Clinical trial NCT02671266
Conditions: Body Dysmorphic Disorder Obsessive-compulsive Disorder
Keywords: Oxytocin Body dysmorphic disorder Obsessive-compulsive disorder
Sponsor: Massachusetts General Hospital
Start date: 2014-12-01; Completion date: 2017-10-01
Enrollment: 41 participants; Allocation: RANDOMIZED; Intervention model: CROSSOVER

Brief summary:
The purpose of the current study is to investigate the effect of an acute administration of intranasal oxytocin, relative to placebo, on social cognitive impairments among individuals with body dysmorphic disorder and obsessive-compulsive disorder, compared to healthy controls.

Detailed description:
Despite the development of efficacious pharmacologic and psychological treatments body dysmorphic disorder (BDD), treatment outcome data suggest that there is still considerable room for improvement. A closer examination of biological mechanisms underlying psychopathology may help uncover mechanisms to target during intervention and thereby provide a novel approach to treatment. Given that the neuropeptide, oxytocin, is involved in the regulation of a variety of social and cognitive dimensions, including emotion recognition and social attentional processing, there are direct implications regarding its role in the development of such deficits among individuals with BDD. The current study therefore aims to investigate the effect of oxytocin administration on social cognitive impairments in BDD and a related disorder, OCD. Twenty treatment-seeking male and female outpatients with BDD, 20 individuals with OCD, and 20 healthy participants will be assigned to receive an oxytocin and placebo nasal spray one week apart. During each visit, subjects will complete a series of tasks to measure emotion recognition, attentional biases, interpretive biases, and trust behavior. Importantly, these findings may show that a single administration of oxytocin may alter social cognitive processes thought to maintain BDD, and ultimately inform treatments for BDD.

Arms: arm 1: Participants will first receive a nasal spray containing the hormone oxytocin (24 IU, 3 puffs per nostril). After a one-week washout period, participants will come back to the clinic and receive a placebo nasal spray (containing all of the same ingredients as the oxytocin spray minus the active oxytocin ingredient). arm 2: Participants will first receive a placebo nasal spray containing a matching formulation as the oxytocin spray (without the active oxytocin ingredient). After a one-week washout period, participants will come back to the clinic and receive an oxytocin nasal spray (24 IU, 3 puffs per nostril).
Interventions: intervention 1: Oxytocin intervention 2: Placebo
Intervention descriptions: intervention 1: Oxytocin nasal sprays will be self-administered in the presence of a study nurse. The dose is 24 IU (3 puffs per nostril, 4 IU per puff) of Syntocinon nasal spray. intervention 2: Placebo nasal sprays will be self-administered in the presence of a study nurse. The sprays will contain all of the same ingredients as the Syntocinon spray minus the active oxytocin ingredient.

Protocol documents:
Prot_SAP_000.pdf: 
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Detailed Protocol 
Effect of Intranasal Oxytocin on Social Cognition 
 
I. Background and Significance 
 
Oxytocin is a nine amino acid neuropeptide, which is produced in the paraventricular 
and supraoptic nuclei of the hypothalamus. It is then secreted into the peripheral 
circulation via the posterior pituitary gland or released into the central nervous system to 
act on receptors widely distributed throughout the brain. Today, synthetic oxytocin 
(marketed as Pitocin® and Syntocinon®) is commonly administered intravenously to 
induce or augment labor in pregnant women.  
 
Traditionally, oxytocin has been examined for its role in childbirth, lactation, and 
maternal attachment behavior. Given recent advances in delivering oxytocin via nasal 
administration, oxytocin has seen an exponential growth of research examining its 
effects on social cognition and behavior. For example, animal research has shown that 
intranasal administration of oxytocin to pairs of rats increases the duration of physical 
contact with each other (Witt, Winslow, & Insel, 1992), whereas administration of an 
oxytocin-receptor antagonist in male rats is associated with reduced social exploration 
of a con-specific male rat (Lukas et al., 2011). In human populations, studies have 
shown that oxytocin increases trust during a money transfer game (Kosfeld, Heinrichs, 
Zak, Fischbacher, & Fehr, 2005), improves memory for positive social information 
(Guastella, Mitchell, & Mathews, 2008), and attenuates amygdala reactivity to emotional 
stimuli (Domes et al., 2007).  
 
These findings have major treatment implications for psychiatric disorders in which 
social cognitive deficits are prominent, such as autism, schizophrenia, and social 
anxiety disorder. Indeed, early evidence indicates that intranasal oxytocin may have 
therapeutic potential in these psychiatric populations. Studies have shown that oxytocin 
improves emotion recognition ability in autistic youth (Guastella et al., 2010), and 
patients with schizophrenia (Averbeck, Bobin, Evans, & Shergill, 2011). A recent meta-
analysis found that intranasal oxytocin may enhance the recognition of facial 
expressions of emotion (van Ijzendoorn & Bakermans-Kranenburg, 2012). Furthermore, 
several experiments have now investigated the effect of intranasal oxytocin in patients 
with social anxiety disorder (SAD). One study examined the impact of administering 
oxytocin as an adjunct to exposure therapy for SAD and found that patients treated with 
oxytocin showed a positive effect in increasing positive evaluations of appearance and 
speech performance (Guastella, Howard, Dadds, Mitchell, & Carson, 2009). Another 
study demonstrated that OT modulates amygdala reactivity in patients with generalized 
SAD (Labuschagne et al., 2010), which may reflect an important mechanism of 
treatment. These studies are consistent with previous research in healthy individuals, 
which show that oxytocin may have therapeutic potential given its anxiolytic and pro-
social effects.  
 
