ejaasaari/simplewiki-2025-04-01 huggingface dataset:
The Instrument of Surrender () was a written agreement that enabled the surrender of the Pakistan Armed Forces in the Bangladesh Liberation War. The surrender took place at the Ramna Race Course in Dacca on December 16, 1971. Lieutenant-General A A K Niazi, joint commander of the Pakistan Armed Forces in East Pakistan, and Lieutenant General Jagjit Singh Aurora, joint commander of the Bangladesh-India Allied Forces, signed the instrument amid thousands of cheering crowds at the race course. Air Commodore A. K. Khandker, Deputy Commander-in-Chief of the Bangladesh Armed Forces, and Lieutenant General J F R Jacob of the Indian Eastern Command, acted as witnesses to the surrender. Eastern Command was a Corps level formation in the former East Pakistan consisting of 9th, 14th and 16th Infantry Divisions. Subsequently, around 30,000-32,000 Pakistani troops and officials were taken as prisoners-of-war by the Indian Army. The usually inflated figure of 93000 POWs is completely incorrect and misleading, as far as number of military troops is concerned. 3 Divisions of army do not add up to such a number in any Army in the world. However, there were thousands of civilians belonging from West Pakistan, working or otherwise in East Pakistan, who were also taken as prisoners and thus the total number of 'POWs' increased..They were later repatriated in 1973 under the terms of the Delhi Agreement. Text of the Instrument. The Pakistan Eastern Command agree to surrender all Pakistan Armed Forces in Bangladesh to Lieutenant-General Jagjit Singh Aurora, General Officer Commanding in Chief of the Indian and Bangladesh forces in the Eastern Theatre. This surrender includes all Pakistan land, air and naval forces as also all para-military forces and civil armed forces. These forces will lay down their arms and surrender at the places where they are currently located to the nearest regular troops under the command of Lieutenant- General Jagjit Singh Aurora.  The Pakistan Eastern Command shall come under the orders of Lieutenant-General Jagjit Singh Aurora as soon as this instrument has been signed. Disobedience of orders will be regarded as a breach of the surrender terms and will be dealt with in accordance
In cryptography, a product cipher is a popular type of stream ciphers that works by executing in sequence a number of simple transformations such as substitution, permutation, and modular arithmetic.  Product ciphers usually consist of iterations of several "rounds" of the same algorithm. Individual "rounds" themselves are not secure. However, it is hoped that a sufficiently long chain of "rounds" loads the cipher with sufficient confusion and diffusion properties to make it resistant to cryptanalysis.  A product cipher that uses only substitutions and permutations is called a SP-network. Feistel ciphers are another important class of product ciphers.
Islamic Republic is the name given to forms of government of several states. These states have Islam as a state religion and are governed by the principles of the Islamic law called Sharia. Some of these countries have both Sharia and civil law. Laws made by the state cannot contradict Sharia in some of these countries, and in other countries civil law is more dominant than Sharia law.  The following states call themselves Islamic Republic (non-exhaustive list) Despite the similar name the countries differ greatly in their governments and laws. Of the Islamic republics, only Iran is a theocracy.
In cryptography, the so-called product ciphers are a certain kind of ciphers, where the decryption of data is done in "rounds". The general setup of each "round" is the same, except for some hard-coded parameters and a part of the cipher key, called a subkey. A key schedule is an algorithm that, given the key, calculates the subkeys for these "rounds".  Notes. Knudsen and Mathiassen (2004) give some experimental evidence that indicate that the key schedule plays a part in providing strength against linear and differential cryptanalysis. For toy Feistel ciphers, it was observed that those with complex and well-designed key schedules can reach a uniform distribution for the probabilities of differentials and linear hulls faster than those with poorly-designed key schedules.
