上古漢語音系

學者們長久以來都試圖從據中構擬上古漢語的音系。上古漢語自約公元前1200年開始有書面形式，不過漢字更多為字義服務，字音的證據更多是間接、不完全的。《詩經》是最古老的韻文總集，展示了一些當時押韻的字。一般使用的方法是，將這些共時證據與《切韻》等韻書記錄的中古漢語進行歷時比較，不過這並不利於音位分析。補充證據有其他漢藏語系語言的同源詞和閩語讀音、外語地名的早期音譯、臨近的苗瑤語系、臺語支和吐火羅語族的早期藉詞等。雖然許多細節仍有大量爭議，絕大多數較新擬音在核心問題上達成了某些一致。人們一般同意上古漢語的調音部位比中古漢語少、擁有清響音、存在唇化軟顎音和唇-喉聲母、韻尾子音由多變少。較新擬音也假定音節尾複子音，在中古漢語發展為聲調。音節結構.雖然許多細節仍有大量爭議，較新的擬音方案已在許多核心問題上取得一致。:x例如，李方桂和白一平的上古漢語聲母如下，白一平多出來的在括號中：:237:46:188–215大多數學者都認為*s-可以加到絕大多數子音後、構成複子音，也可能構成其他複子音。:222–232較新的構擬中，剩下的上古音節有這樣的系統中，上古漢語無聲調，中古漢語上聲和去聲是後韻尾*-s脫落後，發生的補償性音變。:178–185聲母.構擬上古聲母的主要證據是韻書和漢字諧聲系統。中古漢語聲母.擬上古音之前一般要從“早期中古漢語”開始，也即《切韻》的語音系統。據序言所述，《切韻》記錄的並不是一個特定時空範圍內的現實方言，而是當時中國主要韻書所反映的對立的綜合(即一個通變系統)。韻圖對《切韻》區別特徵的分析要老練得多，不過其中也不全是音位分析。另外，它們也會被時音影響。學者們試圖確定這些對立中，語音內容的本質差異與適當的音值，這主要透過比較韻圖、現代方言讀音、朝鮮語、日語、越南語中的漢語藉詞(漢字詞材料)完成，但除韻尾外的許多細節仍無定論。:32–44:24–42《切韻》聲母如下：:45–59:12–13清朝學者錢大昕透過研究東漢學者的聲訓，發現“古無舌上音”。:44:33–35得到的三十二聲母系統(忽略罕見的俟母/ʐ/)仍為中國許多學者所用，如何九盈。:69–7520世紀初，黃侃總結出19個能接大多數韻母的中古聲母，其他聲母被認為是從它們派生而來：:837:12–13諧聲.漢字是語標文字，並不直接表音。不過絕大多數漢字都是形聲字，同一個聲符的字，讀音往往也還比較接近。但有時，經歷了兩千多年的演變，也可能會變得在中古漢語和現代方言裡都非常不像。既然聲旁與字的讀音在造字的時候很像，那麼據此推斷已經消失的聲母資訊也並非不可能。:43–44瑞典漢學家高本漢首先提出了一條關鍵原則，即聲旁相同的漢字，在上古漢語中有相同的調音部位。例如，中古漢語端組和知組常常互諧，它們在上古漢語中就都屬於一個齒音系列，知組是受介音*-r-。:228–232:191–196, 203–206然而，諧聲系偶爾會跨數箇中古聲類分佈。高本漢和後來的研究者們為它們擬了不同的複子音。例如，章組含有兩類不同的諧聲系，一類與端組諧，一類與見組諧：一般認為，*-r-的端、見紐字不會變成中古章組。帶*-r-介音的諧聲系中往往也有來母字：中古來母來自上古*-r-。上古清濁邊音*l̥-也用於解釋：這樣構擬上古漢語流音的證據還可在藏緬語同源詞和早期音譯中觀察到。例如，“亞歷山大”在《漢書·西域傳》中音譯作“烏弋山離”，擬音寫作*ʔa-ljək-srjan-rjaj。:15:795, 802, 785, 773早期流音的蹤跡也能在湖南西部的瓦鄉話中發現。:109–110清鼻音*ŋ̊-由董同龢和蒲立本擬出，以解釋：:92複子音*sn-等負責解釋與心母的交替，如：閩語.其他調音部位的情況類似。原始閩語濁音可從聲調推斷出，但聲母的具體音值仍不明。迄今為止，大多數學者假定上古漢語時期就有了這些區別，但它們並未反映在上面給出的廣泛接受的上古漢語聲母表中。例如，一般認為上古漢語有清濁兩套鼻音，只有濁鼻音生成中古鼻音聲母，而在原始閩語中則完整保留了兩套聲母。介音.韻圖將《切韻》音節依“開”或“合”分為兩呼，又依當時母音開口大小，也即《切韻》時介音，分為四等，以圖中不同的行來表示。一般認為一等和四等分別表示後母音和前母音。二等有捲舌介音，這可以追溯回上古{{IPA|*-r-}}介音。三等介音.各家說法和證據主要有：三等/非三等對立實現的諸家擬音見下：母音.上古漢語韻母的構擬必須解釋《詩經》的押韻實踐。雖然上古大多數詩歌在現代漢語及方言中大多也都押韻，但自古以來學者們就注意到了那些例外。人們一度認為先秦押韻寬鬆，{{efn|初唐陸德明《經典釋文》注《詩·邶風·燕燕》：“燕燕于飛，下上其音。之子于歸，遠送於南。瞻望弗及，實勞我心。”於“南”字下注：“如字。沈雲協句宜乃林反。今謂古人韻緩，不煩改字。”}}直到晚明，陳第才意識到音變的存在。這說明上古韻文的押韻實踐確實記錄了它們讀音的資訊。下表是這些擬音間的對比，給出傳統31部、中古對應、李方桂、白一平上古擬音。傳統分析中，韻部依中古韻尾可劃為平行的三組。為簡潔，只列出中古一四等韻母。聲調與韻尾子音.韻尾子音和聲調的關係存在許多爭議，上古漢語究竟有沒有聲調也眾說紛紜。高本漢注意到，許多去聲字能與入聲字押韻或諧聲，如：奧德里庫爾發現越南語聲調來自韻尾位置的*-ʔ和*-s的失落。{{sfnp|Haudricourt|1954a}}他進一步假設漢語的去聲來自早期的*-s，且在上古漢語中是個派生字尾。這樣一來高本漢，高本漢的*-d、*-g去聲字就能改成*-ts和*-ks，韻尾位置塞音在*-s前消失，最終變成聲調差異。{{sfnp|Haudricourt|1954b}}{{rp|363–364}}唇韻母缺乏對應的*-ps的，可能是早期{{IPA|*-ps}}同化為{{IPA|*-ts}}。參考.引用| title = A Handbook of Old Chinese Phonology| given = William H. | surname = Baxter | author-link = William H. Baxter| location = Berlin | publisher = Mouton de Gruyter | year = 1992| isbn = 978-3-11-012324-1| postscript = .| title = Eulogy: Sergej Anatol'evič Starostin| given = William| surname = Baxter| author-mask = 3| journal = Journal of Chinese Linguistics| year = 2006| volume = 34| issue = 1| pages = 164–166| url = http://starling.rinet.ru/memorial/baxter.pdf| postscript = .