ejaasaari/simplewiki-2025-04-01 huggingface dataset:
Pablo Neruda (July 12, 1904 – September 23, 1973) was a Chilean poet. He won the Nobel Prize for literature in 1971. He wrote in Spanish. Most of his works have been translated into many other languages. Biography. Neruda was born in the City of Parral in Chile on July 12, 1904 born under the name Ricardo Neftali Reyes. Neruda’s mother died shortly after he was born, but the child, Neruda came to love his stepmother (Dona Trinidad Candia Malverde) as if she had been his real mother. Neruda started to write poetry as a young boy against the wishes of his father who wanted him to focus on mathematics - so he could become a teacher. In his youth he became a great admirer of the poetry of Jan Neruda and Paul Verlaine and chose the pen name of Pablo Neruda after Paul Verlaine (Pablo is the Spanish version of Paul) and Jan Neruda.  Neruda was mainly interested in literature and writing poems, which he would mail out to magazines; to prevent his parents from discovering that he was doing this he changed his name to Pablo Neruda. In 1920 Neruda moved to Santiago to study French at the University of Chile, which he did to please his parents who wanted him to become a teacher. Soon Neruda became deeply involved in his poetry and in 1923 he published his first book: Crepusculario(Twilight Book). After a number of years Neruda became a very famous person in his country and the world and was assigned diplomatic posts in various countries for long periods of time, such as Indonesia, Spain and France. Neruda was suffering from cancer when he died of heart failure in hospital at the age of 69 on September 23, 1973 about a fortnight after the overthrow of Salvador Allende by military forces led by Pinochet. Many people today believe Neruda may have been poisoned by Pinochet's secret police, DINA, who feared Neruda's prominence and influence in creating an opposition to the military dictatorship.  Neruda had a number of siblings,
The Nanjing Massacre was a massacre (an unjust killing of many people) that happened in Nanjing, China, in December of 1937 and January of 1938. It was part of the Second Sino-Japanese War, which was the part of World War II between China and Japan. At the time, Japan was trying to take over China and Nanjing was the Chinese capital. The Japanese Army reached Nanjing on 13 December 1937 and began killing and raping thousands upon thousands of people. Some Japanese claim the fighting in Nanjing was the same or not much worse than fighting in other places and in other wars. That is simply untrue. There is a lot of evidence from the Chinese, from outsiders who were there, from outsiders who have studied it, and from the Japanese themselves that things were much worse. There were many, many war crimes: soldiers without weapons were killed; people who were not soldiers were killed; many were tortured (hurt very badly), mutilated (hurt in ways that can never be fixed), or killed in very cruel ways; many were raped (forced to have sex) or forced to work and treated like things. We have the orders from the soldier's leaders telling them to do these kinds of things and not to follow rules against them. The Nanjing Massacre was so bad that some even think of it as a kind of genocide (trying to wipe out an entire group of people).  The memory of the Nanjing Massacre—and anger at attempts to deny that it happened or to honor the soldiers who led it at the Yasukuni Shrine in Tokyo—still cause difficulty between the Chinese and Japanese governments and between Chinese and Japanese people. Names. The Nanjing Massacre is also known as the . It was known at the time as the or the . The name of Nanjing has not changed: it was then and now, but people have changed the way they spell the sounds of Chinese names using the Latin alphabet. "Nanking" was the Postal Map spelling, which usually tried to spell words the way local people said them around the year 1900. "Nanjing" is the pinyin spelling, which spells words the way they should
Neoliberalism is a term for different social and economic ideas. There is no agreed definition. Originally the term was used by a group of liberals who helped shape social market economy in the mid 20th century. Classic liberalism is characterized by free market trade, deregulation of financial markets, mercantilism and the shift away from state welfare provision. Alexander Rüstow was the first economist to develop this concept, looking after a Social Democracy system rather than a Laissez Faire Capitalist Society. Characteristics of Neoliberalism. In the application of neoliberal ideals, the state might also intervene and regulate, for example, to prevent exploitation, or to ensure social fairness and equality. Neoliberalism is against the protection of group - rather than individual - interests, for example, that might be achieved through lobbying of groups, or state interventions that protect national interests via tariffs or subsidies. Neoliberalism has moved away from a centrally governed economy. Contemporary use. Since the 1990s the term has been consistently used in academia to imply the move from welfare state to laissez faire economic management, particularly associated with the promotion of free market ideals in the 1980s by Margaret Thatcher in the UK and Ronald Reagan in the US.