In cryptography, the EFF DES cracker (nicknamed "Deep Crack") is a machine built by the Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF) to perform a brute force search of DES cipher's key space — that is, to decrypt an encrypted message by trying every possible key. The aim in doing this was to prove that DES's key is not long enough to be secure. The DES uses a 56-bit key, meaning that there are 256 possible keys under which a message can be encrypted. This is approximately 7.21 (more than 72 quadrillion). When DES was approved as a federal standard in 1976, a machine fast enough to test such a number of keys in a reasonable time would have cost an unreasonable amount of money to build.
Classified information is sensitive information to which access is restricted by law or regulation to particular classes of people. A formal security clearance is required to handle classified documents or access classified data. The clearance process requires a satisfactory background investigation. There are usually several levels of sensitivity, with differing clearance requirements. This sort of hierarchical system of sharing information among a group of people is used by most national governments. Deciding the level of sensitivity of data is called data classification. The purpose of classification is to protect information from being used to damage or cause danger to national security. Classification says what is a "state secret" and deals with different levels of protection based on the damage the information might cause if it reached the wrong hands. Some non-government organizations and corporations also have their own secret information, normally referred to as trade secrets. Classification levels. Although the classification systems vary from country to country, most have levels like the following British definitions (from the highest level to lowest): Depending on the level of classification there are different rules controlling the level of clearance needed to view the information, and how it must be stored, transmitted, and destroyed. Access is restricted on a "need to know" basis. Simply possessing a clearance does not automatically authorize the individual to view all material classified at that level or below that level. The individual must have a "need to know" in addition to the proper level of clearance.
A security clearance is a status granted (approved) to individuals allowing them access to classified information, e.g. state secrets. It is something like permission or a license. The term "security clearance" is also sometimes used in private organizations that have a formal process of selecting employees to access "sensitive information".  A clearance by itself is normally not sufficient to gain access; the organization must determine that the cleared person "needs to know" the information. No one is supposed to be granted access to classified information only because of rank, position, or a security clearance.
Sensitive information is information or knowledge that might result in loss of an advantage or level of security if exposed to others who might be unfriends or have low or unknown trustability. Loss, misuse, modification or unauthorized access to sensitive information can negatively affect the privacy of an individual, trade secrets of a business or even the security, internal and foreign affairs of a nation depending on the level of sensitivity and nature of the information.  The term classified information generally refers to information that is subject to special security classification regulations imposed by many national governments. The term "Unclassified" as used in the below refers to information that is not subject to security classification regulations. Information can be reclassified to a different level or declassified (made available to the public) depending on changes of situation or new intelligence.
A trade secret is a formula, practice, process, design, instrument, pattern, or a collection of information which is not generally known, invented or created, by which a business can obtain an economic advantage over competitors or customers. In some jurisdictions, such secrets are referred to as "confidential information" or "classified information". With its broad definition of eligible subject matter, trade secret law protects a wide range of valuable information, including information that would not be eligible for protection under existing patent, trademark, or copyright law. This could include formulae and recipes, proprietary databases, business processes and methods, information about costs, pricing, margins, overhead, manufacturing processes, proprietary computer software programs, customer lists, and strategic plans and marketing programs. There are three factors that are common to all definitions of a trade secret, a trade secret is information that: The unauthorized acquisition, use, or disclosure of such secret information in a manner contrary to honest commercial practices by others is regarded as an unfair practice and a violation of the trade secret protection.
Rock Steady is the fifth studio album by the American alternative rock band No Doubt. It was released on December 11, 2001. The album was influenced a lot by reggae, dancehall, and electronica, compared to their previous albums. A lot of music critics saw this and gave the album good reviews. For example, "Rolling Stone" magazine put the album as the 316th greatest album of all time in their book "Rolling Stone's List of the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time". It was nominated for Best Pop Vocal Album at the 2003 Grammy Awards. Four singles were released from the album. The first single, "Hey Baby", won the Grammy Award for Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal. The second single was nominated for Best Dance Recording. The third single, "Underneath It All", was released August 15 2002. It won a Grammy Award for Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal at the 2004 Grammy Awards. The album's last single, "Running", was released July 1 2003. List of songs. The iTunes version of the album has two extra songs.
