esa-sceva/satcom-chunk-collection huggingface dataset:
# A Novel Hybrid Method for Urban Green Space Segmentation from High-Resolution Remote Sensing Images
## 2 Materials and Methods
### Data and Experiment Details
#### 2.5.5 Experimental Environment and Evaluation Metrics  
The experimental operating system was Windows 10, the GPU was NVIDIA GeForce RTX 3060 (NVIDIA, Santa Clara, CA, USA), the running memory was 12 G, and the deep learning framework was Pytorch1.7.1 and Cuda11.6. During the model training process, this article used the cosine annealing strategy to adjust the learning rate, and also used the SGD optimizer, whose weight attenuation was set to 1 \(\times\) 10\({}^{-4}\). All networks were optimized using the loss function of cross-entropy loss. In addition, the number of training iterations was 300 and the batch_ size was set to 2. To further optimize the model learning,  
Figure 8: Example of UGS-2 dataset.  
Figure 7: Example of UGS-1 dataset.  
the baseline learning rate was set to 0.001. The adjustment multiple was set to 0.98. The adjustment interval was set to 3.  
To quantitatively evaluate the robustness and effectiveness of the model, this study used four metrics, namely pixel accuracy (PA), mean pixel accuracy (MPA), and Intersection over Union (IOU), and mean Intersection over Union (MIOU) and other evaluation indicators to evaluate the model performance. The calculation formula for the above evaluation indicators is as follows:  
\[P =\frac{p_{ii}}{p_{ii}+p_{ij}} \tag{2}\] \[R =\frac{p_{ii}}{p_{ii}+p_{ji}}\] (3) \[PA =\sum_{i=0}^{k}\frac{P_{ii}}{\sum_{j=0}^{k}p_{ij}}\] (4) \[MPA =\frac{1}{k+1}\sum_{i=0}^{k}\frac{P_{ii}}{\sum_{j=0}^{k}p_{ij}}\] (5) \[IOU =\frac{p_{ii}}{\sum_{j=0}^{k}p_{ij}+\sum_{j=0}^{k}p_{ji}-p_{ii}}\] (6) \[MIOU =\frac{1}{k+1}\sum_{i=0}^{k}\frac{p_{ii}}{\sum_{j=0}^{k}p_{ij}+ \sum_{j=0}^{k}p_{ji}-p_{ii}} \tag{7}\]  
where precision (\(P\)) denotes the probability that the object category is predicted correctly in the prediction result; recall (\(R\)) denotes the probability that the object category is predicted correctly in the true value; \(k\) denotes the number of object categories excluding background; \(P_{ii}\) and \(P_{ji}\) denote the corresponding true and false positive; \(P_{ii}\) and \(P_{jj}\) denote the corresponding false and true negative. In semantic segmentation tasks, the Intersection over Union (IOU) metric quantifies the degree of overlap between the predicted segmented image and the actual ground truth image (labeled data). The mean IOU (MIOU) assesses the likeness between the true green space pixels and the predicted ones. A higher MIOU value indicates a stronger resemblance, making it a crucial measure of segmentation accuracy.
## 3 Results
### Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis of Non-Volatile Compounds  
A total of 59 non-volatile compounds were identified by combining BSTFA derivatization with GC-MS technology, including 41 acids, five alcohols, six sugar alcohols, five carbohydrates, one amino acid, and one ester (Figure 2). Out of them, 55 non-volatiles were quantified using authentic standards. Meanwhile, hydroxylic acid, glyceric acid, lignoercic acid, and 2-phenyl-1,2-propanediol were semi-quantified due to the absence of available standards. The quantification data can be found in Table S2. Among the non-volatile compounds in strong-aroma baijiu samples, organic acids predominated, followed by alcohols, while amino acids, sugar alcohols, and sugars were present at comparatively lower levels.  
