esa-sceva/satcom-chunk-collection huggingface dataset:
# Advancing Few-Shot Named Entity Recognition with Large Language Model
## 4 Experiments
### Analysis of the Effectiveness of Various Methods in Prompt Design
However, on the OntoNotes, removing the demonstrations leads to better performance, indicating that noise in these demonstrations may hinder model understanding. When noise exists in the support set, the classification performance of large and small language models is affected to varying degrees. Large language models, which leverage extensive world knowledge, exhibit stronger robustness against noise, whereas smaller models are more prone to noise interference in few-shot setting. Analysis of the Effectiveness of Prompt Engineering  
Prompt engineering techniques can further stimulate the model's reasoning abilities. We evaluate how different zero-shot prompting approaches affect the performance of model. As shown in Table 8, metacognitive prompting improves performance by 0.76% in the 1-shot setting and 0.23% in the 5-shot setting compared to our prompt. Emulating human metacognition enhances the model's ability to comprehend and execute NER tasks more effectively. However, zero-shot CoT and self-verification prompting generally lead to performance degradation. The CoT prompting is originally designed for tasks requiring explicit step-by-step reasoning, such as mathematical or logical problems. In contrast, NER primarily relies on textual semantics and contextual understanding, which do not align perfectly with CoT's strengths. For self-verification prompting, if the initial prediction is highly uncertain, the mechanism allows the model to reassess and correct errors, explaining its effectiveness on certain datasets (e.g., CoNLL). However, if the model is overly confident in an incorrect prediction, the verification process may reinforce the error by drawing upon the same underlying knowledge base and reasoning patterns. Therefore, for tasks heavily reliant on semantic understanding, such as NER, prompt designs should prioritize enhancing text comprehension. \begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c c c c c c c c c c c} \hline \hline \multirow{2}{*}{**TD**} & \multirow{2}{*}{**FSE**} & \multicolumn{6}{c}{**1-Shot**} & \multicolumn{6}{c}{**5-Shot**} \\ \cline{3-11}  & & **CONLL** & **GUM** & **WNUT** & **Onto** & **Avg.** & **CONLL** & **GUM** & **WNUT** & **Onto** & **Avg.** \\ \hline ✓ & ✓ & **63.90** & **23.92** & **49.61** & 55.49 & 48.23 & **72.78** & **40.48** & **55.03** & 67.12 & **58.85** \\ \(\times\) & ✓ & 63.80 & 23.78 & 48.88 & 53.20 & 47.42 & 72.77 & 40.37 & 54.68 & 66.82 & 58.66 \\ ✓ & \(\times\) & 63.79 & 23.52 & 49.51 & **56.39** & **48.30** & 72.15 & 40.43 & 54.78 & **67.77** & 58.78 \\ \(\times\) & \(\times\) & 62.80 & 23.17 & 48.45 & 51.29 & 46.43 & 71.82 & 40.35 & 54.57 & 66.58 & 58.33 \\ \hline \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table} 
Table 7: Effect of type definitions and demonstrations on the CrossNER with the micro-F1 metric (%). TD stands for type definition, and FSE stands for few-shot examples.
# Real-Time Control System for Model Railway Based on SIMIS W Interlocking System
## 2 System Architecture
### Software  
The software architecture of the control system is shown in Figure 3. The structure of real railway signalling systems inspired the design. The functional algorithms are divided into several levels. The highest level of the control and display layer contains the ILTIS-N operator workstation algorithms. These applications represent individual train dispatcher workstations at stations and dispatching centres.  
The second layer includes algorithms for multiple railway signalling systems. The block systems include the AB3-74 automatic block system with two-block signalling and the AH-88 automatic block system with one-block signalling. The PZZ-EA electronic level-crossing system represents the level-crossing systems.  
These signalling systems were previously designed and tested as part of various bachelor's theses [9; 10] and modified to handle communication with the new interlocking system based on the SIMIS W electronic interlocking system. As in the real system, the control algorithms for SIMIS W are separated from those for controlling external objects (e.g., signals and switches). The control algorithms are embedded in executable PC applications, while the external object control algorithms are implemented on the S7-1200 PLC.  
