###### Abstract  
Intelligent transport systems are used in various transport systems, among which a special place is occupied by crewed autonomous transport systems such as space stations for deep space habitation. These objects have a complex and critical requirement for life support systems (LSSs) to maintain safe and habitable conditions for the crew in the isolated environment. This paper explores the different architectural options for life support systems (LSSs) in autonomous transport systems, specifically focusing on space stations. Three alternative LSS architectures are discussed: Open LSS (OLSS), Closed LSS (CLSS), and Mixed LSS (MLSS). Each architecture has its own advantages and disadvantages. OLSS relies on external resource delivery, reducing initial costs but increasing dependence on resupply missions. CLSS operates autonomously, generating resources onboard, but has higher initial costs and technological complexity. MLSS combines external delivery and onboard generation, providing flexibility and adaptability. The material emphasizes the importance of cost-effectiveness analysis at the early stages of design and identifies the boundary values of mission duration that determine the most effective LSS architecture choice. The material highlights the significance of striking the right balance between cost and performance to develop intelligent ecosystems of LSS for space stations and other autonomous transport systems. life support system; life cycle cost; crewed autonomous transport systems; deep space habitation +
Footnote †: journal: Applied Sciences  
larger NASA-led Artemis program, contributing various elements like the European Service Module for the Orion spacecraft [5]. - ESA is a part of the ExoMars program, working with Roscosmos to search for signs of life on Mars. Their Trace Gas Orbiter is currently in orbit around Mars, studying its atmosphere [6]. - Some private companies, like SpaceX, are proposing the development of lunar space stations for use as a staging area for human missions to the Moon and beyond. SpaceX's Starship, designed to carry up to 100 people, is intended to eventually serve as a transport system for crewed missions to destinations such as the Moon and Mars [5; 6; 7]. - The Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) has also expressed interest in lunar missions, primarily through robotic explorers. They are planning a series of lunar landers and rovers for the coming years, such as the Smart Lander for Investigating Moon (SLIM) and the more ambitious Human Lunar Systems [8]. - For Mars, JAXA's efforts have so far been focused on smaller missions and contributing to international missions. For example, JAXA's MELOS (Mars Exploration with Lander-Orbiter Synergy) mission is aimed at investigating the Martian environment for the conditions that may have supported life [9]. - The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) has also made strides in lunar exploration with their Chandrayaan series of lunar scientific missions. Chandrayaan-2, launched in 2019, aimed to soft-land a rover on the lunar south pole, although the landing was not successful [10]. - ISRO is planning its first mission to Mars called Mangalyaan-2, following the successful insertion of the Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM, or Mangalyaan-1) into the Mars orbit in 2014 [11]. - China has been very active in the space domain, rapidly developing its space program over the last two decades: - China's National Space Administration (CNSA) has been expanding its capabilities in satellite technology, space exploration, and human spaceflight. CNSA launched its first manned mission, Shenzhou 5, in 2003, making China the third country to independently send humans into space [12]. - China has also been advancing its capabilities in long-term crewed missions, demonstrated by the Tangong space stations. The Tangong-1 and Tiangong-2 were experimental space stations launched in 2011 and 2016, respectively, wherein astronauts stayed from several days to weeks.