dungnv/qwen36-27b-length-traces huggingface dataset:
user
Van der Waals equation of state

In a well-known model of an ideal gas, whose equation of state obeys the Clapeyron-Mendeleev law, the following important physical effects are neglected. First, molecules of a real gas have a finite size and, secondly, they interact with one another. In all parts of this problem one mole of water is considered.

Part A. Non-ideal gas equation of state

Taking into account the finite size of the molecules, the gaseous equation of state takes the form

$$
P(V-b)=R T
\tag{1}
$$

where $P, V, T$ stands for the gas pressure, its volume per mole and temperature, respectively, $R$ denotes the universal gas constant, and $b$ is a specific constant extracting some volume.

A1 Estimate $b$ and express it in terms of the diameter of the molecules $d$.
Please reason step by step, and put your final answer within \boxed{}.


assistant
<think>
user
$g=9.8 \mathrm{~N} / \mathrm{kg}$



$k=1 / 4 \pi \epsilon_{0}=8.99 \times 10^{9} \mathrm{~N} \cdot \mathrm{m}^{2} / \mathrm{C}^{2}$



$c=3.00 \times 10^{8} \mathrm{~m} / \mathrm{s}$



$N_{\mathrm{A}}=6.02 \times 10^{23}(\mathrm{~mol})^{-1}$



$\sigma=5.67 \times 10^{-8} \mathrm{~J} /\left(\mathrm{s} \cdot \mathrm{m}^{2} \cdot \mathrm{K}^{4}\right)$



$1 \mathrm{eV}=1.602 \times 10^{-19} \mathrm{~J}$



$m_{e}=9.109 \times 10^{-31} \mathrm{~kg}=0.511 \mathrm{MeV} / \mathrm{c}^{2}$



$m_{p}=1.673 \times 10^{-27} \mathrm{~kg}=938 \mathrm{MeV} / \mathrm{c}^{2}$



$\sin \theta \approx \theta-\frac{1}{6} \theta^{3}$ for $|\theta| \ll 1$



$$

\begin{aligned}

& G=6.67 \times 10^{-11} \mathrm{~N} \cdot \mathrm{m}^{2} / \mathrm{kg}^{2} \\

& k_{\mathrm{m}}=\mu_{0} / 4 \pi=10^{-7} \mathrm{~T} \cdot \mathrm{m} / \mathrm{A} \\

& k_{\mathrm{B}}=1.38 \times 10^{-23} \mathrm{~J} / \mathrm{K} \\

& R=N_{\mathrm{A}} k_{\mathrm{B}}=8.31 \mathrm{~J} /(\mathrm{mol} \cdot \mathrm{K}) \\

& e=1.602 \times 10^{-19} \mathrm{C} \\

& h=6.63 \times 10^{-34} \mathrm{~J} \cdot \mathrm{s}=4.14 \times 10^{-15} \mathrm{eV} \cdot \mathrm{s} \\

& (1+x)^{n} \approx 1+n x \text { for }|x| \ll 1 \\

& \ln (1+x) \approx x \text { for }|x| \ll 1 \\

& \cos \theta \approx 1-\frac{1}{2} \theta^{2} \text { for }|\theta| \ll 1

\end{aligned}

$$

$$

\begin{array}{lrl}

\text { velocity parameter } & \beta & =\frac{v}{c} \\

\text { Lorentz factor } & \gamma & =\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\beta^{2}}} \\

\text { relativistic momentum } & p & =\gamma \beta m c \\

\text { relativistic energy } & E & =\gamma m c^{2} \\

\text { relativistic doppler shift } & \frac{f}{f_{0}} & =\sqrt{\frac{1-\beta}{1+\beta}}

\end{array}

$$

Extra Supplementary Reading Materials:

Consider two objects with equal heat capacities $C$ and initial temperatures $T_{1}$ and $T_{2}$. A Carnot engine is run using these objects as its hot and cold reservoirs until they are at equal temperatures. Assume that the temperature changes of both the hot and cold reservoirs is very small compared to the temperature during any one cycle of the Carnot engine.

a. Find the final temperature $T_{f}$ of the two objects, and the total work $W$ done by the engine.
Please reason step by step, and put your final answer within \boxed{}.


assistant
<think>
user
For positive integers $a$ and $b$, define $f(a, b)=\frac{a}{b}+\frac{b}{a}+\frac{1}{a b}$.

