ejaasaari/simplewiki-2025-04-01 huggingface dataset:
A metamorphic rock is a type of rock which has been changed by extreme heat and pressure. Its name is from 'morph' (meaning form), and 'meta' (meaning change). The original rock gets heated (temperatures greater than 150 to 200 °C) and pressured (1500 bars). This causes profound physical and/or chemical change. The original rock may be sedimentary rock, igneous rock or another older metamorphic rock. There is always more pressure and higher temperature under the Earth's surface. In the root of a mountain chain or a volcano these forces will be enough to change shape of the strata and the minerals it is made of. Sedimentary rock which has been near such forces often looks as if a giant had twisted it and heated it over a fire. Examples of metamorphic rock: The recrystallisation of minerals after heating generally causes the destruction of any fossils the rocks might have contained. These rocks are formed when igneous or sedimentary rocks are subjected to extreme heat and pressure. As a result, they undergo a complete change in their form and characteristics. Rocks who have been changed in this way are called metamorphic rocks. Types of metamorphism. Regional metamorphism. Regional metamorphism, or dynamic metamorphism, occurs in great masses of rock. Rocks can be metamorphosed just by being at great depths below the Earth's surface. There they get high temperatures and the great weight of the rock layers above. Much of the lower continental crust is metamorphic, except for recent igneous intrusions. Horizontal tectonic movements such as the collision of continents create orogenic belts. High temperature, pressures and deformation occurs along these belts. If the metamorphosed rocks are later uplifted and exposed by erosion, they are seen as long belts or other large areas at the surface. Contact metamorphism. Contact metamorphism occurs when magma is injected into the surrounding solid rock (country rock). The changes that occur are greatest where the magma comes into contact with the rock. The temperatures were highest there and decreased with distance from it. Metamorphic minerals. Every mineral is stable only within certain limits. When certain minerals appear in metamorphic rocks this shows the approximate temperatures and pressures
Extrusive means to the mode of igneous volcanic rock formation in which hot magma from inside the Earth flows out (extrudes) onto the surface as lava or explodes violently into the atmosphere to fall back as pyroclastics or tuff. This is opposed to intrusive rock formation, in which magma does not reach the surface. Extruded when talking about an artificial material like soft metals like aluminium, plastic or glass means that it is pushed out of a nozzle when the material is in a soft state. The shape of the nozzle will vary depending on the shape required in the finished product
An intrusion is magma (melted rock) which cools and becomes solid under the Earth's surface. It occurs when there are lines of weakness such as faults, joints, or bedding planes in the crust. Then magma enters these lines of weakness. By contrast, an extrusion is magma which cools into rock above the surface of the crust. Both intrusive and extrusive rocks are classed as igneous rocks. The process of forming intrusive rocks may take millions of years. As the rock slowly cools into a solid, the different parts of the magma crystallize into minerals. The crystals are usually larger than in extrusive rocks. Many mountain ranges, such as the Sierra Nevada in California, are formed mostly by intrusive rock. Often they are huge granite (or related rock) formations. Intrusions vary widely, from mountain range sized batholiths to thin vein-like fracture fillings. When exposed by erosion, these cores called batholiths may occupy huge areas of Earth's surface. Large bodies of magma that solidify underground before they reach the surface of the crust are called plutons. Intrusive structures may go between bedding planes of earlier 'country' rock. A sill is an intrusion which makes a table along bedding planes. A dyke is an intrusion which moves up, crossing older strata.