| accessdate = 2021-12-19| archive-date = 2020-12-01| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20201201145534/https://starling.rinet.ru/memorial/baxter.pdf| dead-url = no| title = Old Chinese: A New Reconstruction| given1 = William | surname1 = Baxter| given2 = Laurent | surname2 = Sagart | author-link2 = Laurent Sagart| publisher = Oxford University Press | isbn = 978-0-19-994537-5| year = 2014| postscript = .| chapter = Proto-Chinese and Sino-Tibetan: data towards establishing the nature of the relationship| given = Nicholas C. | surname = Bodman | author-link = Nicholas Bodman| title = Contributions to historical linguistics: issues and materials| editor-given1 = Frans | editor-surname1 = van Coetsem| editor-given2 = Linda R. | editor-surname2 = Waugh| pages = 34–199| location = Leiden | publisher = E. J. Brill | year = 1980| isbn = 978-90-04-06130-9| postscript = .| title = A Sinologist's Handlist of Sino-Tibetan Lexical Comparisons| given = W. South | surname = Coblin | author-link = Weldon South Coblin| series = "Monumenta Serica" monograph series | volume = 18| publisher = Steyler Verlag | year = 1986 | isbn = 978-3-87787-208-6| postscript = .| title = A History of the Chinese Language| given = Hongyuan | surname = Dong| publisher = Routledge | year = 2014 | isbn = 978-1-317-74389-7| postscript = .| chapter = The Origin of Tones in Viet–Muong| given = Michel| surname = Ferlus| title = Eleventh Annual Meeting of the Southeast Asian Linguistic Society| year = 2001| editor-given = Somsonge| editor-surname = Burusphat| publisher = Arizona State University| isbn = 978-1-881044-34-5| pages = 297–313| url = http://sealang.net/sala/archives/pdf8/ferlus2004origin.pdf| postscript = .| accessdate = 2021-12-19| archive-date = 2019-08-04| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190804121904/http://sealang.net/sala/archives/pdf8/ferlus2004origin.pdf| dead-url = no| title = De l'origine des tons en vietnamien| trans-title = The origin of tones in Vietnamese| given = André-Georges | surname = Haudricourt | author-link = André-Georges Haudricourt| journal = Journal Asiatique | volume = 242 | pages = 69–82 | year = 1954a| postscript = .}} (English translation {{Wayback|url=https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-01678018/ |date=20211228005112 }} by Marc Brunelle)| title = Comment reconstruire le chinois archaïque| trans-title = How to reconstruct Old Chinese| given = André-Georges | surname = Haudricourt | author-mask = 3| journal = Word | volume = 10 | number = 2–3 | pages = 351–364 | year = 1954b| doi = 10.1080/00437956.1954.11659532| postscript = .}} (English translation {{Wayback|url=https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-01631479/ |date=20211217224921 }} by Guillaume Jacques)| title = Handbook of Proto-Tibeto-Burman: System and Philosophy of Sino-Tibetan Reconstruction| editor-given = James| editor-surname = Matisoff| location = Berkeley| publisher = University of California Press| year = 2003| isbn = 978-0-520-09843-5| url = http://escholarship.org/uc/item/19d79619| chapter = Appendix A: A Concise Introduction to Old Chinese Phonology| pages = 543–576| given = Zev J.