## 3 Artificial Intervention in the Degradation of Antibiotics
### Advanced Oxidation Processes (AOPs)
\begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c c} \hline \hline
**Comparison Item** & **Homogeneous Catalyst** & **Heterogeneous Catalyst** \\ \hline \multirow{4}{*}{Advantages} & 1. High activity: direct contact with reactants & 1. Broad pH tolerance: some catalysts (e.g., Fe\({}_{3}\)O\({}_{4}\)/montmorillonite) function at neutral pH [64]. \\  & enables fast reaction rates (Fe\({}^{2+}\) completely & pH [64]. \\  & degrades amoxicillin in 12 min at pH 3 [62]). & 2. Recyclability: magnetic materials (e.g., Fe\({}_{3}\)O\({}_{4}\)) can be separated via magnetic fields [65]. \\  & 2. Mild reaction conditions: efficient reactions at room temperature and pressure [63]. & 3. High stability: e.g., FeS\({}_{2}\) retains activity after repeated cycles [66]. \\ \hline \multirow{4}{*}{Disadvantages} & 1. pH limitation: requires acidic conditions (pH 2–3), forms iron sludge in neutral environment [67]. & 1. Complex synthesis: requires carrier modification (e.g., graphene), increasing costs [70]. \\  & 2. Difficult recovery: catalyst separation is & 2. Metal leaching risk: long-term use may release \\  & challenging, leading to secondary pollution [68]. & Fe ions [64]. \\  & 3. Toxic by-products: may generate harmful & \\  & intermediates [69]. & \\ \hline \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table} 
Table 2: The advantages and disadvantages of homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysts. the issue of iron sludge, [PERSON] et al. developed hydrogel microspheres loaded with iron ions, which reduce the generation of iron sludge through solid-phase catalysis. However, after five cycles of use, the catalytic efficiency decreased by 20%, indicating limitations in effectively resolving this issue [73]. Additionally, the utilization rate of hydrogen peroxide (H\({}_{2}\)O\({}_{2}\)) is low, and excessive additions can lead to increased costs and potentially trigger side reactions, such as hydroxyl radicals (\(\bullet\)OH) being quenched by H\({}_{2}\)O\({}_{2}\)[74]. This presents another issue that must be addressed in the Fenton reaction. [PERSON] et al. improved the utilization rate to 70% by the in situ generation of H\({}_{2}\)O\({}_{2}\) through a dual-cathode electro-Fenton system; however, the further optimization of the current efficiency is still necessary to reduce the energy consumption [75]. [PERSON] et al. combined solar energy with the electro-Fenton system to reduce the amount of H\({}_{2}\)O\({}_{2}\) added, but the efficiency significantly decreased on rainy days [76]. Additionally, if the intermediate products of the reaction are toxic, further treatment is required. For example, [PERSON] et al. found that the short-chain carboxylic acids produced during the degradation of sulfamethoxazole have a persistent toxicity to Escherichia coli, necessitating an extension of the reaction time to achieve complete mineralization [77]; [PERSON] et al. pointed out that the degradation products of ofloxacin actually increased the toxicity to green algae, requiring the integration of a biological treatment to reduce risks [78]. To broaden the application range of Fenton technology, Fenton-like technologies have gradually become a popular research direction. Fenton-like reactions utilize other transition metals or solid-phase catalysts to replace divalent iron ions in catalyzing H\({}_{2}\)O\({}_{2}\), generating free radicals that oxidatively degrade pollutants. Among these, transition metals (such as Fe, Co, Cu, and Ni) are of particular interest due to their low cost and favorable structural properties that facilitate regulation and modification [79]. Fixing metal ions in solid matrix materials to form heterogeneous reaction systems can improve the difficulty of the catalyst recovery and reduce sludge production, while also broadening the pH range. For example, Cu-based catalysts are considered one of the most important non-iron catalysts. The reaction rate of Cu\({}^{+}\) with H\({}_{2}\)O\({}_{2}\) (1.0 \(\times\) 10\({}^{-4}\) M\({}^{-1}\).s\({}^{-1}\)) is faster than that of Fe\({}^{2+}\) (76 M\({}^{-1}\).s\({}^{-1}\)) [80].