ejaasaari/simplewiki-2025-04-01 huggingface dataset:
The 1906 Summer Olympics, also called the 1906 Intercalated Games, were held in Athens, Greece. These games are not awarded the title of "Olympiad" because they were held between the III and IV Olympiads. Medals were given to the participants during these games, but the medals are not officially recognised by the International Olympic Committee. Participants nations. Athletes from 20 nations took part in the St. Louis games.
The 2012 Summer Olympic Games, officially known as the Games of the XXX Olympiad, were held in London, United Kingdom from 27 July to 12 August 2012, followed by the 2012 Paralympic Games from 29 August to 9 September. London became the first city to host the modern Olympic Games three times; London also hosted the 1908 Summer Olympics and the 1948 Summer Olympics. The bidding process. By the bid submission deadline of 15 July 2003, nine cities had submitted bids to host the 2012 Olympics. These cities were Havana, Istanbul, Leipzig, London, Madrid, Moscow, New York, Paris, and Rio de Janeiro. On 18 May 2004 the International Olympic Committee (IOC) reduced the number of cities to five: London, Madrid, Moscow, New York, and Paris. The IOC inspection team visited the five candidate cities during February and March 2005. On 6 June 2005, the International Olympic Committee released its evaluation reports for the five candidate cities. Although these reports did not contain any scores or rankings, the evaluation report for Paris was seen as the most positive, followed closely by London. During the process, many thought Paris was most likely to win the nomination, largely because this was its third bid in recent years. In late August 2004, reports came out predicting a London and Paris tie in the 2012 bid. On 6 July 2005, London was announced as the winner of the bid at the Raffles City Convention Centre in Singapore. The Games. Athletes from 204 National Olympic Countries took part. In addition, four individual athletes competed under the Olympic flag—one from South Sudan and three from the region of the former Netherlands Antilles Participating nations. Listed below are NOCs who have qualified at least one athlete. As of 7 June 2011, 101 nations have qualified at least one athlete. Sports. The 2012 Summer Olympics event has 26 sports.  The International Olympic Committee executive board met on 13 August 2009 and approved the addition of women's boxing. The International Boxing Federation proposed that 40 athletes compete in five different
The 1952 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the XV Olympiad, were held at Helsinki in Finland. Helsinki was chosen as the host city over Amsterdam, Athens, Lausanne, and Stockholm and five American cities: Chicago, Detroit, Los Angeles, Minneapolis and Philadelphia. Helsinki had been given the 1940 Summer Olympics, but they were cancelled because of World War II  Participating nations. A total of 69 nations sent athletes to compete at the Helsinki games.
The 1948 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the XIV Olympiad, were held at London in the United Kingdom.  These were the first Summer Olympics to be held since the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin, because no Games were held during World War II. In part, the games were thought to be a success because the Organizing Committee did not go into debt. The final financial report showed a ₤29,000 profit. Participating nations. A total of 59 nations sent athletes to compete at the London Games.
The 1944 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the XIII Olympiad, were not held. The games were cancelled because of World War II. They would have been held in London, England, which won the bid in the June 1939 International Olympic Committee election, over Rome, Detroit, Lausanne, Athens, Budapest, Helsinki and Montreal.  London hosted the next Olympic Games, the 1948 Summer Olympics, awarded without an election. In spite of the war, the IOC had many events at its headquarters in Lausanne, Switzerland to celebrate its 50th anniversary. These events happened on 17 June to 19 June 1944 and were called "The Jubilee Celebrations of IOC" by Carl Diem, the man who began the modern tradition of the Olympic torch relay. Polish POWs in the Woldenberg (Dobiegniew) Oflag II-C POW camp were granted permission by their Nazi captors to have an unofficial "POW Olympics" in 1944, showing that the Olympic spirit can survive even during war.
The 1920 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the VII Olympiad, were held at Antwerp in Belgium. The games were a financial strain for the host country and the participants. The events were not well attended. Participating nations. A total of 22 nations sent athletes to compete at the Antwerp games.
