ejaasaari/simplewiki-2025-04-01 huggingface dataset:
A flood basalt or trap basalt is the result of a giant volcanic eruption or series of eruptions that coats large stretches of land or the ocean floor with basalt lava. Flood basalts have covered areas as large as a continent in prehistory, creating great plateaus and mountain ranges. Flood basalts have erupted at various times throughout Earth history. They are clear evidence that the Earth has periods of higher activity rather than being in a uniform steady state. One explanation for flood basalts is that they are caused by the combination of continental rifting and its associated melting. Then a mantle plume produces vast quantities of a basaltic magma. These have a low viscosity, which is why they 'flood' rather than form taller volcanoes. Flood basalts start at between 100 and 400 km depth, in the asthenosphere. To get a partial melting as large as that of the traps, expelling huge quantities of lava, it is necessary to have a large heat input. Such melting can take place near a hotspot, resulting in a mixture of magma from the depths of the hotspot with superficial magma produced by a mantle plume. Lava plateaux. A lava plateau is a flat, wide surface (plateau) that is formed when lava comes out of the ground and spreads out very quickly. The layers of lava can build up over time to form a lava plateau. Here are the general properties of lava plateaux: Examples. The Emeishan Traps in southwestern China, around Sichuan province, the Deccan Traps of central India, the Siberian Traps, and the Columbia River Plateau of western North America are four large regions covered by prehistoric flood basalts. The two largest flood basalt events in historic time have been at Eldgjá and Lakagigar, both in Iceland. The largest and best-preserved continental flood basalt terrain on Earth is part of the Mackenzie Large Igneous Province in Canada. The maria on the Moon are additional, even more extensive, flood basalts. Flood basalts on the ocean floor produce oceanic plateaus. The surface covered by one eruption can vary from around 200,000 km
The Siberian Traps form a large region of volcanic rock, known as a large igneous province, in the Russian region of Siberia.  The large eruptions which formed the traps were one of the largest known volcanic events of the last 500 million years of Earth history. They continued for a million years and spanned the Permian-Triassic boundary, about 251 to 250 million years ago. It was the same time as the Permian–Triassic extinction event, which is estimated to have killed 90% of species existing at the time. The eruption of the Siberian Traps is a possible cause of this "Great Dying". The term "traps" is derived from the Swedish word for stairs ("trappa", or sometimes "trapp"), referring to the step-like hills forming the landscape of the region, which is typical of flood basalts. Geographical extent. Vast volumes of basaltic lava paved over a large expanse of primaeval Siberia in a flood basalt event. Today the area covered is about 2 million km² – roughly equal to western Europe in land area – and estimates of the original coverage are as high as 7 million km². The original volume of lava is estimated to range from 1 to 4 million km³. Origin. The source of the Siberian Traps basalt was, probably, a mantle plume at the base of the crust which erupted through the Siberian craton (the oldest part of the Siberian continental plate). Helium isotope analysis from the basalts indicates a plume origin. The scientific debate continues. There is a minority controversial theory which argues that the traps were caused by a large asteroid impact. The Great Dying. This massive eruptive event spanned the Permian-Triassic boundary, about 250 million years ago, and is widely cited as a cause of the Permian-Triassic extinction event. This extinction event, also called the Great Dying, affected all life on Earth, and is estimated to have killed 90% of species living at the time. Life on land took 30 million years to recover from the environmental disruptions caused by
Tellurium(II) chloride, also known as tellurium dichloride, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is TeCl2. It contains tellurium in its +2 oxidation state. It also contains chloride ions.  Properties. Tellurium(II) chloride is a black solid. It absorbs water. It can be oxidized to tellurium(IV) chloride. It reacts with water.
Tellurous acid is a chemical compound. It is also an acid. Its chemical formula is H2TeO3. It contains hydrogen and tellurite ions. It can be made by reacting tellurium dioxide with water. It is not made as easily as telluric acid. It is a weak oxidizing agent and a weak reducing agent. It easily turns back into tellurium dioxide and water. It is a weak acid. It reacts with bases to make tellurites.
