ejaasaari/simplewiki-2025-04-01 huggingface dataset:
Molecular symmetry is a basic idea in chemistry. It describes the shapes of molecules in terms of the permutations of similar atoms in those molecules when they are transformed by the symmetry operations described below. It puts molecules into groups according to their symmetry. It can predict or explain many of a molecule's chemical properties. Chemists study symmetry to explain how crystals are made up and how chemicals react. The molecular symmetry of the reactants help predict how the product of the reaction is made up and the energy needed for the reaction. Molecular symmetry can be studied several different ways. Group theory is the most popular idea. Group theory is also useful in studying the symmetry of molecular orbitals. This is used in the Hückel method, ligand field theory, and the Woodward–Hoffmann rules. Another idea on a larger scale is the use of crystal systems to describe crystallographic symmetry in bulk materials. Scientists find molecular symmetry by using X-ray crystallography and other forms of spectroscopy. Spectroscopic notation is based on facts taken from molecular symmetry. Historical background. Physicist Hans Bethe used characters of point group operations in his study of ligand field theory in 1929. Eugene Wigner used group theory to explain the selection rules of atomic spectroscopy. The first character tables were compiled by László Tisza (1933), in connection to vibrational spectra. Robert Mulliken was the first to publish character tables in English (1933). E. Bright Wilson used them in 1934 to predict the symmetry of vibrational normal modes. The complete set of 32 crystallographic point groups was published in 1936 by Rosenthal and Murphy. Symmetry concepts. Mathematical group theory has been adapted to study of symmetry in molecules.  Elements. The symmetry of a molecule can be described by 5 types of symmetry elements.  Operations. Each of the five symmetry elements has a symmetry operation. People use a caret symbol (^) to talk about the operation rather than the symmetry element. So, Ĉn is the rotation of a molecule around an axis and Ê is the identity operation. A symmetry element can have more than one symmetry operation associated with it. Since C1 is
Jean Paul Getty (December 15, 1892 – June 6, 1976) was an American industrialist. He founded the Getty Oil Company. In 1957 "Fortune" magazine named him the richest living American. The 1966 Guinness Book of Records named him as the world's richest private citizen, worth an estimated $1,200 million. When he died he was worth more than $2 billion. A book published in 1996 ranked him as the 67th richest American who ever lived. (The book ranked his wealth as a percentage of the United States gross national product.) Despite his wealth, Getty was known for being a miser. Getty enjoyed collecting art and antiquities. His collection formed the basis of the J. Paul Getty Museum in Los Angeles, California. He left $661 million to the museum after his death. He established the J. Paul Getty Trust in 1953. The trust is the world's wealthiest art institution. It operates the J. Paul Getty Museum, the Getty Foundation, the Getty Research Institute, and the Getty Conservation Institute. Biography. His father George Getty owned a petroleum business in Minneapolis, Minnesota. He enrolled at the University of Southern California, then at University of California, Berkeley before graduating in 1914 from Magdalen College, Oxford with degrees in economics and political science. He spent his summers between studies working on his father's oil fields in Oklahoma. Running his own oil company in Tulsa, he made his first million by 1916. In 1917, he announced that he was retiring to become a Los Angeles-based playboy. Although he eventually returned to business, Getty had lost his father's respect. Just before George Getty died in 1930, he believed that Jean Paul would destroy the family company, and told him so. After taking a few years off from the money-making grind to enjoy spending his money on women, Getty returned to Oklahoma in 1919. During the 1920s he added about $3 million to his already sizable estate. His marriages and divorces (three during the 1920s, five throughout his life) distressed his father. J. Paul inherited only $500,000 of
Paradise Lost is an epic poem in blank verse by the 17th-century English writer John Milton. It was printed in 1667 though it was written nearly ten years earlier. The second part was printed in 1674. Most of the poem was written after Milton was blind. The poem is about the Christian story of the Fall of Man: how Adam and Eve got out from the Garden of Eden and about the fallen angel Lucifer.
