## 3 Discussion
Understanding these mechanisms is crucial for the development of effective treatments. Since some specific PTPs, such as PTPN2, PTPN9, PTPN11, PTP1B, PTPRS, and DUSP9, are associated with T2 DM, the discovery of compounds that can inhibit these PTPs may be an effective strategy to treat or prevent T2 DM [38]. We have previously identified some natural compounds with antidiabetic properties through the inhibition of PTPs: for example, chebulinic acid isolated from the fruits of _Terminalic debula_ acts as a dual inhibitor of PTPN9 and PTPN11 and exhibits antidiabetic properties in C2C12 muscle cells and 3T3-L1 adipocytes [19; 39]. Our previous study has shown that ginkgetin, a biflavone from _G. bilobu_ leaves, could be a potential antiadipogenesis and antiobesity drug through STAT5-mediated PPARy and C/EBP\(\alpha\) regulation [39]. In addition, we previously demonstrated that terminalin isolated from African mango significantly increased glucose uptake in differentiated C2C12 muscle cells via inhibition of PTPN1, PTPN9, PTPN11, and PTPRS [38]. In line with these findings, we found that six compounds **(1-6)** from _G. bilobu_ leaves suppressed the catalytic activities of certain PTPs such as PTPN2, PTPN9, PTPN11, PTP1B, PTPRS, and DUSP9, suggesting the possibilities that these compounds may stimulate glucose uptake. Recently, high-throughput screening and in vitro assays are integral to the discovery process. Promising compounds are rigorously tested in animal models and, if successful, advance to human clinical trials. This systematic approach ensures that only the most promising candidates progress toward potential clinical use. Safety is a paramount concern in natural product discovery. While these compounds offer potential therapeutic benefits, researchers must carefully assess their safety profiles and potential side effects. Striking the right balance between efficacy and safety is essential. Natural products can complement existing diabetes medications. They may be used alone or in combination with conventional treatments to enhance their effectiveness or reduce the risk of adverse effects. This approach offers a holistic perspective on diabetes management. Despite the promise of natural product discovery, challenges persist. These include issues related to sourcing, standardization of extracts, and the need for rigorous scientific validation. Ongoing research seeks to address these challenges, with the ultimate goal of identifying novel compounds and therapies. Numerous natural resources have shown promise in diabetes management, including bitter melon, cinnamon, fenugreek, ginseng, and berberine. These natural resources or bioactive compounds have sparked interest due to their potential to lower blood glucose levels and improve insulin sensitivity. Natural product discovery aligns with the principles of complementary and integrative medicine, offering patients a broader spectrum of treatment options. Integrating natural products into diabetes care plans reflects a patient-centered approach to healthcare. Thus, natural product discovery for diabetes treatment represents a dynamic and multidisciplinary field with substantial potential. By tapping into the power of nature and merging traditional knowledge with modern science, researchers aim to identify safe and effective therapies that can alleviate the burden of diabetes. As challenges are addressed and new discoveries are made, this approach holds promise for improving the lives of individuals living with diabetes and advancing the field of diabetes management.