ejaasaari/simplewiki-2025-04-01 huggingface dataset:
The Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC) was an Ancient Greek military conflict, fought by Athens and its allies, against the "Peloponnesian League", led by Sparta. Athens was the greatest sea power, and Sparta the greatest land power in 5th century BC Greece. In the first phase, the Archidamian War, Sparta launched repeated invasions of Attica, while Athens took advantage of its naval supremacy to raid the coast of the Peloponnese. This period of the war ended in 421 BC, with the signing of the Peace of Nicias. That treaty was soon undermined by renewed fighting in the Peloponnese. In 415 BC Athens dispatched a large force, led by Alcibiades, to attack Syracuse in Sicily. The attack failed, with the destruction of the entire force, in 413 BC. This made Athens vulnerable. The final phase of the war is called the Decelean War, or the Peloponnesian War. In this phase, Sparta, now receiving support from the Achaemenid Empire, supported rebellions in Athens' subject states in the Aegean Sea and Ionia, undermining Athens' empire. Eventually, Athens lost its naval supremacy. The destruction of the Athenian fleet in a battle in 405 BC effectively ended the war, and Athens surrendered in the following year. Results. The Peloponnesian War reshaped the Ancient Greek world. Athens, the strongest city-state in Greece before the war started, was reduced to a state of near-complete subjection. Sparta became the leading power of Greece. The economic costs of the war were felt all across Greece; poverty became widespread in the Peloponnese, Athens was completely devastated, and never regained its pre-war prosperity.p488 The war also brought subtler changes to Greek society. The conflict between democratic Athens and oligarchic Sparta, each of which had friendly political factions in other states, made civil war a common occurrence in the Greek world. Greek warfare was originally a limited and formalized form of conflict. It became an all-out struggle between city states, with atrocities on a large scale. The Peloponnese War shattered religious and cultural taboos, devastated the countryside, and destroyed whole cities. This marked the end to the fifth-century BC 'Golden age of Greece'.xxiii-xxiv
Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg () was a country in what is today Thuringia, Germany. It was formed in 1672 when Frederick Wilhelm III, the last duke of Saxe-Altenburg died and Ernest I, Duke of Saxe-Gotha (who had married Frederick Wilhelm's cousin, Elisabeth Sophie) inherited his possessions. The duchy was split up again after Ernest’s death in 1675, and the Duchy of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg officially came into existence in 1680 when his eldest son, Frederick, took control of the parts of the country Gotha and Altenburg. When the royal house of "Saxe-Gotha and Altenburg" became extinct in 1825, Saxe-Gotha was given to Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld and Saxe-Altenburg passed to the Duke of Saxe-Hildburghausen. After the abolition of German monarchies at the end of the First World War, both Saxe-Gotha and Saxe-Altenburg became part of the newly created state of Thuringia in 1920. Dukes of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg. Divided between Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld and Saxe-Hildburghausen
Piraeus is a port and municipality in Athens, Attica, Greece, in the south of the center of Athens. The population of Piraeus is 163,688 (2011).
The Rhône is a river in France and Switzerland. It is 812 kilometers long. The river starts in Rhône Glacier, which is in Switzerland. Then, the Rhône River joints the Saône, in France (and other rivers) and ends in the Mediterranean Sea. The River Rhône empties into the Mediterranean. Only the Nile brings more water into the Mediterranean. The river drains an area of 95.5500 m2. The usual amount of water is about 1.700 m3 per second (at Tarrascon). During floods, this value has reached over 12.000 m3 per second. This river splits into two smaller rivers before it flows into the Mediterranean Sea. The space between those rivers is named the Camargue, and many types of animals live there.
The river starts in Rhone Glacier, which is in Switzerland. Then, the Rhone River joints the Saone, in France (and other rivers) and ends in the Mediterranean Sea.
