ejaasaari/simplewiki-2025-04-01 huggingface dataset:
Epigenetics is the study of changes in gene activity which are "not" caused by changes in the DNA sequence. It is the study of gene expression, the way genes bring about their phenotypic effects. An organism's cells are, genetically, nearly identical. There are, however, certain occurrences that can change how genes are expressed or suppressed. These changes in gene activity may stay for the rest of the cell's life. They may last for many generations of cells, through cell divisions. However, "there is no change in the underlying DNA sequence of the organism". Instead, non-hereditary factors cause the organism's genes to behave (express themselves) differently. Epigenetics works by mechanisms such as DNA methylation, where a gene expression may be suppressed.  Epigenetic factors may last into adulthood. Definitions. A general definition is "the study of... gene activity during the development of complex organisms". Thus "epigenetic" can be used to describe anything other than DNA sequence which influences the development of an organism. A stricter or narrower definition is "the study of mitotically and/or meiotically heritable changes in gene function which cannot be explained by changes in DNA sequence". More simply, it is the study of cell division where there are "changes in gene expression that cannot be explained by changes to the DNA of the cell".  The term "epigenetics" has been used to describe processes which are not heritable. An example is histone modification. So some definitions do not require heritability. Adrian Bird defined epigenetics as "the structural adaptation of chromosomal regions so as to register, signal or perpetuate altered activity states". This definition includes DNA repair or cell division phases, and stable changes across cell generations. It excludes others such as prions unless they affect chromosome function.  The NIH Roadmap Epigenomics Project uses the definition: "...For purposes of this program, epigenetics refers to both heritable changes in gene activity and expression (in the progeny of cells or individuals), and also stable, long-term alterations in the transcriptional potential of a cell". In 2008, a consensus definition of the epigenetic trait, "stably
Cellular differentiation is how a less specialized cell becomes a more specialized cell type. It is part of developmental biology. Different tissues have different kinds of organelles inside the cells.  Differentiation occurs many times during the development of a multicellular organism. The organism changes from a single zygote to a complex system of tissues and cell types. Differentiation is also a common process in adults: adult stem cells divide to make fully-differentiated daughter cells during tissue repair and during normal cell turnover. Differentiation dramatically changes a cell's size, shape, metabolic activity, and responsiveness to signals. These changes are largely due to changes in gene expression. With a few exceptions, cellular differentiation almost never involves a change in the DNA sequence itself. It does involve switching off many genes not needed in a particular tissue. Thus, cells in different tissues may have very different physical characteristics despite having the same genome. "Cell potency" is a cell's ability to differentiate into other cell types. A cell that is able to differentiate into many cell types is known as "pluripotent". Such cells are called stem cells in animals and meristematic cells in higher plants. A cell that is able to differentiate into all cell types is known as "totipotent". In mammals, only the zygote and early embryonic cells are totipotent, while in plants many differentiated cells can become totipotent with simple laboratory techniques.
Morphogenesis (meaning the "beginning of shape"), is the biological process that causes an organism to develop its shape.  It is one of three fundamental aspects of developmental biology along with the control of cell growth and cellular differentiation.  The process controls the organized spatial distribution of cells during the embryonic development of an organism. Morphogenetic responses may be induced in organisms by hormones, by substances produced by other organisms, or by mechanical stresses induced by spatial patterning of the cells. Morphogenesis can take place in an embyro, a mature organism, in cell culture or inside tumor cell masses.
