ejaasaari/simplewiki-2025-04-01 huggingface dataset:
The Lepidoptera are the butterflies and moths. However, though the butterflies are a natural monophyletic group, moths are not. Butterflies are often put in the suborder Rhopalocera, which includes Papilionoidea (true butterflies), the Hesperiidae (skippers), and the Hedylidae (butterfly moths).  In Linnaean taxonomy, moths are usually put in the suborder Heterocera. This tends to cover up the fact that they are not a true natural monophyletic group. However, moths do look and behave rather different from butterflies, which explains why people came to call them by a different name. Other taxonomic schemes have been proposed, but none of them is perfect. Both taxonomists and amateurs make use of the obvious differences between butterflies and moths. Morphological differences. Shape and structure of antennae. The most obvious difference is in the feelers, or antennae. Most butterflies have thin slender filamentous antennae which are club shaped at the end. Moths, on the other hand, often have comb-like or feathery antennae, or filamentous and unclubbed. This distinction is the basis for the earliest taxonomic divisions in the Lepidoptera the Rhopalocera ("clubbed horn", the butterflies) and the Heterocera ("varied horn", the moths). There are, however, exceptions to this rule and a few moths (the family Castniidae) have clubbed antennae. Some butterflies, like "Pseudopontia paradoxa" from the forests of central Africa, lack the clubbed ends. The "Hesperiids" often have an angle to the tip of the antenna. Wing coupling mechanisms. Many moths have a "frenulum" or wing coupling physically attaching upper and lower parts of their wings together. The frenulum can be seen only when a specimen is in hand. There are various types. It may be a filament from the hindwing coupling with barbs on the forewing. Butterflies usually lack these structures. Their wing coupling is usually done by simple overlap
Monophyly means common descent from a single ancestor. Biologists have introduced a kind of taxonomy called cladistics. The aim of this is to make biological classification fit what we know about the way organisms evolved. If there is a group made of a common ancestor, and all its descendants, that group is monophyletic. (Greek: "of one race"). A group which contains organisms, without their common ancestor, is called polyphyletic. Convergent evolution is a usual cause of such groups. If a group contains the common ancestor, but leaves out some of its descendants, it is called paraphyletic. All living things on this planet are thought, on the basis of DNA analysis, to be monophyletic, that is, to have one origin, not many. Example: all species in the genus "Homo" have come from the same ancestral form in the family Hominidae, and no other descendants are known. Thus the genus "Homo" is monophyletic. If, on the other hand, it were discovered that "Homo habilis" had developed from a different ancestor from "Homo sapiens", and this ancestor were not included in the genus, then the genus would be polyphyletic. Since biologists by and large tend to prefer monophyletic groups, in this case, they would likely either split the genus or broaden it to include the additional forms. Example of polyphyletic group: Sea slugs. Polyploidy. Sometimes taxonomists are frustrated fitting plant species into a monophyletic group because of polyploidy. There is clear evidence that some polyploid plant species are of multiple origins (the species has arisen more than once). For example, "Salsify", the hybrid goat's-beard, ("Tragopogon miscellus") has formed as many as 20 times in eastern Washington. Also, it can happen that hybrids between two close plant species undergo polyploidy, and the polyploids continue as a new and distinct species. Situations like this are outside the normal rules of descent, and are dealt with by special decisions, guided by the International Commission of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN).
