ejaasaari/simplewiki-2025-04-01 huggingface dataset:
James Butler, 1st Duke of Ormonde PC (19 October 1610 – 21 July 1688) was an Anglo-Irish ("from English and Irish family") politician and soldier. From 1641 to 1647, he was the leader in the fight against the Irish Catholic Confederation. From 1649 to 1650 he was top commander of the Royalist forces fighting against Oliver Cromwell who wanted to invade Ireland. In the 1650s he lived in exile in Europe with Charles II of England. When Charles II was put back on the British throne during the restoration in 1660, Ormonde became very important in English and Irish politics. Early life. The Butlers of Ormonde were an Old English dynasty. They had been very important people the southeast of Ireland since the Middle Ages. His father was Thomas Butler, Viscount Thurles. Thurles is a place in County Tipperary. James was the oldest son. His father died in 1619, when he was 9 years old. He became "Viscount Thurles". His mother took him to England where his grandfather (Walter Butler, 11th Earl of Ormond) made him go to a Catholic school. James I was King at the time. James I was a Protestant, and wanted to make sure that James would also be a Protestant. This would give him power in Ireland once James Butler went back to Thurles. James I placed James Butler under the care of archbishop George Abbot. When he was fifteen he went to live with his grandfather at Drury-lane." It became very important in his life that he was a Protestant. Almost all his relatives were Catholics. This made his family not like him very much. They had land and possessions taken from them, and they were not treated fairly because they were Catholics. This did not happen to James. In December 1629, he married Lady Elizabeth Preston. In 1634, on the death of his grandfather, he became Earl of Ormonde. Rebellion and Civil War. In 1633 Thomas Wentworth, 1st Earl of Strafford became head of government in Ireland. He liked
Macbeth is an opera by Giuseppe Verdi. It is based on Shakespeare’s play with the same name. The opera is normally in Italian, though there is also a French version that's almost never used anymore. The libretto (the words) was written by Francesco Maria Piave with some extra additions by Andrea Maffei. Verdi wrote several works based on Shakespeare plays. "Macbeth" was the first of these. It was composed in 1847, at a time when he was composing a lot of operas. In those days Italian operas were always about a love story, but "Macbeth" was unusual because there was no love story. Instead, it is a story about wanting power, even if means murder. The opera helped to make him very famous, and it has remained one of his most popular operas.  Composition history. Andrea Maffei, a poet and friend of Verdi, suggested to him that "Macbeth" would be a good story to make into an opera. Verdi did not read Shakespeare’s original work until after he had composed the opera. The words were written for him by Piave who based the libretto on an Italian translation. Verdi loved the story, he thought it was “one of the greatest creations of man”. The opera is very similar to the story told by Shakespeare, but Verdi uses a large chorus of witches instead of just three. The last act ends with the refugees coming together on the English border, and, in the revised version, ends with a chorus of bards celebrating their victory over the cruel tyrant. The 1847 version was performed a great deal all over Italy. Then, in 1865, Verdi made several changes to the opera in a revised version. It was to be performed in Paris, and in France people expected to have ballet music in operas. Verdi wrote some music for the dancers, and took the opportunity to make other changes as well. Verdi worked in Italian, and had it translated into French for the performance there, but people don't use the French translation. They instead use all his changes for the French version, but keep the Italian text. After
Cahors () is a commune in southwestern France. It is in Occitanie. Cahors is the "prefecture" (capital) of the Lot department. It is also the capital of 3 "cantons": Cahors-1, Cahors-2 and Cahors-3. Cahors was the capital of the old province of Quercy and the people of this city are known, in French, as "cadurciens" (women: "cadurciennes"). This name comes from the old name of the city, "Carduca". History. Cahors is an ancient town. The people that inhabited the area at the time of the Roman conquest were called "Carduci" and so the Romans named the town as Divona or "Divona Cadurcorum", "Divona of the Cadurci"; Divona was a source of water, now called "fontaine des Chartreux". The word "Cahors" comes from "Cadurcorum". Geography. Cahors is located in the southwest of France, in the old province of Quercy, in the valley of the Lot river, and is found in a peninsula () formed by an U-shaped meander of that river which gives its name to the department. It has an area of and its average altitude is ; at the city hall, the altitude is . The "commune" is at north of Toulouse and is surrounded by the "communes" Mercuès, Calamane, Pradines, Arcambal, Lamagdelaine, Laroque-des-Arcs, Trespoux-Rassiels, Labastide-Marnhac, Le Montat and Flaujac-Poujols. Climate. The climate of Cahors, in the Köppen climate classification, is Cfb - Oceanic climate with temperate summers. Population. With a population of 19,630, Cahors has a population density of inhabitants/km2. Evolution of the population in Cahors Cahors forms, together with the "commune" Pradines, the urban area of Cahors, with a population of 23,090 inhabitants (201
