ejaasaari/simplewiki-2025-04-01 huggingface dataset:
The Reconquista (Spanish and Portuguese word for "Reconquest"; Arabic: الاسترداد, "Recapturing") was a period of 800 years in the Middle Ages during which the several Christian kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula grew by conquering Al-Andalus (Arabic الأندلس), the Muslim states on the peninsula. The Reconquista began shortly after the Islamic conquest of the peninsula. Much of the ideology of the Reconquista was common to most Crusades, and soldiers from all Christendom travelled to Iberia to fight the Muslims as an act of Christian repentance. The Reconquista came to an end on 2 January 1492, with the capture of Granada. The last Muslim ruler of Granada surrendered his kingdom to Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile, the Catholic Monarchs (Spanish: "los Reyes Católicos"). That event marked the end of Muslim rule on the peninsula.
Paul Henry O'Neill (December 4, 1935 – April 18, 2020) was an American businessman and politician. He served as the 72nd United States Secretary of the Treasury for part of President George W. Bush's first Administration. He resigned in December 2002 under pressure from the administration and became a harsh critic. O'Neill was chairman and CEO of Pittsburgh-based industrial giant Alcoa from 1987 to 1999, and retired as chairman at the end of 2000. In 1995, he was made chairman of the RAND Corporation. O'Neill died of lung cancer on April 18, 2020 in Pittsburgh, aged 84.
Oliver Wolcott Jr. (January 11, 1760 – June 1, 1833) was United States Secretary of the Treasury from 1795 to 1800 and governor of Connecticut from 1817 to 1827.
Samuel Dexter (May 14, 1761 – May 4, 1816) was an early American statesman who served both in Congress and in the Presidential Cabinet. Born in Boston, Massachusetts, to the Rev. Samuel Dexter, the 4th minister of Dedham, he graduated from Harvard University in 1781 and then studied law at Worcester under Levi Lincoln, Sr., the future Attorney General of the United States. After he passed the bar in 1784, he began practicing in Lunenburg, Massachusetts.
Kenneth Claiborne Royall (July 24, 1894 — May 25, 1971) was a United States Army general and the last person to hold the office of Secretary of War. That position was abolished in 1947, and Royall served as the first Secretary of the Army (a successory position) from 1947 to 1949.
Preston M. Geren, III (born January 29, 1952 in Fort Worth, Texas) was the 20th United States Secretary of the Army from 16 July 2007 to 16 September 2009. He had already been acting United States Secretary of the Air Force, between 29 July 2005 and position he served in until the confirmation of his successor Michael Wynne on 4 November 2005. Geren was also a member of the United States House of Representatives from Texas.
The Astor Markhor or the Flare-horned Markhor ("Capra falconeri falconeri") is an endangered species of Markhor. It is native to Kashmir and northern Pakistan. The Astor Markhor has large, flat horns, branching widely and then going up nearly straight with only a half turn. It is synonymous with "Capra falconeri cashmiriensis" or Pir Panjal Markhor, which has heavy, flat horns, twisted like a corkscrew. The Astor Markhor also has a tendency to sexually segregate outside the mating season because of multiple different mechanisms. The females are usually confined to cliffs with less forage coverage, while the males live in areas with a lot more forage coverage.  Within Afghanistan, the Astor Markhor is limited to the east in the high and mountainous monsoon forests of Laghman and Nuristan. In Indian-occupied kashmir, this subspecies is restricted to a portion of the Pir Panjal range in southwestern Jammu and Kashmir. Throughout this range, Astor Markhor populations are scattered, starting east of the Banihal Pass (50 km from the Chenab River) on the Jammu–Srinagar highway westward to the disputed de-facto border with Pakistan. Recent surveys indicate it still occurs in catchments of the Limber and Lachipora Rivers in the Jhelum Valley Forest Division, and around Shupiyan to the south of Srinagar. In Pakistan, the Astor Markhor there is restricted to the Indus and its tributaries, as well as to the Kunar (Chitral) River and its tributaries. Along the Indus, it inhabits both banks from Jalkot (Kohistan District) upstream to near the Tungas village (Baltistan), with Gakuch being its western limit up the Gilgit River, Chalt up the Hunza River, and the Parishing Valley up the Astore River. It has been said to occur on the right side of the Yasin Valley (Gilgit District), though this is unconfirmed. The flare-horned Markhor is also found
The Hindustan–Pakistan Border, known locally as the International Border (IB), is the international boundary between the Republic of India and Pakistan that demarcates the Indian states of Punjab, Rajasthan and Gujarat from the Pakistani provinces of Punjab and Sindh except for Kashmir that is disputed (Line of Control). The border resulted from the Partition of India in 1947. Wagah, the ceremonial point of crossing between India and Pakistan lies along this border between the Indian city of Amritsar and the Pakistani city of Lahore. "Working boundary". The border between two countries is called an international border from Gujrat/Sindh to the Line of Control. The Kashmir region is divided by the 1949 UN ceasefire line into two parts and the de facto border dividing Pakistan-administered Kashmir from Indian-administered Kashmir has been called the Line of Control since 1972. On the south side of the border of the Jammu Division is Pakistan's Punjab border, and is called the "working boundary" by Pakistan (which is a recent term) but the "international border" by India.