The order Lepidoptera is the second biggest order of insects. It includes the moths and butterflies including the skippers. There is no common word for the group: ordinary people talk of "butterflies and moths".  The order has more than 180,000 species in 128 families and 47 superfamilies. They are 10% of all the described species of living organisms. The Coleoptera (the beetles) is the only order that has more species. The name, Lepidoptera, comes from the Ancient Greek words "λεπίδος" (scale) and "πτερόν" (wing). The earliest discovered fossils date to 200 mya or earlier. This early origin was long before flowering plants evolved. Earlier butterflies must have been adapted to a habitat of cycads and conifers, something which had not previously been suspected.  Characteristics of Lepidoptera. Lepidopterans go through complete metamorphosis. This means that they have a four parts to their lives. The first part is the egg. The second part is the caterpillar or larva. The third part is the pupa. The last part is the adult or imago. Larva. The larvae have a tough head and a soft body. They have mouths that are made to chew. Some larvae are covered with hairs, or other body extensions. The larvae have three pairs of small legs on the thorax. These legs are called true legs. There are up to five pairs of bigger legs on the abdomen. These legs are called prolegs. Lepidopteran larvae can be confused with the larvae of sawflies. The difference between Lepidopteran larvae and sawfly larvae is that Lepidopteran larvae have tiny hooks on their prolegs. These hooks are called crochets. Most larvae are herbivores, but a few are carnivores and detritivores. Adult. Adults have two pairs of wings. They are covered by small scales. In some species, the adults have very small wings or no wings at all. This is more common in females. Adults have
Diurnality is a form of plant and animal behavior characterized by activity during daytime. Animals that are active during the day are called diurnal. They hunt or feed during the day and sleep during the night. Nocturnal animals do it the other way round. Scientists sometimes use the word "crepuscular" to describe nocturnal animals that are not active when it is very dark at night; they are mostly active near dawn, dusk, and sometimes when the moon makes a lot of light.
The skippers are a family of butterflies, the Hesperiidae. They are named after their quick, darting flight.  Skippers used to be classified in their own superfamily, Hesperioidea, because they have their antennae clubs hooked backward like a crochet while the other butterflies have club-like tips to their antennae. Skippers also have generally stockier bodies than regular butterflies, with stronger wing muscles.  Subfamilies. There are about 3500 species of skippers. They are usually classified in the following subfamilies: Many species of skippers look frustratingly alike. For example, some species in the genera "Erynnis", "Hesperia", and "Amblyscirtes" cannot currently be distinguished in the field even by experts. The only reliable method of telling them apart involving dissection and examination of the genitalia. Examples. Examples include:
Energy conservation is reducing the amount of energy used for different purposes. This may result in an increase of financial capital, environmental value, national and personal security, and human comfort. Individuals and organizations that consume energy may conserve energy to reduce costs and promote economic, political and environmental sustainability. Industrial and commercial users may want to increase efficiency and thus maximize profit. On a larger scale, energy conservation is an energy policy. In general, energy conservation reduces the energy consumption and energy demand per capita. This reduces the rise in energy costs, and can reduce the need for new power plants, and energy imports. The reduced energy demand can provide more flexibility in choosing the methods of energy production. By reducing emissions, energy conservation helps to prevent climate change. Energy conservation makes it easier to replace non-renewable resources with renewable energy. Energy conservation is often the most economical solution to energy shortages. Energy efficiency trends in the United States. The U.S. is the largest consumer of energy, although at current levels of growth, China may become the leading energy consumer. The U.S. Department of Energy categorizes national energy use in four broad sectors: transportation, residential, commercial, and industrial. Energy usage in the transportation and residential sectors (about half of U.S. energy consumption) is largely controlled by individual domestic consumers. Commercial and industrial energy usage are controlled by businesses. National energy policy has a significant effect on energy usage across all four sectors. Transportation sector. The transportation sector includes all vehicles used for personal or freight transportation. Of the energy used in this sector, about 65% is used by gasoline-powered vehicles, mostly personally owned. Diesel-powered transport (trains, merchant ships, heavy trucks, etc.) consumes about 20%, and air traffic consumes most of the remaining 15%. The oil supply crises of the 1970s spurred the creation, in 1975, of the federal Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) program, which required auto manufacturers to meet progressively higher fleet fuel economy targets. The next decade saw dramatic improvements in fuel economy, mostly the result of reductions in vehicle size and weight. These gains eroded somewhat after 1990 due to the growing popularity of sport utility vehicles, pickup trucks and minivans,
