## 4 Discussion  
The harmful chemical substances contained in clay soil eaten by geophagic women of childbearing age through the practise of geophagy are often not known and understood by consumers [1; 2; 9; 21]. The bulk of geophagic women of childbearing age lack proper knowledge and understanding when it comes to the dangers and detrimental health effects associated with the practice of geophagy [2; 3; 6; 9; 13], which served as the gap in their knowledge that necessitated the performance of this study. The test analysis found that indeed there are chemical parameters detected in clay eaten by women of childbearing age. Similar studies conducted in Namibia and in Limpopo [22; 23] also detected chemical elements in the clay soil consumed by geophagic women. Chemical substances were detected in varying quantities in the 39 clay soil samples. The chemical elements assessed in clay soil ingested by geophagic women of childbearing age in Tshwane District comprise zinc, copper, manganese, chromium, cobalt, vanadium, lithium, nickel, arsenic, silver, barium, beryllium, bismuth, strontium, uranium, cadmium,  
Figure 12: Trace elements detected in clay soil for samples number 1–20. Figure 13: Trace elements detected in clay soil for samples number 21–39. mercury, and lead. Studies conducted across different locations in Africa found similar elements in increased concentrations in clay soil samples [1; 2; 3; 9; 16]. Vanadium was detected in a high quantity, ranging from 77.28 to 863.80 mg/kg, with an average concentration of 574. 92 mg/kg in a bio-test tube containing 50 mL clay soil. Although vanadium has been reported to be more harmful when inhaled as compared to when it is ingested orally, it is nevertheless known to pose a risk of respiratory diseases and a carcinogenic risk due to its toxicity [24].Vanadium is known to play no specific important role in the human body, but its ability to cause distress in iodine intake has been reported [24]. Death, fatigue, hypertension, anaemia, diarrhoea, green tongue, depressed food intake and growth, and foetal malformations have been reported as some of the potential health risks associated with vanadium ingestion from geophagic materials such as clay soil [2; 8; 24]. Manganese is one of the non-essential trace elements that was detected in high quantity levels in the clay soil eaten by pregnant women and women of childbearing age in Tshwane District, with concentrations ranging from 33.02 to 741.93 mg/kg and an average of 396.16 mg/kg for all the samples that were analysed. Manganese performs functions such as protein and energy metabolism, but the potential health risk linked with manganese is that if it is consumed in excessive quantities, it can lead to the development of neurological disorders such as manganism, which is normally presented as Parkinson's disease [3; 8; 17; 19]. Adverse health caused by the ingestion of clay soil high in manganese content include reproductive and cognitive effects [3; 17; 19; 24]. The recommended adequate intake of manganese is reported to be between 1.8 and 2.3 mg/kg for adults, and for pregnant women, it is 2 mg/kg. Chromium is one of the chemical elements that was detected in large quantities in the samples, ranging from 125.26 to 320.03 mg/kg, with an average of 249.15 mg/kg. The excessive intake of chromium can be detrimental to human health, leading to potential risks to the digestion system, the eyes, and the respiratory tract, as well as irritation of the skin [8; 17]. Other potential health risks experienced by pregnant women who have ingested chromium include back pain, malformations, mortality, skeletal defects, hypertension, and complications during pregnancy and childbirth [8; 19]. Having developmentally delayed babies with damaged blood cells, nervous systems, livers, kidneys, and gastrointestinal disorders [8; 19] are some of the potential health risks linked with the consumption of chromium amongst pregnant women. The suggested adequate intake of chromium is 0.0025-0.035 mg/kg for adults and 0.029-0.030 mg/kg for pregnant women.