The Coat of arms of Afghanistan has appeared in some form on the Flag of Afghanistan since the inception of that nation. The most notable absence was during the 1980s when a Communist regime ruled the nation, and in the late 1990s, during the rule of the Taliban.  The latest incarnation of the coat of arms has the added inscription of the shahadah in Arabic at the top. Below it is the image of a mosque with a mehrab that is facing Mecca with a prayer mat inside. Attached to the mosque are two flags, taken to stand for flags of Afghanistan. Beneath the mosque is an inscription that states the name of the nation. Around the mosque is a garland. It is white.
USB is an international standard of technology for connecting peripherals to computers and other devices that support it. An interface where a USB device can be connected is called a port. A USB hub is a special device which allows adding more USB ports. The additional ports share one USB connection to the computer; for this reason, each of them cannot carry as much data as a direct USB connection can.  A hub may be bus-powered, which means it gets all its electrical power from the computer. This makes simple wiring, but it cannot give full power to its peripherals. A self powered hub has its own power cord, and can give full power to peripherals that need it.  There are different versions of the USB standard; main difference between the version is the maximum speed that is supported. The USB standard also defines different types of USB plugs.  A USB hub is a normal USB device, which was built for a given version of the standard. Certain models may support different versions of USB, while others may not. As an example: USB 3.0 can transfer payload data at up to 4 GBits per second. USB 2.0 is limited to a transfer rate of 280 MBits per second. Connecting an USB 3.0 device to the computer using an USB 2.0 hub will limit the transfer rate to that of USB 2.0.
A digital signature or digital signature scheme is a type of asymmetric cryptography. For messages sent through an insecure channel, a good implementation of digital signature algorithm is one that makes the receiver believe that the message was sent by the claimed sender, and trust the message. Digital signatures are equivalent to traditional handwritten signatures in many respects; properly implemented digital signatures are more difficult to copy than the handwritten type. Digital signature are implemented using cryptography. Digital signatures can also provide acknowledgement, meaning that the signer cannot successfully claim they did not sign a message, while also claiming their private key remains secret. Digital signatures are regularly used in USA, European countries and India in government as well as private offices. In India certificate called Digital Signing Certificate (DSC) is widely used for e-filing the business related documents and income tax return filing etc. Digital signatures are often used to implement electronic signatures, a broader term that refers to any electronic data that holds a meaning of a signature, but not all electronic signatures use digital signatures. In some countries, including the United States, and in the European Union, electronic signatures may have legal significance. Electronic signatures are not accepted in India, but digital signatures are. Digital signatures scheme. A digital signature system typically consists of two algorithms: Two main properties are required by the digital signature system: Digital signature security and attacks. The GMR signature scheme: In 1984, Shafi Goldwasser, Silvio Micali, and Ronald Rivest became the first to strictly define the security requirements of digital signature schemes. They described a hierarchy of attack models for signature schemes, they also present the GMR signature scheme. GMR scheme was proven to be secure against adaptive chosen-message attacks — even when an attacker receives signatures for messages of his choice, this does not allow him to copy a signature for a single additional message. In their foundational paper, Goldwasser, Micali, and Rivest lay out a hierarchy of attack models against digital signatures: They also describe a hierarchy of attack results: The strongest notion of security, therefore, is security against existential forgery under an adaptive chosen message attack.