In the four strong-aroma baijiu samples, lactic acid, palmitic acid and (Z)-oleic acid were the most abundant non-volatile organic acids. Among them, lactic acid reached the highest level of 1508.54 mg/L in the WLC sample, far more than other organic acids. In addition, the concentration of 2-hydroxyisocaproic acid, (Z,Z)-9,12-octadecadienoic acid was also high. Glycerol and 2-phenyl-1,2-propanediol were the most abundant non-volatile alcohols in strong-aroma baijiu. In addition, only one amino acid, L-5-Oxoproline, was detected in strong-aroma baijiu. The non-volatile profile of strong-aroma baijiu was brand-dependent. No obvious trends were observed between the two regions.
## 3 Test Results and Discussion
### Effect of Freeze-Thaw Cycles on Soil Volume Alterations  
This study also examines the volumetric variations in materials subjected to F-T cycles, highlighting the mitigating effects of MgCl\({}_{2}\). It has been documented that the volume of the samples expands during freezing due to water within the pores turning into ice, which is about 9% larger than its liquid form, causing soil particle displacement. Upon thawing, the volumes do not fully revert, leading to increased pore sizes and a reduced failure strength. This irreversible expansion and the consequent strength reduction are attributed to the structural alterations within the sample matrix, as outlined by [PERSON] et al. [58] and further supported by [PERSON] et al. [21] and [PERSON] et al. [59].  
The observations from this study not only verify this pattern through experimental testing but also effectively demonstrate the critical role of MgCl\({}_{2}\) solution concentrations in controlling this phenomenon. At \(-10\)\({}^{\circ}\)C, untreated samples and those treated with 4% MgCl\({}_{2}\) solution exhibited volume expansion proportional to the number of F-T cycles. Notably, the expansion was less pronounced in the samples treated with 4% MgCl\({}_{2}\), suggesting a mitigating effect of the solution. Samples with 9% and 14% MgCl\({}_{2}\) concentrations showed no volumetric changes, indicating MgCl\({}_{2}\) solution effectiveness in stabilizing volume against F-T-induced expansion (Figure 10a).  
At \(-20\)\({}^{\circ}\)C, a similar pattern emerged; this trend extends to the samples treated with 9% MgCl\({}_{2}\), which expanded less than those treated with 4% MgCl\({}_{2}\), underscoring the concentration-dependent efficacy of MgCl\({}_{2}\) in reducing expansion. Samples with a 14% MgCl\({}_{2}\) maintained their volume, supporting the stabilizing role of the MgCl\({}_{2}\) solution  
Figure 10: F-T cycle effects on samples’ volume alteration at: (**a**) \(-10\)\({}^{\circ}\)C and (**b**) \(-20\)\({}^{\circ}\)C.  
(Figure 10b). These results align with observed trends in F-T cycles tests, wherein higher MgCl\({}_{2}\) concentrations effectively prohibited strength loss. These observations collectively affirm the potential of a MgCl\({}_{2}\) solution, at specific concentrations, to function as an antifreeze stabilizer, thereby minimizing the detrimental impacts of F-T cycles on soil properties.  
Furthermore, it should be emphasized that because the samples were wrapped in plastic films, it was observed that they did not experience significant weight loss or moisture change during measurements.
## 4 Numerical Results  
### The Variation of Pile Response Subjected to Scour  
Figure 4 presents the comparison of the variation of the pile deflection at two different scour depths. By comparison, there is an evident impact of stress relief in the shallow horizon of remaining soil on the pile response after scouring as the stress state changes. More specifically, the maximum deflections are 18% and 26%, respectively, higher than the original soil. Based on the given lateral load, the point of contraflexure is in the depth of 36 m (6D), slightly affecting the scour depth. Moreover, the deflection below the depth of 35 m is negligible when the pile is flexible. Notably, the deflection development is similar to [PERSON]'s centrifuge test result of local scour condition [17]. As the scour depth around the pile runs up, the effective soil resistance fails, resulting in the drop of overall lateral bearing capacity. Meanwhile, it can be observed that the lateral resistance of the remaining soil is affected as the scour depth grows, namely, the embedding depth of the pile decreases.  
