ejaasaari/simplewiki-2025-04-01 huggingface dataset:
The Australian gold rush was a large number of gold discoveries in Australia. Thousands of people came to Australia in the hope of finding a lot of gold and becoming rich. The rush started in 1851 when gold was found near Bathurst, New South Wales and ended with the last rush in 1893 to Kalgoorlie, Western Australia. At each place gold was easily found in rivers and creeks. This was known as alluvial gold and could be found by individual miners using very basic equipment such as a spade and a dish. In most places this alluvial gold was taken in the first few months. To get at the gold that was buried deeper in the ground meant that the miners needed to work together to dig tunnels. Eventually large companies were formed to raise money so that deep gold mines could be built. The gold rushes happened when alluvial gold was found. Miners would quickly move there in the hope of being the first to find the surface gold. For example, miners rushing to Clunes, Victoria in August 1851, quickly changed their minds and went to Buninyong when they heard of a new gold discovery. Weeks later gold was found at Ballarat a few miles to the north and within six weeks there were more than 10,000 people digging. But by 1852 most miners had left Ballarat and rushed to the new goldfields at Bendigo. In 1854, miners in Ballarat were angry and upset at paying for gold licences. They burned their licences and raised the Eureka Stockade flag in protest. The miners fought soldiers and police officers to protect their rights. This was called the Eureka Stockade. Many people died, but afterwards the miners didn't have to pay for their licences anymore. Before the gold rush. Gold had been found in Australia before the 1851 gold rush. At first people would not believe the stories. A convict who found gold near Bathurst in 1823 was given 150 lashes with a whip as it was believed he must have stolen it. The explorer Count Paul Strzelecki found gold in the Australian Alps in 1839. The government kept it a secret as they did not want to lose control of the convicts if they went rushing off to search for gold. Gold was also found at: Gold rushes in New South Wales. The first gold rush was in New South Wales. There were many others during the next 30 years.
Romney Marsh is a coastal marshland of southern England. It runs from Hythe in Kent to Rye in East Sussex. It covers about 100 miles2 (260 km2). Romney Marsh is one of three English wetlands, the others being The Fens of East Anglia and the Somerset Levels. Much of the area has been reclaimed over the centuries, and is now flat farmland. Before the area was drained, it was a cause of malaria among the inhabitants. For much of its history, the Marsh was fringed by a lagoon, which was protected by a shingle beach at Dymchurch. The Marsh still contains some water features, particularly the Royal Military Canal, completed in 1809, and the River Rother. At Romney Marsh the coast is at its closest to France, and was several times the point of invasion. In AD 892, a Danish fleet of 250 ships sailed right into the River Rother and took the fortress at Appledore (allegedly built by King Arthur), which they destroyed. The Romans used the Romney area for a salt industry. Pans of brackish water were left to evaporate, and the salt collected for use in food. The marsh includes two of the ancient Cinque Ports, New Romney and Hythe, and two ancient towns, Rye and Winchelsea. New Romney was once a port, but is now a mile and a half from the sea. It is the main centre of population on the Marsh.
Eduard Strauss (15 March 1835, Vienna – 28 December 1916, Vienna) was a Viennese composer of light music. He was also a conductor. He was the brother of the more famous composers Johann Strauss II and Josef Strauss, the son of Johann Strauss I, and the father of Johann Strauss III.
Paul Edward Goldschmidt (born September 10, 1987 in Wilmington, Delaware) is an American baseball player. He currently plays as a first baseman for the St. Louis Cardinals of Major League Baseball (MLB). He debuted for the Diamondbacks on August 1, 2011 in a game against the San Francisco Giants.
Dendritic cells (DCs) are white blood cells forming part of the mammalian immune system. They process antigen material from pathogens and put it on their surface. There it touches other cells of the immune system. So, dendritic cells are antigen-presenting cells. They act as messengers between the innate and adaptive immune systems. Dendritic cells are present in tissues in contact with the external environment. These tissues are the skin, and the inner lining of the nose, lungs, stomach and intestines. They can also be found in an immature and mature state in the blood. Young dentritics. Dedritic cells develop from monocytes, white blood cells which circulate in the body. Depending on the signal, monocytes turn into either dendritic cells or macrophages. The monocytes are formed from stem cells in the bone marrow. Immature dendritic cells constantly sample their surrounds for pathogens such as viruses and bacteria. This is done through pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) such as the toll-like receptors (TLRs).  They eat pathogens and break down their proteins into small pieces and put these fragments on their cell surface using MHC molecules. Once activated, these cells move to the lymph nodes and become mature. They switch on cell-surface receptors which activate T cells and B cells to start and shape the adaptive immune response. History. Dendritic cells were first described by Paul Langerhans (Langerhans cells) in the late nineteenth century. It wasn't until 1973, however, that Ralph Steinman and Zanvil Cohn gave them the name 'dendritic cells'. For discovering the central role of dendritic cells in the adaptive immune response, Steinman was awarded the Albert Lasker Award in 2007, and the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 2011.