Mende is a "commune" and prefecture of the department of Lozère, part of the Occitanie region. It is also the capital of the "arrondissement" of Mende. The inhabitants of this city are known, in French, as "Mendois" (women: "Mendoises"). Geography. Mende is located in the southern Massif Central, to the north of the "Cévennes", near the Mont Lozère, the highest point of the Lozère department. The Lot river flows through the city and most of Mende is on the left side of the river. The "commune" of Mende has an area of and its average altitude is ; at the city hall, the altitude is . The "commune" of Mende is surrounded by the "communes" Chastel-Nouvel, Badaroux, Lanuéjols, Brenoux, Saint-Bauzile, Balsièges, Barjac and Servières. Climate. The climate in Mende in the Köppen climate classification is Cfb - Oceanic climate with template summers. Population. The city of Mende had 11,542 inhabitants for a density of persons/km2. Evolution of the population in Mende Administration. Mende is the prefecture of the Lozère department since 1790. It is also the capital of the Mende "arrondissement" and of two "cantons": It is part of the intercommunality "Cœur de Lozère" (). Twinned and partner towns. Mende is twinned with:
Diffraction is a physics concept which occurs when waves bend around small obstacles, or spread out after they pass through small openings. Diffraction occurs with all waves, including sound waves, water waves, and electromagnetic waves such as light that the eye can see. Diffraction also occurs with as electrons. Causes of diffraction. Diffraction is caused by one wave of light being shifted by a diffracting object. This shift will cause the wave to have interference with itself. Interference can be either constructive or destructive. When interference is constructive, the intensity of the wave will increase. When interference is destructive, the intensity will decrease, sometimes to a point where it is completely destroyed. These patterns of interference rely on the size of the diffracting object and the size of the wave. The strongest examples of diffraction occur in waves where the wavelength is similar to the size of the object causing diffraction. Uses of diffraction. Diffraction can be used to separate different wavelengths of light using a diffraction grating. A diffraction grating can be a series of closely-spaced slits or a mirror with a series of small grooves. Diffraction gratings work because different wavelengths of light will constructively interfere at different angles. Diffraction gratings are used in many analytical chemistry tools, such as a spectrometer. Diffraction can also be used to look at molecules using X-ray crystallography. In X-ray crystallography, X-rays are aimed on a crystal. The crystal diffracts the X-ray and makes a diffraction pattern. This pattern is unique to the type of crystal and can be used to identify the molecule that makes the crystal. Diffraction also occurs in a bending movement where the wave becomes more spread out References. Skoog, D.A.; Holler, F.J.; Crouch, S.R. Principles of Instrumental Analysis. (Brooks/Cole, California).  http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Young_Diffraction.png
Wyre is a local government district in Lancashire, England. It is a borough, based in the town of Poulton-le-Fylde. Wyre is named after the River Wyre, which runs through the district. Wyre was formed in 1974.
Michael Konsel (born 6 March 1962) is a retired Austrian football player who played as goalkeeper in Austria and Italy. Career. He started as defender for Fortuna 05 when he was six but at the age of nine he became goalkeeper, a position he played for the rest of his career. At the age of 16 he came to FC Kritzendorf where he became goalkeeper of the first team. His first professional team was First Vienna FC, then he want to SK Rapid Wien. For Rapid he played 395 matches in the league, 47 Cup matches and 42 international matches He played twice in the final of the UEFA Cup Winners' Cup. After his successful time with Rapid he went to AS Roma in Italy's Serie A. The last year of his career he spent with SSC Venice. International. Michael Konsel played 43 matches in Austria's national team. He was member of Austria's team for the FIFA World Cup in 1990 and 1998. 1990 in Italy he was second goalkeeper but 1998 he was number 1 and played 3 matches. Although he played his first match in 1985 he did not because number one until ten years later. His last match was a friendly versus world champions France in Vienna's Ernst-Happel-Stadion.
