ejaasaari/simplewiki-2025-04-01 huggingface dataset:
A banknote (more commonly known as a bill in the United States and Canada) is a paper by which a bank promises to pay to the bearer on demand. Together with coins, banknotes make up the cash forms of all modern money.  Coins are generally used for lower valued monetary units, and banknotes for higher values. Originally, the value of money was determined by the value of the material the money was made of, such as silver or gold. However, carrying around a lot of precious metal was cumbersome and often dangerous. As an alternative, banknotes would be issued. In financial terms, a note is a promise to pay someone money. Banknotes were originally a promise to give an amount of precious metal to anyone who presented the paper. People could pay for things by giving the banknote, and thus the stored value (usually in gold or silver coins kept in the bank's vault) that the banknote promised.  Banknotes in Europe. In Europe the first paper money consisted of paper 'coins' issued in Protestant Leyden (today, Leiden) in the Netherlands during the Spanish siege of 1574. Over 5000 of the estimated 14,000 residents of Leyden died, mostly due to starvation. Even leather (often used to create emergency currency) was boiled and used to feed the people. So to create currency, the residents took covers and paper from hymnals and church missives and created paper planchets, which were struck using the same dies that were previously used to mint coins.  The first proper European banknotes were issued by Stockholms Banco, a predecessor of the Bank of Sweden, in 1660, although the bank ran out of coins to redeem its notes in 1664 and ceased operating in that year. Banknotes in USA. Emergency paper money hand-written on playing cards was used in French Canada from 1685. In the early 1690s, the Massachusetts Bay Colony was the first of the colonies to issue the permanently circulating banknotes. The use of fixed denominations and printed banknotes came into use in the 18th century.  In the United States, public acceptance of banknotes in replacement of precious metals was hastened in part by Executive Order 6102. This order carried the threat of a maximum $10,000 fine and a maximum of ten years in prison for anyone who kept more than $100 of gold in preference to bank notes. Similar measures were taken worldwide, with similar results.
The common cold is caused by viruses. It spreads easily, so it is very infectious. The symptoms are mostly in the upper respiratory system. Its damage is mostly felt in the nose and throat. The symptoms include coughs, painful throat, runny nose and fever. These symptoms usually last seven to ten days, but sometimes up to three weeks. "Over two hundred different viruses can cause the common cold": that is why the details vary so much. Rhinoviruses are the most common cause. Overview. The common cold mostly hurts the nose, pharynx, throat, and the sinuses (sinusitis). The symptoms come from the immune system's response to the infection, not from direct destruction by the viruses themselves. Hand washing is good, but the viruses also spread through moist air. Close contact with infected people is common in many cities. Wearing face masks might help, especially on any mass transit system (railways, underground, buses...). Bacterial infection. If you have a case of the common cold, there will be a bacteria in the spit called Stretogen A or Stretogen B. These bacterias react when in contact with any clear weak acid. The clear colored liquid will turn to a brown color if positive. This method of testing has been replaced by symptom based diagnosis and you can be cured by using antibiotics. Treatment. There is no cure for the common cold, but the symptoms can be treated. It is the most frequent infectious disease in humans. The average person gets two to three colds every year. The average child gets between 6 and 12 colds every year. These colds have been with humans for as long as we have a history. Signs and symptoms. The most common symptoms of a cold are a cough, runny nose, a stuffy nose, and a sore throat. Other issues are sore muscles, feeling tired, headache, and not wanting to eat. Around 40% of people with colds have a sore throat, while around 50% have a cough. Muscle ache happens in about half of the cases. A fever is an uncommon symptom in adults, but it is common in infants and young children. The cough caused by
The Qajar dynasty (Azerbaijani: Qacarlar) (Persian: سلسله قاجار), was an Turkic dynasty that originated from the Qajar tribe. It ruled Iran from 1789 to 1925. They are known for the unification of Iran but were not able to create a powerful centralized state which eventually led to them losing power to the British-backed Cossacks in 1925, and were succeeded by the Pahlavi dynasty. They came to power after a period of instability following the collapse of the Safavid dynasty.