For example, the value of $f(1,2)$ is 3 .
Determine all positive integers $a$ for which $f(a, a)$ is an integer.
Please reason step by step, and put your final answer within \boxed{}.


assistant
<think>
user
$$

\begin{array}{ll}

g=9.8 \mathrm{~N} / \mathrm{kg} & G=6.67 \times 10^{-11} \mathrm{~N} \cdot \mathrm{m}^{2} / \mathrm{kg}^{2} \\

k=1 / 4 \pi \epsilon_{0}=8.99 \times 10^{9} \mathrm{~N} \cdot \mathrm{m}^{2} / \mathrm{C}^{2} & k_{\mathrm{m}}=\mu_{0} / 4 \pi=10^{-7} \mathrm{~T} \cdot \mathrm{m} / \mathrm{A} \\

c=3.00 \times 10^{8} \mathrm{~m} / \mathrm{s} & k_{\mathrm{B}}=1.38 \times 10^{-23} \mathrm{~J} / \mathrm{K} \\

N_{\mathrm{A}}=6.02 \times 10^{23}(\mathrm{~mol})^{-1} & R=N_{\mathrm{A}} k_{\mathrm{B}}=8.31 \mathrm{~J} /(\mathrm{mol} \cdot \mathrm{K}) \\

\sigma=5.67 \times 10^{-8} \mathrm{~J} /\left(\mathrm{s} \cdot \mathrm{m}^{2} \cdot \mathrm{K}^{4}\right) & e=1.602 \times 10^{-19} \mathrm{C} \\

1 \mathrm{eV}=1.602 \times 10^{-19} \mathrm{~J} & h=6.63 \times 10^{-34} \mathrm{~J} \cdot \mathrm{s}=4.14 \times \\

m_{e}=9.109 \times 10^{-31} \mathrm{~kg}=0.511 \mathrm{MeV} / \mathrm{c}^{2} & (1+x)^{n} \approx 1+n x \text { for }|x| \ll 1 \\

\sin \theta \approx \theta-\frac{1}{6} \theta^{3} \text { for }|\theta| \ll 1 & \cos \theta \approx 1-\frac{1}{2} \theta^{2} \text { for }|\theta| \ll 1

\end{array}

$$


$$

\begin{array}{lrr}

M_{\odot} & = & 1.989 \times 10^{30} \mathrm{~kg} \\

L_{\odot} & = & 3.828 \times 10^{26} \mathrm{~W} \\

R_{\text {earth }} & = & 1.5 \times 10^{11} \mathrm{~m} \\

\lambda_{\max } & = & 500 \mathrm{~nm}

\end{array}

$$

a. Suppose you drop a block of mass $m$ vertically onto a fixed ramp with angle $\theta$ with coefficient of static and kinetic friction $\mu$. The block is dropped in such a way that it does not rotate after colliding with the ramp. Throughout this problem, assume the time of the collision is negligible.


i. Suppose the block's speed just before it hits the ramp is $v$ and the block slides down the ramp immediately after impact. What is the speed of the block right after the collision?
Please reason step by step, and put your final answer within \boxed{}.


assistant
<think>
user
Determine all real values of $x$ for which $3^{(x-1)} 9^{\frac{3}{2 x^{2}}}=27$.
Please reason step by step, and put your final answer within \boxed{}.


assistant
<think>
user
Let $T=$ 3. Suppose that $T$ fair coins are flipped. Compute the probability that at least one tails is flipped.
Please reason step by step, and put your final answer within \boxed{}.


assistant
<think>
user
Let $x$ be the smallest positive integer such that $1584 \cdot x$ is a perfect cube, and let $y$ be the smallest positive integer such that $x y$ is a multiple of 1584 . Compute $y$.
Please reason step by step, and put your final answer within \boxed{}.


assistant
<think>
user
A point is selected at random from the interior of a right triangle with legs of length $2 \sqrt{3}$ and 4 . Let $p$ be the probability that the distance between the point and the nearest vertex is less than 2. Then $p$ can be written in the form $a+\sqrt{b} \pi$, where $a$ and $b$ are rational numbers. Compute $(a, b)$.
Please reason step by step, and put your final answer within \boxed{}.


assistant
<think>
user
## Electroneering



An electron is a particle with charge $-q$, mass $m$, and magnetic moment $\mu$. In this problem we will explore whether a classical model consistent with these properties can also explain the rest energy $E_{0}=m c^{2}$ of the electron.



