COMMISSION STAFF WORKING DOCUMENT 2025 Environmental Implementation Review Country Report - CYPRUS Accompanying the document Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions 2025 Environmental Implementation Review for prosperity and security
Date: 2025-07-07
Institutions: Directorate-General for Environment, European Commission
Subjects: Cyprus, EU environmental policy, application of EU law, biodiversity, circular economy, climate change policy, environmental law, governance, pollution control measures, waste management

EN 

  EN 

   EUROPEAN COMMISSION  Brussels, 7.7.2025  SWD(2025) 304 final  COMMISSION STAFF WORKING DOCUMENT 2025 Environmental Implementation Review       Country Report - CYPRUS             Accompanying the document Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions 2025 Environmental Implementation Review for prosperity and security      {COM(2025) 420 final} - {SWD(2025) 300 final} - {SWD(2025) 301 final} - {SWD(2025) 302 final} - {SWD(2025) 303 final} - {SWD(2025) 305 final} - {SWD(2025) 306 final} - {SWD(2025) 307 final} - {SWD(2025) 308 final} - {SWD(2025) 309 final} - {SWD(2025) 310 final} - {SWD(2025) 311 final} - {SWD(2025) 312 final} - {SWD(2025) 313 final} - {SWD(2025) 314 final} - {SWD(2025) 315 final} - {SWD(2025) 316 final} - {SWD(2025) 317 final} - {SWD(2025) 318 final} - {SWD(2025) 319 final} - {SWD(2025) 320 final} - {SWD(2025) 321 final} - {SWD(2025) 322 final} - {SWD(2025) 323 final} - {SWD(2025) 324 final} - {SWD(2025) 325 final} - {SWD(2025) 326 final}  
 
 
Cyprus  2 

Contents 

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ........................................................................................................................................... 3 

PART I: THEMATIC AREAS ...................................................................................................................................... 4 

1. CIRCULAR ECONOMY AND WASTE MANAGEMENT ....................................................................................................... 4 
Transitioning to a circular economy ..................................................................................................................... 4 
Waste management ............................................................................................................................................. 6 
2. BIODIVERSITY AND NATURAL CAPITAL .................................................................................................................... 12 
Global and EU biodiversity frameworks ............................................................................................................. 12 
Nature protection and restoration – Natura 2000 ............................................................................................. 12 
Recovery of species ............................................................................................................................................ 14 
Recovery of ecosystems ..................................................................................................................................... 16 
Prevention and management of invasive alien species ...................................................................................... 21 
Ecosystem assessment and accounting ............................................................................................................. 22 
3. ZERO POLLUTION .............................................................................................................................................. 23 
Clean air ............................................................................................................................................................. 23 
Industrial emissions ............................................................................................................................................ 24 
Major industrial accidents prevention – Seveso ................................................................................................. 26 
Mercury Regulation ............................................................................................................................................ 27 
Noise .................................................................................................................................................................. 28 
Water quality and management ........................................................................................................................ 28 
Chemicals ........................................................................................................................................................... 31 
4. CLIMATE ACTION .............................................................................................................................................. 34 
The EU emissions trading system ....................................................................................................................... 34 
Effort sharing ..................................................................................................................................................... 35 
Land use, land use change and forestry ............................................................................................................. 36 
Adaptation to climate change ............................................................................................................................ 36 

PART II: ENABLING FRAMEWORK – IMPLEMENTATION TOOLS ............................................................................ 37 

5. FINANCING ...................................................................................................................................................... 37 
Climate finance landmarks ................................................................................................................................. 37 
Environmental financing and investments ......................................................................................................... 38 
Public financial management ............................................................................................................................. 42 
6. ENVIRONMENTAL GOVERNANCE ........................................................................................................................... 45 
Information, public participation and access to justice...................................................................................... 45 
Compliance assurance ........................................................................................................................................ 47 
EU-supported environmental capacity building ................................................................................................. 50 

2025 Environmental Implementation Review – Cyprus 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Cyprus  3 

Executive summary 

In  May  2016,  the  European  Commission  launched  the 
Environmental  Implementation  Review  (EIR),  a  regular 
reporting 
tool  based  on  analysis,  dialogue  and 
collaboration  with  EU  Member  States  to  improve  the 
implementation  of  existing  EU  environmental  policy  and 
legislation (1). Following previous cycles in 2017, 2019 and 
2022,  this  report  assesses  the  progress  made  while 
the  main  outstanding  challenges  and 
describing 
opportunities 
legal 
implementation in Cyprus. The purpose of this report is to 
provide information on the implementation performance 
and  highlight  the  most  effective  ways  to  address  the 
implementation gaps  that impact human health and the 
environment and hamper the economic development and 
competitiveness  of  the  country.  The  report  relies  on 
detailed  sectoral  implementation  reports  collected  or 
issued  by  the  Commission  under  specific  environmental 
legislation. 

environmental 

regarding 

The  main  challenges  set  out  below  have  been  selected 
from  Part I  of  this  report,  ‘Thematic  areas’,  taking  into 
consideration 
factors  such  as  the  gravity  of  the 
environmental implementation issue in light of the impact 
on the quality of life of citizens, the distance to target, and 
financial  implications.  In  Cyprus,  such  challenges  have 
been  lingering  since  the  first  EIR  in  2017  and  require 
urgent action. 

Urgent  reforms  and  investments  in  waste  management 
and the circular economy are needed to move away from 
Cyprus’s  reliance  on  waste  disposal  in  landfills,  which 
remains  significant.  The  rehabilitation  of  two  remaining 
illegal landfills is ongoing, although progress is very slow 
(Cyprus  was  condemned  by  the  Court  of  Justice  of  the 
European Union in 2013 and, unless it steps up its efforts, 
it  risks  being  referred  back  to  the  Court  of  Justice  and 
receiving financial sanctions). Waste generation in Cyprus 
is significantly above the EU average. Cyprus makes very 
limited use of economic instruments in this area. Cyprus 
missed  the  2020  target  to  recycle  50 %  of  its  municipal 
waste by a great margin and is on course to miss the 2025 
targets  of  55 %  recycling  of  municipal  waste  and  65 % 
recycling of all packaging waste. 

On nature protection, there are still some insufficiencies 
in designation. Therefore, Cyprus has still to complete its 
Natura  2000  network,  in  particular  the  marine  part.  An 
infringement case is open on the matter. There seems to 
be  a  lack  of  progress  in  maintaining  or  restoring  the 
favourable  conservation  status  of  species  and  habitats 

(1) 

from 

the  Commission 

the  European 
Communication 
Parliament,  the  Council,  the  European  Economic  and  Social 
Committee  and  the  Committee  of  the  Regions –  Delivering  the 
benefits  of  EU  environmental  policies  through  a  regular 

to 

protected under the Nature Directives. Furthermore, the 
quality  of  the  conservation  objectives  and  measures  is 
insufficient. Moreover, Cyprus has drawn up management 
plans  for  most  SCIs,  but  the  majority  of  these  are 
outdated. The effective protection of Natura 2000 areas – 
especially the coastal zone – from incompatible activities 
or developments that fragment or degrade them remains 
a  concern.  Management  plans  for  these  areas  must  be 
completed  and  properly  implemented  and  all  necessary 
environmental  assessments  carried  out  correctly  before 
potentially  damaging plans or projects can be approved. 
The  necessary  mitigation  measures  should  be  properly 
applied.  Some  progress  has  been  made  on  the  illegal 
trapping  of  birds  thanks  to  increased  enforcement  and 
stricter fines for mist netting in legislation. However, the 
trapping  numbers  are  still  unacceptably  high  and  more 
efforts  are  required  to  drastically  reduce  and  ultimately 
put an end to such illegal practices. 

Water abstraction remains the main pressure on water in 
Cyprus. Urban wastewater treatment remains an issue in 
Cyprus, with slow progress and limited funding sources. 

The  overall  environmental  investment  need  to  enable 
Cyprus to meet its objectives in the main environmental 
areas 
is  EUR 560 million  per  year.  The  estimated 
requirement  is  balanced  across  the  four  environmental 
objectives (water, circular economy, pollution prevention 
and  control,  and  biodiversity  and  ecosystems),  with  a 
slight skew towards the water objective (EUR 169 million 
per  year).  To  meet  its  four  environmental  objectives 
beyond  climate  change,  the  additional  investment  need 
over the current levels – the environmental gap – reaches 
an  estimated  EUR 211 million  per  year 
in  Cyprus, 
representing around 0.78 % of the national gross domestic 
product, being lower than the EU average (0.77 %). 

On  environmental  governance,  Cyprus  still  needs  to 
improve access to courts in national environmental cases 
for the public concerned and eliminate practical barriers, 
such as excessive costs. 

On the positive side, Cyprus has been working on putting 
in  place  a  digital  one-stop  shop  for  issuing  permits  for 
renewable energy sources projects, which is in included in 
its  recovery  and  resilience  plan.  Cyprus  also  has  an 
excellent  record  under  the  Bathing  Water  Directive: 
97.6 % of Cypriot bathing waters are of excellent quality. 

implementation  review,  COM(2016) 316 
environmental 
final  of  27 May  2016,  https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/?uri=COM%3A2016%3A316%3AFIN. 

2025 Environmental Implementation Review – Cyprus 

 
 
 
 
Part I: Thematic areas 

1. Circular economy and waste management 

Transitioning to a circular economy 

Figure 1: CMUR (%), 2013–2023 

Cyprus  4 

Advancing the transition to a circular economy in the EU 
will reduce the environmental and climate impact of our 
industrial  systems  by  reducing  input  materials,  keeping 
products and materials in the loop for longer and reducing 
waste generation, thus decoupling economic growth from 
circular  economy  has 
resource 
considerable  potential  to  increase  competitiveness  and 
job creation and will also promote innovation and provide 
access to new markets. With the 2020 circular  economy 
action  plan  (CEAP) (2)  measures  either 
in  place  or 
legislatively  advanced,  Member  States  will  now  have  to 
focus on a swift and effective implementation. 

consumption.  A 

The 2020 CEAP launched the legislative process for a set 
of  initiatives  that  will  now  have  to  be  implemented  by 
national  governments  across  the  EU.  These  initiatives 
were all introduced following a holistic life-cycle approach, 
with  measures  addressing  the  different  stages  of  a 
product’s life cycle, from design through use to end of life. 

In the CEAP, the EU sets as its overarching objective the 
doubling of its circular material use rate (CMUR) by 2030. 

The CMUR is a  measure of  one aspect of circularity: the 
share of the total amount of material used in the economy 
that is accounted for by recycled waste.  A higher CMUR 
value means that more secondary materials were used as 
a  substitute  for  raw  materials,  thus  reducing  the 
environmental impacts of extracting primary material. 

The  circular  use  of  material  in  Cyprus  was  at  its  highest 
rate  in  2022,  when  it  reached  8.5 %  following  a  steady 
increase, thus showing the country’s potential. However, 
with a decrease to 5.4 % in 2023, it is far behind the EU 
average of 11.8 % (Figure 1). 

15,

10,

5,

0,

2013

2015

2017

2019

2021

2023

Cyprus

EU27

Source: Eurostat, ‘Circular material use rate’, env_ac_cur,  last updated 
13 November 
2024, 
accessed 
https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/product/view/env_ac_cur. 

10 December 

2024, 

Resource  productivity  measures  the  total  amount  of 
materials directly used by an economy in relation to gross 
domestic product (GDP). Improving resource productivity 
can help to minimise negative impacts on the environment 
and reduce dependency on volatile raw material markets. 
As shown in Figure 2, with EUR 1.36 generated per kg of 
material  consumed  in  2023,  resource  productivity  in 
Cyprus is well below the EU average of EUR 2.22 EUR per 
kg. 

Figure 2: Resource productivity (EUR/kg), 2013–2023 

2,5

2,

1,5

1,

0,5

0,

2013

2015

2017

2019

2021

2023

Cyprus

EU27

NB: The unit of measurement used is EUR/kg chain-linked volume (2015). 
Chain-linked  volumes  focus  on  changes  on  quantities  and  prices  of 
commodities  in  previous  years,  taking  account  of  inflation,  and  are 
indexed to the nearest appropriate year, in this case 2015. 

Source:  Eurostat,  ‘Resource  productivity’,  env_ac_rp,  last  updated 
7 August 
2024, 
https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/product/view/env_ac_rp. 

10 December 

accessed 

2024, 

(2) 

Communication 
the  European 
Parliament,  the  Council,  the  European  Economic  and  Social 
Committee  and  the  Committee  of  the  Regions –  A  new  circular 

the  Commission 

from 

to 

economy action plan for a cleaner and more competitive Europe, 
COM(2020) 98 
https://eur-
lex.europa.eu/legal-content/FR/TXT/?uri=CELEX:52020DC0098. 

11 March 

2020, 

final 

of 

2025 Environmental Implementation Review – Cyprus 

 
 
 
 
Policies and measures 

In  parallel  with  European  initiatives  under  the  CEAP, 
Member States are encouraged to adopt and implement 
circular strategies at the national, regional and city levels. 
These should be tailored to each national and local reality, 
to  harness  the  proximity  economy’s (3)  potential,  while 
following  the  principles  of  a  holistic  whole-value-chain 
approach. 