Zenwalk (formerly Minislack), or Zenwalk Linux, is a Linux distribution started by Jean-Philippe Guillemin. It was at first based on Slackware. Since its creation, the distribution has become very different from Slackware while still still being able to use its binary packages. Zenwalk aims to be a Linux distribution with many uses by focusing on Internet applications, multimedia and programming tools. Aims. The Zenwalk Project aims to create a Linux operating system that can be used on old and slow computers through the use of the latest software available for a stable release, optimization for a specific processor architecture to increase execution speed, and introduces a very powerful package management system with dependency resolution. Project versions. There are four main versions of Zenwalk: Zenwalk (full version ~ 420 MB iso download) is a distribution aimed at mainstream desktop use. Designed to be a stand-alone operating system, it installs to the hard drive by way of a ncurses-based installer. It includes all of the officially released software packages that are deemed most useful for their tasks. This collection may change with every release. Zenwalk Core (~ 230 MB iso download) is a Zenwalk system built with customization in mind. Released with no X Window System binaries, its aim is to allow a skilled user to build a system fit for his or her needs. The project's lead developer is Emmanuel Bailleul. ZenLive (~ 476 MB iso download) is a Zenwalk system built on a Live CD design. ZenLive follows the progress made by the full Zenwalk system closely, thus mirroring the version number, and attempts to stay true to the original distribution's goals. In addition, it includes all of the necessary libraries and applications to develop and compile software, a particularly rare feature in Live CD distributions. Project members include Pierrick Le Brun, creator, Mauricio Tricoli, project lead, and Michael Verret, artwork. Zenserver (~ 263 MB iso download) is a Zenwalk Core-derived system specifically designed for servers. The main goals are to create a secure, reliable, easy to use, easy to configure, expandable and dependable server operating system, in the best Zenwalk tradition. The distribution development team is led by Teran McKinney. Distributions based on Zenwalk. There are currently four Zenwalk-based distributions:
In thermodynamics, thermodynamic potentials are parameters associated with a thermodynamic system and have the dimensions of energy. They are called "potentials" because in a sense, they describe the amount of potential energy in a thermodynamic system when it is subjected to certain constraints. The different potentials correspond to different constraints to which the system may be subjected. The four most common thermodynamic potentials are: where "T" = temperature, "S" = entropy, "p" = pressure, "V" = volume. The Helmholtz free energy is often denoted by the symbol "F", but the use of "A" is preferred by IUPAC (See Alberty, 2001). formula_1 is the number of particles of type "i" in the system. For the sake of completeness, the set of all formula_1 are also included as natural variables, although they are sometimes ignored. Description and interpretation. Thermodynamic potentials are very useful when calculating the equilibrium results of a chemical reaction, or when measuring the properties of materials in a chemical reaction. The chemical reactions usually take place under some simple constraints such as constant pressure and temperature, or constant entropy and volume, and when this is true, there is a corresponding thermodynamic potential which comes into play. Just as in mechanics, the system will tend towards lower values of potential and at equilibrium, under these constraints, the potential will take on an unchanging minimum value. The thermodynamic potentials can also be used to estimate the total amount of energy available from a thermodynamic system under the appropriate constraint.
The thermal efficiency (formula_1) is a dimensionless performance measure of a thermal device such as an internal combustion engine, a boiler, or a furnace, for example. The input, formula_2, to the device is heat, or the heat-content of a fuel that is consumed. The desired output is mechanical work, formula_3, or heat, formula_4, or possibly both. Because the input heat normally has a real financial cost, a memorable, generic definition of thermal efficiency is formula_5 From the first and second law of thermodynamics, the output can not exceed what is input, so formula_6 When expressed as a percentage, the thermal efficiency must be between 0% and 100%. Due to inefficiencies such as friction, heat loss, and other factors, thermal efficiencies are typically much less than 100%. For example, a typical gasoline automobile engine operates at around 25% thermal efficiency, and a large coal-fueled electrical generating plant peaks at about 36%. In a combined cycle plant thermal efficiencies are approaching 60%. Heat engines. When transforming thermal energy into mechanical energy, the thermal efficiency of a heat engine is the percentage of energy that is transformed into work. Thermal efficiency is defined as formula_7, or via the first law of thermodynamics to substitute waste heat rejection for the work produced, formula_8. For example, when 1000 joules of thermal energy is transformed into 300 joules of mechanical energy (with the remaining 700 joules dissipated as waste heat), the thermal efficiency is 30%. Energy conversion. For an energy conversion device like a boiler or furnace, the thermal efficiency is formula_9. So, for a boiler that produces 210 kW (or 700,000 BTU/h) output for each 300 kW (or 1,000,000 BTU/h) heat-equivalent input, its thermal efficiency is 210/300 = 0.70, or 70%. This means that the 30% of the energy is lost to the environment. An electric resistance heater has a thermal efficiency of at or very near 100%, so, for example, 1500W of heat are produced for
A thermodynamic state is the macroscopic condition of a thermodynamic system as described by its particular thermodynamic parameters. The state of any thermodynamic system can be described by a set of thermodynamic parameters, such as temperature, pressure, density, composition, independently of its surroundings or history. The parameters required to specify the state depend on the characteristics of the system. There is an optimal ensemble of parameters that uniquely specify the state, and all other parameters can be derived from these. The "state postulate" says that the state of a simple compressible system is completely specified by two independent, intensive properties.
