COMMISSION STAFF WORKING DOCUMENT 2026 Rule of Law Report Country Chapter on the rule of law situation in Belgium Accompanying the document Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions 2026 Rule of Law Report The rule of law situation in the European Union
Date: 2026-07-17
Institutions: European Commission, Secretariat-General
Subjects: Belgium, administrative transparency, corruption, democracy, freedom of the press, human rights, independence of the judiciary, pluralism in the media, rule of law, whistleblowing

EN 

  EN 

   EUROPEAN COMMISSION  Brussels, 17.7.2026  SWD(2026) 901 final  COMMISSION STAFF WORKING DOCUMENT 2026 Rule of Law Report          Country Chapter on the rule of law situation in Belgium Accompanying the document Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions 2026 Rule of Law Report           The rule of law situation in the European Union {COM(2026) 900 final} - {SWD(2026) 902 final} - {SWD(2026) 903 final} - {SWD(2026) 904 final} - {SWD(2026) 905 final} - {SWD(2026) 906 final} - {SWD(2026) 907 final} - {SWD(2026) 908 final} - {SWD(2026) 909 final} - {SWD(2026) 910 final} - {SWD(2026) 911 final} - {SWD(2026) 912 final} - {SWD(2026) 913 final} - {SWD(2026) 914 final} - {SWD(2026) 915 final} - {SWD(2026) 916 final} - {SWD(2026) 917 final} - {SWD(2026) 918 final} - {SWD(2026) 919 final} - {SWD(2026) 920 final} - {SWD(2026) 921 final} - {SWD(2026) 922 final} - {SWD(2026) 923 final} - {SWD(2026) 924 final} - {SWD(2026) 925 final} - {SWD(2026) 926 final} - {SWD(2026) 927 final} - {SWD(2026) 928 final} - {SWD(2026) 929 final} - {SWD(2026) 930 final} - {SWD(2026) 931 final}  
 
 
ABSTRACT 

The  Government  maintains  the  intention  to  transfer  budgetary  management  powers  for  the 
administration of the justice system from the executive to the judiciary. Lawyers continue to 
call for additional safeguards to protect their independence and legal professional privilege. 
Some further steps have been taken to address structural resource deficiencies in the justice 
system,  including  a  plan  for  additional  financial  resources.  The  Government  invested  in 
advancing  the  digitalisation  of  the  justice  system,  despite  challenges.  Limited  efforts  have 
been  made  to  improve  the  efficiency  of  justice,  particularly  to  reduce  the  length  of 
proceedings based on comprehensive statistical data.  

A  legislative  proposal  to  create  a  new  section  with  earmarked  resources  within  the  federal 
prosecution  service  for  investigating  serious  financial  and  economic  crimes  was  tabled  in 
Parliament.  Investigations  continue  in  good  cooperation  between  police  and  prosecution 
service. Police integrity measures are under consideration to address challenges in preventing 
corruption within the police. There is still a lack of monitoring and enforcement of existing 
integrity  policies.  Shortcomings  in  the  system  of  asset  and  interest  declarations  as  regards 
verification and transparency remain unaddressed. No steps have been taken  on completing 
the reform of lobbying legislation as there is no political consensus on further measures. The 
Parliament  is  considering  a  limited  update  to  their  deontological  code  as  regards  gifts  and 
benefits,  while no steps  have been made to  address  the gaps in  rules on  “revolving doors”. 
Whistleblower  protection  rules  are  being  evaluated.  Addressing  high  risks  of  corruption 
related  to  public  procurement,  risks  at  the  local  level  and  risks  linked  to  organised  crime 
remains a priority. 

Despite  challenges,  media  regulatory  authorities  have  made  progress  in  adapting  their 
strategies, while maintaining a strong legal foundation for their independence. Public service 
media  in  Belgium  continue  to  experience  various  challenges  across  the  three  communities 
including governance structures and budgetary pressures. No further steps have been made to 
improve  access  to  public  documents.  Further  steps  are  being  taken  to  strengthen  legal 
protections for journalists, in particular against SLAPPs. 

Overall,  stakeholders  continue  to  have  opportunities  to  engage  with  policy-making.  The 
Government continues to work towards an A-status for a national human rights institution in 
Belgium. Limited further steps have been taken on ensuring compliance by public authorities 
with final rulings of national courts while supervision by the Council of Europe on structural 
issues identified by the European Court of Human Rights continues. Notwithstanding a high 
level of protection under the law, stakeholders continue to raise concerns regarding measures 
affecting civic space.  

1 

 
 
 
RECOMMENDATIONS 

Overall, based on the recommendations in  the 2025 Rule of Law Report, considering other 
developments  that  took  place  in  the  period  of  reference  and  in  addition  to  recalling  the 
relevant  commitments  made  under  the  Recovery  and  Resilience  Plan,  the  Commission 
concludes the following:  

•  Some  further  progress  has  been  made  on  the  recommendation  to  address  the  structural 
resource  deficiencies  in  the  justice  system,  including  a  plan  for  additional  financial 
resources. At the same time limited progress has been made to improve the efficiency of 
justice, in particular with a view to reducing the length of proceedings. As further work 
remains to be done it is recommended to Belgium to continue ongoing efforts to address 
the structural resource deficiencies in the justice system and to step up ongoing efforts to 
improve the efficiency and digitalisation of  justice, particularly with a view to  reducing 
the length of proceedings, based on comprehensive statistical data. 

•  No  progress  has  been  made  on  completing  the  legislative  reform  on  lobbying, 
establishing  a  framework  including  a  transparency  register  and  a  legislative  footprint, 
covering both members of Parliament and Government. Since no steps have been taken to 
take this forward, it is recommended to Belgium to resume work on a legislative reform 
to  increase  the  transparency  of  lobbying  for  both  members  of  Parliament  and 
Government. 

•  Limited  progress  has  been  made  on  strengthening  the  integrity  framework  by  adopting 
rules on gifts and benefits for members of Parliament as there remains a lack of concrete 
guidance  to  members  of  Parliament  on  what  type  of  gifts  would  be  acceptable  and  no 
progress was made on adopting rules on revolving doors for members of Government and 
their  private  offices.  As  these  gaps  in  integrity  rules  remain  unaddressed,  it  is 
recommended  to  Belgium  to  strengthen  the  integrity  framework,  including  by  adopting 
rules  on  gifts  and  benefits  for  members  of  Parliament  and  rules  on  revolving  doors  for 
members of Government and their private offices. 

•  No further progress has been made on strengthening the framework for access to official 
documents, in  particular by improving request  and appeal  processes,  with  relevant  draft 
legislation  still  pending  adoption  and  part  of  the  existing  legislative  framework  still 
awaiting  implementation.  It  is  thus  recommended  to  Belgium  to  continue  efforts  to 
strengthen  the  framework  for  access  to  official  documents,  in  particular  by  improving 
request and appeal processes, by completing the legislative reform on this matter, taking 
into account European standards on access to official documents.  

•  Limited progress has been made on ensuring compliance by public authorities with final 
rulings  of  national  courts  and  the  European  Court  of  Human  Rights.  While  Belgium 
continues 
judgments  remaining 
unimplemented and therefore, it is recommended to Belgium to step up efforts to ensure 
compliance by public authorities with final rulings of national courts and the European 
Court of Human Rights. 

the  execution  process, 

to  engage 

there  are 

in 

2 

 
 
 
I. 

JUSTICE SYSTEM1  

Independence  

The level of perceived judicial independence in Belgium continues to be high among the 
general public and is average among companies. Overall, 63 % of the general population 
and 54 % of companies perceive the level of independence of courts and judges to be ‘fairly 
or  very  good’  in  20262.  The  perceived  judicial  independence  among  the  general  public  has 
slightly decreased in comparison with 2025 (64 %) and has slightly increased in comparison 
with  2022  (60 %).  The  perceived  judicial  independence  among  companies  has  significantly 
decreased in comparison with 2025 (72 %), as well as in comparison with 2022 (63 %). 

The Government maintains its intention to transfer budgetary management powers for 
the  administration  of  the  justice  system  from  the  executive  to  the  judiciary3.  Before 
budgetary  management  powers  are  transferred  to  the  judiciary,  a  proposal  concerning  the 
evaluation  and disciplinary system  of magistrates is  to  be presented to  the Parliament4. For 
the evaluation  system,  several  bodies5 have provided advisory opinions to  the Government. 
Meanwhile, the government has also received the advice from the Interfederal Corps of the 
Inspectorate of Finance, a preparatory step before the proposal is sent to the Parliament6. For 
the disciplinary system, the advice of the aforementioned bodies is under review7. Once the 
transfer is completed, the Entity Cassation for the Court of Cassation, the College of Courts 
and Tribunals and the College of Public Prosecutors will be directly responsible for managing 
staff,  budgets  and  policy8.  Prior  to  the  transfer,  consideration  will  be  given  to  how  the 
framework  for  the  allocation  of  court  staff  and  magistrates  can  be  improved,  for  instance 
based  on  regular  workload  measurements9.  The  High  Council  of  Justice  and  Court  of 
Cassation have pointed to some risks of the Government’s approach of linking efficiency and 
changes in the disciplinary system for magistrates10. 

Lawyers  continue  to  call  for  additional  safeguards  to  protect  their  independence  and 
legal  professional  privilege.  As  reported  in  the  2024  and  2025  Rule  of  Law  Reports, 
directives  prohibiting  the  recording  of  communications  between  lawyers  and  their  clients 
have  strengthened  lawyer-client  confidentiality11.  Bar  Associations  continue  to  call  for 

1  An overview of the institutional framework for all four pillars can be found here. 
2 

Figures 48 and 50, 2026 EU Justice Scoreboard and Figures 51 and 53, 2024 EU Justice Scoreboard. The 
level  of  perceived  judicial  independence  is  categorised  as  follows:  very  low  (below  30 %  of  respondents 
perceive  judicial  independence  as  fairly  good  and  very good);  low  (between  30-39 %), average  (between 
40-59 %), high (between 60-75 %), very high (above 75 %). 

3  Belgian Government (2026), written input, pp. 6-7, Minister of Justice (2026), p. 35-37.  
4  Belgian Government (2026), additional written input. See also Minister of Justice (2026), p. 37.  
5  High Council of Justice, the Advisory Council of the Magistrature, the Court of Cassation, the College of 
Courts and Tribunals and the College of Public Prosecutors, Belgian Government (2026), additional written 
input.  

6  Belgian Government (2026), additional written input. 
7  Belgian Government (2026), additional written input.  
8 

2025 Rule of Law Report, Belgium, p. 3. The autonomous management of human resources would include 
decisions on the transfer of magistrates and court staff.  

9  Belgian Government (2026), written input, p. 6.  
10  2025 Rule of Law Report, Belgium, p. 3; ENCJ (2026), p. 56; Court of Cassation (2026), additional written 
input,  pp.  19-20.  The  Court  of  Cassation  points  to  the  risk  of  seeking  to  remedy  the  efficiency  of  the 
judiciary in general through the evaluation of individual judges. In addition, the Court of Cassation and the 
High  Council  of  Justice  consider,  respectively,  that  a  disciplinary  system  is  not  meant  for  correcting 
productivity or efficiency issues and it shows a distrust of judges. 

11   2024 Rule of Law Report, Belgium, p. 6, 2025 Rule of Law Report, Belgium, p. 3.  

3 

 
 
additional  safeguards12,  indicating  in  particular  that  investigating  judges  who  decide  on 
whether  lawyer-client  communication  is  confidential,  should  be  excluded  from  further 
dealing with the case file13. Bar Associations also questioned the use of videoconferencing in 
civil and criminal cases, for its possible negative impact on lawyer-client confidentiality14. At 
the  same  time,  these  stakeholders  raised  concerns  about  increased  threats  from  organised 
crime  on  the  judicial  branch,  as  illustrated  by  the  need  for  permanent  police  protection  for 
several investigating judges15.  