Since the launch of the online European Circular Economy 
Stakeholder  Platform  in  2017 (4)  national,  regional  and 
local  authorities  have  used  the  platform  to  share  their 
strategies,  roadmaps  and  good  practices,  for  example 
alternative business models and innovative technologies. 

Cyprus’s 2021–2027 CEAP, reinforced by the recovery and 
resilience plan (RRP), is advancing the country’s transition 
to sustainable resource management. Coordinated across 
several ministries, the CEAP focuses on cultivating circular 
economy 
investments, 
infrastructure  and  managing 
developing  essential 
municipal  waste  effectively.  Priority  sectors  such  as 
agriculture,  food,  manufacturing  and  hospitality  are 
targeted due to their economic impact and potential for 
circular integration. 

encouraging 

awareness, 

Cyprus had  planned the revision of its waste prevention 
programme for 2022. A draft plan was published in 2022 
for  consultation.  To  date,  the  Commission  has  not  been 
able to verify if a revised plan has been adopted. 

The  RRP  provides  crucial  support,  funding  projects  that 
strengthen  the  circular  economy  infrastructure.  The  ‘Go 
funding  scheme,  backed  by  EUR 1 million, 
circular’ 
supports research and development for circular products, 
while  a  EUR 13.3 million  grant  scheme 
incentivises 
businesses  to  adopt  circular  practices.  Additionally,  the 
RRP dedicates EUR 3.5 million to green recycling kiosks in 
remote areas and EUR 10 million to expanding the Green 
Points  Network  for  rural  waste  management.  These 
adaptive, multistakeholder  initiatives under the RRP and 
CEAP  are  essential  in  reducing  Cyprus’s  environmental 
footprint and aligning it with EU sustainability objectives. 

Green public procurement 

Public  procurement  accounts  for  a  large  proportion  of 
European 
authorities’ 
consumption,  with  public 
purchasing  power  representing  around  14 %  of  EU  GDP. 
Public  procurement  using  green  or  circular  criteria  (life-
cycle analysis, PaaS (platform as a service), second hand) 

Cyprus  5 

can help drive the demand for sustainable products that 
meet reparability and recyclability standards. 

A national strategy for green public procurement has been 
in  force  since  March  2007,  and  a  second  strategy  was 
adopted  in  2012.  The  implementation  of  the  national 
action plan for green public procurement is mandatory for 
all  public-sector  contracting  authorities,  public 
law 
organisations and local authorities. 

and 

services, 

All  public  procurers  must  apply  at  least  the  core  criteria 
from  the  EU’s  recommended  green  public  procurement 
criteria sets as well as the criteria set at the national level. 
These  criteria  cover  office  equipment,  paper,  electricity, 
cleaning  products 
sanitary  ware, 
construction  (building  and  road),  food  products  and 
services,  furniture,  textiles,  transport,  and  gardening 
products and services. Every few years, the Department of 
Environment publishes a review of achievements, drawn 
up  based  on  questionnaires  and  direct  contact  with  the 
public authorities concerned. Since 2014, the department 
has  organised  an  award  for  green  procurements,  the  CY 
GPP  Awards.  All  contracting  authorities  that  purchase 
green products through their tenders or other procedures 
are eligible for this award. 

further  measures  have  been  brought  to  the 
No 
Commission’s  attention  since  the  2022  Environmental 
Implementation Review (EIR). 

The EU Ecolabel and the eco-management and audit 
scheme 

The  number  of  EU  Ecolabel  product  groups  and  the 
number  of  eco-management  and  audit  scheme  (EMAS)-
licensed  organisations  in  each  country  provide  some 
indication  of  the  extent  to  which  the  private  sector  and 
national stakeholders in that country are actively engaged 
in the transition to a circular economy. The EU Ecolabel is 
awarded  to  products  with  best-in-class  environmental 
is  a  voluntary  environment 
performance.  EMAS 
management 
the 
scheme 
environmental impacts of organisations. 

reducing 

aimed 

at 

As  of  September  2024,  Cyprus  had  84  products  out  of 
98 977  and  3  licenses  out  of  2 983  registered  in  the  EU 
Ecolabel scheme, showing no progress since 2021. On the 
other  hand,  as  of  October  2024,  89  organisations  from 
Cyprus were registered in EMAS, 16 more than in 2021 (5). 

Cyprus’s 
by 
decreased 
3.1 percentage  points  between  2022  and  2023.  This 

considerably, 

CMUR 

(3) 

European Commission, ‘Proximity and social economy ecosystem’, 
https://single-market-
European 
economy.ec.europa.eu/sectors/proximity-and-social-
economy_en. 

Commission 

website, 

(4) 

(5) 

Economy 

Stakeholder 

Circular 
(https://circulareconomy.europa.eu/platform/en/strategies). 
European Commission, ‘EMAS Register – Published organisations’, 
EMAS 
website, 
Register 
https://webgate.ec.europa.eu/emas2/public/registration/list. 

Platform 

2025 Environmental Implementation Review – Cyprus 

 
 
Cyprus  6 

being the main driver for the steep increase observed for 
generation  of  waste  excluding  major  mineral  waste. 
Cyprus’s  GDP  shows  a  steady  growth  throughout  the 
considered  time  frame,  with  a  drop  in  2020,  most  likely 
due to the COVID-19 outbreak. While a longer time series 
is  needed  to  confirm  decoupling  from  GDP,  waste 
generation  appears  not  to  have  been  decoupled  from 
economic growth. 

Figure 3: Generation of waste (total and excluding major 
mineral waste), population and GDP, 2010–2022 

represents  a  step  back  from  the  2022  priority  action  to 
take measures to increase the rate. 

2025 priority action 

•  Adopt measures to increase the circular material use 

rate. 

Waste management 

Turning waste into a resource is supported by: 

(i)  addressing  the  full  life  cycle  of  products,  from 
conception to end of life, by setting requirements on 
the design of products to ensure that they are more 
sustainable; 

(ii)  fully 

implementing  EU  waste 

legislation,  which 
includes the waste hierarchy, the obligation to ensure 
separate collection of waste, landfill diversion targets, 
etc.; 

(iii)  reducing waste generation per capita and in absolute 

terms; 

(iv)  increasing  the  recycling  rates  of  waste  containing 
critical raw materials (CRMs), with a view to reducing 
dependencies and building resilient value chains, and 
in  all 
stimulating  demand  for  recycled  content 
products; 

(v)  limiting energy recovery to non-recyclable materials; 

and 

accessed 

15 October 

nama_10_gdp, 

Sources: Eurostat, ‘GDP and main components (output, expenditure and 
income)’, 
2024, 
https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/nama_10_gdp__cust
om_9301905/default/table;  Eurostat,  ‘Generation  of  waste  by  waste 
category,  hazardousness  and  NACE  Rev. 2  activity’,  env_wasgen,  last 
updated 
2024, 
https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/env_wasgen/default/
table?lang=en; Eurostat, ‘Population change – Demographic balance and 
crude  rates  at  national  level’,  demo_grind,  accessed  15 October  2024, 
https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/demo_gind/default/t
able?lang=en&category=demo.demo_ind. 

30 September 

22 October 

accessed 

2024, 

(vi)  phasing  out  landfilling  of  recyclable  or  recoverable 

Critical raw materials 

waste. 

One  of  the  main  objectives  of  the  EU  Waste  Law  is  to 
decouple  economic  growth  from 
its  environmental 
impacts. 

The EU’s approach to waste management is based on the 
waste  treatment  hierarchy:  prevention,  preparing  for 
reuse,  recycling,  recovery  and,  as  the  least  preferred 
option,  disposal 
landfilling  and 
includes 
incineration without energy recovery). 

(which 

All legislative proposals in the field of waste management 
put forward by the Commission since 2021 are intended 
to encourage Member States to promote better product 
design,  to  require  producers  to  cover  the  costs  of 
managing the waste resulting from their products and to 
ensure that waste is managed at the higher levels of the 
waste hierarchy. 

increase 

follows  a  slightly 
Cyprus’s  total  waste  generation 
fluctuating  trend,  with  an 
in  2022,  which 
becomes more pronounced when excluding major mineral 
wastes (Figure 3). Within waste (excluding major mineral 
waste), mixed waste and animal and vegetable waste are 
the  largest  waste  categories.  For  mixed  waste,  a  steady 
increase in the generated amounts can be observed and 
this category has more than doubled since 2010. Amounts 
of animal and vegetable waste strongly increased in 2022, 

promote 

reuse, 
in 

Cyprus  has  adopted  measures  aiming  to  improve  the 
performance  of  extended  producer  responsibility  (EPR) 
schemes  for  products  rich  in  CRMs,  such  as  waste 
electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE), batteries and 
construction and demolition waste. Specific measures to 
prolong the lifetime of electrical and electronic equipment 
and 
their 
and 
(EEE) 
repair 
remanufacturing  are 
the  new  waste 
included 
prevention  programme,  which  was  expected  to  be 
adopted by the end of 2024. Such measures include (i) the 
development  of  an  action  plan  for  the  sustainable 
management  of  WEEE;  (ii)  the  establishment  of  a  WEEE 
return  scheme  by  retailers  for  reuse,  repair  and 
remanufacturing through the collective  EPR scheme; (iii) 
the  introduction  of  measures  to  support  existing  EEE 
repair businesses and to promote new innovative business 
models  for  EEE,  including  sharing,  leasing,  renting  and 
lending; (iv) the adoption of new EU regulations on  eco-
design and the repair of goods relating to the provision of 
information to consumers about the lifetime of EEE, repair 
possibilities and warranty periods; and (v) the creation of 
EEE repair/reuse centres and a network of stores. 

There  are  also  measures  that  address  batteries  and 
accumulators:  (i)  the  development  of  an  action  plan  for 
the 
and 
sustainable  management  of  batteries 
accumulators;  (ii)  the  extension  of  the  EPR  collective 

2025 Environmental Implementation Review – Cyprus 

050100150200250201020112012201 201 2015201 201 201 201 202020212022 ndex (2010   100)yearwaste genera on total wastewaste genera on excl  mineral wastesGDPpopula on 
 
Cyprus  7 

scheme  or  the  creation  of  a  new  collective  system  to 
include  portable  batteries  of  up  to  5 kg,  in  line  with  the 
new  EU  regulations,  and  the  establishment  of  producer 
responsibility 
light-vehicle 
for  the  management  of 
batteries; and (iii) increasing the provision of information 
to  consumers  regarding  the  separate  collection  and 
management of batteries. 

for  recycling  and  preparation  for  reuse  compared  with 
incineration and landfilling. If available technology were to 
be applied, it is estimated that an increase in recycling and 
preparation for reuse would lead to an additional 33 Mt of 
greenhouse  gas  (GHG)  emission  savings  annually  (more 
than,  for  example,  the  combined  annual  GHG  emissions 
from Estonia, Latvia and Luxembourg). 

for 

though 

EPR  schemes  have  been  established  for  batteries,  WEEE 
and construction and demolition waste, while for vehicles 
end-of-life  procedures  are  in  place  for  their  rational 
management.  Batteries  and  WEEE  are  collected  from 
the  EPR  schemes.  WEEE  are 
households 
transported to waste treatment facilities for pretreatment 
and  subsequently  exported 
further  treatment. 
Batteries are directly exported for treatment. End-of-life 
vehicles are also transported to waste treatment facilities 
for  pretreatment  and  subsequently  exported  for  further 
treatment.  The  mandatory  application  of  European 
standard  EN 50625 
is  currently  being 
for  WEEE 
considered.  Changes  to  the  EPR  schemes  are  also  being 
increased  financing),  alongside 
considered  (including 
increased  separate  collection  requirements  and  public 
awareness  campaigns,  particularly  regarding  WEEE.  As 
regards the use of  secondary CRMs, public procurement 
will be considered in the future; when it comes to research 
and innovation aspects, Cyprus is planning to carry out a 
mapping of old mining waste to find copper (Cu). Finally, 
Cyprus  has  reported  the  deployment  of  measures  that 
could  remove  regulatory  barriers  for  cross-border  waste 
treatment.  If  Cyprus  were  to  remove  such  regulatory 
measures, it could be assumed that Cyprus would have in 
place policies that enable the circularity of CRMs. 

Construction and demolition waste 

Construction  and  demolition  waste  accounts  for  almost 
40 % of all waste generated in the EU. A recent study (6) by 
the  Joint  Research  Centre  shows  that  recycling  and 
preparation for reuse are preferred over incineration and 
landfilling from an environmental perspective for most of 
the  different  streams  of  construction  and  demolition 
waste.  However,  the  economics  are  often  unfavourable 

(6) 

(7) 

European Commission: Joint Research Centre, Cristobal Garcia, J., 
Caro, D. et al., Techno-economic and environmental assessment of 
construction and demolition waste management in the European 
Union,  Publications  Office  of  the  European  Union,  Luxembourg, 
2024, 
https://publications.jrc.ec.europa.eu/repository/handle/JRC1354
70. 
European  Commission:  Directorate-General  for  Internal  Market, 
Industry,  Entrepreneurship  and  SMEs,  EU  Construction  & 
Demolition Waste Management Protocol including guidelines for 
pre-demolition and pre-renovation audits of construction works – 
Updated edition 2024, Publications Office of the European Union, 
Luxembourg,  2024,  https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-
/publication/d63d5a8f-64e8-11ef-a8ba-01aa75ed71a1/language-
en. 