In cryptography, MacGuffin is a block cipher created in 1994 by Bruce Schneier and Matt Blaze at a Fast Software Encryption workshop. It was intended as a catalyst for analysis of a new cipher structure, known as Generalized Unbalanced Feistel Networks (GUFNs).  Schneier and Blaze based MacGuffin on DES, their main change was spliting the DES 64 bits data block into two unequal halves in the Feistel network, 48 bits of the 64-bit data block are fed through the round function, whose output is XORed with the other 16 bits of the data block.  MacGuffin's key schedule is a modified version of the encryption algorithm itself. Since MacGuffin is a Feistel network, decryption is easy; simply run the encryption algorithm in reverse. The algorithm was experimental, intended to explore the security properties of unbalanced Feistel networks. The cryptanalysis proceeded very quickly, so quickly that the cipher was broken using differential cryptanalysis at the same workshop by Vincent Rijmen and Bart Preneel. They also tried attacking MacGuffin with different S-boxes, taken directly from DES. This version was slightly stronger.  Rijmen and Preneel warn that designing an algorithm to resist only known attacks is generally not a good design principle. Schneier and Blaze recommended using 32 "rounds", and specified MacGuffin with a 128-bit key.
In cryptography, a Feistel cipher is a symmetric structure used in the construction of block ciphers, named after the German IBM cryptographer ; it is also commonly known as a Feistel network. A large set of block ciphers use the scheme, including the Data Encryption Standard  The Feistel structure has the advantage that encryption and decryption operations are very similar, even identical in some cases, requiring only a reversal of the key schedule. Therefore the size of the code or circuitry required to implement such a cipher is nearly halved. Feistel construction is iterative in nature which makes implementing the cryptosystem in hardware easier. Feistel networks and similar constructions are product ciphers, and so combine multiple rounds of repeated operations, such as: Bit shuffling creates the diffusion effect, while substitution is used for confusion. Theoretical work. Many modern symmetric block ciphers use Feistel networks, and the structure and properties of Feistel ciphers have been extensively explored by cryptographers. Specifically, Michael Luby and Charles Rackoff analyzed the Feistel block cipher construction, and proved that if the round function is a cryptographically secure pseudorandom function, with Ki used as the seed, then 3 rounds is sufficient to make the block cipher a pseudorandom permutation, while 4 rounds is sufficient to make it a "strong" pseudorandom permutation (which means that it remains pseudorandom even to an adversary who gets oracle access to its inverse permutation). Because of this very important result of Luby and Rackoff, Feistel ciphers are sometimes called Luby-Rackoff block ciphers. Further theoretical studies generalized the construction, and defined more precise limits for security. Construction. Let formula_1 be the round function and let formula_2 be the sub-keys for the rounds formula_3 respectively. Then the basic operation is as follows: Split the plaintext block into two equal pieces, (formula_4, formula_5) For each round formula_6, compute (calculate) formula_7 formula_8. Then the ciphertext is formula_9. (Commonly the two pieces formula_10 and formula_11 are not switched after the last round.) Decryption
George Wythe (1726 – June 8, 1806), was a lawyer, judge, prominent law professor and "Virginia's foremost classical scholar." Wythe was one of the seven men from Virginia who signed the United States Declaration of Independence. Wythe served as mayor of Williamsburg, Virginia from 1768 to 1769. In 1779 he was appointed to the newly created Chair of Law at William and Mary, becoming the first law professor in the United States. Wythe's pupils included Thomas Jefferson, Henry Clay, James Monroe, and John Marshall.
Carter Braxton (September 10, 1736 – October 10, 1797), was a signer of the United States Declaration of Independence and a representative of Virginia. Life. He was born on Newington Plantation in King and Queen County, Virginia and educated at the William and Mary. He married a wealthy heiress named Judith Robinson at the age nineteen, but she died two years later, leaving him two daughters.  He journeyed to England for two years and returned to the colonies in 1760, marrying again, this time to Elizabeth Corbin, and represented King William County in the Virginia House of Burgesses. He joined the patriot's Committee of Safety in Virginia in 1774 and represented his county in the Virginia Convention.  When Peyton Randolph died in 1775, Braxton was appointed to take his place in the Continental Congress. He served in the Congress from February 1776 until August, when Virginia reduced its delegation to five members. Afterwards he returned to the House of Burgesses, and later served on the State's Executive Council.
