ejaasaari/simplewiki-2025-04-01 huggingface dataset:
The Messerschmitt Bf 109 was a fighter aircraft usually called the Me 109. It was a German World War II aircraft. Made by Messerschmitt, it first flew in 1935, and was used by the Luftwaffe during the Spanish Civil War and throughout World War II. It was one of the first modern fighters of the time. It had an all-metal construction, a closed cockpit, and retractable landing gear. It was powered by a liquid-cooled, inverted-V12 aero engine. The Messerschmitt Bf-109, was a powerful single-propeller aircraft, used by the Germans as support aircraft. The Bf-109 was a worthy competitor as Germany’s greatest aircraft, though the Fw-190 proved more significant for some enemy engagements. The camouflaged aircraft fought in the heat of the 1940 Battle of Britain, going head to head with the English Spitfires. There were many variations designed for special purposes. Overall, the Me 109 was the most produced fighter aircraft in history, with a total of 33,984 airframes produced from 1936 up to April 1945. The design of the plane caused some problems on the ground, and with take-off and landing. At least 10% of all Bf 109s were lost in takeoff and landing accidents, 1,500 of which occurred between 1939 and 1941. A new fixed tailwheel helped correct the problem. Bf 109 was used by Luftwaffe together with FW 190. The Messerschmitt had two machine guns and one cannon while FW 190 had two machine guns and four cannons. Bf 109 was much lighter than FW 190, by 1500 kg. Despite that Bf 109 was almost as fast as FW 190 (Fw 190 A-8 was only 16kph faster than Bf 109 G-6) and climbed at 17 m/s, 2 m/s faster than FW 190.
The Me 262 was a German fighter aircraft flown during late World War II. It was the first jet to be used in war. It began test flights in 1942, but was not used in combat by the German air force, the Luftwaffe, until 1944. Very few were built because Germany's enemies were bombing factories. It saw little action because the war was nearly over. The jet engines of the new machine often caused problems, that's why a lot of machines had deathly accidents. Nicknamed Schwalbe (Swallow), the Messerschmidt Me 262 surpassed the performance of every other World War II fighter. Faster than the North American P-51 Mustang by 190 kph (120 mph) per hour, the Schwalbe restored to the faltering German Luftwaffe. The Me-262 has two ʽJumo 004 B turbine enginesʼ with a top speed of 869.4 kph (540 mph). It's armament includes two ʽMK 103 30 mm cannonsʼ, two ʽ108 30 mm cannonsʼ, and a pair of ʽMG 151/20 20 mm cannonsʼ.
Osmosis (/ɒzˈmoʊ.sɪs/) is the movement of solvent (liquid) molecules through a membrane, from one solution to another, which happens without an outside force.  Solvent will move to the side that has a "higher concentration" of "solutes", or dissolved particles — and thus a "lower concentration" of "solvent". This happens because the membrane is selectively permeable: the solvent can pass through, but the solute cannot. Solvent molecules move randomly, and so the concentrations on both sides become more equal. Osmosis can be made to do work. Osmotic pressure is the external pressure that must be applied so that there is no net movement of solvent across the membrane. Osmotic pressure depends on the molar concentration of the solute. Osmosis is important in biological (living) systems, as biological membranes are semipermeable. In general, these membranes are impermeable to large molecules such as ions, proteins, and polysaccharides. They are permeable to non-polar or hydrophobic molecules like lipids and small molecules like oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and nitric oxide. Permeability depends on solubility, charge, or chemistry, as well as solute size. Water molecules travel through the plasma membrane, vacuole, or protoplast by diffusing across the phospholipid bilayer.  Osmosis provides the main way water is gets in and out of cells. The turgor pressure of a cell is largely maintained by osmosis across the cell membrane between the cell interior and its environment. Hypotonic, isotonic, and hypertonic. Solutions may have more or less solute per unit of solvent. The one with less is called "hypotonic." When the two solutions have equal concentration, they are "isotonic." The one with more is "hypertonic". When the hypotonic solution is outside the cell, and hypertonic solution inside, the cell becomes swollen and distorted. Cell membranes. The plasma membrane of a cell is semi-permeable, which means it allows the entry of certain molecules in or out