In economics, a cartel is a group of formerly independent companies who overtly agree to work together. The objectives of cartels are to increase their profits or to stabilize market sales. They do this by fixing the price of goods, by limiting market supply or by other means. Monopolies are not cartels, because in a monopoly there is only one independent company. Cartels are bad for the economy in general and for their customers who are overcharged. Cartels usually occur in oligopolies, where there are a small number of players that control the majority of supply in a market.  Besides the sellers' cartel just described, buyers may also form cartels to suppress the price of a purchased input. Another type of cartel is the bidding ring. In bid rigging potential suppliers form an agreement as to which of them will win a supply contract at a price above the competitive price and, if one of them wins, then agree to a rule for sharing the extra profits among themselves. Bid rigging is most common among construction firms trying to get a government building project.  "People of the same trade seldom meet together, even for merriment and diversion, but the conversation ends in a conspiracy against the public, or in some contrivance to raise prices." "Adam Smith, The Wealth of Nations", 1776 Overview. A survey was done of hundreds of published economic studies and legal decisions of antitrust authorities. It found that the median price increase achieved by cartels in the last 200 years is 25%. Private international cartels (those with participants from two or more nations) had an average price increase of 28%. Domestic cartels averaged 18%. Less than 10% of all cartels in the sample failed to raise market prices.  In general, cartel agreements are difficult to negotiate because potential members typically have different ideal collusive prices. Once formed, cartels tend to be economically unstable, primarily because there is a profit incentive for members to cheat by selling at below the agreed price or selling more than the production quotas set by the cartel (see also game theory). Cheating on prices is difficult for cartel members to observe, so more successful cartels often agree to fix their market quotas
In economics, an oligopoly is a market form in which the market or industry is controlled by a small number of sellers. Usually, the market has high barriers to entry, which prevents new firms from entering the market or even be able to have a significant market share.  As there are only a few sellers in the market, each seller would take note of the actions made by one another, and thinks about how the other sellers will respond when making decisions. As such, there is a possibility in which an oligopoly can come together to make a common decision that allows them to have less competition and charge higher prices for consumers.  Examples. In many countries, some country-held companies were privatized. Very often, this privatization lead to oligopolies. In many countries, there are only a handful of companies providing networks for mobile phones. They control the prices for accessing the network. That is why using a mobile phone is often much more expensive than using a land line one. Trains run by private sectors are much costlier than those run by a government. As a government gives rights to private sectors to get a hold of some other sectors, they take advantage of it.
In economics, market structure (also known as market form) describes the state of a market with respect to competition. Most market forms given below talk about a "homogeneous product". This simply means that they all make the same thing. They simply want to get the cheapest one, since all kinds of sugars (or soaps) look the same anyway.  The major market forms are: The imperfectly competitive structure is quite identical to the realistic market conditions where some monopolistic competitors, monopolists, oligopolists, and duopolists exist and dominate the market conditions. These somewhat abstract concerns usually determine some but not all details of a specific concrete market system where buyers and sellers actually meet and commit to trade. The correct sequence of the market structure from most to least competitive is perfect competition, imperfect competition, oligopoly, and pure monopoly. The main criteria by which one can distinguish between different market structures are: the number and size of producers and consumers in the market, the type of goods and services being traded, and the degree to which information can flow freely.
In economics, perfect competition is a type of market form in which there are many companies that sell the same product or service and no one has enough market power to be able to set prices on the product or service without losing business. As the conditions for perfect competition are strict, there are only a few markets that are considered to be perfectly competitive and this market form only exists to compare with the other market forms. Characteristics. Generally, a perfectly competitive market exists when every firm in the market are price takers and no one is able to charge a different price without losing business. Specific characteristics of perfect competition includes: These characteristics are largely impossible to achieve in reality and there are not many markets that are perfectly competitive. For example, it is unlikely that there are absolutely no barriers to entry and exit as there are always costs involved in setting up a new firm. Also, information is always imperfect and it is not possible for buyers to know exactly the price set by all sellers, and sellers are not willing to share their production methods with their competitors. However, the study of perfect competition is important as it is used to compare with the other market forms. In the short run, a perfectly competitive firm is not productively efficient as the output will not be at where the marginal cost equals to the average cost (MC = AC). However, a perfectly competitive firm will be allocatively efficient as the firm will be producing at the profit-maximising output where MC = MR, which is coincidentally the allocatively efficient point. In the long run, a perfectly competitive firm will be both allocatively and productively efficient. Model. A model can be used to show the perfectly competitive firm's price and output level for a given product. In the diagram shown, the cost curves of a perfectly competitive market is shown in its long run equilibrium. For a perfectly competitive firm, the marginal cost of producing an extra unit of output is shown using the MC curve "(in blue)" whereas the average total cost of producing an extra unit of output is shown using the ATC curve "(in red)". As stated above, a perfectly competitive market has a large number of buyers and sellers and the demand does not change with output. Hence, the demand curve, the average
Monopolistic competition is a market form. Like with Perfect competition, there are many buyers and sellers. But the market is not perfect. This is because the products are not homogeneous, or because the buyers have explicit or implicit preferences. This market form is quite common. As an example, take a bakery. There are many bakeries in the town, but one of those bakeries can demand a slightly higher price for bread, because it is the only one in a certain part of the town. Monopolistically competitive firms are able to gain a greater degree of market share and as a result, increase prices. If a particular bakery is known for selling the best pies and pasties in town, they can increase their prices for pies and pasties as they know consumers will pay slightly more for a superior product. This is known as establishing a brand name and brand loyalty.