| surname = Handel| chapter-url = http://escholarship.org/uc/item/19d79619#page-594| postscript = .| accessdate = 2021-12-19| archive-date = 2021-03-09| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210309101023/https://escholarship.org/uc/item/19d79619| dead-url = no| title = 上古音| author = 何九盈| series = 《漢語知識叢書》| location = 北京 | publisher = 商務印書館 | year = 1991| isbn = 978-7-100-00072-7| language = zh| postscript = .| title = Analytic dictionary of Chinese and Sino-Japanese| given = Bernhard | surname = Karlgren | author-link = Bernhard Karlgren| location = Paris | publisher = Paul Geuthner | year = 1923| isbn = 978-0-486-21887-8| url = https://archive.org/details/analyticdictiona00karl| postscript = .| title = Grammata Serica Recensa| given = Bernhard | surname = Karlgren | author-mask = 3| location = Stockholm | publisher = Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities| year = 1957 | oclc = 1999753| postscript = .| title = Studies on Archaic Chinese| surname = Li | given = Fang-Kuei | author-link = Li Fang-Kuei| others = translated by Gilbert L. Mattos| journal = Monumenta Serica | volume = 31 | year = 1974–1975 | pages = 219–287| jstor = 40726172| postscript = .| title = Tones and prosody in Middle Chinese and the origin of the rising tone| surname = Mei| given = Tsu-lin| journal = Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies| volume = 30| year = 1970| pages = 86–110| url = http://tlmei.com/tm17web/res/tones.pdf| jstor = 2718766| postscript = .| doi = 10.2307/2718766| accessdate = 2021-12-19| archive-date = 2021-12-17| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20211217221915/http://tlmei.com/tm17web/res/tones.pdf| dead-url = no| title = Tonal development in Min| given = Jerry | surname = Norman | author-link=Jerry Norman (sinologist)| journal = Journal of Chinese Linguistics | year = 1973| volume = 1 | issue = 2 | pages = 222–238| jstor = 23749795| postscript = .| contribution = The origin of Proto-Min softened stops| given = Jerry | surname = Norman | author-mask = 3| pages = 375–384| title = Contributions to Sino-Tibetan studies| editor-given1 = John | editor-surname1 = McCoy | editor-given2 = Timothy | editor-surname2 = Light| location = Leiden | publisher = E. J. Brill | year = 1986| isbn = 978-90-04-07850-5| postscript = .| title = Chinese | given = Jerry | surname = Norman | author-mask = 3| location = Cambridge | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 1988| isbn = 978-0-521-29653-3| postscript = .| title = Pharyngealization in Early Chinese| given = Jerry | surname = Norman | author-mask = 3| journal = Journal of the American Oriental Society | year = 1994| volume = 114 | issue = 3 | pages = 397–408| jstor = 605083 | doi = 10.2307/605083| postscript = .