ejaasaari/simplewiki-2025-04-01 huggingface dataset:
The Counter-Reformation was a movement within the Roman Catholic Church which began in the 1500s. It covered the following five areas: The Counter-Reformation began after Martin Luther's Reformation. In reaction, Catholics reaffirmed some points of faith that the Protestants' objections had put in danger. These included the validity of the seven sacraments. The Protestants had reduced the sacraments to only two, Baptism and the Eucharist. Protestants deny the doctrine of transubstantiation, which is seen as making Mass less important. Some reformation era groups had rejected the Mass entirely. Luther's view was somewhere between that of the more radical reformers and the Catholic view. Luther wrote that without faith neither Baptism nor the Eucharist is sufficient for salvation. The Counter-Reformation specifically re-affirmed the Catholic understanding of the mass.  On other issues, Catholics effectively accepted some of the Protestant complaints. Penance became a private confession and repentance from sin instead of outward actions. This served to correct the corrupt practice of selling forgiveness. This type of forgiveness, called Indulgence was the immediate cause of Luther's protests against abuses in the Catholic church.  As a result of the Counter Reformation, other abuses, such as Simony were also greatly curtailed. Thus the Protestant movement served not only to create new expressions of the Christian faith, but also to correct problems in the Catholic church which led to its revitalization.  Catholic missionaries, especially Jesuits went across the world to spread the Catholic faith. The Congregation of the Holy Office of the Inquisition was also created, to revitalize the work of suppressing heresy.
Decolonization is when a colony of any country becomes independent. Thus, decolonization is the opposite of colonization. Sometimes, a colony may not get full freedom, but may become part of another country or even the part of the country which colonized it. This is also decolonization.  In some cases, decolonization may result after non-violent discussion. In a relatively small number of cases, decolonization happens only after armed struggle and revolt. Decolonization is different from the break-up of traditional empires like the Mongol Empire or the Ottoman Empire. Decolonization generally means independence of non-Europeans from European rule. Thus, the break-up of the Union of Sweden and Norway and the independence of Manchukuo from the Empire of Japan were not decolonization. Major decolonization occurred in the 20th century. It began with the independence of Pakistan and India in 1947 from the British Empire. Soon after, many countries of Africa became independent from the rule of many suzerainty countries of Europe.
The history of the Soviet Union from 1985 to 1991 covers the dissolution of the Soviet Union. ("Dissolution" means ending or splitting up.) This was its end as a separate country. The Soviet Union had many regions called "republics". They all belonged to the Russian Empire before 1917. All these "republics" were part of the Soviet Union, and the Soviet Union was one country. After its dissolution, all of the republics became independent countries. The names of these countries are: Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, Uzbekistan, Georgia, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania. Russia is a special case, because it still has a number of former republics inside its borders. That is why the country is called the Russian Federation. There are eight Federal Districts and 83 Federal Subjects of the Russian Federation. Siberia, for example, has two huge federal districts. The Soviet Union ended with the formation of the Commonwealth of Independent States. At the time of dissolution of the Soviet Union, Mikhail Gorbachev was the president of the Soviet Union. He was in this position for a little over a year but he was leader of the Soviet Union from March 11th 1985. On 25 December 1991, he quit the post of the president of the USSR. By 31 December 1991, all organizations and departments of the Soviet Union stopped working. On that date, the Soviet flag flew for the last time on the Kremlin. Background. During 1969 and 1982, very few changes took place in the politics and economy of the Soviet Union. With the beginning of the Soviet war in Afghanistan, its relationship with the United States also deteriorated. At that time Jimmy Carter, followed by Ronald Reagan was the President of the United States. Jimmy Carter ended the policy of Détente - ending of unfriendly relationship. Some historians believe that this may be one of the reasons that Soviet Union changed its political and economic policies. In March 1985, Mikhail Gorbachev became the General Secretary of the CPSU. Under him, a
