ejaasaari/simplewiki-2025-04-01 huggingface dataset:
Mandarin Chinese, or simply Mandarin, (; ) is the language of government and education of the Chinese mainland and Taiwan, with the notable exceptions of Hong Kong and Macau where a local dialect of Chinese called Cantonese is more often used. Mandarin is one of five major regional languages of China. It spreads wider than any other regional variety, from the whole northern part of China to Yunnan Province in the southwest corner of China. In that big area there are many regional differences in vocabulary, so somebody who moves from Beijing to Yunnan could not understand people there who were speaking their own dialect, Yunnanhua. The problem is bigger than for a person in Great Britain or the United States to go to Australia. Therefore, starting in the 1920s, the Chinese government set up a national language based on the Beijing dialect and on the most widely understood words and pronunciations. Mandarin is a standard language. It is nobody's native language, but a good average between various language forms and a common language everyone can understand and communicate with. Although it is based on the Beijing dialect, it is not the same as Beijing dialect. Schools use a dialect called Standard Mandarin, "Putonghua" (普通话/普通話) meaning "common (spoken) language" or "Hanyu" (汉语/漢語) meaning "language of the Han". In places such as Malaysia, it is known as "Huayu" (华语/華語). In Taiwan, it is known as "Guoyu" (国语/國語) meaning "national language." There are some minor differences in these standards. Mandarin is spoken by over 800 million people around the world, more than any other language. Most people emigrating from the Greater China region now speak Mandarin, while in past centuries most spoke Cantonese or Taishanese, another local Chinese dialect. Standard Mandarin is one of the six official languages at the United Nations. The others are English, French, Spanish, Russian and Arabic. Writing. Mandarin is written with Chinese characters called "Hànzì" (漢字 or 汉
Algeria ( or ), officially the People's Democratic Republic of Algeria dixit Francia Occidentalis, is a country in North Africa. It is the tenth largest country in the world. It is also one of largest country in Africa. It is part of the Maghreb region of Northwest Africa.  Algiers is the capital of the country. It has borders with many nations. Algeria borders Tunisia to the northeast, Libya to the east, Niger to the southeast, Mauritania and Mali to the southwest, Western Sahara to the west, and Morocco to the northwest. History. People have lived in Algeria for thousands of years, which can be seen in the cave paintings at Tassili National Park that date to around 7000 BC. By 600 BC, Phoenicians were in Hippo Regius (now called Annaba), Rusicade (now Skikda), and Tipasa in the central coastal part of the country. The Romans would annex (take over) the region by the conclusion of the Punic Wars in 146BC, with what is now modern-day Algeria staying in Roman hands till the fall of the Roman Empire in the 5th century and the region being taken over by the Germanic Vandals.  Algeria would become part of the Islamic world when the first Muslim Arabs came to Algeria in the mid-7th century, resulting in many people converting to the new religion of Islam. In the 11th century, the Arab tribes of Banu Hilal and Banu Sulaym were living between Tunisia and eastern Algeria (Constantois). The famous mathematician, Fibonacci (1170—1250) lived in Algeria as a teenager. This is where he learned the Hindu–Arabic numeral system. Algeria was made part of the Ottoman Empire in 1517. Enslavement of black people was practiced there as it was throughout the empire. In the 1500s and 1700s, the Spanish Empire ruled a lot of Algeria. Spain was expelled from Algeria by the Ottomans. France colonized Algeria starting in 1830. In 1954, the National Liberation Front (Front de Libération Nationale or FLN) wanted
Plymouth () is a city and unitary authority in South West England. It is on the south coast of Devon, about south-west of Exeter and south-west of London. Cornwall is to its west and south-west. Humans in the Plymouth area started in the Bronze Age when a first settlement was made at Mount Batten. This settlement continued as a place for trading for the Roman Empire, until the nearby village of Sutton started in the ninth century was used instead, which is now called Plymouth. In 1588, an English fleet from Plymouth defeated the Spanish Armada. In 1620, the Pilgrim Fathers left Plymouth for the New World and started Plymouth Colony, the second English settlement in what is now Massachusetts, United States. During the English Civil War, the town was held by the