The list contains European stadiums with a capacity of at least 25,000. Almost all of these stadiums were built mainly for association football. Most of the rest were built for athletics, the rugby codes, or (in Ireland) Gaelic games. Current Stadiums. Capacity of 25,000 or more. Notes: (d) indicates retractable seating deployed,  (nd) indicates retractable seating not deployed (m) indicates movable seating deployed (t) indicates capacity with temporary seats to be removed An asterisk - * - indicates that a team does not play all of its home matches at that venue. The "Category" column indicates whether the stadium has been designated by UEFA as capable of hosting Champions League or Europa League matches. Under construction. The following is a list of European stadiums which are currently under construction and will have a capacity of 25,000 or more.
Chaumont is a commune of France, and the capital (or "prefecture") of the Haute-Marne department in the Grand Est region. Geography. The city of Chaumont is on the "Langres" plateau on the geographical centre of the Haute-Marne department in northeast France. It is along the Marne (river) river. It has an area of . Its average altitude is ; at the city hall, the altitude is . The "commune" of Chaumont is surrounded by the "communes" Condes, Treix, Chamarandes-Choignes, Laville-aux-Bois, Biesles, Verbiesles, Neuilly-sur-Suize, Richebourg, Semoutiers-Montsaon, Villiers-le-Sec and Jonchery. Two rivers flow through the city: the "Suize" to the west and the Marne to the east. Climate. The climate of Chaumont, in the Köppen climate classification, is Cfb - Oceanic climate with template summers. Population. The inhabitants of Chaumont are known, in French, as "Chaumontais" (women: "Chaumontaises"). The city of Chaumont has a population, in 2014, of 22,674; its population density is of inhabitants/km2. Evolution of the population in Chaumont Chaumont forms with Chamarandes-Choignes the urban area of Chaumont with a population of 23,716 inhabitants (2014) and an area of . This urban area is the centre of the metropolitan area of Chaumont, formed by 65 "communes", with a population of 42,594 inhabitants (2014) and an area of . Administration. Chaumont is the prefecture of the Haute-Marne department, the capital of the "arrondissement" of Chaumont and the administrative centre () of three cantons: It is part of the intercommunality "Chaumont, du Bassin Nogentais et du Bassin de Bologne Vignory Froncles" (). Twinned and partner towns. Chaumont is twinned with:
Saint-Lô is a commune. It is in the Manche department in west France. Sister cities. Saint-Lô is twinned with:
Vannes is a commune. It is the prefecture of Morbihan in Brittany. Sister cities. Vannes is twinned with: Vannes also has partnerships (‘partenariats’) with:
Bar-le-Duc is a commune. It is found in the Meuse department in the east of France. Sister cities. Bar-le-Duc is twinned with:
The Royal Hospital Kilmainham is a 17th-century building in Kilmainham, Dublin, Ireland. It was built to be a home for retired soldiers. It was used as a home for over 250 years.  The hospital was built between 1680 and 1684 by architect Sir William Robinson. He was the official State Surveyor General for James Butler, 1st Duke of Ormonde and Lord Lieutenant of Ireland to King Charles II.  The style is based on Les Invalides in Paris. The Royal Hospital Chelsea in Chelsea, London was completed two years later and looks alike in style.  The Tudor Gothic gateway at the end of the road leading to the Royal Hospital was designed by Francis Johnston. He was one of the leading architects of the day. This gateway originally stood beside the River Liffey at Bloody Bridge (now Rory O'More Bridge). It was moved after the arrival of the railway in 1844.  When the Irish Free State was formed, they thought about using the building for the Oireachtas Éireann, the new Irish national parliament. This did not happen. After the soldiers were all gone, the buildings were used for different things like offices for the Garda Síochána (the Irish police force) and as storage for the National Museum of Ireland.  The Government of Ireland restored the buildings in different stages from 1957, and opened in 1985 as the National Centre for Culture and the Arts. In 1991 the Irish Museum of Modern Art was opened here. Every year on the National Day of Commemoration the President of Ireland lays a wreath in the courtyard in memory of all Irishmen and Irishwomen who have died in past wars and on service with the United Nations.
