ejaasaari/simplewiki-2025-04-01 huggingface dataset:
The Civil Rights Cases , were a group of five similar cases consolidated into one issue for the United States Supreme Court to review. The Court held that Congress lacked the constitutional authority under the Fourteenth Amendment to outlaw racial discrimination by private individuals and organizations, rather than state and local governments. The Court held that the Civil Rights Act of 1875, which provided that "all persons within the jurisdiction of the United States shall be entitled to the full and equal enjoyment of the accommodations, advantages, facilities, and privileges of inns, public conveyances on land or water, theaters, and other places of public amusement; subject only to the conditions and limitations established by law, and applicable alike to citizens of every race and color, regardless of any previous condition of servitude" was unconstitutional. Facts. The decision itself involved five consolidated cases (United States v. Stanley, United States v. Ryan, United States v. Nichols, United States v. Singleton, and Robinson v. Memphis &amp; Charleston Railroad 109 U.S. 3, 3 S. Ct. 18, 27 L. Ed. 835.) coming from different lower courts in which Black Americans had sued theaters, hotels and transit companies that had refused them service or excluded them from "white only" facilities. Decision of the Court.  The Court, in an 8-1 decision by Justice Joseph P. Bradley, held that the language of the 14th Amendment, which prohibited denial of equal protection by a state, did not give Congress power to regulate these private acts. This was because it was the result of conduct by private individuals, not state law or action, that blacks were suffering. Section five empowers Congress only to enforce the prohibition on state action. Legislation by Congress on subjects which are within the domain of the state are not authorized by the 14th Amendment. Private acts of racial discrimination were simply private wrongs that the national government was powerless to correct. Bradley commented that "individual invasion of individual rights is not the subject-matter of the [14th] Amendment. It has a deeper and broader scope. It nullifies and makes void all state legislation, and state action of every kind, which impairs the privileges and imm
The Civil Rights Act of 1875 (–337), sometimes called Enforcement Act or Force Act, was a United States federal law enacted during the Reconstruction era to guarantee African Americans equal treatment in public accommodations, public transportation, and to prevent being excluded from jury duty. The bill was passed by the 43rd United States Congress and signed into law by President Ulysses S. Grant on March 1, 1875. Several years later, the Supreme Court ruled in "Civil Rights Cases" (1833) that sections of the act were unconstitutional. History of Act. Legislative History. The drafting of the bill was done in early 1870 by Senator Charles Sumner. It was with the assistance of John Mercer Langston, a prominent African-American who established the law department at Howard University. The bill was proposed by Senator Sumner and co-sponsored by Representative Benjamin F. Butler, both Republicans from Massachusetts, in the 41st United States Congress in 1870. The act was eventually passed by the 43rd Congress in February 1875 and signed into law by President Ulysses S. Grant on March 1, 1875. Constitutional challenge. The Supreme Court, in an 8 to 1 decision, declared the act unconstitutional in the "Civil Rights Cases" on October 15, 1883. Justice John Marshall Harlan provided the lone dissent. The Court held the Equal Protection Clause within the Fourteenth Amendment prohibits discrimination by the state and local government, but it does not give the federal government the power to prohibit discrimination by private individuals and organizations. The Court also held that the Thirteenth Amendment was meant to eliminate "the badge of slavery," but not to prohibit racial discrimination in public accommodations. The Civil Rights Act of 1875 was the last civil rights bill to be signed into law in the United States until the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1957. Legacy of law. The Civil Rights Act of 1875 is notable as one of the major pieces of legislation related to Reconstruction that were passed by Congress after the American Civil War. These include the Civil Rights Act of 1866, the four Reconstruction Acts of 1867 and 1868,
Garner v. Louisiana, , was an important civil rights case argued by Thurgood Marshall before the Supreme Court. On December 11, 1961, the court ruled that Louisiana could not convict peaceful sit-in protesters who refused to leave dining establishments under the state's "disturbing the peace" laws.  Background. African-American students from Southern University sat at a "whites only" segregated lunch bar at Sitman's Drugstore in Baton Rouge, Louisiana. The manager called the Police after the students quietly remained even though they were asked to move to another counter. After ordering the black patrons to leave, the Police arrested them and charged them with disturbing the peace. The claim was that their behavior could "foreseeably disturb or alarm the public," according to the state's "disturbing the peace" statute. The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People defended the student demonstrators as did the Kennedy administration's Justice Department, which filed a legal brief on their behalf.  Opinion of the Court. In a 9-0 decision, the court ruled in the African-American students' favor, arguing the state violated due process of law under the Fourteenth Amendment and finding there was no evidence the students' behavior could have foreseeably disturbed the peace. In his written opinion, Justice John Marshall Harlan compared sit-in demonstrations to verbal expression as a form of free speech.  Justice William O. Douglas in his concurring opinion said, “For the police are supposed to be on the side of the Constitution, not on the side of discrimination. Yet if all constitutional questions are to be put aside and the problem treated merely in terms of disturbing the peace, I would have difficulty in reversing these judgments. I think, however, the constitutional questions must be reached and that they make reversal necessary.”  "Garner v. Louisiana" was an important case for the Civil Rights Movement, and one of many civil rights cases argued before the Warren Court (1953-69).  Eventually, the Civil Rights Act of 1964 "outlawed discrimination based on race, color, religion or national origin in hotels, motels, restaurants, theaters, and all other public accommodations engaged in interstate commerce."