The rate of recycling and preparation for reuse of mineral 
construction and demolition waste in Cyprus in 2022 was 
92.3 %,  compared  with  the  EU  average  of  79.8 %. 
Measures  to  further  increase  the  rate  of  recycling  and 
preparation  for  reuse  of  construction  and  demolition 
waste  include  separate  collection  at  the  source –  for 
instance,  through  digitalised  pre-demolition  audits (7) 
(‘resource  assessments’);  EPR  and  other  economic 
instruments;  and  upstream  measures  such  as  increasing 
the  recycled  content  in  construction  products  and  the 
circular design (8) of construction works. 

Boosting implementation – the 2023 Waste Early 
Warning Report 

This  section  focuses  on  the  management  of  municipal 
waste (9),  for  which  EU  law  sets  mandatory  recycling 
targets.  In  June  2023,  the  Commission  published  the 
Waste  Early  Warning  Report (10)  identifying  the  general 
trends in waste  management and the Member States at 
risk of missing 2025 waste targets (see Figure 4). Cyprus is 
at risk of missing both the municipal waste target and the 
packaging  waste  target.  Cyprus  is  also  at  risk  of  not 
meeting the 2035 target of having a maximum of 10 % of 
municipal waste landfilled. 

(8) 

European Commission, Circular Economy – Principles for buildings 
design, 
2020, 
Brussels, 
https://ec.europa.eu/docsroom/documents/39984. 

(9)  Municipal  waste  consists  of  (i)  mixed  waste  and  separately 
collected waste from households, including paper and cardboard, 
glass, metals, plastics, biowaste, wood, textiles, packaging, WEEE, 
waste  batteries  and  accumulators,  and  bulky  waste,  including 
mattresses  and  furniture;  and  (ii)  mixed  waste  and  separately 
collected waste from other sources, where such waste is similar in 
nature  and  composition  to  waste  from  households  (Directive 
2008/98/EC, Article 3.2b). 
https://environment.ec.europa.eu/publications/waste-early-
warning-report_en. 

(10) 

2025 Environmental Implementation Review – Cyprus 

 
 
Figure 4:  Member  States’  prospects  of  meeting  the 
preparing  for  reuse  and  recycling  targets  for  municipal 
waste and packaging waste 

Member  States  not  at  risk  of  missing  the  55 % 
preparing 
for 
municipal  waste  and  the  65 %  recycling  target  for 
packaging waste 

for  reuse  and  recycling  target 

Member  States  at  risk  of  missing  the  preparing  for 
reuse  and  recycling  target  for  municipal  waste  but 
not  at  risk  of  missing  the  recycling  target  for 
packaging waste 

Member States at risk of missing both targets 

Outside coverage 

Source: European Environment Agency (EEA), ‘Many EU Member States 
not on track to meet recycling targets for municipal waste and packaging 
waste’, briefing No 28/2022, Copenhagen, 2023. Reference data © ESRI. 

Under  certain  conditions,  EU  waste  legislation  enables 
some  Member  States  to  postpone  the  deadlines  for 
reaching certain waste management targets for municipal 
and packaging waste. Member States that want to use this 
possibility  have  to  notify  the  Commission  24 months  in 
advance  of  the  deadline  and  submit  an  implementation 
plan  laying  down  the  steps  they  envisage  to  reach  the 
postponed targets within a new time frame. Regarding the 
2025  targets,  11  Member  States,  not  including  Cyprus, 
have used this prerogative. 

Cyprus  8 

In  the  Waste  Early  Warning  Report,  the  Commission 
recommended  that  Member  States  accelerate  their 
efforts  to  improve  their  recycling  performance.  The 
Commission  is,  on  one  hand,  working  together  with  the 
national  authorities  and  stakeholders  to  speed  up  the 
implementation  of  measures  necessary  to  meet  the 
targets,  including  through  dedicated  financing.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  Commission  is  pursuing  enforcement 
actions against those Member States that, based on data 
submitted to the Commission, do not achieve the targets 
of the Waste Framework Directive(11) , the Packaging and 
Packaging  Waste  Directive  (12)  and  the  Directive  on 
WEEE (13). 

Municipal waste 

Municipal  waste  generation  in  Cyprus  decreased  slightly 
between 2010 and 2022 (Figure 5). In 2022, the  country 
generated 673 kg of municipal waste per capita, which is 
significantly above the estimated EU-27 average of 513 kg 
per capita. The high per capita values might be influenced 
by the high levels of touristic activity (14). 

Figure 5:  Municipal  waste  management  and  recycling 
(including preparation for reuse), 2010–2022 

Source:  Eurostat,  ‘Municipal  waste  by  waste  management  operations’, 
env_wasmun, 
2024, 
https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/ENV_WASMUN/defa
ult/table. 

22 October 

accessed 

For  municipal  waste,  little  progress  has  been  made 
recently:  in  2022,  only  15 %  of  municipal  waste  was 
prepared for reuse or recycled, which is significantly below 

(11)    Directive  2008/98/EC  of  the  European  Parliament  and  of  the 
Council  of  19  November  2008  on  waste  and  repealing  certain 
Directives, Directive - 2008/98 - EN - Waste framework directive - 
EUR-Lex. 

(12)   European  Parliament  and  Council  Directive  94/62/EC  of  20 
December  1994  on  packaging  and  packaging  waste  (OJ  L  365, 
31/12/1994, p. 10–23), Directive - 94/62 - EN - EUR-Lex.  

(13)   Directive  2012/19/EU  of  the  European  Parliament  and  of  the 
Council  of  4 July  2012  on  waste  electrical  and  electronic 
equipment  (WEEE)  (OJ  L 197,  24.7.2012,  p. 38),  Directive  - 
2012/19 - EN - EUR-Lex. 
European  Environment  Agency  (EAA),  Early  warning  assessment 
related to the 2025 targets for municipal and packaging waste – 
Cyprus, 
2022, 
Copenhagen, 
https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/many-eu-member-
states/cyprus/view. 

(14) 

2025 Environmental Implementation Review – Cyprus 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Cyprus  9 

Figure 7: Packaging waste generation, 2010–2022 

the  EU-27  average  of  49 %  in  the  same  year.  The  mixed 
waste is mostly treated in mechanical biological treatment 
plants; the outputs of these plants are often landfilled or 
exported for recycling. In contrast, the amounts of waste 
sent to incineration are very low (EEA, 2023). 

Figure 6: Recycling (including preparation for reuse) and 
landfill rates (%), 2010–2022 

Source:  Eurostat,  ‘Packaging  waste  by  waste  management  operations’, 
env_waspac, last updated 23 October 2024, accessed 28 October 2024, 
https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/ENV_WASPAC__cust
om_842634/default/table?lang=en. 

The  country’s  overall  packaging  waste  recycling  rate 
significantly  increased  throughout  the  considered  time 
frame,  reaching  70 %  in  2022  (Figure 8).  The  overall 
packaging recycling rate is mainly influenced by paper and 
cardboard packaging, as this constitutes the largest share 
of  recyclable  waste  and  has  the  highest  recycling  rate. 
However,  data  quality  issues  are  likely  to  result  in 
overestimating the recycling rate. 

Figure 8: Packaging waste recycling rates (%), 2010–2022 

NB: As of reference year 2020, new reporting rules apply to calculating 
in 
recycled  municipal  waste  pursuant  to  the  targets 
Article 11(2)(c–e) of Directive 2008/98/EC. However, it is unclear based 
on  the  information  available  whether  these  new  reporting  rules  have 
been implemented in Cyprus yet. 

laid  down 

Source:  Eurostat,  ‘Municipal  waste  by  waste  management  operations’, 
2024, 
env_wasmun, 
https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/ENV_WASMUN/defa
ult/table. 

22 October 

accessed 

Cyprus’  landfill  rate  decreased  significantly  during  the 
considered  time  period;  however,  the  recycling  rate 
stagnated. In 2022, the landfill rate was 59 %. 

Packaging waste 

Cyprus generated 99 kg per capita of packaging waste in 
2022,  which  is  significantly  below  the  estimated  EU-27 
average  of  186 kg  per  capita  in  the  same  year (15).  This 
seemingly low value could originate from under-reporting 
of packaging placed on the market (EEA, 2023). 

NB:  The  method of  calculating  recycled packaging  waste  has  changed, 
pursuant  to  Article 6(a)  of  Directive  94/62/EC.  Cyprus  has  applied  the 
new calculation rules since reference year 2020. However, a significant 
proportion  of  its  sorted  packaging  waste  is  exported  for  recycling  and 
information on how much of the exported waste is actually recycled is 
lacking. 

Source:  Eurostat,  ‘Packaging  waste  by  waste  management  operations’, 
env_waspac, last updated 23 October 2024, accessed 28 October 2024, 

(15) 

The  EU  average  might  have  been  influenced by  not  all  Member 
States fully  applying  the  reporting  rules for  packaging  waste  set 
out in Commission Implementing Decision (EU) 2019/665. 

2025 Environmental Implementation Review – Cyprus 

 
 
 
 
 
Cyprus  10 

https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/ENV_WASPAC__cust
om_842634/default/table?lang=en. 

Policies to discourage landfilling or incineration  

The recycling rates for paper and cardboard continuously 
exceeded  the  2025  recycling  targets,  while  the  recycling 
rates for all other materials stayed below the 2025 targets 
in 2021 and 2022. However, there are data quality issues 
regarding  packaging,  reflected  by  the  disparity  between 
the 
low  municipal  waste  recycling  rates  and  high 
packaging waste recycling rates. This inconsistency arises 
from  a  significant  portion  of  packaging  waste  being 
generated  by  households,  and  therefore  constituting 
municipal waste. 

Policies to encourage waste prevention 

Waste  management  plans  and  waste  prevention 
programmes are instrumental to the full implementation 
of  EU  waste  legislation.  They  set  out  key  provisions  and 
investments to ensure compliance with existing and new 
legal requirements (e.g. on waste prevention, on separate 
collection for certain waste streams, on recycling and on 
landfill targets). 

The  municipal  waste  management  plan  for  2022–2028 
outlines  the  measures,  actions  and  procedures  required 
for sustainable waste management and Cyprus’ transition 
to a  zero-waste economy  (Department  for Environment, 
2022). It aims to fulfil Cyprus’ obligations under Article 28 
of the Waste Framework Directive (Directive 2008/98/EC), 
specifically  the  compliance  with  European  directives 
aiming  to  achieve  reuse,  recycling  and  waste  reduction 
goals. The plan includes an analysis of the current situation 
regarding waste management and existing infrastructure. 
It also outlines measures to improve the environmentally 
sound  preparation  for  reuse,  recycling,  recovery  and 
disposal of waste (Department for Environment, 2022). 

Policies to encourage separate collection and recycling 

infrastructure,  monitoring, 

With regard to policies that encourage separate collection 
and recycling, Cyprus, under the EU Cohesion policy funds, 
runs  a  programme  aiding  local  authorities  in  meeting 
waste sorting and collection obligations, with a focus on 
organic  waste.  It  promotes  pay  as  you  throw  schemes 
involving 
training  and 
awareness  efforts.  Residents  will  pay  based  on  prepaid 
bags. Feasibility studies are ongoing and implementation 
is  expected  to  finish  by  2026.  Cyprus  has  also  recently 
finalised a regulation establishing a deposit return system, 
following extensive public consultation. The regulation is 
expected  to  be  adopted  by  the  end  of  2025.  The 
responsibility is to be shared mainly by the producers or 
importers  of  beverages,  according  to  the  Ministry  of 
Agriculture, Rural Development and Environment. 

Cyprus has no landfill tax in place, but there are plans to 
introduce  one  that  should  be  enforced  by  2026.  In 
addition,  Cyprus  has  introduced  a  ban  on  landfilling  any 
waste that has been collected separately to be prepared 
for  reuse  and  recycling.  The  waste  from  the  subsequent 
treatment, for which landfilling is still considered the best 
environmental  option,  is  exempt  from  this  prohibition 
(EEA,  2023).  As  of  2019,  all  uncontrolled  dumping  areas 
had been closed as requested by EU regulations. Cyprus 
does not have any waste incineration plants; there is no 
incineration tax levied. 

