# Drought: A Common Environmental Disaster
## 3 South Africa Scenario  
Droughs are a common occurrence in South Africa's climate. Drought has an impact on society as well as on agricultural production [43]. South Africa's climate is tremendously varied over time and space due to its location at the southern tip of Africa, sandwiched between cold and warm sea currents, as well as its topography. As a result of these, the country is regarded as having one of the world's most changeable river flow regimes, with drought being one manifestation of this fluctuation [44; 45]. The country is naturally water deficient, which adds to the climate fluctuation. The average annual rainfall in South Africa is far below the global average of 860 mm per year. Furthermore, rain falls differently across South Africa, often decreasing from east to west, with 65 percent of the country receiving less than 500 mm of rain each year [46; 47]. Due to the country's semi-arid climate, substantial water is lost to evaporation, with evaporation from the surface exceeding the average annual rainfall in several locations. Less than 9% of the precipitation that falls on the ground makes its way into South Africa's river systems, according to estimates. This  
Figure 1: Studies on drought in Africa. natural water scarcity makes South Africa particularly vulnerable to drought and water stress, as observed recently in several regions [48]. South Africa has built sophisticated bulk water storage and conveyance systems in the past to store water in times of surplus for use when needed. As a result of the rising water demand due to the population increase and socioeconomic development, many of these systems are under strain, and focus has shifted to alternative water sources, such as fog harvesting, water reclamation, desalination and groundwater, to mention a few. Drought is anticipated to become more common in South Africa as a result of climate change [48; 49]. More so, it was as a result of an intense drought that the Water Research Commission (WRC) was established decades ago to seek solutions via research for South Africa's most pressing water questions [48; 50]. The Commission has developed a range of tools and guidelines to assist local authorities in optimising their water systems and reducing water wastage. South Africa experienced extreme droughts in the last decade; these have increased in rate and intensity, particularly in some provinces, such as the Free State and Western Cape provinces [43]. South Africa is particularly vulnerable to these new weather extremes because it relies largely on climate-sensitive industries, such as eco-tourism, agriculture, hydropower and fisheries. The country has already paid the price. Some areas of South Africa are still suffering from the infamous 2015/16 drought, which lasted well into 2018 [50; 51]. Long-drought-stricken provinces, such as the Eastern Cape, are rapidly running out of water. Agriculture has been one of the most devastated industries [52; 46; 53]. As water levels declined and diseases such as anthrax and foot and mouth disease proliferated, crop production and livestock numbers plunged. Rural communities are particularly vulnerable in these circumstances. Winter crops become crucial to family food security when the major rainfed crops fail. However, the dry circumstances are already harming the aforementioned [54]. Even though weather extremes are unavoidable, their impact can be mitigated via smart planning. If not, calamities can occur, resulting in massive direct and indirect economic and societal costs; this has happened far too often in South Africa [55; 56]. Due to a lack of adequate early warning systems, the country is always reacting to disasters rather than planning and implementing proactive measures in advance [48].