ejaasaari/simplewiki-2025-04-01 huggingface dataset:
Waziristan (Pashto and ), "land of the Wazir" is a mountainous region of northwest Pakistan, bordering Afghanistan and covering about . It was part of the Federally Administered Tribal Areas, which was not part of any of the country's four provinces. It is now part of the province Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. Legal status. Though declared by the rebels as a "state" or "emirate", there are questions whether the region should have that name. Those who support that the region is a state point to the facts that the federal government has little to no power in the region and that the area is ruled mostly by tribal elders. The Taliban are reported to control most of the region with its own style of Sharia rule, which the Pakistan government has been unable to stop. Such bold show of autonomy has led one writer in the "Wall Street Journal" to remark that Waziristan was a "state within a state."
Chemical biology is a science that combines the fields of chemistry and biology. It involves the application of chemical techniques and tools, often compounds produced through synthetic chemistry, to the study and manipulation of biological systems. It is different from biochemistry. Biochemistry is the study of the chemistry of biological molecules. For example, a biochemist studies the three-dimensional structure of a protein and how that structure relates to the chemistry of the protein. Also, biochemistry studies the way enzymes work. Chemical biologists use chemical principles to modulate systems. They do this to either investigate biology relationships or create new functions. In this way, the research done by chemical biologists is often closer to that of cell biology than biochemistry. Biochemists work in the chemistry of biology, but chemical biologists work in chemistry applied to biology.
Solid-state chemistry, (also called materials chemistry) is the study of the synthesis, structure, and properties of solid phase materials. It looks at solids that are not molecular . It has a lot in common with solid-state physics, mineralogy, crystallography, ceramics, metallurgy, thermodynamics, materials science and electronics. It focuses on the synthesis of new materials and their characterization. History. Technology helps solid-state inorganic chemistry. Solid-state chemistry works to make materials used for commerce. There were many important discoveries in the 20th century: zeolite and platinum-based catalysts for petroleum processing in the 1950s, high-purity silicon as a core component of microelectronic devices in the 1960s, and “high temperature” superconductivity in the 1980s. William Lawrence Bragg invented X-ray crystallography in the early 1900s, which brought further discoveries. Carl Wagner worked on oxidation rate theory, counter diffusion of ions, and defect chemistry. This work demonstrated how reactions proceed at the atomic level in the solid state. Because of this, he has sometimes been referred to as the "father of solid-state chemistry". Synthetic methods. A diverse variety of synthetic methods are used to make solid-state compounds. For organic materials, such as charge transfer salts, the methods operate near room temperature and are often similar to the methods of organic synthesis. Redox reactions are sometimes conducted by electrocrystallisation. For example, Bechgaard salts can be made from tetrathiafulvalene. Oven techniques. For materials that can withstand heat, chemists often use high temperature methods. For example, chemists use tube furnaces to prepare bulk solids. This allows reactions to be conducted up to around . For higher temperatures up to , chemists use special equipment such as ovens made with a tantalum tube through which an electric current is passed. Such high temperatures are at times required to induce diffusion of the reactants. But this depends strongly on the system studied. Some solid-state reactions proceed at temperatures as low as . Melt methods. Chemists often melt the reactants together and then later anneal the solidified melt. If volatile reactants
An alveolar consonant is a consonant with the tongue close to the , which is the part just behind our teeth. Alveolar consonants that are pronounced with the tip of the tongue, like in English, are called while those pronounced using the blade of the tongue which is the flat part of the tongue behind the tip, are called . Alveolar consonants in English are , , , , and . The alveolar consonants , the , and , the , are the most common sounds in human languages.  Alveolar consonants in IPA. The alveolar/coronal consonants identified by the IPA are:
The following is a list of buses. It is not complete. The different types of bus, used in this chart, are: There are over 300 buses in this list. The year that is displayed refers to the first year of the model. Year refers to the first year introduced. A range of years is the period the bus was manufactured.