Tellurium(IV) chloride, also known as tellurium tetrachloride, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is TeCl4. It contains tellurium in its +4 oxidation state. It also contains chloride ions. Properties. Tellurium(IV) chloride is a pale yellow solid. It melts easily to a red liquid. It evaporates easily. It reacts with water to make tellurium dioxide and hydrochloric acid. It is toxic and corrosive. Preparation. Tellurium(IV) chloride is made by reacting tellurium powder and chlorine. Uses. It is used in making organic compounds.
Jack’ Tweed (born 9 June 1987) is a British television personality. Tweed started his career as Jade Goody's partner. He became widely known in 2007 after being on "Celebrity Big Brother UK". He caused controversy when he called housemate Shilpa Shetty a "cunt" and "Paki" and said that she should remove objects from the toilet with her teeth. After "Celebrity Big Brother", Goody miscarried his child in 2007. He married her on 22 February 2009 and she died of cervical cancer a month later. He appeared in 2010 ITV2 programme "The Only Way Is Essex". In 2010, he had a relationship with Chanelle Hayes. Tweed has had several legal issues. These include an 18-month prison sentence in September 2008 for assault occasioning actual bodily harm for attacking a 16-year-old boy with a golf club in December 2006. In March 2009, he was found guilty of common assault for attacking a taxi driver in May 2008. He was tried for the rape of a 19-year-old woman in April 2010, but found not guilty. In January 2011 he punched a man, for which he was convicted of common assault in August 2011.
In Euclidean plane geometry, a quadrilateral is a polygon with four edges (or sides) and four vertices (or corners). Sometimes, a quadrilateral is called a quadrangle (similar to the term "triangle"), while other times, the term tetragon is used (similar to other polygon names such as pentagon and hexagon). The origin of the word quadrilateral is the two Latin words "quadri", a variant of four, and "latus", meaning "side". A quadrilateral with vertices formula_1, formula_2, formula_3, formula_4 is sometimes written as formula_5. All the sides of a quadrilateral are straight, and the interior angles of a quadrilateral add up to 360°. formula_6 This is a special case of the "n"-gon interior angle sum formula: ("n" − 2) × 180°. Almost all quadrilaterals tile the plane, by repeated rotation around the midpoints of their edges. The only quadrilaterals that do not do this are the ones with edges that intersect with each other. Kinds of quadrilaterals. Quadrilaterals can be either complex, also called crossed (self-intersecting), or simple (not self-intersecting). Simple quadrilaterals are either convex or concave. There are different kinds of simple quadrilaterals. A trapezoid is a quadrilateral with one pair of parallel edges, where one edge is shorter than the other. A parallelogram is a quadrilateral with two pairs of parallel edges. Squares, rectangles, and rhombuses are special types of parallelograms. A rectangle has four right angles, while a rhombus has four sides of the same length. A square has four right angles and four sides of the same length, making it a regular polygon. This makes squares a type of rectangle and rhombus.
Yangchuanosaurus was a genus of theropod dinosaur from the Jurassic of China. It was a fairly typical carnosaur, with a large head, sharp, serrated teeth, and relatively short arms (though not as short as those of "Tyrannosaurus"). It was the largest predator in its part of the world. "Yangchuanosaurus" probably preyed on sauropods, such as "Mamenchisaurus", or stegosaurs, such as "Tuojiangosaurus". There are two species. "Y. zigongensis" is from the Middle Jurassic, and "Y. shangyouensis" is from the Upper Jurassic. Specimens were collected from the Dashanpu Dinosaur Quarry of Zigong, Sichuan. The Middle Jurassic "Y. zigongensis" is known from four incomplete specimens. There are two specimens of the Upper Jurassic "Y. shangyouensis", which were at first put into separate species. Later analysis showed they were probably different ages or variations of the same species. The first skull is 82 cm (2.7 ft) long, and its total body length about 8 m (26 ft). The other specimen was even larger. It had a skull length of 1.11 m (3.6 ft). It may have been up to 10.8 m (35.4 ft) long, and weighed as much as 3.4 metric tons (3.7 short tons). There was a bony knob on its nose and multiple hornlets and ridges, similar to "Ceratosaurus". It had a massive tail that was about half its length.
