ejaasaari/simplewiki-2025-04-01 huggingface dataset:
Ecosystem valuation is a widely used tool to find out the impact of human activities on an environmental system. It is done by giving an economic value to an ecosystem or its ecosystem services. Value of ecosystem services. The simplest form of ecosystem valuation is that one looks at an ecosystem as if its ecological yield had the same value as it would be on markets where raw or primary products are exchanged. That means one looks at the value of water, wood, fish or game, that is produced in that ecosystem. A price can be put on the natural capital of an ecosystem based on the value of natural resources it yields each year.  More complex arguments in ecosystem valuation regard nature's services and the assignment of values in a service economy to all that nature does "for humans". Studies compiled by Robert Costanza in the 1990s argued strongly that even just considering the most basic seventeen of these services, the combined value of the ecosystems of the earth was worth more (US$33T) each year than the whole human exchange economy (US$25T) in 1995. Other studies have focused on the marginal value of ecosystem changes, which can be used in cost-benefit analysis of environmental policies. In Natural Capitalism, 1999, Paul Hawken, Amory Lovins and Hunter Lovins advanced an argument to assign the value of Earth in current currency.  Four types of values can be assigned to ecosystems (Pearce and Turner, 1990): Methods to estimate the value of ecosystem services which cannot be derived from market prices include "stated preference" methods and "revealed preference" methods. Stated preference methods, such as the contingent valuation method ask people for their willingness to pay for a certain ecosystem (service). Revealed preference methods, such as hedonic pricing and the travel cost method, use a relation with a market good or service to estimate the willingness-to-pay for the service. Is valuation economics, or ecology? Such valuation, and that of the effectiveness of various environmental health measures that affect the value of life and quality of life, are usually thought to be part of economics. Natural capital and individual capital are studied in ecology as living systems, however, this does not extend to the economics
An economist is someone who studies or works in the field of economics. Economics is the study of how people make choices to satisfy their wants. According to Frédéric Bastiat: "There is only one difference between a bad economist and a good one: the bad economist confines himself to the visible effect; the good economist takes into account both the effect that can be seen and those effects that must be foreseen."
The Conservative Party (informally as the Tory Party) is the main right wing, sometimes centre-right, political party in the United Kingdom. Their policies usually promote conservatism. The party has generally had liberal economic policies that favour free market economics. The party is British unionist, historically opposing Irish reunification, Scottish and Welsh independence, and is generally critical of devolution. History. 19th century. The party was founded in 1834 by Robert Peel out of the old Tory Party, which was founded in 1678. During the 1800s, the party was one of the two main political parties along with the Liberal Party. In 1846, the party split over the repeal of the 'Corn Laws', which was favoured by Robert Peel and most top Conservatives but was disliked by backbencher Conservative MPs. Following the repeal, the Peel government fell and Robert Peel and his followers went on to join the Liberal Party. Because of this, the Conservatives were not able to form a majority government for twenty-eight years. Under the leadership of Benjamin Disraeli, the party created a philosophy which supported the British Empire, the Church of England, the monarchy and social reforms, which took the party into power from 1874 to 1880. In 1886, the Liberal Party split over whether Ireland should be given independence. Those who did not support it became known as the Liberal Unionists and they joined with the Conservatives. This alliance meant that the Conservatives were in power for most of the period 1885–1906, under Lord Salisbury and then Arthur Balfour. Early and middle 20th century. By 1906, the Conservatives had another split, this time about the issue of 'tariff reform' and as a result, the party was defeated in a landslide at the 1906 General Election by the Liberal Party. In 1912, the Conservative Party formally joined with the Liberal Unionist Party to create the modern-day Conservative and Unionist Party, however this is usually shortened to Conservative Party. The party was in a coalition with the Liberal Party from 1916 to 1922, and was mostly in power from 1922 to 1929 under Stanley Baldwin.
