帕拉第奧式建築

帕拉第奧式建築風格。這種風格一直髮展到18世紀末。在17世紀的英國，帕拉第奧主義曾一度盛行，但由於英國內戰的爆發和隨之而來的財政緊縮政策的實施，它的繁榮被打斷了。在18世紀早期，帕拉第奧主義重新流行起來。其他歐洲國家，例如普魯士也受到英國的直接影響。當時，從柏林寫信給伯靈頓勳爵，向腓特烈大帝建議在普魯士採用伯靈頓在英國引入的建築風格。17世紀晚期，當這種風格在歐洲失寵時，卻在北美的英國殖民地大受歡迎，著名建築有南卡羅來納州的德累頓廳、羅德島州紐波特的紅木圖書館、紐約市的莫里斯·朱梅爾大廈、馬里蘭州安納波利斯的哈蒙德·哈伍德大廈和弗吉尼亞州的蒙蒂塞洛。19世紀到20世紀初，帕拉第奧式風格重新在歐洲流行，常被用於公共和市政建築的設計。從19世紀後半葉開始，這種風格被流行於英語國家的哥特復興風格所抵制。哥特復興主義的追隨者奧古斯塔斯·普金等結合帕拉第奧主義在古代廟宇中的起源，認為它相對於英國國教和的信奉者來說太過異端。當然，作為一種建築風格，帕拉第奧式建築繼續流行並不斷髮展著：它的山花、對稱性和比例等要素在等當今許多現代建築的設計中都有明顯體現。帕拉第奧的建築風格.完全由帕拉第奧設計的建築都位於威尼斯和威尼託，其中最著名的當屬維琴察的宮殿群，包括別墅和教堂，如威尼斯的紅樓大教堂。帕拉第奧的建築論文也遵循了古羅馬建築師維特魯威和他15世紀的效仿者利昂·巴蒂斯塔·阿爾貝蒂所定義的原則：學習古羅馬建築那樣基於數學比例的風格，而不是模仿文藝復興時期的華麗裝飾風格。帕拉第奧的別墅設計非常契合它所處的環境。例如坐落在山坡上的圓廳別墅，各個方向的立面被設計的具有同等價值，以便居住者從各個方向欣賞美景。而且在這種情況下，所有側面都修建有門廊，以便居住者充分欣賞鄉村風光，同時避免陽光直射。帕拉第奧有時也會用涼廊來代替門廊。這就像一個嵌入式的門廊，或者一個內部的單層房間。有時，二樓的涼廊會被放置在一層涼廊頂部上方，形成一種雙涼廊。涼廊的正面有時會被山花所覆蓋，從而具有重要意義。戈迪別墅的集中點是一個終止於主樓兩端的涼廊。帕拉第奧經常以古羅馬神廟的正面為藍本設計別墅立面。神廟的十字形設計元素，成為了帕拉第奧作品的一個標誌。帕拉第奧設計的別墅通常分為三層：最底層是一間粗琢的地下室或一樓，包含一些小房間。在這上面，主樓層透過門廊進入，門廊上有一段外部臺階，包括主要的會客室和主臥室。門廊上方是一個低夾層樓層，帶有次要的臥室和起居室。別墅內每個房間的尺寸都契合某種簡單的比例，如3:4和4:5，建築內的不同房間透過這些比例聯絡起來。早期的建築師一般使用這些公式來平衡建築單個的對稱立面，而帕拉第奧的設計則涉及整個方形的別墅的形態。帕拉第奧深入地思考了他的別墅的雙重用途：農舍和商人的豪華週末休養地。這些對稱的廟宇式房屋通常都有同樣對稱但較低的耳房，以容納馬、農場動物和開設農產品商店。耳房有時透過柱廊與別墅分離並連線，其設計不僅具有功能性，還可以補充和突出別墅的形態。帕拉第奧的著作《建築四書》最早出版於1570年，包含了對他自己的建築以及啟發他創造這種風格的古羅馬建築的描述和插圖。帕拉第奧重新詮釋了古羅馬的建築，並將其應用於各種建築設計當中，從宏偉的別墅和公共建築到簡單的房屋和農舍。帕拉第奧窗.帕拉第奧的建築作品中帕拉第奧式、塞裡安式或威尼斯式的窗戶，幾乎是他早期職業生涯的標誌。這一母題有兩個不同的版本：一種更簡單的稱為威尼斯窗，另一種更精緻、更具體的稱為帕拉第奧窗或“帕拉第奧母題”，儘管這種區別不太明顯。威尼斯窗由三部分組成：中間是一個高的圓拱形開口，兩側有兩個較小的矩形開口，後者頂部有過樑，由柱子支撐。威尼斯窗靈感古羅馬的凱旋門，最初由多納託·伯拉孟特。帕拉第奧對威尼斯窗的闡述為：在每個窗戶之間放置一個巨柱式，並將支撐側過樑的小柱子加倍，將第二根柱子放在第一根柱子的後面，而不是旁邊。事實上，雅格波·桑索維諾中大量使用了威尼斯窗。這裡的開口並不是嚴格意義上的窗戶，因為它們圍成了涼廊。在其他情況下，壁柱可能會取代柱子。約翰·薩默森爵士建議省略雙柱，但術語“帕拉第奧母題”應僅限於存在較大柱式的情況。帕拉第奧廣泛使用了這些元素。也許正是由於威尼斯人對這些母題的廣泛使用，才使這扇窗戶有了威尼斯人窗戶的另一個名字:Serlian窗。無論名稱或起源如何，在後來從帕拉第奧主義演變而來的建築風格中可以看到，這種形式的窗戶已經成為帕拉第奧作品中最持久的特徵之一。根據詹姆斯·里斯·米爾恩的說法，它在英國的首次亮相是在倫敦伯靈頓大廈的改造耳房。它的直接際上是伊尼戈·瓊斯對白廳宮殿的設計，而不是出自帕拉第奧本人。早期帕拉第奧式建築.In 1570 Palladio published his book, "I quattro libri dell'architettura", which inspired architects across Europe.During the 17th century, many architects studying in Italy learned of Palladio's work. Foreign architects then returned home and adapted Palladio's style to suit various climates, topographies and personal tastes of their clients. Isolated forms of Palladianism throughout the world were brought about in this way. However, the Palladian style did not reach the zenith of its popularity until the 18th century, primarily in England, Wales, Scotland, Ireland and later North America. In Venice itself there was an early reaction to the excesses of Baroque architecture that manifested itself as a return to Palladian principles. The earliest neo-Palladians there were the exact contemporaries, both trained up as masons, Domenico Rossi (1657–1737) and Andrea Tirali (1657–1737). Tommaso Temanza, their biographer, proved to be the movement's most able and learned proponent; in his hands the visual inheritance of Palladio's example became increasingly codified in correct rules and drifted towards neoclassicism.The most influential follower of Palladio anywhere, however, was the Englishman Inigo Jones, who travelled throughout Italy with the 'Collector' Earl of Arundel, annotating his copy of Palladio's treatise, in 1613–14. The "Palladianism" of Jones and his contemporaries and later followers was a style largely of facades, and the mathematical formulae dictating layout were not strictly applied. A handful of great country houses in England built between 1640 and 1680, such as Wilton House, are in this Palladian style. These follow the great success of Jones' Palladian designs for the Queen's House at Greenwich and the Banqueting House at Whitehall, the uncompleted royal palace in London of King Charles I.However, the Palladian designs advocated by Inigo Jones were too closely associated with the court of Charles I to survive the turmoil of the English Civil War. Following the Stuart restoration, Jones's Palladianism was eclipsed by the Baroque designs of such architects as William Talman and Sir John Vanbrugh, Nicholas Hawksmoor, and even Jones' pupil John Webb.