Mikoyan is a Russian company that designs fighter airplanes. The company was first formed in December 1939 as a design office called Mikoyan-Gurevich or MiG, this was because its designers were Artem Mikoyan and Mikhail Gurevich. Mikoyan will join other Russian airplane companies in a new company called United Aircraft Corporation. History. In 1939 Russia was part of the Soviet Union and was communist. In the Soviet communist system there were two types of airplane companies, companies that designed aircraft known as design offices or OKB, and companies that made airplanes called zavods. Artom Mikoyan and Mikhail Gurevich had been designers in another design office helping a designer called Nikolai Polikarpov. One airplane design that Artem Mikoyan and Mikhail Gurevich worked on at Polikarpov was called the I-200. When Nikolai Polikarpov lost the trust of the Soviet leader Stalin, Artem Mikoyan and Mikhail Gurevich were given the I-200 design to finish. This airplane was given a new name and was called the Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-1. As it was being made, ways to make the MiG-1 into a better airplane were found and airplanes with these changes became known as the MiG-3 and later the MiG-7. However even with changes the MiG fighter airplanes were not as good as the fighter airplanes designed by the design offices of Lavochkin or Yakovlev. After World War II Mikoyan-Gurevich designed jet aircraft. In the Soviet system the airplane designs of the design offices would compete to see which was the best. When the best design had been found the design would be built by the airplane manufacturing company. Even though Mikoyan-Gurevich airplanes in World War II had not been as good as airplanes by Lavochkin or Yakovlev. Mikoyan-Gurevich jet aircraft won more of the competitions to be sent to the zavods and in the time of the Cold War Mikoyan-Gurevich, together with another design office called Sukhoi, became one of
Neptune (Latin: "Neptūnus") is the god of water and the sea in ancient Roman religion and mythology. His Greek equivalent is the god Poseidon. The Roman conception of Neptune was mainly influenced by the Etruscan god Nethuns. Neptune was associated with fresh water as well as the sea, while Oceanus was the god of the world-ocean. Like his Greek equivalent, Neptune was also worshipped by the Romans as the god of horses, and, under the name "Neptune Equester", he was a patron god of horse-racing. The planet Neptune is named after this Roman god.
"For the folk music band, see Sol Invictus (band)." Sol Invictus ("the Unconquered Sun") or, more fully, Deus Sol Invictus ("the Unconquered Sun god") was a religious title applied to at least three distinct deities during the later Roman Empire: El Gabal, Mithras, and Sol. The earlier cult of Sol Indiges ("the native sun" or "the invoked sun") was agrarian. The title "Deus Sol Invictus" was formed similar to the imperial titulature "pius felix invictus" ("dutiful, fortunate, unconquered"). The Romans held a festival on December 25 called "Dies Natalis Solis Invicti", "the birthday of the unconquered sun." The use of the title Sol Invictus allowed several solar deities to be worshipped together, including Elah-Gabal, a Syrian sun god; Sol, the patron god of Emperor Aurelian (AD 270-274); and Mithras, a soldiers' god of Persian origin. Emperor (218-222) introduced the festival, and it reached the height of its popularity under Aurelian, who promoted it as an empire-wide holiday that was a possible inspiration of Christmas.
An optical printer is a machine. It can be used to copy rolls of movies. It is made of one or more movie projectors, which are linked to a movie camera. It allows filmmakers to re-photograph one or more strips of movie. The optical printer is used for making special effects for motion pictures or for copying and restoring old movie material. Common optical effects include fade outs and fade ins, dissolves, slow motion, fast motion, and matte work. More complicated work needs dozens of elements, all combined into a single scene. Ideally, the audience in a theater should not be able to notice any optical printer work, but this is not always the case. For economical reasons, especially in the 1950s, and later in TV series produced on movie, printer work was limited to only the actual parts of a scene needing the effect, so there is a clear change in the image quality when the transition occurs. The first, simple optical printers were constructed in the early 1920s. Linwood G. Dunn developed the idea in the 1930s. The development continued well into the 1980s, when the printers were controlled with minicomputers. Since the late 1980s, digital compositing began to replace optical effects. Since the mid nineties the conversion to digital effects has been almost total. Optical printing today is used most widely by artists working exclusively with movie. As a technique, it proves particularly useful for making copies of hand painted or physically manipulated movies.