A sandwich is a food prepared by placing different kinds of foods between two pieces of bread. The pieces of bread in a sandwich are referred to as slices or sheets of bread. Between the slices of bread, people often add in vegetables, meat, or cheese. The sandwich is thought to have been made first for the Earl of Sandwich, hence the name.  Many people enjoy the sandwich as it is easy and quick to make in a hurry. Also, the sandwich can be easily eaten with one hand without utensils which allows consumers to have a hand free to do other things. Some people prefer to eat a sandwich with both hands. In many countries, children eat sandwiches for lunch at school. The sandwiches are put in a lunchbox and often wrapped in cling film to keep them fresh. Variations. A sandwich is not limited to a single layer of filling between two pieces of bread. It can have more than one layer of filling and bread. Each layer of filling is commonly referred to as a "deck". For instance, a single decker sandwich would be the standard two slices of bread and one layer of filling. A double decker sandwich will have three slices of bread with two layers of fillings. Generally one piece, is one piece of bread cut in two with a filling between each piece.  The double decker sandwich is so called because each layer of filling forms a deck, much like a double decker bus. A club sandwich is a double decker sandwich with chicken, bacon and salad. A triple decker sandwich would consist of four slices of bread with three layers of fillings. The BLT is a common type of sandwich filled with bacon, lettuce, and tomato. If there is only one piece of bread it is sometimes called an open sandwich. Open sandwiches are very common in Scandinavian countries. In Denmark "smørrebrød" is an open sandwich. Another form of sandwich is the toasted sandwich. The toasted sandwich can be made from slices of toast instead of bread or the sandwich is toasted whole in an oven or a sandwich presser. Sandwiches made with different types of bread might be given unique names. A panini, for example, is a sandwich on a small roll or loaf which
Artillery is a word for the big guns used in an army, for example cannons and howitzers. Such guns are used to shoot targets far away. Artillery is often used to stop enemy troops using an area, to bombard trenches and buildings with enemies in it and to support friendly units. There are many different weapons that are called artillery. They may shoot shells or missiles. Newer systems can even drop mines over a big area, making the area uncrossable. Anti-aircraft warfare includes the use of artillery to fight planes and other aircraft.  Those who fire the artillery piece are called "gunners". In most cases someone else, called a "spotter" must see the enemy, because artillery often shoots farther than the gunners can see. The artillery crews do not have to see the enemy to damage them.
The House of Lords is one of the two Houses of Parliament of the United Kingdom (UK). It is in London, the capital city of the UK. The other house is the House of Commons. Together, the two houses form the government and parliament of the UK.  The House of Lords is not elected (voted for), except in the case of the holders of the seats reserved for hereditary peers (who are chosen by the House or by other hereditary peers in their parties). Crossbenchers. Many members of the House of Lords sit as "Crossbenchers". This means they do not support either the government or opposition parties, but instead are independent of party politics. They got their name because the benches where they sit are placed across the aisle which separates the government and opposition supporters. Criticisms. There are several criticisms of the House of Lords, including: These criticisms have led some to question whether there is a need for a second/upper house at all, and whether the two house system in British politics is still useful. People such as Tony Benn and Rebecca Long-Bailey, have said the House of Lords should be gotten rid of. This is also supported by the Scottish National Party (SNP). This would mean the United Kingdom would have one level of government, which is called unicameralism and is present in many other countries.
Acapulco de Juárez (), commonly called Acapulco ( , ), is a town and sea port on the Pacific coast of Mexico, 300 km (190 miles) southwest from Mexico City. Acapulco is on a deep, semi-circular bay. It is a stop for shipping and cruising lines running between Panama, and San Francisco, California, USA. In 2005, about 722,499 people lived there. Its name is a Nahuatl word, meaning "plain of dense reeds". The city has been a port since the 16th century. Playones de San Isidro. Playones de San Isidro de Isidro is a community belonging to the Flavio Alfaro canton. The village has a population of approximately 200 people.
Deutsche Bahn AG (short DB AG or often only DB) is Europe's largest railway company. It runs over 30,000 trains a day and owns more than 5,000 stations. The company headquarters are in Berlin, Germany. It was founded on January 1, 1994 to replace the Deutsche Bundesbahn, which was the state railway of West Germany, and the Deutsche Reichsbahn, which was the state railway of East Germany. Deutsche Bahn is also active in the field of logistics and owns companies like Schenker. DB claim they are the second largest logistics company in the world.
The Lost World is a book written by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle in the year 1912. In it, Professor Challenger and his companions travel to find a large plateau in South America where many dinosaur species still live. After a long journey they find the plateau, and witness not only dinosaurs, but two tribes - an ancient Native American people and ape-men who resemble the missing link. After many adventures, they return to London and attempt to describe their adventures to a disbelieving public.