Figure 3: Schematic diagram of numerical modeling procedures in (**a**) no scour condition; (**b**) local scour condition; (**c**) general scour condition.  
Figure 5a,b exhibits the bending moment changed for two scour depths. As the scour expands the load eccentricity of the pile, Figure 5 displays the variation of the bending moment along the vertical depth for two various scour depths. As shown in the figure, the load lies in the eccentricity of the pile due to the scour expanding. Influenced by the lateral force, the maximum bending moment of \(S_{d1}=1\;D\;(6\;\mathrm{m})\) and \(S_{d2}=1.5\;D\;(9\;\mathrm{m})\) are respectively 18% and 26% higher than that of the original soil. The maximum bending moments along with the rest of the vertical depth increase to 1 m for \(S_{d1}=1\;D\;(6\;\mathrm{m})\) and 3 m for \(S_{d2}=1.5\;D\;(9\;\mathrm{m})\).  
On the other hand, the lateral resistance of the shallow horizon plunged apparently as the scour depth increases. The influence of scouring mainly affects the area from the remaining depth to 30 m can be explained by the large-diameter flexible monopiles in this study. The influence of the scouring depth on the flexible pile is less than that of the rigid pile after reaching the limit lateral displacement. Therefore, it is necessary to refer to the variation of load-displacement behavior at different depths for further analysis at given lateral displacement on the pile head.
# Performance Evaluation of VANET Routing Protocols in Madinah City
## 6 Conclusions  
In this work, we evaluated the performance of various VANET routing protocols in Madinah city under different traffic scenarios. Two reactive routing protocols, AODV and DYMO, are selected, while one proactive protocol, DSDV, is considered. We considered both fully autonomous and human-driven vehicles in our study to replicate the state of future traffic. We further model multiple traffic distributions with the varying volume of autonomous and human-driven vehicles, along with several traffic densities to represent different traffic conditions. We performed simulations to analyze the average trip time and average communication latency between vehicles. For an average trip time, we found that fully autonomous traffic distribution achieved the shortest trip time, with a reduction of around 7.1% compared to other distributions with human-driven vehicles. For average latency, we observed that the DSDV protocol performs better in fully human-driven scenarios. However, in the case of fully autonomous traffic, both reactive protocols outperform the DSDV protocol, reducing the latency by 2.38 milliseconds (33.7% improvement). From our experiments, we recommend the use of reactive routing protocols compared to the proactive DSDV protocol, as the control message overhead of DSDV is much higher. Furthermore, we performed an ANOVA test to examine the effect of factors on the trip time and latency results. For the average trip time, we observed that the routes compared to traffic density and distribution had the most significant effect (91.8%) on the variation  
\begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c c c c} \hline \hline
**Component** & **Sum of Squares** & **Perc. Variation** & **DF** & **Mean Square** \\ \hline \(y\) & 538.0728 & & 60 & \\ \(\hat{y}\) & 427.9177 & & 1 & \\ \(y-g\) & 110.1531 & 100.00\% & 59 & \\ Main Effects & 102.0573 & 92.7\% & 9 & 11.3 \\ D & 100.3077 & 91.1\% & 3 & \\ T & 1.5098 & 1.4\% & 4 & \\ RP & 0.2398 & 0.2\% & 2 & \\ First-order Interactions & 6.0242 & 5.5\% & 26 & 0.2 \\ D-T & 4.3165 & & 12 & \\ D-RP & 0.9441 & & 6 & \\ T-RP & 0.7635 & & 8 & \\ Second-order Interactions & 2.0716 & 1.9\% & 24 & 0.1 \\ D-T-RP & 2.0716 & & 24 & \\ \hline \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table}
Table 10: ANOVA of latency.  
Figure 18: Quantile—Quantile Plot of Latency Residual.  
of the results. On the other hand, traffic density had the highest impact on the latency result (91.1%) compared to other factors. The ANOVA table also highlighted the effects of the interactions between the factors on the results. The visual tests observed from the Q-Q plots exhibit that the residuals fall evenly around the least-squares line, forming a heavy-tailed linear line. This confirms our assumption that the residuals are normally distributed. Hence, the variation in the results is not random but due to factors considered in our study.