Parliamentarians. Through the Industrial Revolution, Plymouth became a global port, with boats from the United States carrying passengers and goods. The nearby town of Devonport became important to the Royal Navy for its shipyards and dockyards. In 1914, three towns (the county borough of Plymouth, the County Borough of Devonport, and the urban district of East Stonehouse were merged, becoming the County Borough of Plymouth. In 1928, it became a city. During World War II, due to the city being important to the navy, the German military destroyed some of the city by bombing, an act known as the Plymouth Blitz. After the war, the city centre was completely rebuilt. Plymouth grew and the towns of Plympton, Plymstock became part of it in 1967. The city has a population of () people, making it the 30th-most populous built-up area in the United Kingdom and the second-largest city in the South West, after Bristol. It is governed locally by Plymouth City Council and nationally by two MPs. Plymouth's economy is based mostly on ships. It has ferry links to France (Roscoff and St Malo) and to Spain (Santander). It has the largest working naval base in Western Europe, HMNB Devonport, and also has the University of Plymouth. Plymouth is called a "Small-Port City" using the Southampton System for port-city classification
Plymouth is the name of various places: Plymouth is an English city in Devon and the first to bear the name
George Washington (February 22, 1732–December 14, 1799) was the first president of the United States from 1789 to 1797. Before he became president, he was the commander in chief of the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War and one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. Early life. George Washington was born on February 22, 1732, at his family’s plantation on Pope’s Creek in Westmoreland County, in the British colony of Virginia, to Augustine Washington (1694–1743) and his second wife, Mary Ball Washington (1708–89). George, the eldest of Augustine and Mary Washington’s six children, spent much of his childhood at Ferry Farm, a plantation near Fredericksburg, Virginia. As a teenager, Washington, who had shown a talent for mathematics, became a successful surveyor. His surveying expeditions into the Virginia wilderness earned him enough money to begin buying land of his own.  In 1751, Washington made his only trip outside of America, when he traveled to Barbados with his older half-brother Lawrence Washington (1718–52), who was suffering from tuberculosis and hoped the warm climate would help him get better. Shortly after their arrival, George contracted smallpox. He survived, but the illness left him with permanent facial scars. In 1752, Lawrence, who had been educated in England and served as Washington’s mentor, died. Before the Revolutionary War. In December 1752, at age 20, Washington, who had no previous military experience, was made commander of part of the Virginia militia. He went to Pittsburgh with a regiment to make the French go away. The French decided to fight and the mission failed. Many of his men were killed. The fight opened the French and Indian War, bringing Britain into the Seven Years' War. In 1758, he was elected to the Virginia legislature. Personal life. On January 6, 1759, aged 26, he married Martha Dandridge Custis (Martha Washington) (1731–1802), a rich 27-year-old widow with two children. The Revolution. By
Abraham Lincoln ( ; February 12, 1809 – April 15, 1865) was an American politician who served as the 16th president of the United States from 1861 until his assassination in 1865. He led the United States through the American Civil War, defeating the Confederate States of America and abolished slavery in the United States. Lincoln has been remembered as the Great Emancipator because he worked to end slavery in the United States. Lincoln is ranked in presidential historians as the greatest president in U.S. history. Life. Abraham Lincoln was born on February 12, 1809, in Hodgenville, Kentucky, United States. His parents were Thomas Lincoln and Nancy Hanks. His family was very poor. Abraham had one brother and one sister. His brother died in childhood. They grew up in a small log cabin, with just one room inside. Although slavery was legal in Kentucky at that time, Lincoln's father, who was a religious Baptist, refused to own any slaves.  