Amnesty International (also called AI or Amnesty) is an international organization founded in London in 1961. They promote human rights in accordance with Universal Declaration of Human Rights and international human rights law. This organization was the recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize in 1977 for its defense of human dignity against torture. It is one of the most widely-known human rights groups in the world. The six key areas that Amnesty International focuses on are refugee rights, the rights of women, children, and of minorities, ending torture, stopping the death penalty, the rights of people imprisoned because of what they believe, and protection of human dignity. What they believe in. Amnesty International is based on these central ideas:
Teletubbies is a British children's television series for preschool viewers that aired on CBeebies. It was a show made from 31 March 1997 to 16 February 2001. The pilot was made in 1997 It was developed by Ragdoll Productions and created by director Anne Wood CBE and Andrew Davenport who wrote all 365 episodes of the original series and all 120 episodes of the revival series, this time with Darrall Macqueen developing the show. The show had two narrators; Tim Whitnall (for the international versions) and Rolf Saxon (for the PBS Kids version). "Teletubbies" was also shown on television in the United States on the Public Broadcasting Service (PBS). Public television used the show on their television network until 29 August 2008, when it was removed from the television schedule and returned on PBS Kids Pluto TV on May 1, 2019. The show made new episodes until 16 February 2001. Years later, a new series aired in 2015. The story. The show takes place in a grassy, floral planet referred to as Teletubbyland populated by rabbits and bees with calls of birds heard in the background. The Teletubbytrons, or the Teletubbies for short, are a family of four colorful magitechnological toy telerobotic insectoid larvae acting like multicoloured creatures. They have TV screens in their stomachs and antennas on their heads. They live in Teletubbyland with many automated objects (with lemur-like characteristics) such as the Noo-Noo, a blue (after blue, pink and golden) vacuum cleaner, and the Voice Trumpets, a set of speakers shaped like shower heads. The Teletubbies reside in a hill house known as the Tubbytronic Superdome. Located in the ground, it has three entrances, which are a hole at the top and four large half-semicircular doors at the dome's front and back feet. In every episode, the Teletubbies do similar activities, like playing with the Voice Trumpets or the mishaps caused by the Noo-Noo
FLAC (which stands for Free Lossless Audio Codec) is a way to code audio files. It makes those audio files smaller, without affecting the sound quality. It is unlike MP3, because when encoding audio using an MP3 encoder, information is lost and cannot be recovered. When a FLAC file is decoded, it will be identical to the original raw audio. Uncompressed PCM (pulse code modulation) is another way to code audio files that is identical to the original raw audio, but FLAC makes files smaller, while PCM does not. FLAC is the most common lossless audio codec. Lossy encoders, such as MP3 encoders will generate smaller files than lossless encoders such as FLAC, although with a lossy codec the decoder's output will not be exactly identical to the encoder's input, although with a decent encoder at sufficient bitrate, it will be extremely close.
The Enabling Act ("Ermächtigungsgesetz" in German) was passed by Germany's parliament (the "Reichstag") on 23 March 1933. It was the second major step after the Reichstag Fire Decree through which the Nazis obtained dictatorial powers using largely legal means. The Act enabled Chancellor Adolf Hitler and his cabinet to enact laws without the participation of the "Reichstag".  The formal name of the Enabling Act was "Gesetz zur Behebung der Not von Volk und Reich" ("Law to Remedy the Distress of the People and the Empire"). Enabling Act text. As with most of the laws passed in the process of "Gleichschaltung", the Enabling Act is quite short, considering its consequences. It is therefore reproduced in full in German and English: Notes. The Enabling Act was passed by the Reichstag on March 23 and proclaimed by the government the following day. Following constitutional procedure for legislation, the law was countersigned by President von Hindenburg, Chancellor Hitler, Minister of Interior Frick, Foreign Minister von Neurath, and Minister of Finance von Krosigk. Passage of the Enabling Act. The Nazis wrote the Enabling act to gain complete political power without the need of the support of a majority in the Reichstag and without the need to bargain with their coalition partners.  Propaganda. Within 24 hours of being appointed chancellor of Germany on 30 January 1933, Hitler skillfully influenced the outcome by propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels who wrote:  "Now it will be easy to carry on the fight, for we can call on all the resources of the State. Radio and press are at our disposal. We shall stage a masterpiece of propaganda." In the days leading up to the elections, the Nazis organized street violence to intimidate the opposition and to build fear of communism. The burning of the Reichstag six days before the election was the pivotal event of the campaign.  Violence. Later that day, the Reichstag assembled under intimidating circumstances, with SA men swarming inside and outside the chamber. Hitler's speech emphasised the importance of Christianity in German culture. This was aimed
Pulmonary hypertension or pulmonary arterial hypertension is a condition where there is high blood pressure in the lungs. Most people call it pah, ph or pha.  This condition makes it hard to breathe. Some people with the condition need extra oxygen (oxygen therapy). This condition can also make a person dizzy and become easily tired. Some people with the condition faint easily. The symptoms get worse when exercising or working hard. Pulmonary hypertension is a serious condition, and it can be fatal. The condition makes it harder for the heart to pump blood. Because the heart has to work harder, it can also become sick. Some people who are very sick may need a lung transplant or a heart-lung transplant to live.  Signs and symptoms. People with pulmonary hypertension have difficulty breathing. Other signs and symptoms may be present. They may tire easily. Some may also faint more easily. There might be chest pain. Some patients have swelling of the feet and ankles (edema). These symptoms get worse during exercise or hard work. Because many diseases can make it hard to breathe, a doctor must learn about the patient's background and do tests. This helps the doctor to treat the patient or find the right cause of the symptoms. Pulmonary hypertension makes the heart sound different. One test is to measure the blood pressure inside the "pulmonary artery", the blood vessel that goes from the heart to the lungs. In order to establish the cause, the physician will conduct a thorough medical history. A detailed family history is taken to determine whether the disease might be genetic. A history of drugs such cocaine, methamphetamine, alcohol, leading to cirrhosis, and smoking leading to emphysema are considered significant. Physical examination is performed to look for typical signs of pulmonary hypertension including a loud P2 (pulmonic valve closure sound), (para)sternal heave, jugular venous distension, pedal edema, ascites, hepatojugular reflux, clubbing etc. Effects. In pulmonary hypertension, the blood vessels in the lungs become too narrow. The blood pressure in the lungs becomes high. The heart works very hard to pump blood through the narrow blood vessels. Later on, the blood vessels
The Decameron is a collection of 100 short stories. It was written by the Italian writer Giovanni Boccaccio around 1350. In the book, ten friends, seven young women and three young men, leave the city of Florence because of the plague and stay in a large house in the countryside. Each day, they entertain each other by taking turns to tell stories. The stories are of different types. Some are romantic, some are erotic, some are comedies and some are tragedies.  Other writers have used the stories for ideas. Many paintings have been done which illustrate the stories. The picture to the right shows a scene from the story of "The Pot of Basil" in which Isabella buries the head of her murdered lover Ferdinand inside a potplant.
