ejaasaari/simplewiki-2025-04-01 huggingface dataset:
The Plague of Justinian was a pandemic of the bubonic plague caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis. It happened during the years of 541 to 542 in the Byzantine Empire while under the rule of Justinian I. Historians estimate that this pandemic killed as many as 100 million people across the world, partly because it returned every twelve years until 770, when it stopped for about 500 years. Between 541 and 700, the Plague of Justinian killed about half of the people in Europe. It also may have contributed to the success of the Muslim conquests. Its social and cultural impact is comparable to that of the Black Death. Origin and impact. Through trade, the plague came from India to Ethiopia or Egypt. Eventually, trade ships brought the plague north to the large city of Constantinople. Ships bringing grain, which Constantinople imported, carried rats along with them. These rats carried the plague. By the end of the pandemic, the plague had killed 40% of Constantinople's population. At its worst, it killed 10,000 people in Constantinople every day. Doctors at the time relied on religious and folk remedies which were not effective in treating the plague. This caused the plague to spread rapidly throughout Europe and the Mediterranean Basin. In total, about 25 million people died because of the Plague of Justinian. It is said to have contributed to the fall of the Byzantine Empire, because it killed farmers and caused famine. Also, the empire relied on tax money, and the plague killed many taxpayers.Overall, the Plague of Justinian was a sickness that happened around 1,500 years ago. It started in the city of Constantinople and spread to other parts of the world. Many people got sick and some even died. The disease was caused by bacteria and was spread by fleas on rats. It lasted for several years and caused a lot of damage to the Byzantine Empire by weakening its defenses, harming its economy, and killing large amounts of its population. Even though it was a long time ago, we can still learn from this event and take precautions to prevent the spread of diseases today.
The zlib License is an open source software license. The license. The words of the zlib License are:
Ferdinand Lassalle (11 April 1825 — 31 August 1864) was a German jurist and socialist politician. Lassalle was born in Breslau. His father sent him to a business school in Leipzig. Lassalle changed to the University of Breslau. He later studied in Berlin. He studied Philosophy, Philology (Latin and Ancient Greek) and Law. Lassalle took part in the revolutions of 1848-49. He was put into prison and later banned from Berlin. He lived in Düsseldorf that time. In 1859, Lassalle returned to Berlin. Lassalle was a liberal politician in the early 1860s. The liberals had some struggles with Otto von Bismarck. Lassalle thought about the living conditions of the working class. He found that the idea of self-help would not help the working class people. This led him to become a member of the Communist league. There he was in opposition to Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels.  Lassalle founded the Allgemeiner Deutscher Arbeiterverein (General German Workers' Association, ADAV) in 1863. This party later became the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD). Lassalle was killed in a duel.
Hans-Dietrich Genscher (21 March 1927 – 31 March 2016) was a German politician.  Early life. Genscher was born at Reideburg, near Halle. Genscher served in World War II from 1943 to 1945. He joined the Nazi Party at the age of 18. After the war, he studied economics and law in Halle and Leipzig. He joined the East German Liberal Democratic Party (LDPD) in 1946. In 1952, Genscher fled to West Germany. There he joined the Free Democratic Party (FDP). He passed his second state examination in law in Hamburg in 1954. After that, he became a solicitor in Bremen.  Career. In 1965, Genscher was elected to the Bundestag, the West German parliament for the first time. From 1969 to 1974, he was Federal Minister of the Interior under Chancellor Willy Brandt. Genscher was Foreign Minister and Vice Chancellor of Germany from 1974 to 1982 under Helmut Schmidt. Two weeks later, he began to serve in the same positions under Helmut Kohl. He served the second time from 1982 to 1992. He was Germany's longest serving Foreign Minister and Vice Chancellor. Death. Genscher died at his home in Wachtberg, Germany from heart failure on 31 March 2016, aged 89.
