## 4 Impact of the 6 February 2023 Earthquakes on Structures and Earthquake Debris  
### Earthquake Damage on Dominant Building Types and Controlling Factors  
The 6 February 2023 seismic events flattened a total of 11 provinces in southeastern Turkey which in alphabetical order are the following: Adana, Adiyaman, Diyarbakir, Elazig, Gaziantep, Hatay, Malatya, Kahramanmaras, Sanlurfa, Kilis, and Osmaniye [15]. The total number of buildings in the earthquake-affected provinces is 2.6 million. Residential buildings hold a percentage of 90%, while public buildings hold 3% and businesses 6%. The housing units amounted to 5.6 million in 2022, which corresponds to a percentage of 14.5% of the total in the country [15]. The main building category in the affected provinces comprises reinforced-concrete frame buildings holding a percentage of 86.7%, with prefabricated buildings, masonry buildings, and steel structures following in much smaller percentages at 3.6%, 3.5%, and 2.4%, respectively. The damage observed in reinforced-concrete buildings are attributed to several factors including inadequate structural designing, the city planning violations, such as building/covering semi-open spaces (cantilevers), the lack of unified urban planning zones, the improper foundation systems (shallow mat foundation on loose soils), and ignoring the distinct soil characteristics or considering them as uniform throughout the construction area [12]. The least resistant buildings in terms of their anti-seismic behavior were the masonry buildings. They mainly suffered from out-of-plane behavior and corner failure attributed to the combination of the in-plane and out-of-plane failure behaviors [47]. The main reason for the damage observed in masonry buildings is the non-compliance of their construction with seismic design codes [48]. The poor workmanship along with low-strength wall and the absence of joint building materials are the main reasons leading to heavy and very heavy structural damage [47; 48] (damage grades 4 and 5 based on the European Macroseismic Scale EMS-98 [49]) comprising total or near total collapse. The structures in the earthquake-affected area of East Anatolia include residential, public, and industrial buildings and infrastructures based on their pre-seismic usage. The first category of residential structures suffered heavy and very heavy structural damage [15] corresponding to damage grades 4 and 5 respectively based on the EMS-98 [49]). Public buildings comprise hospitals, police and fire departments, and other administrative structures. Some of them, particularly health facilities including base-isolated and fixed-base buildings, demonstrated superior performance in terms of achieving the goal of immediate occupancy and providing better protection for nonstructural elements, whereas the latter achieved the goal of collapse prevention despite being very close to the coseismic surface fault ruptures and subjected to higher-than-design-level ground motion [50]. As regards the historical masonry mosques and minarets, their majority were heavily and very heavily damaged or completely collapsed after the earthquakes' occurrence. Damage to mosques was mainly observed in the dome, carrier walls, and minaret, while minaret damage was mainly observed in transition sections and spire parts [51]. The detected damage in this type of public buildings is attributed to the absence of any code or directive for these special structures [51]. Regarding the initial damage assessments, it is revealed that the 6 February earthquakes did not generally generate significant damage to industrial facilities including small industrial sites and organized industrial zones [15]. However, as it emerged from our field survey, the damage was locally heavier, particularly in areas close to coseismic surface ruptures, such as in the Turkoglu area (Kahramanparas Province) as well as in areas founded on recent river deposits, such as the small industrial site in the northern part of Antakya city, west of the Asi (Orontes) riverbed.