The federal judiciary of the United States is one of the three co-equal branches of the Federal government of the United States organized under the United States Constitution. Article III of the Constitution requires the establishment of a Supreme Court and permits the Congress to create other federal courts, and place limitations on their jurisdiction. Article III United States federal judges are appointed by the President with the consent of the Senate to serve until they resign, are impeached and convicted, retire, or die. Courts. The federal courts are composed of three levels of courts. The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest court. It is generally an appellate court that operates under discretionary review, which means that the Court can choose which cases to hear, by granting of writs of certiorari. There is generally no right of appeal to the Supreme Court. In a few situations (like lawsuits between state governments or some cases between the federal government and a state) it sits as a court of original jurisdiction. The United States courts of appeals are the intermediate federal appellate courts. There are 13 appellate courts that determine if the law was applied correctly in trial courts. In some cases, Congress has diverted appellate jurisdiction to specialized courts, such as the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court of Review. There are 94 United States district courts. These are general federal trial courts, although in many cases Congress has diverted original jurisdiction to specialized courts, such as the Court of International Trade, the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court, the Alien Terrorist Removal Court, or to Article I or Article IV tribunals. The district courts usually have jurisdiction to hear appeals from such tribunals (unless, for example, appeals are to the Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit.)
Rob Paulsen (born March 11, 1956) is an American voice actor, singer and former movie and television actor. He was starred as the cast member for "Saturday Night Live" (1981-1982) and he has done many voice roles in various movies, television programs and video games. He is best known for his roles as Brain from "Pinky and the Brain", P.J. in "A Goofy Movie" and "Goof Troop", Carl Wheezer from "The Adventures of Jimmy Neutron Boy Genius", Raphael (1987) and Donatello (2012) from "Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles" and Yakko Warner and Dr. Otto Scratchansniff from "Animaniacs".
Capital punishment has existed in the United States before it became a country. As of 2021, capital punishment is legal in 27 out of 50 states. The federal government and the United States military have capital punishment. The United States is the only Western country that has capital punishment. History. Colonial America. Virginia. Before the United States became an independent country, it was a colony of the British Empire. The first known death sentence in colonial America happened in 1608. Captain George Kendall was executed by firing squad at the Jamestown colony after being accused of spying for the Spanish government. In colonial America, people could be executed for many things. In the Jamestown colony, the first set of rules and punishments the colony's Lieutenant Governor wrote was very strict. There were 48 different capital crimes (crimes that were punishable by death). They included: When some colonists decided they did not like these strict rules, they ran away from the colony to live with nearby Native Americans. They were brought back to the colony, tortured, and executed. The Thirteen Colonies. Each of the Thirteen Colonies came up with its own death penalty laws. For example, in the Massachusetts Bay Colony, which was mostly Puritan, laws were harsh. Under its first capital punishment laws, which were effective from 1636-1647, people were executed for sodomy, adultery, witchcraft, blasphemy, bestiality, assault, rape, statutory rape, perjury in a capital trial, and murder. Later, the colony continued to execute people for witchcraft, including 20 people during the Salem Witch Trials. They also executed people for being Quakers and pirates. Under the New York colony's Duke's Laws of 1665, a person could be executed for "denial of the one true God" or for hitting their mother or father. Some colonies were not as strict. For example, the New Jersey colony had no death penalty, and in the Pennsylvania colony only murder and treason were capital crimes. Revolutionary War era. By 1776, most of the colonies had similar laws about the death penalty. In most colonies, the capital crimes were arson, piracy, treason, murder, sod
Marcelo Martins Moreno (born 18 June 1987 in Santa Cruz de la Sierra, Bolivia), known as Marcelo Martins or Marcelo Moreno, is a Bolivian former professional footballer. He played as a striker for the Bolivia national football team. "Scores and results list Bolivia's goal tally first, score column indicates score after each Moreno goal". Honours. Vitória Cruzeiro Shakhtar Donetsk Werder Bremen Flamengo Individual
