ejaasaari/simplewiki-2025-04-01 huggingface dataset:
Penicillin is a group of common antibiotics, used to treat bacterial infections. It was one of the first antibiotics to be discovered, and worked well against staphylococci and streptococci. Many strains of bacteria are now resistant. Chemists keep changing part of its structure in the effort to keep it working against the bacteria. Penicillin is sometimes used to treat syphilis, tonsillitis, meningitis, and pneumonia as well as other diseases. Mechanism. Penicillin can be used to enter and kill two types of bacteria, Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. Gram-positive bacteria have no outer cell membrane (protective layer around the bacteria cell) and have large pores (holes) which allows penicillin to enter easily and kill the cell from the inside. Gram-negative bacteria are harder for penicillin to enter as they have smaller pores and an outer cell membrane so penicillin has to enter through smaller aqueous pores (holes in the membrane where water enters and leaves the cell). This means that killing Gram-negative bacteria takes a longer amount of time and some penicillin drugs may not work against them. Once the Penicillin is inside the bacteria, it destroys the bacterial cell wall by stopping new chains in the outer membrane from forming and so the structure of the membrane collapses. This means that there is no longer a structure to support the cell and control how much of substances can enter and leave so a large amount of water from the surroundings enters the cell until it can no longer function and so the cell dies. History. Penicillin was discovered by Scottish scientist Sir Alexander Fleming in 1928, but it was not mass-produced until 1940 when it was first used widely during World War II. Penicillin was discovered when Fleming noticed a mold that was stopping bacteria from growing in a petri dish. Australian scientist Howard Walter Florey made the penicillin mold into a medicine. Together with another scientist Ernst Boris Chain, Fleming and Florey were given the Nobel Prize for Medicine in 1945. The first time penicillin was used in medicine to treat a bacterial infection was in 1930. Modern day use. The antibiotic penicillin is
Depleted uranium is what is left over after uranium is enriched. Enriched uranium has enough uranium-235 to be used in nuclear reactors or nuclear weapons. Depleted uranium is made up mostly of the isotope uranium-238. Uranium-238 is mildly radioactive. Uranium is very dense, or heavy for its size. Because of this, depleted uranium is used in armor piercing bullets and heavy machine guns. Its high density allows weapons to put more energy into a fired bullet which causes more damage to its targets. Bullets made from it will burn when they hit something hard, and their smoke is dangerous to breathe.  Depleted uranium has long been been used in nuclear reactors to make plutonium for producing nuclear energy. In 2010 a new kind of "traveling wave reactor" was proposed to use it more directly.
Anne Redpath (1895 – 1965) was a Scottish artist. She was born in Galashiels, Scotland. She was the daughter of a tweed designer. Her father's work affected her use of colour and texture in her paintings. "I do with a spot of red or yellow in a harmony of grey, what my father did in his tweed", she said. She went to France during 1920 – 1933.
A CD-RW (which stands for Compact Disc ReWritable) is a Compact disc that can be recorded and erased multiple times. It can hold data or music. Most of the time it will hold data, since many CD players can not play CD-RWs. During its development, the format was known as CD-E, which stands for Compact Disc Erasable. The standard was introduced in 1997. It replaced the less successful CD-MO. The disk used for this is an optical disc. Phase change technology is used to write to the disk. A laser beam is used to heat a certain point of the disk. Once this point is hot, the information stored there can be changed. According to what the manufacturers of these disks say, it is possible to record and erase such a disk up to 1000 times. They behave very much like CD-Rs, otherwise. Entire sessions can be written. As long as there is space on the disc, new sessions can be appended. To be readable in an ordinary CD drive, all sessions must be closed though. CD-RWs never gained the popularity of CD-Rs. This is because they are more expensive to make and to buy. Also, not all CD drives can read them. Reading and writing speeds are also lower than those of pre-made CDs and CD-Rs. Also, like with the CD-R, it is impractical (and slow) to use these disks to quickly add or remove small files. Other formats, like Zip disk, Jaz disk, Magneto-optical disks, and USB flash drives are More used for quickly reading, writing, or erasing small (sets of) files. When a deletion needs to be made, the whole CD needs to be erased. CD-RWs (like CD-Rs) are more used for backups. They are usually cheaper than tape-based solutions. Depending on the method used to write, and the type of disk used, usable capacities range from about 500 to 700 megabytes. Pretty much the same concepts are used for DVD-RWs, which have a much higher capacity.