The third layer consists of functional algorithms for external objects. These algorithms process commands from higher layers and directly control LEDs in train signals and switch motors. They were designed as function blocks for the PLC.  
A REST API facilitates communication between the desktop PC and the PLC. The S7-1200 PLC is configured to be controllable using GET and PUT commands. A central REST API communication server was created on one of the desktop PCs to store shared data between ILTIS-N applications and manage cyclic data exchanges with the S7-1200 PLC.  
The cooperating ESA-44 interlocking system operates on a dedicated desktop PC. Using a custom-designed communication interface, it communicates with the SIMIS W interlocking system via a REST API server. Additionally, ESA-44 has been modified to communicate with the DCC central controller of the model railway to ensure autonomous train operation.
## 4 Discussion
### Directions for Future Research Improvement  
In the future, further improvement of the daily scale satellite precipitation downscaling model, incorporating the calibration of rain gauges, could be achieved by taking the following factors into consideration. First, the correlation between some other auxiliary environmental variables and precipitation should be considered as much as possible to construct a daily scale for the GWR model to achieve precipitation downscaling, such as soil moisture, evapotranspiration, temperature, humidity, and atmospheric circulation [4; 119]. In addition, related studies have shown that, based on the linear relationship between cloud attributes and precipitation, hourly or sub-hourly precipitation downscaling could be achieved to satisfy the multi-scale application of precipitation data, which should be the focus of future research [73]. At the same time, the errors in the original satellite precipitation products should not be ignored; they can instead be discussed by combining the bias-corrected satellite estimates with rain gauge observations [64]. Secondly, according to the above research results, the GWR downscaling calibration model illustrates various downscaling accuracies at different geographical locations. For example, the altitude has a significant influence on the downscaling calibration results [112], and the GWR model should be further improved and developed to resolve related issues. Finally, the introduction of auxiliary variables and multi-source satellite data, coupled with numerical weather prediction (NWP) models, and the development of new data fusion algorithms and precipitation data fusion models referenced by auxiliary variables are conducive to improving the quality of precipitation products [1; 74].
# OBU for Accurate Navigation through Sensor Fusion in the Framework of the EMERGE Project
## 2 EMERGE Onboard System Architecture
### EMERGE Navigation System Implementation
#### 2.1.3 Signal and Information Exchange  
The _Always Connected_ paradigm opens up many possibilities and functionalities for the satellite navigation system. Therefore, a communication system between internal and external elements is essential. We use MQTT as a communication protocol to guarantee agile and lightweight internal communication between the OBU components (sensors, SW modules, monitoring services). MQTT is a standards-based communication protocol [26], or set of rules, used to communicate from one device/sensor/component to another. Intelligent sensors, wearable devices, and other IoT elements typically transmit and receive data that require modest bandwidth. Therefore, MQTT is used for data exchange as it is easy to implement and can communicate data efficiently.  
Figure 2 presents a detailed view of exchanging messages via the MQTT broker (Identified as \"SBC BROKER\"). The arrowheads on the individual connections show whether it is only a subscriber, publishes and subscribes, or only publishes messages through the Broker. For instance, given its observation functionality, the Monitoring block only intends to receive messages and not publish them. Sensors and services publish correctly decoded measured/acquired data in a dedicated Topic, from where they are accessible to the processes or modules that process them. The _Controller4 Controllers_ module is responsible for configuring, calibrating and synchronising the sensors and coding/decoding SW components. The Broker is also involved in the external communication process via the _OBUI COMM_ module. After the appropriate encryption process, the information to be transmitted to the control centre is made available in a dedicated Topic managed by the Data Management element.