Saxe-Hildburghausen was one of the Ernestine duchies of the House of Wettin. History. Although it was very small, Saxe-Hildburghausen was an independent duchy from 1680 to 1826. In 1684 the duchy changed its capital from Heldburg to Hildburghausen, and changed its name to Saxe-Hildburghausen. In 1810, a Princess Therese of Saxe-Hildburghausen married Crown Prince Ludwig of Bavaria, who became king of Bavaria 15 years later. The marriage is the reason for the Oktoberfest, held annually in Munich. In 1826, the Ernestine duchies were reorganised after the last ruler of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg died without an heir. The duke of Saxe-Hildburghausen gave up his duchy in return for becoming Duke of Saxe-Altenburg. Hildburghausen was given to Saxe-Meiningen. Hildburghausen was not one of the duchies in the Imperial circle, Altenburg was, so by swapping his land the duke gained in social rank, even though the Holy Roman Empire no longer existed In 1868, four districts were established in the duchy of Saxe-Meiningen. Hildburghausen was one of these districts, with boundaries very similar to those of the former duchy. It remained almost unchanged until 1993, when the former district of Suhl was dissolved and most of its municipalities joined the district. Dukes of Saxe-Hildburghausen. Incorporated into Saxe-Meiningen
Augustine of Hippo (; ; 13 November 354 – 28 August 430), also known as Saint Augustine, was a Christian philosopher and theologian. Early life. Augustine was born in the year 354. His mother is believed to have been of Berber origin. After growing up, he began to learn and write a lot about Christianity, and became a bishop in Hippo Regius, which was in modern-day Annaba, Algeria. He was highly influenced by archbishop Ambrose. Later in life, Augustine moved to Italy, and over the next years his religious ideology grew stronger, and he became a teacher. Works. Books: Letters:  aka "The Story of Philosophy", Dorling Kindersley Publishing, 2001,  (subtitled on cover: "The Essential Guide to the History of Western Philosophy")  g Saint Augustine, pages 30, 144; "City of God" 51, 52, 53 and "The Confessions" 50, 51, 52  - additional in the Dictionary of the History of Ideas for Saint Augustine and Neo-Platonism
The House of Wettin was a dynasty of German counts, dukes, prince-electors (Kurfürsten) and kings that ruled in what is known today as the German states of Saxony and Thuringia for more than 800 years. Members of the Wettin family were also kings of Poland, as well as forming the ruling houses of Great Britain, Portugal, Bulgaria, Poland, Saxony, and Belgium. Today only the British and Belgian lines still rule their countries, but the last Tsar of Bulgaria, Simeon II, was Prime Minister of Bulgaria between 2001 and 2005. Simeon Saxe-Coburg-Gotha is the only ex-king who has ever returned to his country as an elected leader. Origins: Wettins of Saxony. The oldest known member of the House of Wettin was Thiedericus (died 982). Around 1000, as part of the German conquest of Slavic territory, the family got Wettin Castle and changed their name. It was usual for noblemen to change their name to the name of their territory. Wettin Castle is located in Wettin, Saxony-Anhalt in the Hosgau on the Saale River.  Branches of the House of Wettin. The House split into two main branches, the Ernestine and the Albertine. The descendants of Ernest often subdivided their land and ended up with a lot of small duchies, but one (Saxe-Coburg and Gotha) became very important. Ernest's younger brother was Albert. His descendants became Electors of Saxony, and in 1806, Kings of Saxony The House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. Descendants of the Dukes of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha have become: and also husbands of the queens of  The wife of the Emperor of Mexico (Carlota of Mexico) was also a member of the house of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. As such, the British, Portuguese, and for a time, Mexican, thrones became a possession of persons who belonged to the House of Wettin.  During World War I the British Royal Family changed the name as well as their personal surnames to "Windsor" by an Order-in-Council of King George V. The Kings of Belgiums now do not use the Saxe-Coburg and Gotha name, but have never officially changed it.
