# Overview of Clean Automotive Thermal Propulsion Options for India to 2030
## 2 The Current and Future Technological State-of-the-Art
### Advanced Internal Combustion Engine Solutions for Near Zero Emissions  
#### Carbon Capture and Storage  
Carbon Capture and Storage is the technology used in industry, whereupon carbon dioxide is captured and disposed at a collection site and later isolated from the atmosphere. As stated by [PERSON] et al [15], CCS is a technology encompassing the capture of CO\({}_{2}\) either before or after the occurrence of the combustion phenomenon, transportation of CO\({}_{2}\) to a disposal site and finally its disposal by a method that will permanently isolate it from the atmosphere. One of the best examples of this would be, where CO\({}_{2}\) is extensively being used for enhanced oil recovery (since 1986) where 24 million tonnes of CO\({}_{2}\) have been accumulated. The long-term usage of this technology delivers assurance that this technology is feasible. CCS is practiced at industrial level, however, the technology can be miniaturised in order to be installed in vehicles. In an on-going project by Aramco [16], the vehicles are equipped with CCS, where they were able to capture 10% CO\({}_{2}\) initially and are aiming to capture 85-96% in coming years. As per the IPCC Special Report on Carbon Dioxide Capture and Storage [17] the currently available technology can capture about 85-95% of the CO\({}_{2}\) processed in any capture plant. This is located in a power plant resulting in the reduction of CO\({}_{2}\) emission to the atmosphere by 80-90% approximately compared to a plant without CCS. As said by [PERSON] [18], the report from Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) also determined that carbon capture and storage can contribute approximately 15-55% of the aggregate emission reduction towards 2100. This will play a major role in curbing carbon dioxide by implementing several technologies to be implemented to address climate change. CCS comprises of a chain of processes to capture CO\({}_{2}\) having three main carbon capturing options such as Post-combustion CO\({}_{2}\) capture, Pre-combustion CO\({}_{2}\) capture and Oxyfuel combustion CO\({}_{2}\) capture processes. Wherein in Post-combustion process the CO\({}_{2}\) can be captured from the gas emittedafter burning the fossil fuel or biogas (the latter) widely used in coal plants and now being proposed and tested in internal combustion engines. In Pre-combustion process the fossil fuel, biogas is reformed to separate the hydrogen and carbon dioxide before burning them. The fuel conversion steps are sophisticated and expensive the high concentration of CO\({}_{2}\) in the gas with high pressure makes the separation easier. The pre-combustion process is being used in manufacturing fertilizers and in hydrogen production, as this process, in the end, produces hydrogen and CO\({}_{2}\) from which CO\({}_{2}\) is separated. In the Oxyfuel combustion process, highly pure oxygen is extracted from the air which demands higher energy requirements and is used in the combustion process of fossil fuel or biogas. This results in a higher concentration of CO\({}_{2}\) in the emitting gas that makes it easier to separate CO\({}_{2}\) from the emitting gases as shown in [19]. Post-combustion CO\({}_{2}\) capturing is a more economically attractive process in comparison, which captures CO\({}_{2}\) from the emission of blue gases. The tailpipe emissions from an ICE emit a significant amount of exhaust gases and heat dissipated from the engine. This heat can be reused in the process of CO\({}_{2}\) extraction from the exhaust by the means of a CO\({}_{2}\) capturing device [20]. This can be installed in a vehicle and CO\({}_{2}\) can be captured alongside generating electricity from a Thermal Electric Generator (TEG) built inside the heat exchanger. The TEG in this heat exchanger uses the principle of a temperature difference to generate the electricity. The flow diagram for this system is shown in Figure 4, below.