Key generation is the process of generating keys for cryptography. The key is used to encrypt and decrypt data whatever the data is being encrypted or decrypted. Modern cryptographic systems include symmetric-key algorithms (such as DES and AES) and public-key algorithms (such as RSA). Symmetric-key algorithms use a single shared key; keeping data secret requires keeping this key secret. Public-key algorithms use a public key and a private key. The public key is made available to anyone (often by means of a digital certificate). A sender will encrypt data with the public key; only the holder of the private key can decrypt this data. Since public-key algorithms tend to be much slower than symmetric-key algorithms, modern systems such as TLS and its predecessor SSL as well as the SSH use a combination of the two in which:  The simplest method to read encrypted data is a brute force attack–simply attempting every number, up to the maximum length of the key. Therefore, it is important to use a sufficiently long key length; longer keys take exponentially longer time to attack, making a brute force attack invisible and impractical.  Currently, commonly used key lengths are: Key generation algorithms. In computer cryptography keys are integers. In some cases keys are randomly generated using a random number generator (RNG) or pseudorandom number generator (PRNG), the latter being a computer algorithm that produces data which appears random under analysis. Some types the PRNGs algorithms utilize system entropy to generate a seed data, such seeds produce better results, since this makes the initial conditions of the PRNG much more difficult for an attacker to guess.  In other situations, the key is created using a passphrase and a "key generation algorithm", using a cryptographic hash function such as SHA-1.
John Marshall (September 24, 1755 – July 6, 1835) was an American statesman and jurist who shaped American constitutional law and made the Supreme Court more powerful. Marshall was the fourth Chief Justice of the United States, working from February 4, 1801, until his death in 1835. He worked in the United States House of Representatives from March 4, 1799, to June 7, 1800, and, under President John Adams, was Secretary of State from June 6, 1800, to March 4, 1801. Marshall was from the Commonwealth of Virginia and a leader of the Federalist Party. The longest working Chief Justice in Supreme Court history, Marshall ruled the Court for thirty years and was an important part of making the American legal system. His most important addition was judicial review; the power to stop laws that violate the Constitution. Marshall has been called the one that made the judicial branch special and powerful. Marshall also balanced the power between the federal and state government. He made sure the federal law was more powerful than state law and agreed with an expansive reading of the enumerated powers.
William Harris Crawford (February 24, 1772 – September 15, 1834) was an important American politician and judge during the early 19th century. He served as United States Secretary of War from 1815 to 1816 and United States Secretary of the Treasury from 1816 to 1825, and was a candidate for President of the United States in 1824. Legacy. In 1875, Crawford appeared on the 50 cent bill. The town of Crawfordsville, Indiana, as well as Crawford County, Illinois; Crawford County, Iowa; Crawford County, Missouri; Crawford County, Arkansas; Crawford County, Wisconsin; Crawfordville, Georgia; and Crawford County, Georgia, are named for Crawford.
John Jay (December 23, 1745 – May 17, 1829) was an American politician, statesman, slave owner, and diplomat. He was a Supreme Court Chief Justice and one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. Jay served in the Continental Congress and was elected its president. During and after the American Revolution, he was a minister (ambassador) to Spain and France, helping to fashion American foreign policy and to secure favorable peace terms from the British and French. He co-wrote the "Federalist Papers" with Alexander Hamilton and James Madison. From 1789 to 1795, Jay served on the U.S. Supreme Court as the first Chief Justice of the United States. In 1794 he negotiated the Jay Treaty with the British. A leader of the new Federalist party, Jay was the second Governor of New York from 1795 to 1801. He was the leading opponent of slavery and the slave trade in New York. He tried and failed to pass an emancipation law failed in 1777 and again in 1785. However, in 1799 he succeeded, signing the law that eventually emancipated the slaves of New York; the last were freed before his death.