In the 2022 EIR, Cyprus had nine priority actions in the field 
of waste. It has made no progress on the priority action to 
introduce  and  gradually  increase  landfill  taxes  to  phase 
out  the  landfilling  of  recyclable  and  recoverable  waste. 
The  second  priority  was  to  finalise  the  work  on 
rehabilitating the last two non-compliant landfills; in this 
regard,  it  made  no  progress.  Cyprus  has  also  made  no 
progress  on  the  third  priority:  improving  and  extending 
the separate collection of waste, including biowaste.  For 
the  fourth  priority,  dealing  with  the  establishment  of 
minimum  service  standards  for  separate  collection  (e.g. 
frequency  of  collections,  types  of  containers),  Cyprus 
made some progress, as it is organising a programme that 
will  support  the  separate  collection  of  waste.  This  is 
expected to help municipalities ensure high capture rates 
of  recyclable  waste.  Similarly,  Cyprus  has  made  some 
progress  on  the  priority  action  dealing  with  the  use  of 
economic instruments such as pay-as-you-throw schemes, 
and  set  mandatory  recycling  targets  for  municipalities, 
with penalties for non-compliance (e.g. fines); Cyprus has 
launched  feasibility  studies  to  support  these  policy 
actions. As regards the policy action on limiting incoming 
shipments of waste destined for incinerators to avoid the 
landfilling of locally generated residual waste, Cyprus has 
made  substantial  progress:  it  has  introduced  a  ban  on 
landfilling any waste that has been collected separately to 
be prepared  for reuse and recycling.  Cyprus has fulfilled 
the  policy  action  on  developing  and  running  support 
programmes  for  municipalities  to  help  them  implement 
separate  collection  policies  and  improve  recycling  rates. 
However,  Cyprus  has  made  no  progress  on  the  policy 
actions  identified  in  the  2022  EIR  dealing  with  (i)  the 
improvement  of  the  functioning  of  EPR  systems,  in  line 
with  the  general  minimum  requirements  on  EPR  and  (ii) 
the  ratification  of  the  Hong  Kong  Convention  on  Ship 
Recycling.  Finally,  Cyprus  has  adopted  a  revised  waste 
management  plan 
line  with  the  revised  Waste 
Framework Directive. 

in 

In  2011,  the  Commission  opened  an  infringement  case 
against  Cyprus,  as  some  landfills  were  still  operating  in 
breach  of  waste  legislation.  The  Court  of  Justice  of  the 

2025 Environmental Implementation Review – Cyprus 

 
European  Union  condemned  Cyprus’s  actions  in  July 
2013 (16). All landfills have now ceased operating, but two 
are still to be rehabilitated. If Cyprus does not comply, it 
risks being referred a second time (with financial sanctions 
being  imposed).  In  2021,  the  Commission  launched  an 
infringement  case  and  asked  Cyprus  to  ensure  that  all 
waste  is  subject  to  adequate  treatment  before  being 
landfilled  and  that  it  establishes  an  integrated  and 
adequate  network  of  waste  disposal  installations  for 
mixed municipal waste. 

2025 priority actions 

• 

Implement, harmonise and gradually increase landfill 
taxes  to  phase  out 
landfilling  of  recyclable  and 
recoverable waste. 

•  Complete the rehabilitation of non-compliant landfills. 
•  Ratify international conventions on ship recycling. 

Cyprus  11 

• 

• 
• 

• 

• 

Improve  separate  collection  at  source  e.g.  through 
economic  instruments,  investing  in  infrastructure  for 
separate  collection,  sorting  and  recycling,  and 
increasing public awareness. 
Increase the recycling rates of packaging waste. 
Increase  the  collection  and  recycling  rate  of  waste 
electronic and electric equipment (WEEE). 
Improve the system for managing the quality of data 
on  packaging  waste  in  order  to  build  coherent  and 
verifiable data sets. 
Invest  in  waste  prevention  measures  to  reduce  the 
total amount of waste generated. 

•  Ensure  the  achievement  of  the  2025  waste  targets, 
following 
the 
Commission  in  the  Early  Warning  Reports  where 
applicable.

recommendations  made  by 

the 

(16) 

Judgment  of  18 July  2013,  Commission  v  Cyprus,  C-412/12, 
EU:C:2013:506. 

2025 Environmental Implementation Review – Cyprus 

 
 
 
 
2. Biodiversity and natural capital

Global and EU biodiversity frameworks

Cyprus  12 

Biological  diversity  and  healthy  ecosystems  are  critical 
for our societies, underpin our economies and well-being 
and  are  essential  for  climate  change  adaptation  and 
mitigation.  The  Kunming–Montreal  global  biodiversity 
framework  (GBF),  adopted  in  December  2022,  sets 
comprehensive  and  measurable  targets  to  tackle 
biodiversity  loss  by  2030.  To  implement  this  global 
framework and integrate biodiversity considerations into 
national decision-making, the EU – as well as all Member 
States –  had  to  submit  national  biodiversity  strategies 
and action plans (NBSAPs), or to communicate national 
targets  aligned  with  the  global  targets,  by  the  end  of 
2024. The EU biodiversity strategy for 2030 (BDS) aims to 
put EU biodiversity on a path to recovery by 2030. It sets 
quantified targets intended to protect and restore nature 
and manage ecosystems in a sustainable manner, as well 
as  measures 
and 
commitments  to  support  global  biodiversity.  A  BDS 
actions  tracker (17)  and  a  dashboard  of  indicators (18) 
provide  information  on  implementation  progress.  The 
recently adopted EU Nature Restoration Regulation (19) is 
the first EU-wide, comprehensive law of its kind and a key 
instrument  for  the  EU  to  deliver  on  the  global 
biodiversity targets for 2030. It lays down an overarching 
objective  at  the  EU  level  to  put  in  place  effective 
restoration measures on 20 % of EU land and sea by 2030 
and for all ecosystems in need of restoration by 2050. To 
achieve this, it sets binding targets for Member States to 
restore and maintain ecosystems, as well as an effective 
implementation 
national 
restoration plans. 

implementation 

framework 

enable 

based 

on 

to 

The BDS is the main instrument used by the EU to deliver 
on  its  obligation  under  the  GBF.  The  Commission  has 
submitted  to  the  Convention  on  Biological  Diversity  its 
report on GBF-aligned EU targets that stem from the BDS 
and from other policy instruments under the European 
Green Deal. 

Member  States’  NBSAPs  need  to  provide  coherent 
frameworks  for  national  delivery  on  the  global  and  EU 

(17) 

(18) 

(19) 

Actions 

Tracker 

Strategy 

Strategy 

Dashboard 

Biodiversity 

Biodiversity 

EU 
(https://dopa.jrc.ec.europa.eu/kcbd/actions-tracker/). 
EU 
(https://dopa.jrc.ec.europa.eu/kcbd/EUBDS2030-
dashboard/?version=1). 
Regulation (EU) 2024/1991 of the European Parliament and of 
the Council of 24 June 2024 on nature restoration and amending 
Regulation  (EU)  2022/869  (OJ  L,  2024/1991,  29.7.2024), 
see  also 
the 
http://data.europa.eu/eli/reg/2024/1991/oj; 
Commission 
law 
the 
on 
(https://environment.ec.europa.eu/topics/nature-and-
biodiversity/nature-restoration-law_en). 

page 

web 

In 

2030  biodiversity  targets. 
line  with  the  global 
obligations,  NBSAPs  should  also  include  a  biodiversity 
financing  plan  and  a  capacity-building  plan,  based  on 
needs  assessments,  as  well  as  an  overview  of  the 
national indicators used to measure progress. 

Cyprus’s  biodiversity  strategy  and  the  action  plan  in 
Cyprus (20) were approved by the government on 3 June 
2020.  The  strategy  sets  out  13  strategic  objectives  for 
biodiversity for the next decade (2020–2030). The action 
plan sets out 86 measures to be implemented by 2030, 
with  corresponding  indicators  to  measure  success.  The 
indicative  budget  for  these  measures  amounts  to 
EUR 27 545 000  for  the  next  decade.  In  October  2024, 
Cyprus  uploaded  these  national  targets 
into  the 
Convention  on  Biological  Diversity  online  reporting 
tool (21), complemented with an urban target, indicating 
to which global 2030 targets (or elements thereof) they 
contribute. 

The EU aims to allocate at least 7.5 % of annual spending 
under the EU budget to biodiversity objectives in 2024, 
rising  to  10 % 
in  2026  and  2027.  For  details  on 
biodiversity  financing  and  investments  for  Cyprus,  see 
‘Biodiversity and ecosystems’ in Chapter 5. 

Nature protection and restoration – Natura 
2000 

Natura  2000 (22),  the  largest  coordinated  network  of 
protected areas in the world, is key to the achievement 
of  the  objectives  set  out  in  the  Birds  and  Habitats 
Directives. These objectives are to ensure the long-term 
protection,  conservation  and  survival  of  Europe’s  most 
valuable  and  threatened  species  and  habitats  and  the 
ecosystems  they  underpin.  Key  milestones  towards 
meeting  the  objectives  of  the  Birds  and  Habitats 
Directives  are  (i)  the  setting  up  of  a  complete  and 
coherent  Natura  2000  network;  (ii)  the  designation  of 
sites of community importance (SCIs) as special areas of 

(20) 

http://www.moa.gov.cy/moa/environment/environmentnew.n
sf/all/5B978F5843406DE4C225857D006267C1/$file/Biodiversit
y Strategy and Action Plan CY.pdf?openelement. 
https://ort.cbd.int/national-targets?countries=cy. 

(21) 
(22)  Natura  2000  comprises  sites  of  community  importance  (SCIs), 
designated pursuant to the Habitats Directive, as well as special 
protection  areas  (SPAs),  classified  pursuant  to  the  Birds 
Directive. Numbers of protected areas in Figure 9 do not add up 
to  the  total  of  SCIs  plus  SPAs,  because  some  SCIs  and  SPAs 
overlap. An SAC is an SCI designated by a Member State. 

2025 Environmental Implementation Review – Cyprus 

 
 
Cyprus  13 

Figure 9:  Natura  2000  terrestrial  protected  area 
coverage per Member State (%), 2023 

conservation (SACs) (23); and (iii) effective management 
of  all  Natura  2000  sites  through  the  setting  of  site-
specific conservation objectives and measures. 

Setting up a complete and coherent network of Natura 
2000 sites 

The  setting  up  of  a  complete  and  coherent  network  of 
is  a  cornerstone  of  the  EU’s 
Natura  2000  sites 
international commitments, under the BDS and GBF, to 
legally  protect  a  minimum  of  30 %  of  its  land  area  and 
30 % of its sea area by 2030. 

the 

these 

requires 

commitments 

full 
Meeting 
implementation of Article 3 of the Habitats Directive. The 
Natura 2000 network should represent a complete and 
coherent  ecological network composed of sites hosting 
natural habitat types and species of community interest. 
Natura 2000 shall  enable the natural habitat types and 
the  species’  habitats  concerned  to  be  maintained  or, 
where 
favourable 
a 
restored 
conservation status in their natural range. 

appropriate, 

to 

Cyprus  hosts  42  habitat  types (24)  and  55  species (25) 
covered by the Habitats Directive. The country also hosts 
populations of  93 bird taxa listed in  the  Birds Directive 
Annex I (26). 

As  shown  in  Figure 9,  in  2023,  29.5 %  of  the  terrestrial 
area  under  the  effective  control  of  the  government  of 
Cyprus was covered by Natura 2000 sites (EU coverage: 
18.6 %),  with  special  protection  areas  (SPAs)  classified 
under the Birds Directive covering 27.1 % (EU coverage: 
12.8 %)  and  SCIs  under  the  Habitats  Directive  covering 
16.8 % of the country’s territory (EU coverage: 14.3 %). 

(23) 

(24) 

(25) 

SCIs are designated pursuant to the Habitats Directive, whereas 
SPAs are designated pursuant to the Birds Directive. Figures of 
coverage do not add up because some SCIs and SPAs overlap. 
EEA,  ‘Number  of  habitats  and  species  per  Member  State’, 
total,  19 December  2019, 
Article 17  dashboard,  Annex I 
https://www.eea.europa.eu/themes/biodiversity/state-of-
nature-in-the-eu/article-17-national-summary-
dashboards/general-information-on-habitats-and-species. 
EEA,  ‘Number  of  habitats  and  species  per  Member  State’, 
2019, 
Article 17 
https://www.eea.europa.eu/themes/biodiversity/state-of-
nature-in-the-eu/article-17-national-summary-
dashboards/general-information-on-habitats-and-species. 

19 December 

dashboard, 

Source: European Environment Agency (EEA), ‘Natura 2000 Barometer’, 
2023  data,  accessed  March  2025,  https://www.eea.europa.eu/data-
and-maps/dashboards/natura-2000-barometer. 

Cyprus has designated 69 Natura 2000 sites to date. The 
latest  assessment  of  the  SCI  part  of  the  Natura  2000 
network shows that there are still some insufficiencies in 
designation, mainly failing to propose an exhaustive list 
of  SCIs  and  provide  all  necessary  information  on  each 
proposed  site  and  not  classifying  the  most  suitable 
territories  in  the  Cypriot  offshore  waters  as  SPAs. 
Therefore, Cyprus has still to complete  its Natura 2000 
network, 
the  marine  network.  An 
infringement  case  is  open  on  the  matter  and  the 
Commission has called on Cyprus to take the necessary 
measures (27). 

in  particular 

Considering  both  areas  covered  by  Natura  2000  and 
other  nationally  designated  protected  areas,  Cyprus 
reports  that  it  legally  protects  37.8 %  of  its  terrestrial 
areas (EU-27 coverage:  26.1 %) and 8.6 % of its marine 
areas (EU-27 coverage: 12.3 %) (28). 

Designating  special  areas  of  conservation  and  setting 
site-specific conservation objectives and measures 

To  ensure  that  SCIs  contribute  to  the  objectives  of  the 
Habitats Directive, Member States must designate them 
as  SACs,  setting  site-specific  conservation  objectives 
based on the ecological needs of the species and habitats 
present  on  the  sites.  Such  site-specific  conservation 

EEA,  ‘Number  of  bird  species/populations  per  Member  State’, 
Article 12 dashboard, Annex I total, last updated 11 May 2023, 
https://www.eea.europa.eu/themes/biodiversity/state-of-
nature-in-the-eu/article-12-national-summary-
dashboards/general-information-on-bird-species-populations. 
This  counting  only  takes  into  account  birds  taxa  for  which 
information was requested. 