Supply and demand is a model of microeconomics. It describes how a price is formed in a market economy. There are two determining factors on such a market, the number of things made available, called supply, and the number of things consumers want, called demand. Supply and demand shows how producers and consumers interact with each other. This relationship will fix the price for a certain type of good. In perfect competition, the quantity demanded (demand) and the quantity supplied will be equal. This happens at the equilibrium market price. For normal goods, and a normal market, there are four basic laws that determine the change in the market, if either supply or demand changes: When there is more supply, this will cause prices to fall because people will not want to pay more for items that can be found easily. When there is more demand, prices will go up because many people want to buy the same item but there is not enough supply for it. When demands for new goods and services go up, new markets come into being. The greater the demand, the faster this happens. This greater number of providers makes the supply go up, which forces the price down toward the cost of production and distribution. History. One of the first to see this was Adam Smith. In his book "The Wealth of Nations" (1776), he says that the demand was dependent on the price of a good. He did not see the inverse, that the demand also influences the price. David Ricardo published the book "Principles of Political Economy and Taxation" in 1817, where he explained market equilibrium as it is explained above. Others who are known for this model are Alfred Marshall and Léon Walras. Goods and markets where the rules are different. There are certain goods which violate the model above The rules above are only valid for a perfect competition market: In such a market, there are many buyers and sellers, and no single buyer or seller can directly influence the price. If either the buyers or the sellers can influence this price, the market will react differently. Sometimes there is only one supplier (a monopoly). When this happens, the supplier chooses the price and the demand only determines how much is bought. The supplier will probably raise the price very high as long as people are still willing to buy at that price. If there is only one buyer, the market is called monopsony, and that buyer is able to fix the price.
In economics, people talk about elasticity of an economic variable, usually supply or demand, in relation to another economic variable such as income or price. The elasticity of a variable is a measure of how much the variable changes in response to a change in a second variable. If the price for a good with a price-elastic demand goes up, the demand for it will go down. For example, people will buy fewer DVDs if DVDs get more expensive − DVDs have a price-elastic demand. If a good has a completely price-inelastic demand, the demand for it will not be affected by the price of it. For example, if the price of salt increases, people will not buy less of it. They need their daily salt intake. The demand of salt is therefore price-inelastic. Elasticity is often measured in percents. If a 2% increase in price causes people to buy 1% fewer of a product, it has a price elasticity of demand of -0.5.
Worcestershire (ˈwʊs.təˌʃə; abbreviated Worcs) is a county in the West Midlands region of central England. From 1974 to 1998 it was part of Hereford and Worcester. The city of Worcester, where the sauce named after Worcestershire was invented, is within this county. The county borders Herefordshire, Shropshire, Staffordshire, West Midlands, Warwickshire, and Gloucestershire. Physical geography. Worcestershire is a fairly rural county. The Malvern Hills, which run from the south of the county into Herefordshire, are made up mainly of volcanic rock, some of which date from before 1200 million years ago. For more on the geology of the Malvern Hills, see the other websites section below.