Let us describe the electron as a thin spherical shell with uniformly distributed charge and radius $R$. Recall that the magnetic moment of a closed, planar loop of current is always equal to the product of the current and the area of the loop. For the electron, a magnetic moment can be created by making the sphere rotate around an axis passing through its center.
Context question:
a. If no point on the sphere's surface can travel faster than the speed of light (in the frame of the sphere's center of mass), what is the maximum magnetic moment that the sphere can have? You may use the integral:



$$

\int_{0}^{\pi} \sin ^{3} \theta d \theta=\frac{4}{3}

$$
Context answer:
\boxed{$\mu=q c R / 3$}

b. The electron's magnetic moment is known to be $\mu=q \hbar / 2 m$, where $\hbar$ is the reduced Planck constant. In this model, what is the minimum possible radius of the electron? Express your answer in terms of $m$ and fundamental constants.
Please reason step by step, and put your final answer within \boxed{}.


assistant
<think>
user
## Electroneering



An electron is a particle with charge $-q$, mass $m$, and magnetic moment $\mu$. In this problem we will explore whether a classical model consistent with these properties can also explain the rest energy $E_{0}=m c^{2}$ of the electron.



Let us describe the electron as a thin spherical shell with uniformly distributed charge and radius $R$. Recall that the magnetic moment of a closed, planar loop of current is always equal to the product of the current and the area of the loop. For the electron, a magnetic moment can be created by making the sphere rotate around an axis passing through its center.
Context question:
a. If no point on the sphere's surface can travel faster than the speed of light (in the frame of the sphere's center of mass), what is the maximum magnetic moment that the sphere can have? You may use the integral:



$$

\int_{0}^{\pi} \sin ^{3} \theta d \theta=\frac{4}{3}

$$
Context answer:
\boxed{$\mu=q c R / 3$}


Context question:
b. The electron's magnetic moment is known to be $\mu=q \hbar / 2 m$, where $\hbar$ is the reduced Planck constant. In this model, what is the minimum possible radius of the electron? Express your answer in terms of $m$ and fundamental constants.
Context answer:
\boxed{$R=\frac{3}{2} \frac{\hbar}{m c}$}

c. Assuming the radius is the value you found in part (b), how much energy is stored in the electric field of the electron? Express your answer in terms of $E_{0}=m c^{2}$ and the fine structure constant,



$$

\alpha=\frac{q^{2}}{4 \pi \epsilon_{0} \hbar c} \approx \frac{1}{137}

$$
Please reason step by step, and put your final answer within \boxed{}.


assistant
<think>
user
Let $x$ be a positive real number such that $\log _{\sqrt{2}} x=20$. Compute $\log _{2} \sqrt{x}$.
Please reason step by step, and put your final answer within \boxed{}.


assistant
<think>
user
Elizabeth is in an "escape room" puzzle. She is in a room with one door which is locked at the start of the puzzle. The room contains $n$ light switches, each of which is initially off. Each minute, she must flip exactly $k$ different light switches (to "flip" a switch means to turn it on if it is currently off, and off if it is currently on). At the end of each minute, if all of the switches are on, then the door unlocks and Elizabeth escapes from the room.

Let $E(n, k)$ be the minimum number of minutes required for Elizabeth to escape, for positive integers $n, k$ with $k \leq n$. For example, $E(2,1)=2$ because Elizabeth cannot escape in one minute (there are two switches and one must be flipped every minute) but she can escape in two minutes (by flipping Switch 1 in the first minute and Switch 2 in the second minute). Define $E(n, k)=\infty$ if the puzzle is impossible to solve (that is, if it is impossible to have all switches on at the end of any minute).