Radiation pressure is the pressure exerted upon any surface exposed to electromagnetic radiation. If absorbed, the pressure is the energy flux density divided by the speed of light. If the radiation is totally reflected, the radiation pressure is doubled. This happens because the waves that make up electromagnetic radiation carry momentum with them and pass that momentum on when they reach a surface. A Crookes radiometer appears to demonstrate the pressure of light, but instead it demonstrate the energy that light brings to a surface. The black side of each paddle absorbs most of the light's energy an causes the air near that surface to have a higher pressure. So, while a Crookes radiometer turns because of pressure, it is air pressure caused by the heat energy that light brings to the device.  Solar radiation at Earth. The solar radiation at Earth's distance from the Sun has an energy flux density of 1370 W/m2, and more than half of this energy reaches surface. A calculation shows that this value of the flux would cause on an absorbing surface to experience 4.6 µPa of radiation pressure. A convenient way to compare the Sun's energy flux and radiation pressure is to imagine the pressure and energy deposited on one square meter: Power = formula_1 (or about 1.4 kilowatts.)  Force = formula_2 To understand how small a micro-newton is, convert calculate how much mass you need on Earth to get that force using formula_3: Mass = formula_4 (or about ½ milligram.) The difference between the energy flux and the pressure is like the difference between the heat coming through a large window and the weight of a very small mosquito.
Kirkwood gaps are areas of the asteroid belt where asteroids are unusually scarce, as seen in the . They are caused by orbital resonances with Jupiter. The gaps were first noticed in 1857 by Daniel Kirkwood, who also correctly explained their origin in the orbital resonances with Jupiter while a professor at Jefferson College in Canonsburg, Pennsylvania.
Ca-Al-rich inclusions (CAIs) are inclusions found in carbonaceous chondrites. These inclusions are about long. They are light-colored and made of calcium and aluminum. High-temperature minerals are often found in CAIs. These objects are among the first solid objects to be created by the cooling of a protoplanetary disk. CAIs are formed at much higher temperatures than the associated chondrules. They may have survived many high-temperature events while most chondrules are created in a single melting event. The isotopic anomalies of CAIs give important information about the creation of the solar system. The studying of them suggests that the solar nebula collapsed soon after a nearby supernova. Radiometric dating shows that the CAIs formed about 2 million years before the chondrules formed.
Eucrites are achondritic stony meteorites that originate from the surface of the asteroid 4 Vesta, and as such are part of the HED meteorite group. They are the most common achondrite group with well over 100 distinct finds at present. Eucrites consist of basaltic rock from the crust of 4 Vesta. They are mostly made up of Ca-poor pyroxene, pigeonite, and Ca-rich plagioclase (anorthite). Eucrites are named from a Greek word meaning "easily distinguished".
Comet 81P/Wild, also known as Wild 2, is a comet named after Swiss astronomer Paul Wild (pronounced "Vilt"), who discovered it in 1978. It is believed that for most of its 4.5 billion-year lifetime, Wild 2 had a more distant and circular orbit. In 1974, it passed within only about one million kilometers of the planet Jupiter, whose strong gravitational pull altered the comet's orbit and brought it into the inner solar system. Its orbital period changed from 40 years to about 6 years, and its perihelion is now about 1.59 AU (astronomical unit).
A shell is a type of projectile used in weapons. It is filled with explosive or other things such as an incendiary device. It is similar to a bomb but is made to be shot out of a gun. Shells are usually large caliber projectiles fired by artillery, armored vehicles (including tanks), and warships. A fuze detonates the explosive or releases whatever else the shell may be carrying. Anti-tank guns fire thick shells without much explosive inside. Shells usually have the shape of a cylinder but taper towards the front end to form a point. However, special shells may use other shapes.
An ion thruster is a type of spacecraft thruster. It works by using static electricity or magnetism to push ions (atoms that have an electric charge) out of the back of the spacecraft. It takes a very long time for the spacecraft to speed up, but the fuel is used very efficiently. A thruster that has very high efficiency is said to have a high specific impulse. It has to be carried into outer space by a regular rocket, because the ions don't push hard enough for it to escape the Earth's atmosphere, but after it gets to outer space it can travel a very long way. An ion thruster needs lots of electricity to work, so the spacecraft needs a very good way of producing electricity, such as solar panels or a nuclear reactor. Ion thrusters are good for travelling between things in space that are very far away from each other. One example of this is interplanetary travel. Ion thrusters are good for this because they are efficient and can thrust for very long times. Chemical rocket thrusters ("regular" rocket thrusters) can only burn for short times, because they use fuel quickly and not efficiently. Because of this, chemical rockets only thrust for short times at important places during the journey. Ion thrusters use fuel very slowly and very efficiently. This means that ion thrusters can thrust continuously for the entire journey. In a slightly surprising way, this makes spacecraft that use ion thrusters faster than spacecraft that use chemical rockets. Ion thrusters have been used on small space probes. In 2011 the NASA space probe called Dawn used an ion thruster to get to the asteroid named Vesta. In 2015 the thruster brought Dawn to the dwarf planet named Ceres.
