ejaasaari/simplewiki-2025-04-01 huggingface dataset:
Vodka is an alcoholic drink that is usually about 40% alcohol (but can be more). It is clear (but can be flavoured), though it is sometimes mixed with other liquids before people drink it. It is popular in the Slavic countries of Eastern Europe and former republics of the Soviet Union. Things that are made into vodka. Vodka can be made from different things: The process to make vodka is: Unlike cognac or whisky, vodka is not usually matured in barrels, but bottled immediately. Some Scandinavian vodkas called "akvavit" (Latin "aqua vitae", "water of life") are matured in oak barrels before they are bottled. When the vodka is bottled, it is ready for drinking. History. Most people think the name "vodka" comes from the Slavic word for water in its diminutive form, "little water". The earliest mention of Vodka in Poland is in 1405. The Russians are known to have first used the word in June 8, 1751. It is not known if it was the Russians or the Poles who made the first drinks that could be classified as vodka, as sources provide various views on this topic (though it's important to remember that the first mention of the word "vodka" in Cyrillic refers to a medicinal drink bought by the merchants of Kievan Rus from Poland). It is also worth noting that vodka was first used as medicine. When it became a popular drink, it was first known in Polish as "gorzałka" - from the Old Polish word "gorzeć", meaning burn. At first, gorzałka was a people's drink, but in the Slavic countries it soon became common among the nobility as well. it is worth noting that the common Ukrainian word for vodka is "horilka" which bears an extremely close resemblance to the Polish gorzalka. Both words roots have the same meaning ("hority" - to burn; "gorzeć", also to burn) Different kinds of vodka. There are two basic kinds of Vodka: clear vodka and flavored vodka. Some types of vodka have plants or herbs added to the un
Sexual reproduction is how most animals and plants reproduce. Some protists and fungi also reproduce this way. Organisms that reproduce sexually have two different sexes: male and female. In sexual reproduction, offspring are produced when sperms fertilise eggs from the female. Various steps are involved in this process. Cell biology. The cells of an animal or a Vascular plant have two sets of chromosomes: they are diploid. When gametes (sex cells) are produced, they have only one set of chromosomes: they are haploid. They have undergone a process of cell division called "reduction division" or meiosis. Two things happen during meiosis, each of which makes the offspring more variable. That means they are different from their parents and from each other. Assortment. Assortment is when the double set of chromosomes becomes a single set in each gamete. Of each pair of chromosomes, "which one goes into a single gamete is random". Because the gene alleles on each chromosome are not always the same, this means that there is genetic variation between gametes. This process was Mendel's 'first law', the law of segregation. Crossing over. Because crossing over occurs during meiosis, this increases the variety of the chromosomes. This makes recombination possible.  Assortment and crossing over make it certain that normally no two offspring of the same mother and father are identical. Identical twins are the exception. They are identical genetically because they developed from the same fertilised egg. Advantages and disadvantages. There are advantages and disadvantages of sexual reproduction, compared to asexual reproduction. The main issues are: Origin of sexual reproduction. The origin of sexual reproduction is an advanced topic that cannot be dealt with here. A source that may help readers who are graduates in biological science may be helpful.
Leprosy is a contagious disease. It has been known for a very long time. Today, it is mostly called Hansen's disease, named after the person who discovered bacterium, Gerhard Armauer Hansen. It is caused by a bacterium, Mycobacterium leprae. A person with leprosy is called a leper. As of 2004, the estimated number of new infections was about 400,000. Getting the disease is hard, since it requires close contact with someone who has it, over a long period of time. In addition, about 95% of people seem to be naturally immune to it. Most cases of leprosy occur in India, and other developing countries. It has known to have been in the US before. There are practically no cases of leprosy in the developed world. This is because there are excellent drugs and people regularly take antibiotics which will kill the leprosy bacteria. In former times, leprosy was seen as a divine punishment for sins committed. Symptoms. The symptoms of leprosy are irregular spots and patches on the skin. These are either lighter colored than the surrounding skin, or reddish in color. On those patches, hair will fall out, and they will feel numb to the patient. Nerves will form knots there. With the illness progressing the sense of touch will become less and less (until the patient feels completely numb). So called leptomes and ulcers will eat away the skin, the flesh and the organs on the patches. Usually people do not die of leprosy, but of secondary infections and diseases they get. For many years there was a leprosy colony on the Hawaiian Island of Molokai called Kalaupapa. Tens of thousands of people from the United States that had the disease were sent there.