Cogeneration (also combined heat and power, CHP) is the use of a heat engine or a power station to make both electricity and useful heat at the same time. Conventional power plants emit the heat created as a byproduct of electricity generation into the environment through cooling towers, as flue gas, or by other means. Combined heat and power captures the waste heat for domestic or industrial heating purposes, either very close to the plant, or - especially in Scandinavia and eastern Europe - for distribution through pipes to heat local housing. Cogeneration is a thermodynamically efficient use of fuel.  Byproduct heat at moderate temperatures (100 to 180°C) can also be used in absorption chillers for cooling. A plant producing electricity, heat and cold is sometimes called regeneration or more generally: polygene ration plant.  Thermal power plants (including those that use fissile elements or burn coal, petroleum, or natural gas), and heat engines in general, do not convert all of their available energy into electricity. In most heat engines, a bit more than half is wasted as excess heat (see: Second law of thermodynamics). By capturing the excess heat, CHP uses heat that would be wasted in a conventional power plant, potentially reaching an efficiency of up to 70%, compared with at most 40% for the conventional plants. Less fuel needs to be consumed to produce the same amount of useful energy. Less pollution is produced for a given economic benefit. An exact match between the heat and electricity needs rarely exists. A CHP plant can either meet the need for heat ("heat driven operation") or be run as a power plant with some use of its waste heat. CHP is most efficient when the heat can be used on site or very close to it. Overall efficiency is reduced when the heat must be transported over longer distances. This requires heavily insulated pipes, which are expensive and inefficient. Electricity can be transmitted along a comparatively simple wire, and over much longer distances for the same energy loss. A car motor becomes a CHP plant in winter, when the heat is useful for warming the interior of the vehicle. This example scores the point that deployment of CHP depends on heat uses in the neighbourhood of
The dew point is the temperature where water vapor condenses into liquid water. All air holds different amounts of water vapor. The dew point shows the amount of moisture in the air. The higher the dew point is, the higher the level of moisture in the air at a given temperature. The dew point of humid air will be higher than the dew point of dry air. Condensation of water vapor starts when the temperature of air is lowered to its dew point and beyond. The dew point, like other measures of humidity, can be found from measurement taken by a hygrometer.
A gas compressor is a mechanical device that increases the pressure of a gas by reducing its volume. Compression of a gas naturally increases its temperature. When the gas is air, the machine is called an air compressor. Compressors are similar to pumps: both increase the pressure on a fluid and both can transport the fluid through a pipe. As gases are compressible, the compressor also reduces the volume of a gas. Liquids are relatively incompressible, so the main action of a pump is to transport liquids. Types of compressors. There are many different types of gas compressors. The two primary categories are: The more important types in each of the four sub-categories are discussed below. Centrifugal compressors. Centrifugal compressors use a vaned rotating disk or impeller in a shaped housing to force the gas to the rim of the impeller, increasing the velocity of the gas. A diffuser (divergent duct) section converts the velocity energy to pressure energy. They are primarily used for continuous, stationary service in industries such as oil refineries, chemical and petrochemical plants and natural gas processing plants. Their application can be from 100 hp (75 kW) to thousands of horsepower. With multiple staging, they can achieve extremely high output pressures greater than 10,000 psi (69 MPa). Many large snow-making operations (like a ski resort) use this type of compressor. They are also used in internal combustion engines as superchargers and turbochargers. Centrifugal compressors are used in small gas turbine engines or as the final compression stage of medium-sized gas turbines. Diagonal or mixed-flow compressors. Diagonal or mixed-flow compressors are similar to centrifugal compressors, but have a radial and axial velocity component at the exit from the rotor. The diffuser is often used to turn diagonal flow to the axial direction. The diagonal compressor has a lower diameter diffuser than the equivalent centrifugal compressor. Axial-flow compressors. Axial-flow compressors use a series of fan-like rotating rotor blades to progressively compress the gasflow. Stationary stator vanes, located downstream of each rotor, redirect the flow onto the next set of rotor
Cash is a form of currency, such as banknotes or coins. There is usually different sorts in every country. Bookkeeping and finance. In bookkeeping and finance, "cash" can also refer to checks, money orders, cashier's checks, bank drafts, or traveler's checks. In all these forms, the term indicates the most liquid form of assets, which have a fixed value and can be easily converted to currency: "ready money". For example, wages or salaries paid as "cash" (as opposed to, e.g., stock options) would in most countries normally be paid with checks or direct bank deposits, which are trivially convertible to currency.
