ejaasaari/simplewiki-2025-04-01 huggingface dataset:
Sir Francis Galton FRS (Birmingham, 16 February 1822 – Surrey, 17 January 1911), half-cousin of Charles Darwin, was an English scientist. His main field of work was human biology and inheritance of mental characteristics. Galton was a polymath: an anthropologist, a eugenicist, a tropical explorer, geographer, inventor, meteorologist, proto-geneticist, psychometrician, and statistician. He was knighted in 1909. Galton produced over 340 papers and books in his lifetime. He created the statistical concepts of normal distribution, correlation and regression toward the mean. He was the first to apply statistical methods to the study of human differences and inheritance of intelligence.  He was the first person to do twin studies. His method was to trace twins through their life-history, making many kinds of measurement. Unfortunately, though he knew about monozygotic (identical twins) and dizygotic twins, he did not appreciate the real genetic difference. Twin studies of the modern kind did not appear until the 1920s. He also introduced the use of questionnaires and surveys to collect data on human communities. He needed such data for genealogical and biographical works and for his anthropometric studies. He was a pioneer in eugenics, coining the very term itself and the phrase "nature versus nurture". As an investigator of the human mind, he founded psychometrics (the science of measuring mental faculties) and differential psychology.  Galton created a method for classifying fingerprints that proved useful in forensic science. As the initiator of scientific meteorology, he devised the first weather map, proposed a theory of anticyclones, and was the first to establish a complete record of short-term climatic phenomena on a European scale. He also invented the Galton Whistle for testing differential hearing ability.
Herbert Spencer (27 April 1820 – 8 December 1903) was an English philosopher, and a prominent liberal political and social theorist of the Victorian era. Works. Spencer developed an all-embracing conception of evolution. He saw evolution as the progressive development of the physical world, biological organisms, the human mind, and human culture and societies.  Spencer never married; he remained a bachelor. He contributed to a wide range of subjects, including ethics, religion, politics, philosophy, biology, sociology, and psychology. Like Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace, he read Malthus' "Essay on the principle of population", and was deeply impressed by its argument. Malthus said that sooner or later population growth gets checked by famine and disease, and there are then many deaths. So, he was prepared for Darwin's idea of natural selection, which he preferred to call "survival of the fittest". He did this in "Principles of Biology" (1864), after reading Charles Darwin's "On the Origin of Species". "This survival of the fittest, which I have here sought to express in mechanical terms, is that which Mr. Darwin has called ‘natural selection’, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life."  Spencer's term does strongly suggest natural selection, yet as he extended evolution into realms of sociology and ethics, Spencer made use of Lamarckism rather than natural selection, so it seems he was not a Darwinian after all. Others took up his social ideas, and drew the conclusion that it was useless to try and help the poor, and that competition without limits was the way society should go. Darwin himself did not accept these ideas, but they were quite widespread in the United States at the end of the nineteenth century.
A national sport is a sport or game that was invented and firstly played by citizens of the same country or nation. It also means the game or sport has a long history of popularity in the country or nation. Each country has its own national sport.
Coevolution is where the existence of one species is tightly bound up with the life of one or more other species. Species whose lives connect, evolve together. What happens is that survival rates in each species changes as a result of changes in the other species. Examples of coevolution are: Coevolution is extremely common, and may involve more than two species. Mimicry rings, with dozens of species, are known. New or 'improved' adaptations which occur in one species are often followed by the appearance and spread of related features in the other species. History. The study of coevolution dates back to Darwin's "On the Origin of Species". There he discussed how cats increased heather by reducing mice. The point being that mice raid bumblebee nests and bumblebees pollinate red heather. So more cats cause more heather.p74 In the last paragraph of the Origin Darwin remarks: Hermann Müller was an important worker on co-evolution. His studies on bees and the evolution of flowers were quoted by Darwin in "The Descent of Man". His papers in the journal "Nature" had heading "On the fertilisation of flowers by insects and on the reciprocal adaptations of both". This shows Müller fully understood the concept of coevolution. Pollination. The life and death of living things is intimately connected, not just with the physical environment, but with the life of other species. These relationships are dynamic, and may continue for millions of years, as has the relationship between flowering plants and insects (pollination).&lt;br&gt;The gut contents, wing structures, and mouthparts of fossilized beetles and flies suggest that they acted as early pollinators. The association between beetles and angiosperms during the Lower Cretaceous period led to parallel radiations of angiosperms and insects into the late Cretaceous. The evolution of nectaries in Upper Cretaceous flowers signals the beginning of the mutualism between hymenopterans and angiosperms. Parasitism. Another good example is malaria, in which there are three 'partners': the mosquito, the parasite "Plasmodium", and a land vertebrate, such as a
Rongorongo is a system of writing native to Easter Island. It cannot be read. There are two dozen examples of rongorongo script, mostly carved on tablets made from wood of the portia tree "Thespesia populnea," known as "makoi" in Rapanui (Easter Island) language. The longest inscription in existence is the Santiago Staff, a wooden sceptre 126 centimetres long and 6.5 centimetres wide, bearing 2300 glyphs (Gr. "γλυφη" "carving"). The staff, which once belonged to an Easter Island king, was acquired by the Chilean Navy in 1870 and is now in Santiago's Museum of Natural History. In 2019, only 25 texts were seen as . These texts and artefacts are distributed over diffent museum in the world, none remains on the Easter Island. The total text corpus is about 14,000 "letters", made of about 600 different glyphs. The writing was probably used for religious puroposes; only very few people used it. The age of the writing is unknown. In the 19th century, Europeans received the first objects with writing on them. Some glyphs show plants that do not exist, or have never existed on Easter Island. One example is the Breadfruit, which has never existed on Eastter Island. The knowledge of the plant must have been passed on from the first settlers, from generation to generation.  When the Euopeans came ot the island, they paid high prices for tablets containing Rongoro. Today, there are a number of artefacts containing Rongorongo whch are clear forgeries. There are some, where the claim is disputed.