Quality  

Some further progress has been made on the recommendation to address the structural 
resource  deficiencies  in  the  justice  system,  including  a  plan  for  additional  financial 
resources16.  On  29  January  2026,  the  Parliament  adopted  a  law  to  make  positions  in  the 
judiciary more attractive by aligning employment conditions more closely with those of civil 
servants outside the judiciary.17 In addition, the Government announced additional financial 
resources  for  the  justice  system.  Concretely,  a  so-called  leverage  strategy  aims  at 
implementing legislative changes that should further improve the attractiveness of jobs in the 
judiciary18 by introducing, for example, a higher language allowance and better recognition 
of  seniority  built  up  outside  the  judiciary19.  In  addition,  the  plan  includes  organisational 
reforms by allowing more flexibility in deploying magistrates and other staff among courts. 
Pending  the  legislative  implementation  of  the  leverage  strategy,  the  Minister  of  Justice  has 
concluded mini-management agreements with the “Cassation entity” (Court of Cassation plus 
the  Office  of  the  general  prosecutor),  the  College  of  Courts  and  Tribunals  and  the  Public 
Prosecution Service20. The precise allocation of additional financial resources to the different 
priorities still needs to be clarified, with part of the overall additional resources earmarked for 
improving prison conditions21. The Council of State faces a high workload due to an increase 

12   2025 Rule of Law Report, Belgium, p. 3.  
13   Bar  associations  (2026),  written  input,  p.  11  (Flemish  Bar  Association,  OVB),  p.  12  (Francophone  and 

Germanophone Bar Association, AVOCATS).  

14   Law  of  25  April  2024  on  the  organisation  of  hearings  by  videoconference  in  the  context  of  legal 
proceedings.  Pending  implementing  measures,  the  law  is  not  yet  applicable;  Country  visit  Belgium,  Bar 
Associations, Court of Cassation. 

15   Bar  associations  (2026),  written  input,  p.  10  (Flemish  Bar  Association,  OVB),  p.  12  (Francophone  and 

Germanophone Bar Association, AVOCATS). 

16   2025  Rule  of  Law  Report,  Belgium,  p.  4.  The  2025  Rule  of  Law  Report  recommended  to  Belgium  to 
“Continue ongoing efforts to address the structural resource deficiencies in the justice system, taking into 
account  European  standards  on  resources  for  the  justice  system.”  Some  further  progress  was  previously 
assessed on this recommendation in 2023, 2024 and 2025.  

17   ENCJ  (2026),  p.  11;  Chamber  of  Representatives  (2026a);  Chamber  of  Representatives  (2026c).  As  to 
employment  conditions,  the  Court  of  cassation  and  the  High  Council  for  Justice  reiterated  their  concern 
related to the lowering of magistrates’ pensions, see 2025 Rule of Law Report, Belgium, footnote 19. The 
Constitutional  Court,  Court  of  Cassation  and  Council  of  State  expressed  their  concerns  of  the  general 
increase in pension contributions and the effect on the judiciary (Constitutional Court, Court of Cassation 
and Council of State (2026)).  

18   On the  attractiveness of jobs in the judiciary, see  2025 Rule of Law  Report,  Belgium, p. 4. The Court of 
Cassation  and  High  Council  of  Justice  reported  in  this  context  on  the  salaries  not  being  sufficiently 
attractive and to challenging working conditions in the judiciary. In Dutch the leverage strategy is referred 
to as “hefboomplan”, in French as “plan d’impulsion”.  

19   Chamber of Representatives (2025b), p. 58.  
20   The mini-management agreements allow for additional resources to meet specific objectives reflected in the 

Government’s 2025 coalition agreement. 

21   Bar  associations  and  others  (2026);  Bar  Associations  (2026),  written  input,  p.  15  (Francophone  and 

Germanophone Bar Association, AVOCATS); Minister of Justice (2025).  

4 

 
 
in  administrative  cases22.  Overall,  some  further  progress  has  been  made  on 
recommendation.  

the 

The Government invested in advancing the digitalisation of the justice system, despite 
challenges.  Belgium  has  made  investments  in  digitalisation  initiatives  within  the  judiciary, 
such  as  the  creation  of  the  digital  judicial  file,  judicial  case  management,  and  electronic 
communication initiatives23. At the same time, more investments are needed, for example for 
the  further  development  of  digital  solutions  for  civil  and  administrative  cases  and  for 
enhanced public online access to judgments24, while the implementation and effectiveness of 
existing  digital  tools  are  criticised  by  different  stakeholders25.  The  Court  of  Cassation  and 
criminal execution courts are the first pilot entities planned to use the new case management 
system  JustCase26; while, several  stakeholders  report  some obstacles, which have also  been 
acknowledged by the Ministry responsible27. Electronic proceedings have been introduced at 
the Constitutional Court since 1 March 202628. 

Efficiency 

Limited progress has been made to improve the efficiency of justice, in particular with a 
view  to  reducing  the  length  of  proceedings  based  on  comprehensive  statistical  data29. 
The  length  of  proceedings  and  the  judicial  backlog  are  long-standing  problems30.  In 
September 2025, the Court of Audit published a report on the impact of length of proceedings 
on access to justice, noting an improved reporting on length of proceedings31. The estimated 
time  needed  to  resolve  civil  and  commercial  cases  at  first  instance  courts  remained  at  246 
days  in  2024  (same  in  202332).  The  estimated  time  to  resolve  administrative  cases  at  first 
instance  courts  increased  further  (370  days  in  2024,  360  days  in  2023  and  288  days  in 
2022)33.  At  the  same  time,  the  Court  of  Audit  observed  that  some  obstacles  remain  with 
regard  to,  among  others,  the  data  on  processing  times  by  courts  of  first  instance  and  in 
criminal cases and the existence of geographical differences within the country34. Aside from 
the collection of statistics, the Minister of Justice has established a working group composed 

22   Council of State (2026), additional written input.  
23   Belgian  Government  (2026),  written  input,  p.  8.  In  the  process  of  advancing  digitalisation,  the  Belgian 
Government takes into account the Court of Audit’s recommendations from 2024 and involves all actors of 
the justice system.  

24   European Semester Country report 2026 for Belgium, Annex 7, p. 64. 
25   Chamber of Representatives (2026), p. 9; Chamber of Representatives (2026b), p. 6-9; Court of Cassation 
(2026), additional written input, pp. 22-23, Public Prosecution Service (2026), additional written input, p. 2, 
Bar  Associations  (2026),  written  input,  pp.  13-15  (Flemish  Bar  Association,  OVB),  14-16  (Francophone 
and Germanophone Bar Association, AVOCATS).  
26   Court of Cassation (2026), additional written input, p. 22.  
27   College of Courts and Tribunals (2025b); Avocats (2026); Chamber of Representatives (2026b), p. 7.  
28   Constitutional Court (2026), written input, p. 2., Royal Decree of 12 September 2024, Royal Decree of 28 

July 2025.  

29   2025  Rule  of  Law  Report,  Belgium,  p.  5.  The  2025  Rule  of  Law  Report  recommended  to  Belgium  to 
“Continue  ongoing  efforts  to  improve  the  efficiency  of  justice,  particularly  to  reduce  the  length  of 
proceedings  based  on  comprehensive  statistical  data.”  Some  further  progress  was  previously  assessed  on 
this recommendation in 2025. 

30   Judgment  of  the  ECHR,  Bell,  CE:ECHR:2008:1104JUD004482605;  Judgment  of  the  ECHR,  Van  Den 
Kerkhof, CE:ECHR:2023:0905JUD001363019; Decision of the ECHR, Swissair International Finance III, 
CE:ECHR:2025:1218DEC000129422.  

31   Court of Audit (2025a).  
32   No data are available for years before 2023. 
33   Figures 5 and 7, 2026 EU Justice Scoreboard. 
34   Court of Audit (2025a), p. 19, 54-55.  

5 

 
 
of six academic experts in judicial procedure, tasked with examining and proposing practical 
legislative  measures  that  can  be  implemented  swiftly  to  expedite  judicial  proceedings.  In 
addition, the College of Courts and Tribunals has taken the initiative to manage and reduce 
the  backlog  in  staged  phases35.  As  of  1  September  2025,  courts  and  tribunals  dealing  with 
civil,  social  and  commercial  matters  are  obliged  to  have  amicable  settlement  chambers  in 
place36. Such chambers are expected to help reduce the backlog37. The bar associations refer 
to the risk that amicable settlements in the form of administrative fines38 (so-called GAS or 
SAC fines), which allow for the imposition of a sanction without the involvement of a judge, 
offer  fewer  procedural  guarantees,  limit  the  right  to  appeal  and  therefore  could  prevent  an 
effective  access  to  justice39.  The  Federal  Institute  for  Human  Rights  (FIRM-IFDH)  raised 
similar  concerns  with  regard  to  the  broader  use  of  administrative  fines40.  Several  projects 
funded under the Recovery and Resilience Facility are expected to  contribute to  the further 
collection of statistics41. Overall, limited progress has been made on the recommendation. 

II. 

ANTI-CORRUPTION FRAMEWORK  

The  perception  among  experts,  citizens  and  business  executives  is  that  the  level  of 
corruption in the public sector remains relatively low. In the 2025 Corruption Perceptions 
Index  by  Transparency  International,  Belgium  scores  69/100  and  ranks  9th  in  the  European 
Union  and  21st  globally42.  The  perception  of  the  level  of  corruption  has  deteriorated43  over 
the  past  five  years.  The  2026  Special  Eurobarometer  on  Corruption  shows  that  69 %  of 
respondents consider corruption widespread in their country (EU average 71 %) and 22 % of 
respondents feel personally affected by corruption in their daily lives (EU average 30 %). As 
regards  businesses,  70 %  of  companies  consider  that  corruption  is  widespread  (EU  average 
65 %)  and  46 %  consider  that  corruption  is  a  problem  when  doing  business  (EU  average 
37 %). Furthermore, 43 % of respondents find that there are enough successful prosecutions 
to deter people from corrupt practices (EU average 38 %), while 31 % of companies believe 
that people and businesses caught for bribing a senior official are appropriately punished (EU 
average 31 %)44.  

35   Stage  1  and  2:  inventory  of  the  backlog  and  identification  of  the  most  urgent  problems  (first  months  of 
2026).  Stage  3:  Identification  and  implementation  of  concrete  actions  (will  start  in 2026  at  a  later  stage). 
See Belgian Government (2026), additional written input. 

36   2025 Rule of Law  Report,  Belgium, p. 5-6. Until 1 September 2025, amicable settlement chambers were 

not mandatory.  

37   Law of 19 December 2023 containing various provisions in civil and judicial matters. 
38  Despite the common label (“amicable settlements”), these are distinct mechanisms: the amicable settlement 
chambers  operate  within  the  judicial  system  (before  a  judge  acting  as  conciliator  or  by  referral  to  an 
independent mediator) and concern civil, social and commercial disputes, whereas the amicable settlement 
of administrative fines (GAS/SAC) is administrative in nature: a restorative form of institutional mediation, 
distinct from judicial dispute resolution in both framework and purpose.  

39   Bar  Associations  (2026),  written  input,  p.  17  (Flemish  Bar  Association,  OVB),  18  (Francophone  and 
Germanophone  Bar  Association,  AVOCATS),  FIRM-IFDH  (2025),  p.  17.  The  FIRM-IFDH  refers  to  the 
Deweer v Belgium case (Judgment of the ECHR,  Deweer v België, CE:ECHR:1980:0227JUD000690375, 
para. 49) in which the ECHR concluded that opting for a settlement should be done without constraint.  

40   FIRM-IFDH (2026). 
41   See Investment I-2.05 of the RRP of Belgium. 
42   The level of perceived corruption is categorized as follows: low (above 79); relatively low (between 79-60), 

relatively high (between 59-50), high (below 50). 

43   In 2021 the score was 73, while, in 2025, the score is 69. The score significantly increases/decreases when 
it  changes  more  than  five  points;  improves/deteriorates  (changes  between  4-5  points);  is  relatively  stable 
(changes from 1-3 points) in the last five years. 

44   Data from Special Eurobarometer 573 (2026) and Flash Eurobarometer 582 (2026). 

6 

 
 
A  legislative  proposal  to  create  a  new  financial  prosecution  section  with  earmarked 
resources  within the federal  prosecution service for investigating serious financial and 
economic  crimes  was  tabled  in  Parliament.  In  May  2026,  the  Government  tabled  in  the 
House  of  Representatives  a  proposal  to  establish  a  new  section  in  the  federal  prosecution 
services  with  exclusive  competence  to  investigate  persons  responsible  for  serious  financial 
and  economic  crime,  organised  social  fraud,  as  well  as  bribery45.  The  Public  Prosecution 
Service  reports  that  EUR  3.9  million  has  been  allocated  to  create  the  section,  as  well  as  to 
transfer and train the necessary staff46. As part of the set-up of the new financial prosecution 
service, the specialised Central Office for the Repression of Corruption of the Federal Police 
(CDBC-OCRC)  will  be  strengthened  with  15  additional  investigators47.  While  the  scope  of 
the corruption cases falling under the competence of the new section remains to be clarified, 
stakeholders have viewed the proposal positively48.  