A nucleolus (plural: nucleoli) is the part of a eukaryotic cell where ribosomes are made. Seen under a microscope, the nucleolus is a dark spot inside the cell's nucleus. It is made up of dense RNA and proteins. Prokaryotic cells also have ribosomes, but they don't make as many as eukaryotes do, and there is no visible nucleotatius. There is usually more than one nucleolus in a eukaryote cell. The nucleolus is not bounded by a membrane.  The nucleolus is made at a nucleolus organizer region (NOR), which is a chromosome region around which the nucleolus forms. Inside the nucleolus ribosomes are made. Ribosomes are molecular machines that synthesizes proteins. The ribosomes are exported through the nuclear envelope to the cytoplasm, where they do their work. Nucleoli play a role in the cell's response to stress. They also help in the assembly of signal recognition particles. Malfunction of nucleoli can be the cause of several human diseases.
Duke Nukem 3D is a first-person shooter video game. It was made by 3D Realms and sold by Apogee Software. It was first sold on January 29, 1996. "Duke Nukem 3D" is based on the main character from the platform games "Duke Nukem" and "Duke Nukem II" which were also published by Apogee. The character is voiced by Jon St. John. Gameplay. In the game, players control Duke Nukem, an action hero from Earth. Players must fight invading aliens that want to take over Earth. The game is made up of 28 levels spread over three chapters. An add-on pack called "The Plutonium Pak", later added a fourth episode of 11 new levels, new enemies, and one new weapon. The game is a first person shooter, so the player sees the game from Duke's eyes. Instead of following the character around like a third-person shooter, Duke Nukem is like being "inside" Duke, and the player can see Duke's hands and weapons on the screen. The player fights the aliens, most often by shooting at them with different guns, but Duke can also kick, and throw pipe bombs like grenades. The player must also sometimes solve puzzles to find the way through the level. "Duke Nukem 3D" is set "sometime in the early 21st century", starting in a badly worn down Los Angeles. The game moves on to places such as lunar space stations. An alien transgenic species has invaded Earth while Duke has been fighting in space. Duke crash lands back on Earth and finds most humans are gone. Only a few women remain as slaves for the aliens. America has been turned into a wasteland, and pornography has become the only entertainment. Structure. Level design. The levels of "Duke Nukem 3D" take the player outdoors and indoors, on the street, inside military bases, deserts, flooded cities, space stations, moon bases and Japanese villas. Levels were designed with many routes so that players can climb through air ducts, back doors and sew
William Hubbs Rehnquist (October 1, 1924 – September 3, 2005) was an American lawyer, jurist, and a political figure. He was the 16th Chief Justice of the United States from 1986 until his death in 2005. Before becoming Chief Justice, he was an Associate Justice on the Supreme Court of the United States from 1971 to 1986.  Considered a conservative, Rehnquist favored a federalism under which the states meaningfully exercised governmental power. Under this view of federalism, the Supreme Court of the United States, for the first time since the 1930s, struck down an Act of Congress as exceeding federal power under the Commerce Clause. Rehnquist died on September 3, 2005. He was replaced by John Roberts as Chief Justice. Other websites. &lt;br&gt;
Hyderābād and Berar (, ) under the Nizams, was the largest Princely state in the erstwhile Indian Empire. The Berar region of present-day Vidarbha in Maharashtra was merged with the Central Provinces in 1903, to form Central Provinces and Berar. Hyderabad state was in south-central India from 1724 until 1948. It was ruled by the hereditary Nizam. During the Partition of British India in 1947, the Nizam of Hyderabad declared his intentions of not joining either newly formed India or Pakistan. Sensing trouble, India launched Operation Polo which resulted in the absorption of Hyderabad into the Indian Union, in 1948. History. The forebears of the Asaf Jahi Dynasty came to India from Samarkand, in Central Asia, but the family actually originated from Baghdad. In 1724, the Mughal Governor of the Deccan, Asaf Jah, Nizam ul-Mulk, Qamar ud-din Khan, established himself as an independent ruler of Deccan. Aurangabad was its first capital city, later Hyderabad became the capital and later lent its name to the state he had created. The first Nizam's successors became closely allied to the