EDITED BY ONYANGO RISPER ATIENO EHS/00100/022 AND THE FOLLOWING MEMBERS  1.JOY KEMBOI EHS/00123/022 2.JASON KAGUTHIA EEC/00081/021 3.MUSYOKA LILIAN KAVINDI EHS/00099/022 4.KHISA KHALAYI CHRISTINE EHS/00099/022 Gastrulation is a phase early in the development of most animal embryos. In it, the embryo is dramatically restructured by cell migration. Gastrulation varies in different phyla. It is followed by "organogenesis", when individual organs develop within the newly formed "germ layers". The gastrula is the double-walled stage of the embryo. During gastrulation, some of the cells of the blastula migrate inwards to make an inner layer, the "endoderm". In some animals another cell layer forms, the "mesoderm", between the endoderm and the "ectoderm." layer. ls, sponges show the simplest organization, having a single germ layer. Cnidaria and ctenophores show an increase in complexity, having two germ layers, the "endoderm" and "ectoderm". All higher animals (from flatworms to humans) possess a "mesoderm" as well as ectoderm and endoderm. Development of germ layers The purpose of gastrulation is to position the 3 embryonic germ layers, the endoderm, ectoderm and mesoderm. These layers later develop into certain bodily systems.
Jikji is the oldest extant movable metal type book in the world. "Jikji" is the short title of a Korean book whose full title can be translated as "Anthology of the Great Priests' Zen Teachings". It is a Buddhist document, and was printed during Korea's Goryeo era in 1377. "Jikji" is a book about Zen Buddhism published in Heungdeok temple. It was written by the Buddhist monk Baegun who died three years before this edition was printed. Baegun was the chief priest of the Anguk and Shingwang temples in Haeju.  "Jikji" was published 78 years before Johannes Gutenberg's "42-Line Bible". "Jikji" consists of two volumes. Only the second volume is extant. This volume is held in the National Library of France. UNESCO confirmed "Jikji" as the world's oldest metalloid type book in September 2001, and includes it in the "Memory of the World" program.  "Jikji" is based on an innovative technology that enables the rapid reproduction of texts, contributing to the spread of knowledge and Buddhist philosophy. It was also an important tool for the education of Buddhist monks. The preservation of the existing second volume is crucial, leading to ongoing efforts for the restoration of the first volume and the return of the second volume to Korea. In addition to UNESCO's recognition, "Jikji" has been introduced at various international exhibitions, highlighting its value as a Korean cultural heritage.
The Bibliothèque nationale de France is the National Library of France in Paris.  History. The National Library of France was founded at the Louvre by Charles V in 1368. It grew under Louis XIV and opened to the public in 1692.  Following a series of regime changes in France, it became the Imperial National Library and in 1868 it moved to new buildings on the Rue de Richelieu. In 1896, the library was the largest collection of books in the world. In 1988, President François Mitterrand agreed to build a new modern library. It now contains more than twenty million volumes. Manuscripts. The library has 5,000 Greek manuscripts and the Jikji (the oldest printed document with movable type).
Fitness in biology is the relative ability of an organism to survive and pass on its genes to the next generation.p160 It is a central idea in evolutionary theory. Fitness is usually equal to the proportion of the individual's genes in all the genes of the next generation. Like all terms in evolutionary biology, fitness is defined in terms of an interbreeding population, which might or might not be a whole species. If differences in individual genotypes affect fitness, then the frequencies of the genotypes will change over generations; the genotypes with higher fitness become more common. This is the process called natural selection. An individual's fitness is caused by its phenotype, and passed on by its genotype. The fitness of different individuals with the same genotype are not necessarily equal. It depends on the environment in which the individuals live, and on accidental events. However, since the fitness of the genotype is an averaged quantity, it reflects the reproductive outcomes of "all" individuals with that genotype. Relatedness. Fitness measures the number of the "copies" of the genes of an individual in the next generation. It doesn't really matter how the genes arrive in the next generation. For an individual, it is equally "beneficial" to reproduce itself, or to help relatives with similar genes to reproduce, "as long as similar