Franz Müntefering (born January 16, 1940) is a German politician. He used to be Chairman of the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD). Müntefering was born in Neheim-Hüsten near Arnsberg. After his school time he was taught to became an industrial salesman. He joined the Social Democratic Party in 1966. He was member of the Bundestag (Federal Parliament) from 1975 to 1992 and again from 1998 to 2013. 1998 he was a member of the Landtag (state parliament) of North Rhine-Westphalia. From 1992 to 1995 he was Secretary of Social affairs in the State of North Rhine-Westphalia. From 1995 to 2001 he was Party Chairman in that state. From 1995 to 1998 he was Bundesgeschäftsführer (federal executive director) of the SPD. In 1998 he became Secretary for Transport and Infrastructure of Germany under Chancellor Gerhard Schröder. From 1999 to 2002 he was Secretary General of the Social Democratic Party. From 2002 to 2005 he was fraction leader in the Bundestag. He was Party Chairman of the SPD from 2004 to 2005.  From 2005 to 2007 he was Secretary for Working and Social Affairs and Vice Chancellor of Germany under Angela Merkel in her Grand Coaltion. In 2007 he gave up all his jobs - excepted the mandate in Federal Parliament - to care for his ill wife. After the death of his wife he returned. From 2008 to 2009 he was Party Chairman of the SPD again.
Nick Royle (born 1983) is a current England Rugby Sevens International rugby union player. He plays as a winger. He has played for Warrington, Widnes Vikings, Sale Sharks and Fylde.
Secret Water is the eighth book in Arthur Ransome's "Swallows and Amazons" series of children's books. It was published in 1939. This book is set in and around Hamford Water in Essex, close to the resort town of Walton-on-the-Naze. It brings the Swallows and the Amazons together and introduces a new group of characters, the Eels and the Mastodon. Ransome sailed to Hamford Water, an area of salt marshes and low lying islands in his boat "Nancy Blackett". He set the book in this tidal place which offered a new setting for his characters and chances to explore and map the area. Plot summary. The Swallows mean to sail in the "Goblin" to Hamford Water and camp with their father, but he is called away on naval business. Instead he maroons them with a small boat (dinghy) on an island. Before he leaves, Father gives them a basic map of the area they call Secret Water and suggests they map the area before he returns to pick them up. For a surprise, he has arranged for the Amazons to come down from the Lake District and join them with another dinghy. They see some mysterious footprints which turn out to belong to the Mastodon, a local boy. He mistakes them for the Eels, another family who camp in the area regularly. Later the Eels arrive and are initially hostile before they settle down for a friendly war. It seems that due to the distractions of war and being cut off by the tides, the chart will not be completed. However early in the last morning two separate groups of children complete it.
Aramids are polymers. The name stands for "aromatic polyamide". Structurally aramids are similar to proteins. Overview. Stephanie Kwolek developed aramids at DuPont in 1965. DuPont uses the trade name "Kevlar" for them.  Aramids are very present in security helmets, in splinter-resistant glass, in Ballistic vests. They are used as a replacement for asbestos as a building material, for gaskets and other sealings, but also as helpers to make sails, parachutes and similar tools.
A brute force attack is a term in cryptanalysis. It means trying to break a coded cyphertext by trying a lot of possibilities with fast computers. For example, a large number of the possible keys are tried in the key space. If successful , this decrypts the encrypted message.  Overview. The theoretical possibility of a brute force attack is recognized by the cryptographic system designers. They work to make the cryptographic system very difficult for computers to break using brute force attack. For that reason, one of the definitions of "breaking" a cryptographic scheme is to find a method faster than a brute force attack. The selection of an appropriate key length depends on how difficult it will be to break it using a brute force attack. By obfuscating the data before encryption, brute force attacks are less effective and more difficult to determine. The brute force attack can be used together with a dictionary attack. For symmetric encryption, a key size of 128 bits is considered secure against brute force by traditional computers. 192 or 256 bits is considered secure against quantum computers. Many old ciphers, such as DES, used short keys which made them breakable by brute force.