The 1916 Summer Olympics , officially known as the Games of the VI Olympiad, were not held. The games were planned for Berlin in Germany. In 1912, workers began building the sports facilities for the games. The "Deutsches Stadion" ("German Stadium") began in 1912. In June 1913, the stadium was officially opened with 60,000 people at the ceremonies. The games were cancelled because of World War I.
In linguistics, syntax is the study of the rules that govern the structure of sentences.  The term "syntax" can also be used to refer to these rules themselves, as in “the syntax of a language”. Modern research in syntax attempts to describe languages in terms of such rules, and, for many practitioners, to find general rules that apply to all languages. Here are some important points about syntax:
The 1912 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the V Olympiad, were held in Stockholm, Sweden.  The games were thought to be a success. For the first time, athletes in the Games came from all five continents symbolised in the Olympic rings.  Participating nations. A total of 22 nations sent athletes to compete at the Stockholm games. They were:
Vyacheslav Vsevolodovich Ivanov (21 August 1929 – 7 October 2017) was a Soviet/Russian historical linguist. His main topic of study is Indo-European languages.  Works. He is best known for his glottalic theory of how consonants are spoken in Indo-European languages and for placing point of origin for these languages in the area of the Armenian Highlands and Lake Urmia. He was born in Moscow. Vyacheslav Ivanov's father was Vsevolod Ivanov, one of the most famous Soviet writers. His mother was an actress. She worked in the theatre of Vsevolod Meyerhold. His childhood was filled by disease and war, which he spent in Tashkent. Ivanov died in Moscow on 7 October 2017 at the age of 88.
Tamaz (Thomas) V. Gamkrelidze (Georgian თამაზ გამყრელიძე) (October 23, 1929 – February 10, 2021) was a Georgian linguist, orientalist and public benefactor, Academician (beginning in 1974) and President (2005–2013) of the Georgian Academy of Sciences (GAS), Doctor of Sciences (1963), Professor (1964). Gamkrelidze was born in Kutaisi. His brother Revaz Gamkrelidze, was also an academician and a famous mathematician. He was elected a member of the Academia Europaea in 2006. Gamkrelidze died at the age of 91.
The Georgian alphabet is used to write in the Georgian language and other Kartvelian languages. The alphabet is called Khutsuri, first said around in the 11th century.  Greek and Aramaic influences have been shown, but some Georgian scholars like Tamaz V. Gamkrelidze have said that they were freely invented in imitation of the Greek model rather than directly based upon earlier forms of the Aramaic alphabet even though the Georgian phonological inventory is very different from Greek.
Cytosine is one of the 5 main nucleobases used in storing and transporting genetic information within a cell in the nucleic acids DNA and RNA.  In DNA and RNA, cytosine is paired with guanine. However, it is unstable, and can change into uracil. This can lead to a point mutation if not repaired. The DNA repair enzymes, such as uracil glycosylase, cuts uracil in DNA. Cytosine is the centre of modern genetic research into epigenetics. Methyl groups added to cytosine change the action of genes during lifetime. These changes are not inherited.
The 1908 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the IV Olympiad, were held in London, United Kingdom. The Olympics were originally scheduled to be held in Rome; however, Mount Vesuvius erupted on 7 April 1906. The natural disaster caused a financial strain on the Italian government. Then the venue was changed to London. The costs of the games were covered by donations. Participating nations. A total of 22 nations sent athletes to compete at the London games. They were:
Guanine is one of the five main nucleobases found in the nucleic acids DNA and RNA. The others are adenine, cytosine, thymine, and uracil. With the formula C5H5N5O, guanine is a derivative of purine.  Basic principles. Guanine, along with adenine and cytosine, is present in both DNA and RNA, whereas thymine is usually seen only in DNA and uracil only in RNA.