Muammar Muhammad Abu Minyar al-Gaddafi( ' )[variations] ( – 20 October 2011) better known as Colonel Gaddafi, was a Libyan politician. He ruled Libya from 1969 to 2011. Early life. Muammar al-Gaddafi was born in a tent near Qasr Abu Hadi. His family came from a small tribal group called Qadhadhfa. His family were Arabized Berber people in heritage. He joined the Libyan military in 1961; the military was one of the few ways for lower class Libyans like him to rise in social status. He became a colonel. Ruler of Libya. Gaddafi became head of state of Libya after removing King Idris from power in a 1969 bloodless coup. He ruled Libya from September 1, 1969 to August 23, 2011. After the coup, Gaddafi established the Libyan Arab Republic. He was one of the longest-serving non royal rulers in history, because he had ruled for more than 41 years. Gaddafi used Arab socialist and Arab nationalist ideas. He published a book about his philosophical views in 1975. This book is commonly known as "The Green Book". In 1977, he left the power of Libya, and continued playing role of revolutionary. People called him the "Brother Leader and Guide of the Revolution". The Libyan Arab Republic was renamed to the Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya in 1977 later it was renamed again to the Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya by Gaddafi in 1986. In the 1980s, he made chemical weapons, because of it critics called Libya a pariah state. A Dutch investigation found that Gaddafi had built up a "billion-dollar empire", from assets in an international company in the oil industry. It also claims that his assets are scattered throughout much of Europe, Despite no trace or proof for even 1 billion have been found. Gaddafi had a strong interest in geo-political control, was a firm supporter of [OPEC] and led a Pan-African campaign for a United States of Africa. In
Otto Konrad (born 1 November 1964) is a retired Austrian football goalkeeper. He now works as goalkeeping coach for SV Grödig in Austria's First League. Career. Club. He started his professional career with his local club SK Sturm Graz. He stayed 11 years and then went to SV Austria Salzburg. With this team he reached 3 national titles and played in the 1994 UEFA Cup Final which Salzburg lost to Inter Milan. In the 1994/95 season he even scored a goal for Salzburg. This goal was voted "Goal of the year 1994". 1997 to 1998 he became goalkeeper of Real Zaragoza in Spain but returned to Austria where he played for GAK, DSV Leoben and PSV Salzburg. International. He played 12 matches for the Austrian national football team and was member of the squad for the 1990 FIFA World Cup. His international career was not as successful as his league career because there was a lot of competition for the goalkeeping position.
An electrocyclic reaction is a specific kind of chemical reaction. It is known from organic chemistry, a branch of chemistry. An electrocyclic reaction is a type of pericyclic rearrangement reaction. The net result of an electrocyclic reaction is: Electrocyclic reactions share the following properties: Noted examples. The Nazarov cyclization reaction is an electrocyclic reaction that closes a ring. It converts divinylketones to cyclopentenones. (It was discovered by Ivan Nikolaevich Nazarov (d. 1957).) An example is the thermal ring-opening reaction of 3,4-dimethylcyclobutene. The cis isomer only yields "cis,trans-2,4-hexadiene". But the trans isomer gives the trans,trans diene: The frontier-orbital method explains how this reaction works. The sigma bond in the reactant will open in a way that the resulting p-orbitals will have the same symmetry as the highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) of the product (a butadiene). This can only happen with a conrotatory ring-opening that results in opposite signs for the two lobes at the broken ends of the ring. (A disrotatory ring-opening would form an anti-bond.) The following diagram shows this: Stereospecifity. The stereospecificity of the result depends on whether the reaction proceeds through a conrotatory or disrotatory process. The torquoselectivity in an electrocyclic reaction refers to the direction that the substituents rotate. For example, the substituents in a reaction that is conrotatory can still rotate in two directions. It produces a mixture of two products that are the mirror image of each other (enantiomeric products). A reaction that is torquoselective restricts one of these directions of rotation (partially or completely) to produce a product in enantiomeric excess (where one stereoisomer is produced much more than the other). Mechanism of thermal reactions. Woodward-Hoffman rules. The Woodward–Hoffmann rules address the conservation of orbital symmetry in electrocy
The Arctic hare ("Lepus arcticus") is a social animal that lives in the frigid tundra of North America, Newfoundland, and Greenland. These hares often congregate in groups of up to 200 individuals. They hop at great speeds on their large, powerful hind legs, in a kangaroo-like fashion. The female is called a doe, the male is called a buck, and the baby hare is called a leveret. The young are born open-eyed and furry. Most hares live for about a year in the wild.  Their predators are arctic foxes, arctic wolves, polar bears, falcons, snowy owls, golden eagles, and stoats. They are unharmed during winter and are used to wintry weather.