Although the use of intranasal oxytocin has direct implications for the treatment of body 
dysmorphic disorder (BDD), no studies have yet investigated the effects of oxytocin in 


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this population. BDD is a highly distressing and debilitating psychiatric disorder that is 
characterized by an excessive preoccupation with appearance concerns about a 
perceived physical flaw (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). It is associated with 
significant functional impairment and poor quality of life (Phillips, Menard, Fay, & 
Pagano, 2005). Although research has tested some pharmacologic and psychological 
treatments for these disorders, evidence suggests that there is still considerable room 
for improvement, as most patients across clinical trials only improve by 30-50% in 
symptom severity (Veale et al., 1996; Wilhelm, Phillips, Fama, Greenberg, & Steketee, 
2011).  
 
Given that oxytocin is involved in the regulation of a variety of dimensions of social 
cognition and behavior, including emotion recognition and social information processing, 
there are direct implications regarding its role in the development of such deficits among 
individuals BDD in particular. Individuals with BDD display deficits in social cognition, as 
they are convinced that their appearance is flawed, and that people may be staring and 
laughing at their physical flaws. Experiments have shown that BDD is associated with 
selective attentional biases to imagined flaws in one’s own face and to corresponding 
regions in unfamiliar others’ faces (e.g., Grocholewski, Kleim, & Heinrichs, 2012). 
Moreover, research has shown that individuals with BDD incorrectly interpret faces 
showing neutral emotional expressions as contemptuous and angry (Buhlmann, Etcoff, 
& Wilhelm, 2006). Despite these obvious problems with regard to social cognition, no 
studies have yet examined the effect of oxytocin in BDD. The current study therefore 
aims to investigate the effect of oxytocin administration on modifying core social 
cognitive impairments associated with BDD.This study has major public health 
significance, given the prevalence of OC spectrum disorders and the need to investigate 
more parsimonious treatments. 
 
II. Specific Aims 
 
Primary Aim 1: To examine differential effects of oxytocin on social cognitive deficits 
during an emotion recognition task and trust game by diagnosis. 
Hypothesis 1a: Individuals with BDD will exhibit poor performance on the emotion 
recognition task and trust game, compared to healthy controls.  
Hypothesis 1b: The effects of oxytocin vs. placebo on the emotion recognition 
task and trust game will be greater for individuals with BDD than for healthy 
controls.  
 
Secondary Aim 2: To examine the effect of oxytocin on cognitive biases (attentional and 
interpretive biases) associated with BDD.  
Hypothesis 2a: Individuals with BDD (compared to healthy controls) will exhibit 
the following cognitive biases: attentional bias (difficulty disengaging from threat 
cues, as measured by a spatial cueing paradigm), and negative interpretive bias 
(as measured by an interpretation questionnaire). 
Hypothesis 2b: For individuals with BDD (compared to healthy controls), oxytocin 
will attenuate these biases compared to placebo.  
 


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Exploratory Aim: To examine whether symptom severity, social anxiety, mood, 
attachment style, and rejection sensitivity moderate the effects of oxytocin.  
 
 
III. Subject Selection 
 
Inclusion Criteria for BDD Groups: 
1. Treatment-seeking adult males and females ≥ 18 years of age  
2. Meets DSM-IV criteria for principal BDD as determined by Structured Clinical 
Interview for DSM-IV (SCID) diagnostic interview  
3. For females only: must be using low-dose hormonal contraceptives, as defined 
by <50 mcg daily dose of ethinyl estradiol. Female participants will bring 
medication labeling to the screening visit so study staff may verify acceptable 
drug composition. 
 
Exclusion Criteria for BDD Groups:  
1. Current diagnosis of schizophrenia, psychotic disorder, bipolar disorder, 
substance abuse or substance dependence. All other Axis I comorbidities will be 
permitted to foster the accrual of a clinically relevant sample.  
2. Significant nasal pathology (e.g., atrophic rhinitis, history of hypophysectomy, 
recurrent nosebleeds) 
3. Smokers who smoke ≥ 15 cigarettes daily 
4. Serious medical illnesses (including untreated thyroid disease, diabetes, 
cardiovascular disease, and seizures, as assessed by medical history). 
Individuals who are taking levothyroxine or who report a history of thyroid 
disease will be given a blood test to determine thyroid hormone levels  and 
eligibility for the study. 
5. Active homicidal or suicidal ideation 
6. Steroid or hormone use (except low-dose contraceptives for females, which is 
allowed) 
7. For females only: positive urine pregnancy test and use of high dose 
contraceptives (low dose contraceptives will be allowed due to stability of 
hormone levels during active phase) 
 
Inclusion Criteria for Control Participants:  
1. Adult males and females ≥ 18 years of age 
2. No current DSM-IV Axis I diagnosis, as determined by SCID 
3.  For females only: must be using low-dose hormonal contraceptives, as defined 
by <50 mcg daily dose of ethinyl estradiol. Female participants will bring 
medication labeling to the screening visit so study staff may verify acceptable 
drug composition. 
 
Exclusion Criteria for Control Participants:  
1. Current diagnosis of any DSM-IV Axis I disorder 
2. Significant nasal pathology (e.g., atrophic rhinitis, history of hypophysectomy, 
recurrent nosebleeds) 


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3. Smokers who smoke ≥ 15 cigarettes daily 
4. Serious medical illnesses (including untreated thyroid disease, diabetes, 
cardiovascular disease, and seizures, as assessed by medical history). 
Individuals who are taking levothyroxine or who report a history of thyroid 
disease will be given a blood test to determine thyroid hormone levels and 
eligibility for the study. 
5. Active homicidal or suicidal ideation 
6. Steroid or hormone use (except low-dose contraceptives for females, which is 
allowed) 
7. For females only: positive urine pregnancy test and use of high dose 
contraceptives (low dose contraceptives will be allowed due to stability of 
hormone levels during active phase) 
 