The glottalic theory is that Proto-Indo-European had ejective stops instead of voiced stops and so it had p’ t’ k’, not b d g, as the traditional version of the Proto-Indo-European sound system. The glottalic theory was made in the United States by Paul Hopper and in the Soviet Union by Thomas V. Gamkrelidze and Vyacheslav V. Ivanov. The earliest theory was made by the Danish linguist Holger Pedersen that did not have glottalized sounds. Earlier linguists, such as André Martinet and Morris Swadesh, saw the potential of replacing glottalic sounds for the supposed plain voiced stops of Proto-Indo-European. The idea stayed hypothetical until more evidence for it was published in 1973 by Hopper in the journal "Glossa" and by Gamkrelidze and Ivanov in the journal "Phonetica".
The Proto-Indo-Europeans were a group of people after the last Ice age. Their existence, from 4000 or earlier, is implied by their language. They were the speakers of the Proto-Indo-European language (PIE), an unwritten but now partly reconstructed prehistoric language. People. Knowledge of them comes not only from language, but also from archaeology and archaeo-genetics. They were a group of loosely related peoples ancestral to the Bronze Age Indo-Europeans. The Proto-Indo-Europeans likely lived during the Copper Age, or roughly the 5th to 4th millennia BC. Mainstream scholarship places them in the general region of the steppes in Eastern Europe and Central Asia. Some scholars would extend the time of PIE much further back. More recent studies support an origin in today's northern Iran and the Armenian Highland. By the mid-2nd millennium BC offshoots of the Proto-Indo-Europeans had reached Anatolia, the Aegean, Indus Valley, Ganges Plain, and likely Western Europe. Culture. The Proto-Indo-European culture had some or all of these features: The Proto-Indo-Europeans were a patrilineal society, probably half-nomadic, relying on animal husbandry, notably of cattle and sheep. These people were probably the ones to domesticate the horse – "hekwos" (cf. Latin "equus", Ancient Greek "ῐ̔́ππος" / "hippos"). The cow ("gwous") played a central role, in religion and mythology as well as in daily life. A man's wealth would have been measured by the number of his animals (small livestock), "peḱus" (cf. English "fee", Latin "pecunia"). They practiced a polytheistic religion centered on sacrificial rites, probably administered by a priestly caste. Burials in barrows or tomb chambers (see Kurgan hypothesis). Important leaders would have been buried with their belongings, and possibly also with members of their households or wives (human sacrifice, suttee). Many Indo-European societies know a threefold
Urheimat (German: "ur-" original, ancient; "Heimat" home, homeland) is a linguistic term meaning the original homeland of the speakers of a proto-language. Since many peoples tend to wander and spread, there is no exact Urheimat, but there is an Indo-European Urheimat different from the Germanic or Romance Urheimat. Recent studies say the original home of Indo-Europeans was near the Armenian Highlands. Specific hypotheses:
Rafayel Avetisi Ishkhanyan (, 9 March 1922 – 6 February 1995) was an Armenian philologist and historian. He was a professor of the Yerevan State University. Biography. In 1939, Ishkhanyan entered the department of Armenian language and literature of Yerevan State University. He fought in World War II. After the war, he continued his studies and graduated from Yerevan University in 1949. His works are generally dedicated to the earliest history of the Armenian people, to the comparative linguistic analysis of ancient languages, and to printing. He is one of the authors of Armenian Soviet encyclopedia. He was a Deputy to the Supreme Soviet Armenia in 1990-1996. Publications. Ishkhanyan claims that Armenians "were the aborigines of the Armenian plateau who have been living there continuously since the fourth millennium B.C.E at the latest". Similar claims were promoted in nationalist novels such as those of Sero Khanzatian, published in the 1970s.
A Cross-country race is any running race that takes place on different types of terrain. Different levels of competition include middle school , high school , collegiate men and , women 5km (3.1 mi) and , amateur, and professional. The scoring in these events gives one point to the winner, two points to the person who finished second, and so on. In an "invitational" or "meet" where teams of runners count up the points of their top five finishers. This is their score. The team with the lowest score wins. If there is a tie, the team with the fastest sixth man wins. Times in races depend on the terrain, weather, and the other runners. This means that two athletes competing in different places in the world who are running the same time might not be at the same ability level.