When Lincoln was seven years old, his family moved to Indiana. Later, they moved to Illinois. In his childhood he helped his father on the farm, but when he was 22 years old he left home and moved to New Salem, Illinois, where he worked in a general store. Later, he said that he had gone to school for just one year, but that was enough to learn how to read, write, and do simple math. When he was 21, he worked on a flatboat that carried freight. In 1842, he married Mary Todd. They had four children, but three of them died when they were very young. Abraham Lincoln was sometimes called Abe Lincoln or "Honest Abe" because of a legend stating that he ran miles to give a customer the right amount of change. The nickname "Honest Abe" came from a time when he started a business that failed. Instead of running away like many people would have, he stayed and worked to pay his debt. Early political career. Lincoln started his political career in 1832 when he ran for the Illinois General Assembly, but he lost the election. He served as a captain in the Illinois militia
Calvin Coolidge (born John Calvin Coolidge Jr.; July 4, 1872 – January 5, 1933) was the 30th president of the United States between 1923 and 1929. He was a conservative who supported business and lower taxes. Family life. He was the only president of the United States to be born on July 4. He was married to Grace Coolidge and had 2 children: John Calvin Coolidge III (born September 6, 1906 - died May 31, 2000) and John Calvin Jr. (born April 13, 1908 - died July 7, 1924). His younger son John Calvin Coolidge IV died at 16 while playing tennis at the White House. His son was wearing tennis shoes without socks and died from a toe infection. He was buried at the foot of Hill Cemetery. After this, President Coolidge may have been depressed. Political career. Coolidge served as the Mayor of Northampton, Massachusetts. He later served as the Governor of Massachusetts. As governor, he became famous because of his response during the Boston Police Strike. Coolidge fired the police who went on strike and gave the jobs to unemployed World War 1 veterans (he gave the same bonuses that the striking policemen asked for to the veterans). In 1920, he was nominated Vice President under Warren G. Harding. The Harding-Coolidge team won easily. Harding died in 1923 and Coolidge became the next president. He was inaugurated at his family farm in Vermont by his father John Calvin Coolidge Sr. Coolidge finished Harding's term and was elected in 1924 to continue to be the country's president. Coolidge was president during a prosperous economy and the country did not face many challenges. He believed that the federal government should be as small as possible. He supported tax cuts and wanted the federal government to not intervene in the economy. He was the first president to lead a public celebration of the Christmas holidays. Coolidge was criticized for refusing to give subsidies to farmers and when a giant flood happened in Mississippi during 1927, he did not want the federal government to be involved. This
Harry S Truman (May 8, 1884 – December 26, 1972) was the 33rd president of the United States, from 1945 to 1953. He became president when President Franklin D. Roosevelt died in office. Truman served as the 34th vice president of the United States for a short time, from January to April 1945. As president, Truman made important foreign policy decisions, such as using atomic weapons on Japan to end World War II; repairing Europe (which was destroyed during the war); beginning the Cold War, and getting the U.S. involved in the Korean War. Early years. Harry S. Truman was born on May 8, 1884, in Lamar, Missouri. The initial, "S", in Truman's name has no meaning. Truman was raised in Independence, Missouri. He lived for 12 years as a Missouri farmer. The presidential election of 1892 happened when Truman was eight years old. He wanted Grover Cleveland, a Democrat like Truman's family, to win. Grover Cleveland did win. Truman joined the United States Military in 1917. He went to France in World War I and became a captain in the Field Artillery. Truman left the military in 1919. That same year, he married Elizabeth Virginia Wallace. He opened a clothing store in Kansas City. On February 17, 1924, Bess had a baby girl and named her Mary Margaret Truman. Political life. Truman was active in the Democratic Party. In 1922, he was elected judge of Jackson County Court. Two years later, Truman lost the next county judge election. However, he was elected county judge again in 1926. In 1934, Truman was elected Senator of Missouri. He became a member of the Interstate Commerce Committee. He was also the vice-chairman of a subcommittee on railroad safety. In 1940, Truman ran for re-election to the Senate. First he would have to beat another Democrat, Governor Lloyd Stark, in a primary election. The primary election would decide which Democrat would go on to face a Republican candidate in the final elections in November. President Franklin Roosevelt and St.