Metamorphosis in biology means the process of transformation from an immature form to an adult form in two or more distinct stages. Good examples are insects and amphibians. Life for most insects begins as a larva or nymph then progresses to the pupa stage and ends as an adult. Animals that metamorphose include tadpoles into frogs, caterpillars into butterflys, and generally insect larva into adult insects. Insects. There are two main types of metamorphosis in insects: simple metamorphosis or "hemimetabolism", and complete metamorphosis or "holometabolism". Simple metamorphosis or "hemimetabolism". Insects who go through simple (or incomplete) metamorphosis have three life stages. These insects start as eggs, which are usually very small. When the egg hatches, a larva or nymph comes out. Nymphs are just baby insects. Most of the time, the nymph looks similar to the adult, but it is smaller, may have different colouration, and does not have wings. The nymph grows through stages called "instars", shedding its 'skin' ("epicuticle") at each stage ("ecdysis"). Finally, it changes into a mature adult with wings. Some insect nymphs are aquatic, which means they live in water. These nymphs usually have gills and look very different from the adults they will turn into. Nymphs that live in water are called "naiads". Some insects that have a life cycle of egg-nymph-adult are: Complete metamorphosis or "holometabolism". Insects that have complete metamorphosis have four life stages. These insects start as eggs, which are very small. The egg hatches and a larva comes out. The larva looks like a worm and eats and eats so that it can grow much bigger. When the larva has grown it changes into a pupa. The pupa usually can not move or eat. The pupa is a special time when the insect is changing into an adult that will look very different from the larva or the pupa. Moth pupae (plural of pupa) are inside cocoons
Resilience generally means the ability to recover from some shock or disturbance.  There are different meanings for, Psychology. Resilience is a term used in psychology to describe the capacity of people to cope with stress and catastrophe. It is also used to indicate a characteristic of resistance to future negative events. This psychological meaning of resilience is often contrasted with "risk factors". Materials. In physics and engineering, resilience is defined as the capacity of a material to absorb energy when it is deformed elastically and then, upon unloading to have this energy recovered. In other words, it is the maximum energy per volume that can be elastically stored. It is represented by the area under the curve in the elastic region in the Stress-Strain diagram. Modulus of Resilience, formula_1, can be calculated using the following formula: formula_2, where formula_3 is yield stress, E is Young's modulus, and formula_4 is strain. An example of a biomaterial which has a high resilience is articular cartilage, the substance lining the ends of bones in articulating joints such as the knee and hip. Systems. Ecology. In ecology, resilience has been defined in two competing fashions that emphasize two different aspects of stability. One definition is the rate at which a system returns to a single steady or cyclic state following a perturbation. This definition of resilience assumes that behavior of a system remains within the stable domain that contains this steady state. When a system can reorganize, that is shift from one stability domain to another, a more relevant measure of ecosystem dynamics is ecological resilience. It is a measure of the amount of change or disruption that is required to transform a system from being maintained by one set of mutually reinforcing processes and structures to a different set of processes and structures. The second definition emphasizes conditions far from any steady-states, where instabilities can flip a system into another regime of behavior - i.e. to another stability domain. In this case resilience is measured by the magnitude of disturbance that can be absorbed before the system changes its structure by changing the variables and processes that control behavior. This type of resilience has been defined as ecological resilience. Economic and business. Economic resilence
St Andrews is a town, that has its name from Saint Andrew the Apostle and is a former royal burgh on the east coast of Fife, Scotland, and an important home of golf. It has a population of about 18 000, and stands on the North Sea coast between Edinburgh and Dundee. It is home to Scotland's oldest university, the "University of St Andrews". The town is called "home of golf" for two reasons. First, the "Royal and Ancient Golf Club", founded in 1754,has authority over the game worldwide except in the USA and Mexico. Second, the beautiful "links" (acquired by the town in 1894) is the most frequent venue for The Open Championship, the oldest of the Men's major golf championships. Visitors travel to St Andrews in great numbers for several courses ranked amongst the finest in the world, as well as for the sandy beaches. Buildings. Cathedral. The Cathedral of St Andrew was at one time Scotland's largest building. It was founded by Bishop Robert (1122 - 1159). It was not completed and consecrated until 1318 in the reign of Robert the Bruce (1306-29). St Rule's Tower. St Rule's tower stands in the Cathedral grounds but is older than the cathedral. Probably it was part of the Cathedral up to the early 12th century. Castle. The ruins of "St Andrews Castle" stand on a rock at the sea. It is said that Bishop Roger erected the first stone castle on the site about the beginning of the 13th century as an episcopal residence. The University of St Andrews. The University of St Andrews owed its origin to a society formed in 1410 by Lawrence of Lindores, abbot of Scone and a few others. The university library, which now includes the older college libraries, was founded about the middle of the 17th century, rebuilt in 1764, and improved in 1829 and 1889 - 1890. The modern buildings, in the Jacobean style, were erected between 1827 and 1847. University College, Dundee, became in 1890 affiliated to the University of St Andrews.
The element St Andrew, St. Andrews or St. Andrew's is found in the names of many places and institutions. All of them are named after Saint Andrew, a Christian saint and one of the New Testament Apostles. Saint Andrew Other saints who share this name include: British Isles and Europe North America Australia, New Zealand, Japan Egypt Israel Malta Morocco Other uses See also