Heating is making something warm. It could mean: HVACR "R" stand for Refrigeration Heating devices, or systems:
In engineering and thermodynamics, a heat engine converts heat energy to mechanical work by using the temperature difference between a hot "source" and a cold "sink". Heat is transferred from the source, through the "working body" of the engine, to the "sink", and in this process some of the heat changes into work by using the qualities of the gas or liquid inside the engine. There are many kinds of heat engines. Each has a thermodynamic cycle. Heat engines are often named after the thermodynamic cycle they use, like the Carnot cycle. They often pick up everyday names, such as gasoline/petrol, turbine, or steam engines. Internal combustion engines generate heat inside the engine itself. Other heat engines may absorb heat from an external source. Heat engines can be open to the air or sealed and closed off to the outside (This is called an Open or Closed cycle). Overview. When scientists study heat engines they come up with ideas for engines that cannot actually be built. These are called ideal engines or cycles. Real heat engines are often confused with the ideal engines or cycles they attempt to mimic. Typically when describing the physical device the term 'engine' is used. When describing the ideal the term 'cycle' is used. One could say that the thermodynamic cycle is an ideal case of the mechanical engine. One could equally say that the model does not quite perfectly match the mechanical engine. However, much benefit is gained from the simplified models, and ideal cases they may represent. In general terms, the larger the difference in temperature between the hot source and the cold sink, the more efficient the cycle or engine. On Earth, the cold side of any heat engine is limited to the air temperature of the place where the engine is. Most efforts to improve the efficiency of heat engines goes into increasing the temperature of the heat source, but at very high temperatures the metal of the engine begins to go soft. The efficiency of various heat engines proposed or used today ranges from 3 percent (97 percent waste heat) for the OTEC ocean power proposal through 25 percent for most automotive engines, to 45 percent for a supercritical coal plant, to about 60 percent for a steam-cooled combined cycle gas
A thermodynamic cycle is a series of thermodynamic processes which returns a system to its initial state. Properties depend only on the thermodynamic state and thus do not change over a cycle. Variables such as heat and work are not zero over a cycle, but rather depend on the process. The first law of thermodynamics dictates that the net heat input is equal to the net work output over any cycle. The repeating nature of the process path allows for continuous operation, making the cycle an important concept in thermodynamics.  If the cyclic process moves clockwise around the loop, then it represents a heat engine, and W will be positive. If it moves counterclockwise then it represents a heat pump, and W will be negative. Classes. Two primary classes of thermodynamic cycles are power cycles and heat pump cycles. Power cycles are cycles which convert some heat input into a mechanical work output, while heat pump cycles transfer heat from low to high temperatures using mechanical work input.  Thermodynamic power cycles. Thermodynamic power cycles are the basis for the operation of heat engines, which supply most of the world's electric power and run almost all motor vehicles. Power cycles can be divided according to the type of heat engine they seek to model. The most common cycles that model internal combustion engines are the Otto cycle, which models gasoline engines and the Diesel cycle, which models diesel engines. Cycles that model external combustion engines include the Brayton cycle, which models gas turbines, and the Rankine cycle, which models steam turbines. Other websites. Educational software links:
Christoph Metzelder (born 5 November 1980 in Haltern, Germany) is a German football player. He plays for Real Madrid He played 47 matches for the Germany national team and scored no goals. Honours. Borussia Dortmund Real Madrid Schalke 04 Germany Individual
In thermodynamics, a thermodynamic system, originally called a "working substance", is defined as that part of the universe that is under consideration.  Theory. A real or imaginary boundary separates the system from the rest of the universe, which is referred to as the environment or surroundings – sometimes called a reservoir. A useful classification of thermodynamic systems is based on the nature of the boundary and the quantities flowing through it, such as matter, energy, work, heat and entropy. A system can be anything. For instance, a cylinder, a solution in a test tube, a living organism or a planet etc.