Dolley Payne Todd Madison (May 20, 1768 – July 12, 1849) was the wife of US President James Madison. James Madison was president from 1809 to 1817 while Dolley Madison was the First Lady of the United States. She is best known for saving Washington's portrait when the British burned the White House in the War of 1814. Though she is also a famous entertainer, the first to serve ice cream in the White House. Dolley was born in New Garden. Now the place is known as Guilford County. It is in North Carolina. Some other account tells that she was born in a village named Payne’s Tavern. It is in Person County, North Carolina. Her father’s name was John Payne. As an unsuccessful farmer, he always faced shortage of money. Dolley’s mother was Mary Coles. Dolley spent her teenage years in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. On January 7, 1790, she married John Todd, Jr. (1764-1793). Todd was a lawyer. They had two sons. Their names were John Payne (1792-1852) and William Temple (born and died in 1793). William died in a yellow fever epidemic. In the same year, her husband also died of the same yellow fever epidemic. Dolley Todd married James Madison on September 14, 1794. They had no children, but they raised Dolley's son from her first marriage, John Payne Todd. John Payne Todd was a notorious drunkard and gambler, which caused his mother many financial problems, especially after Madison died. In 1814, the British army had burnt the White House. Fleeing from her burning home, Dolley saved many records and papers. Legend states she also saved a painting of George Washington, though had to break it out of its frame. On the National First Lady Library she says, "There is one secret, and that is the power we have in forming our own destinies."
Elizabeth Kortright Monroe (June 30, 1768 – September 23, 1830) was the wife of James Monroe. James Monroe was the fifth President of the United States. Elizabeth Monroe was born in an old family of New York. When she was a girl of 17 years, she married James Monroe. At that time, Monroe was a lawyer. He was aged 27 years. Once, the government sent Monroe as an envoy to Versailles. She also went along with her husband.  During her last years, Elizabeth Monroe became very sick. She could not take part in social functions. She became more distant from people. Some people thought her to be a snob. But, her husband always understood her problems. After a long illness, she died on September 23, 1830 at her home in Oak Hill at age 62.
Celestia is a free 3D astronomy program for Windows, Mac OS X, and Linux. It was created by Chris Laurel and is licensed under the GPL. The program is based on the Hipparcos Catalogue (118,218 Stars) and allows users to display objects from artificial satellites to entire galaxies in three dimensions in OpenGL. Different from other planetarium software, the user is free to travel in the universe. NASA and ESA have used Celestia, but it is not to be confused with Celestia 2000, ESA's own program. On 31st October 2022, a Chinese game developer named Linfeng Li created a mobile version of Celestia for android devices.
Bill Cullen (February 18, 1920 – July 7, 1990) was an American television game show host. His full name was William Lawrence Cullen. Cullen was originally from Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. He suffered from polio as a child. He had a limp for the remainder of his life. Cullen was best known for hosting the original version of "The Price is Right" on the television networks NBC and ABC. That show is now on CBS and hosted by Drew Carey. He also hosted a version of "The $25,000 Pyramid", "Child's Play", and "Blockbusters". Bill Cullen died in Bel Air, California in 1990 from lung cancer after smoking for most of his life.
Rudi Carrell (real name Rudolf Wijbrand Kesselaar) was a very successful comedian, singer and television presenter. He was born on December 19, 1934 in Alkmaar, in the Netherlands. He died of lung cancer on July 7, 2006 in Bremen, Germany. He was very popular in Germany, for shows like "Die Rudi Carrell Show". He was awarded various prizes, amongst others the "Goldene Kamera" for a lifetime of good work, in February of 2006 (which was his last public appearance) as well as the Bundesverdienstkreuz (the only award given by the Federal Republic of Germany, for extraordinary achievements in politics or culture) in 1985.