A pistol is a handgun. The word may be used broadly to mean any handgun, or narrowly to mean only a magazine pistol, as distinct from a revolver.  Overview. In a magazine pistol, the cartridges are in a magazine, which is a metal or plastic box. The magazine is usually inside the handle of the pistol. When the pistol is fired, the empty cartridge pops out, and the next one comes up into position. The magazine is spring-loaded so it pushes the next bullet into place as the empty cartridge is ejected. For that reason pistols are sometimes called "semi-automatic". When the magazine runs out of cartridges, it can be reloaded by inserting more cartridges. Name. The term has long been variously used. For example, in the American Old West revolvers were used but were then (and even today by some) called pistols. The word "pistol" entered English before 1600, from the French. At that time it usually meant a single-shot handgun. Safety. One of the most important rules of gun safety is to keep guns out of the hands of children. Guns should be locked up and kept away from children and others who do not appreciate how deadly they are. Pistols like all guns should always be handled carefully. Always keep the gun pointed in a safe direction. A shooter should keep their fingers away from the trigger until the moment they intend to shoot. Always respect guns as a tool that can cause harm if used incorrectly. Always handle a gun like it is loaded, even though you may think it is not. A bullet is not the only part of a gun that can cause injury. Hearing protection will protect the eardrums of the shooter and those nearby. These can be inexpensive foam earplugs or more costly hearing protectors that have a Noise Reduction Rating or NRR. The higher the NRR number the better. Eye protection should be worn at all times while shooting or observing other shooters. Their impact-resistant lenses protect against bullet fragments, stray bits of gunpowder, and other debris. Goods and bads. The advantage of pistols over revolvers lies in the somewhat faster reloading of magazines that carry more bullets that a revolver's five or six rounds. This is
A submachine gun is a type of gun that shoots many bullets, usually pistol bullets, when one holds down the trigger. A submachine gun is smaller than a machine gun and can easily be carried by one person. They are often used where people need to defend themselves in small areas, or people need to fire many bullets quickly. The first submachine guns were invented in the early 1900s. They are often used by the police and counter-terrorism units . History. In the early 20th century, experiments were made by converting pistols from semi to fully automatic firearms. Automatic weapons with gunstock and firing pistol rounds were developed around the same time during World War I, by Italy, Germany, and the United States. The first dedicated designs were developed in the latter stages of World War I both as improvements on earlier stocked pistols, and to offer an advantage in trench warfare. They were popularized in the 1920s and '30s as weapon of choice of American gangsters and police, in the form of the famous Thompson submachine gun, commonly referred to as the "Tommy Gun". Submachine guns rose to prominence as a frontline close-quarters combat weapon and commando firearm during World War II. They are now widely used by police SWAT, military commando, paramilitary, and counter-terror team members for a variety of situations.  Submachine guns are highly effective in close quarters; their lower-powered pistol cartridges make them generally more controllable in fully-automatic fire compared to assault rifles, while their small size and light weight grant maneuverability. However, pistol bullets often are stopped by body armor or cover, and are short-ranged compared to intermediate and rifle cartridges. World War II developments. World War II developments were many and interesting. In Germany the development of machine carbines ("Maschinenkarabiner") was notable. From 1939 onwards the German Army analyzed combat conditions and developed new tactics and equipment requirements. The existing 7.92x57mm rifle cartridge was more powerful and long ranged than needed. Most combat took place at ranges less than 400 m (440 yards). A less powerful round (bullet) could be used. This meant a soldier could carry more ammunition,
Elena Vladimirovna Pitjeva is a Russian theoretical physicist at the Institute of Applied Astronomy, Russian Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg. She is noted for her work on ephemerides and is currently head of the Laboratory of Ephemeris Astronomy at the Institute of Applied Astronomy. Pitjeva is a member of the International Astronomical Union Commission 4: Ephemerides. Education. Pitjeva earned her undergraduate degree from the Faculty of Mathematics and Mechanics at A. A. Zhdanov Leningrad State University in 1972 in the specialty of astronomy. She earned an M.A. in theoretical physics in 1994 and a Ph.D. in theoretical physics in 2005. She was a student of Professor G.A. Krasinski.