| title = The Consonantal System of Old Chinese| given = Edwin G.| surname = Pulleyblank| author-link = Edwin G. Pulleyblank| journal = Asia Major| volume = 9| year = 1962a| pages = 58–144| url = http://www2.ihp.sinica.edu.tw/~asiamajor/pdf/1962/1962-58.PDF| postscript = .| accessdate = 2021-12-19| archive-date = 2020-08-08| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200808154429/http://www2.ihp.sinica.edu.tw/~asiamajor/pdf/1962/1962-58.PDF| dead-url = no| title = The Consonantal System of Old Chinese, part 2| given = Edwin G.| surname = Pulleyblank| author-mask = 3| journal = Asia Major| volume = 9| year = 1962b| pages = 206–265| url = http://www2.ihp.sinica.edu.tw/~asiamajor/pdf/1962/1962-206.pdf| postscript = .| accessdate = 2021-12-19| archive-date = 2021-12-17| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20211217221918/http://www2.ihp.sinica.edu.tw/~asiamajor/pdf/1962/1962-206.pdf| dead-url = no| title = The final consonants of Old Chinese| given = Edwin G. | surname = Pulleyblank | author-mask = 3| journal = Monumenta Serica | volume = 33 | year = 1977–1978 | pages = 180–206| jstor = 40726239| postscript = .| title = How do we reconstruct Old Chinese?| given = Edwin G. | surname = Pulleyblank | author-mask = 3| journal = Journal of the American Oriental Society| year = 1992 | volume = 112 | issue = 3 | pages = 365–382| jstor = 603076 | doi = 10.2307/603076| postscript = .| chapter = Reconstructing Old Chinese uvulars in the Baxter-Sagart system| given = Laurent| surname = Sagart| year = 2007| title = 40th International Conference on Sino-Tibetan Languages and Linguistics| chapter-url = http://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/docs/00/17/95/46/PDF/haerbin_uvulars_paper.pdf| postscript = .| accessdate = 2021-12-19| archive-date = 2012-04-04| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120404214443/http://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/docs/00/17/95/46/PDF/haerbin_uvulars_paper.pdf| dead-url = no| title = ABC Etymological Dictionary of Old Chinese| given = Axel | surname = Schuessler| location = Honolulu | publisher = University of Hawaii Press| year = 2007 | isbn = 978-0-8248-2975-9| postscript = .| title = Minimal Old Chinese and Later Han Chinese: A Companion to Grammata Serica Recensa| given = Axel | surname = Schuessler | author-mask = 3| location = Honolulu | publisher = University of Hawaii Press| year = 2009 | isbn = 978-0-8248-3264-3| postscript = .| title = William H. Baxter, Laurent Sagart. "Old Chinese. A New Reconstruction"| given = George| surname = Starostin| journal = Journal of Language Relationship| volume = 13| issue = 4| year = 2015| pages = 383–389| department = Book reviews| url = http://www.jolr.ru/files/(178)jlr2015-13-3-4(383-389).pdf| postscript = .