Kilmainham (In Irish: "Cill Mhaighneann", "St Maighnenn's church") is an area of Dublin. It lies south of the River Liffey and west of the city centre in the Dublin 8 postal district.  History. In the Viking era, there was a monastery here. The monastery was home to the first Norse base ("longphort") in Ireland. In the 12th century the lands on the banks of the Liffey belonged to the Knights Templars. Strongbow built a castle for them, about a mile away from the Danish wall of old Dublin. Here the Templars lived for nearly a century and a half. In 1308, Edward II ruled that they were no longer allowed to practice their religion. Thirty members of the Templars were imprisoned in Dublin. Their lands and rights were given to the priory of the Knights of St. John of Jerusalem. They were there until the monasteries were closed in the 16th century.  The Manor of Kilmainham was a liberty. This means it had special rights. "The manor" was an area that included parts of James's Street and side-streets and went as far as Lucan and Chapelizod.  Until the time of Queen Elizabeth, the lord lieutenants used the manor of Kilmainham. In 1559, the earl of Sussex, found that the building at Kilmainham was damaged by a storm. The following year Elizabeth ordered that Dublin Castle be improved so the lord lieutenant could live there. From that time, Kilmainham was no longer used much. Things to see. The Royal Hospital Kilmainham is in Kilmainham. It was built on the site where the Knights of St. John of Jerusalem had their priory in Dublin. It is now the Irish Museum of Modern Art. Nearby is also Kilmainham Gaol, where the executions of the leaders of the Easter Rising took place.  Kilmainham also has one of a small number of Viking era burial sites (Old Norse "haugr" meaning barrow or mound), within Dublin.
Balancing selection refers to selective processes by which different alleles (different versions of a gene) are kept in the gene pool of a population "at frequencies above that of gene mutation". This usually happens when the heterozygote for a gene has a higher relative fitness than the homozygote. In this way genetic polymorphism is conserved. Evidence for balancing selection can be found in the number of alleles in a population which are maintained above mutation rate frequencies. All modern research has shown that this significant genetic variation is common in panmictic populations. It is the field experience of Darwin, Wallace and others, that natural populations in the wild are extraordinarily varied. Museum collections of single species tell the same story. There are several ways balancing selection works to maintain polymorphism. The two major and most studied are heterozygote advantage and frequency-dependent selection. Mechanisms of balancing selection. Heterozygote advantage. In heterozygote advantage, or "heterotic balancing selection", an individual who is heterozygous at a particular gene locus has a greater fitness than a homozygous individual. Polymorphisms maintained by this mechanism are "balanced polymorphisms". A well-studied case is that of sickle cell anemia in humans, a hereditary disease that damages red blood cells. Sickle cell anemia is caused by the inheritance of a variant hemoglobin gene (HgbS) from both parents. In these individuals, hemoglobin in red blood cells is extremely sensitive to oxygen deprivation, and this causes shorter life expectancy. A person who inherits the sickle cell gene from one parent, and a normal hemoglobin gene (HgbA) from the other, has a normal life expectancy. The heterozygote is resistant to the malarial parasite which kills a large number of people each year. The heterozygote frequency is kept high because of the fierce selection against both the homozygotes. The heterozygote has a permanent advantage (a higher fitness) wherever malaria exists. Frequency-dependent selection. Frequency-dependent selection occurs when the fitness of a phenotype depends on its frequency. In "positive frequency-dependent selection" the fitness of a phenotype increases as it
