# Synchrotron X-ray Microprobes: An Application on Ancient Ceramics
###### Abstract  
Synchrotron X-ray \(\mu\)- and nano-probes are increasingly affirming their relevance in cultural heritage applications, especially in material characterization of tiny and complex micro-samples which are typical from archaeological and artistic artifacts. For such purposes, synchrotron radiation facilities are tailoring and optimizing beamlines and set-ups for CH, taking also advantages from the challenges offered by the third-generation radiation sources. In ancient ceramics studies, relevant information for the identification of production centers and manufacture technology can be obtained in a non-invasive and non-destructive way at the micro-sample level by combining different SR based methods. However, the selection of appropriate beamlines, techniques and set-ups are critical for the success of the experiments. Fine and varnished wares (e.g., Attic and western-Greek colonial products) are an excellent case study for exploring challenges offered by synchrotron X-ray microprobes optimized to collect microchemical and phase-distribution maps. The determination of provenance and/or technological tracers is relevant in correctly classifying productions, often based only on ceramic paste, gloss macroscopic features or style. In addition, when these vessels are preserved in Museums as masterpieces or intact pieces the application of non-invasive approach at the micro sample is strictly required. Well-designed synchrotron \(\mu\)XRF and \(\mu\)XANES mapping experiments are able providing relevant clues for discriminating workshops and exploring technological aspects, which are fundamental in answering the current archaeological questions on varnished Greek or western-Greek colonial products. X-ray fluorescence; synchrotron radiation; \(\mu\)XRF; \(\mu\)XANES; black gloss; ancient ceramics +
Footnote †: journal: Physics Letters A  
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obtain meaningful and reliable bulk analysis. This typically consists of the preparation of pressed pellets from a few grams of powdered sample. In addition, it is sometimes combined with other destructive analytical tools for trace elements determination, such as ICP-MS, ICP-OES, NAA [5]. For provenance studies, geochemical data are often processed by using statistical methods able to create correlation among group of samples, also in comparison with databases [6,7]. When geochemical tracers fail in group classification and provenance discrimination, recent studies have demonstrated the merits of isotopic analysis as clay provenance fingerprint [8,9]. Ceramics are the most numerous records in archaeological excavations and are often expendable for destructive analysis. However, in some cases, the artistic and cultural value of ceramic objects--especially when preserved and exhibited in Museums as masterpieces--prevents macro-sampling needed for such destructive XRF analyses. The use of portable XRF systems enables to overcome this limit. Being nondestructive and noninvasive they offer the advantage of material characterization without sampling and directly in situ [10, 11, 12, 13]. Indeed, the advent of new powerful and focused X-ray tubes in the last decades, together with performant detectors, which do not require liquid nitrogen cooling, has pushed to use and the performance of both portable and laboratory XRF systems. Single point XRF equipment is currently available in the majority of diagnostic laboratories. Moreover, the accessibility of advanced macro-XRF systems introduced in laboratories--pioneering set-ups designed at synchrotron radiation facilities--allows determining and localizing the distribution of chemical elements at the sample surface [14, 15, 16]. Detection limits and element ranges are the most common limits of portable and lab-based systems. Thus, when micro-sampling is allowed (for example, from hidden part of the ceramic vessel) the use of synchrotron-based (SR) X-ray sources appears quite valuable.