The Socialist Reich Party of Germany (German: "Sozialistische Reichspartei Deutschlands") was a political party in West Germany. It was formed in 1949. It was openly Neo-Nazi and admired Hitler. It split from the German Empire Party. Leaders included Otto Ernst Remer, a former Major General, and Fritz Dorls. The SRP claimed West Germany's first Chancellor, Konrad Adenauer was a crony or puppet leader who was beholden to the United States, and that Karl Dönitz (who Hitler named as his successor in 1945) had been the last legally legitimate leader of Germany. The SRP also falsely maintained that the Holocaust never happened, and for example, spread disinformation that the ovens used to cremate the murdered victims in the Dachau concentration camp were in fact built by United States military authorities after occupying Germany in 1945. The SRP wanted Europe to be dominated by a reunited Germany, a restored Reich that would neither be capitalist like West Germany or communist like East Germany. The SRP never openly criticized the Soviet Union, and it is likely because the Soviets secretly funded the party to discredit and destabilize West Germany and its US allies.  The SRP had its own paramilitary organization, the Reichsfront. The SRP had about ten thousand members and, in 1952, won 16 seats in the Lower Saxony Landtag election, and 8 seats in Bremen. It was banned in 1952 by the Federal Constitutional Court of Germany, the only court in West Germnay with the power to do so.
The International Fight League was an American mixed martial arts (MMA) league and is the world's first MMA league. It was founded on January 7, 2006 and closed on July 31, 2008. Instead of the established norm for MMA events, where matchups are strictly one-on-one affairs, each IFL card was a showdown between two teams of five fighters, each fighter fighting one match against another on the opposing team. The IFL was shown in the United States on Fox Sports Net and MyNetworkTV.
Anton Pavlovich Chekhov (January 29, 1860 - July 15, 1904) was a Russian writer who wrote short stories and plays. Early life. Anton Chekhov was born in Taganrog, which is a city in Russia. His father, Pavel, was the owner of a grocery store. His mother, Yevgeniya, sometimes told Anton stories about her childhood. In 1876, Chekhov's father went bankrupt. From then on, Chekhov's family was very poor. Anton Chekhov had to pay for his own education. He paid for it by tutoring (teaching) other students, catching birds and selling them, and writing short stories for newspapers. When he had extra money, he sent it to his family. While he was at school, he read many books by famous authors, for example Miguel de Cervantes and Arthur Schopenhauer. In 1879, Chekhov went to Moscow University. Writing career. While he was at Moscow University, Chekhov wrote many short stories to pay for his schooling and to help his family. In 1886, one of the most famous newspapers in Russia, "New Times", asked him to write stories for them. Soon, his stories started to get famous, and other writers read his work and liked it. He wrote a book of stories called "At Dusk" that won the Pushkin Prize, an award for good writing. In 1887, Chekhov wrote a play called "Ivanov". Chekhov did not like the play, but critics loved it. In 1890, Chekhov went to Sakhalin Island, a penal colony (prison). He talked to many prisoners and found out that they were treated very badly. The prisoners were often beaten. There were also children there. He was angry, and wrote about it in a book called "The Island Of Sakhalin" and in a short story called "The Murder". In 1892, he bought a house and some land near Moscow called Melikhovo. While he was there, he helped the people who lived nearby. He brought them food and
Labour and Social Justice – The Electoral Alternative ( or WASG) was a German political party founded in 2005 by people who did not like the Social Democratic–Green government. On 16 June 2007, it merged with The Left Party.PDS to form the a party The Left ("Die Linke") party. At the time of its merger with The Left Party.PDS about 11,600 people were members.