Durham is a city in the North East of England. It is within the County Durham local government district, and is the county town of the larger ceremonial county. It lies to the south of Newcastle upon Tyne, Chester-le-Street and Sunderland and to the north of Darlington. Durham is well known for its Norman Cathedral and 11th-century castle, and is home to Durham University. HM Prison Durham is also close to the city centre. Durham Castle and Cathedral is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. History. Early history. Archeological evidence shows settlement in the area since 2000 BC. The present city can clearly be traced back to AD 995, when a group of monks from Lindisfarne chose to settle there with the body of Saint Cuthbert, which had previously lain in Chester-le-Street. Medieval history. Before the Reformation the shrine of Saint Cuthbert, behind the High Altar of Durham Cathedral, was the most important religious site in England until the martyrdom of St. Thomas Becket at Canterbury. Despite a brief translation back to Holy Island during the Norman Invasion the saint's relics remain enshrined to the present day. Saint Bede's bones are also entombed in the cathedral, drawing the mediaeval pilgrim to the city. Durham’s geographical position has always given it an important position in the defence of England against the Scots. The city has played an important part in the defence of the north and Durham Castle is the only Norman castle keep never to have suffered a breach. The Battle of Neville's Cross which took place near the city on 17 October 1346 between the English and Scots was the most famous battle of its age. The city suffered from a number of plague outbreaks in 1544, 1589 and 1598. Prince Bishops. As the north east was so far from Westminster the bishops of Durham enjoyed extraordinary powers. They had the ability to hold their own parliament, raise their own armies, appoint their own sheriffs and Justices, administer their own laws, levy taxes and customs duties, create fairs and markets, issue charters, salvage shipwrecks, collect revenue from mines, administer the forests and mint
The History of the Peloponnesian War tells the story of the Peloponnesian War in Ancient Greece. It was written by Thucydides, an Athenian general who served in that war. The war was fought between the "Peloponnesian League" (led by Sparta) and the "Athenian league" (led by Athens). The war lasted more than 20 years. Many historians regard this "History" of Thucydides as one of the earliest scholarly works of history. Historical method. Thucydides' "History" made a number of contributions to early historiography. Many of his principles have become standard methods of history writing today, though others have not. Chronology. One of Thucydides' major innovations was to use a strict standard of chronology, recording events by year, each year consisting of the summer campaigning season and a less active winter season. As a result, events that span several years are divided up and described in parts of the book that are sometimes quite distant from one another, causing the impression that he is oscillating between the various theatres of conflict. This method contrasts sharply with Herodotus' earlier work "The Histories", which jumps around chronologically. Speeches. Another feature of the work is that Thucydides writes dozens of speeches of the most important figures who were engaged in the war. Thucydides heard some of these speeches himself but some of the speeches he wrote without knowing exactly what was really spoken. Neutral point of view. Thucydides wanted his writings "to last for ever" (1.22.4). Therefore he tried to be as neutral as possible though as a general of Athens that was difficult for him. Role of religion. The gods play no active role in Thucydides' work. This is very different to Herodotus, who frequently mentions the role of the gods. Instead, Thucydides regards history as being caused by the choices and actions of human beings. The "History" concentrates on the military aspects of the Peloponnesian War, but it uses these events as a medium to suggest several other themes as well