A long distance race is any running event on the track that is longer than 3000m. This includes such events as the 3000m run, the 3000m steeplechase, the 3200m run, the two mile run, the three mile run, 5000m run, five mile run, six mile run, and 10000m run, and so on. The original marathon race, created in 1896, paid tribute to the legendary run completed by Greek messenger Pheidippides in 490 BC. Pheidippides gives word of the Greek victory over Persia at the Battle of Marathon to the people of Athens. That’s when, according to legend, Pheidippides (530-490 BC) ran 26 miles from Marathon to Athens to deliver news of a military victory against the Persians in the Battle of Marathon.
"distinguish the Warsaw Pact, which was a defence treaty between Eastern European nations" The Warsaw Convention is an international convention which regulates for international carriage of persons, luggage or goods performed by aircraft for reward. It was signed in 1929 in Warsaw, it was amended in 1955 at The Hague and in 1975 in Montreal. In particular, the Warsaw Convention has the following rules: On April 1, 2007, the exchange rate was 1.00 SDR = 1.135 EUR or 1.00 SDR = 1.51 USD. The Montreal Convention, signed in 1999, will replace the Warsaw Convention system, once Montreal has been ratified by all states.
Ritchies is a large supermarket chain in Australia. The chain is owned by a group of private investors. Metcash is a part of that group. The chain is also known as "Ritchies Supa IGA". Most Ritchies stores are in Victoria. Ritchies earns about $1.4b each year.  In recent years, Ritchies has grown a large amount. In 2000, there were less than 20 Ritchies stores. Ritchies is now on the top 20 Australian retailers list. Other companies on this list include large companies such as Kmart, Myer and Wesfarmers Bunnings. Other websites. Official Ritchies Web Site
Dame Margaret Natalie Smith (28 December 1934 – 27 September 2024) was a British actress. She made her stage debut in 1952 and her career lasted for over 70 years. She won many awards for acting, both for the stage and for movies, including seven BAFTA Awards (five competitive awards and two special awards including the Bafta Fellowship in 1996), two Academy Awards, two Golden Globes, two Emmy Awards, a Laurence Olivier Award, two SAG Awards and a Tony Award. Career. Her award-winning movies include "Othello" (1965), "The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie" (1969), "Travels with My Aunt" (1972), "California Suite" (1978), "Clash of the Titans" (1981), "A Room with a View" (1985) and "Gosford Park" (2001). She has also been in a number of widely-popular movies, including "Hook" (1991), "Sister Act" (1992) and as Professor Minerva McGonagall in the "Harry Potter" movie series. Smith said that acting in the "Harry Potter" movies was not fully satisfying. However, she said she enjoyed being a part of the franchise because it allowed her to bond with her grandchildren. Smith underwent intensive chemotherapy for breast cancer while filming "Half-Blood Prince". The treatment left her feeling "horribly sick", but she eventually made a full recovery. She had a role in the drama "Downton Abbey" as Violet Crawley, the Dowager Countess of Grantham, for which she has won an Emmy. Personal life. Smith was born in Ilford, Essex. She moved to Oxford at age four and went to Oxford High School. Smith has been married twice. She married actor Robert Stephens on 29 June 1967 at Greenwich. The couple had two sons: actors Chris Larkin (born in 1967) and Toby Stephens (born in 1969). They divorced on 6 May 1974. She married playwright Beverley Cross on 23 August 1975 at Guildford. He died on 20 March 1998. In 2007, "The Sunday Telegraph" reported that she had breast cancer. She has made a full recovery. Smith died on 27 September 2024 at the Chelsea and Westminster Hospital in London, at the age of 89.