The Deutsche Reichspartei (DRP) ("German Reich Party", "German Imperial Party" or "German Empire Party") was a nationalist political party in West Germany. It was a merger of the German Conservative Party - Deutsche Right Party (DKP-DRP) and the old Hessian Nationaldemokratischen Partei (NDP). Some of the DRP's founders were: Alexander Andrae, Oskar Lutz, Hans Bernd von Grünberg, Wilhelm Meinberg, Otto Heß, Hans Schikora, Heinrich Kunstmann, Adolf von Thadden. In 1949 the Sozialistische Reichspartei (SRP) split from the DRP. This was because the Empire Party was not neo-Nazi, and did not want to be associated with Adolf Hitler. Instead the party preferred to say how good the Second German Empire (1870-1919) was.  The Deutsche Reichspartei did become more national socialist after 1952. This is when the Sozialistische Reichspartei was banned by the Federal Constitutional Court of Germany and a lot of its members re-joined the Empire Party. The party was not very successful in the 1950s, but seemed to be getting more popular after the state elections of 1959. But the success did not last, and the party held its final conference in 1964 when it was dissolved. It was quickly replaced by the new Nationaldemokratische Partei Deutschlands.
is a prefecture in the Kyūshū region of Japan on the island of Kyūshū. The capital city is Fukuoka. History. The area of Fukuoka Prefecture includes the old provinces of Chikugo, Chikuzen, and Buzen. Geography. Fukuoka Prefecture faces the sea on three sides. The prefecture borders Saga, Ōita, and Kumamoto prefectures. Fukuoka is near Yamaguchi Prefecture across the Kanmon Straits. Fukuoka includes the two largest cities on Kyūshū, Fukuoka and Kitakyūshū. Small islands are near the north coast of the prefecture. Cities. There are 28 cities in the prefecture: Towns and villages. These are the towns and villages in each district of the prefecture National Parks. National Parks are established in about 18% of the total land area of the prefecture. Shrines and Temples. "Kōra taisha", "Sumiyoshi-jinja", "Hakosagi-gū" and "Usa-jinjū" are the chief Shinto shrines ("ichinomiya") in the prefecture.
Evening Prayer (often called Evensong), in the Anglican Church, is the traditional service when people come to church to worship in the late afternoon or early evening. In cathedrals in Britain and in some of the old university chapels it is a service that is sung by a choir nearly every day of the week (there is usually one day of the week when there is no choir and everything is spoken). In cathedrals it is usually just the choir and the priests who sing, while the congregation listen. There is sometimes one hymn at the end in which the congregation can join in. Evensong in churches will have more singing for the congregation to join in. Development and meaning of Evensong. The form of Evensong used today was developed by Thomas Cranmer in the 16th century. There were two kinds of services, called "vespers" and "compline" that used to be sung every day by monks in monasteries. Cranmer took some of the words that were used in both these services and made today's form of Evening Prayer (Evensong). The main idea in Evensong is the celebration of the incarnation of Christ: this is the story about Christ coming to the world in the form of a person and living among people. The words of the Magnificat and the Nunc Dimittis are always used in the service. The Magnificat is the song that Mary sang when she was told that she was going to have a baby who would be God’s son. The Nunc Dimittis is the song that was sung by the priest Simeon who had been promised by God that he would live long enough to see Jesus. Both these sets of words are from the New Testament. Many churches now use the words from "Common Worship" or some other modern prayer book for their services. However, when Evensong is sung by a choir the words used are usually from the old traditional "Book of Common Prayer" (1662). This is because, for more than four centuries, so much great music has been composed that uses these words. Because there is no communion at evensong, the service can be led
The Regierender Bürgermeister () of Berlin is the head of government of the city. The Governing Mayor is the equivalent of the Minister President of the bigger States of Germany. The Regierender Bürgermeister is elected by the Abgeordentenhaus (). He then appoints up to eight Senators. The Senators are ministers in charge of the departments of the city government. Two of the senators are also Mayors. The Mayors are the deputies of the Governing Mayor.