Historiography is about the writing of history and the use of historical methods. Thus it looks at authors, sources, interpretation, style, bias, and audience. It is sometimes called "the history of history". The word historiography can also refer to a body of historical work. The history of written history. For thousands of years people have been telling stories about the past, and making written records of the actions of kings and prophets and other famous persons. After 500 BC, they began writing more organized histories. Hellenic world. Written history appeared first with the ancient Greeks, whose historians greatly contributed to the development of historical methodology. The very first historical works were "The Histories" composed by Herodotus of Halicarnassus (484 BC–ca.425 BC), who became later known as the 'father of history' (Cicero).  Thucydides was the first to distinguish between cause and immediate origins of an event, and his successor Xenophon (ca. 431–355 BC) introduced autobiographical elements and character studies in his Anabasis. Roman world. The Romans adopted the Greek tradition, becoming the first people to write history in a non-Greek language. The most famous writers are Julius Caesar's (100 BC–44 BC) "Bellum Gallicum". Livy (59 BC–AD 17) who records the rise of Rome from city-state to world dominion. Plutarch (c. 46 - 127) and Suetonius (c. 69-after 130) introduced biography as a branch of history. Tacitus (c. 56–c. 117) criticizes Roman immorality by praising German virtues. Medieval Europe. Writing history was popular among Christian monks and clergy in the Middle Ages. They wrote about the history of Jesus Christ, the Church and of their patrons, the dynastic history of the local rulers. In the Early Middles Ages historical writing often took the form of annals or chronicles recording events year by year but this style tended to hampered the analysis of events and causes. An example of this type of writing are Anglo-Saxon Chronicles which were the work of
The historical method are the techniques and guidelines by which historians use primary sources and other evidence to research and then to write history. Guidelines. Following Garraghan (in: "A Guide to Historical Method", 168) puts six questions that should be answered as minimal standard for a sound historical method:
A primary source is an original document or other material that has not been changed in any way. It is a reliable first-hand account usually written at or near the time the event(s) occurred. Usually it was produced by someone with direct personal knowledge of the events that are described. It is used as an original source of information about the topic. Primary sources are distinguished from secondary sources. Secondary sources are documents based on primary sources. Thus, a memoir of a participant in an event is a primary source, whilst a history of that event based on several memoirs is a secondary source. Different kinds of work have slightly different definitions of a primary source. In journalism, for example, a primary source can also be a person. - to primary sources repositories - to all sources repositories - to essays and descriptions of primary, secondary and other sources
A secondary source is a document or recording that writes or speaks about information that is one step removed from the original source.  The secondary source depends on the "primary source" or "original source" of the information. Secondary sources interpret, evaluate or discuss information found in primary sources. In historiography, a secondary source is a study written by a scholar about a topic. Secondary sources frequently cite primary sources and other secondary sources. They rarely cite tertiary sources. Example. A secondary source would be a book on 13th century politics, while Magna Carta itself would be a primary source. Many secondary sources use extensive citations in the form of footnotes or endnotes. Legal use. The main use of secondary sources in law is to explain the law. They also explain legal concepts. They are used to analyze and describe laws as well as comment on them. Judicial decisions and opinions by qualified experts are secondary sources.
Breinigerberg is a small village in the West of Germany, the state of North Rhine-Westphalia About 972 people live at the place. It is close to the "Naturpark Nordeifel", a large forest area in Germany, Belgium and the Netherlands. The road L12 passes through Breinigerberg splitting it into two parts.  In the last two centuries, Breinigerberg was famous for mining. Even the ancient Romans dug for ore in the area. It was used for the production of brass in the city of Stolberg. Today there is no more mining but the remains are still present. Big holes in the Schlangenberg area prove what had been left from the past. Today the Schlangenberg is a natural reserve protecting rare flowers and insects.