In general, a piston is a lubricated sliding shaft that fits tightly inside the opening of a cylinder. Its purpose is to change the volume enclosed by the cylinder, to exert a force on a fluid inside the cylinder, to cover and uncover ports, or some combination of these. A rubber seal is sometimes used to keep the lubricate within the shaft. Due to the constant motion of the machine this seal wears quickly and should be replaced with every servicing. If the seal should break during usage there can be disastrous long lasting consequences for the machine.  Creating force. There are two ways that a piston engine can transform combustion into motive power. These are two-stroke and four-stroke. A single cylinder two-stroke engine produces power every crankshaft revolution, while a single cylinder four-stroke engine produces power once every two revolutions. Older designs of small two-stroke engines produced more pollution than four stroke engines. However, modern two-stroke designs, like the Vespa ET2 Injection use fuel-injection and are as clean as four-strokes. Large diesel two-stroke engines, as used in ships and locomotives, have always used fuel injection and produce low emissions. One of the biggest internal combustion engines in the world, the Wärtsilä-Sulzer RTA96-C is a two-stroke; it is bigger than most two-story houses, has pistons nearly 1 metre in diameter and is one of the most efficient mobile engines in existence. In theory, a four stroke engine has to be larger than a two stroke engine to produce an equivalent amount of power. Two stroke engines are becoming less common in developed countries these days, mainly due to manufacturer reluctance to invest in reducing two-stroke emissions. Traditionally, two stroke engines were reputed to need more maintenance. Even though the simplest two stroke engines have fewer moving parts, they could wear out faster than four stroke engines. However fuel-injected two-strokes achieve better engine lubrication, and cooling and reliability should improve considerably. External combustion engine. A steam engine is another type of piston engine. In most steam engines, the pistons are "double acting": steam is alternately admitted to either end of the cylinder, so that every piston stroke produces power.
Pinyin is a way to write letters showing the sound of a word in place of a Chinese character. Today, it almost always has the sense of Hanyu Pinyin, the way of writing Mandarin sounds which has been used by the People's Republic of China from the 1950s. Other place like the United States and Taiwan used other ways of spelling Chinese (such as Wade-Giles and Tongyong Pinyin) for a long time, but in the late 20th century, they started to use Hanyu Pinyin as well. It is the standard romanization system in China and in the United Nations and is the most common for Chinese. Pinyin uses Roman letters in a special way for certain Chinese sounds. For example, the pinyin letter C is pronounced as /ts/ as in the English word "cats" or the Japanese word "tsunami" and does not sound at all like /k/ or /s/ by itself. Pinyin uses special marks to show the four Chinese tones, which are very important in speaking Mandarin correctly. Consonants. b p m f w d t n l g k ng h j q x y z c s Vowels. a e i o u ü Basic combinations of vowel and consonant. ai ei ao ou an en ang eng ong Tones. There are five tones: ā, á, ǎ, à, a Syllable-dividing mark ("geyin fuhao"). "Geyin fuhao" is used after syllables that start with a, o, or e: pi'ao. Orthography. Pinyin should be divided text by words and write syllables connectedly. For example, "I am a foreigner" should be written as "Wo shi waiguoren" in pinyin.