number of copies of individual's genes get passed on to the next generation". Selection which promotes this kind of helper behaviour is called kin selection. Our closest relatives (parents, siblings, and our own children) share on average 50% (half) of our genes. One step further removed are grandparents. With each of them we share on average 25% (a quarter) of our genes. That is a measure of our relatedness to them. Next come first cousins (children of our parents' siblings). We share 12.5% (1/8) of their genes.p100 Hamilton's rule. William Hamilton added various ideas to the notion of fitness. His rule suggests that a costly action should be performed if: formula_1 where: Fitness costs and benefits are measured in fecundity. Inclusive fitness. Inclusive fitness is a term which is essentially the same as fitness, but emphasises the group
Cilla Black (27 May 1943 – 1 August 2015) was a English television personality, singer and actress. Her birth name was Priscilla Maria Veronica White and she was born in Liverpool. She became known for her songs "Anyone Who Had A Heart" and "You're My World" as well as her long-running TV shows "Blind Date" (1985-2003) and "Surprise Surprise" (1984-2001). In the early 1960s, young Cilla worked at the Cavern Club in Liverpool, where the Beatles often performed, as a hat check girl. She also sang onstage at the Cavern sometimes, backed by the band that was playing at the time. "Swinging Cilla" was well-liked by the Cavern's members and guests. One day Brian Epstein visited the Cavern to meet the Beatles, and ask about a record they made, so he could sell copies at his family's music store. Stories rose later that Cilla was working, and she first met Epstein when he gave her his hat and coat. Neither one remembered this later, though, and each believed the story was not true. Epstein's getting to know the Beatles led to his becoming their manager, and with his help, they won a recording contract. The Beatles' talent and work with music producer George Martin led to hit records. Epstein decided to manage other Liverpool musicians. Along with the bands and male singers he signed up, Epstein chose Cilla as his only female performer. He suggested her stage name (changing White to Black), so she and her family could keep their privacy. Martin also agreed to record her, helping choose songs that would showcase her voice. Cilla became popular first in England and Europe, then in America as the Beatles' music started the "British Invasion" there in 1964. One of her first hits, "Anyone Who Had A Heart", was recorded earlier by American singer Dionne Warwick. The two records sounded similar, even though Cilla had not heard Warwick's version, and a few people believed she had copied it. Both women later also recorded the theme song for the movie "Alfie", but they sounded
Didcot is a town in Oxfordshire about south of Oxford. Until 1974 it was part of Berkshire. History and economy. During the Roman Empire the Romans dug a ditch that runs north through what is now known as the Ladygrove area north of the town near Long Wittenham. Didcot first appears in historical records in the 13th century as Dudcotte, Berkshire. Parts of the original village still exist in the Lydalls Road area and part of All Saints' Church dates back to the 11th century.  Railways. The Great Western Railway, designed by Isambard Kingdom Brunel, reached Didcot in 1839. In 1844 the Didcot railway station was opened. The original station burnt down in the later part of 19th century.  Didcot is junction of the routes to London, Bristol and Oxford. It was formerly a junction for Southampton via the Didcot, Newbury and Southampton Railway but that closed in the 1960s.  The traffic to Southampton meant that the town had strategic importance to military logistics, in particular during the First World War campaign on the Western Front and the Second World War preparations for D-Day. Power stations. The Didcot Power Stations (which are next to each other, and actually in "Sutton Courtenay") supply electricity to the National Grid. The power station has also proved a popular man-made object for local photographers. One power station was closed in 2013 and has been demolished. The other is still operating in 2018.
Mason Evan Raymond (born September 17, 1985) is a Canadian professional ice hockey left winger. He currently plays for the Calgary Flames of the National Hockey League (NHL). He has also played for the Vancouver Canucks and Toronto Maple Leafs. He was drafted 51st overall by the Vancouver Canucks in the 2005 NHL Entry Draft. On June 28, 2014, Raymond was signed as a free agent by the Calgary Flames to a three-year, $9.5 million contract.