Source of Subjects and Recruitment Methods: 
We will enroll a maximum of 50 participants to obtain a sample of 40 participants (20 
BDD, and 20 healthy volunteers) in the study. Potential participants will be recruited to 
the MGH OCD and Related Disorders Program through flyers and general clinic 
advertisements in the General Recruitment Protocol (Protocol #2009P-002227), and 
databases of research volunteers, such as the Volunteer Research Registry (Protocol 
#2010P-002496). These referrals are presented in a weekly meeting to the clinicians. In 
the intake phone call, the coordinator asks the patient if he/she is willing to hear about a 
research study. If the patient meets initial eligibility criteria (e.g., has BDD) and agrees 
to be informed about a research study, then our research assistant will call the patient to 
conduct a BDD-specific phone screen, which has already been approved through the 
General Recruitment Protocol (Protocol # 2009P-002227). Given our high number of 
referrals, we do not anticipate any problems recruiting 20 participants with BDD for the 
current project. In the unlikely event that we have difficulty recruiting, we can collaborate 
with our colleagues in the Center for Anxiety and Traumatic Stress Disorders Program 
and Eating Disorders Clinic and Research Program, which receive a number of referrals 
for BDD. We will never identify potential participants through medical records, and we 
will never contact potential participants without their permission to be contacted. If a 
medical colleague identifies one of his or her patients as potentially appropriate for this 
study, we will request that the colleague encourage the patient to contact a member of 
the study staff directly. Alternatively, the colleague may ask the patient to give 
permission to be contacted over the phone by a member of the study staff. Additionally, 
the OCD and Related Disorders Program has funds available to pay for advertisements 
if necessary. Our clinic has had recruitment success by posting flyers at mental health 
private practices, primary care offices, and on the MBTA. Healthy volunteers will be 
recruited through approved online advertisements through Craigslist and the Partners 
Clinical Trials website. Healthy subjects will be matched by age and sex, such that 
group means for age and the number of females will not be significantly different 
between all 3 study groups.  
 
IV. Subject Enrollment 
 
Methods of Enrollment: 


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Potential participants who are eligible for the study after the phone screening procedure 
(described above) will be invited to the MGH OCD and Related Disorders Program for 
an initial evaluation to determine their eligibility for the study. After the consenting 
process, an advanced doctoral student or doctoral level member of the study staff will 
provide a diagnostic assessment using the SCID-I/P, as well as thoroughly assess each 
inclusion and exclusion criteria using direct questioning. Females will provide a urine 
pregnancy test to ensure that they are not pregnant. Females will also confirm the 
formulation of their contraception at the time of their screening visit. Any participant 
taking psychotropic medications will be allowed to participate in the study, and will be 
asked to keep taking their medication as usual during the study. If an enrolled BDD or 
healthy participant has already completed a SCID and the same clinician-administered 
and self-report questionnaires within the past six months as part of a different study 
within the OCD and Related Disorders Program, they will be able to consent to give us 
permission to access data from their previous screening assessment. 
 
Procedures for Obtaining Informed Consent: 
An advanced doctoral student or a doctoral level member of the study staff will obtain 
written informed consent, and will thoroughly review the consent form with the potential 
participant. If an advanced doctoral student obtains consent, a licensed physician 
investigator will be available to speak with the subject during the consent process. 
Subjects who are consented by advanced doctoral students will be offered the option of 
speaking with a physician Investigator during the consent process and this will be 
recorded in research records. During the consenting process, potential participants will 
be apprised of the voluntary nature of their participation in the study and that they can 
withdraw at any point in the study without penalty. Specifically, we will reassure all 
potential participants that refusal to participate will in no way influence their care or 
affiliation with the Clinics at the Massachusetts General Hospital or any other Harvard 
Medical School affiliated hospital. Potential participants will be informed that the study 
will examine how oxytocin impacts their performance on different social cognitive tasks, 
but they will not be informed as to the exact study hypotheses (e.g., how oxytocin’s 
effects on social and cognitive functioning may relate to their BDD symptoms). It will be 
necessary to use incomplete disclosure at the outset of the study to ensure maximum 
internal validity of study results. Potential participants will also be given as much time as 
needed to consider participation, and will be given an opportunity to ask questions 
about the study prior to signing the consent form. We will obtain written informed signed 
consent through the use of a PHRC approved written consent from all participants 
before they enter into the study and start study procedures. After signing the consent 
form, participants will be given a copy of the consent, and the original copy will be filed 
in a locked file separate from study data in a research office.  
 
Treatment Assignment Procedures:  
Given the cross-over design, all participants will receive an oxytocin and placebo nasal 
spray at two separate visits. The MGH Research Pharmacy will randomize the order of 
nasal sprays that will be given to participants, and will thus be un-blinded of assigned 
drug condition for participants’ study visits. All other study staff, as well as participants 
themselves, will be blind to drug condition. 


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V. Study Procedures 
 
Overview of Study Procedure: 
The study will consist of 3 study visits in total. The first visit will involve the diagnostic 
assessment and medical screen to determine eligibility for the study, in addition to the 
administration of clinician-administered and self-report questionnaires. This visit will 
take approximately 2.5 hours to complete. If participants are eligible, they will be asked 
to return to the clinic for two additional study visits, which will be identical in procedure 
and take approximately 2 hours each to complete. Female participants must complete 
Visits 2 and 3 during the active phase of their contraceptive medication (e.g. not during 
their menses); female subjects using multiphasic contraceptives must be on the same 
dose of ethinyl estradiol for both Visit 2 and 3. Participants will be instructed to avoid 
alcohol, caffeine, and nicotine for 24 hours prior to Visits 2 and 3. These visits will 
involve the administration of both an oxytocin and placebo nasal spray, in randomized 
order, and the completion of various social cognition tasks. They will be separated by a 
one-week washout period (maximum 28 day window period). The study design and 
procedures are represented in the following schematic:  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Diagnostic Assessment and Medical Screen: 
After obtaining informed consent, participants will be administered the Structured 
Clinical Interview for DSM-IV (SCID-I/P; First, Spitzer, Gibbon, & Williams, 2002) to 
determine diagnostic eligibility. The SCID allows the investigator to assess all diagnostic 
inclusion and exclusion criteria. Participants who are recruited for the healthy control 
Visit 1: Eligibility assessment for all study 
participants and administration of clinician-
administered and self-report questionnaires (if 
eligible) 
Visit 2: Oxytocin or placebo nasal spray 
administration and completion of study tasks 
(Emotion Recognition Task, Trust Game, Posner 
Task, Interpretation Questionnaire, Navon Task, 
Gradual Onset CPT) 
Visit 3: Oxytocin or placebo nasal spray 
administration and completion of study tasks 
(Emotion Recognition Task, Trust Game, Posner 
Task, and Interpretation Questionnaire, Navon 
Task, Gradual Onset CPT) 
Max 28 day 
window 