CRISPR is a term in DNA research. It stands for "clustered regularly-interspaced short palindromic repeats". These are part of the genetic code in prokaryotes: most bacteria and archaea have it. It is their defence against attack by viruses. Its structure and function was discovered in the 21st century. CRISPR has a lot of short repeated sequences. These sequences are part of an adaptive immune system for prokaryotes. It allows them to remember and counter the bacteriophages which prey on them. They work as a kind of acquired immunity for bacteria. They can modify the genes of almost any organism. They are used by researchers as a tool to cut and insert genes in genetic modification (GM). Work is under way to find how they can be used to attack virus diseases in humans (gene therapy). How it works. Each repetition is followed by short segments of "spacer DNA". These come from previous exposures to a bacterial virus or plasmid. CRISPR spacers "recognize and cut up the foreign genetic elements" in a manner like RNA interference in eukaryotic organisms. In effect, the spacers are fragments of DNA from viruses that have previously tried to attack the cell line. The foreign source of the spacers was a sign to researchers that the CRISPR/cas system could have a role in adaptive immunity in bacteria. The actual cutting is done by a nuclease called Cas9. "Cas9" has two active cutting sites, one for each strand of the DNA's double helix. "Cas9" does this by unwinding foreign DNA and checking whether it is complementary to the 20 basepair spacer region of the guide RNA (the spacer region RNA). If it is, the foreign DNA gets chopped up. Applications. CRISPR is an anti-viral defensive system which originated in bacteria and archaea. Gene editing is a human exploitation of CRISPR. The technology has been used to switch off genes in human cell lines and cells, to study "Candida albicans", to modify yeasts used to make biofuel and to genetically modify crop strains. The CRISPR-Cas9 system cuts
Tayap is a small village in Cameroon. It is from Yaoundé, the capital city. It is from Douala, the biggest city of the country. The climate is equatorial. It is usually hot, . It is often wet. There are four different seasons. In 2005, 272 people lived in Tayap. The village has a primary school. It has 4 classrooms. Most people work in agriculture. They produce manioc, bananas, oranges, mangoes, vegetables, peanuts, cocoa and palm oil. The village is surrounded by a large forest but deforestation is a major problem in this area. Since 2011 Tayap focuses on biodiversity and ecology. It tries to develop new activities such as tourism.
A justice of the peace (JP) is a judicial officer, elected or appointed to a local court that has limited jurisdiction. In some locations a JP deals with traffic violations, parking tickets and may have the authority to perform marriages ceremonies. In many places they are the entry-level courts that most criminal cases pass through. JP courts were popular in early history, but are now found mostly in rural areas. Otherwise people would have to travel longer distances to other courts of law. History. In 1195, a proclamation of Richard I of England local knights were appointed to keep order. In 1264, "Keepers of the Peace were appointed in every county to serve the king. Such men were called "Justice of the Peace" beginning in about 1362. When colonists came to British North America they brought with them the common law system that included JPs. In France, "Lords of the Court" administered justice. After 1789, justices of the peace were elected.  Requirements. While the requirements vary from one jurisdiction to another, generally, to become a JP there are few if any educational requirements. An application is filled out and usually there is a fee. Justices may be chosen by their qualifications and references. Many have law degrees while others may have taken a few law classes.
Garry Emmanuel Shandling (November 29, 1949 – March 24, 2016) was an American comedian, actor, writer, producer and director. He was best known for his work in "It's Garry Shandling's Show" and "The Larry Sanders Show". Early life. Shandling was born Garry Emmanuel Shandling in Chicago, Illinois on November 29, 1949. He was raised in Tucson, Arizona. He studied at the University of Arizona. Career. Shandling began his career in 1975. He started writing for sitcoms such as "Sanford and Son" and "Welcome Back, Kotter". He began his career in comedy when he was on "The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson" and was on the show many times.  Shandling was for a thought to replace Carson (other hopefuls were Joan Rivers, David Letterman and David Brenner). In 1986, he created "It's Garry Shandling's Show", for the pay cable channel Showtime. It was nominated for four Emmy Awards (including one for Shandling) and lasted until 1990. His second show, "The Larry Sanders Show", which began airing on HBO in 1992, was even more successful.  Shandling was nominated for 18 Emmy Awards for the show and won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Writing for a Comedy Series in 1998, along with Peter Tolan, for writing the series finale. In movies, Shandling had the same role as Senator Stern in the Marvel Cinematic Universe, appearing in "Iron Man 2" and "", as well as a voice in DreamWorks Animation's "Over the Hedge". His last movies were "" (2015) and "The Jungle Book" (2016). Personal life. Shandling was in a relationship with Linda Doucett from 1987 through 1994. He lived in Los Angeles, California.  Death. Shandling died in Los Angeles from a pulmonary embolism caused by thrombosis in his leg on March 24, 2016. He was aged 66. Awards. During his career, Shandling was nominated for 19 Primetime Emmy Awards and two Golden Globe Awards, along with many other awards and nominations. He served as host of the Grammy Awards four times and as host of the Emmy Awards three times.