A Magneto-optical drive is a disk drive for computers. It can read and write data to magneto-optical disks. The technology was made at the end of the 1980s. Both 5.25" and 3.5" media exist. The disks look like CD-ROMs, but they are protected with a plastic cover. The MiniDisc is a Magneto-optical disk. The other disks look similar but have a bigger physical size.  How it works. The operating system sees (and uses) the disk like a normal hard-drive. 3.5" disks can hold between 128 megabytes (MB) and 2.3 gigabytes (GB) of data. 5.25" disks hold between 650 MB and 16.7 GB. Resistance. All disks have a physical write protection switch (like 3.5" floppy disks). They are pretty resistant to data change, can support temperatures up to about 100 °C, and do not care much about light.  DVD-RAM disks are very similar in appearance, they are optical though.
The United States presidential line of succession is the order in which government officials replace the president of the United States, if the president leaves office before an elected successor is inaugurated. If the president dies, resigns or is removed from the office, the vice president becomes president for the rest of the term. If the vice president is unable to serve, the Speaker of the House acts as president. Previous lines. The United States Constitution says that the vice president of the United States is the person who will replace the president if the president is not able to continue. In 1868, during the impeachment trial of President Andrew Johnson, Benjamin Wade was the leader of the Senate, who nearly became president, as Johnson was found not guilty by one vote. Johnson had previously served as the vice president for Abraham Lincoln, and became president after Lincoln’s assassination. As a result, there was no vice president during Johnson’s presidency.  In 1886, after the death of Vice President Thomas A. Hendricks, Congress passed a law that took out the leaders of the Senate and House of Representatives from the line of succession. The new person behind the vice president in line was Secretary of State, followed by other Cabinet members. The leaders of the Senate and House were restored to the line of succession by the Presidential Succession Act of 1947. Present line of succession. Below is the line of succession for the president of the United States under Donald Trump:
Oulu () is a city in Northern Ostrobothnia, Finland. It is the biggest city in the Northern Finland. The population of Oulu was about 193,000 in January 2014. It is the sixth largest city in Finland. Municipalities next to Oulu are Hailuoto, Ii, Kempele, Liminka, Lumijoki, Muhos, Pudasjärvi, Tyrnävä and Utajärvi. There is a university in Oulu. The university is one of the largest in Finland, with over 15,000 students. Many people work in technology firms making mobile phones, computers and software. History. Oulu was established in 1605, so it is more than 400 years old. In the old days, Oulu was famous for selling tar all over the world. Subdivisions. Oulu has 106 city districts. In 2009, the former municipality of Ylikiiminki became a part of Oulu. In 2013, the former municipalities of Haukipudas, Kiiminki, Oulunsalo and Yli-Ii were merged to form the city of Oulu.
James Boswell (29 October 1740 (N.S.) – 19 May 1795) was a Scottish lawyer and author. He is best known for having written the Life of Johnson, a biography of his close friend Samuel Johnson, published in 1791. In the 1920s and 1930s, a large number of his personal papers and journals were discovered. They have since then been published by Yale University.
A MiniDisc (MD) is a small magneto-optical disk. It is used as a replacement for the Audio cassette. It was developed by Sony to store music. Later it was modified, so it can also store data. The music it stores is compressed in some way, like an MP3. Recent Hi-MD models have the option to not compress audio, and offer audio identical to CD-quality.  MiniDisc recorders allow the user to modify the contents of (recordable) disks. That way, tracks can be split, combined or rearranged. Audio tracks can be input while a live recording is in progress, too, for example, while recording a live concert or interview via the microphone input on a MiniDisc recorder.
Angela Haynes (born September 27, 1984 in Bellflower, California ) is a professional tennis player from the United States. Haynes's top WTA singles ranking is World No. 95 which she got in August, 2005. Angela was ranked World No. 157, race-singles World No. 120 and World No. 171 in doubles as of November 7, 2009. Haynes' brother, Dontia Haynes, who used to be a San Diego State University tennis player ranked among the top 100 ranked collegiate tennis players in the United States, died on September 23, 2005. Clothing. Angela's clothes are made by Adidas. Her racquets are made by Babolat. Angela's current racquet is believed to be the Babolat Pure Storm. Angela likes to wear bandanas while playing. Appearances. Angela appears in "Top Spin 2" which is for the Xbox 360, Nintendo Game Boy, and Nintendo DS.
Vania King (born February 3, 1989) is an American tennis player. She was born in Monterrey Park, California. King was ranked the 50th best player in the world in 2006. She won her first singles title against Tamarine Tanasugarn at Bangkok, Thailand. Vania won 2-6, 6-4, 6-4. King also won the doubles title at Bangkok with partner Jelena Kostanic. King got second place with her partner Alexa Glatch at the 2005 US Open Juniors.
Bottle caps are used to seal the opening of bottles. For glass bottles, these are usually small, specially adapted pieces of metal. With plastic bottles, plastic caps are used instead.  The original bottle cap was called Crown cork. It is pressed onto the bottle, and can be removed, using a bottle opener. In recent years bottle caps with screw on mounts are used that way, a bottle opener is no longer required. Caps for plastic bottles are often made of a different type of plastic from the bottle. A cork is another type of closure for the top of a bottle. Bottle caps were invented in 1892 when young scientist Colt Williams wanted the water in his bottle to not spill.