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group will be given the SCID-I/P to confirm the absence of Axis I psychopathology. 
Participants who meet the diagnostic inclusion and exclusion criteria will be given a 
medical screen consisting of a history and physical examination (H&P) by a study nurse 
or physician to determine the participant’s eligibility and safety for the study. In addition, 
a urine pregnancy test will be given to females during this visit, as well as at the 
beginning of Visits 2 and 3 to ensure continued eligibility.   
 
Investigational Agent (dose, method, schedule of administration, dose modifications):  
 
Oxytocin (OT) is a nine-amino-acid peptide, or nonapeptide, which is produced in the 
paraventricular and supraoptic nuclei of the hypothalamus and projected to many brain 
regions, particularly within the limbic system. The empirical formula of OT is 
C43H66N12O12S2 (molecular weight 1007.19). The structural formula of OT is as follows:  
 
 
 
H-Cys-Tyr-lle-Glu (NH2)- Asp(NH2)-Cys-Pro-Leu-Gly-NH2 
      1      2    3   4  
      5   
      6    7     8     9 
 
Synthetic oxytocin (e.g., Syntocinon® or Pitocin®) is typically administered 
intravenously in neonatal settings to induce labor. It is widely distributed throughout the 
extracellular fluid and causes uterine response almost immediately. Its removal from the 
blood is facilitated by the kidney and liver, and has a plasma half-life of approximately 1 
to 6 minutes (per Pitocin package insert). Intranasal delivery of oxytocin enables actions 
within the brain and produces pro-social behavioral effects in humans. 
 
The oxytocin and placebo nasal sprays to be used in the current investigation will be the 
commercially available product known as Syntocinon®, which is widely used in studies 
investigating intranasal oxytocin but is currently not available in the U.S. Therefore, the 
nasal sprays will be provided by Pharmaworld in Switzerland 
(http://www.pharmaworld.com), and manufactured by Novartis. The nasal sprays will 
consist of 24 IU of oxytocin (with 4 IU per puff), and will be dispensed in 5 ml metered-
dose nasal spray bottles. Oxytocin nasal sprays will be shipped in boxes with identical 
placebo nasal sprays (containing all of the same ingredients as the oxytocin sprays but 
without the active oxytocin ingredient), and will require cooling at 2-8ºC during shipping. 
The MGH Research Pharmacy will provide drug accountability and storage services. 
Upon arrival at MGH, the MGH Research Pharmacy will ensure that the labels on the 
bottles are identical in order to protect the blind. Per Syntocinon® package insert, the 
product should be stored in a refrigerator between 2-8ºC. Nasal sprays for each 
participant will be ordered by a written prescription to the MGH Research Pharmacy by 
the study physician or nurse practitioner on a patient-by-patient basis.  
 
Oxytocin and Placebo Administration: 
Oxytocin and placebo administration will occur at Visit 2 and Visit 3. 24 international 
units (IU) of oxytocin and placebo will be administered in a double-blind manner to 
subjects. This represents the most commonly used dosage in studies involving 


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intranasal administration of oxytocin (MacDonald et al., 2011). The nasal sprays 
(Syntocinon® nasal spray, 40 IU/ml) will be purchased from Pharmaworld and 
manufactured by Novartis in Switzerland under an Investigational New Drug (IND) 
application from the Food and Drug Administration. The principal investigator, Angela 
Fang, Ph.D., and study physician, Elizabeth A. Lawson, M.D., both have experience 
obtaining an IND for intranasal oxytocin, and are familiar with the sponsor-investigator 
responsibilities associated with maintaining the IND. As the physician on the IND, Dr. 
Lawson will provide medical oversight regarding reported adverse events, as well as 
risk coverage for subjects enrolled in the study. Subjects will follow a standardized 
protocol for self-administering the metered dose nasal sprays (see attached 
administration protocol) with three sprays per nostril (4 IU oxytocin per spray). A study 
nurse at the MGH Clinical Research Center, who will be blind to the subject’s assigned 
drug condition, will be present for drug administration. Only the MGH Research 
Pharmacy will be un-blinded to drug condition during the study, as they will be 
responsible for treatment assignment at each study visit.  
 
Clinician-Administered Measures: 
Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV-TR (SCID; First, Spitzer, Gibbon, & Williams, 
2002): The SCID is a clinician-administered, semi-structured interview that assesses 
current Axis I disorders. Given that the SCID has not yet been updated to reflect DSM-5 
diagnostic criteria, we will assess diagnoses based on DSM-IV criteria. The SCID will be 
administered during the screening visit to diagnose participants, characterize the 
sample, and screen for other eligibility criteria.  
 
Demographics and Eligibility Form: This clinician-administered measure will be 
developed specifically for the purposes of this study to assess demographic information, 
and to document other inclusion and exclusion criteria (e.g., medical illnesses, nasal 
pathology, suicidal/homicidal ideation, cigarette use, concurrent medications, steroid 
use, pregnancy test results).  
 