(26) 

(27)

https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/in

f_22_1769?msclkid=240d7077c24b11eca3f8b0c6ba5a4f12. 
(28)   Eurostat dataset env_bio4, protected area percentage for 2022, 

accessed 12 March 2025. 

2025 Environmental Implementation Review – Cyprus 

 
 
 
 
should  define  attributes  and  targets  that  describe  the 
habitats  or  species’  condition  as 
favourable  or 
unfavourable,  addressing  key  pressures  and  threats  . 
Under Article   of the Habitats Directive Member States 
must establish and implement measures to achieve these 
objectives   

assessment, 

The  six-year  deadline  set  by  the  Habitats  Directive  to 
designate  SCIs  as  SACs  and  establishing  appropriate 
conservation objectives and measures has expired for 37 
sites in Cyprus. Cyprus has formally designated 37 sites 
as SACs, but has yet to establish adequate conservation 
objectives  and  measures  for  all  sites.  According  to  the 
Commission’s 
the 
conservation objectives and measures set by Cyprus for 
five  sites  is  insufficient.  Therefore,  the  species  and 
habitats  in  these  sites  are  not  adequately  protected. 
Moreover,  some  management  plans  for  Natura  2000 
sites  are  outdated  (however,  management  plans  for 
eight  Natura  2000  sites  will  be  updated  under  the 
financial 
(LIFE) 
integrated projects (29)). 

the  environment 

the  quality  of 

instrument 

for 

In  March  2024,  the  Commission  thus  decided  to  refer 
Cyprus to the Court of Justice of the European Union. 

Some  progress  has  been  made  by  Cyprus  on  the  2022 
priority actions, but there is a need to continue working 
on those to speed up and finalise the work. 

2025 priority actions 

• 

• 

• 

Complete  the  Natura  2000  site  designation 
process. 
Finalise 
the  establishment  of  site-specific 
conservation  objectives  and  measures  for  all 
Natura  2000  sites  (including  by  adopting  their 
management  plans)  and  ensure  their  effective 
implementation. 
Ensure the effective implementation of Natura 
2000  management  plans  and 
sufficient 
administrative  capacity  and  financing  both  for 
Natura  2000  and  the  implementation  of  the 
Ensure 
Nature 
implementation 
Actions 
Framework 2021-2027 (PAFs). 

Restoration 
of 

Regulation. 
Prioritised 

Recovery of species 

One  objective  set  by  the  BDS  is  that,  by  2030,  there 

(29) 
(30) 

(31) 

https://pandoteira.cy/actions/. 
EEA, State of Nature in the EU: Results from reporting under the 
Nature  Directives  2013–2018,  Publications  Office  of  the 
European 
2020, 
https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/state-of-nature-in-
the-eu-2020. 
The  differences  between  the  two  Article 17  reporting  periods 
under the Habitats Directive (2008–2013 and 2013–2018) mainly 

Luxembourg, 

Union, 

Cyprus  14 

should be no further deterioration in conservation trends 
or  the  status  of  any  protected  species.  The  BDS  also 
states  that  Member  States  should  ensure  that  at  least 
30 % of species not currently in favourable conservation 
status  achieve  that  status  or  show  progress  towards 
doing so (e.g. by exhibiting positive population dynamics 
or stable or increasing range and habitat size), by 2030. 
According  to  the  European  Environment  Agency  (EEA), 
based  on  reporting  required  under  Article 17  of  the 
Habitats Directive, a quarter of species in the EU were of 
good conservation status as of 2018 (30). 

One of the primary objectives of the Habitats Directive is 
the  maintenance  of  or  restoration  to  favourable 
conservation status of all species of community interest. 
Moreover, the Birds Directive also aims to ensure that all 
wild  birds  in  the  EU  enjoy  a  secure  status.  In  order  to 
achieve these objectives, it will be necessary to address 
key  pressures  and  threats.  The  Birds  Directive  and  the 
Habitats  Directive  lay  down  a  framework  of  species 
protection rules and rules on the conservation of habitats 
and species in order to combat these threats. 

Under  Article 17  of  the  Habitats  Directive,  Member 
States are required to report on the conservation status 
of  habitats  and  species  every  six  years.  The  current 
reporting cycle, covering the years 2019 to 2024, is due 
for submission in July 2025. Figures 10 and 11 show the 
latest available conservation status data. 

According  to  the  report  submitted  by  Cyprus  on  the 
conservation  status  of  habitats  and  species  covered  by 
Article 17  of  the  Habitats  Directive  for  2013–2018,  the 
in  good 
proportion  of  habitats  assessed  as  being 
conservation status in 2018 was 45.24 %. The proportion 
of  protected  species  assessed  as  being 
in  good 
conservation status in 2018 was 63.64 % (31). Regarding 
birds,  81 %  of  the  breeding  species  showed  short-term 
increases  or  stable  population  trends  (for  wintering 
species, the proportion was 40.74 %). 

The main pressures and threats for habitats and species 
in  Cyprus  are  related  to  agriculture,  infrastructure 
development,  development  and  operation  of  transport 
systems and natural processes (32). 

arose from the different methodologies used. During the 2013–
2018  reporting  period,  monitoring  protocols 
(developed 
according to EU guidelines) for both habitats and species were 
completed. 
https://www.eea.europa.eu/en/analysis/maps-and-
charts/main-pressures-and-threats-article-17-national-
summary-dashboards-archived. 

(32) 

2025 Environmental Implementation Review – Cyprus 

 
 
Figure 10:  Assessments  of  conservation  status  of 
habitats  for  the  2007–2012  and  2013–2018  reporting 
periods 

NB:  The  values  shown  for  2007–2012  and  2013–2018  are  not 
necessarily directly comparable because changes in conservation status 
in a Member State may result from changes to methods or use of better 
data, rather than reflecting genuine changes. 

Cyprus  15 

NB:  The  values  shown  for  2007–2012  and  2013–2018  are  not 
necessarily directly comparable because changes in conservation status 
in a Member State may result from changes to methods or use of better 
data, rather than reflecting genuine changes. 

Source: EEA, ‘Conservation status and trends of habitats and species’, 
2025, 
19 December 
https://www.eea.europa.eu/themes/biodiversity/state-of-nature-in-
the-eu/article-17-national-summary-dashboards/conservation-status-
and-trends. 

accessed 

March 

2019, 

Figure 11:  Assessments  of  conservation  status  of 
species  for  the  2007–2012  and  2013–2018  reporting 
periods 

Source: EEA, ‘Conservation status and trends of habitats and species’, 
19 December 
2025, 
https://www.eea.europa.eu/themes/biodiversity/state-of-nature-in-
the-eu/article-17-national-summary-dashboards/conservation-status-
and-trends. 

accessed 

March 

2019, 

There  seems  to  be  a  general  lack  of  progress  in 
maintaining  or  restoring  the  favourable  conservation 
status  of  species  and  habitats  protected  under  the 
Nature Directives. 

is  protecting  them 

A  major  challenge  in  managing  the  Natura  2000  areas 
effectively 
from  activities  or 
developments  that  fragment  or  degrade  them.  This  is 
especially the case for plans and projects in areas located 
within private land, which often fail to comply with the 
appropriate  assessment  and  permit  requirements  laid 
down 
in  Article 6  of  the  Habitats  Directive.  The 
Commission  has  opened  an  infringement  procedure 
against  Cyprus  for  systematic  breaches  of  Article 6(3) 
(appropriate assessment of a plan or project). The sound 
management  of  these  areas  is  also  undermined  by  the 
lack  of  understanding  and  acceptance  of  Natura  2000 
rules by some local communities and landowners. 

Another challenge in implementing nature legislation is 
the  illegal  trapping  of  migratory  birds  (blackcaps – 
lime  sticks  and  sound-
ambelopoulia),  with  nets, 
producing  devices.  Although  significant  progress  has 
been made due to intensified enforcement (e.g. through 
checks and stricter fines for mist nets through national 
legislation approved in July 2017), the trapping numbers 
remain  high,  mainly  driven  by  illegal  consumption. 
Moreover, 
on 
29 December 2020 reduced on-the-spot fines for illegal 
trapping  and  killing  for  up  to  50  specimens  of  14 
protected  species.  It  is  important  that  the  Cypriot 
authorities continue their enforcement efforts, including 
imposing  effective  and  dissuasive  penalties (33) 
by 
(especially for major offenders), by harmonising fines for 
all  species  and  by  exercising  frequent  and  effective 
checks (both in the field and in restaurants). 

amendment 

adopted 

law 

the 

Some progress has been made by Cyprus regarding the 
2022  priority  actions,  but  there  is  a  need  to  continue 
working on those by speeding up and finalising the work. 

(33) 

Since the amendment of related legislation in 2017, the average 
fine 
increased  from  EUR 502  to  EUR 1 696, 
compared with pre-2017 levels. 

imposed  has 

2025 Environmental Implementation Review – Cyprus 

 
 
 
 
2025 priority actions 

biodiversity.  

Cyprus  16 

• 

Strengthen  the  implementation  of  national  anti-
poaching measures. 

Recovery of ecosystems 

Agricultural ecosystems 

The BDS works alongside the common agricultural policy 
(CAP) to support the transition to sustainable agriculture. 

The  strategy  has  set  five  common  agriculture-related 
targets for 2030, namely to: 

—  reduce by 50 % the overall use of – and risk from – 

chemical pesticides; 

—  reduce  by  50 %  the  use  of  more  hazardous 

pesticides; 

—  reduce  by  50 %  losses  of  nutrients  from  fertilisers 
(which  will  result in a  20 % reduction in the use of 
fertilisers)  while  ensuring 
is  no 
deterioration of soil fertility; 

there 

that 

—  restore  at  least  10 %  of  agricultural  area  to  have 

— 

high-diversity landscape features; and 
increase the area under organic farming to at least 
25 %. 

The “Vision for agriculture and food” (34), adopted by the 
European Commission in February 2025, sets a roadmap 
to  an  agri-food  system  that  is  attractive,  competitive, 
sustainable and fair for current and future generations. 
To  ensure  a  sustainable  future  for  EU  agriculture,  it  is 
crucial  that  these  four  priority  areas  are  pursued 
together,  and  that  public  and  private  support  are 
adequately targeted toward this objective. 
The  CAP  and  national  CAP  strategic  plans  are  key 
instruments  to  facilitate  and  strengthen  the  efforts  of 
European  farmers  to  protect  biodiversity  and  the 
environment  at 
large.  The  Commission  approved 
Member  States’  CAP  strategic  plans  in  2022  for  the 
programming period 2023-2027. The CAP is the  largest 
source  of  funding  dedicated  to  supporting  biodiversity 
and  plays  a  significant  role 
implementing  EU 
environmental policy. Strategic plans should continue to 
support  the  protection  of  soil,  water,  air  quality  and 

in 

While certain CAP result indicators focus on the national 
measures  favouring  sustainable  agriculture  practices 
impact  of  these 
that  regenerate  ecosystems,  the 
measures  is  difficult  to  assess.  The  uptake  of  the  eco-
schemes is voluntary for farmers. 

The  utilised  agricultural  area  in  Cyprus  fluctuated  over 
recent  years,  increasing  from  115 940 ha  in  2012  to 
132 440 ha in 2019 and then decreasing to 123 020 ha in 
2022 (35). 

Landscape  features  are  small  fragments  of  non-
productive  and  typically –  but  not  exclusively –  semi-
natural vegetation present in or adjacent to agricultural 
land.  They  provide  ecosystem  services  and  support  for 
biodiversity.  The  indicator  ‘share  of  agricultural  land 
covered  with  landscape  features’  is  the  ratio  between 
the  area  covered  by  landscape  features  and  the  area 
land.  Based  on  the  Land 
covered  by  agricultural 
landscape  features 
Use/Cover  Area  Frame  Survey 
estimates, the share of agricultural land covered by non-
productive  landscape  features  in  Cyprus  is  21 %,  well 
above  the  EU  average.  At  the  EU  level,  landscape 
features cover 5.6 % of agricultural land. 

In  2024,  the  CAP  basic  regulations  were  amended (36) 
regarding, inter alia, the standards for good agricultural 
and  environmental  condition  of  land.  These  changes 
removed the obligation for farmers benefiting from CAP 
area-related support to have a minimum share of 3–4 % 
of  non-productive  areas  or  landscape  features  in  their 
farms.  The  amended  regulation  sets  out,  however,  an 
obligation  for  Member  States  to  establish  and  provide 
support  for  eco-schemes  covering  practices  for  the 
maintenance of non-productive areas, such as land lying 
fallow,  and  for  the  establishment  of  new  landscape 
features on arable land. 

The recently adopted Nature Restoration Regulation (37) 
focuses on the restoration of agricultural ecosystems and 
requires Member States to put in place measures which 
aim to achieve an increasing trend at the national level in 
at  least  two  out  of  three  indicators  for  agricultural 
ecosystems (38). One of these indicators is the ‘share of 
agricultural land with high-diversity landscape features’. 