Investigations  continue  in  good  cooperation  between  police  and  prosecution  service. 
Good  cooperation  between  the  Central  Office  for  the  Repression  of  Corruption  (CDBC-
OCRC) of the Federal Police and the Public Prosecution Service continues, as well as work 
on  several  complex  and  high-level  corruption  cases49.  As  noted  in  previous  Rule  of  Law 
reports50, the CDBC-OCRC is facing challenges in dealing with the high number of incoming 
cases  and  in  setting  priorities51.  Allegations  of  information  leaks  in  sensitive  corruption 
investigations  led to  the indictment  of a former head of the service52. The CDBC-OCRC is 
not structurally independent, but forms part of the overall Federal Police structure, which is 
seen  by  investigators  as  a  vulnerability53.  In  2025,  the  Public  Prosecution  Service  reported 
445  incoming  corruption  cases54,  of  which  19  were  dismissed,  while  19  cases  led  to  an 
indictment (as of January 2026)55. The EPPO has signalled nine corruption cases among its 
open  cases  (which  consists  of  9.1 %  of  its  total  open  cases)  in  Belgium  in  202556.  The 
number  of  foreign  bribery  cases  under  investigation  and  prosecution  continues  to  be 
limited57. There are concerns regarding the low level of awareness within companies on the 

45  Public  Prosecution  Service  (2026),  additional  written  input.  Currently,  such  matters  are dealt  with  by  the 
prosecution  services  at  district  level.  Legislative  proposal  56K1536001  concerning  the  founding  of  the 
financial  prosecution  service  as  a  section  financial  crime  within  the  federal  public  prosecution  service. 
According  to  the  proposal,  the  section  would  be  led  by  a  deputy  federal  prosecutor  and  consist  of  ten 
magistrates. 

46  Public Prosecution Service (2026), additional written input. 
47   Belgian Government (2026), written input, pp. 9-10 and Country visit Belgium, CDBC-OCRC. 
48 

It is not clear if the section would cover all corruption offences beyond bribery (abuse of office, trading in 
influence, misappropriation) and if it would be responsible for all corruption cases or only certain or high-
level  cases.  Public  Prosecution  Service  (2026),  additional  written  input  and  Country  visit  Belgium, 
Transparency International Belgium. 

49  2025 Rule of Law Report, Belgium, pp. 6-7 and Country visit Belgium, CDBC-OCRC. 
50  2024 Rule of Law Report, Belgium, p. 13 and 2025 Rule of Law Report, Belgium, pp. 6-7. 
51  Country visit Belgium, CDBC-OCRC and Transparency International Belgium. 
52  Country  visit  Belgium,  CDBC-OCRC  and  Transparency  International  Belgium  and  2025  Rule  of  Law 
Report,  Belgium,  p.  7.  The  case  was  also  widely  reported  in  the  media.  According  to  civil  society,  this 
situation  could  impact  the  trust  of  the  public  in  the  CDBC-OCRC  (Country  visit  Belgium,  Transparency 
International Belgium). 

53  Country visit Belgium, CDBC-OCRC. 
54   Out of which 10 concerned corruption in the private sector, 2 concerned foreign bribery, 110 cases related 

to bribery in the public sector and 120 related to abuse of function in the public sector.  

55   Others  remain  at  various  stages  of  the  criminal  procedure.  Compared  to  367  incoming  cases  in  2024  of 
which 90 were dismissed, while 7 cases led to an indictment. Public Prosecution Service (2026), additional 
written input. 

56   EPPO (2026a), p. 13. 
57   The Public Prosecution Service reported two cases of foreign bribery registered in 2025. Compared to one 

in 2022; one in 2023 and two in 2024. Public Prosecution Service (2026), additional written input. 

7 

 
 
risks of foreign bribery, the lack of investigations and low level of sanctions targeting legal 
persons58. 

Measures  on  police  integrity  are  under  consideration  to  address  challenges  in 
preventing  corruption  within  the  police.  The  176  local  police  zones  maintain  disparate 
integrity policies and smaller police zones do not have an effective integrity policy in place59. 
The government announced the merger of a number of police zones, with voluntary mergers 
to  be  encouraged  elsewhere,  which  may  create  opportunities  to  improve  integrity  policy 
according to the authorities60. The project to draft a Code of Conduct for the entire integrated 
police61 did  not  progress  further62, although a new integrity policy for the Federal  Police is 
being  considered63.  Overall,  the  policy  for  police  integrity  is  seen  as  insufficient  by 
stakeholders64.  The  police  indicated  they  would  conduct  more  in-depth  research  into  the 
possible corruption of police officers and subversive criminality65. Older plans to  introduce 
screening  and  integrity  checks  during  the  entire  career  of  a  police  officer  have  received 
renewed  attention  in  Parliament,  although  the  timing  and  content  of  such  plans  remain 
unclear.66  

There  is  still  a  lack  of  monitoring  and  enforcement  of  existing  integrity  policies 
concerning Ministers, their private offices and members of Parliament. Gaps remain in 
existing  integrity  policies67,  which  do  not  follow  a  strategic  approach  and  do  not  include 
monitoring  or  enforcement  mechanisms68.  Following  the  Minister  of  Budget’s  intention  to 
increase checks on the application of the Code of Conduct for federal public office holders, it 
has  not  been  confirmed  that  this  was  carried  out  in  practice69.  The  Federal  Deontological 
Commission provided a training to members of Parliament elected in 2024 about its role on 

58   Public Prosecution Service (2026), additional written input. As mentioned in the 2025 Rule of Law Report, 
Belgium, p 7, the OECD recommends a clear strategy on combating foreign bribery and sufficient resources 
for  the  investigative  and  prosecutorial  bodies.  There  are  no  measures  that  promote  self-investigation  and 
self-reporting of companies. 

59   2023 Rule of Law Report, Belgium, pp. 10-12.  
60  Belgian  Government (2026), written  input,  p.  10.  For  example,  the  different  police  zones  in  the  Brussels 

region are set to be merged into one zone.  

61   The  “integrated  police”  is  the  term  used  to  describe  the  Federal  Police  and  all  local  police  zones  taken 

together. 

62   Federal Police (2026), See also GRECO (2022), recommendation xvi, paras 75-81 and 2022 Rule of Law 

Report, Belgium, p. 10. 
63   Federal Police (2026). 
64   GRECO (2026a) and Country visit Belgium, Committee P. See also 2024 Rule of Law  Report,  Belgium, 

pp. 14-15. 

65  Federal Police (2026). Country visit Belgium, Transparency International Belgium. 
66   Belgian Government (2026), written input, p. 10 and Country visit Belgium, Committee P. See Chamber of 

Representatives (2024). 

67   The updated Code of Conduct for federal public office holders remains in place and since 2023 covers all 
staff  members  of  the  Federal  Government  (including  the  ministerial  private  offices).  A  specific  Code  of 
Conduct remains in force for Ministers, as these are not covered by the Code of Conduct for federal public 
office holders. 2024 Rule of Law Report, Belgium, pp. 15-16. 

68   As  recommended  multiple  times  by  GRECO  –  a  number  of  GRECO  recommendations  remain 
unimplemented.  In  particular  see  GRECO  (2025a)  as  regards  recommendation  iii;  and  the  original 
evaluation  reports  GRECO  (2022a),  recommendation  iii  and  paras.  115-120  and  GRECO  (2022b),  paras. 
60-62. See also 2025 Rule of Law Report, Belgium, p. 8.  

69  Neither the Government nor any stakeholders could provide information confirming such checks had taken 
place. Belgian government (2026), additional written input. As noted in the 2025 Rule of Law report, such 
additional checks would be difficult in the absence of a coordination or sanctioning mechanism. 

8 

 
 
conflicts of interest and in providing ethics advice, while attendance remained limited70. The 
Federal  Deontological  Commission  continues  to  voice  concerns  that  powers  concerning 
integrity policy are dispersed across various bodies.71 As regards the federal civil service, the 
Integrity  Bureau  signals  limited  resources  to  carry  out  its  tasks,  including  training  of  high-
level  officials72.  As  outlined  in  previous  Rule  of  Law  reports,  Belgium  remains  without  an 
overarching  anti-corruption  strategy  or  coordinating  structure  on  anti-corruption  policy  at 
national level73 

Identified  shortcomings  in  the  system  of  asset  and  interest  declarations  as  regards 
verification and transparency remain unaddressed. As outlined in previous Rule of Law 
Report,  the  system  of  asset  declarations  does  not  ensure  adequate  verification  and 
transparency74.  Civil  society  continued  to  call  for  reforming  of  the  system,  including  a 
stronger  focus  on  transparency  and  enforceable  sanctions  for  non-compliance  with 
declaration  obligations75.  There  are  yet  no  plans  by  the  Government  or  the  Parliament  to 
reform the system, despite previous declarations of intent76. 99 % of those required to submit 
asset  and  interest  declarations  did  so  in  time77.  Due  to  a  lack  of  adequate  verification,  the 
correctness  of  these  declarations  remains  solely  the  individual  responsibility  of  the  person 
declaring them78.  

There has been no progress on completing the reform of lobbying legislation as there is 
no political consensus on further steps79. The previous Government had presented a draft 
reform  in  2024 envisaging rules for contacts  between lobbyists and members of the federal 
executive, which it had also consulted with stakeholders80. The current Government reported 
that no political consensus exists on future legislative steps, neither on the basis of that draft 
legislation  nor  on  other  types  of  reform81.  It  remains  unclear  if  the  Parliament  would 
undertake  an  initiative  to  revise  the  lobbying  rules  applicable  to  members  of  Parliament82. 
Civil society has continued to stress the need for more transparency in lobbying, in particular 

70  5 out of 150 MPs attended. Federal Deontological Commission (2026) and Country visit Belgium, Federal 

Deontological Commission.  

71   Federal Deontological Commission (2026); Country visit Belgium, Federal Deontological Commission. See 

also 2025 Rule of Law Report, Belgium, p. 8. 

72   Country visit Belgium, Integrity Bureau; Integrity Bureau (2026), additional written input. 
73  2024 Rule of Law Report, Belgium, p. 12. 
74   As the Court of Audit receives the declarations in sealed envelopes and declarations are only accessible by 
investigating judges in the context of criminal investigations. See 2025 Rule of Law Report, Belgium, p.8. 

75   Transparency International Belgium (2025).  
76  GRECO  (2025a)  and  2025  Rule  of  Law  Report,  Belgium,  p.  8.  An  initiative  by  one  opposition  political 
party calling for a system of asset declarations in line with GRECO recommendations  is reportedly under 
preparation but has not been filed yet. 

77   5 980 persons out of 6 011 required to submit asset declaration, 10 972 out of 11 003 persons required to 
submit  mandate  declarations.  As  2024  was  an  election  year,  the  number  of  those  required  to  submit 
declarations was higher than in past years. Court of Audit (2026).  

78   2025 Rule of Law Report, Belgium, p. 8. 
79   The 2025 Rule of Law Report recommended to Belgium to ‘complete the legislative reform on lobbying, 
establishing  a  framework  including  a  transparency  register  and  a  legislative  footprint,  covering  both 
members  of  Parliament  and  Government.’  No  further  progress  was  previously  assessed  on  this 
recommendation in 2025; some progress in 2024 and no progress in 2023. 

80   Draft legislation foresaw a transparency register, managed by the Prime Minister’s Office, with registration 

obligations for lobbyists and all ministerial private offices. 2025 Rule of Law Report, Belgium, p. 9. 
81   Belgian Government (2026), written input, p. 4 and Belgian Government (2026), additional written input. 
82  Belgian Government (2026), written input, p. 4. See also 2025 Rule of Law Report, Belgium, p. 9. 

9 

 
 
as  regards  the  registration  of  meetings83.  As  no  further  steps  have  been  taken  by  the 
Government and the Parliament, there has been no further progress on the recommendation.  

There  has  been  limited  progress  in  relation  to  the  rules  on  gifts  and  benefits  for 
members  of  Parliament  having  regard  to  a  planned  clarification  of  the  House’s 
deontological code84. Members of both the Senate and House of Representatives are covered 
by  a  general  prohibition  of  receiving  gifts  in  return  for  actions  taken  in  the  course  of  their 
mandate85.  Certain  shortcomings  identified  in  previous  Rule  of  Law  Reports  remain86, 
including  the  lack  of  concrete  guidance  to  members  of  Parliament  on  what  type  of  gifts 
would  be  acceptable  (i.e.  a  monetary  threshold)87.  Accepted  gifts  and  their  origin  are  not 
registered,  and  no  information  is  publicly  available.  The  Parliament  has  decided  not  to 
introduce a gifts register88. A clarification of the code of conduct introducing an obligation to 
declare  any  professional  travel  of  a  member  of  Parliament  sponsored  by  a  third  party  was 
initiated but not yet finalised89. There were no further steps to amend the code of conduct in 
the  reporting  period,  and  therefore  limited  progress  has  been  made  on  this  part  of  the 
recommendation.  