Ralph Marvin Steinman (January 14, 1943 – September 30, 2011) was a Canadian immunologist and cell biologist at Rockefeller University. He studied a kind of cell in the immune system and called them "dendritic cells". He made these discoveries while working in the laboratory of Zanvil A. Cohn. He was of Jewish descent. On October 3, 2011, the Nobel Committee announced that Steinman had received one-half of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, for "his discovery of the dendritic cell and its role in adaptive immunity". The other half went to Bruce Beutler and Jules Hoffmann, for "their discoveries concerning the activation of innate immunity". However, the committee did not know that Steinman had died three days earlier, on September 30, from pancreatic cancer. The committee considered what to do about Steinman's prize, since the rule is that the prize is not awarded posthumously. The committee later decided that, as the decision to award the prize "was made in good faith", they would not change the award. Steinman's daughter said that he had joked the previous week with his family about hanging on until the prize announcement. Steinman said: "I know I have got to hold out for that. They don't give it to you if you have passed away. I got to hold out for that". Steinman had received numerous other awards and recognitions for his life-long work on dendritic cells, such as the Albert Lasker Award (2007), the Gairdner Foundation International Award (2003), and the Cancer Research Institute William B. Coley Award (1998). In addition, he was made a member of Institute of Medicine (U.S.A.; elected 2002) and the National Academy of Sciences (U.S.A.; elected 2001).
A ground fault circuit interrupter (GFCI), or Residual Current Device (RCD) is a type of circuit breaker. This type shuts off electric power (or breaks the electrical circuit), to protect people from an electric shock caused when some of the current travels through a person's body due to an electrical fault such as a short circuit, insulation failure, or equipment that is not working right.  Standard circuit breakers shut off power when the current is too high, like 10, 15, or 20 amps. This protects machinery, and is often good enough to prevent hurting people. The GFCI / RCD breaks the circuit when it detects an imbalance of only 0.005 amps (0.030 amps in Australia and some European and Asian countries). Even this small amount of current, 0.030 amps, going through one human body might possibly kill, by causing paralysis of skeletal muscles and stopping the heart.  A standard circuit breaker protects the house electrical wires, receptacles and switches, and appliances and fixtures from dangerous conditions, which could contribute to overheating and possible fire. A GFCI / RCD protects people from shock and electrocution and is often found in bathrooms or kitchens where electrical devices may be used near water. While using electrical devices in these locations, someone's bare skin may be in contact with water or a wet floor or metal fixtures. Any of these can provide an alternate path for current to travel in the case of an electrical fault.  A GFCI / RCD can also prevent dangers from short circuits and other electrical faults that don't involve humans such as a low current short where the current never reaches the trigger point for a circuit breaker, e.g. a live wire falls in a tub of water or moist soil and only 1 or 2 amps of current flow. Types. GFCIs are available in two types: the circuit breaker that installs in an electrical panel, and the receptacle type that installs into an electrical box. Regulations. GFCIs are a suitable replacement for two prong outlets without a grounded wire. In the United States, the National Electric Code (NEC) requires GFCI protection in dwelling on kitchen counter
Calico cat is an American name for cats with three colors. Outside of North America they are usually called tortoiseshell cats or 'tortie-and-white'. A calico cat has a coat of orange or brown and black spots on a white background. It is not a breed of cat. Nearly all calico cats are female. There are male calico cats, but they are very rare. Only one of every 3000 calico cats are male. Genetics. A single X chromosome can have either a black allele of the coloration gene or an orange version, but not both. However, a female cat has two X chromosomes, so it can have both versions, black on one chromosome and orange on the other, making the cat a calico. A male cat usually has one X chromosome and one Y chromosome. A Y chromosome does not have a color gene, so the cat can have either an orange or a black gene, but not both. Calico cats are often used as an example in biology classes when discussing sex chromosomes. During the early stages of development, when the cat is still an embryo, in each cell one of the X chromosomes (either the black one or the orange one) deactivates. It is called X-inactivation. All cells that were copied from a cell with a deactivated X chromosome will also have the same X chromosome deactivated. This is what leads to formation of the spots. The earlier in development the X chromosomes deactivate, the larger the spots will be. Deactivation of one of the X chromosomes happens in all female mammals. The white coloring on a calico is from a separate gene unrelated to the orange or black genes. Whether or not a cat is a calico is determined by genetics, but the actual layout of the spots is not. The layout of the spots is almost random. It is not possible to selectively breed or clone calico cats: an attempt to clone a calico cat will produce a black and white cat or orange and white tabby cat. The tortoiseshell cat is similar, although on a tortoiseshell cat the spots are usually smaller and closer together and there is less or no white. It is possible for a male cat to