Philip Dormer Stanhope, 4th Earl of Chesterfield PC KG (22 September 1694 – 24 March 1773) was a British statesman and intellectual. Stanhope was born in London. He got his schooling at Trinity Hall, Cambridge. After that, he went on the Grand Tour of the continent. He became gentleman of the bedchamber to the Prince of Wales. Career in government. In 1715, he entered the House of Commons as Lord Stanhope of Shelford and member for St Germans. He left for Paris and sent the government valuable information about the Jacobite plot. In 1716, he returned to Britain and sat in the House of Commons. He liked to take part in the debates.  He took his seat in the House of Lords. In 1728, he was sent to the Hague as ambassador. He did a good job, and got the Order of the Garter in 1730, and the position of Lord Steward. After he did not support Walpole's Excise Bill, he was dismissed from his stewardship. He spent years opposing the ruling party in the House of Lords. First against Robert Walpole and then against King George II of England. In 1744, the "Broad Bottom" party, led by Chesterfield and Pitt, came into office. They ruled together with the Pelhams.  He was then sent to the Hague as ambassador a second time. The object of his mission was to persuade the Dutch to join in the War of the Austrian Succession. His mission was successful. When he got back to London, he was made Lord-Lieutenancy of Ireland. This was a position he wanted for a long time. He took the his role seriously. He established schools and manufacturing in Ireland. In politics, he found a way to work with both Protestant and Roman Catholic parties.  He also still took his seat in the Upper House. In 1751, he helped in making the Gregorian calendar a fact. That Act of Parliament is sometimes known as Chesterfield's Act. After he slowly became deaf, he had to stop his work in the parliament.  He lived for some years at the
The Grand Tour was the name of travel through Europe by rich European (mostly British) young men between 1660 until about 1840. It was done to learn about European society and art. The idea was that what they learned on their travels could be used to help those that stayed at home. Italy was often the final country to visit. They would mostly travel with servants and a teacher called a "bear-leader". Example Grand Tour. Which places the Grand Tour would visit changed through the years. An example would be a British tourist would go from Dover, England and crossed the English Channel to Ostend, in the Spanish Netherlands/Belgium, or Calais, or Le Havre in France. There they could rent or buy a carriage and travel to Paris. Or they could make the trip by boat, traveling up the Seine to Paris, or up the Rhine to Basel. In Paris, the traveler could take lessons in French, dancing, fencing, and horse riding. Paris was popular because of the language and fashion of French high society. From Paris he would go to Switzerland for a while, often to Geneva. From there the traveler would make a difficult crossing over the Alps into northern Italy. Once in Italy the tourist would visit Turin, then might spend a few months in Florence. Other Grand Tourists would be in Florence to welcome him. A trip to Pisa then on to Padua, Bologna, and Venice. Venice was seen as the most important place for Italian architecture, and was very important place to visit. From Venice the traveler went to Rome to study the ruins of ancient Rome. Some travelers also visited Naples to study music. Naples was often the final destination before turning back. From here the traveler went north through the Alps to the German-speaking parts of Europe. From there travelers visited Holland and Flanders before returning across the Channel to England.
Alnico is an alloy made up of iron with aluminium (Al), nickel (Ni) and cobalt (Co). The name "Alnico" is an acronym from Al-Ni-Co. Alnico may also contain copper and sometimes titanium. Alnico alloys are ferromagnetic (a mechanism by which some materials form permanent magnets). Alnico alloys also have a high coercivity (they do not easily lose their magnetism) and are used to make permanent magnets. Before rare-earth magnets were developed in the 1970s, lnico magnets were the strongest type of magnet. The development of Alnico began in 1931 when T. Mishima in Japan found that an alloy of iron, nickel, and aluminium had double the coercivity of the best magnets of that time. (the coercivity of Alnico is 400 oersted). Properties. Alnico alloys can be made magnets by strong magnetic fields. Rare-earth magnets like neodymium and samarium-cobalt are the only easily found magnets which are stronger than alnico magnets. Alnico magnets produce very strong magnetic fields at their poles (a pole is one of the two ends of a magnet) as high as 1500 gauss (0.15 tesla which is about 3000 times stronger than earth's magnetic field. Some types of alnico magnets are isotropic (properties are same in all directions) and can be properly magnetised in all directions. Other types like alnico 5 and alnico 8 are anisotropic (properties change when direction changes) have a preferred direction (one direction would be better than other directions) for magnetisation. Anisotropic alnico alloys will make stronger magnets in their preferred direction than an isotropic alnico alloy. Alnico magnets are the only magnets that have useful magnetism even when heated red-hot.  In 2008, the cost of Alnico magnets was about $44/kg ($20/pound).