There  has  been  no  progress  on  rules  on  ‘revolving  doors’  as  gaps  in  existing  rules 
remain90. No  additional steps on  ‘revolving doors’ have been taken following a 2024 non-
binding ‘circular’ of the Minister of Public Administration that outlined existing measures on 
revolving doors91. The government reports no developments in this area92. Existing gaps – in 
particular  the  lack  of  rules  on  revolving  doors  for  members  of  Government,  their  private 
offices  and  civil  servants  more broadly93 – have not  been  addressed.  In February 2026, the 
Federal  Internal  Audit  Service  completed  a  thematic  audit  on  how  some  ministries  and 
agencies  within  the  Federal  Public  Service  address  the  issue  of  revolving  doors  in  public 
procurement  procedures.  Alongside  good  practices,  the  audit  highlighted  a  number  of 
recommendations, in particular as regards risk analysis and integrity policy94. Therefore, no 
progress has been made on this part of the recommendation.  

Whistleblower  protection  rules  are  being  evaluated.  An  evaluation  of  national 
whistleblowing  rules  is  ongoing.95  The  Federal  Ombudsman96,  the  Federal  Human  Rights 

83  Transparency International Belgium believes compulsory registration of meetings between representatives 
and politicians and declared interests, as well as transparency about the participation of Members in events 
organized by third parties could further improve transparency. Transparency International Belgium (2025). 
84   The 2025 Rule of Law Report recommended to Belgium to “Strengthen the integrity framework, including 
by  adopting  rules  on  gifts  and  benefits  for  members  of  Parliament  […].”  Some  progress  was  previously 
assessed in 2025, no progress in 2024 and some progress in 2023 on this recommendation. 

85   As outlined in their deontological code. 2022 Rule of Law Report, Belgium, pp. 12-13. 
86   2022 Rule of Law Report, Belgium, pp. 12-13. 
87  See also GRECO (2025b), recommendation I which refers to stated intentions but a lack of results.  
88  2025 Rule of Law Report, Belgium, p. 9. 
89  Chamber of Representatives (2025a).  
90   The 2025 Rule of Law Report recommended to Belgium to ‘Strengthen the integrity framework, including 
by adopting […] rules on revolving doors for government and their private offices.”. Limited progress was 
previously assessed on this recommendation in 2025, no progress in 2024 and some progress in 2023.  
91  This  includes  possible  measures  identified  by  the  Federal  Deontological  Commission.  2025  Rule  of  Law 

Report, Belgium, p. 10. 

92  Belgian Government (2026), written input, p. 4 
93  2025 Rule of Law Report, Belgium, p. 10. 
94   Federal Internal Audit Service (2026). 
95  Country visit Belgium, Integrity Bureau; Integrity Bureau (2026), additional written input. 
96  Country visit Belgium, Ombudsman. 

10 

 
 
Institute97 and the Committee P98 – who all have a role in the whistleblowing system - have 
adopted their own reports to feed into the overall exercise. Their initial conclusions point to 
the  high  complexity  of  the  Belgian  legislation,  while  valuing  the  fact  that  protection  of 
whistleblowers  has  improved99.  The  overall  report,  under  responsibility  of  the  Integrity 
Bureau,  is  expected  in  2026 100.  Legislative  proposals  applying  whistleblower  protection  to 
employees  working  in  the  judiciary  are  awaiting  comments  from  stakeholders  before  being 
submitted to Parliament101. In 2025, the Federal Ombudsman opened 766 files in relation to 
whistleblowing, most relating to the private sector. Out of these 766 files, 22 complaints were 
from  the  public  sector  and  related  to  the  category  “Conflicts  of  interest,  favoritism,  and 
bias”102.  

Addressing  high  risks  of  corruption  related  to  public  procurement,  risks  at  the  local 
level and risks linked to organised crime remains a priority. Businesses’ attitudes towards 
corruption in the EU show that 34 % of companies in Belgium (EU average 30 %) think that 
corruption  has  prevented  them  from  winning  a  public  tender  in  practice  in  the  last  three 
years103.  64 %  perceive  the  level  of  independence  of  the  public  procurement  review  body 
(Council  of  State)  as  very  or  fairly  good,  which  has  slightly  decreased  in  comparison  with 
2025  (67 %)104.  The  Single  Market  and  Competitiveness  Scoreboard  on  access  to  public 
procurement in Belgium reports 24 % of single bids for 2025 (EU average 27 %)105. Public 
procurement remains an area at high risk of corruption106, as illustrated by a recent audit that 
concluded that the transparency of procurement procedures in relation to hiring consultancies 
for governmental work has structural shortcomings107. At regional and local level, measures 
were  taken  in  Flanders  to  increase  transparency  of  outside  interests  and  side  activities  of 
mayors, aldermen and city councillors to prevent conflicts of interests, and to introduce the 
possibility  for  citizens  to  file  a  complaint108.  The  authorities  recognise  that  cases  of 
corruption  concerning  public  officials  are  often  linked  to  organised  crime  and  drug-related 
crimes109.  In  response,  the  unauthorised  access  to  databases  by  public  officials  to  obtain 
specific  data  for  criminal  groups,  in  return  for  payments,  is  a  focus  area  for  law 
enforcement110.  

97   FIRM-IFDH (2026), written input, p. 22 and FIRM-IFDH (2026a) 
98  Committee P (2025). 
99  FIRM-IFDH (2026a).  
100  Notably,  the  Bureau  signals  resource  challenges  in  finalising  its  work  on  this  evaluation.  Country  visit 

Belgium, Integrity Bureau; Integrity Bureau (2026), additional written input. 

101   FIRM-IFDH (2026b). 
102  Belgian  Government  (2026),  written  input,  p.  12.  To  note  this  data  presents  an  incomplete  picture  as  it 

concerns only the external reporting channel.  

103   Flash Eurobarometer 582 on Businesses’ attitudes towards corruption in the EU (2026).  
104   Figure 59, 2026 EU Justice Scoreboard. 
105  Single Market and Competitiveness Scoreboard (2025). 
106  2025 Rule of Law Report, Belgium, p. 14. 
107   Court of Audit (2025b). 
108   Flemish Minister of Home Affairs (2025). 
109  In an open letter, an investigative judge warned about “extensive mafia-like structures” linked to cocaine 
smuggling that had created a “parallel power” in and around the Antwerp port, with  investigations leading 
to  the  arrest  of  port  workers,  customs  officers,  police  officers,  municipal  staff  and  even  prison  officials, 
often for corruption-related conduct. College of Courts and Tribunals (2025a). See also 2025 Rule of Law 
Report, Belgium, p. 14. 

110   The police indicated that the main targets of bribery by drugs-related organised crime groups are the police, 

customs, port and local officials. See also 2024 Rule of Law report, Belgium, p. 14. 

11 

 
 
III.  MEDIA PLURALISM AND MEDIA FREEDOM  

Media  regulatory  authorities  in  Belgium  have  continued  making  progress  in  adapting 
their strategies, while maintaining a strong legal foundation for their independence.  In 
Flanders, the Flemish Regulator for the Media (VRM) continues to operate as an independent 
external agency with legal, financial, and operational guarantees111. It will play a key role in 
overseeing  the  implementation  and  application  of  the  European  Media  Freedom  Act 
(EMFA)112 and has been designated as a competent authority under the Digital Services Act 
(DSA). The VRM’s staffing was increased in  late 2023 to  manage new tasks  related to  the 
DSA  and  other  responsibilities,  while  no  new  funding  has  yet  been  allocated113.  The  VRM 
has requested additional resources as the current budget and staff are not sufficient to comply 
with  its  new  tasks114.  In  the  French  Community,  the  Conseil  Supérieur  de  l’Audiovisuel 
(CSA)  remains  an  independent  body,  playing  a  pivotal  role  in  the  preparation  for  EMFA 
implementation  and  application115.  In  view  of  alignment  with  EMFA,  the  CSA  was 
designated as the competent authority by decree of 2 April 2026, which entered into force on 
26 April 2026116. A budgetary decision by the government led to the freezing of indexation, 
raising budgetary concerns for the years to come117. Both the VRM and the CSA anticipate 
budgetary constraints resulting from the suspension of indexation and reductions in funding 
from other sources. As a consequence, CSA foresees the need to implement staff reductions 
in  the  coming  years.  The  Medienrat  of  the  German-speaking  Community  has  undergone 
significant structural reinforcement118. In the French Community, overlaps in the mandates of 
the Conseil de déontologie journalistique (CDJ) and the CSA have led to legal and procedural 
tensions,  prompting  cases  before  the  Council  of  State119.  Overlap  in  the  mandates  risk 
reducing legal predictability and creating uncertainty as to which authority is competent for 
dealing with complaints. In Flanders the relationship between the Dutch-speaking Raad voor 
de Journalistiek (RvJ) and the VRM has not raised the same issues. 

Public  service  media  continue  to  experience  various  challenges 
in  the  three 
Communities, including in terms of governance structures and budgetary pressures. In 
Flanders, the Vlaamse Radio- en Televisieomroeporganisatie (VRT) has received additional 
resources  under  the  2024–2029  Media  Policy  Plan120.  The  Flemish  government  has 

111   Decree of 27 March 2009 on Radio and Television Broadcasting.  
112   With  a  view  to  aligning  with  EMFA,  the  Flemish  Community  of  Belgium  has  prepared  a  Draft  Decree 
Amending  the  Decree  of  27  March  2009  on  Radio  Broadcasting  and  Television  for  the  Partial 
Implementation  of  Regulation  (EU)  2024/900  of  13  March  2024  on  the  Transparency  and  Targeting  of 
Political  Advertising,  the  European  Media  Freedom  Act,  and  the  Artificial  Intelligence  Act,  which  is 
currently undergoing the legislative procedure. 

113   Country visit Belgium, media regulators. 
114   VRM (2026), additional written input, pp. 7-8.  
115   Country visit Belgium, Government. 
116   The  Decree  of  2  April  2026  amending  the  Decree  of  4  February  2021  concerning  audiovisual  media 

services and video-sharing platform services (Belgian Official Gazette of 16 April 2026). 

117   Country visit Belgium, media regulators. 
118   Since  September  2024,  the  staff  of  the  Medienrat’s  office  is  paid  directly by  the  Medienrat,  ensuring  the 
independence of the authority. The Medienrat has seen a substantial increase in funding and staffing.  For 
2026,  the  budget  allocation  to  the  Medienrat  was  increased  again  (+32 %  compared  to  2025)  to  employ 
adequate staff in times of rising wage costs. Belgian Government (2026), written input, p. 13. 

119   Council  of  State,  15  April  2025,  ECLI:BE:RVSCE:2025:ARR.262.987,  Country  visit  Belgium,  media 
regulators.  Following  the  Council  of  State  judgment,  the  debate  is  still  not  fully  settled  as  uncertainty 
regarding the division of competences has prompted another case before the Council of State. 

120   The  Flemish  government's  2024-2029  Policy  Plan  for  media.  In  the  2025  budget  year,  the  Flemish 
Government  is  allocating  an  additional  subsidy  of  EUR  20  million  to  strengthen  VRT.  See  Flemish 
Government (2025) and Flemish Government (2025a). 

