## 3 Results and Discussion
### Physicochemical Stability of Vitamin-Loaded Nanoemulsions
#### 3.1.3 Oxidative Stability of Vitamin-Loaded Nanoemulsions  
Nanoemulsions having codes (NE1-NE6) were kept at 25 \({}^{\circ}\)C in order to access the primary and secondary oxidation stability. Figure 3A,B shows that TFO-loaded nanoemulsions produced greater POV and TBARS oxidative products rather than MCT entrapped nanoemulsions. Additionally, NE5 nanoemulsions equipped by TFO, BC, 3% \(w/w\) VE had presented more instability in terms of oxidation. The MCT-loaded nanoemulsions showed higher stability toward oxidation that might be owing to containing medium-chain triglycerides, which are known for being less vulnerable toward oxidation rather than long-chain triglycerides [46]. In our earlier research, the oxidative instability of borage seed oil-loaded nanoemulsions was observed significantly [9]. In this study, loading of \begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c c c c c c} \hline \hline
**Nanoemulsions** & **Emulifier** & **Oil** & & & & \\
**Sample Codes** & **Type** & **Type** & **Bioactive Type** & **MPS (nm)** & **ZP (mV)** & **PDI** \\ \hline NE1 & PGU & TFO & BC (0.2\%) & 235 \(\pm\) 2.23 \({}^{\text{c}}\) & \(-\)38.2 \(\pm\) 1.34 & 0.162 \(\pm\) 0.023 \\ NE2 & PGU & MCT & BC (0.2\%) & 233 \(\pm\) 1.42 \({}^{\text{c}}\) & \(-\)33.6 \(\pm\) 0.45 & 0.134 \(\pm\) 0.009 \\ NE3 & PGU & TFO & BC (0.2\%) + VE (2\%) & 246 \(\pm\) 3.12 \({}^{\text{b}}\) & \(-\)38.4 \(\pm\) 0.76 & 0.129 \(\pm\) 0.049 \\ NE4 & PGU & MCT & BC (0.2\%) + VE (2\%) & 243 \(\pm\) 1.45 \({}^{\text{b}}\) & \(-\)35.6 \(\pm\) 0.54 & 0.112 \(\pm\) 0.045 \\ NE5 & PGU & TFO & BC (0.2\%) + VE (3\%) & 257 \(\pm\) 4.67 \({}^{\text{a}}\) & \(-\)33.9 \(\pm\) 0.32 & 0.147 \(\pm\) 0.078 \\ NE6 & PGU & MCT & BC (0.2\%) + VE (3\%) & 252 \(\pm\) 3.22 \({}^{\text{a}}\) & \(-\)33.1 \(\pm\) 0.92 & 0.103 \(\pm\) 0.035 \\ NE7 & PGU & TFO & BC (0.2\%) + CIN (1\%) & 222 \(\pm\) 4.34 \({}^{\text{d}}\) & \(-\)35.1 \(\pm\) 0.07 & 0.132 \(\pm\) 0.003 \\ NE8 & PGU & MCT & BC (0.2\%) + CIN (1\%) & 224 \(\pm\) 5.87 \({}^{\text{d}}\) & \(-\)33.7 \(\pm\) 0.65 & 0.092 \(\pm\) 0.075 \\ NE9 & PGU & TFO & BC (0.2\%) + VE (2\%) + CIN (1\%) & 244 \(\pm\) 3.12 \({}^{\text{b}}\) & \(-\)31.3 \(\pm\) 0.34 & 0.083 \(\pm\) 0.062 \\ NE10 & PGU & MCT & BC (0.2\%) + VE (2\%) + CIN (1\%) & 232 \(\pm\) 4.89 \({}^{\text{c}}\) & \(-\)29.7 \(\pm\) 0.89 & 0.010 \(\pm\) 0.013 \\ NE11 & TW-80 & TFO & BC (0.2\%) + VE (2\%) + CIN (1\%) & 186 \(\pm\) 3.41 \({}^{\text{e}}\) & N/D & 0.012 \(\pm\) 0.062 \\ NE12 & TW-80 & MCT & BC (0.2\%) + VE (2\%) + CIN (1\%) & 181 \(\pm\)1.38 \({}^{\text{e}}\) & N/D & 0.014 \(\pm\) 0.061 \\ \hline \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table} 
Table 1: Effect of carrier oils, emulsifiers, and entrapped bioactive compounds on MPS, ZP, and PDI of produced nanoemulsions. BC and VE could not deliver safety; therefore, nanoemulsions encompassing 3% \(w/w\) VE presented higher oxidative instability. For instance, [PERSON] et al. [47] observed more oxidative instability in emulsified systems encapsulating polyunsaturated oil and VE during storage. This contradicts with renowned phenomenon \"polar paradox\" that elaborated that hydrophobic and hydrophilic natural antioxidants could perform suitable results inside the emulsion-based matrices as well as in free oils, respectively. Though, numerous researches have successfully proved wrong to this hypothesis [48; 49]. In order to investigate the oxidative behavior (primary and secondary oxidative products), free carrier oils, i.e., TFO, MCT, or both enriched with BC and 2% \(w/w\) VE, were kept at 25 \({}^{\circ}\)C. For this purpose, Figure 3C clearly depicts that both oils (TFO and MCT) showed diverse attitudes for POV. TFO alone or in combination with any studied bioactive compounds was found to be more unstable owing to more production of POV, but MCT alone or in combination with any studied bioactive compounds revealed more stability toward oxidation. In the case of secondary oxidation, TFO combined with 2% (\(w/w\)) VE had presented higher TBARS values, as illustrated in Figure 3D.