The Candle Festival (known in Thai as Haetian) is held in Ubon Ratchathani, Isan, Thailand. At the start of rainy season, it is traditional for the devout to donate to monks items of personal use, such as candles. This part of the festival became the core of the Ubon Ratchathani version of the event. It is now a major event both for residents and for tourists: giant candles are paraded through the town, each representing a local temple, district or other institution. The more elaborate versions are accompanied by scenes of Hindu and Buddhist mythology sculpted in wood or plaster and coated with wax.
The portia tree ("Thespesia populnea") Family Malvaceae, is a small tree or shrub 5-10 (-20) m high that is pantropical in littoral environments, although probably native only to the Old World. In Hawai‘i and elsewhere in the Pacific it is possibly indigenous, although may have been spread by early Polynesians for its useful wood and fiber. Common names vary according to the country and include "Indian tulip tree", "Pacific rosewood", "seaside mahoe" (in Florida), "surina" (the "elegant tree"), "suriya" (Sinhala), "bebaru" or "baru baru" (Malay), "milo" or "miro" (in many Polynesian languages), "mako‘i" (Rapanui), "gangaraavi" (Telugu), "poovarasu" (Tamil), and "plaksa" (Sanskrit). Traditionally it was planted in sacred groves and used for religious sculpture throughout eastern Polynesia. It was used for the rongorongo tablets of Easter Island.
The PAL region is a PAL region which covers most of United Kingdom, Australia, Asia, Malaysia, Indonesia, Denmark, Iceland, Saudi Arabia, and Spain, Albania, Greece.
In rhetoric, a tautology is the repetition of a statement, for example, "With malice toward none, with charity for all".  Unlike a tautology in logic, it is not automatically true.
"A tautology can also be a figure of speech" In propositional logic, a tautology (from the Greek word ταυτολογία) is a propositional formula that is always true, and is sometimes denoted by the symbol formula_1 (a symbol also reserved for the truth value 'true'). In other words, a tautology cannot be wrong. For example, formulae in maths are tautological, because they always hold true for any values. The philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein first applied the term to propositional logic in 1921. In formal terms, a formula formula_2 is a tautology if it is true under all possible interpretations. In other words, for every interpretation formula_3, we have formula_4. An interpretation formula_3 of a formula formula_2 is defined as a function that assigns a truth value to formula_2. That is formula_8, where formula_9. A statement in logic is considered contingent if it is neither a tautology nor false. Some examples of tautologies in natural language include:  These tautologies are sentences of the following form: Indeed, if A is not true, then A is not true, so the tautology is still true.
The longhorn beetles or long-horned beetles (Cerambycidae) are a family of beetles that have long antennae. The antennae may be longer than the beetles' body. Over 35,000 species have been described. The length of the antennae is an obvious feature of their body. Their long antennae sprout from tubercles on the face. Cerambycids with short antennae still have the tubercles. Otherwise they vary greatly in size, shape, sculpture, and colour. Many of the species are mimics of Hymenoptera (ants, bees, and wasps). The rest are cryptically colored. The titan beetle ("Titanus giganteus") from northeastern South America is often considered the largest insect (though not the heaviest, and not the longest including legs). Its maximum body length is just over .
