## 5 Results and Discussion
### RQ1: What Cyber-Attacks in the MSCN Have Been Reported in the Academic Literature?
#### 5.1.1 Cyber-Attacks in the MSCN
Watering hole lures people to access malicious websites [15], whereas port scanning detects vulnerable network endpoints [50]. It is advisable to adopt cyber hygiene practices and utilize TCP wrappers to enhance defenses against diverse attacks. Hijacking, jamming, and spoofing: These critical cyber-attacks primarily affect shipping companies by compromising vessel navigation systems. These methods share a focus on compromising communication and navigation systems. The attacks disrupt or manipulate critical signals that vessels rely on for safe and efficient operations. The research outlines many strategies, such as radio frequency jamming and spoofing, that generate deceptive signals to covertly alter the GPS or AIS systems of vessels [52; 57; 66]. These approaches pose a danger to the reliability of navigation controls because spoofing techniques are becoming more advanced by synchronizing with satellite signals to increase the impact of attacks [43; 50; 67]. The marine industry acknowledges these as the main risks, specifically impacting integrated bridge system elements such as AIS and GNSS, which require a change in cybersecurity strategies [65; 66; 68; 69]. According to risk evaluations, different systems have varied levels of threat, with AIS having moderate risks and the electronic chart display and information system (ECDIS) facing higher risks [61]. Efforts to reduce these dangers involve the creation of secure authentication frameworks, such as Auth-AIS, which utilizes cryptographic technologies to safeguard AIS broadcast messages against spoofing attacks [70]. Grouping them emphasizes their potential to disrupt maritime traffic, navigation, and communication, which can lead to significant operational and safety risks. This study highlights the continuous development of cyber risks and emphasizes the necessity for strong cybersecurity solutions specifically designed to protect maritime navigation systems. Table 4 summarizes the previous descriptions and presents the sources that may be used to further investigate each cyber-attack. \begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c c c} \hline \hline
**Cyber-Attack** & **Description** & \multicolumn{2}{c}{**Example of Historical Evidence**} & **Frequency References** \\ \hline \multirow{6}{*}{DoS} & DoS attacks overwhelm a target with excessive traffic, thereby impeding functionality. Its variant, DDoS, uses multiple devices to severely disrupt services. & In May 2020, amid Persian Gulf tensions, a DDoS attack reportedly orchestrated by Israel led to the prolonged closure of Iran’s Shahid Raji Port. & [35, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 64, 65, 67, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75]. \\ \cline{2-4}  & Malware harms or disables systems. Ransomware encrypts files, demanding a ransom, often via malicious downloads. Trojans, masquerading as legitimate software, steal data or cause damage. & In June 2017, the Petya attack targeted Maersk’s servers in Europe and India, encrypting data and disrupting 17 terminals with losses exceeding USD 200 million. & [15, 19, 35, 42, 44, 47, 49, 50, 53, 55, 56, 57, 59, 65, 67, 69, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90,