## 3 Results and Discussion
### Climate Externalities and Their Role in Agroecosystem Intrusions
#### 3.1.1. Provisioning Services  
* Influence of Climate Change  
Meteorological factors, such as temperature, precipitation, and climate variation, are critical in shaping agricultural productivity [27; 28]. Among these, drought poses one of the greatest threats from reduced precipitation, elevated temperatures, or both [29]. Droughs inflict severe economic losses on cropping systems worldwide, reducing yields and threatening food security [30]. For instance, global studies report that drought combined with extreme heat can reduce national cereal production by as much as 10% [31; 32]. In China's Guangxi region, drought has stunted sugarcane growth at key developmental stages, leading to declines in sugarcane and sucrose production [33]. The maturity, tillering, and seedling stages are particularly vulnerable to drought, reinforcing findings by [PERSON] et al. [34], who noted that drought and heatwaves in southern China significantly negatively impacted regional gross primary production (GPP) and crop yields. Similarly, the FAO [35] reported severe yield losses in Europe, with 26% and 30% reductions in wheat and potatoes in Germany due to extreme summer heat and dryness. In the US, nearly 96% of agricultural land in some western states, including Arizona, California, and Oregon, was severely affected by drought [36; 37]. * Crop Growth and Food Security  
Rising temperatures and thermal stress, aggravated by climate change, directly affect crop growth and food security [38; 39]. A study in the North China Plain highlighted that a temperature increase of 1 \({}^{\circ}\)C could reduce winter grain yields by 13% to 16%, a decline that could worsen to 42% to 44% with a 4 \({}^{\circ}\)C rise in temperature [14]. Given that this region produces 53.7% of China's wheat and encompasses 40% of its arable land, these findings show the critical need for adaptive measures [40]. Extreme weather events also have devastating impacts; for example, Hurricane Ida caused USD 700 million in crop losses in the Northeast and mid-Atlantic regions of the US [41], while Cyclone Aila significantly impaired agricultural productivity in Bangladesh due to increased soil salinity, exacerbating socio-economic challenges [42]. \begin{table}
\begin{tabular}{c c c c c c} \hline \hline
**ES Category** & **ES** & **AESs Affected** & **ES Indicator** & **Climatic** & **Key Impact Findings** & **Source(s)** \\ \hline \multicolumn{7}{c}{} \\  & & & & & \multicolumn{2}{c}{Taxonomic richness and overall} \\  & & & & & abundance of soil macrofauna \\  & & & & & decreased 18 days after the EHT, with \\  & & & & & ants, entripedes, and crickets declining \\  & & & & & while Enchrytaeide and earthworms \\  & Soil and & & & & increased, influenced significantly by \\  & Water & & & & soil water content. \\  & Nutrient & Agriculture & & & & Biochar amendment (20 t ha\({}^{-1}\)) in \\  & Cycling & & Lands & & & Mediterranean croplands during \\  & Biodiversity & Soil Macrofauna & Soil Microbial & & Rainfall & \\  & Soil Health & Mediterranean & & Soil Microbial & Extreme Heat & temperature affected soil microbial \\  & and Biodic- & & & Activity & Event (EHT) & community composition, enzyme \\  & & & & Enzyme & & activity, and soil chemistry. Biochar \\  & and Biodic- & & & Activities & Drought & increased urease activity while \\  & & & & Soil Chemical & & reducing \(\beta\)-glucosidase and protease \\  & & & & Properties & & activities under climate manipulation. \\  & & & & & Both biochar and climate factors \\  & & & & & influence microbial functions, \\  & & & & & reinforcing nutrient cycling and soil \\  & & & & & biodiversity, which are critical to \\  & & & & & sustaining ecosystem services amid \\  & & & & & changing climatic conditions. \\ \hline \hline \end{tabular}
\end{table} 
Table 3. Cont. * Sustainability of Viticulture  
The sustainability of viticulture, particularly in climate-sensitive regions, is increasingly threatened by climate change. [PERSON] et al.