## 1 Introduction
### Route 2 School (R2S) Education: An Online Road Safety Education Program  
R2S, a gamified e-learning road safety education platform, was developed in 2017-2018 by the Transportation Research Institute (IMOB) in Belgium for pupils of primary schools with a focus on safe cycling. Moreover, it is an online training of traffic knowledge and skills that uses footage (i.e., pictures and videos) from Belgium and gamification elements for students. R2S Education aims to improve traffic knowledge and skills among pupils. Initially, it was implemented in Belgium [40] among 2 nd- and 3 rd-grade primary education students via an online platform. Later, it was implemented in Indonesia [47], Vietnam [48], Palestine [49], and Pakistan [50]. The major concerns of all these studies were to increase awareness among school students about traffic safety and to deal with different situations while on the road. Lessons learned from prior R2S implementations in Indonesia, Vietnam, Palestine, and Pakistan highlighted the importance of cultural and contextual adaptation. For example, in Indonesia and Pakistan, modules emphasized motorcycle safety due to the prevalence of two-wheeled transport, while in Vietnam, local traffic patterns and helmet use were prioritized. These international experiences informed the Belgian version by ensuring local relevance, focusing on cycling and novice driving, and leveraging Belgium's strong digital infrastructure for VR integration and 360\({}^{\circ}\) imagery. Such adaptations were essential to maintain user engagement and educational effectiveness across diverse contexts. The motivational aspect of teaching is usually addressed in gamified learning using a challenge-based approach, where students are challenged to do better [51]. Still, the self-paced and different tasks in the module layout offer the learners a certain level of challenge, a key motivation factor among students. This aligns with mastery-based learning, where students are driven to achieve personal improvement and complete tasks without external pressure [52]. The R2S platform utilizes modules that increase in difficulty as students advance. This structured progression, where each level presents new challenges, reflects the concept of incremental learning, gradually promoting traffic knowledge and skills development [53]. This type of progression is central to increasing student engagement, as it mirrors video game mechanics that motivate learners by offering increasingly complex tasks [54]. The R2S education platform offered a question comprising multiple game rounds that increase difficulty so that a structured learning process can be offered. This allowed students to carry out the game rounds at home (e.g., spread over several weeks) with a limited time investment (per week). Throughout the game rounds, the difficulty level increases and students develop better insights into traffic situations in which knowledge and skills such as situational awareness, risk detection and management are central. Gamification employed in the R2S platform supplements the comprehension of the material and improves knowledge recall and practical application of such skills. Since secondary school students are more used to the digital environment, the game elements ensure that the program is in harmony with students' learning, hence the encouragement that makes the content relevant and appealing [55]. Students can get immediate feedback after finishing each task or answering the question. It involves an explanation of the right answers and points for improvement. Score points and progression through levels are examples of reward systems, which are the key components of gamification and positively influence learners' engagement and knowledge retention [56]. Research indicates constructive feedback is critical in helping learners stay motivated by correcting errors on time [57].