The Meiji Restoration (明治維新) was a time of great change in Japan. In the Japanese language, "Meiji-ishin" is the term for the Meiji Restoration. The term describes a series of events that changed the shape of Japan’s political and social systems. These changes took place mainly in the three years from 1866 to 1869, at the beginning of the Meiji period. End of the Shogunate. In 1866, the Tokugawa Shogunate was ruling Japan. In the year 1866, two domains, the local government at that time, came together under an alliance. The name of this alliance was the Sat-cho Alliance. This was an alliance between the Satsuma Domain and the Chōshū Domain, and a person named Sakamoto Ryoma brought the two domains together. These two domains supported the Emperor Meiji of Japan who, at the time, did not have much power. With their support the emperor could regain much of his power.  The Tokugawa Shogunate’s rule ended on 9th November 1867, but they still retained some authority and power. In the Boshin War of 1868, an army from Satsuma Province and Choshu defeated the forces of the Tokugawa Shogunate. This completely ended the power of the Tokugawa Shogunate. The Revolution of the country's system. After defeating the Tokugawa Shogunate, the leaders of the Meiji Restoration started to reform the system of the country. They acted in the name of Japan’s emperor, to restore (that is, to return) the emperor’s powers. But, the leaders also kept to themselves a number of powers. In fact, even after the Meiji Restoration, an oligarchy, a small group, had the real power and ruled in the name of the emperor.  After the Meiji Restoration started, Japan’s progress was fast. The revolution included centralizing power, changing the tax system, starting the educational system, constructing factories and railways, etc. Industrialization developed rapidly and within next three to four decades (by 1905) the Empire of Japan had become a military power, comparable to the great powers of the time.
Countries, which are members of the Council of Europe agreed on certain points written in a document to ensure human rights written in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. These points became the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms. In its shorter form it is European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR). The convention also established the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR), and the sentence of this Court has a force legal power by its Article 46. The ECHR was written on 4 November 1950. The ECHR has made many protocols, for example: protocol 2nd for right to education, 12th against all discrimination also by public authority and 13th for complete abolition of the death penalty. Protocols are set of rules. All member countries must follow these rules. The ECtHR can give decisions on complaints or cases which come to it. If a person thinks that a European country has abused his or her human rights, that person may take the matter to the judges of ECtHR. The judges will listen to the complaint and give their decisions. These decisions must be followed by the governments of the countries.
The European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) hears and decides particular type of complaints. These complaints relate to abuse of human rights. ECoHR’s other popular name is "Strasbourg Court". Member countries of the Council of Europe created ECoHR to arrange all such complaints, listen to the complaints, and to give decisions. European Convention on Human Rights tells about many human rights. ECoHR sees that people should enjoy all these human rights. ECoHR' has a number of judges. The number of judges is seven normally but at the case of dealing a great issue, the number will be 21 and the judges are equally from member countries of the Council of Europe. At present, there are forty seven member countries of the Council of Europe. Each country may have one judge in the ECoHR. But, judges work independently for the ECoHR, and not for their country.
Ted Turner (born November 19, 1938 in Cincinnati, Ohio) is an American businessman who is best known for being the founder of the television networks Turner Broadcasting Station (TBS) and Cable News Network (CNN). These were the first cable TV networks. He is also famous for being the founder of professional wrestling company World Championship Wrestling (WCW), as well as the Captain Planet and the Planeteers. Career. He's made several war epics on the Civil War. Ted Turner is known for saving MGM's film library, though that forced him to sell his company. At one point, Turner gave a billion dollars to the United Nations. Personal life. Ted Turner was once married to Jane Fonda. He was raised in Atlanta, Georgia and in Savannah, Georgia. Turner is the third largest private landowner in the United States a total of 1.75 million acres. Turner has bipolar disorder. Turner's biggest ranch is Vermejo Park Ranch in New Mexico. At , it is the largest privately owned, piece of owned land in the United States. Turner supports the Public forum debate of the National Forensic League. In a television interview with Piers Morgan on May 3, 2012, Turner said he had four girlfriends. He then said that it was complicated but yet easier than being married. One of Turner's children, Robert Edward "Teddy" Turner IV, announced on January 23, 2013, that he would run in the South Carolina Republican primary for the open Congressional seat. He lost the primary to former Governor Mark Sanford. In September 2018, Turner announced that he was diagnosed with Lewy body dementia.
