ejaasaari/simplewiki-2025-04-01 huggingface dataset:
The Château de Saint Cloud was a château in Paris, France. It was sometimes called the Palace of Saint Cloud. It was burned down during the Franco-Prussian War in 1870. It was once a private property of Queen Marie Antoinette. Since December 2006, there has been a movement to rebuild the Château de Saint-Cloud. Early history. The building was originally called the "he Hôtel d'Aulnay". In the 16h century, it was expanded into a château by the Gondi banking family. The estate was in the hands of the Gondi family till 1658. At that time it was bought by Philippe of France, Duke of Orléans, the only brother of Louis XIV of France. The estate remained the personal property of the descendants of Philippe of France. It was a country residence, as opposed to the Palais Royal in the center of Paris. Queen Marie Antoinette. After negotiating for a long time, the Château de Saint-Cloud was bought in 1785 by Louis XVI. He bought it for Marie Antoinette. She thought that the air of Saint-Cloud would be good for her children. Louis Philippe, Duke of Orléans, who had not visited the château since his morganatic marriage to his mistress Madame de Montesson, sold it for 6,000,000 livres. Marie Antoinette started changing Saint-Cloud in 1787-1788. She used her preferred architect Richard Mique. He had also decorated parts of the Palace of Versailles for the queen.  Emperor Napoléon III. During the Second Empire, Emperor Napoléon III and Empress Eugénie held their imperial court at Saint-Cloud during the spring and the autumn. There was also a reception for Queen Victoria in honour of her 1855 visit to France. In 1859, a model railway was built in the private park. It was built for Napoléon, Prince Imperial, the 3-year-old son of emperor Napoléon III.
An essential oil is a liquid from a plant. Essential oils contain chemical compounds that are useful for their scent. They are used in aromatherapy. Perfumes are made with essential oils. Around the world, essential oils are being studied in modern clinical trials to test ancient claims of healing. They are being studied for their effectiveness as antibacterial agents, fungicides, insecticides, pain relief, stress reduction, and skin problems. Name. The name "essential oil" comes from theories in the Middle Ages of a fifth element. People than believed that there were four basic elements that everything was made of: fire, water, air and earth. The elusive "soul" of things was called the quintessential element or the fifth element. Over time, "quintessential" was shortened to "essential". Alchemists said that this element could change iron to gold. Some believed it held the planets in their orbits. Producing the essential oil. Most essential oils today are steam distilled. This process separates out the aromatic essential oils from the solid plant matter. With steam distillation, it can take thousands of pounds of plant matter to create just one liter of essential oil. Other methods include expelling and solvent extraction. Expelling is using pressure to squeeze the essential oil out of the plant. This method is generally used for citrus oils. Solvent extraction uses substances such as carbon dioxide to extract the essential oil. This method is used for delicate plants such as rose and jasmine, which can be too fragile to go through the distillation process.
A birch tree is a thinleaved deciduous hardwood tree of the genus Betula. They are in the family Betulaceae, which also includes alders, hazels, and hornbeams. "Betula" contains 30 to 60 species of which 11 are on the IUCN 2011 Green List of Threatened Species. They are usually rather short-lived pioneer species widespread in the Northern Hemisphere.
Brown v. Board of Education II (often called Brown II) was a Supreme Court case decided in 1955. The year before, the Supreme Court had decided "Brown v. Board of Education", which made racial segregation in schools illegal. However, many all-white schools in the United States had not followed this ruling and still had not integrated (allowed black children into) their schools. In "Brown II", the Court ordered them to integrate their schools "with all deliberate speed."  In "Brown II", the Supreme Court also set out rules about what schools needed to do to de-segregate. Finally, it explained how the United States government would make sure the schools did de-segregate. Background. After the Supreme Court decided the original "Brown" case, it planned to hear arguments during its next court session about just how school de-segregation was going to happen. Segregation in United States schools had existed for centuries. The Court understood that it would not be easy to get the states to follow its ruling and de-segregate their schools.  Also, in its ruling in "Brown", the Court had not given the states any instructions for "how" to end school segregation. The Court had also not given the states a deadline for "when" they needed to de-segregate their schools. These were all details that the Supreme Court needed to decide in "Brown II". Combined cases. When it decided the original "Brown" case in 1954, the Supreme Court had combined "Brown" with four other cases. The Court decided all five cases together as one, which it called "Brown v. Board of Education". This meant that in "Brown II", the Court was again deciding about five different cases. These were: Legal issues. There were a few legal questions that the Supreme Court had to decide in "Brown II". For example: Arguments. The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), whose lawyers had won "Brown", argued that school de-segregation should begin right away. The states argued back that this would be too difficult and too expensive, and that they needed more time to de-segregate. Decision. In a 9-0 decision, the Supreme Court ordered
Benjamin Franklin Tilley (March 29, 1848 in Bristol, Rhode Island – March 18, 1907 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania) was an admiral in the US Navy who served in the American Civil War and the Spanish-American War. He was the first acting governor of American Samoa.