John Adams (October 19/October 30, 1735 – July 4, 1826) was an American statesman, attorney, diplomat, writer. He served as the 2nd president of the United States from 1797 to 1801. Before becoming president, he was the 1st vice president under George Washington from 1789 to 1797. He was also the one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. Adams was a leader of the American Revolution that gained independence from Great Britain. During the Revolutionary War, he served the U.S. government as a senior diplomat in Europe.  Early life. Adams was born in Braintree, Massachusetts. He was the son of Lt. Col. John Adams, Sr. (1691-1761) and Susanna Boylston (1708-1797), and he was the cousin of the philosopher and fellow Founding Father Samuel Adams. He went to Harvard College. He married Abigail Adams in 1764. American Revolutionary War years. Adams wanted the Thirteen Colonies to be free from Great Britain. However, Adams was fair and thought every person should be treated fairly. Even though he did not want British soldiers in Boston, he was the lawyer who defended the British soldiers who were involved in the Boston Massacre. Adams was a representative from Massachusetts during the Second Continental Congress. He helped Thomas Jefferson write the United States Declaration of Independence. During the American Revolutionary War, Adams helped make peace with Great Britain. He served in France, the Netherlands and England as an ambassador in the 1780s. Vice President. Adams was the first vice president under George Washington. After Washington chose not to run again, Adams won the 1796 election. Adams is thought to have been the first president to belong to a political party, but like George Washington, he thought himself above any particular party. He ran for president on the Federalist ticket. He beat Thomas Jefferson of the Democratic-Republican Party. President candidates and vice president candidates did not run together like they do today. Since Jefferson got the second-highest number of votes, he became vice president. President. During his term, he resolved a conflict
William Jefferson Clinton (born August 19, 1946) is an American politician and attorney. He was the 42nd president of the United States from 1993 to 2001. Before becoming president, he was the 40th and 42nd governor of Arkansas from 1979 to 1981 and again from 1983 to 1992. He was also the 50th attorney general of Arkansas from 1977 to 1979.  He took office at the end of the Cold War. Clinton was the first president from the baby boomer generation. He was 46 years old when he was elected, making him the third-youngest president. He was impeached in 1998 for lying about a sexual relationship with former White House intern Monica Lewinsky. Clinton was the second president to be impeached.  Clinton left office in 2001 with the joint-highest approval rating of any U.S. president in the modern era, alongside Franklin D. Roosevelt and Ronald Reagan. His presidency is generally ranked among the upper tier in historical rankings of U.S. presidents. However, his personal life and allegations of sexual assault made against him lead to Clinton being the subject of criticism. He is married to Hillary Rodham Clinton, who was the 67th United States secretary of state from 2009 to 2013, U.S. senator from New York from 2001 to 2009, and the Democratic nominee for president in the 2016 U.S. presidential election. Early life and education. Clinton was born William Jefferson Blythe III at Julia Chester Hospital in Hope, Arkansas. His biological father, William Jefferson Blythe. Jr, died in a car accident, three months before Clinton was born. His mother, Virginia Clinton Kelley was a Nurse anesthetist. He took the last name Clinton because it was his stepfather, Roger Clinton, Sr.'s name. Clinton grew up in Hot Springs, Arkansas. In high school, Clinton played the saxophone. Clinton went to college at Georgetown University. During his college years, Clinton worked under several politicians. He later went to Oxford University and Yale Law School. Clinton did not fight in the
In economics, the yield is how much money somebody is paid each year for leaving money invested somewhere. Unlike a corporate dividend, a yield is fairly certain, unless there is a bankruptcy. This means that people usually know how much money they are going to make from their yield ahead of time. Yields can be different because of inflation. However, there is usually an order for which are most risky and which are the least: the least risky instruments, such as treasury bonds, yield the least, then safe and "guaranteed" instruments like long-term deposits, then overnight deposits, and so on to the various municipal bond and corporate bonds. Extremely risky instruments with high yield are usually called junk bonds.