Thermal physics is the combined study of thermodynamics, statistical mechanics, and kinetic theory. This umbrella-subject is typically designed for physics students. It gives a general introduction to each of the three core heat-related subjects. Some people define thermal physics loosely as only thermodynamics and statistical mechanics. Overview. Thermal physics is the study of the statistical nature of physical systems from an energy perspective. Starting with heat and temperature, thermal physics analyzes the first law of thermodynamics and second law of thermodynamics from the statistical perspective, in terms of the number of microstates corresponding to a given macrostate. In addition, the concept of entropy is studied via quantum theory. A central topic in thermal physics is the canonical probability distribution. The electromagnetic nature of photons and phonons are studied which show that the oscillations of electromagnetic fields and of crystal lattices have much in common. Waves form a basis for both, provided one incorporates quantum theory. Other topics studied in thermal physics include: chemical potential, the quantum nature of an ideal gas, i.e. in terms of fermions and bosons, Bose-Einstein condensation, Gibbs free energy, Helmholtz free energy, chemical equilibrium, phase equilibrium, the equipartition theorem, entropy at absolute zero, and transport processes as mean free path, viscosity, and conduction. Thermodynamic instruments. There are two types of thermodynamic instruments, the meter and the reservoir. A thermodynamic meter is any device which measures any parameter of a thermodynamic system. In some cases, the thermodynamic parameter is defined in terms of an idealized measuring instrument. The zeroth law states that if two bodies are in thermodynamic equilibrium with a third body, they are also in thermodynamic equilibrium with each other. This principle, as noted by James Maxwell in 1872, asserts that it is possible to measure temperature. An idealized thermometer is a sample of an ideal gas at constant pressure. A thermodynamic reservoir is a system which is so large that it does not appreciably alter its state parameters when brought into contact with the test system. It is important that these two types of instruments are distinct. A meter does not perform its task accurately if it behaves like a reservoir of the state variable
Statistical mechanics is the application of probability theory, which includes mathematical tools for dealing with large populations, to the field of mechanics, which is concerned with the motion of particles or objects when subjected to a force. It provides a framework for relating the microscopic properties of individual atoms and molecules to the macroscopic or bulk properties of materials that can be observed in everyday life, therefore explaining thermodynamics as a natural result of statistics and mechanics (classical and quantum) at the microscopic level. In particular, it can be used to calculate the thermodynamic properties of bulk materials from the spectroscopic data of individual molecules. This ability to make macroscopic predictions based on microscopic properties is the main asset of statistical mechanics over thermodynamics. Both theories are governed by the second law of thermodynamics through the medium of entropy. However, entropy in thermodynamics can only be known empirically, whereas in statistical mechanics, it is a function of the distribution of the system on its micro-states.
Kinetic theory or "kinetic theory of gases" attempts to explain overall properties of gases, such as pressure, temperature, or volume, by considering their molecular composition and motion. The theory basically states that pressure is not caused by molecules pushing each other away, like earlier scientists thought. Instead, pressure is caused by the molecules colliding with each other and their container. Kinetic theory is also known as "kinetic-molecular theory" or "collision theory". There are three main components to kinetic theory: References. The main postulate of this theory are-- 1.The particles attract each other with a force. This force is called cohesive force if the particles are of same kind and adhesive force when particles are of different kinds. 2. All matter is composed of small particles called molecules. (Atoms or ions as the situation demands). 3. The particles are in a state of unending motion (continuous motion) and as such have kinetic energy. 4. with the supply of heat energy (thermal energy) to matter, the kinetic energy of a particle increase, i.e., they start moving more vigorously. Reverse happens if the matter is cooled.i.e., heat energy is taken out of it. 5. The force of attraction between the particles decreases, if the distance between them increases and vice versa. Last updated Sat,16 May 2020 9:00 pm By Rachit Vishwakarma
Yeghishe Charents (born Yeghishe Soghomonian, ) (13 March 1897, Kars - 29 November 1937, Yerevan) was an Armenian poet killed in Stalin's purges. From 1904 to 1912 Yeghishe Soghomonian he was at school in Kars. Amid the upheavals of the First World War and the Armenian Genocide in the Ottoman Empire, he volunteered in 1915 for the Caucasian Front. In 1917-1918 he was in Karin Erzurum during the bitter fighting. Some of his experiences would later appear in his poetry. Yeghishe Charents (Soghomonian), one of the nation's favourite poets - a famous philanderer who apparently sought the USSR Kremlin's favours - produced a now famous poem called "The Message". Its praise of Uncle Joe might grind the average set of teeth down to the gum; it included the following: "A new light shone on the world... It is only this sunlight/Which for centuries will stay alive." And more of the same. Undiscovered by the USSR Kremlin's censors for many months, however, Charents (1897 - 1937) had used the first letter of each line to frame a quite different "message", which read: "O Armenian people, your only salvation is in the power of your unity." Whoops! Like the distant Mount Ararat, it was a brave, hopeless symbol, as doomed as it was impressive. Yeghishe Charents was "disappeared" by the NKVD (KGB) in 1937 after being denounced by the architect Alexsandr Tamanyan - now hard at work building Yerevan's new Stalinist opera house - the moment Yeghishe Charents' schoolboy prank was spotted. Then Alexsandr Tamanyan fell from the roof of his still unfinished opera house, and even today Armenians - with their Arab-like desire to believe in "заговор" the plot - ask the obvious questions. Works. "Three songs to the sad and pale girl",
Kars (, ) is a city in northeast Turkey and is the capital of the Kars Province, before at the head of a sanjak in the Turkish vilayet of Erzurum. Population: 8,672 (1878); 20,891 (1897); 54,000 (1970); 142,145 (1990); 130,361 (2000). History. The early history of Kars is little known, beyond that it had its own dynasty of Armenian rulers and was the capital of a region known as Vanand. At some point in the 9th century (at least by 888) it became part of the territory of the Armenian Bagratids. From 928 to 961 Kars became the capital of their kingdom. It was during this period that the cathedral, later known as the Church of the Apostles, was built.