# An Overview of Cube-Satellite Propulsion Technologies and Trends
## 5 Resistojets
### Design Considerations and Technologies  
Resistojets with a variety of propellants have been used on larger satellites, and like any other systems with liquid propellants, they have experienced issues due to sloshing within the tanks [56]. Free Molecule Micro Resistojet (FMMR) developed with water as the propellant is one of the systems that can potentially counter these issues [56]. FMMR is a low cost, low power consumption and low mass MEMS fabricated resistojet that operates by heating a propellant gas as it expands through a series of slots [56; 57]. There are three major advantages of using water as the propellant: first, water is stored as a liquid and can save the volume occupied by the propellant due to its high storage density; second, due to its lower molecular mass, water propellant can improve the specific impulse; third,  
Figure 4: Schematic of a Resistojet Propulsion.  
water has sufficiently high vapor pressure at typical smallsat (<10 kg) on-orbit temperature because of which it can be directly used to produce thrust without pre-vaporization [56]. During laboratory experiments of FMMR, it has been demonstrated that the effect of the propellant sloshing on spacecraft attitude stability is minimal [56].  
Resistojets are known to provide lower thrust and are mainly employed for attitude control on larger satellites. CubeSat High Impulse Propulsion System (CHIPS) resistojet developed by CU Aerospace, Champaign, IL, USA and VACCO Industries Inc., Huntsville, AL, USA. CHIPS offers dual mode operation: first, warm fire mode (30 mN thrust and 82 s I\({}_{sp}\)) for high thrust operations; second, cold fire mode (19 mN thrust and 47 s I\({}_{sp}\)) for low thrust (attitude control) operations [58]. Table 4 provides a summary of the surveyed resistojets and their performance parameters. None of these resistojets have a heritage of flying on a CubeSat mission, however one of them has been used on a bigger spacecraft. Other resisto-thermal propulsion systems such as Pulsed Electrothermal Thrusters (PET), microwave electrothermal thrusters and arc jets are mentioned in the Section 11 of the current paper.
###### Abstract  
As the size of portable electronic devices, like tablet computers or smartphones, continues to decrease and their performance continues to increase, thermal management of the generated heat is becoming an ever more important issue. Phase change materials (PCMs) integration is a promising approach to reduce overheating of electronic components in tablet design while keeping the temperature of the cover surface within a comfortable range. This work focuses on the experimental thermal investigation of thin encapsulated PCM packages in combination with a thermal spreader as a solution for thermal management in portable electronic devices. The packages had an overall thickness of less than 2 mm in order to meet the requirements for integration in thin portable electronic devices. A simplified setup at a scale similar to a modern tablet computer was used for the experimental investigations. Experiments were conducted to study, for the first time, the local thermal behavior of the thin packages and their influence on the temperature increase of the heat source and cover surface. Two different PCMs were tested: \(n\)-eicosane and dodecanoic acid. An aluminum sheet with a thickness of 0.4 mm was used as a thermal spreader. It was determined that the combination of a spreader and the thin PCM packages led to substantial reduction of the temperature increase of both the heater and the cover. Compared to the case where neither a spreader nor a PCM package was used, the heater and cover maximum temperatures were reduced by 45% and 42%, respectively, when a constant heat power input of 5 W for 60 min was applied.  
phase change material (PCM); temperature control; thermal storage; portable electronics; experimental investigation
## Biomedical Applications
### Immunomodulating Activity  
The immune system is a form of body defense in humans that is used to protect themselves from invading agents. Modulation of the immune system plays an essential role in health management and the mechanism of disease in humans. The importance of the immune system comes from the need to eliminate and modulate pathogenic and nonpathogenic microorganisms that can inhibit the body's ability to maintain homeostasis [129]. Immune system enhancing agents can be obtained from natural materials such as seaweed. _Ulva_ sp. has effectiveness as immunomodulating and the active ingredient is ulvan. Over the last five years, various _Ulva_ species have been studied for effectiveness as immunomodulators, one of which is _Ulva intestinalis_. _U. intestinalis_ has biochemical characteristics and immunomodulator activity. It is known from research that _U. intestinalis_ shows immunomodulatory activity by stimulating the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, including nitric oxide (NO), tumor necrosis factor-\(\alpha\) (TNF-\(\alpha\)), and interleukin-1\(\beta\) (IL-1\(\beta\)) in J774A macrophage cells [95]. Other studies confirm that ulvan from _U. Ontoi_ has an immunomodulatory effect, which was tested in vitro. The in vitro immunomodulatory effect of the ulvan fraction was quantified by measuring the ability of the molecular level to mediate inflammation released from murine macrophages RAW 264.7 stimulated by LPS. All ulvan fractions showed no toxicity to RAW 264.7 cells at concentrations below 100 \(\mu\)g/mL for more than 48 h. Interleukin-10 and prostaglandin E2 exhibit anti-inflammatory effects by higher molecular weight ulvan fractions at 100 \(\mu\)g/mL [94]. Water-soluble sulfated polysaccharidesextracted from _U. intestinalis_ and fractionated using DEAE Sepharose's fast flow column to identify molecular properties and stimulating activity of macrophage cells [130]. There are also effects of _U. olnoi_ on nutraceuticals and aquaculture, which have tested the immunomodulating effect on Sengalesse sole (_Solea senegalensis_). The results of this study provide new evidence about the role of ulvan as a bioactive compound with immunomodulatory activity in Senegalese sole (_Solea senegalensis_). This is the first published study evaluating transcriptomic responses from Senegal that were injected with ulvan [14].