A flame fougasse (fougasse or foo gas) is a type of mine or improvised explosive device. It uses an explosive charge to put burning liquid onto a target. The flame fougasse was developed in Britain as an anti-tank weapon in the World War II invasion crisis of 1940. During that period, about 50,000 flame fougasse barrels were put in some 7,000 batteries. Most were in southern England and some in Scotland. Although never used in combat in Britain, the design saw action later in Greece.
Katzenbach v. McClung, 379 U.S. 294 (1964), is a landmark decision by the United States Supreme Court. The Court held that Congress acted within its power under the Commerce Clause of the United States Constitution in forbidding racial discrimination in restaurants as this was a burden to interstate commerce. The ruling was a 9–0 decision in favor of the plaintiff—the United States government. It was also a test case of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. In particular,  Background. Ollie's Barbecue was a family-owned restaurant that operated in Birmingham, Alabama, that seated 220 customers. It was located on a state highway and was 11 city blocks from an interstate highway. In a typical year, approximately half of the food it purchased from a local supplier came from out-of-state. It catered to local families and white-collar workers. However, they refused to serve African American customers in the restaurant. About 24 of the 36 employees of the restaurant were black. Congress passed the Civil Rights Act of 1964 outlawing segregation in American schools and public places. One section of the act, Title II, was specifically intended to grant African-Americans full access to public facilities such as hotels, restaurants, and public recreation areas. On the same day, the Supreme Court heard challenges to Title II from a motel owner and from Ollie McClung. Both claimed that the federal government had no right to impose any regulations on small, private businesses. Both ultimately lost. Ollie McClung had won in the United States District Court for the Northern District of Alabama when he received an injunction preventing the Government from enforcing Title II against his restaurant. But then U.S. Attorney General Nicholas Katzenbach, appealed this decision to the U.S. Supreme Court. Opinion of the Court. McClung argued that the Civil Rights Act was unconstitutional, at least as applied to a small, private business such as his. McClung further argued that the amount of food purchased by Ollie's that actually crossed state lines (about half of the food at Ollie's) was so small that Ollie's effectively had no effect on interstate commerce (although McClung admitted that
Case citation is a system used by legal professionals to identify past court case decisions. These are found either in series of books called reporters or law reports, or in a neutral style that identifies a decision regardless of where it is reported. Case citations are formatted differently in different jurisdictions, but generally contain the same key information. A legal citation is a "reference to a legal precedent or authority, such as a case, statute, or work, that either agrees with or contradicts a given position". Where cases are published on paper, the citation usually contains the following information: In some report series, for example in England and Australia, volumes are not numbered independently of the year. So the year and volume number (usually no greater than 4) are required to identify which book of the series has the case reported within its covers. In such citations, it is usual in these jurisdictions to apply square brackets "" to the year (which may not be the year that the case was decided, For example, a case decided in December 2001 may have been reported in 2002). The Internet brought with it the opportunity for courts to publish their decisions on websites. Decisions of many courts from all over the world can now be found through the website WorldLII and its member institutes. Most court decisions are not published on paper. The large number of court decisions found online resulted in a flood of information. The result was that a medium-neutral citation system was adopted. This usually contains the following information: Rather than utilizing page numbers for "pinpoint references", which would depend upon particular printers and browsers, pinpoint quotations refer to paragraph numbers. The conjunction "versus" is abbreviated to "v" in Commonwealth countries and to "v." in the United States. Pronunciation of case titles. In common law countries with an adversarial system of justice, the names of the opposing parties are separated in the case title by the abbreviation "v." The abbreviation represents the Latin word "versus", which means "against". When case titles are read out loud, the "v." can be pronounced, depending on the context, as "and", "against", "versus", or "vee".
Barisal Zilla School is a boys school located in Barisal, Bangladesh. It is one of the oldest and top ranked high schools in the country and the first high school in Barisal Division. It was founded by an Englishman, N. W. Garret, on 23 December 1829 with only 8 students. Now it has more than two thousand students.