The Black Hills are a small mountain range from the Great Plains of North America in South Dakota. Native Americans have a long history in the Black Hills. After conquering the Cheyenne in 1776, the Lakota took over the territory of the Black Hills.  In 1868, the U.S. government signed the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868. This exempted the Black Hills from all white settlement forever.  But, when European Americans discovered gold there in 1874, miners swept into the area in a gold rush. The US government reassigned the Lakota, against their wishes, to other reservations in western South Dakota. Unlike most of South Dakota, the Black Hills were settled by European Americans from population centers to the west and south. Miners flocked there from earlier gold boom places in Colorado and Montana. As the economy shifted from mining and logging, the tourism industry has grown. The Black Hills have two areas: "The Southern Hills" and "The Northern Hills". The Southern Hills is home to Mount Rushmore National Memorial, Wind Cave National Park, Jewel Cave National Monument, Harney Peak (the highest point in the United States east of the Rockies), Custer State Park (the largest state park in South Dakota, and one of the largest in the US), the Crazy Horse Memorial (the largest Mountain sculpture in the world), and the Mammoth Site in Hot Springs, the world’s largest mammoth research facility.
The Corn Palace is an arena in Mitchell, South Dakota. The designs on the buildings are covered in corn and other grains. The Corn Palace has concerts, sports events, exhibits and other community events. Each year, the Corn Palace is celebrated with a citywide festival, the Corn Palace Festival. Historically it was held at harvest time in September, but now it happens in August. Other popular annual events include the Corn Palace Stampede Rodeo in July and the Corn Palace Polka Festival in September. It is also where the Dakota Wesleyan University Tigers and the Mitchell High School Kernels basketball teams play their games.
Knossos is a Bronze Age archaeological site on the island of Crete. It is at modern Heraklion. It may be Europe's oldest city. Many Roman coins found on the site had 'Knosion' or 'Knos' on one side, and an image of a Minotaur or Labyrinth on the reverse. These are symbols from the myth of King Minos, supposed to have reigned at Knossos. The excavations at Knossos began in 1900 by the English archaeologist Sir (1851–1941) and his team. They worked there for 35 years. The palace was excavated and partly restored. It was large. The team discovered two ancient scripts, called Linear A and Linear B. From the layering of the palace, Evans developed an idea of the civilization that used it, which he called Minoan. The palace was built over a previous Neolithic town. During the Bronze Age, the town surrounded the hill on which the palace was built. The palace was abandoned at some unknown time at the end of the late Bronze Age, c. 1380–1100 BC, for reasons which are not known.
The China National Space Administration (CNSA) is the national space agency of China, and is based in the Haidian District. It is in charge of the national space program and of managing different space-related activities.  The CNSA has had many successful missions, for example the Tiangong Space Station, and Tianwen-1, which landed a rover on Mars.  Foundation and history. CNSA is a space agency made in 1993 when the Ministry of Aerospace Industry was split into the CNSA and the China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation(CASC).  Later in 1998 CASC was split into smaller goverment-owned companies. In 2011 NASA was been forced to not work with CNSA. In 2021, China started building the Tiangong space station, which has only three modules made for crew, cargo, and research. In the same year CNSA sent Tianwen-1 to Mars. Departments. CNSA has four departments:
Betts v. Brady, , was a landmark case decided by the United States Supreme Court in 1942. The case had to do with "indigent" (poor) people who were on trial for crimes, but did not have enough money to pay for a lawyer. The Court ruled that a person did not need a lawyer to get a fair trial. They also ruled that the states did not have to pay for free lawyers for poor defendants. In 1963, the Court reversed its decision in "Betts" when it decided "Gideon v. Wainwright", . History. The Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution says that "In all criminal [trials], the accused shall ... have the assistance of counsel for his defence." ("Counsel" is another word for "lawyer.") However, in the 1930s, the Supreme Court made a few decisions that decreased the number of United States citizens who had the right to a lawyer. In 1932, the Court decided a case called "Powell v. Alabama", . They ruled that the states had to assign free lawyers to poor defendants, but "only" if they were being tried for capital crimes. (Capital crimes are crimes that can be punished with the death penalty.) Then, in 1938, the Supreme Court ruled in "Johnson v. Herbst" that in "federal" courts, any person who was charged with a crime and could not pay for a lawyer had to be assigned a lawyer for free. However, the Court also ruled that the Sixth Amendment applied "only" to federal courts not to state courts. This meant that if a person was charged with a crime in a "state" court, and he could not afford a lawyer, he would have to defend himself in court. Background of the case. In 1941, Betts was indicted (formally charged) with robbery by a court in Maryland. Betts could not pay for a lawyer. He asked the court to assign him a free lawyer. The judge refused. He said the court only appointed free lawyers to people charged with rape or murder. Betts had to defend himself, without the help of a lawyer. He