12 

 
 
reaffirmed VRT’s mandate, with an emphasis on journalistic independence, impartiality, and 
editorial autonomy. As a consequence of the new management agreement, VRT launched an 
“efficiency exercise” that is projected to lead to savings of EUR 16 million over the next five 
years. In addition to this commitment, the public broadcaster is required to implement further 
annual savings of EUR 644 000121. As part of the government's overall economic objective to 
reduce  the  debt  of  the  French  Community,  the  Radio-Télévision  Belge  de  la  Communauté 
Française (RTBF) will not receive indexation of its subsidy for four years in the period 2025-
2028.  On  17  July  2025,  the  Government  concluded  an  addendum  to  the  management 
agreement, which provides for a refocusing of public service missions partly to compensate 
for  the  non-indexation  of  public  funding122.  Additionally,  on  28  November  2025  the 
government  approved  a  draft  decree  reforming  local  public  media,  aiming  to  reduce  the 
number  of  media  outlets123.  In  the  German-speaking  Community,  the  Belgischer  Rundfunk 
(BRF)  management  contract  for  2021-2024  has  been  extended  twice,  pending  a  newly 
negotiated multi-annual agreement. Although these extensions have secured continuity in the 
short  term,  they  also  contribute  to  a  degree  of  legal  and  strategic  uncertainty,  since  the 
contractual framework is no longer fully aligned with a clearly defined political and financial 
planning cycle124. The government plans to change the BRF subsidy system, proposing a new 
framework  for  2027-2030.  While  its  Board  remains  politically  composed,  BRF  is  open  to 
governance reform, including the possible introduction of independent directors, inspired by 
the  VRT  model125.  Several  incidents  have  led  to  concerns  about  political  influence  on  the 
public  service  media  in  the  French  community126.  Through  a  motion  voted  on  23  February 
2026,  the  Parliament  of  the  French  Community  has  taken  a  clear  position  underlining 
editorial independence and all national and international standards that guarantee the freedom 
and independence of the media.127 The Media Pluralism Monitor 2026 (MPM) still reports a 
low  risk  (22 %)  for  the  political  independence  of  public  service  media128,  up  from  an  even 
lower level (17 %) in 2025129.  

There has been no further progress regarding procedural reforms to improve access to 
official  documents130.  Shortcomings  remain  with  regard  to  access  to  administrative 
documents, mainly in terms of its structure, procedure and enforceability131. Journalists still 
encounter  obstacles  in  accessing  information  from  the  Public  Prosecution  Service  or  an 
Inspection Office due to protocol documents that need to be signed132. In particular, a 2019 

121   Flemish Parliament (2026). Country visit Belgium, Public Service Media (RTBF, VRT and BRF). 
122   Decree of the Government of the French Community of 11 July 2025, document number 53580.. 
123   Belgian  Government (2026), written  input,  p.  14,  Civil  Liberties  Union  for  Europe  (2026),  written  input, 

p.2. 

124   Country visit Belgium, Public Service Media (RTBF, VRT and BRF), BRF (2026), written input, p. 3. 
125   Country visit Belgium, Public Service Media (RTBF, VRT and BRF). 
126   Country  visit  Belgium,  Government,  Public  Service  Media  (RTBF,  VRT  and  BRF),  Liga  voor  de 
Mensenrechten, Amnesty International, Ligue des droits humains, FIRM-IFDH, journalists associations and 
CDJ. 

127   Parliament of the French Community (2026). 
128   Media Pluralism Monitor (2026), p. 28. 
129   Media Pluralism Monitor (2025), p. 25. 
130   2025 Rule of Law Report, Belgium, p. 13-14. The 2025 Rule of Law Report recommended to Belgium to 
“Further  continue  efforts  to  strengthen  the  framework  for  access  to  official  documents,  in  particular  by 
improving  request  and  appeal  processes,  taking  into  account  European  standards  on  access  to  official 
documents.”.  Some  further  progress  was  previously  assessed  in  2023,  2024  and  2025  on  this 
recommendation. 

131   Belgian government (2026), written input, p. 4. 
132   Country  visit  Belgium,  Public  Service  Media  (RTBF,  VRT  and  BRF),  VRT  (2026),  additional  written 

input. 

13 

 
 
 
internal  circular  of  the  Public  Prosecution  Service  imposing  conditions  on  media 
communication regarding judicial proceedings is still being applied, even though the College 
of Prosecutors have declared it no longer applicable133. Furthermore, for Belgium as a whole 
there  are  three  parallel  publicity  regimes  and  two  non-binding  appeal  bodies  (including  the 
federal  Commission  for  Access  to  Administrative  Documents,  CADA)  which  creates 
uncertainty  and  limits  effectiveness134.  Given  their  non-binding  nature,  decisions  issued  by 
these  bodies  are  often  not  followed  by  public  authorities135.  While  ratification  proposals  in 
view  of  the  Council  of  Europe  Convention  on  Access  to  Official  Documents  (‘the  Tromsø 
Convention’)  have  been  adopted  at  federal  level  and  by  the  Flemish  Parliament  (for  the 
Flemish  Community  and  Region)  and  the  Parliaments  of  the  French  and  German-speaking 
Communities,  the  publication  of  the  federal  law  remains  pending,  and  the  Walloon  Region 
has  yet  to  adopt  the  necessary  legislation136.  The  draft  law  of  16  January  2025  on  federal 
public  government  access  to  information  is  still pending  in  the  Parliament137,  while  part  of 
the  2024  federal  law  amending  the  framework  on  administrative  transparency  still  awaits 
implementation138. As regards the draft law of January 2025, stakeholders still highlight some 
persistent shortcomings. Concerns exist about refusal grounds being phrased in a too general 
manner139. On the same draft law, civil society continues to call for simplified procedures, the 
merger or reform of appeal bodies, and the empowerment of the federal CADA with binding 
authority,  adequate  resources,  and  systematic  publication  of  decisions140.  Therefore,  there 
was no further progress on the recommendation. 

Further  steps  are  being  taken  to  strengthen  legal  protections  for  journalists,  in 
particular against SLAPPs. Under the new Criminal Code, which will enter into force on 1 
September  2026,  journalists  are  qualified  as  professionals  performing  a  societal  function 
violence against whom may lead to harsher sentences141. With the entry into force of the new 
Criminal Code, defamation would no longer be punishable by a prison sentence142. Following 
an  appeal  filed  by  several  organisations,  on  29  January  2026  the  Constitutional  Court 
annulled Article 586 of the new Criminal Code, which criminalised the unauthorised receipt 
of state secrets, on the grounds that it constituted a disproportionate interference with press 
freedom and public-interest reporting143. As a result, journalists can no longer be prosecuted 
for receiving a state secret. At the same time, other offences relating to the disclosure of state 

133   Such  as  mandatory  agreements,  prior  authorisation,  written  consents,  and  extensive  anonymisation 

requirements; OECD (2025), p. 28. 

134   Country visit Belgium, Federal Human Rights Institute. 
135   Cumuleo (2026), written input, pp. 1-2. 
136   The Council of Europe Convention on Access to Official Documents (CETS No. 205), also known as the 
Tromsø  Convention,  entered into  force  on  1  December  2020.  The  bill  assenting  the  Tromsø  Convention, 
was unanimously adopted on 14 March 2024 in the plenary session of the Chamber and submitted for Royal 
Assent.  However,  the  law  has  still  not  been  published  in  the  Belgian  Official  Gazette.  The  file  will  be 
handled by the new cabinet of the Minister of Security and the Interior. 2025 Rule of Law Report Belgium, 
pp. 13-14; FIRM-IFDH (2026), written input, p. 29. 

137   Important innovations in this draft law are the binding decision-making powers as well as investigative and 
coercive  powers  for  the  commission  for  access  to  documents,  an  extension  of  the  scope  of  access  to 
government information, and the abolition of a previous exception. For more details on the state of play, see 
Chamber of Representatives (2025).  

138   Cumuleo (2026), written input, pp. 1-2; Country visit Belgium, Government. 
139   Country visit Belgium, the FIRM-IFDH; Cumuleo (2026), written input, pp. 1-2. 
140   FIRM-IFDH (2026), written input, pp. 28-29. 
141   Article 79, 4° of the new criminal code.  
142   Commission SLAPP Communication, para 7; Ministry of Justice (without date). 
143   Constitutional Court, case number 14/2026, 29 January 2026. 

14 

 
 
 
secrets remain applicable144. Several stakeholders raised that this threat of a possible sanction 
leads to a chilling effect and, in addition, flagged that concerns remain due to the vagueness 
of the definition of ‘state secret’145. The law on transposing the Anti-SLAPP Directive was 
approved in Parliament on 21 May 2026, it has been published in the Belgian official journal 
on 12 June 2026 and entered into force ten days later. The law covers both cross-border and 
domestic  cases146.  Stakeholders  report  nevertheless  that  the  climate  for  journalists  remains 
worrisome147.  While  initiatives  like  PersVeilig.be148  offer  support,  stakeholders  highlight 
concerns  in  relation  to  the  tackling  of  online  threats  to  journalists.  Law  enforcement 
authorities do not always have the necessary tools to identify the source of the threat149. Since 
the 2025 Rule of Law Report, nine new alerts concerning Belgium have been registered on 
the  Council  of  Europe’s  Platform  to  promote  the  protection  of  journalism  and  safety  of 
journalists150. The Media Freedom Rapid Response mechanism has identified 18 alerts in that 
same  period,  including  harassment,  spoofing,  editorial  interference,  defamation,  threats  and 
physical assault151. 

IV.  OTHER INSTITUTIONAL ISSUES RELATED TO CHECKS AND BALANCES 

Overall, stakeholders continue to have opportunities to engage with policymaking.  The 
House  of  Representatives  regularly  organises  hearings  with  experts,  academics  and  civil 
society.  In  addition,  over  90 %  of  parliamentary  committee  meetings  are  public152.  The 
OECD considered that consultations and engagement could be further strengthened through 
the  creation  of  a  single  online  platform,  compiling  ongoing  consultations  and  be  easily 
accessed  by  the  public153.  The  Government  and  the  federal  Parliament  continue  to  ask  the 
Federal Human Rights Institute to provide advice on legislative initiatives154.  

More  than  half  of  companies  surveyed  in  Belgium  express  confidence  in  the 
effectiveness of investment protection. 56 % of companies are very or fairly confident that 
investments are protected by law and courts,  which has decreased in comparison with 2025 
(60 %)155.  As  regards  authorities  relevant  for  economic  operators,  49 %  of  companies 
perceive  the  level  of  independence  of  the  national  competition  authority  (Belgian 

144   For example, the reproduction, disclosure, or transmission of a state secret to unauthorised persons with the 
intention to harm the State's essential interests remains a crime (Article 119 of the Criminal Code of 1867). 
Country visit Belgium, Country visit Belgium, Liga voor de Mensenrechten, Amnesty International, Ligue 
des droits humains; FIRM-IFDH (2026), written input, p. 30. 

145   Country  visit  Belgium,  FIRM-IFDH,  journalists  associations  and  CDJ,  Civil  Liberties  Union  for  Europe 

(2026), written input, pp. 13-14. 

146   FIRM-IFDH  (2026b);  However,  the  safeguards  only  apply  to  civil  cases,  excluding  tax  cases,  customs 
cases,  administrative  cases,  and  state  liability  for  acts  in  the  exercise  of  public  authority.  Arbitration  and 
criminal cases are also excluded. 

147   Country visit Belgium, Public Service Media (RTBF, VRT and BRF). 
148   Persveilig.be is a website where journalists can find an overview of available training courses and access a 
reporting  center  where  they  can  report  unsafe  situations  or  incidents  affecting  their  work,  as  well  as 
discover tools that help them work safely. 

149   Country visit Belgium, Public Service Media (RTBF, VRT and BRF). 
150   Platform  to  promote  the  protection  of  journalism  and  safety  of  journalists,  Belgium.  Out  of  9  alerts, 

Belgium replied to all 7, with 2 replies expected in August. 

151   European Centre for Press and Media Freedom, Media Freedom Rapid Response – Belgium. 
152   Belgian government (2026), written input, p. 16.  
153   OECD (2025a), p. 134.  
154   Country visit Belgium, FIRM-IFDH.  
155   Figures 52 and 53, 2026 EU Justice Scoreboard. 22 % and only 18 % of the surveyed investors respectively 
perceive the quality, efficiency or independence of justice and frequent changes in legislation or concerns 
about the quality of the law-making process, as a reason for the lack of confidence in investment protection.  

15 

 
 
 
Competition  Authority) as very or fairly good, a figure which has decreased in  comparison 
with 2025 (53 %) 156. The Council of State has jurisdiction in several business-related cases, 
including  in  cases  related  to  public  procurement,  public  concessions,  public  contracts  and 
economic regulation. A number of judicial mechanisms to improve efficiency are available in 
these cases, including the possibility to apply interim measures, joint examination of similar 
cases and the consolidation of multiple appeals 157. 

The  Government  continues  to  work  towards  an  A-status  for  a  national  human  rights 
institution  in  Belgium.  This  institution  will  be  established  through  a  cooperation  between 
FIRM-IFDH on the one hand and the Flemish Human Rights Institution (FLANHRI) on the 
other hand. The different stakeholders are analysing the steps necessary to be accredited with 
this  A-status  and  to  establish  the  required  cooperation  mechanisms  between  the  Belgian 
human  rights  institutions158.  An  A-status  requires  establishing  a  structure  that  is  competent 
for human rights  matters across federated  entities as well as the federal  level.  Furthermore, 
the Human Rights League reiterated its call on the Belgian authorities to make sure that all 
human  rights  monitoring  bodies  comply  with  the  Paris  Principles  on  independence  and 
effectiveness159.  Funding  is  not  a  primary  concern  for  FIRM-IFDH  as  long  as  costs  do  not 
increase significantly160.  