## 4 Experimental Study
### Hyperparameter Results  
To improve the outcomes, we adjusted some XGBoost hyperparameters on a specific dataset by utilizing the grid search framework in scikit-learn [38; 39]. Figure 6a displays a graph of the F1-weighted performance for each learning rate with variation in the number of trees. In addition, the data indicated that an optimal outcome was achieved when using a learning rate of 0.1 and 100 trees. The anticipated overall pattern remained consistent, with the performance improving as the number of trees increased.  
Figure 6b illustrates the correlation between the number of trees in the model and the individual depth of each tree. We created a grid consisting of six distinct values for the number of estimators (50, 100, 150, 200, 300, and 400) and six distinct values for the maximum tree depth (2, 4, 6, 8, 10, and 12). Each combination was evaluated using 10-fold cross-validation, resulting in the training and evaluation of 360 models (6 \(\times\) 6 \(\times\) 10). The optimal outcome was obtained by utilizing 150 estimators and setting the maximum depth to 6, resulting in a superior F1-weighted score.  
Compared with other advanced ML-based techniques for diabetes detection, our MAH_XGB method demonstrated superior performance. As detailed in Table 8, this method outperforms various state-of-the-art ML-based algorithms in terms of the accuracy and AUC metrics. For example, MAH_XGB achieved a remarkable accuracy of 98.04% and an AUC of 98.71% on the target dataset, exceeding those of other models such as CatBoost CBC [26] and DDLNN [27]. This indicated the exceptional efficacy of MAH_XGB in predicting diabetes risk by setting a new benchmark in the field.  
\begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c c c} \hline \hline
**Algorithms** & **Accuracy (\%)** & \(p\)**-Value** & **95\% CI** \\ \hline MAH\_XGB & 98.04 & 3.52 \(\times\) 10\({}^{-15}\) & 97.89–98.59 \\ MAH\_KNN & 78.80 & 3.89 \(\times\) 10\({}^{-15}\) & 77.66–79.89 \\ MAH\_DT & 94.97 & 3.33 \(\times\) 10\({}^{-15}\) & 93.56–97.52 \\ MAH\_RF & 97.71 & 3.98 \(\times\) 10\({}^{-15}\) & 97.62–98.08 \\ MAH\_NB & 61.01 & 3.93 \(\times\) 10\({}^{-15}\) & 79.88–81.96 \\ \hline \hline \end{tabular}  
* 95% confidence interval (CI): a 95% confidence interval is a statistical measure that provides a range of values based on sample data, within which there is a 95% probability that the correct population parameter will lie. \(p\)-value: the \(p\)-value represents the likelihood of obtaining results that are as extreme as or more extreme than the observed results under the assumption that the null hypothesis is true. Statistical significance was set at \(p<0.05\).  
\end{table}
Table 7: Statistical significance of the overall mean accuracy, \(p\)-values, and CI values for diabetes risk prediction using ML algorithms on target dataset 1.  
Figure 6: Influence of learning rate, number of estimators, and depth of trees on performance of XGBoost model. (**a**) Learning rate and n_estimator, (**b**) depth and n_estimator.
# Comparison of Dual-Combustion Ramjet and Scramjet Performances Considering Combustion Efficiency
## 2 Materials and Methods
### Physical Model
#### 2.2.2 Boundary Conditions  
As can be seen from Figure 1, the overlapping Mach numbers of the DCR and scramjet were between 6 and 7. Therefore, the operating condition 1's flight height and Mach number were, respectively, 30 km and 6 Ma, denoted as scramjet 1 and DCR 1, while operating condition 2's flight height and Mach number were, respectively, 30 km and 7 Ma, denoted as scramjet 2 and DCR 2. The equivalence ratio of the two engines under four operating conditions was 0.8, and the air split ratio (airflow rate of supersonic combustor/subsonic combustor) of DCR was 1:4. Other boundary conditions are shown in Table 2.  
In this study, the kerosene was treated as a gas, the SST \(k\)-\(\omega\) model was selected as the turbulence model, the wall was regarded as the adiabatic non-slip condition, the mass inlet boundary condition was adopted at the inlet, and the pressure outlet was selected at  
\begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c c c c} \hline  & \(\hat{m}_{A\_tot}\)**kg/s** & \(T_{0}\)**, K** & \(P_{0}\)**, kPa** & \(Ma_{c\_in}\) \\ \hline Scramjet 1 & 3.72 & 1694 & 889 & 2.4 \\ Scramjet 2 & 2.74 & 2224 & 1241 & 2.8 \\ DCR 1 & 3.72 & 1694 & 889 (448) & 2.4 (0.3) \\ DCR 2 & 3.03 & 2224 & 1241 (383) & 2.8 (0.3) \\ \hline \end{tabular} Note: the inlet parameters of DCR subsonic combustor are given in the parentheses.  
\end{table}
Table 2: Boundary conditions of DCRs and scramjets.  
Figure 2: Geometric model of (**a**) the scramjet [28] and (**b**) the DCR (unit: mm).  
the outlet. It should be noted that the average values involved in this paper were mass weighted averages.
## 1 Introduction
Anion complex capacity is an important factor responsible for the affinity of P for metal oxide surfaces, which allows binding to surface groups by ligand exchange reactions [25]. The sorption of P on iron/aluminum oxide-based composite sorbents containing two (or more) metal oxides has been reported in the literature. Such adsorbents, e.g., Al-Fe oxide [26], Fe-Mn oxide [27], Fe-Cu oxides [20], Mg-Al hydroxides, and Mg-Fe hydroxides [28], have been reported for P removal and are mostly comprised of divalent and trivalent cations. It has also been reported that composite metal oxides not only retain the advantages of single component oxides but can also significantly improve their sorption capacity. Titanium (Ti) is one of the primary elements in the environment, similar to iron and aluminum. Recent reports demonstrate that titanium (IV) is a new alternative material exhibiting an acceptable sorption capacity for P [29]. Therefore, it can be expected that if Ti salts are incorporated into aluminum or iron oxides, the resulting product will not only retain the favorable properties of their individual components but also display enhanced capacity for P sorption owing to a synergistic effect. Mixed metal oxides, with Ti introduced, designed with multivalent metal ions, particularly tetravalent cations (Ti\({}^{4+}\)), could form more sorption sites (\(\equiv\)M-OH) and reactive surfaces if defects are created [30]. Fe-Ti oxides have been synthesized and exhibit the potential to be sorbents for P removal [31]. However, to the best of our knowledge, there has been no report on P adsorption by Al-Ti oxides. In the present study, a series of Al-Ti bimetal oxides with different Al/Ti molar ratios was synthesized via a co-precipitation method and tested for P sorption from aqueous solutions, to determine the optimum Al/Ti molar ratio in bimetal oxides. The morphological structure and adsorption properties of the Al-Ti bimetal oxides were examined by X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, and nitrogen adsorption desorptions measurements. Measurements of adsorption isotherms and thermodynamics were carried out to explore the adsorption process. In addition, regeneration and recovery of used Al-Ti oxides were performed by their exposure to alkaline solution and subsequent filtration with water. The purpose of this study is as follows: (i) to verify whether a new bimetallic Al-Ti oxides can adsorb phosphorus; (ii) evaluate the effects Al/Ti molar ratios, initial P concentration on the adsorption; (iii) determine the adsorption isotherm.