Taco Bell is a fast food restaurant that started in the United States in 1962. There are restaurants now in certain parts of Canada, Asia, Europe, United Kingdom and Australia. It serves Mexican-style food. It was started by Glen Bell and is a division of Yum! Brands, Inc. Taco Bell's menu has items such as tacos, burritos, soft drinks, chalupas, gorditas, and nachos. There are 7,000 Taco Bells in the United States. Some Taco Bells are merged with KFCs. Taco Bell also introduced a new logo in 2016. Clothing line. In 2017, Forever 21 produced a clothing line in partnership with Taco Bell, featuring branded T-shirts and sweatshirts, as well as bodysuits made to look like Border Sauce packets. In November 2019, Taco Bell announced "Taco Bell's Taco Shop", an online store with Taco Bell branded merchandise including hoodies and tees, holiday ornaments, inflatable sauce packets, and wedding-related items.
Żagań is a town in the west part of Poland. 26,665 people lived there in 2004. It is the main town of part of Poland called Żagań County.  It is now part of the in the Lubusz Voivodship (a Voivoidship is part of the way Poland is organised into areas), before it was in Zielona Gora Voivodship (1975-1998). There is a castle called Sagan in the middle of an area that is also called Sagan. The castle belonged to Wallenstein, a soldier and politician of the Thirty Years' War. Later, the castle belonged to the Bohemian family of Lobkowitz. In 1786, the Sagan area was bought by Peter Biron, duke of Courland. In 1843, it went to his daughter Dorothea, the wife of Edmond de Talleyrand. An act of the king of Prussia on January 6, 1845 made her Duchess of Sagan. Napoleon III did the same in France, for her son Louis. The double title, both Prussian and French, meant that the duc de Sagan was a neutral party in the Second World War. His house (the Château de Valençay) was a safe place to keep pictures and other things from the Louvre when German soldiers were in France.  In the Second World War, the well-known war prison Stalag Luft III was there.
Palatine Hill (Latin: "Palatium") also named the Sun Hill was the hill that Rome was built on. Rome later extended to include the seven hills: Etymology. According to Livy (59 BC – 17) the Palatine hill got its name from the Arcadian settlement of Pallantium. The term palace itself stems from "Palatium".
El Chupacabra (or El Chupacabras) is a cryptid said to live in Puerto Rico, Mexico, Chile, Brazil, Anaheim California. Gilbert Arizona. Texas to Florida, Michigan, Maine and even Oregon. Its name comes from the Spanish translation of "goat sucker", because of its habit of attacking and drinking the blood of livestock, including goats. The legend was started in 1987 when there was a huge, gruesome massacre of livestock all over. All the animals had two puncture wounds on their neck in which the blood had been drained. The story of the Chupacabra has even made it into a German English textbook (Green Line 4, published by Ernst Klett Verlag) as an example for the kind of not always reliable and unverified information that may be found on the Internet.
Hydra are simple invertebrates, with two layers of body cells. They live in fresh water. Their body is radially symmetric. They have a central cavity through which they take in food and expel waste.  As Cnidaria, they have stinging cells on their tentacles. They are hydrozoa, and belong to the same order as other polyps. Most "Hydra" are microscopic in size. Hydras can be found in almost any unpolluted body of water. Hydras reproduce by budding. In budding, the offspring forms as a lump on the parent and eventually becomes big enough to break off and live by itself. They can move if they need to by a kind of slow somersaulting motion.  Recent research has found they produce an anti microbial protein "hydramacin", which protects their outer layer from bacterial infection.