There has been limited progress on the recommendation to ensure compliance by public 
authorities  with  final  rulings  of  national  courts,  while  supervision  by  the  Council  of 
Europe  on  structural  issues  identified  by  the  European  Court  of  Human  Rights 
continues161. Compliance by the Government with final rulings of national courts and orders 
imposing  periodic  penalty  payments162  remains  an  issue,  despite,  for  example,  the  joint 
memorandum  of  the  three  highest  courts  (Constitutional  Court,  Court  of  Cassation  and 
Council of State) of July 2024 requiring the Government to respect court judgments163. The 
FIRM-IFDH  launched  an  investigation  into  the  non-implementation  of  court  rulings  issued 
against Belgian  authorities164.  A judgment of the Constitutional  Court of 26 February 2026 
suspended  the  legislative  provisions  on  the  basis  of  which  accommodation  to  persons  who 
request  international  protection  in  Belgium  after  having  obtained  protection  in  another 
Member  State  is  to  be  refused  and  made  a  preliminary  reference  to  the  Court  of  Justice165. 
Following this ruling, in March 2026, the Minister for Asylum, Migration, Social Integration 
and Metropolitan Policy instructed not to award accommodation to this category of persons, 

156   Figure 60, 2026 EU Justice Scoreboard.  
157   Figures 66 and 67, 2026 EU Justice Scoreboard. The data presented reflects exclusively the mechanisms in 
place at the level of the highest administrative jurisdictions; the same or other mechanisms may be in place 
at lower instance administrative courts. 

158   Coalition Agreement (2025), p. 83, FIRM-IFDH (2025).  
159   Civil Liberties Union for Europe (2026), p. 97. UN General Assembly (1993). 
160   FIRM-IFDH  has  a  coordinating  role  regarding  the  national  prevention  mechanism  (Part  of  the  Optional 
Protocol to the Convention against Torture of the United Nations), which could have resource implications 
for the Central Monitoring Council for Prisons to carry out its tasks (Country visit Belgium, FIRM-IFDH).  
161   The 2025 Rule of Law Report recommended to Belgium to ‘Take measures to ensure compliance by public 
authorities  with  final  rulings  of  national  courts  and  the  European  Court  of  Human  Rights’.  In  2025,  the 
Commission assessed limited progress on this recommendation.  

162   FIRM-IFDH (2025a), p. 15-18; Amnesty International (2025), p. 20-22. Public Prosecution Service (2026), 
additional  written  input;  College  of  Court  and  Tribunals  (2026),  p.  14;  Federal  Migration  Centre  Myria 
(2026), written input, p. 11. 

163   2025 Rule of Law Report, Belgium, p. 16, Joint memorandum of the three highest courts of Belgium of 19 

July 2024. 

164   2025  Rule  of  Law  report  2025,  Belgium,  p.  16,  Country  visit  Belgium,  FIRM-IFDH.  The  research  is 

ongoing (see for example: Flemish Bar Association (2026)).  

165   Constitutional Court (2026), additional written input. 

16 

 
 
as  there  would  be  another  legal  ground  in  Belgian  alien  legislation  for  such  refusals.  The 
Council  of  State  subsequently  suspended  the  Minister’s  instruction166.  The  Government 
remains  under  supervision  by  the  Committee  of  Ministers  of  the  Council  of  Europe  on 
structural issues identified by the European Court of Human Rights167. In certain individual 
cases, the Government has remedied the situation168. Insofar as the underlying, more general, 
issues  are  concerned,  the  Government  has  engaged  in  the  execution  process  underlying  its 
commitment  to  remedy  the  violation  found  in  judgments  of  the  European  Court  of  Human 
Rights without delay, as specified in the action plans which are periodically updated and sent 
to  the  Committee  of  Ministers169.  On  9  April  2026,  the  European  Court  of  Human  Rights 
found  Belgium  to  have  breached  Articles  3,  6  and  34  of  the  Convention,  inter  alia,  for  not 
having implemented within a reasonable time both national court orders and interim measures 
ordered by the European Court of Human Rights requiring accommodation to be granted to 
applicants for international protection170. Overall, there has been [no/limited] progress on the 
recommendation.  

On  1  January  2026,  Belgium  had  19  leading  judgments  of  the  European  Court  of 
Human  Rights  pending  implementation,  an  increase  of  2  compared  to  the  previous 
year171.  At  that  time,  Belgium’s  rate  of  leading  judgments  from  the  past  10  years  that  had 
been implemented was at 69 % (compared to 70 % in 2025; 31 % remained pending), and the 
average time that the judgments had been pending implementation was 5 years (compared to 
4 years and 9 months in 2025)172. The oldest leading judgment, pending implementation for 
close to 17 years, concerns the excessive length of civil proceedings at first instance level173. 
As  regards  the  respect  of  payment  deadlines,  on  31  December  2025  there  were  2  cases  in 

Camara 
Vasilescu 
L.B. 

v 
v 
v 

Belgium, 
Belgium, 
Belgium, 

166   The  Council  of  State  suspended  the  instruction  considering  that  it  should  have  been  submitted  to  the 
Council  for  prior  advice  and  noting  that  its  implementation  would  place  the  concerned  persons  at  an 
immediate risk of complete destitution and homelessness. For the full judgment: Judgment of the Council of 
State of 27 March 2026, l’association sans but lucratif Coordination et Initiatives pour et avec les Réfugiés 
et les Etrangers (CIRE) and others v Belgium, No 266.219, Article 3 (p. 41). The Minister’s instruction is 
reflected on page 11-13 of the judgment. 
to 

example  with 

Judgment 

167   For 

ECHR, 

regard 

the 

of 

CE:ECHR:2023:0718JUD004925522; 
CE:ECHR:2014:1125JUD006468212; 
CE:ECHR:2012:1002JUD002283108. 

Judgment 
Judgment 

of 

the 

ECHR, 

of 

the 

ECHR, 

168   In the Bell case no other measure is required. In the Vandroemme case, the payment of just satisfaction and 
the default interest is still pending. In the  Van den Kerkhof case Belgium is urged to finalise the domestic 
proceedings  as  soon  as  possible.  In  the  Camara  case  accommodation  was  granted  to  the  applicant. 
According  to  the  Belgian  Government  of  the  2 286  interim  measures  issued  by  the  European  Court  of 
Human Rights against Belgium, only 5 remain active as of January 2026. 

169   Country  visit  Belgium,  Government.  The  action  plans  submitted  by  the  Government  and  decisions  by 
Committee  of  Ministers  are  presented  in  the  regularly  updated  Factsheet  ‘Belgium  -  Overview  of  main 
issues  before  the  Committee  of  Ministers  -  Ongoing  Supervision’,  prepared  by  the  department  for  the 
execution  of  judgments.  In  September  2025,  in  the  context  of  the  Camara  v.  Belgium  judgment,  the 
Committee of Ministers invited the Belgian Government to use, as soon as possible, all possible means to 
find a lasting solution to the reception crisis, so as to be able to enforce all judicial decisions. 

170   Judgment  of  the  ECHR,  M.V.  and  Others  v  Belgium,  CE:ECHR:2026:0409JUD005283622.  Another 
example is from March 2026. In the L.B. group and W.D. v Belgium judgments, the Committee of Ministers 
criticised  the  absence  of  measures  taken  by  Belgium  in  individual  cases  and  deplored  the  fact  that  the 
structural  problem  in  prison  psychiatric  wings  persists  and  even  appears  to  have  worsened  since  many 
internees  do  not  receive  appropriate  care  (Council  of  Europe,  Committee  of  Ministers  (2026)).  The 
Vasilescu  v.  Belgium  judgment  is  on  the  agenda of  the  1563rd  (Human  Rights)  meeting  of  the  Ministers' 
Deputies (9-11 June 2026).  

171   For an explanation of the supervision process, see the website of the Council of Europe.  
172   All figures calculated by the European Implementation Network (EIN) and based on the number of cases 
that are considered pending at the annual cut-off date of 1 January 2026. EIN (2026), written input, pp. 1-2. 

173   Judgment of the ECHR, Bell, CE:ECHR:2008:1104JUD004482605, pending implementation since 2009.  

17 

 
 
total  awaiting  confirmation  of  payments  (compared  to  4  in  2024)174.  By  17  June  2026,  the 
number of leading judgments pending implementation had increased to 20175.  

Notwithstanding a high level of protection under the law, stakeholders continue to raise 
concerns regarding measures that affect civic space. Civic space in Belgium continues to 
be  rated  as  ‘narrowed’  by  Civicus176.  Stakeholders  continue  to  raise  concerns  regarding 
actions undertaken by public authorities negatively affecting civic space177. In this light, and 
following  an  advice  from  the  Council  of  State178,  the  Government  is  revising  a  draft  law 
allowing for the administrative prohibition  of groups  that are considered to  pose a threat  to 
national  security  or  to  the  democratic  and  constitutional  order.  The  Federal  Human  Rights 
Institute,  in  an  own-initiative  advice,  has  concluded  that  administrative  fines,  which  are  in 
principle  intended  for  infringements  of  local  regulations  in  the  area  of  public  order  or 
nuisance,  are  used  by  municipalities  to  sanction  persons  making  use  of  their  freedom  of 
expression, freedom of assembly and the right to protest179. As regards funding, stakeholders 
have further pointed that certain  fiscal  and subsidy measures  impact  the sources of  funding 
potentially available for CSOs180. 

174   Council of Europe (2026), p. 162.  
175   Data according to the online database of the Council of Europe (HUDOC). 
176   Belgium’s  score  is  77/100.  Ratings  by  Civicus  are  on  a  five-category  scale  defined  as:  open,  narrowed, 

obstructed, repressed and closed.  

177   Civil Liberties Union for Europe (2026), p. 94; Right to Protest Coalition (undated).  
178   Belgian  government  (2026),  written  input;  Council  of  State  (2025).  The  advice  of  the  Council  of  State 

focuses, among others, on potential interferences with fundamental rights and freedoms.  

179   FIRM-IFDH (2026).  
180   The  tax  deductibility  of  donations  made  to  non-profit  entities  was  reduced  from  45 %  to  30 %  without 
transition  period  due  to  the  pressing  budgetary  situation  of  the  government.  In  addition,  following  a 
political  agreement  to  cut  subsidies  by  EUR  3.5  million,  the  Flemish  government  stopped  or  reduced 
subsidies  for  a  few  civil  society  organisations  (Country  visit  Belgium,  Liga  voor  de  Mensenrechten, 
Amnesty  International,  Ligue  des  droits  humains).  The  French  Community  made  cuts  on  the  budget  for 
organisations close to political parties, such as youth organisations due to concerns around neutrality, good 
governance  and  fair  management  of  public  funds  (Civil  Liberties  Union  for  Europe  (2026),  p.  95; 
Parliament  of  the  French  speaking  community  (2025),  p.  37.  The  relevant  decree  was  published  on  9 
January 2026.  

18 

 
 
Annex I: List of sources in alphabetical order* 

* The list of contributions received in the context of the consultation for the 2026 Rule of Law Report 
can 
https://commission.europa.eu/publications/2026-rule-law-report-targeted-
stakeholder-consultation_en. 

found 

be 

at 

Amnesty  International  (2025),  Injustice  instead  of  Shelter  (Onrecht  in  plaats  van  Opvang),  2 April 
2025, 
https://www.amnesty-international.be/sites/default/files/download-files/2025-
04/Belgi%C3%AB_OnrechtInPlaatsVanOpvang_EUR1491612025_NED.pdf.  

Avocats  (2026),  Stéphane  Gothot,  Rule  of  law  and  poor  justice  (Etat  de  droit  et  pauvre  justice), 
https://latribune.avocats.be/fr/etat-de-droit-et-pauvre-justice.  

Bar  associations  (2026),  input  from  the  Flemish  Bar  Association  (OVB)  and  the  Francophone  and 
Germanophone Bar Association (AVOCATS) for the2026 Rule of Law Report. 