Information theory is a branch of applied mathematics and electrical engineering. Information theory measures the amount of information in data that could have more than one value. In its most common use, information theory finds physical and mathematical limits on the amounts of data in data compression and data communication. Data compression and data communication are statistical, because they guess unknown values. The amount of information in data measures how easily it is guessed by a person who does not know its value.  A key measure in information theory is "entropy". Entropy quantifies the amount of uncertainty involved in the value of a random variable or the outcome of a random process. For example, identifying the outcome of a fair coin flip (with two equally likely outcomes) provides less information (lower entropy) than specifying the outcome from a roll of a dice (with six equally likely outcomes). Some other important measures in information theory are mutual information, channel capacity, error exponents, and relative entropy.
In cryptography, a block cipher is a symmetric key cipher which operates on a groups of bits of fixed length, called "blocks", using an exact transformation. During encryption, a block cipher algorithm might take (for example) a 128-bit block of plaintext as input, and output a corresponding 128-bit block of ciphertext. The exact transformation is controlled using a second input — the secret key. Decryption is similar: the decryption algorithm takes, in this example, a 128-bit block of ciphertext together with the secret key, and output the original 128-bit block of plaintext. One of the early block cipher designs was the Data Encryption Standard (DES), developed at IBM and published as a standard in 1977. A successor to DES, the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES); also using block cipher, was adopted in 2001. RC5 is a simple symmetric-key made by Ronald Rivest in 1994. RC6 is another made from RC5. RC stands for "Rivest Cipher", or alternatively, "Ron's Code".
A hostname (also known as a sitename) is the unique name by which a network device (which may be a computer, file server, network storage device, copier, cable modem, etc.) is defined and known on a network. The hostname is used to identify a particular host in various electronic communication networks such as the World Wide Web, e-mail or Usenet.  On the Internet, the terms "hostname" and "domain name" are often misused interchangeably, but there are small technical differences between them.
Wassily Kandinsky ( – 13 December 1944) was a Russian painter, printmaker and art theorist. He was one of the most important 20th-century artists. He was a major figure in modern art and painted some of the first modern abstract works. "Der Blaue Reiter" (The Blue Rider) was a group of artists that was started (1911) in Germany, by Kandinsky and Franz Marc. "Der Blaue Reiter" also became an art movement.  His art changed several times during his life. It was fauvist, abstract, expressionist and constructivist in turn. Life. Born in Moscow, Kandinsky spent his childhood in Odesa. He enrolled at the University of Moscow and chose to study law and economics. Quite successful in his profession—he was offered a professorship (chair of Roman Law) at the University of Dorpat—he started painting studies (life-drawing, sketching and anatomy) at the age of 30. In 1896 he settled in Munich and studied first in a private school, then at the Academy of Fine Arts, Munich. He went back to Moscow in 1914 after World War I started. He was unsympathetic to the official theories on art in Moscow and returned to Germany in 1921. There he taught at the Bauhaus school of art and architecture from 1922 until the Nazis closed it in 1933. He then moved to France where he lived the rest of his life, and became a French citizen in 1939. He died at Neuilly-sur-Seine in 1944. Influences. Later in life he would recall being fascinated and stimulated by colour as a child. His fascination with colour symbolism and psychology continued as he grew. In 1889, he was part of an ethnographic research group which travelled to the Vologda region north of Moscow. In "Looks on the Past", he tells how the houses and churches were decorated with such shimmering colours that, on entering them, he felt he was moving into a painting. This experience, and his study of the region's folk art (particularly the use of bright colours on a dark background), can be seen in much of his early work. He was interested in geometry in art and philosophy. The creative aspect of the form is expressed by a descending series of circles, triangles and squares.
Public-key cryptography, also called asymmetric cryptography, is a communication where people send messages that can only be read by those who have the key.  A Metaphor. This kind of cryptography is like two magical paper shredders. Each can shred messages that the only the other can unshred.  Explanation. In public key cryptography, each user has a pair of cryptographic keys: The private key is kept secret, while the public key may be widely distributed and used by other users.  Incoming messages are encrypted with the "recipient's public key" and can only be decrypted with their corresponding private key. The keys are related mathematically, but the user's private key cannot be easily got from the widely used public key. The most usual problem with this method arises when private key is accidentally leaked. The two main branches of public key cryptography are: They are often used together on the same message.