A document ("noun") is a piece of information that is used to communicate something. In the past it was usually a piece of paper that contained information written in ink, but documents are now often digital.  To document ("verb") means to produce an object by collecting and representing information, and has a slightly different pronunciation. Everyday use. When one views a document, they can see the connotations and denotations that appear in a search for document. From these usages, readers can infer one or more of the following typical contexts: Document life cycle management. Technology to manage documents has developed with documents themselves. They include practices for preserving, archiving, destroying, and managing documents. These together are called the "document life cycle"
The International Standard Book Number, ISBN, is a unique commercial book identifier barcode. The ISBN system was created in the United Kingdom, in 1966, by the booksellers and stationers W.H. Smith. Originally, it was the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering (SBN) code and still was used in 1974; it was adopted as the international standard ISO 2108 in 1970. A similar, numeric identification, the International Standard Serial Number (ISSN), identifies periodical publications such as magazines. Since January 1, 2007, ISBNs are of 13 digits, like in Bookland EAN-13. The TC 46/SC 9 is responsible for the standard. What is the international book publishing certificate? The international book publication certificate is originally issued by the international organization and institution that is the custodian and producer of the ISBN code. The international certificate of book publication is an online certificate that can be easily inquired about the authenticity of the certificate online with the certificate number in it. The ISBN number that is present in all books should not be confused with the international certificate of book publication. All books must have an ISBN number, but international book certificates cannot be obtained for all books. For what books can an international book publishing certificate be obtained? To receive this certificate, the most important criteria of the publisher's credibility is measured as follows: the number of indexing of the publisher in articles and international forums related to the publisher's documentation. The higher the number, the higher the chance of receiving a certificate. The fact that you have just published a book and taken a isbn will not lead to the issuance of a certificate from isbn-international.com. This site is very strict in reviewing. And the next criterion is the author, which is of course the next most important. When the publisher's documentation is strong, the probability of issuing a certificate increases. Of course, receiving the certificate is not certain. Overview. An ISBN is given to each edition and variation (except reprintings) of a book. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned after January 1, 2007, and 10 digits long if assigned before 2007. An International Standard
An index is a system used to make finding information easier. Index could also mean: In publications: In computers and information retrieval: Other:
Recording means to capture data to store it on a storage medium or record as a video format. Historical records of events have been made for thousands of years. Amongst the earliest are cave painting, runic alphabets and ideograms. Technology continues to provide and expand means for human beings to record their thoughts, feelings and experiences.
Pedro Santana is a municipality in the Dominican Republic, in the Elías Piña Province, on the border with Haiti, along the left side of the Artibonite river. Origin of the name. The town, and municipality, was named after "Pedro Santana", a general of the Independence wars and first president of the Dominican Republic. He was born in Hincha, now a Haitian city ("Hinche") near the border. Population. The municipality had, in 2010, a total population of 3,917: 2,120 men and 1,797 women. The urban population was of the total population. History. The old small town of "Los Cercadillos" was elevated, with the present name, to the category of municipal district of Bánica on 16 September 1942 and to the category of municipality by the Law 3208 of 3 March 1952. Geography. Pedro Santana has an area of and is at to the north of Bánica and at to the north of Comendador. The limits of the municipality are the Dajabón province to the northwest, the Santiago Rodríguez province to the northeast, the San Juan province to the east, the municipality of Bánica to the south and Haiti to the west. Administrative division. The municipality of Pedro Santana has only one municipal district; this is: Economy. The main economic activity of the municipality is farming.
The visual system is the part of the nervous system which allows organisms to see. It interprets the information from visible light to build a representation of the world surrounding the body. The visual system has the complex task of (re)constructing a three dimensional world from a two dimensional projection of that world. The psychological manifestation of visual information is known as visual perception. Introduction. This article mostly describes the visual system of mammals, although other "higher" animals have similar visual systems. In this case, the visual system consists of: Different species are able to see different parts of the light spectrum; for example, bees can see into the ultraviolet, while pit vipers can accurately target prey with their infrared imaging sensors.
Microform is a name given to special photographic films. Microforms contain reduced images of documents. Usually, documents stored on microform are reduced about 25 times. Microform is mainly used for archival purposes. There are three common formats: Properly stored (room temperature, 50% humidity), microform should be able to last up to 500 years.
An analog or analogue signal is any continuous signal.  The difference from a digital signal is that also very small fluctuations in the signal are meaningful. When one speaks of analog one often means an electrical context, however mechanical, pneumatic, hydraulic, and other systems may also convey analog signals. An analog signal uses some property of the medium to convey the signal's information.  Any information may be conveyed by an analog signal, often such a signal is a measured change in physical phenomena, such as sound, light, temperature, position, or pressure. For example, in sound recording, changes in air pressure (that is to say, sound) strike the diaphragm of a microphone which causes related changes in a voltage or the current in an electric circuit. The voltage or the current is said to be an "analog" of the sound. See digital for a discussion of "digital vs. analog".