Quality is how good something is. If the quality of a product is high then that means that it is fit for its purpose. If the quality of an item is low that means that the product may break easily or not work properly. When people say something is a quality product that means that the product is of good quality. Usually higher-quality products cost more money, because the materials used to make them are better, or the way they were made was more effective. In other words, things that are low quality are cheap. Quality is understood differently by different people, depending on what they consider quality to be. Generally, though, it is how well a product is suited to the purpose it was made for.
A gargoyle is a grotesque statue that is attached to a building. It is carved out of stone, usually granite. It is used to get water away from the building when it rains. Gargoyles are often made to look like animals or people. The collected water comes out of their mouths. Most gargoyles were made a long time ago. People used to believe that they scared away evil spirits. Many cathedrals have gargoyles. New buildings use rain gutters instead of gargoyles to move water. There are not many gargoyles in America. Gargoyles are often confused with grotesques. They are similar, but only gargoyles get rid of rainwater through their mouths.
Ostend (, ; ; ; , literally "East End") is a city in the Belgian province of West Flanders. In 2007, 69115 people lived there. It is at 51° 13 North, 02° 54 East.
The list of UEFA European Championship champions: The number of times each country has won the UEFA European Championship including finals and semi-finals results:
Abuja () is a city in Nigeria. It is the national capital of Nigeria. Around 2.5 million people live there. Abuja is in the middle of the country, in the center of the Federal Capital Territory, Nigeria. It replaced Lagos, the country's most populous city but very small in size, as the capital on 12 December 1991. Abuja is a planned city, which means that architects designed it specifically to be Nigeria's capital city. Construction of the first parts of the city was finished in the late 1980s.
An assault rifle is a rifle that has a removable magazine, automatic-fire and semi-automatic modes, and uses intermediate cartridges. These cartridges include the 5.56 NATO and 7.62x39mm cartridges. Intermediate cartridges have more power and penetration than pistol cartridges fired by submachine guns, and less than the larger battle rifle cartridges. Two rifles made in Italy and Russia before World War I are sometimes called assault rifles. The Germans were the first to use assault rifles in large numbers.  Common examples of "assault rifles" are the English L85, Russian AK-47, the American M16. The term “assault rifle” comes from the firearm Sturmgewehr 44 (StG 44), translated to “Assault Rifle 1944”. The armed forces of other sovereign states adopted assault rifles later. The term "assault rifle" and less commonly "assault weapon" have seen increasing use by American, Canadian and European politicians seeking to limit access to civilian rifles that fire similar or identical rounds to common "assault" or "battle" rifles, such as the or the 30-06 Springfield.
Salvador Domingo Felipe Jacinto Dalí i Domènech, 1st Marquess of Dalí of Púbol (; ; ; 11 May 1904 – 23 January 1989) was a Spanish painter who became famous for the unusual images he used in his paintings. He was born in Figueres, Catalonia, Spain. He was a key figure in surrealist art. His most famous work was "The Persistence of Memory" (1931), which is now in MoMA, the Museum of Modern Art in New York. It is a dream-like landscape with a soft, melted pocket-watch. Dalí died of a Cardiac arrest on January 23, 1989 in Catalonia, Spain. Salvador Dalí had a wife called Gala Dalí.
Anne de Mowbray, "Baroness Mowbray" (10 December 1472 - 19 November 1481) was the daughter of John Mowbray, 4th Duke of Norfolk and Elizabeth Talbot. She was born in 1472 in Framlingham Castle, Suffolk, England. She also became Baroness Segrave. When Anne's father died in 1476 Anne became very rich. She also became Countess of Norfolk. Anne was married to Richard of York on 15 January, 1478 in Westminster Abbey. Richard was the son of King Edward IV of England and Elizabeth Woodville. Richard's father had married him to Anne so that he could have control of her fortune. When he married Anne became known as the Duchess of York Anne died when she was 8 years old at Greenwich, London, England in 1481. Her body was placed in a lead coffin in the Chapel of St Erasmus of Formiae in Westminster Abbey. However, when this chapel was knocked down around 1502 to make room for the Henry VII Lady Chapel, Anne's coffin became lost. In December 1964, construction workers in Stepney, London, accidentally found Anne's coffin. It was opened and Anne's remains were looked at by scientists. Anne's body still had a shroud wrapped around her and there was still red hair on her skull. Her body was later reburied in Westminster Abbey. A facial reconstruction of the duchess, commissioned by the late John Ashdown-Hill and executed by Amy Thornton of Dundee University, was completed in 2016.  References. From The Peerage.com
Warwick Castle (pronounced 'Worrick') is a large castle in Warwickshire, England. It is near the town of Warwick. The castle was once the family home of the Earls of Warwick.  There are many rooms in the castle. Some of the rooms have mannequins in them that look like real people. These are dressed in costume. They are used to show how people might have lived in the castle hundreds of years ago. Warwick Castle has a dungeon. One part of the castle is said to be haunted. Actors play the part of the ghost and the servant who killed him in a dramatic "Spook Experience". Lights and sounds are used to add to the effect. The castle has a very high wall walk. It can be explored, so that visitors can see from where the guards looked for enemies. A long, steep flight of steps leads up to the highest part of the castle where the flagpole is.  There are many paintings in the castle. There are portraits of English Kings and Queens as well as of members of the family who owned the castle. It is possible to see the private chambers, or bedrooms, where the family and their most important guests slept.