French literature is the literature of France. It also includes literature that is written in French, even if the writer is not from France. There are countries besides France where French is also spoken. These countries include Belgium, Switzerland, Canada, Senegal, Algeria, and Morocco. Works that are written in French but not from France are called Francophone literature. History of French literature. The French language grew out of Latin. French is a Romance language, related to other languages like Spanish and Italian. French was also influenced by the Celtic and Frankish languages. French Nobel Prize in Literature winners. The following French or French language authors have won a Nobel Prize in Literature:
The Treaty of Warsaw () is a treaty between West Germany and the People's Republic of Poland. It was signed on December 7, 1970 and ratified by the German Bundestag on May 17, 1972. In the treaty, both sides committed themselves to nonviolence and accepted the existing border - the Oder-Neisse line. This was a very sensitive topic at the time as Poland was concerned that one day a German government would lay claim to some of the territory Germany lost after World War II. Poland took over this territory to replace eastern Poland, which the Soviet Union had conquered in 1939. A lot of that land was east of the Curzon Line, and Poland kept it after the Polish-Soviet War (1919-1921). Chancellor Willy Brandt was heavily criticized by the conservative CDU/CSU opposition, which indeed were in favour of such a claim, accusing him of abandoning German interests. The Oder-Neisse line was reaffirmed by a reunited Germany in the German-Polish Border Treaty, signed on 14 November 1990. In the FRG at the time this treaty was signed it was not seen as the last word on the border, because article IV stated that previous treaties like the Potsdam Agreement were not superseded by this latest agreement, so the provisions of this treaty could be changed by a final peace treaty between Germany and the Allies of World War II as provided for in the Potsdam Agreement.
The History of Poland is the history of rather different territories during the past millennium. At one time, in the 16th century, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was the second largest state in Europe, after Russia. At other times there was no separate Polish state at all. Poland got back its independence in 1918, after more than a century of rule by nearby empires, but its borders shifted again after the Second World War. Formation and early history. Poland began to form into a country around the middle of the 10th century in the Piast dynasty. In 966, Prince Mieszko I got himself and the whole Polish nation christened.  In the 12th century Poland broke into some smaller states, which were later attacked by Mongol armies in 1241. In 1320 Władysław I became the King of the repaired Poland. His son Casimir III repaired the Polish economy, built new castles and won the war against the Ruthenian dukedom. The Black Death, which affected many parts of Europe from 1347 to 1351, did not come to Poland. Beginning with the Lithuanian Grand Duke Jogaila, the Jagiellon dynasty (1385–1569) formed the Polish-Lithuanian Union. The partnership proved beneficial for the Poles and Lithuanians, who played a dominant role in one of the most powerful empires in Europe for the next three centuries. The "Nihil novi" act adopted by the Polish Sejm (parliament) in 1505, transferred most of the legislative power from the Monarch to the Sejm. This event marked the beginning of the period known as "Nobility Commonwealth" when the State was ruled by the "free and equal" Polish nobility. The Lublin Union of 1569, established the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth as an influential player in European politics and a vital cultural entity. Conflict with neighbors. In the 17th century Sweden attacked all of Poland (this was called “the Deluge”). Many wars against the Ottoman Empire, Russia, Cossacks, Transylvania and Brandenburg-Prussia ended with the Treaty
The term "Polish-Lithuanian union" means a development from the personal union between the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania to the creation of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, allso called the "Republic of the Two Nations", in 1569 and eventually to the creation of a short-lived state in 1791. The most important acts in the process of union were:
A personal union is a relationship of two or more sovereign states, which, through law, share the same person as their head of state.  Personal unions can begin for very different reasons. In many cases a princess who is already married to a king becomes pregnant, and their child inherits the crown of both countries. However, a personal union sometimes was seen as a means against uprisings if a state wants an annexation of an other state. The unions can be written down in a constitution, which clearly expresses that both states shall share the same person as head of state. When that is not the case, a personal union can easily be broken. Some examples. Belgium. Personal union with the Congo Free State from 1885 to 1908, when it annexed the Congo Free State.  Congo Free State. Personal union with Belgium from 1885 to 1908, when Belgium annexed it.  England. The actual situation was slightly more complex with the Dutch provinces Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Gelderland and Overijssel entering into personal union in 1689 and Drenthe in 1696. Only 2 Dutch provinces never entered into the personal union: Friesland and Groningen.