The clownfish is a kind of fish. Clownfish habitat is usually a coral reef. Clownfish live in the Indian Ocean and the Pacific Ocean, from northwest Australia to the coast of South East Asia as far north as Japan. Often, they live in symbiosis with other animals, for instance, the sea anemone. They live in anemones which are like plants under the sea. Anemones eat fish by killing them with their poisonous tentacles. Scientists believe that clownfish are protected from the poison because they are coated in a type of mucus. Some kinds of clownfish can grow up and reach 18 centimeters (7.1 inches). Sometimes clownfish only grow 10 centimeters (3.9 inches). They can be orange, yellow or they may look a little red. Clownfish eat small invertebrates that are dangerous to the anemones. That helps the anemones and the clownfish. This is called mutualism. Many people like having clownfish in their aquarium because they are some of the easiest salt water fish to keep and care for. They became particularly popular after the film "Finding Nemo". There are 28 species of Clownfish. Clownfish are born male but when they grow older some develop into females.
Bruce Lee (November 27, 1940 – July 20, 1973) was a Hong Kong American martial artist, actor, movie director, and founder of the Jeet Kune Do martial arts movement. Lee is famous for martial arts films in the United States in the 1970s, when he played in a series of movies. Lee starred in five movies: "The Big Boss", "Fist of Fury" (also known as "The Chinese Connection" and "The Iron Hand"), "The Way of the Dragon" (also known as "Return of the Dragon"), "Enter the Dragon" and "The Game of Death". He starred in the first ever martial arts movie in the United States - called "Enter the Dragon", which was released after Bruce's death. He died in 1973 during the production of a movie called, "The Game of Death". The movie was not finished, although some completed section were later released. Almost 20 years later his son, Brandon Lee would also die while making a movie. Lee also taught other people martial arts, including actors Huggo Chairres, Steve McQueen, James Coburn, and basketball player Kareem Abdul-Jabbar. He inspired many other actors who are famous for using martial arts in their movies including Jean-Claude Van Damme, Jackie Chan, Jet Li, Tony Jaa, and Chuck Norris. Jackie Chan had a small part in 'Enter The Dragon' and Chuck Norris co-starred in "Way of The Dragon". He is noted for his major contributions to both the Hong Kong and American movie industry during the 1970s, his martial arts movement and innovative ideas (including Jeet Kune Do), his philosophy, and his physical fitness ability. He is considered to be a cultural icon and is considered to be one of the most influential martial artists ever by social critics and other martial artists alike. On the night of July 20, 1973, Lee aged 32, died at his home from cerebral edema, which is a buildup of fluid around the brain. This is believed to have been caused by a reaction to painkillers he was taking for a back injury.
Sir George Henry Martin, (3 January 1926 – 8 March 2016) was a British record producer, composer and musical arranger. His most famous work was his recordings with The Beatles. These were made at Abbey Road Studios during the 1960s. He died in his sleep at his home in Wiltshire on the night of 8 March 2016 at the age of 90. His cause of death is not known. Early life and career. Martin grew up playing piano with only a few music lessons. He began to compose music in his teens. Martin played with his own band called the Four Tune-Tellers. He dreamed of one day making soundtrack music for movies. After serving in the Royal Air Force during World War II, Martin went to music school. After he graduated, he worked for the BBC in London. He began working for EMI in 1950. Martin became an assistant at Parlophone Records, a small record label. Parlophone mostly recorded classical music and original cast recordings of popular stage shows and plays. Martin later became the chief of Parlophone Records. He was also its staff producer. Martin was in charge of recording sessions and chose songs for Parlophone artists to record. He made comedy records (often working with Peter Sellers and Spike Milligan) along with his usual jobs, to help promote the label. When rock and roll became popular in the mid-1950s, Martin began looking for rock groups or artists to join Parlophone. He recorded several such artists, but none of their records became big hits. The Beatles. In 1962, Beatles manager Brian Epstein brought Martin a demo (demonstration record) of his band. Epstein had been trying for months to get the band a recording contract. Martin liked what he heard. He saw that the young band were willing to try different things, and gave them an audition (a studio tryout). All the Beatles passed their audition, except for their drummer, Pete Best. Martin was not happy with the skills Best showed. He wanted to replace Best on their recordings. When the band found out, they fired Best, replacing him with Ringo Starr. Starr had played with