Odontochelys is the oldest known turtle to have been discovered. It was first described from three 220 million year-old specimens excavated in Upper Triassic rocks in Guizhou, China. As a primitive turtle, "Odontochelys" differed from modern turtles in several ways. Modern turtles possess a horny beak without any teeth in their mouth. In contrast, "Odontochelys" fossils had teeth in their upper and lower jaws.  One of the most striking features of turtles, both modern and prehistoric alike, are their dorsal shells, forming an armored carapace over the body of the animal. "Odontochelys" only had the bottom portion of a turtle's armor, the plastron. It did not yet have a solid carapace as most other turtles do. Instead of a solid carapace, "Odontochelys" had broadened ribs like those of modern turtle embryos that still have not started developing the ossified plates of a carapace. In a comparison of skull proportions, the skull of "Odontochelys" is far more elongated in front of the eyes compared to other turtles. The tail of the prehistoric turtle was longer in proportion to its body than other turtles. In addition, the transverse processes found in the tail are not fused such as in later turtles.  Taken together, these anatomical differences mean that "Odontochelys" has some of the most primitive features ever seen in a turtle and is somewhat of a transitional fossil. Some scientists, however, are skeptical of this idea. Reisz and Head suggest that "Odontochelys" does not represent a turtle with a partly evolved shell, but that it is a descendant of an older, land–living turtle, and that the shell became reversed. Such shells can be seen on modern turtles, like the leatherback turtles (the genus "Dermochelys"). It is likely that "Odontochelys" was aquatic, as the fossil specimens were found in marine deposits full of conodonts and ammonites. The primitive turtle swam in shallow marine waters close to shore. The species' name, "Odontochelys semitestacea" literally means "toothed turtle with a half-shell" - an apt description of its most striking physical characteristics.
A band gap, also called a bandgap or energy gap, is an energy range in a solid where no electron states can exist. The term is used in solid-state physics and chemistry. Band gaps can be found in insulators and semiconductors. In graphs of the electronic band structure of solids, the band gap is the energy difference (in electron volts) between the top of the valence band and the bottom of the conduction band. This is the same as the energy needed to free an outer shell electron from its orbit about the nucleus to become a mobile charge carrier. The free electron is able to move freely within the solid material. So the band gap is a major factor determining the electrical conductivity of a solid. Substances with large band gaps are generally insulators, those with smaller band gaps are semiconductors. Conductors either have very small band gaps or no band gap if the energy levels of valence and conduction bands overlap. In semiconductor physics. Scientists use the band gap to predict if a solid will conduct electricity. Most electrons (called valence electrons) are attracted to the nucleus of just one atom. But if an electron has enough energy to fly away from its nearest nucleus, it can join in the flow of electric current across the many atoms that make up the solid. The electrons that are not tightly attached to just one nucleus are called the conduction band. In semiconductors and insulators, quantum mechanics shows that electrons are only found in some bands of energy. Electrons are forbidden from other energy levels. The term "band gap" refers to the energy difference between the top of the valence band and the bottom of the conduction band. Electrons are able to jump from one band to another. An electron needs a certain amount of energy to jump from a valence band to a conduction band. The amount of energy needed differs with different materials. Electrons can gain enough energy to jump to the conduction band by absorbing either a phonon (heat) or a photon (light). A semiconductor is a material with a small but nonzero band gap which behaves as an insulator at absolute zero temperature (0 K) but allows heat to excite electrons enough
Deal or No Deal is the British version of the game show franchise of the same name. It is presented by Noel Edmonds, and produced by Endemol. It began showing in 2005. Players can win £250,000 (US$388,800). The odds of winning it is only 4 in 1715 (1 in 429, or 2 in 858). This is because a player might take a offer from the banker. The show is on Channel 4 at 4p.m. on weekdays. It runs for 60 minutes, including adverts. Gameplay. Before the game starts, different amounts of money are packed randomly into 22 suitcases. A player is selected, and the case that they have is randomly selected. In front of the player is a game board with all the possible amounts that could be in his/her box. The player then opens 5 boxes. Five possible amounts that could be in the player's box are gone. Based on the amounts left (that could be in the players box), the "banker" may make an offer to buy the box from the player. The offer depends on the possible amounts that could be in the player's box according to what is left on the board. So if there are high amounts that are on the board (that could be in the person's box), the banker will pay more to buy the box. He might offer £10,000 instead of £3,500 or £1500. The player may take the offer by saying "deal" of refuse it by saying "no deal". The player then opens 3 more boxes, and the banker will make another offer. If after 6 offers, the player says "no deal", they win whatever is in their box. If they says "deal" at an offer, the player takes home the offer. The game ends, but they play on to see what would have happened otherwise. Cancellation. Channel 4 axed the series in 2016. It ended with a special "Deal or No Deal on Tour" series from 12 to 23 December 2016.