Lares (pl.) were ancient Roman deities who protected the house and the family - household gods. See also Genius, Larvae, Di Penates, Manes. Lares are presumed sons of Mercury and Lara, and deeply venerated by ancient Romans through small statues, usually put in higher places of the house, far from the floor, or even on the roof.  In the early Roman times, in every house there was at least one little statue. Later, a sort of confusion connected their figure with those of Manes, deities of Hades (and the most virtuous dead persons of the family). Finally the confusion included the Penates (other minor deities) as well.
Charter trustees are the English district councillors for an area that used to be a city. They are allowed by the "Charter Trustees Act 1985", so that some of the privileges and dignities of former city can be carried on. References. Charter Trustees Acts 1985 c45
In Roman mythology, Quirinus was an early god of the Roman state. In Augustan Rome, Quirinus was also a name of Janus, as "Janus Quirinus". History. Quirinus was originally most likely a Sabine god. The Sabines had a settlement near the site of what was to become Rome, and erected an altar to Quirinus on the "Collis Quirinalis", the "Quirinal Hill", one of the "Seven Hills of Rome". When the Romans settled there, they absorbed the cult of Quirinus into their early belief system — previous to direct Greek influence — and he was said to be the deified Romulus.  In later times, however, Quirinus became far less important, losing his place to (Juno and Minerva and Mars' place).
The name kreisfreie Stadt (plural: "kreisfreie Städte") is used for German towns that have their own government. This town government is independent of the government of the next-higher level of authority, the "Landkreis". Today, most of the cities that have this statute, are big cities, with 100.000 people living there, or more. The concept grew historically. That means that there are big cities, with more than 100.000 people that do not have the statute. There are also some cities who have only taken a part of the responsibilities of a Landkreis (or Kreis). The smallest city with the statute is Zweibrücken. About 35.000 people live there. The biggest of these cities is Munich, with about 1.3 million people. Hamburg and Berlin are bigger. They are city states, though. The city state of Bremen (state) is made of two "kreisfreie Städte", the city of Bremen, and the city of Bremerhaven, about 60 km to the north. About half a million people live in Bremen (1.5 million in the agglomeration), about 117.000 people live in Bremerhaven. But not every big city with more than 100.000 inhabitants is a "kreisfreie Stadt". Some of them, for example Recklinghausen or Göttingen (both more 120.000 inhabitants) are part of a "Landkreis". There are very few cities, who only took part of the paperwork from the Landkreis. Some of these are called "Große selbständige Stadt" (Translates to "Big sovereign city"). They only seem to exist in Lower Saxony. They are: Celle, Cuxhaven, Goslar, Hameln, Hildesheim, Lingen, and Lüneburg. Things like hunting permits cannot be delegated to the cities. Other things, like what to do with the trash have sometimes been delegated. Similar concepts to that of the "kreisfreie Stadt" are Unitary authorities in the United Kingdom, or that of "independent city" in the United States.
IEEE 802.11 is a series of protocols for wireless networking. Often these are called Wireless LAN, "WLAN", or Wi-Fi. Such a protocol allows computers that have the needed radio parts to communicate with each other, without a cable. There are many types of Wi-Fi standards, known as 802.11 a, b, g, n, and recently ac &amp; ad. These specifications are different in terms of speed and how far away you can use them. Later standards. The first Wi-Fi standard was made in 1997. It is called IEEE 802.11. It allows communication with 1-2 MBit per second. Today it is outdated, and rare. Later standards add a letter to the name. They are labelled IEEE 802.11a to IEEE 802.11g. There are plans for ones labeled h, i, j, n, p and s. They are all compatible with each other. Newer standards have a Bit rate of 54 MBit/s. About 40-50% of this is usable in real-life situations. As of 2007, the standards most widely used are IEEE 802.11g, and IEEE 802.11b. Frequency bands. Data communication is done in the 2.4 GHz band and the 5 GHz band. The 2.4 GHz band is a general use band. Microwave ovens and Bluetooth are among the things that emit radio waves in this band. The 2.4 GHz band has the problem that there are only very few channels that can be used at the same time, without the signals interfering. There are three usable channels there. When more than three networks operate in the same place, signals still get to the user correctly, but interference slows them.  The 5 GHz band can solve some of these problems, but it introduces others. That band has 19 usable channels. Overall the band is less used. However there are more regulations. Most devices need to be able to choose their channel to minimize interference. Some channels require that those participating can do Transmitter Power Control. This means they adapt the strength of the signal to what is actually needed. This helps reduce the amount of interference between different networks.