Kevin Francesco Bieksa (born June 16, 1981) is a Canadian studio analyst and former professional ice hockey defenceman. He played parts of 13 years in the National Hockey League (NHL) for the Vancouver Canucks and Anaheim Ducks. He is a co-host of "Hockey Night in Canada". After playing junior hockey in Ontario, Bieksa was awarded a scholarship to Bowling Green University, where he spent four years. While at university, Bieksa was selected by the Canucks in the 2001 NHL Entry Draft, and joined their minor league partner, the Manitoba Moose of the American Hockey League (AHL), after graduating. After spending time with the Moose, he joined the Canucks. A physical defenceman, Bieksa has increased his scoring totals in each of the full seasons he has played in the NHL. During his time with the Canucks, Bieksa would help them reach the Stanley Cup Finals but they would lose 4 games to three to the Boston Bruins. On June 27, 2011, Bieksa would sign a five-year, $23 million contract extension with the team. On June 30, 2015, the Canucks traded Bieksa to the Anaheim Ducks for a second round pick in the 2016 draft. He would sign a two-year, $8,000,000 contract extension two days later. On October 13, 2022, Bieksa would sign a one-day contract with the Canucks and would retire. After retiring, Bieksa became a analyst for "Hockey Night in Canada". His work has earned him a nomination for Best Sports Analyst at the Canadian Screen Awards in 2021, 2022, and 2024.
The 1992 United States presidential election happened on November 3, 1992. Bill Clinton, the Democratic candidate and Governor of Arkansas, won the election. He defeated the incumbent president, George H. W. Bush, who was a Republican, and Ross Perot, an independent candidate.  Clinton got 370 electoral votes, Bush got 168, and Perot got 0. A person running for president needs to get 270 to win. George H.W. Bush may have lost the election for several reasons. He broke his promise of "" by increasing taxes during his term. Some of his most well-known accomplishments during his presidency came from his foreign policy, and because of the Cold War and Gulf War being over, foreign policy became a smaller issue, as the economy became a bigger issue, since the economy was bad.  Prior to 2020, this was the last election where a candidate won the presidency without winning Florida. Candidates. Republican Party. Republican candidates Democratic Party. Democratic candidates
Meliaceae is a family of dicotyledonous plants in order Sapindales, most of which have spirally pinnate leaves.  The family includes about 50 genera and 550 species, with a pantropical distribution; one genus ("Toona") extends north into temperate China and south into southeast Australia, and another ("Melia") nearly as far north.
South Jakarta () is a city in Jakarta, Indonesia. It is the second largest administrative city in Jakarta after East Jakarta.  South Jakarta is divided into five subdistricts: Kebayoran Baru, Kebayoran Lama, Pesanggrahan, Setiabudi, Cilandak, Pasar Minggu, and Jagakarsa.
Alexandre Bolduc (born June 26, 1985 in Montreal, Quebec) is a Canadian professional ice hockey centre who currently plays for the Arizona Coyotes of the National Hockey League (NHL). Bolduc was selected by the St. Louis Blues with the 127th pick in the 2004 NHL Draft but never played for them. He has also played for the Vancouver Canucks. He signed a contract with the Coyotes on July 2, 2011.
The Manitoba Moose are a professional ice hockey team that play in the American Hockey League (AHL). They play in Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada, at the MTS Centre. They are the farm team of the Winnipeg Jets. The team originally played as the Manitoba Moose from 1996 until 2011. They were relocated to St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador and became the St. John's IceCaps, which is the AHL farm team of the Winnipeg Jets. The team played in St. John's for four seasons. In May 2015, it was announced that the team would be returning to Winnipeg and would be once again be called the Manitoba Moose.