Robert Burns Woodward (April 10, 1917 – July 8, 1979) was an American organic chemist. He made many important discoveries in modern organic chemistry. He worked on the synthesis and structure of complex natural products. He worked closely with Roald Hoffmann on the theory of chemical reactions. Woodward won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for 1965. Early life and education. Woodward was born in Boston, Massachusetts. When he was one year old, his father died in the influenza pandemic of 1918. He was interested in chemistry at an early age. By the time he entered high school, he had already done most of the experiments in Ludwig Gattermann's textbook of experimental organic chemistry. In 1928, Woodward asked the Consul-General of the German consulate in Boston, to send him copies of a few original papers published in German journals. He was fascinated to read Otto Diels and Kurt Alder's original communication about the Diels–Alder reaction. In 1933, he entered the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), but did not do well enough to continue. MIT readmitted him in 1935, and by 1936 he had received the Bachelor of Science degree. Only one year later, MIT awarded him the doctorate. This was very unusual at the time, because most MIT students earned only a Bachelor of Science degree after four years. Woodward's studies were about the synthesis of the female sex hormone estrone, a natural type of estrogen. He held a Junior Fellowship at Harvard University from 1937 to 1938, and stayed at Harvard for the rest of his life. In the 1960s, Woodward was named Donner Professor of Science, a post which allowed him to spend all his time on research. Early work. In the early 1940s Wooward was using ultraviolet spectroscopy to discover the structure of natural products. Woodward collected a large amount of information, and then worked out a series of rules, later called the Woodward's rules. These rules could be used to find out the structures of new natural products, as well as non-natural synthesized molecules. Woodward was always quick to use newly developed techniques. Woodward's
Crypsis is a word in ecology which means "hiding". It refers to the ways animals avoid being seen, or otherwise detected. It also includes the situation when an animal "is" noticed, but is not recognised for what it is. It may be either a defence against predators, or a device for predators to get near prey. Methods include camouflage, nocturnality (night-time activity), subterranean lifestyle, transparency, and mimicry. The word can also be used about eggs, and about pheromone production. Crypsis can in principle involve visual, olfactory or auditory camouflage.
The Galil is a family of Israeli small arms. They were designed by Yisrael Galil and Yaacov Lior in the late 1960s. They were made by Israel Military Industries Ltd (now Israel Weapon Industries Ltd) of Ramat HaSharon. History. The Galil's design is supposed to make it work well in warm weather. It was designed from the Finnish RK 62. The RK 62 itself was designed from the Soviet AK-47 assault rifle. It was chosen as the winner of a competition for the Israel Defense Forces. This competition included many other designs. Some of these were the M16A1, Stoner 63, AK-47 and HK33. The Galil was officially brought into service in 1972. It replaced the FN FAL. Design. Features. The Galil is fired by a small hammer. It has a trigger mechanism which was designed from the trigger used in the American M1 Garand. The rifle's fire has three positions: "R" (First letter of "repeating", which is a British word for semi-automatic fire); the middle position, "A", gives fully automatic fire; and pushing the lever fully forward turns on the safety so that the weapon can not be fired. The weapon is made with a plastic hand guard and pistol grip. The rifle can be used with a sound suppressor. A suppressor makes the weapon quieter. The weapon has a bottle opener and wire cutter built into the bipod. The bottle opener was built in to stop damage to magazines. This was because the magazines were being used to open bottles. Wire cutters were built in to reduce the time that IDF troops took to cut down wire fences. This is because there are many wire fences in rural areas of Israel. Barrel. The barrel has a flash suppressor. It can be used to launch rifle grenades or attach a bayonet. It is possible to attach the M7 bayonet to the Galil. Feeding. The Galil gets its ammunition from a curved, steel box magazine. It can hold 35 rounds. There is a special colour-coded 12-round magazine which is used for blanks. The magazine is put into the
Cannabaceae the hemp family of the rose order, containing 11 genera and 270 species of aromatic herbs distributed throughout temperate parts of the Northern Hemisphere.  Description. Older authorities included the two genera, Cannabis and Humulus, in the mulberry family. These and the former hackberry family (Celtidaceae) are now included in Cannabaceae. Members of the family are erect or climbing plants with petalless flowers and dry, one-seeded fruits. Hemp ("Cannabis") and hop ("Humulus") are the only economically important species.