(34) 

(35) 

(36) 

https://agriculture.ec.europa.eu/overview-vision-agriculture-

5 December 

food/vision-agriculture-and-food_en  
Eurostat,  ‘Utilised  agricultural  area  by  categories’,  tag00025, 
accessed 
2024, 
https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/tag00025/de
fault/table?lang=en. 
Regulation (EU) 2024/1468 of the European Parliament and of 
the  Council  of  14 May  2024  amending  Regulations  (EU) 
2021/2115 and (EU) 2021/2116 as regards good agricultural and 
environmental  condition  standards,  schemes  for  climate, 

environment  and  animal  welfare,  amendment  of  the  CAP 
strategic plans, review of the CAP strategic plans and exemptions 
from  controls  and  penalties  (OJ  L,  2024/1468,  24.5.2024), 
http://data.europa.eu/eli/reg/2024/1468/oj. 
Regulation (EU) 2024/1991 of the European Parliament and of 
the Council of 24 June 2024 on nature restoration and amending 
Regulation  (EU)  2022/869  (OJ  L,  2024/1991,  29.7.2024), 
http://data.europa.eu/eli/reg/2024/1991/oj. 
The  three  indicators  are  ‘grassland  butterfly  index’,  ‘stock  of 
organic  carbon 
‘share  of 
agricultural land with high-diversity landscape features’. 

in  cropland  mineral  soils’  and 

(37) 

(38) 

2025 Environmental Implementation Review – Cyprus 

 
 
Organic  farming  practices  are  highly  beneficial  to 
biodiversity. As shown in  Figure 12, it is estimated that 
6.30 %  of  Cyprus’s  land  area  is  under  organic  farming. 
This  is  below  the  EU  average  of  10.50 % (39).  Cyprus  is 
currently contributing less than the average to achieving 
the target of 25 % of the EU’s agricultural land being used 
for organic farming by 2030. 

Figure 12:  Share  of  total  utilised  agricultural  area 
occupied  by  organic  farming  per  Member  State  (%), 
2022 

Source:  Eurostat,  ‘Area  under  organic  farming’,  sdg_02_ 0,  accessed 
5 December 
2024, 
https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/sdg_02_40/default/
table?lang=en. 

2025 priority actions 
• 

Implement  eco-schemes  and  agri-environmental 
measures 
the 
and 
environmental needs of Cyprus. 
Implement  and  scale  up  the  uptake  of  organic 
farming practices. 

practices 

address 

to 

• 

Soil ecosystems 

Soil is an essential, finite and extremely fragile resource. 
Its  increasing  degradation  poses  a  threat  to  EU  food 
resilience,  adaptation  and 
security  and  climate 
mitigation. 

The EU soil strategy, adopted in November 2021, aims to 
support  soil  protection,  sustainable  soil  management 
and  the  restoration  of  degraded  soils  to  achieve  the 

Cyprus  17 

Green  Deal  objectives  as  well  as  land  degradation 
neutrality by 2030. 

This entails: 

—  preventing further soil degradation; 
—  making  sustainable  soil  management  the  new 

normal; 

—  taking action for ecosystem restoration. 

The  proposed  directive  on  soil  monitoring  and 
resilience (40) aims to introduce the first comprehensive 
legislation on the protection of all soils in the EU. Should 
the  directive  be  adopted,  Member  States  will  have  to 
transpose  it  into  national  legislation  and  implement  it, 
starting  with  putting  in  place  the  governance  systems 
and a sound monitoring framework building on existing 
national  soil  monitoring  frameworks.  The  objective  of 
the  proposed  directive  is  to  provide  better  and  more 
comparable  soil  health  data  with  the  view  of  attaining 
healthy soils by 2050. 

Degradation  of  soil  ecosystems  encompasses  several 
aspects. The proposed directive requires Member States 
to  assess  soil  health  according  to  a  set  of  common 
indicators  and  to  define  the  necessary  regeneration 
measures. The area of soil that is sealed is an important 
factor in monitoring land-use change and represents an 
important pressure on nature and biodiversity. Other soil 
issues  related  to  land degradation  are  soil  erosion,  soil 
compaction, 
soil 
contamination, soil salinisation and the presence in soil 
of  nitrogen  and  phosphorus  in  excess.  The  impact 
assessment accompanying the proposal, which builds on 
the data available in the EU Soil Observatory, points  to 
the following soil degradation issues in Cyprus (41). 

soil  organic 

loss  of 

carbon, 

The data uncertainty for Cyprus is high due to low data 
availability.  Based  on  the  data  available,  the  greatest 
contributor to Cyprus’s unhealthy soils is unsustainable 
soil  erosion  by  water,  wind,  tillage  and  harvest,  which 
affects  14 %  of  the  territorial  area  and  46 %  of  the 
cropland area. 9 % of the country has a high or very high 
susceptibility to topsoil compaction. 6 % of the territorial 
area  experiences  loss  of  soil  organic  carbon  in  mineral 

(39) 

(40) 

This is based on the latest available information from Eurostat, 
is  currently  under  review;  European  Commission, 
which 
Agriculture biologique au sein de l’union européenne, factsheet, 
Brussels, 
2024, 
https://agriculture.ec.europa.eu/document/download/c67458e
d-ec50-4762-ae68-341763ab93c2_fr?filename=factsheet-
organic-farning_fr.pdf&prefLang=en. 
Proposal for a directive of the European Parliament and of the 
Council on soil monitoring and resilience (Soil Monitoring Law), 

(41) 

of 

final 

5 July 

2023, 

COM(2023) 416 
https://eur-
lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex:52023PC0416. 
Commission  staff  working  document –  Impact  assessment 
report: Annexes – Accompanying the proposal for a directive of 
the European Parliament and of the Council on soil monitoring 
and  resilience  (Soil  Monitoring  Law),  SWD(2023) 417  final  of 
2023, 
5 July 
https://environment.ec.europa.eu/system/files/2023-
07/IMPACT 
REPORT_ANNEXES_SWD_2023_417_part4.pdf. 

ASSESSMENT 

2025 Environmental Implementation Review – Cyprus 

 
 
 
Cyprus  18 

soils (42),  which  represents  21 %  of  the  cropland  and 
grassland area. 

peatlands  improve  water  retention  and  quality,  store 
carbon, reduce GHG emissions and increase biodiversity. 

Grasslands 

Grasslands  are  among  the  most  diverse  ecosystems  in 
the EU; they can contain as many as 80 different  plant 
species per square metre and are home to a large variety 
of animals, ranging from small insects, birds and rodents 
to 
for 
large  herbivores.  Grasslands  are  essential 
agriculture and livestock herding. Natural grasslands also 
play  an  important  role  in  storing  carbon.  However, 
changes  in  agricultural  practices  and  land  uses  have 
caused  grasslands  to  disappear  at  an  alarming  rate, 
making  them  one  of  Europe’s  most  threatened 
ecosystems. 

Cyprus  hosts  four  grassland  habitat  types  listed  in 
Annex I  to  the  Habitats  Directive (43).  According  to  the 
data  covering  the  latest  reporting  period  (2013–2018) 
under  Article 17 (44),  the  conservation  status  of  two 
grassland  habitats  is  favourable  and  the  other  two  are 
ranked  as  unfavourable –  inadequate  (pseudo-steppe 
with  grasses  and  annuals  of the  Thero-Brachypodietea) 
or  unfavourable –  bad  (Mediterranean  tall  humid 
grasslands  of  the  Molinio-Holoschoenion).  The  main 
pressures and threats for these habitat types are related 
to  agriculture,  natural  processes  (natural  succession 
following  abandonment),  infrastructure  development 
and alien and problematic species. 

Wetlands/peatlands 

Wetlands act as water sources and purifiers; they are the 
planet’s  greatest  natural  carbon  stores  and  they  are 
crucial  to  agriculture  and  fisheries.  Peatlands  are  a 
special  type  of  wetlands  dominated  by  peat-forming 
plants such as Sphagnum mosses. Nearly all peatlands in 
the EU are habitat types listed in Annex I to the Habitats 
Directive. Drained peatlands under intensive agricultural 
use  constitute  only  3 %  of  the  EU’s  utilised  agricultural 
area. At the same time, they are responsible for 25 % of 
the  GHG  emissions  from  the  EU’s  agricultural  sector. 
Restoring  peatlands  brings  multiple  benefits,  as 

Cyprus hosts eight freshwater and coastal habitat types 
covered  by  the Habitats  Directive (45).  According  to the 
latest Article 17 reporting (46), all except two of them are 
in unfavourable conservation status. The main pressures 
and threats identified for freshwater and coastal habitat 
transport, 
infrastructure  development, 
types  are 
agriculture,  alien  and  problematic  species  and  climate 
change (47). 

There are no peatlands (habitat  types belonging to the 
group bogs, fens and mires) that are protected in Cyprus 
under the Habitats Directive. 

Forest ecosystems 

Forests are important carbon sinks, and conserving them 
is vital if the EU is to achieve climate neutrality by 2050. 
The EU forest strategy for 2030, adopted in July 2021, is 
a  plan  of  actions  to  promote  the  many  services  that 
forests  provide.  Its  key  objective  is  to  ensure  healthy, 
diverse  and  resilient  EU 
forests  that  contribute 
significantly to the achievement of the EU’s biodiversity 
and climate ambitions. About 27 % of the forest area in 
the EU is covered by habitat types listed in Annex I to the 
Habitats  Directive.  Moreover,  forests  host  several 
species  protected  under  the  Birds  and  Habitats 
is  a 
Directives, 
requirement  to  designate  Natura  2000  sites  and  to 
protect breeding sites and resting places. 

including  those  for  which  there 

Several Commission guidelines on forestry management 
were  published  in  2023.  They  covered  biodiversity-
friendly  afforestation,  reforestation  and  tree  planting; 
closer-to-nature  forest  management;  and  defining, 
mapping, monitoring and strictly protecting primary and 
old-growth  forests.  Further  guidance  on  payment 
schemes 
for  ecosystems  services  has  also  been 
published. 

In  2023,  the  Commission  proposed  a  new  forest 

(43) 

(42)  De  Rosa,  D.,  Ballabio,  C.,  Lugato,  E.  et  al.,  ‘Soil  organic  carbon 
stocks in European croplands and grasslands: How much have we 
lost in the past decade?’, Global Change Biology, Vol. 30, No 1, 
2023, e16992, https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.16992. 
The  four  types  are  pseudo-steppe  with grasses and annuals of 
grasslands, 
the  Thero-Brachypodietea, 
Mediterranean 
the  Molinio-
tall  humid  grasslands  of 
Holoschoenion, and peat grasslands of Troodos. 
https://nature-
art17.eionet.europa.eu/article17/habitat/report/?period=5&gr
oup=Grasslands&country=CY&region=. 
The eight types are hard oligo-mesotrophic waters with benthic 
lakes  with 
vegetation  of  Chara  spp.,  natural  eutrophic 

serpentinophilous 

(44) 

(45) 

or 

ponds, 

coastal 

temporary 

Hydrocharition-type 

thermo-Atlantic  halophilous 

vegetation, 
Magnopotamion- 
lagoons, 
Mediterranean 
Mediterranean  and 
scrubs 
(Sarcocornetea fruticosi), Salicornia and other annuals colonising 
mud  and  sand,  Mediterranean  salt  meadows  (Juncetalia 
maritimi) and halo-nitrophilous scrubs (Pegano-Salsoletea). 
https://nature-
art17.eionet.europa.eu/article17/habitat/report/?period=5&gr
oup=Freshwater+habitats&country=CY&region=. 
https://www.eea.europa.eu/en/analysis/maps-and-
charts/main-pressures-and-threats-article-17-national-
summary-dashboards-archived. 

(46) 

(47) 

2025 Environmental Implementation Review – Cyprus 

 
 
monitoring law (48) that aims to create a comprehensive 
forest  knowledge  base,  address  information  gaps  and 
enable  a  better  response  to  growing  pressures  on 
forests. 

Assessments  show  that,  of  the  27 %  of  EU  forest  area 
protected under the Habitats Directive, less than 15 % is 
of  favourable  conservation  status (49).  The  share  of 
forested areas in the EU with a bad conservation status 
increased from 27 % in 2015 to 31 % in 2018. 

In  Cyprus,  forests  covered  18.7 %  of  the  territory  in 
2020 (50) and more than 50 % of the assessments reveal 
a bad or poor status (51). 

Figure 13:  Conservation  status  of  forests  protected 
under  the  Habitats  Directive  per  Member  State  (% 
assessments), 2013–2018 

staff  working  document – 

Source:  Commission 
Stakeholder 
consultation  and  evidence  base:  Accompanying  the  document 
Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the 
Council,  the  European  Economic  and  Social  Committee  and  the 
Committee  of  the  Regions –  New  EU  forest  strategy  for  2030, 

(48)   Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the 
Council  on  a  monitoring  framework  for  resilient  European 
2023, 
forests, 
https://ec.europa.eu/transparency/documents-
register/detail?ref=COM(2023)728&lang=en 

COM(2023)728, 

November 

22 

(49) 

(50) 

(51) 

Union, 

Luxembourg, 

EEA, State of Nature in the EU: Results from reporting under the 
Nature  Directives  2013–2018,  Publications  Office  of  the 
European 
2020, 
https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/state-of-nature-in-
the-eu-2020. 
EEA  forest  information  system  for  Europe,  ‘Countries –  FISE 
country  factsheets’,  forest  information  system  for  Europe 
website, https://forest.eea.europa.eu/countries. 
Commission staff working document – Stakeholder consultation 
and 
document 
evidence 
Communication 
from  the  Commission  to  the  European 
Parliament,  the  Council,  the  European  Economic  and  Social 
Committee and the Committee of the Regions – New EU forest 
strategy  for  2030,  SWD(2021) 652  final  of  16 July  2021,  p. 24, 
https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A52021SC0652. 