Moral purchasing is when a person uses moral reasoning to decide what to buy. For example, when a person chooses to buy local goods instead of those from other countries, it supports their community and promotes processes that have visible, direct benefits to their neighbours.
A social network is a set of people who interact (i.e. "socialise"). This includes group organizations. The social relationships may include friendship/affect, communication, economic transactions, interactions, kinship, authority/hierarchy, trust, social support, diffusion, contagion, and so on.  Calling social relationships a network calls attention to the pattern or structure of the set of relationships. A community social network is the pattern of relationships among a set of people and/or organizations in a community. Each of these networks can involve social support, give people a sense of community, and  lead them to help and protect each other. How big a personal network becomes depends on the individual and the type of relationships considered. "The set of people that a person knows well or with whom a person frequently interacts seldom exceeds several hundred". As the size of a network grows, keeping relationships is strained by the size. There is a so-called "Law of 150" which suggests that around 150 people is the best size for a village or large clan though most people live in much bigger towns. Some experts think that a corporation has an ideal size of about 70 people: these people and their spouses would also make a large social network. The free rider problem is that someone uses the social network but does not give help when needed. Social networks are vulnerable to them, since the circumstances where help is required, like disasters, occur by surprise. It might happen that someone cannot help at that one time - it might also happen that they are not there the next time. Only slowly does it become obvious who is and is not contributing to the safety of the group, or who is avoiding this duty. Social networks are often held together by common interest(s). This may be employment, following and/or partaking in a sport or other pastime, or a religion (places of worship such as mosques, churches or temples are almost always a center of a religious social network). Often the network has an identity of its own which is quite real, even though it may have no official recognition. Networks may be centered on places, or on families, or on worldwide communities with common interests.
A cabal is a group of people who control or try to control affairs in society or within an organization secretly or dishonestly. Cabals are often a theme of a conspiracy theories. People sometimes say "There Is No Cabal", or TINC, to mean "There Is No Cabal". The joke is that since a cabal is necessarily secret, only those who are in the cabal can know. Politics. The former chief of staff, Lawrence Wilkerson, of the Secretary of State Colin Powell said that the foreign policy of George W. Bush's administration were run by a "Cheney-Rumsfeld cabal". With this word he meant that the President had not really the power that he is given by the constitution and that the Vice President and the Secretary of Defense had more influence than they should have.
Creating is making new things that have not existed before, usually by combining two or three things that existed. Art is almost always called creative, but so are other activities like music, mathematics, technology, business, craft, building, gardening and forestry, if they combine things to get new things. When several people cooperate in more than one process of creating, that is a creative network. This cuts risk since anything creative involves some chance that it will simply not work. What is "not creative" is usually called imitative, and includes anything that is mostly trying not to do what has never been done – like law, sports, science, war, and especially education. These involve more direct competition, so risk comes from the competitor who may do it better. The word team is used for such groups. Most people fear change and new things, and so what is most stable and considered important by society tends to be imitative and done in teams. But unless society encourages creating it loses out to others by competition in business or technology, so there must be some creative networks, somewhere, in labs or art studios. Views of control of creative work also depend very much on religious and spiritual views of nature (or a creator) creating Man, according to economist Lester Thurow. Those ethical traditions that see "Man in the image of God" have created legal codes (see guild, intellectual right, intellectual interest, intellectual property) to tightly control what they are creating or have created. These are now the basis of organizations such as WIPO or ICANN. Often, such laws also create control over things which are merely found, not created. Many people give away what they have created and never think about it as property – other people try to control it and get paid every time anyone sees it – or even every time they just talk about it. Wikipedia uses the GNU FDL which is a content license that tries to get people to combine what they are creating, with no one clearly in control. This is considered strange by many people, who are uncomfortable with that idea, or seek to control some aspect of it themselves.