For convenience, assume the $n$ light switches are numbered 1 through $n$.
Find the following in terms of $n$. $E(n, 2)$ for positive even integers $n$
Please reason step by step, and put your final answer within \boxed{}.


assistant
<think>
user
For a positive integer $n$, let $C(n)$ equal the number of pairs of consecutive 1's in the binary representation of $n$. For example, $C(183)=C\left(10110111_{2}\right)=3$. Compute $C(1)+C(2)+$ $C(3)+\cdots+C(256)$.
Please reason step by step, and put your final answer within \boxed{}.


assistant
<think>
user
Let $T=$ 7. Compute the units digit of $T^{2023}+(T-2)^{20}-(T+10)^{23}$.
Please reason step by step, and put your final answer within \boxed{}.


assistant
<think>
user
CHANGE OF AIR TEMPERATURE WITH ALTITUDE, ATMOSPHERIC STABILITY AND AIR POLLUTION 

Vertical motion of air governs many atmospheric processes, such as the formation of clouds and precipitation and the dispersal of air pollutants. If the atmosphere is stable, vertical motion is restricted and air pollutants tend to be accumulated around the emission site rather than dispersed and diluted. Meanwhile, in an unstable atmosphere, vertical motion of air encourages the vertical dispersal of air pollutants. Therefore, the pollutants' concentrations depend not only on the strength of emission sources but also on the stability of the atmosphere.

We shall determine the atmospheric stability by using the concept of air parcel in meteorology and compare the temperature of the air parcel rising or sinking adiabatically in the atmosphere to that of the surrounding air. We will see that in many cases an air parcel containing air pollutants and rising from the ground will come to rest at a certain altitude, called a mixing height. The greater the mixing height, the lower the air pollutant concentration. We will evaluate the mixing height and the concentration of carbon monoxide emitted by motorbikes in the Hanoi metropolitan area for a morning rush hour scenario, in which the vertical mixing is restricted due to a temperature inversion (air temperature increases with altitude) at elevations above $119 \mathrm{~m}$.

Let us consider the air as an ideal diatomic gas, with molar mass $\mu=29 \mathrm{~g} / \mathrm{mol}$.

Quasi equilibrium adiabatic transformation obey the equation $p V^{\gamma}=$ const, where $\gamma=\frac{c_{p}}{c_{V}}$ is the ratio between isobaric and isochoric heat capacities of the gas.

The student may use the following data if necessary:

The universal gas constant is $R=8.31 \mathrm{~J} /($ mol.K).

The atmospheric pressure on ground is $p_{0}=101.3 \mathrm{kPa}$

The acceleration due to gravity is constant, $g=9.81 \mathrm{~m} / \mathrm{s}^{2}$

The molar isobaric heat capacity is $c_{p}=\frac{7}{2} R$ for air.

The molar isochoric heat capacity is $c_{V}=\frac{5}{2} R$ for air.



Mathematical hints 

a. $\int \frac{d x}{A+B x}=\frac{1}{B} \int \frac{d(A+B x)}{A+B x}=\frac{1}{B} \ln (A+B x)$

b. The solution of the differential equation $\frac{d x}{d t}+A x=B \quad$ (with $\quad A$ and $B$ constant) is $x(t)=x_{1}(t)+\frac{B}{A}$ where $x_{1}(t)$ is the solution of the differential equation $\frac{d x}{d t}+A x=0$.

c. $\lim _{x \rightarrow \infty}\left(1+\frac{1}{x}\right)^{x}=e$

1. Change of pressure with altitude.

1.1. Assume that the temperature of the atmosphere is uniform and equal to $T_{0}$. Write down the expression giving the atmospheric pressure $p$ as a function of the altitude $z$.
Please reason step by step, and put your final answer within \boxed{}.


assistant
<think>
user
Let $\mathbb{Z}_{>0}$ be the set of positive integers. Find all functions $f: \mathbb{Z}_{>0} \rightarrow \mathbb{Z}_{>0}$ such that

$$
m^{2}+f(n) \mid m f(m)+n
$$

for all positive integers $m$ and $n$.
Please reason step by step, and put your final answer within \boxed{}.