Lung cancer is the uncontrollable growth of abnormal cells in one or both of the lungs. Cigarette smoking causes most lung cancers when smoke gets in the lungs. Lung cancer kills 1.8 million people each year, more than any other cancer. It has a 80-90% death rate, and is the leading cause of cancer death in men, and the second leading cause of cancer death in women.  The large majority of people who get lung cancer have smoked for many years. However, there are types of lung cancers that appear in otherwise healthy patients who have never smoked.  There are two main types of lung cancer, small cell lung cancer and non-small cell lung cancer. Small cell lung cancer typically responds well to chemotherapy and radiotherapy, and non-small cell lung cancer is more commonly treated with surgical removal of the lung tumor. Non-small cell lung cancer Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) account for about 85% to 90% of lung cancer cases. People who have a deficient low pigment count have a higher chance of contracting lung cancer. There are three types of non-small cell lung cancer:  Symptoms:
Whitchurch is a small market town in the north of the county of Shropshire, England. It is the oldest town inhabited in Shropshire. The town lies 2 miles (3 km) east of the Welsh border. As of 2011, the town has a population of 9,781.  The town was founded by the Romans and there are still some Roman artefacts that can be visited in a Museum. The town has a railway station on the Welsh Marches Line.
Panthera is a genus of the family Felidae. It has five living species, which are the biggest cats in the Felidae. The tiger is the largest "Panthera" species, and the largest of all cats. The leopard is the smallest "Panthera" species. Results of genetic analysis indicate that the snow leopard also belongs to the "Panthera", a classification that was accepted by IUCN assessors in 2008. The genus "Neofelis" is also closely related.
A superpower is a country that is one of the most powerful countries in the world. It is more powerful than a great power and less powerful than a hyperpower. Right now, only the United States is a superpower. However, China may become a superpower in the future. Some say it is already one. Others say that it will not become a superpower. In the years following World War II, the United Nations was formed. The 5 countries that would later have nuclear bombs – those who would be able to start a nuclear war – were all given "permanent" seats on the Security Council. This means they are on the Security Council forever. They were also all given equal veto power over decisions in the Security Council. These five countries were: United States, United Kingdom, China, France, and the Soviet Union. For most of the 1900s, the Soviet Union was a superpower. After the Soviet Union split into a lot of smaller countries in 1991, it was not a superpower anymore. Russia got most of the Soviet Union's nuclear weapons, and also its permanent seat in the Security Council. Some other countries also have nuclear weapons now, and can also start a nuclear war just as well, but they are not permanent members with veto power. The Republic of India, and Pakistan are a few countries like this. In order to be a superpower, a country must dominate economic, cultural, and military as well as diplomatic influence.
The snow leopard ("Panthera uncia"), also known as the Irbis and ounce, is a feline, which lives in central Asia. It used to be thought not to be closely related to the smaller leopard, which is why they were put in different genera before. However, recent research has discovered this is not correct. The cat is closely related to the other big cats in the genus "Panthera".  Appearance. Snow leopards are about 2-5 meters long in the body, and have a 90-100 centimeter long tail. They weigh up to 75 kilograms. They have grey and white fur with dark rosettes and spots, and their tails have stripes. Its fur is very long and thick to protect it against the cold. Their feet are also big and furry, which helps them to walk on snow more easily. They use their long tails for balance and as blankets to cover sensitive body parts against the severe mountain chill. Voice. They are one of the cats which cannot purr: "In five cat species (lion, tiger, jaguar, leopard and snow leopard) the epihyoideum is an elastic ligament, whereas in all other species of the Felidae the epihyal is completely ossified (bony)... those felids with an elastic epihyoid are able to roar but not purr, while species with a completely ossified hyoid are able to purr but not to roar". Despite this, it seems now that snow leopards cannot roar, though they can make a number of other sounds. Hunting. Snow leopards are well camouflaged, and are crepuscular (most active at dawn and dusk). They stalk and eat medium-sized prey like ibex, markhor, bharal (mountain sheep) and wild goats and awhile is hair yaks . It can survive on a single sheep for two weeks. Snow leopards prefer to ambush prey from above, using broken terrain to conceal their approach. They try to land on the sheep, and kill it directly. If the sheep runs, they pursue it down steep mountainsides, using the momentum of their initial leap to
Yonkers is the 3rd largest city in the American state of New York. It is the southwestern part of Westchester County Yonkers borders the New York City borough of The Bronx and is 2 miles (3 km) north of Manhattan. Broadway runs through all three, and railroads also connect them to Grand Central Terminal. The Bronx River separates Yonkers from Mount Vernon, New York on the east. The Hudson River is on the west. The city's best-known attraction is Yonkers Raceway, a harness racing track. There is a large shopping area along Central Park Avenue. It is sometimes called "Central Avenue" by area residents.