Yale-Brown Obsessive-Compulsive Scale modified for BDD (BDD-YBOCS; Phillips, 
Hollander, Rasmussen, & Aronowitz, 1997): The BDD-YBOCS is a 12-item clinician-
administered severity rating scale for BDD. It will be administered during the screening 
visit. (BDD participants only) 
 
Brown Assessment of Beliefs Scale (BABS; Eisen et al., 1998): The BABS is a 7-item 
clinician-administered scale to assess degree of insight and conviction of beliefs. It will 
be administered during the screening visit to assess degree of delusionality. (BDD 
participants only) 
 
Self-Report Questionnaires: 
Body Dysmorphic Disorder Symptom Scale (BDD-SS; Wilhelm, unpublished): The BDD-
SS revised is a self-report measure that assesses severity of specific BDD symptom 
domains. The scale organizes symptoms into conceptually similar clusters, such as 
checking and comparing, fixing and correcting, weight and shape concerns, skin picking 


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and hair pulling, avoiding and hiding, seeking cosmetic surgery, and beliefs about 
appearance.  
 
Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale- Self-Report (LSAS; Liebowitz, 1987): The LSAS is a 24-
item measure that assesses fear and avoidance of social situations in the past week. It 
is widely used in treatment studies for SAD. The LSAS has been validated in clinical 
samples and has high internal consistency (α = .82-.92) (Heimberg et al., 1999).  
 
Brief Fear of Negative Evaluation Scale (BFNE; Leary, 1983): The BFNE is an 
abbreviated 12-item self-report questionnaire adapted from the original Fear of Negative 
Evaluation Scale (Watson & Friend, 1969), which measures apprehension about others’ 
evaluations, expectation for negative evaluation, avoidance of evaluative situations, and 
distress associated with negative evaluation.  
 
Interpersonal Sensitivity Measure (IPSM; Boyce & Parker, 1989): The original IPSM is a 
36-item self-report measure to assess sensitivity to rejection. It has been demonstrated 
to have good internal consistency (Boyce & Parker, 1989; Harb, Heimberg, Fresco, 
Schneier, & Liebowitz, 2002). 
 
Experience in Close Relationships Inventory (ECR; Brennan et al., 1998): The ECR is a 
36-item self-report questionnaire that measures attachment anxiety and avoidance in 
adults. It yields two subscales reflecting attachment anxiety (anxiety about being 
rejected or abandoned) and attachment avoidance (discomfort with closeness and 
intimacy).  
 
Depression Anxiety Stress Scale-21 (DASS; Lovibond & Lovibond, 1995): The DASS is 
a shortened, 21-item version of the original DASS self-report questionnaire designed to 
measure dimensional aspects of depression, anxiety, and stress.  
 
Positive and Negative Affect Scales (PANAS; Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988): The 
PANAS is a 20-item self-report measure of positive and negative affect.  
 
Mini-Markers Scale (MM; Saucier, 1994): The Mini-Markers Scale is a 40-item self-
report measure of the five factor model personality factors: extraversion, agreeableness, 
conscientiousness, emotional stability, and openness. It asks participants to rate how 
accurately each item describes themselves on a 1-9 point Likert scale ranging from 
“extremely inaccurate” to “extremely accurate.”  
 
Adverse Events Form: This self-report form will be administered at Visits 2 and 3 after 
nasal spray administration to assess for any adverse events. Participants will be asked 
to report on a symptom checklist whether they experienced a negative reaction to the 
oxytocin and placebo nasal sprays. If participants endorse ‘yes’ on any item, a study 
clinician or nurse will follow up and ask them whether the symptom resolves by the end 
of the study visit.  
 


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Assessment of Blind Form: This questionnaire will be given at Visits 2 and 3 after nasal 
spray administration to assess for participants’ expectancies regarding the drug they 
received. Participants will be asked which nasal spray they believe they received 
(oxytocin or placebo), to rate their degree of certainty, and to describe their reasons 
why. 
 
Tasks:  
The following tasks will be administered at each study visit approximately 45 minutes 
after drug administration. The order of tasks will be the same within each participant in 
the study between Visit 2 and Visit 3 in order to minimize variance for the within-subject 
analysis and isolate the effect of the drug. However, the order of tasks will be 
counterbalanced between participants in the study, to account for possible carry-over 
effects.    
 
Emotion Recognition Task (ERT; Buhlmann, Etcoff, & Wilhelm, 2006): In this task, 
subjects will view 24 facial photographs (Ekman & Friesen, 1975), each expressing a 
different emotion (anger, disgust, neutral, surprise). The photographs will be drawn from 
the new facial affect collection (http://www.paulekman.com/). In this computerized, self-
administered task, each emotion will be presented 6 times, and each facial photograph 
will be followed by either a self-referent scenario (“Imagine this bank teller is looking in 
your direction”) or other-referent scenario (“Imagine this bank teller is looking in your 
friend’s direction”). Participants will identify the emotion for each scenario. Total scores 
for correctly identifying the emotion range from 0-24 for each questionnaire (self- vs. 
other-referent), whereas for each emotion subcategory, scores range from 0-6. 
Moreover, for each scenario, participants will rate whether the other person’s emotional 
expression was caused by the participant (self-attributional, score=0) or by the situation 
or some other factor (other-attributional, score=1). Total scores for attribution range 
from 0-24 for each questionnaire (self- vs. other-referent), with higher scores reflecting 
other-referent attribution.  
 
Interpretation Questionnaire (Buhlmann et al., 2002; 2006): This questionnaire consists 
of 33 ambiguous scenarios (11 BDD-related, 11 social, and 11 general scenarios), with 
each scenario involving a short description followed by three possible thoughts. 
Participants will be asked to rate the likelihood of each thought coming to mind on a 
scale from 0 (very unlikely) to 4 (very likely).  
 