In computing, Wireless LAN (WLAN) or Wireless local area network is a term to refer to a Local Area Network that does not need cables to connect the different devices. Instead, radio waves and IEEE 802.11 are used to communicate. Technologies used. Today, most technologies used for WLANs use Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing. This means that several frequencies are used at the same time. Signals that are close to each other, but that belong to different channels do not disturb each other, as they use different coding schemes. Depending on the material used, it is possible to cover between 30 metres and 100 metres indoors; outdoors, the range is about 100-300m, if there are no obstacles.
Bluetooth is a protocol for wireless communication over short distances. It was developed in the 1990s, to reduce the number of cables. Devices such as mobile phones, laptops, PCs, printers, digital cameras and video game consoles can connect to each other, and exchange information. This is done using radio waves. It can be done securely. Bluetooth is usually only used for relatively short distances, like a few metres. Some signals can be up to 100 metres. There are different standards. Data rates vary. Currently, they are at 1-3 MBit per second. Typical Bluetooth applications are to connect a headset to a mobile phone, or to connect a computer mouse, keyboard or printer. Bluetooth devices use the ISM Band around 2.4 GHz. This can be used worldwide, without the need to pay license fees, but many other devices, like DECT telephones (wireless phones), smart tags with RFID, baby phones use it too. Bluetooth uses the same bands as some WLANs, but the modulation technique is different. Bluetooth uses Frequency-hopping spread spectrum. Comparing Bluetooth to Wireless LAN. There are many situations today where either Bluetooth or Wireless LANs can be used. Examples include setting up networks, printing or transferring files and data from a PDA to a computer. Both are versions of unlicensed wireless technology. WLANs can span bigger distances and offer higher throughput. Bluetooth does not require expensive hardware. It also needs less power to operate. Both use the same radio frequency range, but their modulation techniques are different. Both have been developed to replace cabling. Bluetooth wanted to get rid of the peripheral equipment cables, WLANs wanted to get rid of the cables needed to set up a LAN. Bluetooth devices. Bluetooth exists in many products, such as telephones, the Wii or PlayStation 3. It has recently been built into some electronic watches, modems and headsets. The technology is useful when transferring information between two or more devices that are near each other in low-bandwidth situations. Bluetooth is commonly used to transfer sound data with telephones (i.e. with a Bluetooth headset) or byte data with hand-held computers (transferring files). Bluetooth uses protocols that make it
The hominids are members of the biological family Hominidae (the great apes). This family includes humans, chimpanzees, gorillas and orangutans. "Great ape" is a common name rather than a taxonomic label, and people use it in different ways. Sometimes people mean to include humans in the category of “great apes,” and sometimes they mean non-human apes. "Homo sapiens" is definitely a hominid, as judged by all modern reference works. Hominids range in weight from 48 kg to 270 kg. Males are larger than females. Hominids are primates with no tails, strong bodies, and well-developed forearms. Their thumbs (and big toes, except in humans) oppose the fingers, and form a grip. All digits have flattened nails. At present, the family Hominidae includes four genera and eight species. However, if fossil hominids were included, all of the Australopithecines and the genus "Homo" would be members of the Hominidae family. Today, nonhuman great apes live only in the rainforests of equatorial Africa, Sumatra and Borneo. The first hominid fossils are from the Miocene period. Archaeologists found these in Asia and Europe. Also in Asia, they found fossils of a huge version of the orangutan called "Gigantopithecus", which is now extinct. Fossils also show that Neanderthals were in Europe and western Asia for at least half a million years before modern humans appeared. Classification. Scholars do not agree on exactly how to classify the family Hominidae. Past versions. In the past, the family Hominidae have been classified this way: Modern version. A more recent classification shows humans and the Australopithecines as distinct from the rainforest apes. Two major reference works have supported this approach. Superfamily Hominoidea Family Hylobatidae Genus "Hylobates" Family Hominidae Subfamily Ponginae Genus "Pongo" Subfamily Gorillinae Genus "G