Louisa Catherine Johnson Adams (February 12, 1775 – May 15, 1852) was the wife of the 6th President of the United States, John Quincy Adams. As the wife of the president of the United States, she was the First Lady of the United States from 1825 to 1829. She was born in London. Her mother, Catherine Nuth Johnson was an English lady. Her father, Joshua Johnson, was from the US and a citizen of the USA. Louisa Adams was then the only First Lady not born in the United States. John Adams, the second president of the US, was her father-in-law. In 1794, John Quincy Adams met Louisa in London. At that time, Adams was a US diplomat. After about three years, they married. The couple also lived in Berlin where Adams got a posting. Louisa along with her husband arrived to the US in 1801. They lived in different places before her husband became the President.She went to school in London and France. She died in 1852, aged 77. She is buried in the United States Parish Church, Quincy, Massachusetts.
Angelica Singleton Van Buren (February 13, 1818 – December 29, 1877) acted as the First Lady of the United States. She was the daughter-in-law of Martin Van Buren, the 8th president of the USA. Angelica Singleton had married the President's son, Abraham Van Buren. She took over the role of the First Lady, as the president's wife had died 17 years earlier. Angelica Singleton belonged to a high society. She was also related to Dolley Madison, wife of US President James Madison. Angelica brought a special style to her role as the First Lady. She and Abraham Van Buren married in 1838. After marriage they took a long tour of Europe. When they came back to the US in 1839, she took up the role of the First Lady during the presidency of her father-in-law. In 1841, Martin Van Buren was defeated, she and her husband shifted to Kinderhook, Lindenwald. During the winter, they lived in their family home in South Carolina. From 1848 until her death in 1877, she lived in New York City. Angelica was from the cream of southern society and was the great-granddaughter of Gen. Richard Richardson and Mary Cantey (Richardson). Gen. Richardson was the progenitor of six South Carolina governors, three Manning and three Richardson governors. One descendant, Elizabeth Peyre Richardson, was so closely related to all of these governors that she appears in Ripley's Believe it or Not. Angelica's sister, Marion, has a bio that, although sad, is actually more interesting than hers. See "A Tale of Two Sisters," by Joseph C. Elliott, Sandlapper: The Magazine of South Carolina.
