}\) emissions [15; 16; 17]. Consequently, a significant amount of empirical research has been undertaken recently with the aim of alleviating the negative environmental effects related to the production and utilization of concrete. One strategy involves the valorization of various CDW types, with recycled concrete aggregates (RCA) being extensively studied due to their properties and characteristics [7; 18]. Therefore, the primary goal is to diminish the utilization of natural aggregates alongside the amount of waste sent to landfill sites [19]. There are clear differences between recycled and natural aggregates; for example, the former has a rough and porous surface texture resulting from the residual mortar attached to the particles of the aggregate. The properties of recycled aggregates (RA) are influenced by the characteristics of the source materials as well as by the characteristics of the concrete from which they are derived. Recycled aggregates exhibit a significant increase in water absorption capacity, which is their main difference with to natural aggregates. These differences can cause modifications in both the fresh and hardened state when using RA to manufacture concrete [20]. In general, the partial or complete substitution of recycled aggregates in the concrete composition results in lower mechanical performance than for concrete made entirely from natural aggregates [21; 22]. Replacing NA with RA can reduce concrete strength by up to 40%, and can also cause a decrease in other key properties [17]. For this reason, several studies are currently analyzing ways to improve recycled aggregates to maximize their use and reduce their impact on new concrete [23; 24; 25]. Despite this effect, the structural performance of reinforced concrete with RA is not clearly evident, as the flexural behavior is primarily influenced by the incorporation of steel reinforcement [26]. Research into the use of recycled concrete aggregates has progressed in both unreinforced and reinforced concrete applications [27; 28].