Urticaceae the nettle family comprising about 45 genera of herbs, shrubs, small trees, and a few vines, distributed primarily in tropical regions. The family is typical of the nettle order.  Description. Many species, especially the nettles ("Urtica") and Australian nettle trees ("Laportea"), have stinging hairs on the stems and leaves. The leaves are varied and the sap is usually watery.  The small, greenish flowers often form clusters in the leaf axils. Both male and female flowers may be borne on the same plant. The curled stamens of the male flowers straighten quickly as the flowers open, releasing the pollen.
Adrian Malik Fenty (born December 6, 1970) was the sixth, and youngest Mayor of the District of Columbia. He was a national leader in urban education reform. He lost his re-election bid in the 2010 Democratic primary to Vincent C. Gray, who went on to win the election for mayor. Early life, education, and family. Fenty grew up in the Mount Pleasant neighborhood of Washington, D.C. and graduated from Mackin Catholic High School. As a teenager, he worked at Swenson's Ice Cream next to the Uptown Theatre. Fenty's mother is white, and his father is African-American. Adrian Fenty is the middle child of three boys—older brother Shawn, a bicycle expert, and younger brother Jess. Their parents are runners and own a Fleet Feet athletic shoe store in the D.C. neighborhood of Adams Morgan. Adrian has run in the Cherry Blossom Ten Mile Run each year since 2004, improving his finishing time from 1:17:22 in 2005 to 1:02:59 in 2009. Fenty earned a B.A. in English and Economics at Oberlin College and a J.D. from the Howard University School of Law. He is a member of Kappa Alpha Psi Fraternity. In 1997, Fenty and lawyer Michelle Cross married. She works for the Inter-American Development Bank. They have three children: twins Matthew and Andrew (b. 2000) and Aerin Alexandra (b. 2008). Entry into politics and service on D.C. Council. Fenty was an intern for Senator Howard Metzenbaum (D-OH), Delegate Eleanor Holmes Norton (D-DC), and Representative Joseph P. Kennedy II (D-MA) before becoming involved in local politics. In addition to serving as an aide to Council member Kevin P. Chavous, he was elected as an Advisory Neighborhood Commissioner in ANC 4C and was president of the 16th Street Neighborhood Civic Association. In 2000, Fenty won a seat on the D.C. Council. Fenty ran against long-time Ward 4 Council member Charlene Drew Jarvis. Jarvis was well known
Bernadette [ bur-n"uh"-det; "French" ber-na-det ]is a feminine given name. It is the female version of the masculine name Bernard. Bernadette is a name with French roots that has its origins in the Germanic name Bernhard, which translates to "powerful, courageous bear."This is a unique name (not in the top 1000 newborn names in the US in 2021). Celebrities with the name "Bernadette" include the actress Bernadette Peters.