assistant
<think>
user
## Toffee Pudding



A box of mass $m$ is at rest on a horizontal floor. The coefficients of static and kinetic friction between the box and the floor are $\mu_{0}$ and $\mu$ (less than $\mu_{0}$ ), respectively. One end of a spring with spring constant $k$ is attached to the right side of the box, and the spring is initially held at its relaxed length. The other end of the spring is pulled horizontally to the right with constant velocity $v_{0}$. As a result, the box will move in fits and starts. Assume the box does not tip over.
Context question:
a. Calculate the distance $s$ that the spring is stretched beyond its rest length when the box is just about to start moving.
Context answer:
\boxed{$s=\mu_{0} m g / k$}


Context question:
b. Let the box start at $x=0$, and let $t=0$ be the time the box first starts moving. Find the acceleration of the box in terms of $x, t, v_{0}, s$, and the other parameters, while the box is moving.
Context answer:
\boxed{$a=\frac{k}{m}\left(s+v_{0} t-x\right)-\mu g$}


Extra Supplementary Reading Materials:

The position of the box as a function of time $t$ as defined in part (b) is



$$

x(t)=\frac{v_{0}}{\omega}(\omega t-\sin \omega t)+(1-r) s(1-\cos \omega t),

$$



where $\omega=\sqrt{k / m}$ and $r=\mu / \mu_{0}$. This expression applies as long as the box is still moving, and you can use it in the parts below. Express all your answers in terms of $v_{0}, \omega, s$, and $r$.

c. Find the time $t_{0}$ when the box stops for the first time.
Please reason step by step, and put your final answer within \boxed{}.


assistant
<think>
user
A bakery sells small and large cookies. Before a price increase, the price of each small cookie is $\$ 1.50$ and the price of each large cookie is $\$ 2.00$. The price of each small cookie is increased by $10 \%$ and the price of each large cookie is increased by $5 \%$. What is the percentage increase in the total cost of a purchase of 2 small cookies and 1 large cookie?
Please reason step by step, and put your final answer within \boxed{}.


assistant
<think>
user
Let $a=19, b=20$, and $c=21$. Compute

$$
\frac{a^{2}+b^{2}+c^{2}+2 a b+2 b c+2 c a}{a+b+c}
$$
Please reason step by step, and put your final answer within \boxed{}.


assistant
<think>
user
Suppose that, for some angles $x$ and $y$,

$$
\begin{aligned}
& \sin ^{2} x+\cos ^{2} y=\frac{3}{2} a \\
& \cos ^{2} x+\sin ^{2} y=\frac{1}{2} a^{2}
\end{aligned}
$$

Determine the possible value(s) of $a$.
Please reason step by step, and put your final answer within \boxed{}.


assistant
<think>
user
Two fair dice, each having six faces numbered 1 to 6 , are thrown. What is the probability that the product of the two numbers on the top faces is divisible by 5 ?
Please reason step by step, and put your final answer within \boxed{}.


assistant
<think>
user
Let $T=210$. At the Westward House of Supper ("WHS"), a dinner special consists of an appetizer, an entrée, and dessert. There are 7 different appetizers and $K$ different entrées that a guest could order. There are 2 dessert choices, but ordering dessert is optional. Given that there are $T$ possible different orders that could be placed at the WHS, compute $K$.
Please reason step by step, and put your final answer within \boxed{}.


assistant
<think>
user
Determine the two pairs of positive integers $(a, b)$ with $a<b$ that satisfy the equation $\sqrt{a}+\sqrt{b}=\sqrt{50}$.
Please reason step by step, and put your final answer within \boxed{}.


assistant
<think>
user
Billy and Crystal each have a bag of 9 balls. The balls in each bag are numbered from 1 to 9. Billy and Crystal each remove one ball from their own bag. Let $b$ be the sum of the numbers on the balls remaining in Billy's bag. Let $c$ be the sum of the numbers on the balls remaining in Crystal's bag. Determine the probability that $b$ and $c$ differ by a multiple of 4 .
Please reason step by step, and put your final answer within \boxed{}.


assistant
<think>
user
Let $N$ be a perfect square between 100 and 400 , inclusive. What is the only digit that cannot appear in $N$ ?
Please reason step by step, and put your final answer within \boxed{}.