Toki Pona is a constructed language. Sonja Lang, a Canadian translator and linguist, made this language. The words "" mean "good language" or "simple language". It could also translate to "simple speak". Toki Pona uses simple ideas that all cultures know. However, Lang did not make Toki Pona as an international auxiliary language (a language to help people speaking different languages). She made it to test ideas about minimalism (taking out things that are not needed) and pidgins. She also used Taoist ideas. Sounds. Toki Pona only has nine consonants (/p, t, k, m, n, l, j, w, s/) and five vowels (/a, e, i, o, u/). Toki Pona does not allow having any consonants at the end of a syllable except for /n/. Lang made it this way so that speakers of most languages could speak Toki Pona without having to learn any new sounds. Grammar. Toki Pona is an analytic language which means that it has no inflections and a strict SVO (subject-verb-object) word order. Lang made it this way to reduce the number of possible words. Adjectives follow the words they modify like Spanish does. Toki Pona has several grammatical particles like "li" that makes a word into a verb. Toki Pona only has four prepositions: "lon" (similar to English "in", "on", and "at"), "tawa" (similar to English "to" and "for"), "tan" (similar to English "from" and "because"), and "kepeken" (similar to English "using"). Toki Pona has no tenses, but time can be expressed using prepositions and context phrases. Words. Toki Pona only has about 137 words. Words can be used together to talk about other ideas. For example, ' means "person", and ' means "good". So, "" can mean "friend", a person who is good. This is why there does not need to be one word for "friend". The small number of words can talk about
The Canadian Hurricane Centre (CHC) is a Canadian agency that is responsible for monitoring and tracking tropical cyclones that come near or affects Canadian territory. The agency warns people about on-coming tropical cyclones and makes hurricane advisories when needed. Its headquarters are in Dartmouth, Nova Scotia. CHC usually works together with its United States counterpart, the National Hurricane Center in Miami, to coordinate the tracks and positions of all storms that show a possible threat to Canada. While Atlantic hurricanes are normally uncommon in Canada, they do approach or strike from time to time. Among recent events are Hurricane Bob, which struck New Brunswick, in 1991, Hurricane Luis which struck Newfoundland in September 1995, Hurricane Hortense which struck Nova Scotia in September 1996, Hurricane Michael which struck Newfoundland in October 2000, and Hurricane Juan, which struck Nova Scotia in September 2003.
Vulcans are a humanoid species in the fictional "Star Trek" universe from the planet Vulcan. They are noted for their attempt to live by reason and logic with no interference from emotion. In one episode of Star Trek The Next Generation Android Data and Spock work together to solve a Romulan cypher. Spock remarks that Data has achieved the perfect Vulcan state of Pure Logic without emotion. Data remarks that Spock despite his efforts still feels emotion which Data is trying to achieve. They were the first extraterrestrial species encountered by humans. They became one of the founding members of the United Federation of Planets. Vulcans are featured in all twelve Star Trek series, six of which featured a Vulcan as a main character.
The W. M. Keck Observatory is a pair of two large, ground-based telescopes located at Mauna Kea, Hawaii. Sitting four km (more than two miles) above sea level, the paired telescopes are used to examine light from distant stars in great detail. The primary mirrors of each of the two telescopes are 10 meters (33 feet) across, making them slightly smaller than the Gran Telescopio Canarias primary mirrors. However, all of the light collected by the Keck Observatory primary mirrors (75.76m2) is sent to the secondary mirror and the instruments, compared to GTC's primary mirror, which has an effective light-collection area of 73.4m2, or 25.4 square feet less than each of the Keck Observatory primary mirrors. Because of this fundamental difference in design, Keck Observatory's telescopes arguably remain the largest steerable, optical/infrared telescopes on Earth.
The HED meteorites are a group of achondrite meteorite types: These are all thought to have come from the crust of the asteroid 4 Vesta. Their differences are due to different geologic histories of the parent rock. Their crystallization ages are between 4.43 and 4.55 billion years ago, by their radioisotope ratios.