| accessdate = 2021-12-19| archive-date = 2021-07-15| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210715045552/https://www.jolr.ru/files/%28178%29jlr2015-13-3-4%28383-389%29.pdf| dead-url = no| title = Rekonstrukcija drevnekitajskoj fonologičeskoj sistemy| trans-title = Reconstruction of the Phonological System of Old Chinese| given = Sergei A.| surname = Starostin| author-link = Sergei Starostin| location = Moscow| publisher = Nauka| year = 1989| isbn = 978-5-02-016986-9| url = http://starling.rinet.ru/Texts/chisyst.pdf| language = ru| postscript = .| accessdate = 2021-12-19| archive-date = 2020-04-24| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200424233454/https://starling.rinet.ru/Texts/chisyst.pdf| dead-url = no| title = 漢語語音史| author = 王力| location = 北京 | publisher = 中國社會科學出版社 | year = 1985| language = zh| postscript = .}} 由商務印書館再版, 北京 2008, {{ISBN|978-7-100-05390-7}}.| title = Decipherment of "Yue-Ren-Ge" (Song of the Yue boatman)| author = 鄭張尚芳| journal = Cahiers de Linguistique Asie Orientale| year = 1991| volume = 20| issue = 2| pages = 159–168| doi = 10.3406/clao.1991.1345| url = http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/clao_0153-3320_1991_num_20_2_1345| postscript = .| accessdate = 2021-12-19| archive-date = 2011-07-21| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110721015557/http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/clao_0153-3320_1991_num_20_2_1345| dead-url = no| title = 上古音系| author = 鄭張尚芳 | author-mask = 3| others = translated by Laurent Sagart| location = Paris | publisher = École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales| year = 2000| isbn = 978-2-910216-04-7| postscript = .閱讀更多.| title = The Roots of Old Chinese| given = Laurent | surname = Sagart | author-link = Laurent Sagart| location = Amsterdam | publisher = John Benjamins| year = 1999 | isbn = 978-90-272-3690-6| postscript = .| ref = none| given = S.E.| surname = Yakhontov| author-link = Sergei Yakhontov| title = Drevnekitajskij jazyk| trans-title = Old Chinese| location = Moscow| publisher = Nauka| year = 1965| language = ru| url = http://www.biblio.nhat-nam.ru/Yahontov_Old_Chinese.pdf| postscript = .| accessdate = 2021-12-19| archive-date = 2017-10-31| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171031154101/http://www.biblio.nhat-nam.ru/Yahontov_Old_Chinese.pdf| dead-url = no| given = S.E.| surname = Yakhontov| author-mask = 3| others = translated by Jerry Norman| title = Old Chinese Phonology| journal = Early China| volume = 5| year = 1978–79| pages = 37–40| url = http://www.dartmouth.edu/~earlychina/docs/earlychinajournal/ec4_5_yakhontov.pdf| postscript = .| ref = none| access-date = 29 December 2013| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131231000341/http://www.dartmouth.edu/~earlychina/docs/earlychinajournal/ec4_5_yakhontov.pdf| archive-date = 31 December 2013| url-status = dead}} Translation of Chapter 2 (Phonetics) of {{harvp|Yakhontov|1965}}.| title = 上古音系| author = 鄭張尚芳| location = 上海 | publisher = 上海教育出版社 | year = 2003| isbn = 978-7-5320-9244-4| language = zh| postscript = .| ref = none擬音資料庫