新帕拉第奧式建築.English Palladian architecture.The Baroque style, popular in continental Europe, was never truly to the English taste and was considered excessively flamboyant, Catholic and 'florid'. It was quickly superseded when, in the first quarter of the 18th century, four books were published in Britain which highlighted the simplicity and purity of classical architecture. These were:The most favoured of these among the wealthy patrons of the day was the four-volume "Vitruvius Britannicus" by Colen Campbell. Campbell was both an architect and a publisher. It was essentially a book of design containing architectural prints of British buildings, which had been inspired by the great architects from Vitruvius to Palladio; at first mainly those of Inigo Jones, but the later works contained drawings and plans by Campbell and other 18th-century architects. These four books greatly contributed to Palladian architecture becoming established in 18th-century Britain. Their authors became the most fashionable and sought after architects of the era. Due to his book "Vitruvius Britannicus", Colen Campbell was chosen as the architect for banker Henry Hoare I's Stourhead house, a masterpiece that became the inspiration for dozens of similar houses across England.At the forefront of the new school of design was the aristocratic "architect earl", Richard Boyle, 3rd Earl of Burlington. In 1729, he and William Kent, designed Chiswick House. This House was a reinterpretation of Palladio's Villa Capra, but purified of 16th century elements and ornament. This severe lack of ornamentation was to be a feature of the English Palladianism. In 1734 William Kent and Lord Burlington designed one of England's finest examples of Palladian architecture with Holkham Hall in Norfolk. The main block of this house followed Palladio's dictates quite closely, but Palladio's low, often detached, wings of farm buildings were elevated in significance. Kent attached them to the design, banished the farm animals, and elevated the wings to almost the same importance as the house itself. These wings were often adorned with porticos and pediments, often resembling, as at the much later Kedleston Hall, small country houses in their own right. It was the development of the flanking wings that was to cause English Palladianism to evolve from being a pastiche of Palladio's original work.Architectural styles evolve and change to suit the requirements of each individual client. When in 1746 the Duke of Bedford decided to rebuild Woburn Abbey, he chose the Palladian style for the design, as this was now the most fashionable of the era. He selected architect Henry Flitcroft, a protégé of Burlington. Flitcroft's designs, while Palladian in nature, would not be recognised by Palladio himself. The central block is small, only three bays, the temple-like portico is merely suggested, and it is closed. Two great flanking wings containing a vast suite of state rooms replace the walls or colonnades which should have connected to the farm buildings; the farm buildings terminating the structure are elevated in height to match the central block and given Palladian windows, to ensure they are seen as of Palladian design. This development of the style was to be repeated in countless houses