Posner Task (Posner, 1980; Posner, Snyder, & Davidson, 1980): The Posner Task is a 
spatial cueing paradigm that measures attentional engagement toward and 
disengagement from certain visual cues. The stimuli for this task will be modified to 
include a set of disgust, happy, and neutral faces. The task will consist of 360 trials. 
During each trial, the participant will see a fixation cross. On each trial, a face (disgust, 
happy, or neutral) will appear within either the top or bottom half of the screen (the other 
half of the screen will remain blank) and then disappear. Then, a probe (the letter “E” or 
“F”) will appear in the top or bottom half of the screen. The participant will be instructed 
to identify the letter as quickly and accurately as possible by clicking the left or right 
mouse button (left for “E”, right for “F”). Upon responding, the next trial will commence. 


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For valid trials, the probe will appear in the position previously occupied by the face 
stimulus, whereas for invalid trials, the probe will appear in the empty half of the screen. 
Response latencies for valid and invalid trials will reflect the participant’s attentional 
engagement towards threat and disengagement from threat, respectively, and will be 
used to calculate attentional bias scores for threat cues.  
 
Trust Game: The participant will be told that he will be playing the Trust Game with 
another player in a different room, and that both players will be allocated a sum of 10 
game dollars to start the game. The participant will be told that he will take the role of 
Player 1. The instructions for the game will be as follows: Player 1 will have the 
opportunity to transfer all, some, or none of his 10 game dollars to Player 2, the sum 
given by Player 1 will be tripled, and Player 2 will have to choose to return some, all, or 
none of his game dollars to Player 1. The role of Player 2 will be played by a member of 
the study staff. The participant will play the Trust Game twice. The amount of money 
given by the participant is recorded and represents a measure of “trust”. Three game 
dollars will equal $1. The subject will be paid the value of this amount in dollars.  
 
Social Perception Tasks: Testmybrain.org: Data for the following tests will be collected 
through testmybrain.org (approved under Harvard FAS IRB protocol F15795). Before 
starting the tests, the experimenter will be asked to enter a randomly generated ID code 
for the participant. The participant will then complete the measures described below. No 
uniquely identifying information will be collected and stored on testmybrain.org for the 
participant. Instead, ID codes will be kept along with identifying participant information 
on password-protected computers accessible only by approved research staff. At the 
end of the study, participant codes that are retained in TestMyBrain databases will be 
destroyed along with any other study-specific information or information linking a 
particular testing session with the external research study. Data stripped of both 
participant and study-specific information will then be included in the large data 
repository that TestMyBrain uses to understand and interpret test scores of other 
participants and may also be submitted to a publicly available data repository for 
the benefit of the broader academic and research community. Publicly available 
datasets will not include any information that can be used to identify the participant, the 
study, the researcher, or the institution where the data was collected. Testmybrain.org 
will not be used for any purpose in our study other than collection and storage of 
data, and there is no other involvement of this website.  
 
Navon Task: The Navon Task is a measure of attention and inhibition, which will be 
used to examine how oxytocin affects global and local processing of non-social stimuli. 
Participants will be asked to view big letters that are made up of smaller letters (e.g., an 
H that is made up of little S’s). They will be asked to judge the letter being depicted by 
the overall letter shape or the smaller letter shape, as quickly as possible.  
 
Gradual Onset Continuous Performance Test: This task is a measure of cognitive 
control and responsive inhibition. Participants will be asked to attend to images that 
gradually transition from one image to the next. They will be asked to press a button 
when they see a new street image (most images), and not to press a button when they 


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see a mountain image (occurs much less frequently). This task will allow us to examine 
how oxytocin affects inhibitory control.   
 
 
VI. Biostatistical Analysis  
 
Prior to analysis, all major variables will be screened for inconsistent or abnormal 
values, and continuous measures assessed for skewness and outliers. Variable 
distributions will be examined and transformations made when distributions are skewed 
or otherwise violate analytic assumptions. Linear regression models will be used, and in 
all models, the effect of diagnosis will be based not on the global (type III) effect, but on 
the specific pair-wise comparison of interest: BDD vs. Healthy Controls. Analyses will be 
conducted using SAS v9.4 (SAS Institute, Cary, NC), and all models will employ a two-
sided alpha=0.05 to determine significance.  
 
Aim 1 Analyses:  
The primary outcomes will be the Emotion Recognition Task total score and the Trust 
Game "back transfer" amount. Two sets of outcome scores will be obtained for each 
subject - one during placebo and the other during oxytocin administration. To test 
Hypothesis 1a, we will regress placebo outcome scores against diagnosis. To test 
Hypothesis 1b, we will regress oxytocin outcome scores against diagnosis, and will 
control for the placebo outcome score. If we find significant differences in oxytocin 
Emotion Recognition Task total score by diagnosis, we will further examine the 3 
Emotion Recognition Task valence categories (positive, negative, neutral) as 
exploratory outcomes.  
 
Aim 2 Analyses:  
Secondary outcomes include the Posner Task difference score for disengagement 
response latencies between disgust vs. neutral faces, and the Interpretation 
Questionnaire total score. Mirroring the analyses for the primary aim, we will test 
Hypothesis 2a by regressing the placebo secondary outcome scores against diagnosis, 
and will test Hypothesis 2b by regressing the oxytocin secondary outcome scores 
against diagnosis, controlling for the placebo secondary outcome scores.  
 
Exploratory Analyses:  
Exploratory moderators include the BDD-YBOCS total score, YBOCS total score, LSAS 
total score, BFNE total score, ECR Anxiety subscale mean, ECR Avoidance subscale 
mean, and IPSM total score. To test the moderation effects, we will enter each 
moderator (one at a time) into each of the aforementioned linear regression models 
along with a covariate representing the interaction between the moderator and 
diagnosis (the term of interest). We will examine moderation of each pair-wise 
comparison separately.  
 
For all analyses, we will include concomitant medication use as a covariate, in order to 
control for the effect of concomitant medications on study results. We will also compare 
participants who are taking psychotropic medications from participants who are not, on 


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demographic and clinical variables, to ensure there are no systematic differences 
between these groups.  
 