Pelorosaurus conybeari is the name given to a few sauropod dinosaur bones from the Lower Cretaceous period, about 138–112 million years ago.  Bones of "Pelorosaurus" have been found in England and Portugal. It was a Brachiosaur, with front legs that were longer than its hind legs.  The name has been challenged, and has been the subject of long-lasting dispute. Some palaeontologists prefer the name Cetiosaurus brevis. The taxonomic status of "Pelorosaurus" is as a result very problematic. Technically, "Cetiosaurus brevis" is its type species. The position of "Pelorosaurus" is further undermined by the fact that several researchers hold that the genus is a "nomen dubium" ('doubtful name'). "Pelorosaurus" was one of the first dinosaurs described, and the naming procedures were not so well-developed at the time. Its life-style is assumed to be similar to other brachiosaurs, eating from the higher branches of tall conifer trees.
Pope Leo X (; 11 December 1475 – 1 December 1521), born Giovanni di Lorenzo de' Medici, was an Italian priest of the Roman Catholic Church and the 218th Pope from 1513 to his death in 1521. Early life. Giovanni de Medici was born in Florence. He was the second son of Lorenzo the Magnificent. He studied theology and canon law at Pisa from 1489 to 1491. Priest. Six days after his election as pope in 1513, Medici was ordained as a priest. Bishop. Two days after his ordination and eight days after his election as pope in 1513, Medici was made a bishop. Cardinal. At the age of 13, Pope Innocent VIII named Medici cardinal in 1489. Pope. Cardinal Medici was elected pope on 9 March 1513. On the 15 March he was ordained priest, and he was consecrated as bishop on March 17. He was crowned Pope on 19 March at the age of 37. Pope Leo was involved in Italian and European political disputes. Leo was a patron of Michelangelo and Raphael.
A crumpet is a kind of flat, small round bread that is raised by yeast. They are about the same size as an English muffin. They are made in crumpet rings that are four inches wide and usually one inch deep. Crumpets are usually baked on a griddle and served toasted. A well-baked crumpet has a brown bottom and a spongey top that has many tiny holes. Crumpets are toasted whole, while English muffins are split and then toasted. After the baking, crumpets are spread with butter or cream and jam.  Definition. The word of crumpet may come from the Middle English word "crompid" (cake), or "curled" (cake). Or it may come from the past participle of the Middle English verb "crumpen", which means to curl up. It could also have come from "crumb", "crump", or "crooked", all Old English. Crumpet is also used as British slang for a particularly sexually attractive woman. It Australian slang, it is part of the expression: "not worth a crumpet", meaning that somebody or something is useless. History. The first recipe for crumpets was long ago, referred to frequently as the "crompid cake" by many. The Oxford English Dictionary traced the history back to 1382. The Oxford Companion to Food also says that the earliest published recipe for crumpets was by Elizabeth Raffald, in 1769. There, the "crompid cake" is mentioned as well with buckwheat griddle cakes so it is believed that there is a connection between crumpets and the buckwheat pancake. Elizabeth Raffald mentions it in her book of "The Experienced English Housekeeper". Her recipe is very similar to the modern crumpet recipe, especially in the baking, buttering, and serving.
Taylor Chorney (born April 27, 1987) is a Canadian-born American professional ice hockey defenceman. He currently plays for the Pittsburgh Penguins of the National Hockey League (NHL). He has also played for the Edmonton Oilers and St. Louis Blues. He was drafted by the Edmonton Oilers with the 36th overall pick in the 2005 NHL Entry Draft. He previously played at the University of North Dakota. He also was on Team USA at the 2006 World Junior Championships. Chorney represented the USA again in the 2007 World Juniors, where he was team captain. He made his NHL debut on April 10, 2009 against the Calgary Flames. He recorded his first NHL point in his first game of the 2009-10 season, by assisting one of Zack Stortini's two goals on October 12, 2009 on the road against the Nashville Predators. His father, Marc, played 210 games in the NHL for the Pittsburgh Penguins and Los Angeles Kings. On July 1, 2014, Chorney signed one-year, two-way contract with the Pittsburgh Penguins.