assistant
<think>
user
Suppose that $n$ is a positive integer and that the value of $\frac{n^{2}+n+15}{n}$ is an integer. Determine all possible values of $n$.
Please reason step by step, and put your final answer within \boxed{}.


assistant
<think>
user
Problem T3. Protostar formation

Let us model the formation of a star as follows. A spherical cloud of sparse interstellar gas, initially at rest, starts to collapse due to its own gravity. The initial radius of the ball is $r_{0}$ and the mass is $m$. The temperature of the surroundings (much sparser than the gas) and the initial temperature of the gas is uniformly $T_{0}$. The gas may be assumed to be ideal. The average molar mass of the gas is $\mu$ and its adiabatic index is $\gamma>\frac{4}{3}$. Assume that $G \frac{m \mu}{r_{0}} \gg R T_{0}$, where $R$ is the gas constant and $G$ is the gravitational constant.
Context question:
i. During much of the collapse, the gas is so transparent that any heat generated is immediately radiated away, i.e. the ball stays in thermodynamic equilibrium with its surroundings. What is the number of times, $n$, by which the pressure increases when the radius is halved to $r_{1}=0.5 r_{0}$ ? Assume that the gas density remains uniform.
Context answer:
\boxed{$n=8$}


Context question:
ii. Estimate the time $t_{2}$ needed for the radius to shrink from $r_{0}$ to $r_{2}=0.95 r_{0}$. Neglect the change of the gravity field at the position of a falling gas particle.
Context answer:
\boxed{$\sqrt{\frac{0.1 r_{0}^{3}}{G m}}$}

iii. Assuming that the pressure remains negligible, find the time $t_{r \rightarrow 0}$ needed for the ball to collapse from $r_{0}$ down to a much smaller radius, using Kepler's Laws.
Please reason step by step, and put your final answer within \boxed{}.


assistant
<think>
user
In the series of odd numbers $1+3+5-7-9-11+13+15+17-19-21-23 \ldots$ the signs alternate every three terms, as shown. What is the sum of the first 300 terms of the series?
Please reason step by step, and put your final answer within \boxed{}.


assistant
<think>
user
Let $T=5$. Suppose that $a_{1}=1$, and that for all positive integers $n, a_{n+1}=$ $\left\lceil\sqrt{a_{n}^{2}+34}\right\rceil$. Compute the least value of $n$ such that $a_{n}>100 T$.
Please reason step by step, and put your final answer within \boxed{}.


assistant
<think>
user
A hollow cylindrical tube has a radius of $10 \mathrm{~mm}$ and a height of $100 \mathrm{~mm}$. The tube sits flat on one of its circular faces on a horizontal table. The tube is filled with water to a depth of $h \mathrm{~mm}$. A solid cylindrical rod has a radius of $2.5 \mathrm{~mm}$ and a height of $150 \mathrm{~mm}$. The rod is inserted into the tube so that one of its circular faces sits flat on the bottom of the tube. The height of the water in the tube is now $64 \mathrm{~mm}$. Determine the value of $h$.
Please reason step by step, and put your final answer within \boxed{}.


assistant
<think>
user
The positive integers 34 and 80 have exactly two positive common divisors, namely 1 and 2. How many positive integers $n$ with $1 \leq n \leq 30$ have the property that $n$ and 80 have exactly two positive common divisors?
Please reason step by step, and put your final answer within \boxed{}.


assistant
<think>
user
## Toffee Pudding



A box of mass $m$ is at rest on a horizontal floor. The coefficients of static and kinetic friction between the box and the floor are $\mu_{0}$ and $\mu$ (less than $\mu_{0}$ ), respectively. One end of a spring with spring constant $k$ is attached to the right side of the box, and the spring is initially held at its relaxed length. The other end of the spring is pulled horizontally to the right with constant velocity $v_{0}$. As a result, the box will move in fits and starts. Assume the box does not tip over.

a. Calculate the distance $s$ that the spring is stretched beyond its rest length when the box is just about to start moving.
Please reason step by step, and put your final answer within \boxed{}.


assistant
<think>
user
Let $T=11$. Compute the least positive integer $b$ such that, when expressed in base $b$, the number $T$ ! ends in exactly two zeroes.
Please reason step by step, and put your final answer within \boxed{}.


assistant
<think>