Power and Sample Size: 
Given the novelty of our approach, no background data on the effects of oxytocin in 
BDD exist to inform the power calculation. Therefore, the proposed sample size of 40  
participants (20 per group) was chosen based on feasibility. With 20 participants per 
group and a two-sided alpha=0.05, for our primary pair-wise comparison (BDD vs. 
healthy controls) of the mean within-subject difference (oxytocin vs. placebo) in Emotion 
Recognition Task total score and Trust Game "back transfer" amount, we will have 81% 
power to detect a moderate effect size of f=0.23.  
 
VII. 
Risks and Discomforts  
 
Oxytocin-Related Risks and Side Effects: 
Between 1990 and 2010, there have been 38 controlled studies involving intranasal 
delivery of oxytocin (MacDonald et al., 2011). A total of 1,529 participants have received 
intranasal oxytocin or placebo, and nine studies have included participants (N=182) who 
had a developmental, medical, or mental health disorder. The dosage of oxytocin has 
typically been a single dose ranging from 20 international units (IU) to 40 IU. Out of the 
1,529 participants who have received intranasal oxytocin or placebo, 279 (18%) 
reported mild side-effects (MacDonald et al., 2011). The most common side-effect was 
a feeling of calmness, but this did not differ between those who received oxytocin or 
placebo. A recent review of studies using intranasal oxytocin supported the short-term 
use of oxytocin, demonstrating that oxytocin produced minimal side-effects, no 
detectable differences in side-effects between oxytocin or placebo recipients, no 
subjective changes in recipients, and is equally safe to use with vulnerable populations 
as with healthy adults (MacDonald et al., 2011). The proposed study intends to use a 
single 24 IU dose of intranasal oxytocin, which has been the most commonly used dose 
in previous trials (25 out of 38 studies).  
 
Potential risks associated with intranasal oxytocin include headaches, nausea, and 
allergic dermatitis (≥ 1/10,000, <1/1,000), and uterine contractions (< 1/10,000), per 
Novartis Basic Prescribing Information for Syntocinon®. Additional sources of 
discomfort may include lightheadedness, nasal irritation, or dry mouth/throat, although 
these appear to be mild (MacDonald et al., 2011). Participants with any serious adverse 
events will be immediately withdrawn from the study. The half-life of oxytocin is 
approximately three minutes when administered intravenously, therefore, it will not 
remain in the system for very long.  
 
Regarding the use of TestMyBrain.org, the following steps will minimize risk to subjects:  
(1) 
 Identifying Information:  TestMyBrain does not collect any uniquely identifying 
information about the participant, including birth date or IP addresses. A 
participant will only be linked to his/her data through the participant codes 
generated by the external researcher and the participant will not be 
identifiable based solely on information in TestMyBrain databases.  


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(2) 
Data Transfer between Client (Browser) and Server: TestMyBrain uses SSL 
(secure sockets layers) encryption to protect any information that is being 
transferred between a browser and server and all study-specific links will use 
secure communications protocols incorporating SSL (https). 
(3) 
 Database and Web Hosting: All data is stored through TestMyBrain.org in 
custom MySQL databases provided by the host and managed by 
TestMyBrain investigators. TestMyBrain is currently hosted through 
Rackspace, which offers added customer support and security 
benefits http://www.rackspace.com/. Their comprehensive privacy policy 
insures that they will not have access to any of the data that goes through 
TestMyBrain without permission or unless required by law: 
http://www.rackspace.com/information/legal/privacystatement. Rackspace 
offers an automatic backup system with nightly updates. 
(4) 
 Monitoring and Quality Assurance: TestMyBrain.org has been in operation 
since 2008, with numerous collaborations resulting in a dozen peer-reviewed 
papers and over 900,000 participants.  No complaints or incidents have been 
reported that would indicate a privacy, security, or personal risk to 
participants. 
(5) 
Protection from Malicious Attack:  The TestMyBrain system is implemented 
as a virtual Linux host, so the primary danger from malware is malicious SQL 
injection attacks. To guard against this, all entered data are sanitized before 
being included in any SQL updates. 
(6) 
Transmission of Data: Participant test data and codes will be transmitted 
directly from the TestMyBrain.org database to the external researcher using 
either secure http file transfer or secure SQL connection protocol.   
(7) 
Storage of Data: Once the study is complete and all data have been 
downloaded from TestMyBrain.org databases, participant codes that are 
retained in TestMyBrain databases will be destroyed along with any other 
study-specific information or information linking a particular testing session 
with the external research study.  
 
Other Risks: 
Information obtained from participants will be treated confidentially. There may be some 
discomfort associated with nasal spray administration. Nurses at the MGH Clinical 
Research Center are highly skilled in educating patients about nasal spray use and 
sensitive to expressions of discomfort. There may also be mild discomfort associated 
with responding to questions during the diagnostic assessment and answering multiple 
questionnaires about negative symptoms. Participants will be told that they can refuse 
to answer any questions that they do not want to answer, and that they can withdraw 
participation at any point without penalty. Participants with an emergent need for 
immediate psychiatric care will be referred to the Acute Psychiatry Service at MGH.  
 
 
VIII. Potential Benefits 
 
Potential Benefits to Participating Individuals: 


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There are no immediate benefits to the individual for participating in this study. 
Participants with BDD may receive feedback regarding their symptoms. In the case that 
participants need referrals for psychiatric treatment, we will facilitate those referrals to 
MGH or other appropriate facilities. Participants will be provided compensation for their 
time, in a pro-rated hourly amount of $15/hour, with a maximum of $100, plus any 
additional earnings from the Trust Game (up to $20), by the end of the study visit for 
completing all study procedures. In addition, participants will be compensated for 
parking and public transportation costs such that participants are not responsible for any 
costs associated with participating in the study.  
 