A homologous trait is any characteristic which is derived by evolution from a common ancestor. This is contrasted to analogous traits: similarities between organisms that were evolved separately.  The term existed before 1859, but got its modern meaning after Darwin established the idea of common descent.p45 The pre-Darwinian naturalists Cuvier, Geoffroy and Richard Owen, also used the idea. A homologous trait is often called a homologue (also spelled homolog). In genetics, the term "homologue" is used both to refer to a homologous protein, and to the gene (DNA sequence) encoding it. Homology vs analogy. According to Russell, we owe to Richard Owen the first clear distinction between homologous and analogous organs. Owen's definitions were: Analogue: a part or organ in one animal which has the same function as another part or organ in a different animal. Homologue: the same organ in different animals under every variety of form and function. The distinction is made clear by examples such as the ear ossicles of mammals. These little bones have, in the course of several hundred million years of evolution, made their way from the gill covers of fish to the rear jaw bones of Synapsids to their present position in the ear of mammals. In the fossil record is evidence of this, and also in embryology. As the embryo develops, the cartilage hardens to form bone. Later in development, tiny bone structures break loose from the jaw and migrate to the inner ear area. The ear ossicles are homologous with the jaw bones and the gill covers, but not analogous. This rather extraordinary story was first proposed in 1818 by Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, who looked at fish and tried to discover the homologies of their bones with that of land vertebrates. Level of analysis. "A trait may be both homologous and analogous", depending on the level at which the trait is examined. For example, the wings of birds and bats are homologous as "forearms" in tetrapods. However, they are not homologous as "wings", because the organ served as a forearm
Discovery Channel (known as The Discovery Channel from 1985 to 1995, and often referred to as simply Discovery) is an American cable channel owned by Warner Bros. Discovery, a publicly traded company run by CEO David Zaslav. As of June 2012, Discovery Channel was the third most widely distributed subscription channel in the United States, behind now-sibling channel EBS, BBC, ABC, CBS, PBS, CBC and PTV. it is available in 409 million households worldwide, through its U.S. flagship channel and its various owned or licensed television channels internationally. It initially provided documentary television programming focused primarily on popular science, technology, and history, but by the 2010s had expanded into reality television and pseudo-scientific entertainment. As of September 2018, Discovery Channel is available to approximately 88,589,000 pay television households in the United States.
The Last Day of the Dinosaurs is a 2010 Discovery Channel television documentary about the extinction of the dinosaurs. It portrays the asteroid as the cause of the extinction. Plot. In the Pacific Northwest of North America, in the Hell Creek Formation, a "Quetzalcoatlus" is flying above the Late Cretaceous landscape, looking for food. It finds a nest of "Tyrannosaurus rex" chicks that have just hatched. It picks them up in its beak and eats them to death. Suddenly, the father of the brood appears, and starts fighting the "Quetzalcoatlus". He grabs it by the wing, but it manages to escape. Only one chick survives the horror.  Meanwhile, the asteroid is getting closer to Earth. The narrator says that it was caused by the collision of two asteroids 150 million years ago. One of the fragments is heading towards Earth. In the Pacific Northwest, two male "Triceratops horridus" fight for mating rights. One of them wins. The loser walks away. Suddenly, two "Tyrannosaurus" attack and kill the male. They start feeding on his carcass. Nearby, in France, a herd of "Hypselosaurus" is roaming the plains in search of food. They are the giants of prehistoric France, even by dinosaur standards. They are big, but only a little small as other sauropods, and they weigh only a few tons. Their small size demands that they eat a lot of vegetation to maintain their bulky size. Meanwhile, the asteroid enters the Earth's atmosphere. It is burning brighter than a million suns. The scorching light sears the "Hypselosaurus"' eyeballs, blinding them. Then, the asteroid hits the Earth in the Gulf of Mexico, near the Yucatan Peninsula. In a fraction of a second, it dives into the planet. The air temperature near the crash site now reaches 600 degrees Fahrenheit. The "Hypselosaurus" are burned alive. In the Pacific Northwest, the "Quetzalcoatlus" can see the impact.  Meanwhile, Canada is 8
Charonosaurus was a genus of hadrosaur that lived at the very end of the Upper Cretaceous, about 65 million years ago. Its remains were found in China.  The partial skull resembles that of "Parasaurolophus" from North America. This does "not" suggest a Bering land bridge existed during the Cretaceous period, since at that time North America was far away from Eastern Asia. Instead, it is likely that this group of hadrosaurs all had a similar long, backward-projecting hollow crest. It may have been used for trumpeting their calls. In other words, their skull shape was a basal feature. "Charonosaurus" was a very large lambeosaurine hadrosaur (estimated around 13 m (42.5 ft) long), known from a partial skull found in Heilongjiang Province, northeastern China. Adult and juvenile hadrosaur remains were found in the same area. They give information on the rest of the skeleton; the femur length was up to 1.35 m. (4.5 ft).  In popular culture. "Charonosaurus" was featured in the Discovery Channel television documentary The Last Day of the Dinosaurs, where it was the prey of "Troodon".