and town halls in Britain over one hundred years. Falling from favour during the Victorian era, it was revived by Sir Aston Webb for his refacing of Buckingham Palace in 1913. Often the terminating blocks would have blind porticos and pilasters themselves, competing for attention with, or complementing the central block. This was all very far removed from the designs of Palladio two hundred years earlier.English Palladian houses were now no longer the small but exquisite weekend retreats from which their Italian counterparts were conceived. They were no longer villas but "power houses" in Sir John Summerson's term, the symbolic centres of power of the Whig "squirearchy" that ruled Britain. As the Palladian style swept Britain, all thoughts of mathematical proportion were swept away. Rather than square houses with supporting wings, these buildings had the length of the façade as their major consideration: long houses often only one room deep were deliberately deceitful in giving a false impression of size.Irish Palladianism.During the Palladian revival period in Ireland, even quite modest mansions were cast in a neo-Palladian mould. Palladian architecture in Ireland subtly differs from that in England. While adhering as in other countries to the basic ideals of Palladio, it is often truer to them – perhaps because it was often designed by architects who had come directly from mainland Europe, and therefore were not influenced by the evolution that Palladianism was undergoing in Britain. Whatever the reason, Palladianism still had to be adapted for the wetter, colder weather.One of the most pioneering Irish architects was Sir Edward Lovett Pearce (1699–1733), who became one of the leading advocates of Palladianism in Ireland. A cousin of Sir John Vanbrugh, he was originally one of his pupils, but rejecting the Baroque style, he spent three years studying architecture in France and Italy, before returning home to Ireland. His most important Palladian work is the former Irish Houses of Parliament in Dublin. He was a prolific architect who also designed the south façade of Drumcondra House in 1725 and Summerhill House in 1731, which was completed after Pearce's death by Richard Cassels.Pearce oversaw the building of Castletown House, near Dublin, designed by the Italian architect Alessandro Galilei (1691–1737). It is perhaps the only Palladian house in Ireland to have been built with Palladio's mathematical ratios, and one of the three Irish mansions which claim to have inspired the design of the White House in Washington.Other examples include Russborough, designed by Cassels, who also designed the Palladian Rotunda Hospital in Dublin and Florence Court in County Fermanagh. Irish Palladian country houses often feature robust Rococo plasterwork, frequently executed by the Lafranchini brothers, an Irish specialty, which is far more flamboyant than the interiors of their contemporaries in England. So much of Dublin was built in the 18th century that it set a Georgian stamp on the city; however arising out of bad planning and poverty, until recently Dublin was one of the few cities where fine 18th-century housing could be seen in ruinous condition. Elsewhere in Ireland after 1922, the lead was removed from the roofs of unoccupied Palladian houses for its value as scrap, with the houses often abandoned owing to excessive roof-rate based taxes. Some roofless Palladian houses can still be found in the depopulated Irish countryside.North American Palladianism.Palladio's influence in North America is evident almost from the beginning of architect-designed building there, though the Irish philosopher George Berkeley may have been America's pioneering