Alfred Charles Kinsey (June 23, 1894 August 25, 1956) was an American biologist. He was born in Hoboken, New Jersey. In the first part of his career he was an entomologist specializing in gall wasps of the family Cynipidae. Later, he became famous for the research he did on human sexuality. His research had a great influence on social and cultural values in many parts of the world. It also had an influence on the sexual revolution of the 1960s and 70s. Kinsey and his co-workers wrote two books which became known as the Kinsey Reports. They were based on thousands of interviews with men (first report), and then women. The aim was to find out how widespread or differentiated human sexual practices were. He developed the Kinsey Scale to measure sexual orientation. On one end of the scale, at the value 0, the individual is entirely heterosexual. On the other end, at value 6, he or she has a purely homosexual orientation. Kinsey was bisexual. Kinsey died of heart disease and pneumonia in Bloomington, Indiana. A biopic of him, "Kinsey", was released in 2004. Early work. Kinsey wrote his doctoral thesis on gall wasps. In 1919, Kinsey was awarded a ScD degree by Harvard University, and he accepted an academic post in biology at Indiana University.  In 1920 he published several papers in the American Museum of Natural History in New York City. The papers introduced the gall wasp to the scientific community and described its phylogeny. Of the more than 18 million insects in the museum's collection, some 5 million are gall wasps collected by Kinsey.
The Kinsey Reports are two books, published in 1948 and 1953 by Alfred Kinsey and his co-workers. The books "Sexual Behaviour in the Human Male" and "Sexual Behaviour in the Human Female", were based on thousands of interviews by Kinsey and his team.  The books were shocking when they came out, as they talked about subjects that were taboo. It also questioned widely-held beliefs about sexuality. They were controversial.  Findings of the reports. Kinsey found the following, amongst other things: Criticism. People said that the selection of the sample (those asked) was not well done. One in four were prisoners, and 5% were male prostitutes. The institute, or location Kinsey did these tests, then did another such tests, without asking prisoners or prostitutes, and the findings were more or less the same. People also say that child abuse may have been involved when collecting the data. Kinsey scale. The Kinsey scale attempts to describe a person's sexual history or episodes of their sexual activity at a given time. It uses a scale from 0 to 6. "0" means the person tested is exclusively heterosexual. A person scoring "6" is exclusively homosexual. In the "Kinsey Reports", an extra grade was used for asexuality. The scale was first published in "Sexual Behavior in the Human Male" (1948). It was also important in the complementary work "Sexual Behavior in the Human Female" (1953). Kinsey introduced the scale: "Males do not represent two discrete populations, heterosexual and homosexual. The world is not to be divided into sheep and goats. It is a fundamental of taxonomy that nature rarely deals with discrete categories... The living world is a continuum in each and every one of its aspects. "While emphasising the continuity of the gradations between exclusively heterosexual and exclusively homosexual histories, it has seemed desirable to develop some sort of classification which could be based on the relative amounts of heterosexual and homosexual experience or response in each history... An individual may be assigned a position on this scale, for each period in his life... A seven-point scale comes nearer to showing the many gradations that actually exist." (Kinsey "et al" 1948. pp. 639, 656) The scale is as follows:
Ruthenium is a chemical element. It has the chemical symbol Ru. It has the atomic number 44. It is a rare metal. It is silver white. In chemistry it is placed in a group of metal elements named the transition metals. It is also part of the platinum group. Ruthenium is found in platinum ores. Ruthenium is used as a catalyst in some platinum alloys.
Niobium is a chemical element. It is sometimes named columbium. It has the chemical symbol Nb. It has the atomic number 41. It is a rare metal. Niobium is hard and grey. It is ductile. In chemistry it is placed in a group of metal elements named the transition metals. Niobium was discovered in a variety of a mineral called columbite (now called niobite). Niobite is an ore of niobium.  Niobium is considered a "technology-critical element". It is used in alloys, such as to make special steels and strong welded joints. Less than 0.1% of Niobium significantly improves the strength of steel. It is in the superconducting alloys used in MRI scanners, which are one of the most important medical inventions of the modern age.