"Moves Like Jagger" is a dance pop single released by American pop rock band Maroon 5 on June 22, 2011 internationally and digitally. The single features pop singer-songwriter Christina Aguilera and was produced by Shellback, Benny Blanco, and Ari Levine. The song was later put on the Maroon 5 album "Hands All Over" in July 2011 for the re-release. The song peaked at number-one on the Billboard Hot 100 singles' chart for four weeks and number-one on the Billboard Digital Songs chart for three weeks. The song did not feature on the fourth studio album "Overexposed." The song's lyrics refer to a male protagonist's ability to impress a female with his dance moves, which he compares to those of The Rolling Stones frontman Mick Jagger. The song received a positive critical appreciation, many of them complimented the vocal chemistry between Levine and Aguilera and labeled it "an irresistible summer hit". Music video. The music video for "Moves Like Jagger" was directed by Jonas Åkerlund and filmed in Los Angeles, California on July 8, 2011. On July 9, Aguilera posted an image of herself from the video shoot via Twitter, saying, "Always great to see Jonas Akerlund. He created the perfect feel for the song. Expect a fun video." The image showed Aguilera performing with a band in front of a background of the American flag. Four shirtless images of Levine from the shoot were also released online the same day. More images from the video shoot were released online on July 11, showing Levine and Aguilera performing in front of an American and British-themed backdrop with confetti falling from the ceiling. Another image showed Aguilera performing in front of a black backdrop with her name "Christina" shown in pink. Rolling Stones frontman Mick Jagger made an appearance in the video "via archive footage." The music video premiered on August 8 on E!
David Edward Williams (born 20 August 1971), known professionally as David Walliams, is a British actor, comedian and writer. He is best known for his partnership with Matt Lucas on the BBC sketch comedy series "Little Britain" (2003–2006) and "Come Fly With Me" (2010–2011). Early life. Born on 20 August 1971 in Wimbledon, London to Peter, a London Transport engineer, and Kathleen Williams, a lab technician, Williams was brought up in Banstead, Surrey. His parents appeared on "The Friday Night Project" when he was the guest star on the show. He was educated at Collingwood Boys' School in Wallington (now Collingwood School) and the independent Reigate Grammar School (where he was a contemporary of Robert Shearman). He was a member of the National Youth Theatre, where he met Matt Lucas. Williams studied drama at the University of Bristol from 1989 to 1992, one year below Simon Pegg. Williams changed his name to Walliams () when he joined the actors' trade union, Equity, as there was already a member named David Williams. This was spoofed in a mock interview on "Rock Profile", when Robbie Williams was continuously referred to as 'Robbie Walliams'. Career. Walliams was also a judge for BGT(Britain's Got Talent). In September 2011, he swam the entire 140 mile length of the River Thames, raising over £1,000,000 for a charity called Sport Relief. Personal life. Walliams has bipolar disorder. He was married to Lara Stone from 2010 until their divorce in 2015. The couple's son, Alfred, was born on 6 May 2013.