Palladian. Acquiring a large farmhouse in Middletown, near Newport in the late 1720s, Berkeley dubbed it "Whitehall" and improved it with a Palladian doorcase derived from William Kent's "Designs of Inigo Jones" (1727), which he may have brought with him from London. Palladio's work was included in the library of a thousand volumes he amassed for the purpose and sent to Yale College. In 1749, Peter Harrison adopted the design of his Redwood Library in Newport, Rhode Island, more directly from Palladio's "I quattro libri dell'architettura", while his Brick Market, also in Newport, of a decade later is also Palladian in conception.The Hammond-Harwood House in Annapolis, Maryland ("illustration") is an example of Palladian architecture in the United States. It is the only existing work of colonial academic architecture that was principally designed from a plate in Palladio's "Quattro libri". The house was designed by the architect William Buckland in 1773–74 for wealthy farmer Matthias Hammond of Anne Arundel County, Maryland. It was modeled on the design of the Villa Pisani in Montagnana, Italy in Book II, Chapter XIV of "I quattro libri dell’achitettura."The politician and architect Thomas Jefferson (1743–1826) once referred to Palladio's "Quattro libri" as his bible. Jefferson acquired an intense appreciation of Palladio's architectural concepts, and his designs for his own beloved Monticello, the James Barbour Barboursville estate, Virginia State Capitol, and the University of Virginia were based on drawings from Palladio's book. Realizing the powerful political significance pertaining to ancient Roman buildings, Jefferson designed his civic buildings in the Palladian style. Monticello (remodelled between 1796 and 1808) is quite clearly based on Palladio's Villa Capra, however, with modifications, in a style which is described in America today as Colonial Georgian. Jefferson's Pantheon or Rotunda at the University of Virginia is undeniably Palladian in concept and style.In Virginia and Carolina, the Palladian manner is epitomised in numerous Tidewater plantation houses, such as Stratford Hall or Westover Plantation, or Drayton Hall near Charleston. These examples are all classic American colonial examples of a Palladian taste that was transmitted through engravings, for the benefit of masons—and patrons, too—who had no first-hand experience of European building practice. A feature of American Palladianism was the re-emergence of the great portico which, again, as in Italy, fulfilled the need of protection from the sun; the portico in various forms and size became a dominant feature of American colonial architecture. In the north European countries the portico had become a mere symbol, often closed, or merely hinted at in the design by pilasters, and sometimes in very late examples of English Palladianism adapted to become a porte-cochère; in America, the Palladian portico regained its full glory.One house which clearly shows this Palladian-Gibbs influence is Mount Airy, in Richmond County, Virginia, built in 1758–62.At Westover the north and south entrances, made of imported Portland stone, were patterned after a plate in William Salmon's "Palladio Londinensis" (1734).The distinctive feature of Drayton Hall, its two-storey portico, was derived directly from Palladio.The neoclassical presidential mansion, the White House in Washington, was inspired by Irish Palladianism. Both Castle Coole and Richard Cassel's Leinster House in Dublin claim to have inspired the architect James Hoban, who designed the executive mansion, built between 1792 and 1800. Hoban, born in Callan, County Kilkenny, in 1762, studied architecture in Dublin, where Leinster