## 2 Background
### Risks of Reducing Crew on Crew and Vessel Safety
#### 2.4.1 Navigational Accidents and Human Error  
Before onboard crews are potentially moved shoreside, they most likely will be reduced to minimum operating levels as certain tasks and jobs are automated. Reducing crew size while increasing vessel automation does not automatically reduce the amount of duties required of the remaining crew onboard. Moving crew shoreside can also be argued as a transfer of human error with no actual reduction of human error within the chain [2].  
Human error is a problem. According to the European Maritime Safety Agency (EMSA), of the 1801 accident events that were analyzed from 2014 to 2019 and took place in EU waters and/or were flying EU member state flags, 54% of the accidents were attributed to \"human action\". Within these 1801 analyzed accidents, 3640 contributing factors were associated with shipboard operation, which proved to be the highest contributing factor to the accident [35]. Deck Officers are also stated as being a primary cause for navigational casualties, which are defined as collisions, groundings, and/or standings [36].  
Introducing semi and fully autonomous ships could reduce the number of maritime accidents [37]. However, removing experienced personnel from ships could mean that any accident that does occur could be far more severe. A study conducted by [PERSON] et al. [2] analyzed 100 marine accidents that occurred between 1999 and 2015 using Human Factors Analysis and Classification System for Maritime Accidents (HFACS-MA). These accidents took place in varied geographical regions, with the majority of them being groundings occurring in Northern Europe. The results from this study concluded that unmanned vessels would decrease human-error-caused accidents 3:1 and eliminate onboard fatalities, but there would be an increase in consequences once an accident occurs. Situational assessment, decision making, and damage control, which are all normally completed by onboard crew, are no longer possible, thus increasing a vessel's consequences once involved in an accident [2]. Technology risk equates to probability x impact [38]. In this case, this prompts further investigation into weighing up the cons of the probability of a risk of increased impacts outweighing the pros of a decrease in the number of accidents.
## 3 Results and Discussion
### Relations Between Experimental Factors and Parameters Tested
Additionally, a moderate yet positive correlation was observed between yield and the total flavonoid content, particularly with apigenin, indicating that flavonoid accumulation could also be linked to plant productivity. Conversely, a negative correlation was identified between barley yield and the levels of caffe acid and quercetin-3-O-rutinoside, implying that elevated concentrations of these compounds might be associated with reduced yields or stress responses. Fertilization levels showed positive correlations with gallic acid, the amount of kaempfer-3-O-glycoside, quercetin, and the sum of flavonoids tested, suggesting that increased nitrogen input may promote the biosynthesis of these secondary metabolites. However, this result is not typical based on past experiments. The mycotoxin 15-AcDON demonstrated a strong and negative correlation with ferulic acid and kaempfer, suggesting that higher concentrations of 15-AcDON are associated with lower levels of these phenolic compounds. Additionally, the sum of mycotoxins T-2 and HT-2 exhibited negative correlations with various polyphenols, including _p_-coumaric acid, sinapic acid, kaempfer, quercetin-3-O-rutinoside, and kaempfer-3-O-glycoside, indicating an inverse relationship between these toxins and specific antioxidant constituents. Conversely, fumonisms B1 + B2 showed a positive correlation solely with lutein, implying a potential association between these mycotoxins and carotenoid content. Further analysis highlighted that flavonoid levels correlated with lutein. Our findings, as well as others, suggest complex interactions between mycotoxin contamination and the phytochemical profile of barley, which may be influenced by cultivation practices and environmental factors [77; 78; 79].
# Induction Coil Design Considerations for High-Frequency Domestic Cooktops
## 4 The Proposal of High-Frequency Induction Coil Design  
In this section, the parameters that should be taken into consideration when designing an induction cooktop for domestic induction cookers are mentioned.  