The Arab conquests (632–732), (, Fatah, literally "opening",) also referred to as the Islamic conquests or Early muslim conquests, began after the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. He established a new unified political polity in the Arabian peninsula which under the following Rashidun and Umayyad Caliphates saw a century of rapid expansion of Arab power well beyond the Arabian peninsula in the form of a vast Muslim Arab Empire with an area of influence that stretched from northwest India, across Central Asia, the Middle East, North Africa, southern Italy, and the Iberian Peninsula, to the Pyrenees. The Arab conquests culminated in Islamic rule being established across three continents (Asia, Africa, and Europe). According to Scottish historian James Buchan: "In speed and extent, the first Arab conquests were matched only by those of Alexander the Great, and they were more lasting."The Arab conquests brought about the collapse of the Sassanid Empire and a great territorial loss for the Byzantine Empire. Though spectacular, the Arab successes are not hard to understand in hindsight. The Sassanid Persian and Byzantine empires were militarily exhausted from decades of fighting one another. This prevented them from dealing effectively with the mobile Arab raiders operating from the desert. Moreover, many of the peoples living under the rule of these empires, for example Jews and Christians in Persia and Monophysites in Syria, were disloyal and sometimes even welcomed the Arab invaders, largely because of religious conflict in both empires. History. Some of the individual conquests are mentioned here: Byzantine-Arab Wars: 634-750. The Byzantine-Arab Wars were between the Byzantine Empire and at first the Rashidun and then the Umayyad caliphates. Under the Rashidun there were the conquests of Syria (637), Armenia (639), Egypt (639) and North Africa (652). Under the Umayyads the continuing conquest of North Africa (665), the second Arab siege of Constantinople (717-718) and the conquest of Tbilisi (736). In 827 there followed the conquest of southern Italy (
In cryptography, the key space of an algorithm refers to the set of all possible keys that can be used to initialize the cryptographic algorithm. For example, if an algorithm works using a key that is a string of 10 bits, then its key space is the set of all binary strings of length 10 bits; i.e. we have key space of size 210 = 1024. To avoid attackers from guessing the key using a brute-force attack, the key space is usually designed to be very large. Another needed attribute is that the key space designed to be "flat", having no or very few weak keys. Examples. The block cipher Rijndael/AES uses a key of up to 256 bits, resulting in a key space containing about 2256 which is over 1.1579 × 1077 keys. This makes it "computationally infeasible" to check each possible key by brute force. In the DES block cipher, a 56-bit key is used, resulting in a relatively small key space of size 256. The ROT13 cipher is only designed to prevent people from accidentally reading messages (e.g. movie plot details). As there is no key, the key space is therefore empty.
Roger Williams (December 21, 1603 – April 1, 1683) was an English-American Puritan, and a Calvinist-Baptist theologian. He was widely known as a supporter of religious toleration and separation of church and state. He also supported fair dealings with Native Americans. In 1644, he received a royal charter creating the colony of Rhode Island, named for the main island in Narragansett Bay. He is believed to have started the first or second Baptist church in the United States. He is known to have left the church soon afterwards, saying, "God is too large to be housed under one roof." Famous descendants. These are some famous descendants of Roger Williams:
Roger Williams (1603–1683) was an English theologian, author, and the founder of Rhode Island. Roger Williams may also refer to:
Unitarianism is a term that describes some forms of Christianity. Unitarianism can be described as the belief that God is just one person. This is different from what most Christians think, which is that God is three different people all in the same person. That belief is called Trinitarianism. Unitarian Christians believe in Jesus of Nazareth. They think that Jesus was a great leader and prophet, but they generally do not think that Jesus is part of God himself. Two main forms. Jesus existed before his human life. The "Son of God" is a being that existed before Jesus' human life. It is called the Logos who dwelt with God in the beginning and then was born as the man Jesus. However, he is not eternal, but had a beginning of existence. God created him. This theology is commonly called Arianism, but there are many varieties of this form of Unitarianism. They range from the belief that