Commodity is a term with distinct meanings in both business and in Marxian political economy. For the former, it is a product, that is traded solely on the basis of price. For Marxian political economy it means wares offered for exchange. Business usage. In the world of business, a commodity is a product, good or service that is traded based solely on its price, rather than quality and features. Examples include: electricity (most users of electric power are only concerned with energy consumption; only a minority of users are concerned with the quality and technical details of voltage and frequency deviations), wheat, bulk chemicals such as sodium carbonate, metals, and even orange juice.  In the original and simplified sense, "commodities" were things of value, of uniform quality, that were produced in large quantities by many different producers; the items from each different producer are considered as of the same value.  Examples. Wheat is an example of a soft commodity. Wheat from many different farms comes together. Generally, it is all traded at the same price; wheat from farm A has not another price than wheat from farm B. Some uniform standard of quality is assumed. (There may be various standards leading to different pools: one say for genetically modified wheat, and one for unmodified wheat.) International markets for the trade of commodities can be very efficient, particularly if the division into pools matches demand segments. These markets will quickly respond to changes in supply and demand to find a price. Commodities and Marxism. In classical political economy and especially Karl Marx's critique of political economy, a commodity is simply any good or service offered as a product for sale on the market. Some items are also seen as being treated "as if" they were commodities, e.g. human labour or labor power, works of art and natural resources, even though they may not be produced specifically for the market, or be non-reproducible goods.  Marx's analysis of the commodity is intended to help solve the problem of what establishes the economic value of goods, using the labor theory of value. This problem was extensively debated by Adam Smith, David Ricardo and Karl Rodbertus-Jagetzow among others. Value and price are not equivalent terms in
Commodity markets are markets where raw or primary products are exchanged. These raw commodities are traded on regulated commodities exchanges, in which they are bought and sold in standardized contracts. This article focuses on the history and current debates regarding global commodity markets. It covers physical product (food, metals, electricity) markets but not the ways that services, including those of governments, nor investment, nor debt, can be seen as a commodity. Articles on reinsurance markets, stock markets, bond markets and currency markets cover those concerns separately and in more depth. One focus of this article is the relationship between simple commodity money and the more complex instruments offered in the commodity markets. See List of traded commodities for some commodities and their trading units and places. History. The modern commodity markets have their roots in the trading of agricultural products. While wheat and corn, cattle and pigs, were widely traded using standard instruments in the 19th century in the United States, other basic foodstuffs such as soybeans were only added quite recently in most markets. For a commodity market to be established, there must be very broad consensus on the variations in the product that make it acceptable for one purpose or another. The economic impact of the development of commodity markets is hard to over-estimate. Through the 19th century "the exchanges became effective spokesmen for, and innovators of, improvements in transportation, warehousing, and financing, which paved the way to expanded interstate and international trade." Early history of commodity markets. Historically, dating from ancient Sumerian use of sheep or goats, or other peoples using pigs, rare seashells, or other items as commodity money, people have sought ways to standardize and trade contracts in the delivery of such items, to render trade itself more smooth and predictable. Commodity money and commodity markets in a crude early form are believed to have originated in Sumer where small baked clay tokens in the shape of sheep or goats were used in trade. Sealed in clay vessels with a certain number of such tokens, with that number written on the outside, they represented a promise to deliver that number. This made them a form of commodity money - more than an "I.O.U." but less than a guarantee by a