Islamic theology deals with the beliefs of the Islamic faith. Types of theology. Islamic theology comes from the Qur'an, Hadith, and the story of Muhammad's life ("Sirah Rasul Allah").  Kalam. Kalam is the Islamic philosophy of seeking theological principles through dialectic. In Arabic, the word means "speech". A scholar of kalam is called a "mutakallim" (Muslim theologian; plural "mutakallimiin"). Eschatology. Eschatology is understood as the last things or ultimate things, and in Muslim theology, eschatology is about the end of this world and what will happen in the next world. Eschatology covers the death of human beings, their souls after their bodily death, the destruction of this world, the resurrection of human souls, the final judgments of human deeds by Allah after the resurrection, and the rewards and punishments for the believers and non-believers. The places for the believers are known as Paradise and for the non-believers as Hell. Comparative religion. Comparative religion in Muslim theology is about the differences and similarities between it and other theologies such as Christian and Jewish as explained in the Qur'an and the Prophetic traditions. Differences between various Muslim groups. In the history of Muslim theology, there have been theological schools among Muslims with both similarities and differences with each other about their beliefs. Sunni view. Sunni Muslims hold that there are six articles of belief: belief in Allah, in angels, in divinely revealed scripture] like Qur'an, in prophets, in the "Last Day" or end times, and in predestination. Shia view. Shi`ite Muslims hold that there are five articles of belief: the Divine Oneness and Justice, the Prophethood, the Imamate, and eschatology. Mu`tazilite view. In the relationship between humans and their creator, Mu`tazilites emphasize human free will over predestination and God's justice over God's omnipotence. Mu'tazilites also believe in the use of logic to decide the true meanings of the Qur'an. This and the principal of Ijtihad, led to their belief in dynamic Fiqh.
The MacBook is a type of laptop computer made by Apple Inc. It runs macOS and comes with a built in webcam and microphone and a power adapter that is attached by magnets or USB-C. The very last (and now discontinued) MacBooks were last available housed in Silver, Space Gray, Gold and Rose Gold aluminium. Many college students purchase MacBooks to help with their studies and to stay connected with their family and friends.  The first models were released in 2006. It now has the same "unibody" construction as the MacBook Pro's. History. The MacBook was introduced by Apple in May 2006. It replaced the iBook and 12 inch PowerBook series of notebooks because Apple was switching all of their CPUs to Intel from Power PC's. In October 2008, Apple decided to make a MacBook housed in aluminum. It was pretty much the same as the one housed in plastic except that it was a little better and that it was housed in metal. In June 2009, during WWDC (Apple's big yearly gathering), this laptop was renamed the MacBook Pro 13 inch. In 2015 Apple released 12-inch MacBook, with a smaller Retina display. After all of this, Apple subsequently stopped MacBook sales and production on June 30, 2023.
An SMS, or short messaging service is a type of communication used in mobile phones. They are more commonly called 'text messages'. With SMS, someone can send text to another person. SMS can be slow, as a network gives priority to phone calls, and only carries text messages after calls are handled. There is also a limit of 160 characters that a text message can send. Longer messages than this will be sent as multiple messages, where the sender has to pay for each individual message.  Text messages are often sent between phone users when an actual phone call is not wanted or needed. For example, they may be used in a situation where silence is needed, or to send something private that one person does not want people near them to hear. Message price depends on the phone network of the user. Some mobile phone plans allow for unlimited texting.
International waters is a body of water that does not belong to any single country. "International waters" is not a defined term in international law. It is an informal term. The Convention on the High Seas 1958 defined "high seas" to mean "all parts of the sea that are not included in the territorial sea or in the internal waters of a State" and "no State may validly... subject any part of them to its sovereignty". Therefore "high seas" and "international waters" share a basic idea: that no country can own them.