Kars is a province of Turkey. It is in the northeastern part of the country. It shares part of its border with the Republic of Armenia.  From 1878 until 1917 most of the present-day Turkish province of Kars was part of the Russian oblast of Kars.  In 1919 and 1920 the province came under the control of the Democratic Republic of Armenia as the Vanand province (with the city of Kars as its capital). Its territory was ceded to Turkey by the Soviet Union in the Treaty of Kars.  Districts. Kars province is divided into 8 districts ("ilçe"), each named after the administrative center of the district: There are 383 villages in Kars.
Manvel Gamburyan (was born in 1981) is a mixed martial artist with a history in judo. Manvel was chosen as a participant on the reality show "The Ultimate Fighter 5". He fights on Jens Pulver's team. Manny defeated Noah Thomas in the preliminary round. Life. In May, 1991, Manvel's family relocated from Armenia to United States. Shortly after his arrival, Manvel began training in judo at Gokor Chivichyan's Hayastan MMA Academy and quickly became one of the top judokas in the country, winning junior nationals less than two years later. He went on to win junior nationals eight times, the junior Olympics once, and was a member of the 2000 judo junior world team.
The Mickey Mouse Club, otherwise referred to as MMC for short, was an American variety television series that began in 1955, ran intermittently, and left the air in 1996. It was directed by Walt Disney Productions. Over the years, the series featured many stellar teenage performers including Annette Funicello, Britney Spears, and Justin Timberlake. The original series ran newsreels, cartoons, talent segments, and Disney produced serials such as The Hardy Boys with Tommy Kirk and Tim Considine. "Mickey Mouse Club" was hosted by Jimmie Dodd, a songwriter and the Head Mouseketeer. He provided leadership both on and off screen. In addition to his other contributions, he often provided short segments encouraging young viewers to make the right moral choices. These little sermons became known as "Doddisms".
Fanta is a soft drink. There are over 200 flavors worldwide. Fanta was created during World War II in Nazi Germany by the German Coca-Cola (GmbH) bottling company in 1940. Because of the war, there was no shipping between Nazi Germany and the United States. Therefore, the German bottling plant could no longer get Coca-Cola syrup. The manager of the plant, Max Keith, needed to do something to keep the plant going. He came up with a fruit-flavored drink made from whatever he could find. Using apple fiber leftover from lollipops and whey, from cheesemakers, Fanta was created and became quite popular. The original German Fanta had a red-orange color from beets and tasted different from today's Fanta Orange; the flavor would change during the war, depending on what ingredients could be found. Back in America, the Coca-Cola Company—led by Robert Woodruff—did not discourage this. The company sponsored the 1936 Berlin Olympics, which Woodruff attended and made banners featuring the Coca-Cola logo alongside the Swastika. Keith used a 10th anniversary party for Coca-Cola GmbH to order a mass Sieg-Heil (Nazi salute) in honor of the dictator’s 50th birthday. He declared that this was “to commemorate our deepest admiration for our Fuhrer.” The name 'Fanta' came during an employee contest to name the new beverage. Keith told them to let their Fantasie (German for imagination) run wild. On hearing that, salesman Joe Knipp thought of the name "Fanta". After the war, Fanta was brought to the United States by Coca-Cola, and in 1960 they bought the trademark. Fanta Orange is the most popular Fanta flavor and it is available in a little over 190 countries. Fanta is more popular in Europe and South America than in the United States. There are over 200 different flavors worldwide. Most of them are only available by region in some countries. For example, in Romania (and some other countries), there is "Fanta Shokata" based on the traditional Romanian drink "Socată". This drink