Dinosaur brains and intelligence are interesting topics. Dinosaurs were once regarded as stupid animals, but it is now realised that some of the smaller carnivores had above average intelligence for reptiles. This idea led to exaggerated portrayals in films like "Jurassic Park". "Stegosaurus". The idea that "Stegosaurus" had a "brain the size of a walnut" (an oft-repeated phrase), was not quite accurate. It had a brain the size of a dog's, but in proportion to its body, the brain was very small. In the 1880s a well-preserved "Stegosaurus" braincase allowed Othniel Charles Marsh to get a cast of the brain cavity, which gave an idea of the brain size. The endocast showed that the brain was indeed small: relative to body size, maybe the smallest among the dinosaurs. The fact that an animal weighing over 4.5 metric tonnes (5 short tons) could have a brain of no more than 80 grams (2.8 oz) led to the idea that dinosaurs were unintelligent, an idea now largely rejected. Marsh noted a large canal in the hip region of the spinal cord. It could have had 20 times the neurons of the famously small brain. This may have been used to coordinate the hind region in defence against theropod attack. This function for the "second brain" is not proved by any direct evidence. Brain-body size relationship. Brain size usually increases with body size in animals (is positively correlated). That means large animals usually have larger brains than smaller animals. The relationship is not linear however. Generally, small mammals have "relatively" larger brains than big ones. Mice have a direct brain/body size ratio similar to humans (1/40). Elephants have a comparatively small brain/body size (1/560), although elephants are obviously quite intelligent animals. Encephalization quotient (EQ). The formula for the curve varies, but is usually given as Ew(brain) = 0.12w(body)2/3. As this formula is based on data from mammals, it should be applied to other animals with caution.
Tellurium(IV) iodide, also known as tellurium tetraiodide, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is TeI4. It contains tellurium in its +4 oxidation state. It also contains iodide ions.  Properties. Tellurium(IV) iodide is a black solid. It breaks down when heated to tellurium(II) iodide and iodine. It is a weak reducing agent. It conducts electricity when melted. Preparation. It is made by reacting tellurium with iodine or by reacting tellurium with iodomethane, CH3I.
Tellurium(IV) fluoride, also known as tellurium tetrafluoride, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is TeF4. It contains tellurium in its +4 oxidation state. It also contains fluoride ions. Properties. Tellurium(IV) fluoride is a white solid. It reacts with water to make tellurium dioxide and hydrofluoric acid. It reacts with many metals when heated. Preparation. It is made by reacting tellurium dioxide with sulfur tetrafluoride. It can also be made by reacting cold fluorine with tellurium. Another way is reacting selenium tetrafluoride with warm tellurium dioxide. Fluorine can also react with tellurium(II) chloride or tellurium(II) bromide to make tellurium(IV) fluoride.
Tellurium(IV) oxide, also known as tellurium dioxide, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is TeO2. It contains tellurium in its +4 oxidation state. It also contains oxide ions. Properties. Tellurium(IV) oxide can be yellow or white. The white form is the manmade form. The yellow form is natural, also known as tellurite. The manmade form is most common in chemical reactions. At high pressure, the manmade white form turns into the yellow form. It melts at a high temperature to make a red liquid. Tellurium(IV) oxide does not dissolve in water. It reacts with concentrated sulfuric acid. It can react with many strong acids and powerful oxidizing agents. It can also react with strong bases. It makes one's breath smell like garlic when it is eaten. Preparation. Tellurium(IV) oxide is made by burning tellurium in air. Uses. It is used in devices that can convert light into sound. It can make glass with special properties.  Safety. It can cause birth defects. It also makes bad breath.