Sulaimon Maurice Brown (born July 31, 1970 in Charleston, South Carolina) is an accountant. He was a candidate for mayor of the District of Columbia in 2010. During the campaign, he actively supported another candidate, Vincent Gray. After Gray became mayor, Brown's criminal record became public. He is being investigated by the United States Attorney. Brown is also being investigated by committees of the DC City Council and of Congress. Background. Brown's father, Melvin Brown, was an Army Ranger, and Brown's mother was a nurse at Howard University Hospital. Brown earned a Bachelor of Business Administration - Accounting from the University of the District of Columbia. Brown worked as a University of the District of Columbia police officer until 2005. Brown then worked at various accounting firms. In 1988, Brown was tried and acquitted by a jury on an attempted murder charge in Chicago. Brown was also accused of assault in Essex County, New Jersey, but a grand jury refused to indict Brown. The "Washington City Paper" reported that DC court records show "gun charges against Brown were dropped in 1991 in exchange for Brown going to a diversion program, and a jury found Brown guilty in 1995 for unlawful entry." The "City Paper" also reported that a restraining order had been issued against Brown in 2007. The press asked Brown if he had a criminal record. Brown replied that he had been arrested once for trespassing at Howard University. Political activity. Brown was a volunteer in Adrian Fenty's 2006 campaign for mayor. According to Brown's 2009 website, Brown "worked behind the scenes campaigning for many elected officials [including] The President of the United States Barack Obama. He has helped in efforts to get White House Legislation passed and most recently trying to get a Supreme Court nominee appointed." Brown became a candidate for the 2010 Democratic Party nomination for mayor. On June 24, 2010, Brown was running out of money because he had not held a job for 18 months. Brown discussed his financial problems with another candidate for mayor, Vincent Gray. Brown and Gray reached an agreement for Gray to provide cash payments to Brown for the rest of the
The 2011 Norway attacks were two attacks in Norway on 22 July 2011. The first attack was a car bombing near government buildings in Oslo. The second attack was a mass shooting at a summer youth camp on an island northwest of Oslo. Of the total 77 deaths, 55 were teenagers, and another 96 people were injured. The car bomb also shattered many windows of buildings in the government quarter of downtown Oslo. The bomb explosion was near the office of Prime Minister Jens Stoltenberg at 15:26. It killed eight people and injured several others. The second attack happened about 90 minutes later, at a youth camp organized by the youth group (AUF) of the Norwegian Labour Party (AP) at the island of Utøya in Tyrifjorden, Buskerud. A gunman disguised as a policeman opened fire at the campers, killing 69 people. The police arrested several suspects, but most were released. Anders Behring Breivik, a 32-year-old Norwegian Protestant man, committed both attacks. He was later charged with both attacks. Records show he had planned the attacks for years, as an act of anti-immigration ideology and against multiculturalism. The European Union, NATO and countries around the world have expressed their support for Norway and condemned the attacks. Oslo bombing. On 22 July 2011 at 15:26 (CEST) a powerful explosion went off near the offices of the Prime Minister of Norway ("H-blokka") and several other government buildings, such as the Ministry of Petroleum and Energy ("R4") and Ministry of Finance. "(See map)" The nearby street was filled with glass and debris following the explosion. The wreckage of a car was sighted near one of the affected buildings. A giant cloud of white smoke was seen as a fire burned at the Ministry of Petroleum. The blast was heard at least seven kilometres away. Following the explosion, police cleared the area and searched for more explosive devices. The police asked people to leave central Oslo. Casualties. Eight people are known to have been killed in the explosion, with fifteen injured, eleven seriously. A doctor at the Oslo University Hospital said the hospital staff were treating
Harald Cerny (born 13 September 1973) is a former Austrian football midfielder. He played mostly for TSV 1860 München. Career. He started his career with ASV Hinterbrühl and FC Admira/Wacker where he played in the different youth teams. At the age of 19 he went to Bayern München where he started his professional career. For the first two years he played for the second squad but in 1992–93 he played in the first team, making his debut against Eintracht Frankfurt. In 1993 he went back to Austria, playing with FC Admira/Wacker . After Wacker Innsbruck in the 1994–95 season he went back to Munich but played for Bayern's rival TSV 1860 München. He has played more games for TSV 180 München than anyone else - 268 in total - 238 in the Bundesliga. Due to injuries, he ended his career in 2007. International. Cerny made his debut for Austria in March 1993 against Greece. He played 47 matches and scored four goals. His last international was an April 2004 against Luxembourg. He was in the squad for the 1998 FIFA World Cup in France, where he played two games - against Cameroon and Chile. National team statistics. !Total||47||4