Accompanying 

base: 

the 

Cyprus  19 

16 July 
SWD(2021) 652 
lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A52021SC0652. 

2021,  p. 24,  https://eur-

final  of 

Among forest disturbances contributing to loss of forest 
integrity  and 
loss,  wildfires 
related  biodiversity 
constitute a particular  reason for concern. In 2022, the 
EU  saw  a  record  number  (2 700)  of  wildfires  affecting 
more  than  30 ha,  which  led  to  the  destruction  of 
785 605 ha  of  forest,  the  second  highest  annual  figure 
recorded.  Recent  years  have  also  witnessed  the 
occurrence of widespread uncontrollable fires (so-called 
megafires), which are associated with loss of life and an 
enormous cost in terms of damage to the environment, 
businesses and society (over EUR 2 billion annually) and 
carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. Megafires are practically 
beyond suppression capacity and can be prevented only 
by  an  integrated  risk  management  approach.  Wildfires 
prevention is also essential to preserve resources for the 
bioeconomy. 

During  2023,  Cyprus  experienced  131  forest  fires  that 
burned 2 216 hectares, mostly forest and other wooded 
land (52). Regarding their causes, 22% were of unknown 
origin,  38%  were  intentionally  set,  5%  resulted  from 
natural causes like lightning, and 35% were attributed to 
human  negligence.  Eight  of  these  fires  exceeded  50 
hectares in size. 

The  EU  Timber  Regulation  (EUTR) (53)  prohibits  the 
placing on the EU market of illegally harvested timber.  

(EUDR) (54)  entered 

On  29 June  2023,  the  Regulation  on  Deforestation-free 
(55).  The 
Products 
regulation  seeks  to  guarantee  that  products  in  the  EU 
that  are  made  using  any  of  seven  listed  commodities 
have  no  links  to  deforestation.  The  EUDR  repeals  the 
EUTR.  

force 

into 

(52) 

(53) 

(54) 

https://publications.jrc.ec.europa.eu/repository/h
andle/JRC139704  

Regulation (EU) No 995/2010 of the European Parliament and of 
the  Council  of  20 October  2010  laying  down the  obligations  of 
operators who place timber and timber products on the market 
(OJ  L 295,  12.11.2010,  p. 23),  https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A32010R0995. 
Regulation (EU) 2023/1115 of the European Parliament and of 
the Council of 31 May 2023 on the making available on the Union 
market and the export  from the Union of certain commodities 
forest 
and  products  associated  with  deforestation  and 
degradation  and  repealing  Regulation  (EU)  No 995/2010  (OJ 
L 150,  9.6.2023,  p. 206),  https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A32023R1115&qid=1687867231
461. 

(55)  The law will apply to large and medium-sized companies starting 
on  December  30,  2025,  and  to  micro  and  small  enterprises 
starting on June 30, 2026. 

2025 Environmental Implementation Review – Cyprus 

 
 
 
 
competent  authority 
Cyprus  has  designated  a 
responsible for fulfilling the obligations arising from the 
EUDR and informed the Commission thereof.  

Figure 14:  Level  of  adequacy  of  Cyprus’s  updated 
programme of measures under Article 13 of the MSFD 
(2022 reporting exercise) 

Cyprus  20 

Marine ecosystems 

The  Marine  Strategy  Framework  Directive  (MSFD) 
requires Member States to achieve good environmental 
status  (GES)  for  their  marine  waters.  To  that  end, 
Member States must draw up marine strategies for their 
marine waters and cooperate with other Member States 
sharing  the  same  marine  region  or  subregion.  These 
marine  strategies  comprise  different  steps  to  be 
developed and implemented over six-year cycles. 

Since the 2022 EIR report, no additional data regarding 
Member  States’  set  of  GES  characteristics  for  each 
descriptor 
in  the  MSFD  have  become  available. 
Nevertheless, Member States have to report updates by 
15 October  2024,  and  these  will  be  assessed  by  the 
Commission.  In  the  context  of  this  next  round  of 
reporting, 
in  accordance  with  the  MSFD  and  the 
Commission  GES  decision (56),  Member  States  must 
include  as  part  of  their  set  of  GES  characteristics  any 
threshold  values  for  the  descriptors  in  the  MSFD  that 
may  have  been  established  in  cooperation  with  other 
Member  States  at  the  EU  or  regional  level (57).  Early 
January 2025, Cyprus  reported on Articles 8, 9 and 10 
data as required by the Article 17 of the MSFD, which are 
now under the assessment of the Commission. 

The  Commission  assessed  the  updated  monitoring 
programme reported by Member States in 2020 (58). At 
that time, their updates on the elements, features and 
parameters identified monitoring gaps. The Commission 
recommended  that  Member  States  should  prioritise 
levels  of 
work 
implementation of the MSFD. 

those  gaps  at  all 

to  address 

NB:  Technical  assessment  carried  out  by  the  European  Commission, 
pursuant  to  Article 16  of  the  MSFD,  based  on  the  data  reported  by 
Cyprus in August 2023. 

(D5), 

contaminants 

While  progress  is  noted  on  measures  for  descriptors 
eutrophication 
and 
contaminants  in  seafood  (D9),  measures  related  to 
biodiversity 
(D2), 
commercial fish and shellfish (D3), food webs (D4) and, 
in particular, energy (D11) could be more appropriately 
aligned with the objectives of the MSFD. 

(D1),  non-indigenous 

species 

(D8) 

Notable  gaps  remain 
in  Cyprus’s  programme  of 
measures, particularly in fully addressing key pressures, 
including incidental by-catch of species, invasion of alien 
species through aquaculture and, most notably for D11, 
activities  such  as  shipping,  tourism  or  the  use  of  sonar 
and explosions. 

Member States also reported their updated programmes 
of measures, which are required under Article 13 of the 
MSFD and  which  must  be updated every  six years. The 
Commission has assessed Member States’ programmes 
of measures. 

(56) 

(57) 

Commission  Decision  (EU) 2017/848  of  17 May  2017  laying 
down  criteria  and  methodological  standards  on  good 
environmental  status  of  marine  waters  and  specifications  and 
standardised  methods  for  monitoring  and  assessment,  and 
repealing  Decision 2010/477/EU  (OJ  L 125,  18.5.2017,  p. 43), 
http://data.europa.eu/eli/dec/2017/848/oj. 
Communication  from  the  Commission  of  11 March  2024 – 
Commission notice on the threshold values set under the Marine 

Strategy  Framework  Directive  2008/56/EC  and  Commission 
Decision  (EU)  2017/848  (OJ  C,  C/2024/2078,  11.3.2024), 
http://data.europa.eu/eli/C/2024/2078/oj. 
https://environment.ec.europa.eu/system/files/2023-
04/C_2023_2203_F1_COMMUNICATION_FROM_COMMISSION
_EN_V5_P1_2532109.PDF. 

(58) 

2025 Environmental Implementation Review – Cyprus 

 
 
 
Prevention and management of invasive alien 
species 

Figure 15:  Number  of  IAS  of  EU  concern,  based  on 
available georeferenced information for Cyprus, 2024 

Cyprus  21 

Invasive  alien  species  (IAS)  are  a  major  cause  of 
biodiversity  loss  in  the  EU.  Besides  inflicting  direct  and 
indirect damage on nature and the economy, some IAS 
also carry and spread infectious diseases, posing a threat 
to  humans  and  wildlife.  Regulation  (EU)  No 1143/2014 
(the  IAS  Regulation)  aims  to  prevent,  minimise  and 
mitigate  the  adverse  impacts  of  IAS  on  biodiversity.  It 
focuses action on a list of IAS of EU concern (the ‘Union 
list’), which is regularly updated (59). 

The third update of the Union list (60) entered into force 
on 2 August 2022. The fourth update is in preparation. 

The IAS Regulation (61) currently lists 88 species subject 
to  restrictions  on  keeping,  importing,  selling,  breeding, 
growing  and  releasing  into  the  environment.  Member 
States are required to take measures to (i) prevent the 
introduction of IAS, (ii) ensure early detection and rapid 
eradication  of  IAS  and  (iii)  manage  species  that  are 
already widespread on their territory. 

This  aligns  with  target 6  of  the  GBF  to  reduce  the 
introduction of IAS by at least 50 % by 2030 and minimise 
their impact. 

Preventing  the  introduction  and  spread  of  IAS,  and 
including  through  eradication  and 
managing  them, 
control,  can  result  in  a  substantial  cost  saving.  Studies 
estimate  that  the  total  cost  of  IAS  in  Europe  (damages 
and  management)  amounted  to  EUR 116.61 billion 
between  1960  and  2020 (62).  More  recent  studies  have 
put  this  cost  at  USD 28 billion  per  year  in  the  EU, 
increasing  to  USD 148.2 billion  by  2040 (63),  and  at 
USD 423 billion annually at the global level (64). 

(59) 

(60) 

Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2016/1141 of 13 July 
2016 adopting a list of  invasive alien species of Union concern 
pursuant  to  Regulation  (EU)  1143/2014  of  the  European 
Parliament  and  of  the  Council  (OJ  L 189,  14.7.2016,  p. 4),  as 
amended  by  Commission 
Implementing  Regulations  (EU) 
2017/1263,  (EU)  2019/1262  and  (EU)  2022/1203,  https://eur-
lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:02016R1141-
20220802&from=EN. 
Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2022/1203 of 12 July 
2022  amending  Implementing  Regulation  (EU)  2016/1141  to 
update  the  list  of  invasive  alien  species  of  Union  concern  (OJ 
L 186,  13.7.2022,  p. 10),  https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A32022R1203. 

The total number of IAS of Union concern in the country 
is 13. This includes six species recorded in the previous 
EIR (2021) and seven additions. Of these additions, four 
were already on the Union concern list in 2021, and three 
were  added 
later  under  Commission  Implementing 
Regulation (EU) 2022/1203. 

Cyprus has taken further measures to combat IAS. Cyprus 
has stepped up its implementation and the infringement 
procedure has been closed. 

2025 priority action 

• 

Step  up  implementation  of  the  IAS  Regulation, 
including  with  regard  to  enforcement  and  the 
capacity of inspection authorities. 

(61) 

Regulation (EU) No 1143/2014 of the European Parliament and 
of  the  Council  of  22 October  2014  on  the  prevention  and 
management  of  the  introduction  and  spread  of  invasive  alien 
species (OJ L 317, 4.11.2014, p. 35). 

(62)  Haubrock, P. J., Turbelin, A. J., Cuthbert, R. N  et al , ‘Economic 
costs of invasive alien species across Europe’, NeoBiota, Vol. 63, 
2021, pp. 153–190. 

(64) 

(63)  Henry, M., Leung, B., Cuthbert, R. N  et al , ‘Unveiling the hidden 
economic  toll  of  biological  invasions  in  the  European  Union’, 
Environmental Sciences Europe, Vol. 35, No 1, 2023, p. 43. 
Platform 
IPBES 
Summary 
Biodiversity 
Policymakers – 
https://www.ipbes.net/document-library-catalogue/summary-
policymakers-invasive-alien-species-assessment. 

Science-Policy 
on 
for 
Services), 
Invasive  alien  species  assessment,  2023, 

(Intergovernmental 

Ecosystem 

and 

2025 Environmental Implementation Review – Cyprus 

 
 
 
Cyprus  22 

Ecosystem assessment and accounting 

The  BDS  calls  on  Member  States  to  better  integrate 
biodiversity  considerations  into  public  and  business 
decision-making  at  all  levels  and  to  develop  natural 
capital accounting. 

Similarly, target 14 of the GBF (65) aims to ensure the full 
integration  of  biodiversity  and  its  multiple  values  into 
policy  and  planning  and,  as  appropriate,  national 
accounting.  This  requires  effective  and  coherent 
biodiversity  observation  and  reporting  on  ecosystem 
condition in the EU (66). 

The amended Regulation (EU) No 691/2011 on European 
environmental  economic  accounts (67)  introduces  new 
requirements  for  Member  States  to  report  on  the 
condition  of  ecosystems  including  urban  ecosystems, 
croplands,  grasslands,  forest  and  woodlands,  coastal 
beaches,  dunes  and  wetlands.  Data  reported  by  the 
Member  States  will  feed  into  the  second  European 
ecosystem assessment, due in 2027, and can also be used 
to support policy decisions. 

An ecosystem assessment is an analysis of the condition 
of ecosystems and the pressures acting on them, as well 
as  the  benefits  that  they  provide  to  people,  either 
directly or indirectly through the economy. 

Cyprus  has  set  up  a  coordination  committee  for  the 
implementation  of  actions  on  the  mapping  and 
assessment  of  ecosystems  and  their  services,  working 
under  the  Minister  of  Agriculture,  Rural  Development 
and Environment. 

increasing  number  of  platforms,  networks  and 
An 
communities of practice involve businesses in protecting 
biodiversity,  including  the  EU  Business  &  Biodiversity 
Platform (68). These platforms and communities are key 
tools  for  promoting  and  facilitating  natural  capital 
assessments  among  businesses  and  financial  services 
providers. 