House (built c. 1747) was one of the finest buildings at the time. The White House is more neoclassical than Palladian, particularly the South façade, which closely resembles James Wyatt's 1790 design for Castle Coole, also in Ireland. Castle Coole is, in the words of the architectural commentator Gervase Jackson-Stops, "A culmination of the Palladian traditions, yet strictly neoclassical in its chaste ornament and noble austerity."One of the adaptations made to Palladianism in America was that the piano nobile, now tended to be placed on the ground floor rather than above a service floor, as was the tradition in Europe. This service floor, if it existed at all, was now a discreet semi-basement. This negated the need for an ornate external staircase leading to the main entrance as in the more original Palladian designs. This would also be a feature of the neoclassical style that followed Palladianism.The only two houses in the United States from the English colonial period (1607–1776) that can be definitively attributed to designs from "I quattro libri dell'architettura" are architect William Buckland's Hammond-Harwood House (1774) in Annapolis, Maryland and Thomas Jefferson's first Monticello. The design source for the Hammond-Harwood House is Villa Pisani, Montagnana (Book II, Chapter XIV), and for the first Monticello (1770) the design source is Villa Cornaro at Piombino Dese (Book II, Chapter XIV). Thomas Jefferson later covered this façade with additions so that the Hammond-Harwood House remains the only pure and pristine example of direct modeling in America today.Because of its later development, Palladian architecture in Canada is rare. One notable example is the Nova Scotia Legislature building, completed in 1819. Another example is Government House in St. John's, Newfoundland.The Center for Palladian Studies in America, Inc., a non-profit membership organization, was founded in 1979 to research and promote understanding of Palladio's influence in the United States.遺產.B到 1770 年代的英國，像羅伯特·亞當 (Robert Adam) 和威廉·錢伯斯爵士 (Sir William Chambers) 這樣的建築師的需求量很大，但他們現在借鑑了包括古希臘在內的各種古典資源，以至於他們的建築形式最終被定義為新古典主義而非帕拉第奧式。在歐洲，帕拉第奧的複興在 18 世紀末結束。在北美，帕拉第奧主義徘徊的時間更長。 Thomas Jefferson 的平面圖和立面圖很大程度上歸功於 Palladio 的 Quattro libri。今天，“帕拉第奧”一詞經常被誤用，並傾向於描述具有任何古典自負的建築。然而，在 20 世紀初的殖民複興主義者中，帕拉第奧式的思想出現了復興，即使在現代主義時期，這種壓力也從未間斷In the mid-20th century, the originality of the approach of the architectural historian Colin Rowe had the effect of re-situating the assessment of modern architecture within history and acknowledged the Palladian architecture as an active influence. In the later 20th century, when Rowe's influence had spread worldwide, this approach had become a key element in the process of architectural and urban design. If "the presence of the past" was evident in the work of many architects in the late 20th century, from James Stirling to Aldo Rossi, Robert Venturi, Oswald Matthias Ungers, Peter Eisenman, Michael Graves and others, this was largely due to the influence of Rowe. Colin Rowe's unorthodox and non-chronological view of history then made it possible for him to develop theoretical formulations such as his famous essay "The Mathematics of the Ideal Villa" (1947) in which he theorised that there were compositional "rules" in Palladio's villas that could be demonstrated to correspond to similar "rules" in Le Corbusier's villas at Poissy and Garches. This approach enabled Rowe to elaborate an astonishingly fresh and provocative trans-historical assessment of both Palladio and Le Corbusier, in which the architecture of both was assessed not in chronological time, but side by side in the present moment.此音訊檔案是根據條目“帕拉第奧式建築”的修訂版本錄製的，以朗讀，不會反映對該條目的後續編輯。更多有聲條目