Luton is a large town in Bedfordshire, England. It is about north of London. It is on the M1 motorway and has mainline trains from King's Cross and St Pancras stations. It is an industrial town which has diversified from its original base as a manufacturer of hats and cars. It is also famous for its airport which serves flights across Europe. Its fine communications means it has many people who commute to work in London. It has a population of 213,052 (mid-2019 estimate). History. Luton was started in about the 6th century by the Saxons, based by the River Lea. It has a history of industry: making hats and Vauxhall cars for example. Politics. Luton is a unitary authority, which means it is governed locally by its own council, Luton Borough Council. It is represented by two members of parliament. Sport. Its football club is in the English football league and play at Kenilworth Road. Their nickname is 'The Hatters'. They are called this because of Luton's history of making straw hats. People. Luton town has a large immigrant population, which consists mainly of people of Pakistani and Bengali origin.
In chemistry, a superbase is an extremely strong base. It is a compound that has a high affinity for protons. Hydroxide ion is the strongest base possible in water (aqueous) solutions, but superbases are much stronger than aqueous bases. Such bases are useful in organic synthesis and are fundamental to physical organic chemistry.  Superbases have been described and used since the 1850s. Reactions involving superbases often require special techniques since they are destroyed by water, carbon dioxide, and oxygen in the air. Inert atmosphere techniques and low temperatures minimize these side reactions. Definitions. IUPAC defines superbases simply as a "compound having a very high basicity, such as lithium diisopropylamide".
A chemical species is one of a group of atoms, molecules, molecular fragments, ions, etc., made to go through to a chemical process or to a measurement. Generally, a chemical species can be defined as an ensemble of chemically identical molecular entities that can explore the same set of molecular energy levels on a defined time scale. Chemists also use chemical species to mean a set of chemically identical atomic or molecular structural units in a solid array. For example, when molecules of NaCl dissolve in water we don't really have any NaCl as such in the solution. We have Na+ and Cl- ions because NaCl dissociates. We say the species present in solution are Na+(aq) and Cl-(aq). In this case, the species present in solution are the ions. In other cases, where the molecules don't dissolve in water, we would have molecular species in solution rather than ionic species. In supramolecular chemistry, chemical species are those supramolecular structures whose interactions and associations are brought about by forming or breaking intermolecular bonds. Studying these actions is the main topic of supramolecular chemistry.
A blind spot is a part of the visual field our brains get no information from. It is the place in the visual field that corresponds to the lack of light-detecting photoreceptor cells where the optic nerve passes through the optic disc of the retina. Since there are no cells to detect light on the optic disc, a part of the field of vision is not perceived. The brain fills in with surrounding detail with information from the other eye, so the blind spot is not normally perceived. Although all vertebrates have this blind spot, cephalopod eyes, which are superficially similar, do not. In them, the optic nerve approaches the receptors from behind, so it does not create a break in the retina. The first documented observation of the phenomenon was in the 1660s by Edme Mariotte in France. At the time it was generally thought that the point at which the optic nerve entered the eye should actually be the most sensitive portion of the retina; however, Mariotte's discovery disproved this theory. Not seeing the blind spot. As to why the blind spot is normally not seen, there are two theories. One, less favoured, is that it is simply ignored by the brain. The other is that they are 'filled in' by the brain with information from surrounding areas. Perception theorists have generally favoured this second hypothesis. The filling-in works with quite complex and unusual visual patterns, suggesting an active brain process works to mimic patterns surrounding the blind spot. Vertebrate eye and cephalopod eye. These natural blind spots are present only in the eyes of vertebrates. Cephalopods have their optic nerves attached to the back of the retina, so they are not a problem. The vertebrate eye is illogical because light must go through and past the nerve fibres before getting to the retina. This comes about because vertebrate eyes are outgrowths from the brain; they grow outward from the embryological tissue which forms the brain.
Red Bull X2010 is a fictional car in the PlayStation 3 video game "Gran Turismo 5" that can go over 400 km/h, and over 6G. It laps the Nürburgring in less than 4 minutes. Adrian Newey designed it.
A velar consonant is a consonant that is pronounced with the back part of the tongue against the soft palate, also known as the velum, which is the back part of the roof of the mouth. Velar consonants in English are , and . These are the velar consonants in the IPA.
