## 4 Conclusions  
This study provided a detailed analysis of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and heavy metal content in textiles of varying origins and compositions using GC-MS and ICP-MS techniques. The results highlight significant differences in the chemical profiles of textiles based on their geographic origin, with VOC analysis via GC-MS revealing distinct patterns and clusters in the volatilome. Principal component analysis (PCA) further validated these observations, showing clear separations among textiles from Italy, China, and Egypt, with the percentage of cotton playing a key role in sample differentiation. The detection of specific VOCs, such as alkylphenol ethoxylates (APEOs), aromatic amines, and phthalates, underscores the potential health and environmental risks posed by certain textile treatments and additives. While most samples complied with established regulatory limits, exceptions like elevated levels of copper and nickel in certain samples raise concerns about manufacturing practices and the use of specific dyes or chemical treatments. The ICP-MS analysis conducted on a subset of samples confirmed that while most metals were within acceptable limits, deviations in copper and nickel concentrations highlight the need for stricter quality control and oversight in the textile industry. These findings suggest that certain processing methods, such as dyeing or fixation treatments, may contribute to the elevated levels observed in some textiles. Nickel, recognized as a common allergen, can cause sensitization and allergic contact dermatitis, particularly with prolonged skin exposure. This risk is especially concerning for individuals wearing textiles in direct contact with the skin. Elevated copper levels, while beneficial in trace amounts, can lead to skin irritation and toxicity, posing risks to sensitive populations, such as children. These findings underscore the necessity for stringent quality control measures to ensure compliance with safety regulations. Non-compliance not only poses health risks but also impacts the marketability of textiles in international trade, particularly in regions with stringent regulatory frameworks, such as the European Union. By addressing these concerns, manufacturers can improve product safety, consumer trust, and market competitiveness. In conclusion, the combined application of GC-MS and ICP-MS has proven to be a robust approach for the comprehensive evaluation of textile composition and safety. The distinct chemical profiles observed in textiles from Italy, China, and Egypt, along with their specific metal content, could serve as reliable markers for quality control and authenticity verification. For instance, the prevalence of alkanes and aldehydes in Italian textiles highlights their manufacturing emphasis on durability and water-resistant finishes, while their relatively low and uniform metal concentrations further indicate controlled processing practices. These chemical and elemental markers can be used to verify the authenticity of Italian textiles in high-value markets. Similarly, the aromatic compounds such as hexyl salicate and linear alkanes in Egyptian textiles reflect traditional preservation methods, while the measured metal content, compliant with regulatory standards, supports their reputation for minimal chemical intervention. In contrast, the variability in both chemical composition and metal concentrations in Chinese textiles, including elevated levels of copper and nickel in some samples, suggests diverse manufacturing practices catering to different market demands. This approach, combining chemical and elemental profiling, could support industries in reducing counterfeit products, ensuring regulatory compliance, and maintaining product traceability. This study emphasizes the importance of continued monitoring and regulation of chemical and metal contaminants in textiles, as well as the promotion of sustainable and safer manufacturing practices to minimize environmental and health risks.