Mary Ann Todd Lincoln (née Todd; December 13, 1818 – July 16, 1882) was the wife of the sixteenth President of the United States, Abraham Lincoln, and was First Lady of the United States from 1861 to 1865. Early life. She was born in Lexington, Kentucky. Her father was Robert Smith Todd and her mother was Eliza Parker. Her parents were prominent residents of the city. Mary's paternal great-grandfather, David Levi Todd, was born in County Longford, Ireland, and emigrated through Pennsylvania to Kentucky. Her great-great maternal grandfather Samuel McDowell was born in Scotland, and emigrated to Pennsylvania. Other Todd ancestors came from England. When she was around twenty years old, Mary came to Illinois where her sister Elizabeth lived. There she met Abraham Lincoln. He was a young lawyer at that time. Marriage and family. She married Abraham Lincoln on November 4, 1842. The Lincolns loved one another very much. But, at times, their relationship became troubled. The Lincolns had four children: The last person known to be of direct Lincoln lineage, Robert's grandson "Bud" Beckwith died in 1985. First Lady. Mary Lincoln was well-educated lady. She was also interested in public affairs. She also shared her husband’s ambition. At times, she became touchy and irritated. The newspapers sometimes criticized her for spending the government’s money to buy new furniture for the White House. She went to the hospitals during this time, to help wounded soldiers. Personal life. After the assassination of her husband in 1865, the death of her two sons, Willie and Thomas, had made her very sad. She became very depressed. His son Robert wanted to take control of his mother's money. He sent his mother to an insane asylum. After three months, she was freed. She never forgave her son. She spent about four years in France in a city named Pau. She also traveled to many parts of Europe.  Health. During her last years, her health became very weak. In 1879, she suffered spinal cord injuries when she fell from a ste
Jacqueline Lee Kennedy Onassis ( ; July 28, 1929May 19, 1994) was an American socialite, writer, photographer and book editor. She was also the first lady of the United States from 1961 to 1963 as the wife of John F. Kennedy, the 35th U.S. president. A popular first lady, she endeared the American public with her devotion to her family, dedication to the historic preservation of the White House, the campaigns she led to preserve and restore historic landmarks and architecture along with her interest in American history, culture and arts. During her lifetime, she was regarded as an international icon for her unique fashion choices. In 1961, at the age of 31, she became the third-youngest first lady when her husband was inaugurated as 35th president of the United States. Kennedy was known for her restoration of the White House, emphasis on arts and culture along with her fashion style. One of her best known fashion outfits was her pink Chanel suit and matching pillbox hat that she wore in Dallas, Texas, when her husband was assassinated on November 22, 1963. It later became a historical remembrance and symbol of her husband's death. After the assassination and funeral of her husband, Kennedy and her two children left public life. In October 1968, she married Greek businessman Aristotle Onassis. After his death in 1975, she worked as a book editor in New York City. She died in her sleep from non-Hodgkin's lymphoma in New York. Her funeral was on May 23, 1994. She was buried next to her first husband, President Kennedy, at Arlington National Cemetery. In 1999, she was named as one of Gallup's Most-Admired Men and Women of the 20th century. Historians have ranked Kennedy as one of the most popular and best first ladies in American history. Biography. Early life and education. Jacqueline Lee Bouvier was born on July 28, 1929 at Stony Brook Southampton Hospital in Southampton, New York to John Vernou Bouvier III and Janet Norton Lee. Her mother's
In military terminology, a missile is a guided airborne ranged weapon capable of self-propelled flight. In general, a missile may refer to anything thrown or launched object at a target like a javelin or darts. Nowadays, it means, mostly, a self-propelled guided weapon system. Missiles are used in war to destroy military targets. Missiles can carry explosives or other destructive loads. The loads a missile may carry are called a "payload". It is not always harmful to people. For example, cruise missiles have carried "graphite bombs" to destroy electrical power systems without much collateral damage. Missiles are also one of the causes of explosions. Types of missiles. The two main kinds of missiles are simple "rockets" and "guided missiles". A rocket is no longer controlled once it has been launched. Most guided missile are also propelled by a rocket engine but can be controlled after it has been launched. Some missiles used in anti-aircraft warfare, such as the AIM-9 Sidewinder, guide themselves with temperature. Others guide themselves by radar or are under radio control. Cruise missiles are big missiles that carry large payloads to hit ground targets or to badly damage/sink ships. Ballistic missiles look similar, but they keep the engine off and don't stay at a lower height to be more accurate like cruise missiles do. Instead, they go high up to the edge of space and turn off the engine. Since there's no air friction in space, they don't need the engine on to continue moving forward at the same speed. They then crash into the target from the sky. The Topol M is the missile in the picture and is a ballistic missile. In short, cruise missiles have an engine always running and fly low through the atmosphere to get to a target. Ballistic missiles go to the edge of space and turn off their engine to fall to a target. You could say cruise missiles fly while ballistic missiles fall.  The V-1 flying bomb was an early cruise missile, a little pilotless airplane with a bomb, propelled by a jet engine instead of a rocket.