Sticklebacks are fish of the Gasterosteidae family. FishBase currently recognises sixteen species in the family, grouped in five genera. Several of the species have a number of recognised subspecies, and the taxonomy of the family is thought to be in need of revision. They have a Holarctic distribution in fresh, brackish and marine waters.  An unusual features of sticklebacks is that they have no scales, although some species have bony armour plates. They were thought to be related to pipefish and seahorses, but recent studies have shown that they're now related to the eelpouts and sculpins. Stickleback species are found in fresh water environments in Europe, Asia and North America. They feed on small crustaceans and fish larvae. Sticklebacks have strong separated spines in the dorsal fin. All species show similar mating behaviour, with co-operation between the sexes, and protection of the eggs. The males construct a nest from vegetation held together by secretions from their kidneys. The males then attract females to the nest. The females lay their eggs inside, where the males fertilise them. The males then guards the eggs until they hatch. Taxonomy. The Gasterosteidae, was first proposed as a family by the French zoologist Charles Lucien Bonaparte in 1831. It has long been considered that the sticklebacks and others made up a suborder, the Gasterosteoidei in the order Gasterosteiformes. Recent phylogenetic work has shown that the Gasterosteoidei is closely related to the Zoarcoidei and the Cottoidei. This taxon is now in the order Scorpaeniformes. Genera. The family Gasterosteidae includes the following genera: Description. Sizes. Sticklebacks have many sizes. "Spinachia spinachia", the sea stickleback, is the largest of the sticklebacks and can grows to a length of 22 centimetres (8.7 in). The maximum size of the three-spined stickleback ("Gasterosteus aculeatus"), is about 4 inches, but few
Mikhaíl Bulgakov ( – 10 March 1940) was a Soviet Russian writer and playwright active in the first half of the 20th century. He is best known for his novel "The Master and Margarita", which has been called one of the masterpieces of the 20th century. Much of Bulgakov's work is best described as magic realism, where fantasy intrudes into what seemed at first to be a straightforward everyday scene. Life. Mikhail Bulgakov was born in Kiev on May 15 1891. Two of his grandparents were priests and his father was an assistant professor. At school Bulgakov developed an interest in Russian writing, European writing, the theatre and the opera. In 1913 Bulgakov married Tatiana Lappa. When the First World War started he volunteered with the Red Cross as a doctor. Bulgakov was sent to an area where fighting was heavy, and he was badly injured at least twice. In 1916, he graduated from the Medical School of Kiev University. Bulgakov then joined the White Army with his brothers. They fought against the communists who were taking control of Russia. Bulgakov also fought in the Ukrainian People's Army. After the Russian Civil War, Mikhail and his brothers went to the Caucasus in Western Russia. Mikhail worked as a journalist. Many members of Bulgakov's family left Russia for Western Europe. Bulgakov was not allowed into other countries, however, as he had a disease called typhus. The injuries Bulgakov received in the First World War continued to cause him a lot of pain. To ease the pain, he started injecting himself with morphine. He eventually became addicted. He wrote a book about this period called "Morphine", which was finally released in 1926. Bulgakov left medicine behind as he was now sure he wanted to be a writer. He moved to Moscow with his wife Tatiana in 1921. Bulgakov eventually divorced Tatiana, and married Lyubov' Belozerskaya in 1924. He published a number of works in the early 1920s. By 1927, however, he was criticised by people who said he was writing
John Burdon Sanderson Haldane FRS (3 November 1892 – 1 December 1964), known as Jack (but who used 'J.B.S.' in his printed works), was a British geneticist and evolutionary biologist who emigrated to India towards the end of his life. He was one of the founders (along with Ronald Fisher and Sewall Wright) of population genetics. Jack Haldane was a communist, atheist and a writer of popular science books, and articles for the "Daily Worker". His major professional work was his contribution of mathematical papers on the theory of evolution, which assisted the modern evolutionary synthesis. Career. Between 1919 and 1922 he was a Fellow of New College, Oxford University, then moved to Cambridge University, where he accepted a Readership in Biochemistry at Trinity College and taught there until 1932. During his nine years at Cambridge, Haldane worked on enzymes and genetics, particularly the mathematical side of genetics. Haldane wrote many popular essays on science that were eventually collected and published in 1927 in a volume entitled "Possible Worlds". He then accepted a position as Professor of Genetics and moved to University College London where he spent most of his academic career. Four years later he became the first Weldon Professor of Biometry at University College London. Haldane's move to India, initially to the Indian Statistical Institute (ISI) was influenced by a number of factors. Officially he stated that his chief political reason was in response to the Suez Crisis. He wrote: "Finally, I am going to India because I consider that recent acts of the British Government have been violations of international law."  His interest in India was also because of his interest in biological research, belief that the warm climate would do him good and that India offered him freedom and shared socialist dreams. At the ISI, he headed the biometry unit and spent time researching a range of topics and guiding other researchers around him.