Bar  associations  and  others  (2026),  Your  justice  system  is  talking  to  you :  then  years  of  alerts,  the 
emergency  is  now  yours  (Votre  Justice  vous  parle  :  dix  ans  d’alertes,  l’urgence  est  désormais  la 
vôtre),  20  March  2026,  https://avocats.be/index.php/fr/actualites/votre-justice-vous-parle-dix-ans-
dalertes-lurgence-est-desormais-la-votre.  

Belgian government (2026), Additional written input from Belgium for the 2026 Rule of Law Report.  

Belgian government (2026), Input from Belgium for the 2026 Rule of Law Report.  

BRF (2026), Input from the Belgischer Rundfunk for the 2026 Rule of Law Report 

Centre  for  Media  Pluralism  and  Media  Freedom  (2025),  Media  Pluralism  Monitor  2025,  Country 
report for Belgium, https://cmpf.eui.eu/projects/media-pluralism-monitor/.  

Centre  for  Media  Pluralism  and  Media  Freedom  (2026),  Media  Pluralism  Monitor  2026,  Country 
report for Belgium, https://cmpf.eui.eu/projects/media-pluralism-monitor/. 

Chamber  of  Representatives  (2026),  Belgische  Kamer  van  Volksvertegenwoordigers/Chambre  des 
représentants de Belgique, Summary Report Committee on Justice (BEKNOPT VERSLAG Commissie 
voor Justitie/COMPTE RENDU ANALYTIQUE Commission de la Justice), 7 January 2026 (CRABV 
56 COM 281), https://www.lachambre.be/doc/CCRA/pdf/56/ac281.pdf.  

Chamber  of  Representatives  (2026a),  Belgische  Kamer  van  Volksvertegenwoordigers/Chambre  des 
représentants de Belgique, draft law containing various technical and urgent provisions (wetsontwerp 
houdende  diverse  technische  en  dringende  bepalingen/projet  de  loi  portant  diverses  dispositions 
techniques 
56 
2026 
1181/009),https://www.lachambre.be/FLWB/PDF/56/1181/56K1181009.pdf.  

urgentes), 

January 

(DOC 

16 

et 

Chamber  of  Representatives  (2026b),  Belgische  Kamer  van  Volksvertegenwoordigers/Chambre  des 
représentants de Belgique, Summary Report Committee on Justice (BEKNOPT VERSLAG Commissie 
voor Justitie/COMPTE RENDU ANALYTIQUE Commission de la Justice), 28 January 2026 (CRABV 
56 COM 309), https://www.dekamer.be/doc/CCRA/pdf/56/ac309.pdf.  

Chamber  of  Representatives  (2026c),  Belgische  Kamer  van  Volksvertegenwoordigers/Chambre  des 
représentants de Belgique, draft law containing various technical and urgent provisions (wetsontwerp 
houdende  diverse  technische  en  dringende  bepalingen/projet  de  loi  portant  diverses  dispositions 
techniques 
1181/010), 
2026 
January 
https://www.lachambre.be/flwb/pdf/56/1181/56K1181010.pdf.    

urgentes), 

(DOC 

29 

56 

et 

Chamber  of  Representatives  (2025),  Bill  amending  the  Act  of  11  April  1994  on  the  openness  of 
government  (Wetsvoorstel  tot  wijziging  van  de  wet  van  11  april  1994  betreffende  de  openbaarheid 
van 
2025, 
16 
https://www.dekamer.be/kvvcr/showpage.cfm?section=/flwb&language=nl&cfm=/site/wwwcfm/flwb/f
lwbn.cfm?legislat=56&dossierID=0660.  

bestuur), 

January 

Chamber  of  Representatives  (2025a),  Proposal  to  amend  the  Code  of  Ethics  for  Members  of  the 
Chamber of Representatives, as regards the travel of Members of Parliament (Voorstel tot wijziging 

19 

 
van de Deontologische code voor de leden van de Kamer van volksvertegenwoordigers, wat de reizen 
van de parlementsleden betreft / Proposition de modification du Code de déontologie des membres de 
la Chambre des représentants, en ce qui concerne les voyages des parlementaires), 5 February 2025, 
https://www.dekamer.be/FLWB/PDF/56/0699/56K0699001.pdf.  

Chamber  of  Representatives  (2025b),  Full  report  with  translated  summary  report  Committee  for 
Justice  (INTEGRAAL  VERSLAG  MET  VERTAALD  BEKNOPT  VERSLAG  Commissie  voor 
Justitie/COMPTE  RENDU  INTÉGRAL  AVEC  COMPTE  RENDU  ANALYTIQUE  TRADUIT 
Commission 
222), 
21  October 
https://www.lachambre.be/doc/CCRI/pdf/56/ic222.pdf.  

Justice), 

(CRIV 

COM 

2025 

56 

de 

la 

Chamber of Representatives (2024), Proposition de loi modifiant la loi du 26 avril 2002 relative aux 
éléments  essentiels  du  statut  des  membres  du  personnel  des  services  de  police  et  portant  diverses 
autres dispositions relatives aux services de police, en vue d'institutionnaliser un contrôle d'intégrité 
au 
la  promotion,  17  October  2024, 
https://www.lachambre.be/kvvcr/showpage.cfm?section=/flwb&language=fr&cfm=/site/wwwcfm/flw
b/flwbn.cfm?legislat=56&dossierID=401.  

intégrée  au  moment  de 

la  police 

sein  de 

Civil  Liberties  Union 
https://www.liberties.eu/f/wtaqoq.  

for  Europe 

(2026),  Liberties  Rule  of  Law  Report  2026, 

Coalition Agreement (2025), Federal government agreement 2025-2029 (Accord de coalition fédérale 
2025-2029), 
2025-2029/ 
https://www.belgium.be/sites/default/files/resources/publication/files/Regeerakkoord-
Bart_De_Wever_nl.pdf, 
https://www.belgium.be/sites/default/files/resources/publication/files/Accord_gouvernemental-
Bart_De_Wever_fr.pdf.  

regeerakkoord 

federaal 

College of Courts and Tribunals (2025a), Open letter of an investigative judge to the Commisison for 
Justice,  27  October  2025,  https://www.rechtbanken-tribunaux.be/nl/nieuwsartikel-lokaal/open-brief-
van-een-onderzoeksrechter-voor-de-commissie-justitie 

College  of  Courts  and  Tribunals  (2025b),  Digital  transformation  for  efficient  justice  (Digitale 
transformatie 
https://rechtbanken-
tribunaux.be/nl/nieuwsartikel-lokaal/digitale-transformatie-voor-een-efficiente-justitie.  

justitie),  18  December  2025, 

efficiënte 

voor 

een 

Committee P (2025), Evaluation of the application of the law on whistleblowers of 8 December 2022 
as it pertains to the whistleblowing channels of integrity violations within federal civil service and the 
integrated 
police, 
https://comitep.be/document/specifieke%20rapporten/evaluatie%20klokkenluiderswet.pdf.  

Constitutional Court (2026), Input from the Constitutional Court for the 2026 Rule of Law Report. 

Constitutional  Court,  Court  of  Cassation  and  Council  of  State  (2026),  Letter  to  the  responsible 
ministers  –  impact  of  the  increase  in  employers'  contributions  on  the  budgets  for  the  staff  of  the 
judiciary in general (impact van de verhoging van de werkgeversbijdragen op de budgetten voor het 
personeel  van  Justitie  in  het  algemeen/impact  de  l’augmentation  des  cotisations  patronales  sur  les 
budgets pour le personnel de la Justice en general), 11 March 2026.  

Council of Europe (2026), Supervision of the execution of judgments decisions of the European Court 
of Human Rights – 19th Annual Report of the Committee of Ministers – 2025, https://rm.coe.int/2025-
annual-report/48802b1633.  

Council  of  Europe,  Committee  of  Ministers  (2026),  H46-8  L.B.  group  (Application  No.  22831/08) 
and  W.D.  (Application  No.  73548/13)  v.  Belgium  Supervision  of  the  execution  of  the  European 
Court’s judgments, CM/Notes/1553/H46-8, https://rm.coe.int/09125948802aca8e.  

Council  of  Europe,  Committee  of  Ministers  (2024b),  H46-6  Camara  v.  Belgium  (Application  No. 
49255/22, Supervision of the execution of the European Court’s judgments, 17-19 September 2024, 
CM/Del/Dec(2024)1507/H46-6.  

20 

 
Council of State (2026), Additional written input from the Council of State for the 2026 Rule of Law 
Report.  

Council  of  State  (2025),  Opinion  of  31  December  2025  on  a  draft  law  'on  the  administrative 
prohibition of legal persons, companies without legal personality, and de facto associations or groups 
that  pose  a  serious  and  present  threat  to  national  security  or  the  survival  of  the  democratic  and 
constitutional  order'  (advies  van  31  december  2025  over  een  voorontwerp  van  wet  ‘betreffend  het 
administratief  verbod  van  rechtspersonen,  vennootschappen  zonder  rechtspersoonlijkheid,  en 
feitelijke  verenigingen  of  groeperingen  die  een  ernstige  en  actuele  bedreiging  vormen  voor  de 
nationale veiligheid of het voortbestaan van de democratische en grondwettelijke orde’), 78.110/AV, 
not published.  

Court of Audit (2026),  Court of Audit publishes record number of mandate lists for 2025 following 
elections in 2024, https://www.ccrek.be/nl/nieuws/rekenhof-publiceert-mandatenlijsten-1.  

Court of Audit (2025a), Court of Audit, Access to justice: processing times of court cases (Toegang 
tot 
2025, 
https://www.ccrek.be/nl/publicatie/toegang-tot-justitie-doorlooptijden-van-rechtszaken.  

doorlooptijden 

rechtszaken), 

September 

justitie: 

van 

Court  of  Audit  (2025b),  Use  of  consultancy  by  the  federal  government,  October  2025, 
https://www.ccrek.be/nl/publicatie/inzet-van-consultancy-door-de-federale-overheid.  

Court of Cassation (2026), Additional written input from Court of Cassation for the 2026 Rule of Law 
Report.  

Court of Cassation (2026), Input by the Court of Cassation for the 2026 Rule of Law Report. 

Cumuleo (2026), Input from Cumuleo for the 2026 Rule of Law Report. 

ENCJ  (2026),  European  Network  for  Councils  of  the  Judiciary,  ENCJ  contribution  for  the  2026 
European Commission Rule of Law report, available at: https://www.encj.eu/index.php/node/867.  

European  Centre  for  Press  and  Media  Freedom  (2026),  Mapping  Media  Freedom,  the  Belgium 
country profile, https://www.mappingmediafreedom.org/.  

European  Commission  (2025),  2025  Rule  of  Law  Report,  Country  Chapter  on  the  rule  of  law 
situation in Belgium.  

European  Commission  (2024),  2024  Rule  of  Law  Report,  Country  Chapter  on  the  rule  of  law 
situation in Belgium.  

European  Commission  (2023),  2023  Rule  of  Law  Report,  Country  Chapter  on  the  rule  of  law 
situation in Belgium.  

European  Commission  (2022),  2022  Rule  of  Law  Report,  Country  Chapter  on  the  rule  of  law 
situation in Belgium.  

European Commission (2025), 2025 EU Justice Scoreboard. 

European Commission (2026), 2026 EU Justice Scoreboard. 

European Court of Human Rights, Decision of 18 December 2025, Swissair International Finance III 
v  Belgium,  CE:ECHR:2025:1218DEC000129422,  1294/22,  https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-
248250.  

European  Court  of  Human  Rights,  judgment  of  5  December  2023,  Van  Den  Kerkhof  v  Belgium, 
CE:ECHR:2023:0905JUD001363019, 13630/19, https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-226415.  

European  Court  of  Human  Rights, 
CE:ECHR:2023:0718JUD004925522, 49255/22, https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-226093.  

judgment  of  18  July  2023,  Camara  v  Belgium, 

European  Court  of  Human  Rights,  judgment  of  25  November  2014,  Vasilescu  v  Belgium, 
CE:ECHR:2014:1125JUD006468212, 64682/12, https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-148507.  

21 

 
European  Court  of  Human  Rights, 
CE:ECHR:2012:1002JUD002283108, 22831/08, https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-113295.  

judgment  of  2  October  2012,  L.B.  v  Belgium, 

European  Court  of  Human  Rights, 
CE:ECHR:2008:1104JUD004482605, 44826/05, https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-89249.  

judgment  of  4  November  2008,  Bell  v  Belgium, 

European  Court  of  Human  Rights, 
CE:ECHR:1980:0227JUD000690375, 6903/75, https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/fre?i=001-57469.  

judgment  of  27  February  1980,  Deweer  v  België, 

European Court of Human Rights, M.V. and Others v Belgium, CE:ECHR:2026:0409JUD005283622, 
52836/22, https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-249528.  