Bruce Alan Beutler M.D. (born December 29, 1957 in Chicago, Illinois) is an American immunologist and geneticist of Jewish descent. Together with Jules Hoffmann, he received one-half of the 2011 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, for "discoveries concerning the activation of innate immunity" (the other half went to Ralph Steinman for "his discovery of the dendritic cell and its role in adaptive immunity"). Beutler is currently Director of the Center for the Genetics of Host Defense at the University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center in Dallas, Texas and Professor and Chairman of the Department of Genetics at The Scripps Research Institute, in La Jolla, California. His father, Ernest Beutler, a hematologist and medical geneticist, was also a Professor and Department Chairman at Scripps. Scientific discoveries. Beutler is best known for his pioneering molecular and genetic studies of inflammation and innate immunity. Interested in the mechanism by which lipopolysacchride (LPS) activates mammalian immune cells, Beutler identified the LPS receptor. Identification of the receptor hinged on the positional cloning (a method of gene identification) of the mammalian "Lps" locus, which had been known since the 1960s as a key gene for biological responses to LPS. Beutler thus discovered the key sensors of microbial infection in mammals. He found that one of the mammalian toll-like receptors, TLR4, acts as the membrane-spanning component of the mammalian LPS receptor complex. The TLRs work in the perception of microbes. Ten are now known in humans. Each detects signature molecules produced early in an infection. These receptors also work in severe illness, including shock and systemic inflammation as it occurs in the course of an infection. They are also active in sterile inflammatory and autoimmune diseases such as systemic lupus erythematosus. The research on TLRs won him the Nobel Prize in 2011. The positional cloning of "Lps" was completed in 1998. Beutler continued to analyse immunity in mammals. His work found numerous signalling molecules of the innate immune response, and helped to work out the biochemistry of innate immunity.
Jules A. Hoffmann (born 2 August 1941) is a Luxembourg-born French biologist. He is a research director and member of the board of administrators of the National Center of Scientific Research (CNRS) in Strasbourg, France. In 2007, he became President of the French Academy of Sciences.  Together with Bruce Beutler, Hoffmann received one-half of the 2011 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for "their discoveries concerning the activation of innate immunity". Hoffmann discovered the function of the fruit fly "Toll" gene in innate immunity. Its mammalian homologues, the toll-like receptors, were discovered by Beutler. Toll-like receptors identify constituents of other organisms like fungi and bacteria, and trigger an immune response. This explains how septic shock can be triggered by bacterial remains. Education. Hoffmann completed his PhD in biology at the University of Strasbourg in 1969. His post-doctoral training was at the Institut für Physiologische Chemie at Philipps-Universität in Marburg an der Lahn, Germany in 1973–1974. Research. Hoffmann was a research assistant at CNRS from 1964 to 1968, and became a research associate in 1969. Since 1974 he has been a Research Director of CNRS. Between 1978 and 2005 he was Director of the CNRS research unit "Immune Response and Development in Insects", and from 1993 to 2005 he was director of the Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology of CNRS in Strasbourg. Hoffmann is a member of the German Academy of Sciences Leopoldina, the French National Academy of Sciences, the Academia Europaea, the European Molecular Biology Organization (EMBO), the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and the Russian Academy of Sciences.
Factoid is stating a fact that is not backed up by evidence. The factoid may not be trusted because (a) it is actually false, or (b) because evidence to support it cannot be checked. Factoids become widely treated as if they were true.  In 1973, the term "factoid" was created and first used by Norman Mailer.  A factoid is "an item of unreliable information which is repeated so often that it becomes accepted as a fact". The most important thing is that the factoid is widely believed. A factoid refers to something that looks like a fact, could be a fact, but in fact is not a fact. The term can also be used to describe partial information without context.
There are several allotropes of carbon. Diamond and graphite are the most famous. Graphite is a conductor, a semimetal (an element that is partially a metal and a nonmetal, such as black phosphorus and grey selenium). It can be used, for instance, as the material in the electrodes of an electrical arc lamp. Graphite is the most stable form of solid carbon ever discovered. Allotropes are different forms of the same chemical element. All elements are made up uniquely of their own atoms. Any physical differences are because of how the atoms are joined together. Many elements show allotropy because there are a number of ways in which the atoms can be linked together. Also there are different ways in how the molecules can be arranged to make larger structures. Diamond is one of the best known allotropes of carbon. Its hardness and high dispersion of light make it good for use in jewellery. It also has industrial uses. Diamond is the hardest known natural mineral. This makes it an excellent abrasive. A diamond also holds its luster well. Both diamond and graphite have extremely high melting point, which is unusual for nonmetallic element.