Potential Benefits to Society: 
Data gathered from this study may benefit other individuals with BDD in the future. To 
date, no studies have examined the oxytocin system in BDD. Given the mounting 
evidence for oxytocin’s role in social and cognitive deficits in autism spectrum disorders, 
schizophrenia, and other disorders, it is clear that the effects of oxytocin have 
transdiagnostic implications. Our findings may show that a single administration of 
intranasal oxytocin may alter social cognitive processes thought to maintain BDD. More 
importantly, if study aims are achieved, we may learn how to improve treatments for 
BDD, and identify individuals who would be responsive to oxytocin. Thus, the current 
study represents a translational approach to investigating potential pathophysiological 
mechanisms underlying BDD, and will advance knowledge regarding the potential of a 
promising novel therapeutic agent for BDD. 
 
 
IX. Monitoring and Quality Assurance 
 
Data and Safety Monitoring Plan: 
The study will be monitored for quality assurance and adherence to the protocol 
according to the following monitoring plan:  
 
A Data Safety and Monitoring Board (DSMB) will be formed consisting of three 
members who are not associated with the study. The purpose of the DSMB is to: (1) 
review all adverse events, (2) assess the timeliness, completeness, and quality of the 
data collected, (3) assess the adherence to protocol requirements, especially measures 
taken to protect participant safety, and (4) assess the benefit/risk ratio of study 
procedures. The DSMB will meet once after 40 subjects have been enrolled, and will be 
provided with the following data prior to this meeting: (1) all adverse events reported, 
and (2) subject recruitment, enrollment, and dropout numbers. During the meeting, the 
board will review these data and have 30 days to generate a report, which reflects their 
opinion of whether the study should be permitted to continue and whether any changes 
need to be made. This report will then be submitted to the IRB. If any serious adverse 
events occur during the study, DSMB members will be apprised of them within 24 hours 
of the event and will be provided unblinded information with regard to the participants’ 
treatment assignment and corresponding study visit. DSMB members will then provide 
suggestions for the progress of the study, as well as determine whether modifications to 
the protocol are needed.  


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Adverse Event Reporting Guidelines: 
 
Definitions:  
1. Adverse event means any untoward or unfavorable medical occurrence in a 
human subject, including any abnormal sign (for example, abnormal physical 
exam or laboratory finding), symptom, or disease, temporally associated with the 
subject’s participation in the research, whether or not considered related to the 
subject’s participation in the research (modified from the definition of adverse 
events in the 1996 International Conference on Harmonization E-6 Guidelines for 
Good Clinical Practice).  
 
2. Serious adverse event means any event temporally associated with the 
subject’s participation in research that meets any of the following criteria:  
  results in death;  
  is life threatening (places the subject at immediate risk of death from the event 
as it  
occurred);  
  requires inpatient hospitalization or prolongation of existing hospitalization;  
  results in a persistent or significant disability/incapacity;  
  results in a congenital anomaly/birth defect; or  
  any other adverse event that, based upon appropriate medical judgment, may 
jeopardize the subject’s health and may require medical or surgical intervention 
to prevent one of the outcomes listed above (examples of such events include 
allergic bronchospasm requiring intensive treatment in the emergency room or at 
home, blood dyscrasias or convulsions that do not result in inpatient 
hospitalization, or the development of drug dependency or drug abuse).  
 
3. Unanticipated problem involving risks to subjects or others means any 
incident, experience, information, outcome, or other problem that is unexpected 
and related to the research, and that indicates that the research places subjects 
or others at an increased risk of physical, psychological, economic, legal, or 
social harm than was previously known or recognized.  
 
4. Unexpected means that the incident, experience, or outcome is unexpected (in 
terms of nature, severity or frequency) given the (a) research procedures that are 
described in the protocol- related documents, such as the IRB-approved 
research protocol and informed consent document and (b) the characteristics of 
the study population being studied.  
 
5. Unexpected adverse event means any adverse event occurring in one or more 
subjects participating in a research protocol, the nature, severity, or frequency of 
which is not consistent with either: (1) the known or foreseeable risk of adverse 
events associated with the procedures involved in the research that are 
described in (a) the protocol-related documents, such as the IRB-approved 
research protocol, any applicable investigator brochure, and the current IRB- 


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approved informed consent document, and (b) other relevant sources of 
information, such as product labeling and package inserts; or (2) the expected 
natural progression of any underlying disease, disorder, or condition of the 
subject(s) experiencing the adverse event and the subject’s predisposing risk 
factor profile for the adverse event.  
 
Reporting Requirements: 
According to the PHRC adverse events reporting policy, PIs are required to report 
unanticipated problems that occur during the conduct of the study, after study 
completion, or after subject withdrawal or completion, to be submitted within 5 
working days/7 calendar days of the date the PI first becomes aware of the problem. 
Specifically, reports of unanticipated problems involving risks to subjects or others 
are to be submitted through Insight/eIRB within 5 working days/7 calendar days of 
the date the PI first becomes aware of the problem.  
 
Internal adverse events that are unexpected and related/possibly related to the 
research and external adverse events that are serious, unexpected and 
related/possibly related must be reported to the IRB within 5 working days/7 
calendar days of the date the PI first becomes aware of them. Any less serious, 
expected (e.g., documented in the protocol), or unlikely related adverse events will 
be reported to the IRB as part of its yearly continuing review process. 
 
Adverse events to be expected in the current study, based on Syntocinon® Basic 
Prescribing Information, previously published data, and from participants in the study 
to date, include: 
 Headaches 
 Nausea 
 Allergic dermatitis 
 Uterine contractions 
 Lightheadedness 
 Nasal irritation 
 Dry mouth/throat 
 Feeling of calmness or euphoria 
 Anxiety or depression 
 Feeling drowsy or sleepy 
 Difficulty sitting still 
 Trouble concentrating 
 Tremors or shakiness 
 
 
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