European Implementation Network (2026), Input from the European Implementation Network for the 
2026 Rule of Law Report. 

European  Semester  Country  report  2026  for  Belgium,  Annex  7:  Effective  Institutional  Framework, 
https://economy-finance.ec.europa.eu/economic-surveillance-eu-member-states/country-pages-
including-country-reports/country-report-belgium_en.  

Federal Deontological Commission (2026), Written input received following the country visit. 

Federal Internal Audit Service (2026), Audit revolving doors, 4 February 2026. 

Federal Migration Centre Myria (2026), Input from the Federal Migration Centre Myria for the 2026 
Rule of Law report.  

Federal Police (2026), Written contribution provided following the country visit.  

FIRM-IFDH (2026), Input from the Federal Human Rights Institute for the 2026 Rule of Law Report.  

FIRM-IFDH  (2026),  Municipal  administrative  sanctions  and  human  rights,  Opinion  No  1/2026 
(Gemeentelijke  administratieve  sancties  en  mensenrechten,  Advies  nr.  1/2026),  13  January  2026, 
https://federaalinstituutmensenrechten.be/nl/publicaties/advies-over-de-gemeentelijke-
administratieve-sancties-gas-boetes.  

FIRM-IFDH  (2026a),  Advice  on  whistleblower  protection  legislation  in  the  judiciary,  Council  of 
State  and  Constitutional  Court,  February  2026,  https://federaalinstituutmensenrechten.be/nl/advies-
over-de-klokkenluidersregeling-voor-de-rechterlijke-macht-de-raad-van-state-en-het  

FIRM-IFDH (2026b), Federal Parliament adopts a law against SLAPP (Federaal parlement neemt een 
wet  aan 
tegen  SLAPP),  22  May  2026,  https://federaalinstituutmensenrechten.be/nl/federaal-
parlement-neemt-een-wet-aan-tegen-slapp.  

FIRM-IFDH  (2025),  Annual  Plan  2026  (Jaarplan  2026  /  Plan  annuel  2026),  14  October  2025, 
https://federaalinstituutmensenrechten.be/sites/default/files/2026-01/Jaarplan-FIRM-2026.pdf.  

FIRM-IFDH (2025a), The rule of law and human rights in Belgium (De rechtsstaat en mensenrechten 
in  België),  15  October  2025,  https://federaalinstituutmensenrechten.be/sites/default/files/2025-
10/FIRM-Rapport-rechtsstaat-2025.pdf.  

Flemish  Bar  Association  (2026),  FIRM  talks to lawyers  (FIRM gaat  in  gesprek  met advocaten),  12 
March  2026,  https://www.ordevanvlaamsebalies.be/nl/nieuws-en-events/firm-gaat-in-gesprek-met-
advocaten). 

aan 

(Nota 

de  Vlaamse  Regering, 

Flemish Government (2025), Note to the Flemish Government, VRT management agreement 2026-
2030 
2026-2030), 
https://themis.vlaanderen.be/files/07de0e40-662d-11f0-a08a-
ed399b8daf27/download?name=VR%202025%201807%20DOC.0744-
1%20Beheersovereenkomst%20VRT%202026-2030%20-%20nota%20TER.pdf&content-
disposition=inline.  

beheersovereenkomst  VRT 

Flemish  Government  (2025a),  Redistribution  of  provisional  credit:  allowance  Flemish  Radio  and 
Television  Broadcasting  Organisation  (VRT)  (Herverdeling  provisioneel  krediet:  toelage  Vlaamse 
Radio-  en  televisieomroeporganisatie  (VRT)),  14  March  2025,  https://www.vlaanderen.be/vlaamse-

22 

 
regering/beslissingen-van-de-vlaamse-regering/herverdeling-provisioneel-krediet-toelage-vlaamse-
radio-en-televisieomroeporganisatie-vrt.  

Flemish Minister of Home Affairs (2025), Proposals approved to improve integrity and deontology at 
local 
2025, 
6 
https://www.hildecrevits.be/voorstellen_goedgekeurd_om_integriteit_en_deontologie_bij_lokale_best
uren_te_verbeteren.  

October 

level, 

Flemish Parliament (2026), Minutes of the meeting of the Committee for Culture, Youth, Sport and 
Media,  Request  for  explanation  regarding  additional  budget  cuts  at  VRT,  29  January  2026, 
https://www.vlaamsparlement.be/nl/parlementair-
werk/commissies/commissievergaderingen/1988317/verslag/1991154.  

GRECO  (2025a),  Fifth  Evaluation  Round  –  Second  Compliance  Report  –  1st  addendum,  Belgium, 
https://rm.coe.int/grecorc5-2025-22-final-eng-add-to-the-2nd-compliance-report-belgium-
pu/488029e00e. 

GRECO (2025b) Fourth Evaluation Round – Second Compliance Report – 2nd addendum, Belgium, 
https://rm.coe.int/grecorc4-2025-5-final-eng-2nd-add-to-2nd-compliance-report-belgium-
pub/488029ec60.  

(2024a),  Fifth  Evaluation  Round  –  Second  Compliance  Report,  Belgium, 

GRECO 
https://rm.coe.int/grecorc5-2024-3-final-eng-2nd-compliance-report-belgium-conf-2775-
2677/1680af94d7.  

GRECO (2024b), Fourth Evaluation Round – Addendum to the Second Compliance Report, Belgium, 
https://rm.coe.int/grecorc4-2024-1-final-eng-add-to-the-2nd-compliance-report-belgium-
con/1680af9498. 

GRECO  (2022a),  Fifth  Evaluation  Round  –  Compliance  Report,  Belgium,  https://rm.coe.int/fifth-
evaluation-round-preventing-corruption-and-promoting-integrity-i/1680a53b99.  

GRECO  (2022b),  Fourth  Evaluation  Round  –  3rd  Interim  Compliance  Report,  Belgium, 
https://rm.coe.int/fourth-evaluation-round-corruption-prevention-in-respect-of-members-
of/1680a7eada.  

Integrity Bureau (2026), Additional written input from the Integrity Bureau for the 2026 Rule of Law 
Report. 

Joint  memorandum  of 
https://hofvancassatie.be/pdf/M%C3%A9morandum_commun_2024FR.pdf.  

three  highest 

courts  of  Belgium  of  19 

the 

July  2024, 

Judgment  of  the  Council  of  State  of  27  March  2026,  l’association  sans  but  lucratif  Coordination  et 
Initiatives pour et avec les Réfugiés et les Etrangers (CIRE) and others v Belgium, No 266.219.  

Minister  of  Justice 
(2026),  Belgische  Kamer  van  Volksvertegenwoordigers/Chambre  des 
représentants de Belgique, Policy Document Justice (Beleidsnota justitie/Note de politique générale 
Justice), 
1282/017), 
2026 
https://www.dekamer.be/FLWB/PDF/56/1282/56K1282017.pdf.  

January 

(DOC 

56 

22 

Minister of Justice (2025),  Budget agreement: Additional resources for Justice (Begrotingsakkoord: 
Extra 
2025, 
November 
Justitie), 
https://verlinden.belgium.be/nl/nieuws/begrotingsakkoord-extra-middelen-voor-justitie  

middelen 

voor 

24 

Ministry  of  Justice  (without  date),  Reform  of  the  Criminal  Code  (Hervorming  Strafwetboek), 
https://justitie.belgium.be/nl/themas/veiligheid_en_criminaliteit/hervorming_strafwetboek#:~:text=He
t%20nieuwe%20Strafwetboek%20gaat%20uit%20van%20een%20nieuwe,niveau%202%20%28discri
minatie%2C%20huisjesmelkerij%2C%20%E2%80%A6%29%20bedraagt%20zes%20maanden.  

OECD  (2025),  OECD  Anti‑Bribery  Convention  Phase  4  Report  on  Belgium,  25  March  2025, 
https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/oecd-anti-bribery-convention-phase-4-report-on-
belgium_2a8a1ee9-en.html.  

23 

 
OECD  (2025a),  Better  Regulation  Practices  across the  European  Union 2025, 29  September  2025, 
https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/better-regulation-practices-across-the-european-union-
2025_6f007516-en.html. 

Parliament of the French speaking community (2025), Draft Decree - Programme containing various 
provisions  relating  to  Education,  Infrastructure,  University  Hospitals,  Culture,  Scientific  Research, 
Children,  Houses  of  Justice,  Youth  and  Budgetary  Funds  (Projet  de  décret  -  programme  portant 
diverses dispositions relatives à l'Enseignement, aux Infrastructures, aux Hôpitaux universitaires, à la 
Culture, à la Recherche scientifique, à l'Enfance, aux Maisons de Justice, à la Jeunesse et aux Fonds 
budgétaires), 21 November 2025, https://archive.pfwb.be/1000000020dd0e7.  

Public Prosecution Service (2026), Additional written input from Public Prosecution Service for the 
2026 Rule of Law Report.  

Right to Protest Coalition, Preliminary Draft Quintin: A new restriction on fundamental civil society 
rights  and  freedoms  (Voorontwerp  Quintin:  Een  nieuwe  beperking  van  fundamentele  rechten  en 
vrijheden van het maatschappelijk middenveld).  

Royal  Decree  of  28  July  2025  on  electronic  litigation  before  the  Constitutional  Court  (Koninklijk 
besluit  tot  wijziging  van  het  koninklijk  besluit  van  12  september  2024  betreffende  de  elektronische 
procesvoering 
Hof), 
het 
https://www.stradalex.com/nl/sl_src_publ_leg_be_moniteur/toc/leg_be_moniteur_nl_07082025_1/do
c/bs2025202232.  

Grondwettelijk 

voor 

Royal  Decree  of  12  September  2024  "on  electronic  litigation  before  the  Constitutional  Court" 
(Koninklijk  besluit  van  12  september  2024  “betreffende  de  elektronische  procesvoering  voor  het 
Grondwettelijk Hof”), https://nl.const-court.be/court/basic-text.  

Transparency International Belgium (2025), TIB calls for stronger anti-corruption measures in wake 
of  EP  probe,  24  March  2025,  https://transparencybelgium.be/en/press-release-tib-calls-for-stronger-
anti-corruption-measures-in-wake-of-ep-probe/.  

UN  General  Assembly  (1993),  Principles  relating  to  the  Status  of  National  Institutions  (The  Paris 
Principles),  adopted  by  the  United  Nations  General  Assembly  resolution  48/134  of  20  December 
1993, https://ganhri.org/paris-principles/.  

VRM (2026), Input from the Flemish Media Regulator for the 2026 Rule of Law Report.  

VRT  (2026),  additional  written  input  from  the  Flemish  Public  Service  Media  for  the  2026  Rule  of 
Law Report.  

24 

 
Annex II: Country visit to Belgium 

The  Commission  services  held  online  and  in-person  meetings  in  February  and  March  2026 
with: 

Integrity Bureau 

•  Amnesty International Belgium 
• 
•  Committee P 
•  Flemish, French and German-speaking Community Authorities for Media 
•  Constitutional Court 
•  Council of State 
•  Court of Cassation 
•  Federal Deontological Commission 
•  Federal Human Rights Institute 
•  Federal Ombudsman 
•  Federation of Belgian Enterprises (VBO-FEB) 
•  Flemish Association of Journalists (Vlaamse Vereniging van Journalisten, VVJ) 
•  Flemish Bar Association (Orde van Vlaamse Balies) 
•  Flemish Media Regulator (Vlaamse Regulator voor de Media) 
•  French-  and  German-speaking  Order  of  the  Belgian  Bar  (l'Ordre  des  barreaux 

francophones et germanophone de Belgique) 

•  High Council for Justice 
•  High Council for the Audiovisual (Conseil Supérieur de l’audiovisuel, CSA) 
•  Journalistic Ethics Council (Le Conseil de déontologie journalistique) 
•  Liga voor Mensenrechten 
•  Ligue des Droits Humains 
•  Media regulatory authority of the German-speaking Community (Medienrat) 
•  Federal Government 
•  Public Prosecution Service 
•  Public Service Media (RTBF, VRT, BRF) 
•  Transparency International Belgium 

The Commission also met the following organisations in a number of horizontal meetings:  

•  Civil Liberties Union for Europe 
•  Civil Society Europe 
•  End FGM EU 
•  European Civic Forum 
•  European Partnership for Democracy 
•  Human Rights Watch 
• 
ILGA-Europe 
• 
International Federation for Human Rights 
•  Philea - Philanthropy Europe Association 
•  Transparency International EU 

25