Brian Samuel Epstein (; 19 September 1934 – 27 August 1967) was an English businessman. Epstein was the manager of The Beatles, who became the most popular rock band in the world during the 1960s. Early life. Epstein started out to become an actor, and went to school at RADA (the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art) with future movie stars Peter O'Toole and Susannah York. He was not happy at school, though, and quit to work in his family's furniture stores in Liverpool. He was a skillful salesman, and loved classical music. When his family opened a record department in one of their stores, Epstein was put in charge. The department was so successful that the family decided to open a whole store to sell music and records. This was named NEMS, for North End Music Stores, and Epstein became its boss. This store was also a big success. Popular music, rock and roll especially, sold better than classical music, and Epstein wanted to sell what the public would buy most. He began to stock rock and roll records, and record buyers around England liked Epstein and his store. Some of his customers were members of bands, looking for new music to play or to pass the time, and came often to the store. Among those bands were the early Beatles. Epstein was Jewish and homosexual. The Beatles. Late in 1961, when a fan asked Epstein about a record the Beatles had made in Germany, Epstein was unable to find it through his sources. When he learned the band were playing at the Cavern Club not far away, Epstein visited them there, and was impressed by their act. He found out what he needed to know to get the record, so NEMS could sell copies. Epstein also discovered that the band had no manager, but they wanted one, and their main goal was to get a recording contract in England. Epstein became their manager. Epstein used his sales ability to get the band more and better jobs playing music. He also used his position (as manager of one of the leading music stores in northern England) to make contact with different record labels, hoping to get the Beatles signed up. An audition with Decca
The Plastic Ono Band was a rock and roll band formed by Yoko Ono with husband (and former Beatle) John Lennon. They were active from 1969 until 1974. Lennon and Ono recorded their first single together, titled "Give Peace A Chance", in a Montreal hotel with a roomful of guests, including Tommy Smothers, Allen Ginsberg, Norman Mailer, Timothy Leary, and the local Hare Krishna chapter. The pair were in an auto accident before the single was to debut (be played in public for the first time), and they had to stay in the hospital. Not wanting to cancel the debut, they sent the first version of their "new band" – a set of plastic cases that held the sound equipment – which played in their place. It was a strange kind of debut for a new band, but the song (a protest against the Vietnam War) became a minor hit that year, in England and in the United States. The second version of the Plastic Ono Band included Ono and Lennon in person, along with musicians Eric Clapton, Klaus Voormann and Alan White. They performed together at a rock concert in Toronto in September 1969, and it was the first time Lennon had played in public with a band other than the Beatles. The show went well, and helped Lennon decide to leave the Beatles, which he had thought about doing for some time. A second single, "Cold Turkey", was recorded with this lineup. After the Beatles ended, Lennon decided he did not want to have another permanent band, and he and Ono used the Plastic Ono Band name to refer to any musicians who appeared on the records they made together. Even listeners were called a part of the band, especially when the band gave a concert. An advertisement for one of their records included a page from a telephone book, and the words "YOU are the Plastic Ono Band". Ono and Lennon separated for a time during 1973 and 1974. Lennon still used forms of the band name on the two albums he released during their separation, while Ono's records of the time appeared under her name alone. When they got back together in
Olsztyn is a city in northeast Poland, on the Łyna river. Olsztyn is the biggest city and the capital of the Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship. Geography. The town is near a lake region of forests and plains. There are 13 lakes in the town and many more surrounding it: (Krzywe, Długie, Żbik, Redykajny and others). International relations. Twin towns – Sister cities. Olsztyn is twinned with: