## 4 Challenges
### Human-Machine Interaction  
Due to the remarkable performance in natural language processing and generation, LLMs enable systems to effectively complete human-machine interactions (HMIs). For instance, the self-driving technology company Wayve has unveiled a vision-language-action model, called Lingo-1 ([[https://wayve.ai/press/introducing_lingo1/](https://wayve.ai/press/introducing_lingo1/)]([https://wayve.ai/press/introducing_lingo1/](https://wayve.ai/press/introducing_lingo1/)), accessed on 18 July 2024), which can interactively explain its decision-making to the user. Tesla's voice command system ([[https://www.tesla.com/support/voice-commands](https://www.tesla.com/support/voice-commands)]([https://www.tesla.com/support/voice-commands](https://www.tesla.com/support/voice-commands)), accessed on 18 July 2024) allows drivers to control various in-car functions through natural language, reducing manual interactions. For autonomous driving (AD), automation levels are defined from \begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{l l c c c c c c c c c c} \hline \hline \multirow{2}{*}{**Model**} & **Release** & **Size** & **Base** & & & **Pre-Train** & **Latest Data** & **Hardware** & **Training** & & \\  & **Time** & **(B)** & **Model** & **IT** & **RLHF** & **Data Scale** & **Timestamp** & **(GPUs / TPUs)** & **Time** & **ICL** & **CoT** \\ \hline T5 [118] & Oct-2019 & 11 & - & - & - & 1T tokens & Apr-2019 & 1024 & TPU v3 & - & ✓ & - \\ mT5 [120] & Oct-2020 & 13 & - & - & - & 1T tokens & - & - & - & ✓ & - \\ ParGu-\(\omega\)t [120] & Apr-2021 & 13 & - & - & - & 1.1 TB & - & 2048 Ascend 910 & - & ✓ & - \\ CPM-2 [121] & Jun-2021 & 198 & - & - & - & 2.6 TB & - & - & - & - & - \\ TO [122] & Oct-2021 & 11 & T5 & ✓ & - & 512 TPU v3 & 27 h & ✓ & - \\ CodeGen [123] & Mar-2022 & 16 & - & - & - & 577B tokens & - & - & - & ✓ & - \\ GPT-Neox-20B [124] & Apr-2022 & 20 & - & - & - & 825 CB & - & 96 40G A100 & - & ✓ & - \\ Tk-Invited [125] & Apr-2022 & 11 & T5 & ✓ & - & - & 256 TPU v3 & 4 h & ✓ & - \\ ULE [126] & May-2022 & 20 & - & - & - & 1T tokens & Apr-2019 & 512 TPU v4 & - & ✓ & ✓ \\ OPT [127] & May-2022 & 175 & - & - & - & 180B tokens & - & 992 8G A100 & - & ✓ & - \\ NLLB [128] & Jul-2022 & 54.5 & - & - & - & - & - & - & - & - \\ CodeGeeX [129] & Sep-2022 & 13 & - & - & - & 850B tokens & - & 1536 Ascend 910 & 60 d & ✓ & - \\ GLM [130] & Oct-2022 & 130 & - & - & - & 400B tokens & - & 768 40G A100 & 60 d & ✓ & - \\ Flan-5 [131] & Oct-2022 & 11 & T5 & ✓ & - & - & - & - & - & - & ✓ \\ BLOOM [132] & Nov-2022 & 176 & - & - & - & 366B tokens & - & 384 80G A100 & 105 d & ✓ & - \\ mTO [133] & Nov-2022 & 13 & mT5 & ✓ & - & - & - & - & - & ✓ & - \\ Galactic [134] & Nov-2022 & 120 & - & - & - & 106B tokens & - & - & - & ✓ & ✓ \\ BloomZ [135] & Nov-2022 & 176 & BLOOM & ✓ & - & - & - & - & - & ✓ & - \\ OPT-IML [136] & Dec-2022 & 175 & OPT & ✓ & - & - & - & 128 40G A100 & - & ✓ & ✓ \\ LLaMA [136] & Feb-2023 & 65 & - & - & - & 1.4T tokens & - & 2048 0G A100 & 21 d & ✓ & - \\ Pruthia [137] & Apr-2023 & 12 & - & - & - & 300B tokens & - & 256 40G A100 & - & ✓ & - \\ CodeGen [138] & May-2023 & 16 & - & - & - & 400B tokens & - & - & ✓ & - \\ StarGoder [139] & May-2023 & 15.5 & - & - & - & 1T tokens & - & 512 40G A100 & - & ✓ & ✓ \\ LLaMA2 [140] & Jul-2023 & 70 & - & ✓ & ✓ & 2T tokens & - & 2000 80G A100 & - & ✓ & - \\ Baiuchuan2 [141] & Sep-2023 & 13 & - & ✓ & ✓ & 2.6T tokens & - & 1024 A800 & - & ✓ & - \\ QWEN [142] & Sep-2023 & 14 & - & ✓ & ✓ & 3T tokens & - & - & - & ✓ & - \\ FLM [143] & Sep-2023 & 101 & - & ✓ & - & 31B tokens & - & 192 A800 & 22 d & ✓ & - \\ Skywork [144] & Oct-2023 & 13 & - & - & - & 3.2T tokens & - & 512 80G A800 & - & ✓ & - \\ \hline \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table} 
Table 6: Overview of recent open-source Large Language Models (✓ indicates yes, - indicated no). Level 0 (fully manual) to Level 5 (fully autonomous) according to the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE). All vehicles should be equipped with intelligent communication systems for both drivers and passengers, as voice is increasingly gaining control in the cockpit of a car.