George Church (born August 28, 1954) is an American molecular geneticist. He was one of the people who set out to analyse the human genetic code, the sequence of genes in human DNA. Church is Professor of Genetics at Harvard Medical School, Professor of Health Sciences and Technology at Harvard and MIT, and a core faculty member at the Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering at Harvard University. With Walter Gilbert he developed the first direct genomic sequencing method in 1984, and helped start the Human Genome Project while he was a research scientist at newly formed Biogen Inc. He invented ways of analysing huge amounts of chemical data, homologous recombination methods, and DNA array synthesizers. Automated sequencing &amp; software in Genome Therapeutics Corp. gave the first commercial genome sequence, (the human pathogen, "Helicobacter pylori") in 1994. Church started the Personal Genome Project (PGP) in 2005, and in 2007 he founded the U.S. personal genomics company Knome (with Jorge Conde and Sundar Subramaniam). Church does research on synthetic (artificial) biology and is director of the U.S. Department of Energy Center on Bioenergy at Harvard &amp; MIT, and Director of the National Institutes of Health Center of Excellence in Genomic Science at Harvard. He has been advisor to 22 companies. He co-founded Codon Devices, a biotech startup dedicated to synthetic biology. It produces DNA sequences to order. He co-founded LS9, which is focused on biofuels or renewable petroleum technologies. In 2009 he founded Pathogenica, with Yemi Adesokan, in order to pioneer commercial applications for pathogen sequencing technology. In September 2010, Dr. Church was honored for his work in genetics with the Mass High Tech All-Star Award. He is a senior editor for "Molecular Systems Biology". According to Forbes, Church suffers from narcolepsy.
Revolutions per minute, sometimes called RPM, is a measure of angular frequency. It means the number of times something spins in one minute. For example, if a wheel spins one time in one second, it is doing 60 RPM, because there is 60 seconds in one minute.
Walter Gilbert (born March 21, 1932) is an American physicist, biochemist, molecular biology pioneer, and Nobel laureate. He helped develop DNA sequence analysis. Biography. Gilbert was born in Boston, Massachusetts, on March 21, 1932. Gilbert attended Harvard University for undergraduate and graduate studies, earning a first degree in chemistry and physics in 1953 and a master's degree in physics in 1954. Gilbert's doctoral work was done at the University of Cambridge, where he earned his PhD in mathematics under the mentorship of Nobel laureate Abdus Salam in 1957. Gilbert returned to Harvard in 1957 and promoted in 1968 to professor of biochemistry. In 1969, Gilbert was given Harvard's Ledlie Prize. In 1972, Gilbert was named American Cancer Society Professor of Molecular Biology. He is a co-founder of the biotech start-up companies Biogen and Myriad Genetics. Gilbert is currently the chairman of the Harvard Society of Fellows. Research findings. Together with Allan Maxam, Gilbert developed a new DNA sequencing method in 1976. With George Church he developed the first direct genomic sequencing method in 1984. Gilbert first proposed the existence of introns and exons and explained the evolution of introns in a seminal 1978 "News and Views" paper published in "Nature". In 1986, Gilbert used the phrase RNA world hypothesis for the origin of life. 'RNA World' was a concept first proposed by Carl Woese in 1967. Awards. Gilbert was given the 1980 Nobel Prize in Chemistry, shared with Frederick Sanger and Paul Berg. Gilbert and Sanger were recognized for their pioneering work in devising methods for determining the sequence of nucleotides in a nucleic acid. Among many other awards, Gilbert was made a Foreign Member of the Royal Society in 1987.
The optic chiasma, or 'optic chiasm', is the part of the brain where the optic nerves (CN II) partially cross. The optic chiasm is located at the bottom of the brain immediately below the hypothalamus. Pathways. The images on the nasal (inner) sides of each retina cross over to the opposite side of the brain via the optic nerve at the optic chiasm. The temporal (outer) images, on the other hand, stay on the same side. This allows the images from either side of the visual field to go to the appropriate side of the brain, combining the sides together. Beyond the optic chiasm, with crossed and uncrossed fibers, optic nerves become optic tracts. The crossing over of optic nerve fibres at the optic chiasma allows the visual cortex to receive the same hemispheric visual field from both eyes. The optic chiasma is found in all vertebrates.