and are now only found in highland locations with higher slopes [3]. The amount of shrubland has grown [4]. Croplands, plantation fields, and urban areas [5], among other non-native ecosystems [6], currently cover large areas, especially areas near megacities [7]. These changes are affecting native species' living conditions [8], such as the volume, distribution, and availability of resources [9], the presence of new rivals or predators, the loss of co-developed species [10], and the growth of social networks [11]. Land use is one of the most important ways that humans [12] have an impact on the environment [13]. The clearance of forest land for agricultural purposes and the establishment of communities have historically [14] been the most significant man-made land-use changes [15]. Later technological advancements in the 19 th and 20 th centuries [16], combined with population growth [17], increased people's need for and ability to change the environment [18] to meet their requirements; urban sprawl [19] is a major contributor to environmental degradation [20]. Spatial heterogeneity, or the diversity in physical and biological features within a landscape, is a key concept in understanding ecological health and landscape dynamics. It refers to the variation in the arrangement, size, and composition of different land elements, such as vegetation, waterbodies, and built environments, across a given area. Higher spatial heterogeneity generally supports greater biodiversity, as it provides diverse habitats and resources for various species. Conversely, lower spatial heterogeneity, often resulting from large-scale agricultural fields, urbanization, or industrial expansion, can reduce ecological resilience, making the landscape more vulnerable to environmental stressors. Understanding the landscape [21], landscape patterns, and information about features and their drivers can be improved by changing LULC [22] and modeling with spatial metrics [23]. The use of RS and geographic information systems (GIS) aids in the study of changing landscape spatial patterns [24]. The core data for landscape pattern research come mostly from categorization maps like plant, soil, and LULC maps [25]. Landscape ecologists can quickly obtain metrics for a given landscape thanks to the rapid development of GIS and RS technologies [26] and the availability of free [18] and updated software packages such as R and others [27]. Landscapes consist of a human-modified mosaic of spots, the spatial arrangement of which is referred to as a landscape pattern [28]. Landscape patterns are measured on patch, class, and landscape levels. In landscape-level surveys, patch-level metrics are quite important for giving critical information. Edges influence several species, and they are strongly related to patch interiors. This aids in the comparison of available neighborhood patches, which aids in the understanding of the patch and the degree of contrast between the patch and the surrounding area [29]. Metrics at the class level are averaged across all patches of a given type. This aids in determining how large patches contribute to the overall index. Habitat fragmentation is an example of this. Habitat fragmentation is a landscape-level process [30]. Here, it is broken down into smaller habitat fragments in metrics at the class level. This typically involves a variation in the structure and functions of the landscape composition. A single type of habitat patch, such as forest or grassland, that is demarcated in a GIS land use layer is commonly characterized as a class habitat, which is a unit between patch and mosaic [31] in landscape ecology. Because of their significant connections with numerous ecological processes, single-class spatial patterns have proven to be relevant in studies on species protection [32] and population dynamics [33]. As a result, many ecological studies [34] are interested in spatial trends at the class level. Metrics at the landscape level are the next level up in the hierarchy.