British colonialists, assisting them in subduing their enemies, the Maratha dynasty, Tipu Sultan of Mysore, and the French. In later years, the Nizam's troops invariably took part in all the main campaigns of the British Indian Army. Large numbers of his troops took part in the First and Second World Wars. These contributions earned for the Nizam unequalled titles and honours from a grateful Emperor. The state was the largest and premier of all princely states within the British Indian Empire. After the Pakistani and Indian Independences, the 7th Nizam of Hyderabad, Osman Ali Khan, Asaf Jah VII decided that the Princely state of Hyderabad will not join the New Dominion of India or Dominion of Pakistan. His decision found favour with Pakistan but not with India. The Nizam's state was a prosperous one and had its own army, railway and airline
The two-nation theory (Urdu: دو قومی نظریہ "do qaumī nazariya") is the basis of the creation of Pakistan. The two-nation theory in its simplest way means that cultural, political, religious, economic and social dissimilarities between the two major communities, Hindus and Muslims of the Subcontinent. These differences of outlook, in fact, were greatly instrumental in giving rise to two distinct political ideologies which were responsible for the partition of the sub-continent into two independent states. The two-nation theory was a founding principle of the Pakistan Movement (i.e. the ideology of Pakistan as a Muslim nation-state in South Asia), and the partition of India in 1947. The ideology that religion is the determining factor in defining the nationality of Indian Muslims and Hindus was postulated by Muhammad Ali Jinnah, who termed it as the awakening of Muslims for the creation of Pakistan. As a consequence, it spawned creation of many Hindu nationalist organisations, with causes including working towards making India a similar state for the majority of Hindus residing there.  There are varying interpretations of the two-nation theory, based on whether the two postulated nationalities can coexist in one territory or not, with radically different implications. One interpretation argued for sovereign autonomy, including the right to secede, for Muslim-majority areas of the Indian subcontinent, but without any transfer of populations (i.e. Hindus and Muslims would continue to live together). A different interpretation contends that Hindus and Muslims constitute "two distinct and frequently antagonistic ways of life and that therefore they cannot coexist in one nation." In this version, a transfer of populations (i.e. the total removal of Hindus from Muslim-majority areas and the total removal of Muslims from Hindu-majority areas) is a desirable step towards a complete separation of two incompatible nations that "cannot coexist in a harmonious relationship". Opposition to the theory has come from two sources. The first is the concept of a single Indian nation, of which Hindus and Muslims are two intertwined communities. Even after the formation of Pakistan, debates on whether Muslims and Hindus are distinct nationalities or not continued in India. The second source of opposition
Charles Lee (1758 – June 24, 1815) was an American lawyer from Virginia. He served as United States Attorney General from 1795 until 1801. President George Washington appointed Lee the Attorney General after William Bradford died in office. After Senate approval he took office on December 10, 1795 and served through the rest of the administration. He was continued in office by John Adams and served through the entire Adams administration until February 19, 1801.
Joseph Hewes (July 9, 1730 – November 10, 1779), was a native of Princeton, New Jersey, where he was born in 1730. Hewes’s parents were part of the Quaker Society of Friends.They married at Stony Brook Quaker Meeting in Middlesex County, New Jersey. Hewes attended schools various private schools close to home and then about 1749 was apprenticed to a merchant in Philadelphia. After finishing his apprenticeship he set up a store and engaged in business in Philadelphia. That business failed and about 1754 he moved to Edenton, Chowan County, North Carolina where he set up a store. After a few years as a successful merchant, in 1757 he was elected Justice of the Peace and served as the Inspector of the Port at Edenton. In 1758 he served on committees creating a secondary school in Edenton and a new courthouse and jail. By 1760 Hewes was Edenton’s leading merchant. Hewes was elected to the North Carolina Assembly in 1760 and served one term. In 1766 he was re-elected and served except for a one year absence in 1777 until his death in 1779.