the Son, before he came to earth, was a divine spirit of the same nature as God to the belief that he was an angel or other lesser spirit creature of a wholly different nature from God. Arius' views are only one variation of this theology. Whatever the case, in this belief system, Jesus is beneath God, but higher than humans (and has always been so). This concept could be referred to as "elevated subordinationism." It is associated with early church figures such as Justin Martyr, Lucian of Antioch, Eusebius of Caesarea, Arius, Eusebius of Nicomedia, Asterius the Sophist, Eunomius, and Ulfilas, as well as Felix, Bishop of Urgel and others who believed that Jesus was God in his divine nature but his divinity in his human nature was through adoption. Arian forms of Unitarianism remain among Unitarians in Transylvania, Hungary, France, and several countries in Africa. Famous Arian Unitarians include Isaac Newton, Andrews Norton and Dr. William Ellery Channing. Ralph Waldo Emerson's father was a Unitarian pastor. Since the 19th century, several Evangelical or Revivalist movements
Stephen John Hadley (born February 13, 1947) is an American attorney who served as the 20th U.S. national security advisor under George W. Bush from 2005 to 2009. Hadley was also U.S. deputy national security advisor from 2001 to 2005.  Hadley served as the Assistant Secretary of Defense for International Security Policy under George H. W. Bush from 1989 to 1993. In that position, he had responsibility for defense policy toward NATO and Western Europe on nuclear weapons and ballistic missile defense, and arms control.
The Deputy Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs, commonly referred to as the Deputy National Security Advisor, is a member of the Executive Office of the President of the United States, serving as deputy to the President's National Security Advisor. Among other responsibilities, the Deputy National Security Advisor serves as Executive Secretary to the National Security Council Principals Committee, and as Chairman of the National Security Council Deputies Committee.
Director of the Central Intelligence Agency (D/CIA) serves as the head of the Central Intelligence Agency, which is part of the United States Intelligence Community. He/She reports to the Director of National Intelligence (DNI).  The Director is assisted by the Deputy Director of the Central Intelligence Agency. The Director is nominated by the President, with the concurring or nonconcurring recommendation from the Director of National Intelligence and must be confirmed by majority vote from the Senate. List of directors. What follows is a list of Directors of the Central Intelligence Agency (in chronological order).
Procopius of Caesarea (, c. 500 – c. 565) was a prominent Eastern Roman scholar. He took part in the wars of the Emperor Justinian I, and was the major historian of the 6th century AD, writing the "Wars of Justinian", the "Buildings of Justinian" and the celebrated "Secret History". He is commonly held to be the last major historian of the ancient world. Writings. The writings of Procopius are the primary source of information for the rule of the Roman emperor Justinian. Procopius was the author of a history in eight books of the wars fought by Justinian I, with information on Justinian's public works throughout the empire, and a book known as the "Secret History" (Greek: "Anekdota") that claims to report the scandals that Procopius could not include in his published history. A number of historical novels based on Procopius' works (along with other sources) have been written, of which the best, "Count Belisarius", was written by poet and novelist Robert Graves in 1938. Other websites. Texts of Procopius. "This article is based on an earlier version by James Allan Evans, originally posted at Nupedia."
Peer Steinbrück (born 10 January 1947) is a German politician. Steinbrück was born in Hamburg. From 1968 to 1969 he was training as a reserve officer of the Bundeswehr (German army). From 1970 to 1974 he studied national economy in Kiel. After that he worked in different ministries. In 1969 he joined the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD). In 1993 he became Secretary for Economy and Infrastructure in the State of Schleswig-Holstein. In 1998 he changed to the State of North Rhine-Westphalia and became Secretary for Infrastructure, up from 2000 Secretary of Finance. In 2000 he was elected into the State Parliament of North Rhine-Westphalia. He was Minister President (Ministerpräsident) of North Rhine-Westphalia from November 2002 to June 2005. On the state election on 22 May 2005 Steinbrück failed to be reelected as Minister President of North Rhine-Westphalia. His successor was Jürgen Rüttgers (CDU). Since November 2005 he has been finance minister of Germany and Vice chief of SPD.