Lunokhod 1 was a lunar rover made by the Soviet Union. It was part of the Lunokhod programme. It was the first man made rover (vehicle) to land on another planet. It landed on the Moon on November 17, 1970. It drove around on the Moon for nearly a year, collecting information about the soil and landscape. The Lunokhod had only two speeds, 1 km/h or 2 km/h. It had four TV cameras and was controlled by a five person team on Earth. It was lost for almost 40 years, but the space rocket which delivered the rover to the Moon was found in photos taken by the NASA Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter. Scientists were then able to follow the rover's tracks and found the rover about 10 km away. They can now send laser beams to a reflector on the rover which will send them back to Earth. This will help them with measurements to find the exact centre of the Moon.
Salmonella enterica is a rod-shaped bacterium. It is a member of the genus "Salmonella". It causes typhoid fever. The symptoms of typhoid fever include nausea, vomiting, and fever. The main source of infection is from swallowing infected water. Food may also be able to pick up the bacterium if it is washed or grown with contaminated water.
In biology, a medusa (plural: medusae) is a form of cnidarian in which the body is shaped like an umbrella. The other main body-form is the polyp.  Medusae vary from bell-shaped to the shape of a thin disk, scarcely convex above and only slightly concave below. The upper or aboral surface is called the "exumbrella" and the lower surface is called the "subumbrella"; the mouth is on the lower surface, which may be partially closed by a membrane extending inward from the margin (called the "velum"). The digestive cavity consists of the gastrovascular cavity and radiating canals which extend toward the margin; these canals may be simple or branching, and vary in number from few to many. The margin of the disk bears sensory organs and tentacles. In the class Hydrozoa, medusae are the sexual individuals of many species, alternating in the life cycle with asexual polyps. The medusa form of Hydrozoans are known as hydromedusae. A polyp is the form that attaches to a surface, while a medusa is the form that is free-floating; a species of cnidarian may take each form in a different phase of its life. The medusa form predominates in the classes Scyphozoa (the common, colourful, large jellyfish) and Cubozoa. Except for freshwater hydrozoans like "Craspedacusta sowerbyi", these are the only classes in which medusae appear. Medusae may have many tentacles with which they catch their prey. Sometimes, people bathing in the ocean are touched by a medusa. Their tentacles are long and thin and covered in venomous stinging cells (known as nematocysts). They inject poison which immobilizes small fish. People who are stung should seek medical attention. There have been some deaths after severe medusa stings.
Zygomycota, or zygote fungi, is a large group of 1600 species of fungi.  Fungi are put into groups by the way they reproduce. The name "Zygomycota" comes from zygosporangia, where strong and tough round shaped spores are formed during sexual reproduction.  They are mostly found living in soil or on decaying plant or animal material. Some are parasites of plants, insects, and small animals. Others form symbiotic relationships with plants, where the plant and the fungi need each other to grow.  Zygomycete hyphae may be a syncytium, that is, having a mass of nuclei not divided into separate cells. On occasion these can be divided into separate parts by a cell wall called a septum. This only happens where gametes are formed, or to wall off dead hyphae.
The Invisible College was the name given to themselves by a group of like-minded scientists and natural philosophers in England in the mid-17th century. The informal association is considered to have been one of the origins of the Royal Society. The purpose of the invisible college was to encourage each other to develop scientific knowledge through experiments and other kinds of investigation. Some of the members of the Invisible College were among the founders of the Royal Society in 1660, including Robert Boyle, John Wilkins and Samuel Hartlib. Modern use. The concept of invisible college was developed in the sociology of science by Diane Crane, building on de Solla Price's work on citation networks. It is related to, but significantly different from, other concepts of expert communities, such as "Epistemic communities", or "Communities of Practice". Recently, the concept was applied to the global network of communications among scientists by Caroline S. Wagner. In fiction it is mentioned in the novel "The Lost Symbol" by Dan Brown, and was the inspiration for the Unseen University in the works of Terry Pratchett.
The WWE Divas Championship was a professional wrestling championship made in 2008 by WWE. The wrestlers with the most reigns as Divas Champion are Eve Torres and AJ Lee with 3 each. The longest reigning champion is Nikki Bella with the aid of her sister Brie Bella, holding the championship for 301 days. There is no longer a Divas championship as the WWE doesn't want the women to be classed as a diva and now calls them WWE Superstars like the men. The WWE Women's Championship replaced the title at WrestleMania 32.