Macroevolution refers to large-scale evolution. For some, this means the origin of species. For others, it means the large-scale changes seen in the fossil record.  It is a term of convenience: for most biologists it does "not" suggest any change in the process of evolution. For a few palaeontologists, some things they see in the fossil record cannot be explained just by the gradualist evolutionary synthesis. They are in the minority. There are some interesting discussions by other palaeontologists. Some biologists use the term for evolution in already separated gene pools. For them, macroevolutionary studies focus on change that occurs at or above the level of species. Again, this is a minority position. Most biologist would not call evolution at the species level "macroevolution". Microevolution, on the other hand, refers to smaller evolutionary changes "within" species or populations. During microevolution changes in allele frequencies definitely do occur. Some biologists, Richard Dawkins in particular, have suggested that the gene is the object of selection. This was always challenged by Ernst Mayr "The individual is the entity which survives or not, which reproduces or not, and which reproduces successfully or not". Changes in gene frequency in populations is a by-product of what happens to individuals. Relation of macroevolution to microevolution. Paleontology, evolutionary developmental biology, and sequence analysis contribute much evidence for the patterns and processes that can be classified as macroevolution. An example of macroevolution is the appearance of feathers during the evolution of birds from one group of dinosaurs. Within the modern evolutionary synthesis school of thought, macroevolution is thought of as the compounded effects of microevolution. Thus, the distinction between micro- and macroevolution is not a fundamental one – the only difference between them is of time and scale. Some creationists have also adopted the term 'macroevolution' to describe the form of evolution they reject. They may accept that evolutionary change is possible within species (microevolution), but deny that one species can evolve into another (macroevolution). These arguments are rejected by biologists, who hold that there is ample evidence that macroevolution has
A gene pool is the set of all possible variations (alleles) of all genes of a population. It is a concept in population genetics. For example, plants have genes that say what colour their flowers will be. The gene pool of peas has an allele for red flowers and another one for white flowers.
Transcription is when RNA is made from DNA. The DNA sequence is copied by a special enzyme called RNA polymerase to make a matching RNA strand. "All living things, with their myriad variations, use an almost identical microscopic machine to read their genes. This machine – RNA polymerase – is responsible for a process called transcription, which by producing RNA from DNA, takes the first step in reading the blueprint of life that is encoded in all of our genes". The matching RNA strand is a 'pre-messenger RNA'. Next, the non-coding introns are stripped out by a spliceosome. The remaining exons are put together to make a messenger RNA. The product is called messenger RNA (mRNA) because it carries a genetic message from the DNA to the protein-making machinery of the cell. Transcription is the first step that leads to the expression of the genes. The stretch of DNA that is transcribed into an RNA molecule is called a "transcription unit". This contains: As in DNA replication, only one of the two DNA strands is transcribed. This strand is called the "template strand", because it provides the template for ordering the sequence of nucleotides in an RNA transcript. The other strand is called the "coding strand". Its sequence is the same as the newly created RNA transcript (except for thymine being substituted for uracil). The DNA template strand is read 3' → 5' direction by RNA polymerase and the new RNA strand is synthesized in the 5'→ 3' direction. RNA polymerase binds to the 3' end of a gene (promoter) on the DNA template strand and travels toward the 5' end. Roger D. Kornberg won the 2006 Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for his studies of the molecular basis of eukaryotic transcription".
William Hilton Hovell (April 26 1786 — November 9 1875) was an English explorer of Australia. Together with Hamilton Hume he explored much of Victoria. Early life. William Hovell was born at Yarmouth, Norfolk, England. He joined the Royal Navy and became a captain. In October 1813, he moved to New South Wales with his wife Esther Arndell. He got work as a ship captain and made several trading trips along the coast and to New Zealand. In 1816 he was shipwrecked in Bass Strait. In 1819 he lived near Sydney and did some exploring to the south. He reached the Burragorang Valley in 1823. Corio Bay. In 1824, Governor Sir Thomas Brisbane asked Hovell to go with Hamilton Hume to explore the south part of New South Wales and Victoria. He wanted to know more about any rivers that might run south. Hovell was not an explorer but he knew how to navigate (find out where he was). There were problems deciding who was going to pay for the expedition. The two explorers bought most of the equipment. The government provided saddles, clothes, blankets and guns. Hume and Hovell left Sydney on October 3 1824, with six men, five bullocks, three horses and two carts. The Murrumbidgee River was in flood so they had to make one of the carts into a kind of boat to get across. The men, horses, and bullocks swam over. A day or two later, in rough hilly country, they had great difficulty in finding a path for the carts. On October 27 they decided to leave them behind. They came to a large river on November 16, which Hovell called "Hume's River" "he being the first that saw it". This was the Murray River renamed by Charles Sturt a few years later. It was impossible to cross here (near the site of Albury), but after a few days they found a better place. They built the rough frame of a boat and managed to get across. By December 3, they had
The Star Wars prequel trilogy is a series of movies released between May 1999 and May 2005. All three movies were written and directed by George Lucas. The three movies are: (1999), (2002) and (2005) Production. Lucasfilm started production on The Phantom Menace after George Lucas got interested in reviving the Star Wars franchise. Reception. While all three movies are financially successful, the first two movies had mixed reviews, with the final movie having positive reviews. Critics didn't like the dialogue and some of the characters, including Jar Jar Binks. Many fans also thought that the previous three movies were better. The trilogy has been popular with millennials who grew up with the movies. Because of this, the subreddit called Prequel Memes gained popularity. In more recent years, the movies have been more positively reviewed.