A mamba is a fast-moving venomous snakes of the genus "Dendroaspis" (means "tree asp"). It belongs to the Elapidae family. They are native to Africa. The black mamba is one of the well-known species and is also the most feared. Other members include the eastern green mamba, western green mamba and Jameson's mamba. Behavior. Most mambas are arboreal, meaning they live in trees. The only exception is the black mamba, which lives on land. All mamba species hunt during the day. They prey on birds, lizards and small mammals. There are many stories of mambas chasing humans, but these snakes usually prefer to avoid contact with humans. Humans are actually their main predators, rather than prey. Because mambas and cobras are in the same family, they share some similarities. Like the cobra, a mamba might display a hood when threatened. However, a mamba's hood is more narrow and is longer. A mamba usually opens its mouth when threatened, so they lean forward unlike the cobra which usually stands erect. Venom. All mambas are very venomous. Their venom is mostly comprised of neurotoxins, which attack the nervous system. The venom can also contain cardiotoxins (which damage the heart muscle) and fasciculins (which cause muscle twitches). The toxicity of the venom varies. Changes in the toxicity can even be caused by the weather or altitude. All mamba species have similar venom, but the black mamba has the most toxic venom and is more aggressive.  Untreated black mamba bites are fatal.
Chanel is a French fashion company created by Coco Chanel (19 August 1883 – 10 January 1971). It designs clothing, perfumes, luxury goods and jewellery, usually of simple design. It is widely known for the "little black dress" and Chanel No. 5 perfume.
Swinging is a human sexuality based on multi-partner relations. Both singles and partners engage with others for recreational purposes. In contrast to an affair, both partners are consenting to sexual exchanges. These exchanges create a certain eroticism and even sexual arousal. There are different types of swinging activities.
Escobedo v. Illinois, , was a landmark United States Supreme Court case decided in 1964. The Court ruled that suspects in crimes have the right to have a lawyer with them while they are being questioned by the police. This case was decided just a year after the Court ruled in "Gideon v. Wainwright", , that indigent (poor) criminal defendants had a right to be assigned free lawyers at trial. Background. Crime and arrests. Danny Escobedo's brother-in-law, Manuel Valtierra, was shot and killed on the night of January 19, 1960. Escobedo was arrested without a warrant early the next morning and interrogated. However, Escobedo did not admit anything to the police, and was let go that afternoon.  Another man named Benedict DiGerlando had also arrested, and the police thought he was another suspect. DiGerlando told the police that Escobedo's brother-in-law, Valtierra, treated Escobedo's sister badly. Because of this, Escobedo had shot and killed Valtierra, said DiGerlando. On January 30, 1960, the police again arrested Escobedo, as well as his sister, Grace. While driving them to the police station, the police explained that DiGerlando had told them Escobedo was guilty. The police urged him and Grace to confess. Escobedo again refused. Interrogation. Escobedo asked to speak to his lawyer, but the police refused. They said that although he was not formally charged with a crime yet, he was in police custody and could not leave. Escobedo's lawyer went to the police station and asked many times to see Escobedo, but was not allowed to. Police and prosecutors interrogated Escobedo for fifteen hours. They made Escobedo stand, handcuffed, for the entire time. Escobedo continued to ask to speak with his lawyer, and they continued to refuse. Escobedo later said that the police promised him he could go free, and would not be charged with murder, if he just confessed to the crime. Finally, after "becoming
The Caldwell catalogue is an astronomical catalogue of 109 objects. It includes star clusters, nebulae, and galaxies for observation by amateur astronomers. The list was compiled by English astronomer Patrick Moore as a complement to the Messier catalogue. The Messier catalogue is used by amateur astronomers as a list of deep-sky objects for observation. However, it was not compiled for that purpose. It does not include many of the sky's brightest deep-sky objects, such as the Hyades, the Double Cluster (NGC 869 and NGC 884), and the Sculptor Galaxy (NGC 253). The Messier catalogue was compiled as a list of known objects that might be confused with comets. As Messier got his list from observations in Paris, it did not include bright deep-sky objects visible in the Southern Hemisphere, such as Omega Centauri, Centaurus A, the Jewel Box, and 47 Tucanae.  So Moore compiled a list of 109 objects – to match the accepted number of Messier objects. The list was published in "Sky &amp; Telescope" in December 1995.
