## 1 _Article_
### Overtopping: In Situ Measuring  
The third alternative for analysing the wave overtopping phenomenon is in situ measurement, i.e., using devices that record or measure overtopping events in a real scenario. An example of the in situ measurement of wave overtopping is the work of [PERSON] et al. [23]. In this work, the authors measured wave overtopping at the rubble mound breakwater of the Rome-Ostia yacht harbour, constructing a full-scale station similar to the ones used in small-scale physical modelling. This structure collects the water from an overtopping event and allows it to be measured. The authors studied wave overtopping during one measurement campaign (2003-2004) and compared the data to the predictions obtained using known formulae based on small-scale model tests. Their results show that these formulae tend to underestimate overtopping events. The same port was also studied in a later work [24]. A similar method was used to study the Zeebrugge port in Belgium [25]. Modern approaches to detecting wave overtopping involve using image devices. For instance, [PERSON] and [PERSON] [26] created a system that used video cameras to detect an overtopping event. The authors set trigger points in different areas of the video cameras' images, and the system could detect overtopping in those areas. When an overtopping was detected, the system sent several images (pre- and post-overtopping) to the servers, where they were analysed. Similar work was carried out by [PERSON], [PERSON], and [PERSON] [27], where the authors created a method for detecting the overtopping wave and other high waves using images from video cameras. In this work, the authors detected overtopping by measuring the wave contour in every video frame using Active Contour Models and tracking the contour. This method has the advantage of being robust to other moving objects. The authors showed the effectiveness of their method by experimenting with actual video sequences of both an approaching typhoon and calm scenes. More recently, [PERSON] et al. [28] used a shore-based video monitoring system to collect coastal images of a wave overtopping at a 360 m long sea dike during a storm in July 2018 on the Rizhao Coast, China. The system captured images with a sampling frequency of 1 Hz in the first 10 min of each hour during daylight. Using the images, the authors calculated the frequency, location, width, and duration of individual overtopping events, detecting 6252 individual overtopping events during the ten-hour storm. The results of this work indicate the feasibility of a shore-based video monitoring approach to capture the main features of wave overtopping in a safe and labour-saving manner while enabling a detailed analysis of the temporal and spatial variation of wave overtopping. Despite providing precious information for detecting the problems that affect a given installation, in situ measurement constitutes a less widespread methodology than physical or numerical modelling. The less-general usage of in situ measuring is mainly due to the high economic cost involved, on the one hand, in acquiring monitoring equipment and, on the other, in carrying out extensive field campaigns. Despite the smaller number of scientific studies using in situ measuring and the low amount of data they have collected compared to the other techniques, in situ measuring is a good tool for evaluating operational problems in port facilities due to overtopping events. Wave overtopping events have an enormous negative impact on a port in terms of the safety of workers and the efficiency of operations. In addressing the escalating risks posed by wave overtopping in the context of climate change, a technical examination reveals the multifaceted impact of global warming on coastal infrastructure resilience, as explained in the Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate [29] of The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). This report elucidates the mechanisms through which climate change can increase the number and severity of overtopping events.