# Blockchain for Future Wireless Networks: A Decade Survey
## 3 The Proposed Taxonomy for Security Attacks and Countermeasures
### Passive Attacks
For that, many researchers provide various solutions; for example, [128] discussed eavesdropper attacks on 802.11 ad mmWave systems. Moreover, ref. [91] prevented eavesdropping on radio-frequency (RF) and free-space optical (FSO) systems. In [92], [PERSON] et al. proposed blockchain-based solution for dynamic non-evyot system. They introduced the encryption algorithm RSA 2048-bit that resists eavesdropping attacks in the communication channel. In [93], [PERSON] et al. came up with a blockchain-enabled secure localization algorithm that prevents eavesdropping attacks in IoT applications. * Jamming--It is a similar attack to the DoS attack, where the adversarial WN nodes obstruct legitimate communication by raising the interference or noise of the signal. It uses severe radio interference that makes the wireless channel busy, interrupts the ongoing communications, and reduces the signal-to-noise ratio (SINR), resulting in loss of communication [129]. It can be prevented with the help of an effective radio resource allocation mechanism [130], anti-jamming systems, cryptographic, and steganography techniques [131]. The authors of [94] overcame the jamming attack in the WNs control system by estimating the channel state estimation of the wireless channel. In [95], the author discussed anti-jamming methods for jamming attacks in VANETs, cognitive radio networks (CRNs), ZigBee networks, and GPS systems. Moreover, in [96] [PERSON] et al. proposed a blockchain-enabled lightweight two-factor authentication mechanism for long-range wide area network (WAN). * Device tampering--It is the most straightforward way to attack the physical layer by making a modification in a WN device and extracting sensitive data from it [124]. The most popular way to perform this attack is to mirror a port of a medium access control (MAC) layer switch or hub. Once port mirroring is implemented, the data directed to the legitimate user are redirected to the malicious user. Such attacks can be controlled using firewalls, encryption mechanisms, hash-based message authentication code (HMAC), access restriction, and file integrity monitoring [98]. Moreover, [PERSON] et al. [97] proposed blockchain-enabled data tamper-proof gateway architecture for secure resource management in smart home applications. * MAC layer attacks--The transmission of data packets is controlled by the MAC layer, using remotely shared channels [132]. The possible passive attacks on MAC layer are as follows. * MAC spoofing--It is a common attack in the MAC layer, where the attacker changes the MAC address of transmitted frames to spoof the security devices and protocols [133]. In this attack, malicious users spread malware, steal user information, and bypass the network access control systems. Encrypted protocols, alert-enabled traffic monitoring, and reverse address resolution protocol prevent MAC spoofing attacks [134]. In [99], the authors presented a comprehensive survey to detect and prevent MAC attacks on monitoring systems. Moreover, ref. [100] proposed a cooperative spoofing attack detection technique to identify MAC attacks. In [101], [PERSON] et al. presented a blockchain-based secure data handover approach in non-orthogonal multiple access (NOMA) transmission schemes. They discussed a two-phase encryption algorithm to prevent MAC spoofing in WNs. * Man-in-the-middle attack (MiTM)--It permits an intruder to eavesdrop and preclude the communication between sender and receiver. Here, attackers modify the information, intercept and replace data between sender and receiver [135; 136]. They steal user information such as card details and credentials of an e-commerce site, businesses, and financial applications. This attack makes interception by exploiting address resolution protocol (ARP) and spoofing the MAC addresses to mislead the data frame from their original path [137]. To mitigate the effect of the MiTM attack, various techniques are employed, such as public-key authentication, a WAP encryption mechanism, and the use of a virtual private network (VPN) [138].