As the number of windings and cores in the induction coil increases, the equivalent inductance increases, and since the induced magnetic flux increases, the equivalent resistance value will also increase. The air gap is also an important design parameter. Increasing the air gap decreases the equivalent resistance (reduces magnetic dependence) while increasing the inductance. In case the air gap is reduced, the equivalent resistance increases and the inductance decreases. Based on this, the number of windings and the number of cores should be updated according to the desired air gap. The air gap is formed by the glass, mica, and spacers used. Since the glass and mica thicknesses are fixed here, the air gap can be adjusted with the help of the spacers to be used.  
The structured finite element method (FEM) optimization of induction coil designs improves performance and efficiency. After identifying goals and limits, an initial design and material selection are made. The FEM model is created by importing geometry, meshing, and adding boundary conditions and loads. Iterative electromagnetic, thermal, and structural evaluations focus on field distribution, temperature, and mechanical stress to enhance the design. Optimization algorithms automate design improvements. Balance accuracy and computing cost, account for material nonlinearities, and provide realistic boundary conditions. Experimental results verify the improved design. This method improves induction coil performance in numerous applications.  
Figure 10: Proximity effect at 100 kHz excitation and 0.5 mm wire diameter at different configurations: (a) 2 wires configuration; (b) 4 wires configuration.
# A Survey on Open Radio Access Networks: Challenges, Research Directions, and Open Source Approaches
## 3 Open RAN Movement and the Related Technologies  
This section will introduce the history of the Open RAN movement and the technologies used to build Open RAN. The Open RAN term had been proposed since May 2002 [15]. However, the current widely known Open RAN term is an industry movement in wireless telecommunications to develop disaggregated and interoperable RAN [16]. Disaggregated and interoperable are the two fundamental pillars of Open RAN. The two fundamental pillars will significantly benefit us because Open RAN's architecture will  
Figure 1: RAN architecture per generation.  
enable a multivendor environment and can run on general-purpose processors. In the next subsections, we will explain the technologies that support Open RAN in detail.
###### Abstract  
Biochar amendment and substituting chemical fertilizers with organic manure (organic substitution) have been widely reported to improve intensive vegetable production. However, considering its high potential for reducing carbon and reactive nitrogen (Nr) footprints, very few comprehensive evaluations have been performed on the environmental and economic aspects of biochar amendment or organic substitution. In this study, the comprehensive environmental damage costs from carbon and Nr footprints, measured using the life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology, followed a cradle-to-gate approach, and the carbon storage benefits were incorporated into the newly constructed net ecosystem economic benefit (NEEB) assessment frame in addition to the conventional product income-input cost-benefit methods. One kilogram of harvested vegetables for carbon/Nr footprints and one hectance of cultivated land per crop for cost and benefit were adopted as functional units considering the multi-cropping characteristics for intensive vegetable production. Five fertilization treatments were included: no fertilizer (CK); synthetic fertilizer application (SN); biochar amendment (NB); organic substitution (NM); and a combination of biochar and organic substitution (NMB). These were investigated for five consecutive years of vegetable crop rotations in a typically intensified vegetable production region in China. Adopting the revised NEEB methodology, NB significantly reduced carbon footprint by 73.0% compared to no biochar addition treatment. Meanwhile, NB significantly increased the total benefits by 9.7% and reduced the environmental damages by 52.7% compared to NM, generating the highest NEEB, making it the most effective fertilization strategy among all treatments. It was 4.3% higher compared to NM, which was not significant, but significantly higher than SN and NMB, by 23.0% and 13.6%, respectively. This finding highlights the importance of considering carbon storage benefit for properly assessing NEEB, which is important for developing effective agricultural management strategies and promoting intensive vegetable production with a more sustainable approach.  
biochar amendment; manure; carbon footprint; carbon sequestration; reactive nitrogen; sustainability +
Footnote †: journal: _agronomy_  
0000-0002-4400-3220]Ruiyu Biochar Is Superior to Organic Substitution for Vegetable Production--A Revised Approach for Net Ecosystem Economic Benefit