### Batteries  
The batteries in BEVs differ from starting, lighting, and ignition batteries in that they are designed as deep cycle batteries intended to provide power for extended periods. These batteries are characterized by their relatively high power/weight ratio, specific energy, and energy density.  
Table 1 presents a comparative analysis of the main characteristics of different batteries based on data from several authors [4; 5; 6]. The battery emissions referred to in this table include emissions from the extraction of the materials that make up the battery up to its assembly in the vehicle.  
Current electric vehicle technologies are predominantly based on lithium-ion batteries due to their superior performance. Such batteries account for 85.6% of the energy storage systems used in the global market in 2015; despite being the most expensive, they have the lowest cost per cycle [9]. Electric vehicles require a battery system that is made up of hundreds or thousands of individual cells grouped to provide the necessary voltage, power, and energy.  
\begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c c c c c c c} \hline \hline
**Parameter** & **Pb-PbO2** & **Ni-Cd** & **Ni-MH** & **ZnBr2** & **Na-NiCl2** & **Na-S** & **Li-Ion** \\ \hline Temperature of & \(-\)20–50 & 0–50 & 0–50 & 10–40 & 300–350 & 300–350 & \(-\)20–60 \\ operation [\({}^{\circ}\)C] & & & & & & & \\ Energy density & 30–40 & 40–60 & 60–120 & 60–80 & 120–150 & 150–240 & 150–260 \\ [Wh/kg] & & & & & & & \\ Voltage of each & 2.0 & 1.2 & 1.2 & 1.79 & 2.58 & 2.08 & 3.6 \\ cell [V] & & & & & & & \\ Max. No. of & 200–300 & 500–1000 & 500–1000 & \(>\)2000 & 1500–2000 & 2500–4500 & 400–3000 \\ charging cycles & & & & & & & \\ Emissions & 200–300 & 250–350 & 300–400 & 400–500 & 500–600 & 600–700 & 150–200 \\
[gCO2e/kWh] & & 5 & 5 & 4 & 2 & 1.3–1.7 & 0.7–0.8 & 2 \\ \hline \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table}
Table 1: Comparison of different types of batteries (adapted from [4; 5; 6; 7; 8]).  
Figure 1: Evolution of average range of BEVs (adapted from [2]).  
Although lithium-ion batteries have a greater environmental impact during production due to material extraction and processing, ongoing advancements and recycling efforts are mitigating their global carbon footprint, and solid-state batteries have the potential to further reduce emissions, although they are not yet commercially viable [10; 11].  
In 2020, the highest gravimetric energy density for lithium-ion cells was 304 Wh/kg using NMC 811 cathodes [12]. Recent developments include 400 Wh/kg cells with nickel-rich cathodes and 720 Wh/kg cells with LiCoMnO\({}_{4}\) cathodes [13]. The EU and Asia aim to produce batteries with a gravimetric energy density of more than 400 Wh/kg by 2030 [12; 13]. Innovations in battery packaging, such as CTP designs, can also improve performance.  
The prices of lithium-ion batteries have been reduced from USD 1200 to 132 per kWh of battery. This reduction is mainly due to advances in battery technology and manufacturing efficiency.  
Tables 2 and 3 show the amount of emissions for each kWh battery produced in different countries, the actual values in 2023, and forecasts for 2030. Sweden, with its low emissions, serves as a model for sustainable production.  
The total CO\({}_{2}\)e emission of 97 kgCO\({}_{2}\)e/kWh shown in Table 2 is a weighted average that was calculated considering the battery-manufacturing countries. The weight given to each country for the calculation of that average is directly related to the number of batteries produced in that country. Therefore, the value shown is closer to the Chinese value than to the Swedish value.