The Abbasid Caliphate was the third of the four greatest Islamic caliphates of the Arab Empire. It overthrew the Umayyad caliphs from all but Al-Andalus. It was built by the descendant of Muhammad's youngest uncle, Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib. It was created in Harran in 750 of the Christian era and shifted its capital in AD 762 from Harran to Baghdad. It flourished for two centuries, surviving the Zanj Rebellion (869-883). Abbasid rule was ended in 1258, when Hulagu Khan, the Mongol conqueror, sacked Baghdad. But they continued to claim authority in religious matters from their base in Egypt. During the period of the Abassid dynasty, Abassid claims to the caliphate did not go unchallenged. The Ubayd Allah al-Mahdi Billah of the Fatimid dynasty, which claimed descendency of Muhammad through his daughter, claimed the title of Caliph in 909 and created a separate line of caliphs in North Africa. Initially it covered only Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya, but then the Fatimid caliphs extended their rule for the next 150 years, taking Egypt and Palestine and even ancient Pakistan, before the Abbassid dynasty was able to turn the tide, limiting Fatimid rule to Egypt. The Fatimid dynasty finally ended in 1171. The Umayyad dynasty, which had survived and come to rule over the Muslim provinces of Spain, reclaimed the title of Caliph in 929, lasting until it was overthrown in 1031. The tenth caliph, Al-Mutawakkil, is the person who oversaw the introduction of hadiths.
The Seattle Mariners are an American Major League Baseball team based in Seattle, Washington. The Mariners are part of the Western Division of Major League Baseball's American League. Since July 1999, their home stadium has been T-Mobile Park (originally Safeco Field). Until they moved in June 1999, the club's home park was the Kingdome. Seattle had minor league baseball teams from the early 1900s to the late 1960s, with nicknames such as the "Indians" and the "Rainiers". The first major league baseball franchise in Seattle was the Seattle Pilots, formed in 1969. The Pilots moved to Milwaukee the next year and became the Milwaukee Brewers. As a result, the city of Seattle, King County, and the state of Washington sued the American League for $32 million dollars in damages. In exchange for dropping the law suit, the American League gave Seattle a Major League Baseball team in 1977. Seattle is a large and important seaport, a fact which led to the major league teams being called the "Pilots" and the "Mariners". The Mariner's first winning season was in 1991, and the first time they made the playoffs was in 1995. The Mariners are owned by Nintendo of America, and the general manager of the team is Jack Zduriencik.
Guanajuato is a state in western Mexico. About 4,890,000 people live there. Its capital is also called Guanajuato. The largest city is León.
Yucatán is a state in the southeast of Mexico. About 1,820,000 people live in Yucatán. Its capital is called Mérida.  The state is on the Yucatán Peninsula. It has the state of Campeche to the southwest, and Quintana Roo to the southeast. The Gulf of Mexico is off its north coast. The state was a very important region for the Mayan civilization. There are still some villages there with Mayan-descent people who speak the old language. There are also archaeological sites where Mayan remains are investigated.
Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio (28 September 1571 – 18 July 1610) was an Italian artist. He worked in Rome, Naples, Malta and Sicily between 1593 and 1610. He was a painter who did a type of art called Baroque style. He was the first person to be really good at painting this way. Even while he was alive, many people talked about Caravaggio. Some people liked to see what he did, and how he lived, and thought he was a good person. Other people thought he was very strange. Some people thought he was bad. He did not want to fit in, sometimes. He started being a famous painter in Rome in 1600. Many people gave him money to paint pictures for them, but he used all his money and sometimes got into trouble. In 1604 someone wrote a note about him, and said that he was rude and a bad person. This note tells us how he lived, in 1601: In 1606 he killed a young man in a fight and ran away from Rome. He ran away because Rome said it would give money to people to catch him. In Malta in 1608 he got into a fight again. He got into another fight in Naples in 1609, but this fight could have been enemies (people who hated him) trying to kill him. In 1610, after making paintings for more than ten years, he died. Huge new churches and palazzi were being built in Rome. These big churches needed paintings to hang on the walls. The Counter-Reformation Catholic Church wanted to find painters who would paint beautiful art about God. They wanted people to like the art so much that they would think Protestantism was ugly and boring, and wouldn't want to start being part of a Protestant church. So the Catholic Church needed a new type of art, because Mannerism had been the most famous type of art for 100 years, and now it was boring. Caravaggio's paintings were new, and different from Mannerism. He painted in a way called naturalism, which means that he painted things how they actually looked. He painted