Alternative hip hop is a form of hip hop music that is very different from gangsta rap, crunk, and snap. A way to explain it would be that if "regular hip hop" was on the middle of a number line, gangsta rap, crunk, and snap would be on one side, and alternative hip hop would be on the other. Even though it is a form of hip hop, fans of alternative hip hop tend to also be fans of horrorcore more than "regular hip hop" or especially R&amp;B. Alternative hip hop originally came from the United States, and some artists like Gorillaz sprang up from the United Kingdom. Examples of American alternative hip hop artists are Talib Kweli, Mos Def, (and the band they started together, Black Star), Common, Nas, Kanye West, A Tribe Called Quest, Jurassic 5, and Styles of Beyond. It started as a movement-of-sorts from hip hop artists against the "tasteless" hip hop that was popular in the 1990s.
Jason Varitek (born April 11, 1972 in Rochester, Michigan) is an American retired baseball player who played in the MLB. Varitek played for the Boston Red Sox up until his retirement in March 2012. 1997–2004. Varitek was called up from Triple A Pawtucket on September 24, 1997, for one game. In 1998, he and catcher Scott Hatteberg were the starting catchers. That season, Varitek played 86 games, while Hatteberg played 76. Varitek had a good spring training in 1999. Because of that, he became the starting catcher. Varitek had a great season in 1999. Varitek played in 144 games. He hit a .269 batting average, with 20 home runs and 76 RBIs. Varitek went 5–21 with 3 RBI in the 1999 ALDS playing. the Cleveland Indians. He then went 4–20 with 1 RBI in the ALCS playing the New York Yankees.
The Süddeutsche Zeitung ("South German Newspaper") is the most-read nationwide quality-newspaper in Germany. It is published in Munich. Recently, they are known for leaking offshore bank accounts that led to the Panama Papers and the Paradise Papers leak. Newspaper. The Süddeutsche Zeitung is a liberal newspaper. The national edition features four sections: Politics, Culture, Economy and Sports. There are also regional editions for Munich and Bavaria featuring local news. There are 6 newspapers a week. It has the second most readers in Germany after the tabloid newspaper Bild-Zeitung. There are about 442,000 papers sold each day, reaching over 1.1 million readers daily. History. The Süddeutsche Zeitung was published for the first time on October 6, 1945. It was the first newspaper in Bavaria to get a licence from the U.S. military government after World War II.
The Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung is a conservative newspaper in Germany. Newspaper. The Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung is the leading conservative newspaper in Germany. There are 6 newspapers a week and supplementary the Frankfurter Allgemeine Sonntagszeitung on Sundays. There are about 360,000 newspapers sold every day. It is the German newspaper with the widest circulation abroad. It is sold to 148 countries every day. History. The first edition of the FAZ published on November 1, 1949. Its founding editor was Erich Welter. Some editors had worked for the Frankfurter Zeitung, which was banned in 1943.
The Frankfurter Rundschau is a nationwide newspaper in Germany. Newspaper. The "Frankfurter Rundschau is a left-wing liberal newspaper in Germany. Its position is often similar to the positions of the trade unions. There are 6 newspapers a week. It has a regional part for Hesse and a local part for Frankfurt am Main, too. There are about 180,000 newapapers sold daily. The "Franfurter Rundschau" is the first newspaper in Germany in the tabloid format. History. The Frankfurter Rundschau" was the second newspaper starting in Germany after the World War II on the 1st of August 1945. And it was the first newspaper in the U.S. sector. The licence was handed over to the first team of editors consisting of Emil Carlebach, Hans Etzkorn, Wilhelm Karl Gerst, Otto Grossmann, Wilhelm Knothe, Paul Rodemann and Arno Rudert. There were social democrats, political katholics and communists, who had spent years in the resistance and nazi concentration camps or in exile.