A ring galaxy is a kind of galaxy that has a ring shape. Hoag's Object and NGC 1291 are two examples. The ring is made up of many massive, young blue stars, which are extremely bright. The middle of the galaxy contains far less luminous matter.  Some astronomers believe that ring galaxies are formed when a smaller galaxy passes through the center of a larger galaxy. Because galaxies are mostly made up of empty space, a collision rarely happens between stars. However, the gravitational disruptions could cause a wave of star formation to move through the larger galaxy. Other astronomers think that rings are formed around some galaxies when an accretion disc is formed. Star formation would then result from the shocks and compressions in the newly formed disc.
The United States district courts are the trial courts of the federal court system.  How they work. United States district courts hold trials, like state courts do. However, the Constitution only gives federal courts the power to hear certain kinds of cases. For example, federal courts can hear cases about: Each trial is heard by a judge and decided by a jury.  Organization. There are 94 U.S. district courts in the United States. Every district court also includes a bankruptcy court. Each state (and Washington, D.C.) has at least one district court. So do four U.S. territories: Puerto Rico, Guam, the Virgin Islands, and the Northern Mariana Islands. Appeals. The next-most powerful federal courts are the United States Courts of Appeals. They are also called "appellate courts." There are 13 Courts of Appeals. The 94 district courts are organized into 12 larger areas, called "circuits." Each Court of Appeals deals with appeals filed in their circuit. For example, the Districts of Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Maine, Rhode Island, and Puerto Rico are grouped together into the "First Circuit." If, for example, somebody wanted to appeal a decision made by the District Court of Massachusetts, they would write an appeal to the United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit. The last choice for appealing a court decision is to file an appeal asking the United States Supreme Court to hear the case. Locations of District Courts. Here is a map that shows which circuit each United States District Court is in. States that are the same color are in the same circuit. Each circuit has a number on it for example, Texas, Louisiana, and Mississippi are in the 5th Circuit. The dotted lines on the map also show the areas which the District Courts cover. On the map, some states have no dotted lines in them. This means there is only one District Court in that state. For example, Alaska has only one District Court: the District Court of Alaska. This court covers the entire state of Alaska. Other states are divided into more than one district. The dotted lines on the map show where one district ends and another begins. For example, on the map, Washington is
Swati (also known as Swazi) ( "SiSwati") is part of the Nguni group of Bantu languages. It is spoken by about 1.5 million people in Eswatini and South Africa. It is the official language of Eswatini and one of the eleven official languages in South Africa. It is taught in the schools of Eswatini, and in some South African schools. Swati is closely related to Phuthi, a language spoken in Lesotho, and to Zulu, Ndebele and Xhosa. Swati has four main varietes: Shiselweni, Hhohho, Manzini and Shiselweni. They correspond with the four administrative regions of Eswatini.
The trusty system was a system that Mississippi State Penitentiary and other prisons used to control prisoners. In the trusty system, some prisoners were given more power than others. These trusties guarded the other prisoners. The trusty system worked out well for prison officials because they did not have to pay civilian (non-prisoner) guards to control the prisoners. However, the trusties kept the other prisoners under control through physical abuse, torture, fear, and humiliation. Finally, in 1974, a federal court ruled that the trusty system, and the whole prison, were violating the United States Constitution by giving out cruel and unusual punishments. This ruling ordered the trusty system to be shut down. Description. Mississippi State Penitentiary was built in 1901. It was originally called Parchman Farm. Mississippi law said that the prison had to pay for itself "and" make a profit for the state. In other words, the prison had to pay for everything it needed itself, "and" make money for the state. Basically, this meant Parchman was like a business for the state of Mississippi. It was like a business that used slave labor the state made money without having to pay for anything, including workers' salaries. In fact, one year, Parchman earned $180,000 for the state of Mississippi not including what it had to spend on itself. The Governor of Mississippi, James K. Vardaman, even said the prison was run “like an efficient slave plantation.” This hurt other local businesses, which did have to pay their workers and other costs. The prison warden controlled the prison completely. Nobody from outside of the prison ever came in to see what was going on. Because of this, nobody outside the prison knew what Parchman was really like. For example, in 1911, the "New York Times" wrote an article congratulating the Mississippi prison system for figuring out how to keep people in prison and make money at the same time. Also, because no outsiders ever came into Parchman, the conditions and abuse at the prison changed very little from the time it opened in 1903 until the "Gates v. Collier
Ryan Drummond (born January 10, 1973) is an American actor, voice actor, mime and comedian. He is best known for voicing Sonic the Hedgehog in several installments of the "Sonic the Hedgehog" series from 1998 to 2004. He is also known for being the bass vocalist in the A.Y.U. Quartet since 1991. He has been starring in a musical comedy in San Diego called "Forever Plaid". Personal life. Drummond married his wife, Lisa Drummond, on October 8, 2002. They live in San Francisco, California. He and his wife, Lisa Drummond, are divorced in 2019.