Natural  capital  assessments  help  private  businesses  to 
better  understand  both  the  negative  and  positive 
impacts that they have on nature, and to appreciate how 
nature contributes to their success. Such understanding 
contributes to the implementation of the EU’s BDS. 

Cyprus has not ratified yet the Nagoya Protocol on Access 
to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing 
of  Benefits  Arising  from  their  Utilization  to  the 
Convention on Biological Diversity. 

In 2022, Cyprus received a priority action on supporting 
the  mapping  and  assessment  of  ecosystems  and  their 
services,  and  ecosystem  accounting  development,  as 
well  as  on  supporting  the  development  of  national 
business and biodiversity platforms. The first part of the 
priority action cannot be assessed due to the lack of data. 
There is no progress on the second part: there is still no 
Cypriot business and biodiversity network member of the 
EU Business & Biodiversity Platform. 

2025 priority actions 

• 

Support  development  of  national  business  and 
biodiversity network.  

•  Ratify  the  Nagoya  Protocol  on  Access  to  Genetic 
Resources  and  the  Fair  and  Equitable  Sharing  of 
Benefits  Arising  from  their  Utilization  (ABS)  to  the 
Convention on Biological Diversity. 

(65)  Decision 15/4 adopted by the Conference of the Parties to the 
Convention  on  Biological  Diversity:  Kunming–Montreal  global 
framework 
biodiversity 
(https://www.cbd.int/doc/decisions/cop-15/cop-15-dec-04-
en.pdf). 
European  Commission:  Joint  Research  Centre  and  EEA,  EU 
Ecosystem 
policymakers, 
Publications  Office  of  the  European  Union,  Luxembourg,  2021, 
https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-
/publication/81ff1498-b91d-11eb-8aca-
01aa75ed71a1/language-en. 

Assessment – 

Summary 

(66) 

for 

(67) 

(68) 

final 

Proposal for a regulation of the European Parliament and of the 
Council  amending  Regulation  (EU)  No 691/2011  as  regards 
introducing  new  environmental  economic  accounts  modules, 
COM(2022) 329 
https://eur-
lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=COM:2022:329:FIN. 
The  EU  Business  &  Biodiversity  Platform  (https://green-
business.ec.europa.eu/business-and-biodiversity_en)  aims  to 
promote  the  business  case  for  biodiversity  to  businesses  and 
financial institutions through workshops, seminars, reports and 
a cross-media communication strategy. 

11 July 

2022, 

of 

2025 Environmental Implementation Review – Cyprus 

 
 
 
 
Cyprus  23 

3. Zero pollution 

(NH3) and PM2.5, and has not met them for sulphur dioxide 
(SO2).  According  to  the  projections  submitted  under 
Article 10(2) of the NECD in 2023, Cyprus is projected to 
meet  its  emission  reduction  commitments  for  2030 
onwards for NOx, NMVOC, SO2, NH3 and PM2.5. 

Cyprus submitted its updated national air pollution control 
programme (NAPCP) to the Commission on 14 June 2024. 

Figure 16:  Emission  trends  of  main  pollutants /  GDP  in 
Cyprus (%), 2005–2022 

200%

150%

100%

50%

0%

NH₃

PM2.5 
PM2.5

NMVOC

SO₂

NOₓ

GDP

Source: EEA, ‘National air pollutant emissions data viewer 2005–2022’, 
25 June 
https://www.eea.europa.eu/en/topics/in-depth/air-
pollution/national-air-pollutant-emissions-data-viewer-2005-2022. 

2024, 

Clean air 

EU  clean  air  policies  and  legislation  have  successfully 
reduced  emissions  of  key  air  pollutants  and  significantly 
improved  air  quality,  which  is  now  moving  towards  the 
levels  recommended  by  the  World  Health  Organization 
(WHO).  This  has  resulted  in  clear  health  benefits  and 
reduced adverse impacts on ecosystems and biodiversity. 
However, to achieve the WHO-recommended levels, more 
efforts  are  needed,  including  full  compliance  with  EU 
legislation.  To  guide  these  efforts,  the  EU  zero  pollution 
action plan sets targets for 2030 relative to 2005. These 
are to reduce the health impacts of air pollution by 55 % 
and  to  reduce  the  EU  ecosystems  threatened  by  air 
pollution by 25 %. 

The EU has developed a comprehensive suite of air quality 
policies (69).  These  set  health-based  EU  air  quality 
standards (70)  and  stipulate  Member  States’  national 
emission  reduction  commitments (71)  for  several  air 
pollutants. 

The  air  quality  in  Cyprus  is  generally  good,  with  some 
exceptions. 

The  latest  available  annual  estimates  (for  2022)  by  the 
EEA (72)  for  Cyprus  attribute  690  deaths  each  year  (or 
6 600 years  of  life  lost  (YLL))  to  fine  particulate  matter 
(PM2.5) (73);  260  deaths  each  year  (or  2 500 YLL)  to 
nitrogen dioxide (NO2) (74); and 140 deaths each year (or 
1 400 YLL) to ozone (75). 

The  emissions  of  several  air  pollutants  have  decreased 
significantly in Cyprus since 2005, while GDP growth has 
continued  (see  Figure 16).  According  to  the  inventories 
submitted  under  Article 10(2)  of  the  National  Emission 
Reduction  Commitments  Directive  (NECD) (76)  in  2024, 
Cyprus  has  met  its  emission  reduction  commitments  for 
2020–2029 for air pollutants  nitrogen oxides (NOx), non-
methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOC), ammonia 

(69) 

(70) 

(71) 

(72) 

(73) 

European  Commission,  ‘Air’,  European  Commission  website, 
https://environment.ec.europa.eu/topics/air_en. 
European  Commission,  ‘EU  air  quality  standards’,  European 
Commission 
website, 
https://environment.ec.europa.eu/topics/air/air-quality/eu-air-
quality-standards_en. 
European  Commission,  ‘Reducing  emissions  of  air  pollutants’, 
European 
website, 
Commission 
https://environment.ec.europa.eu/topics/air/reducing-
emissions-air-pollutants_en. 
EEA, Harm to human health from air pollution in Europe: Burden 
of  disease  2024,  briefing  No 21/2024,  Copenhagen,  2024, 
https://www.eea.europa.eu/en/analysis/publications/harm-to-
human-health-from-air-pollution-2024. 
Particulate matter (PM) is a mixture of aerosol particles (solid and 
liquid) covering a wide range of sizes and chemical compositions. 
PM10  refers  to  particles  with  a  diameter  of  10 µm  or  less.  PM2.5 

refers to particles with a diameter of 2.5 µm or less. PM is emitted 
from many human sources, including combustion. 

(74)  Nitrogen  dioxide  (NO2)  here  pertains  to  a  group  of  gases  called 
NOx, which also comprises nitrogen monoxide (NO). NOx is emitted 
during fuel combustion – for example, from industrial facilities and 
the road transport sector. 
Low-level  ozone 
is  produced  by  photochemical  action  on 
pollution.  This  year,  for  the  first  time,  the  impact  of  long-term 
exposure to ozone has also been taken into account. In previous 
analysis by the EEA, only the impact of short-term exposure was 
estimated. 

(75) 

(76)  Directive (EU) 2016/2284 of the European Parliament and of the 
Council  of  14 December  2016  on  the  reduction  of  national 
emissions of certain atmospheric pollutants, amending Directive 
2003/35/EC  and  repealing  Directive  2001/81/EC  (OJ  L 344, 
17.12.2016, 
https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/?uri=uriserv:OJ.L_.2016.344.01.0001.01.ENG. 

p. 1), 

2025 Environmental Implementation Review – Cyprus 

 
 
 
Figure 17:  PM2.5  and  NOx  emissions  by  sector  in  Cyprus 
(%), 2022 

100%

80%

60%

40%

20%

0%

Waste

Transport

Residential,
commercial &
institutional

Manufacturing
and extractive
industry

Energy supply

Agriculture

PM2.5
PM2.5
2,52%

32,60%

NOₓ

0,02%

47,85%

6,43%

4,46%

33,86%

14,39%

16,67%

7,92%

23,42%

9,86%

Source: EEA, ‘National air pollutant emissions data viewer 2005–2022’, 
25 June 
https://www.eea.europa.eu/en/topics/in-depth/air-
pollution/national-air-pollutant-emissions-data-viewer-2005-2022. 

2024, 

In 2023, no exceedances above the limit values set by the 
Ambient Air Quality Directive (AAQD) (77) were registered 
in  Cyprus.  However,  for  one  air  quality  zone,  the  target 
values for ozone concentrations have not been met (78). 

Infringement procedures have been opened for Member 
States not meeting the emission reduction commitments 
for  2020–2029;  this  includes  a  procedure  for  Cyprus  for 
SO2. 

In the 2022 EIR, Cyprus received two priority actions. The 
first priority action was to further reduce emissions in the 
context of the NAPCP. Cyprus has not  made progress on 
this,  as  the  latest  reported  data  show  continued  non-
compliance  with  the  2020–2029  emission  reduction 
commitment  for  SO2.  The  second  priority  action  was  to 
ensure full compliance with EU air quality standards and 
maintain downward emission trends. Based on the latest 

(OJ 

L 152, 

(77)  Directive  2008/50/EU  of  the  European  Parliament  and  of  the 
Council of 21 May 2008 on ambient air quality and cleaner air for 
Europe 
https://eur-
lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A32008L0050https://eur-
lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32008L0050. 
Central 
Eionet 
EEA, 
(https://cdr.eionet.europa.eu/). 

Repository 

11.6.2008, 

p. 1), 

Data 

(78) 

(79)  Directive  2010/75/EU  of  the  European  Parliament  and  of  the 
Council of 24 November 2010 on industrial and livestock rearing 

Cyprus  24 

data, Cyprus has made substantial progress in this regard. 
Full  compliance  has  been  ensured  for  all  limit  value  and 
target values, with the exception of those for ozone. Since 
2019, downward emission trends have been reported for 
all  main  air  pollutants,  except  for  NH3,  which  requires 
further action. 

2025 priority actions 

•  As part of the NAPCP, take action to reduce emissions 

• 

of air pollutants. 
Ensure  full  compliance  with  the  current  AAQD 
standards, also in light of future stricter requirements 
under the revised AAQD. 

Industrial emissions 

The  main objectives of EU policy on industrial emissions 
are to: 

(i)  protect  air,  water  and  soil  and  to  prevent  harmful 
effects on human health and the environment; 

(ii)  prevent and manage waste; 
(iii)  improve  energy  and  resource  efficiency,  including 

water; 

(iv)  contribute to decarbonisation. 

The  cornerstone  of  the  policy  is the  Industrial  Emissions 
Directive (IED), which was revised in 2024 (79). The revision 
improves the directive’s contribution to the zero pollution 
objective. It has a strong focus on innovation, and builds 
solid  links  between  depollution,  decarbonisation  and 
circularity, making it a key regulatory tool to accompany 
the green transformation of EU industry by 2050. 

The overview of industrial activities regulated by the IED 
below  is  based  on  data  reported  to  the  EU  Registry  in 
2022 (80). 

In Cyprus, there were 80 installations covered by the IED 
in 2022, over half of them (56 %) being installations for the 
intensive rearing of poultry or pigs. The other main sectors 
are  the  waste  management  sector  (17 %)  and  mineral 
sector (12 %). 

Figure 18  shows  the  damage  to  health  and 
the 
environment due to the main industrial air pollutants. As 
this  depends  on,  among  other  factors,  the  size  of  the 

emissions (integrated pollution prevention and control) (OJ L 334, 
17.12.2010, p. 17), as amended by Directive (EU) 2024/1785 of the 
European  Parliament  and  of  the  Council  of  24 April  2024, 
https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A02010L0075-
20240804&qid=1725983863299. 
Portal, 
Industrial 
European 
EEA, 
https://industry.eea.europa.eu/, 2022 being the baseline year for 
all reports. 

Emissions 

(80) 

2025 Environmental Implementation Review – Cyprus 

 
 
 
Cyprus  25 

industrial  sector  in  each  Member  State,  the  figure  also 
shows  the  ratio  between  the  damage  and  the  industrial 
activity  (expressed  in  gross  value  added  (GVA)),  which 
gives an indication of the emissions  ‘intensity’. Although 
Cyprus has the 22nd highest level of damage in the EU, it 
comes  second  for  emissions  intensity,  above  the  EU 
average  of  EUR 27.5/EUR 1000  GVA.  The  main  industrial 
contributors to emissions to air (81) are the energy sector, 
and  the  mineral  sector  for  NOX,  SO2  and  heavy  metals 
emissions. 

Figure 18:  Industrial  air  pollution  damage  and  intensity 
per Member State, 2021 

Concerning  Cyprus  in  particular,  Figure 21  shows  the 
industrial emissions of heavy metals to water, taking into 
account  the  human  toxicity  of  each  metal,  as  well  as 
emissions  intensity,  based  on  the  ratio  with  industrial 
activity  (expressed  in  GVA).  Cyprus  is  last  in  the  EU  in 
terms  of  both  amount  of  emissions  of  heavy  metals  to 
water and emissions intensity (well below the EU average 
intensity  of  0.864 kg/EUR 1 billion  GVA).  As  shown  in 
Figure 21, the main industrial contributor to emissions to 
water in Cyprus is the livestock sector for total phosphorus 
and total nitrogen. 

Figure 20:  Industrial  releases  and  intensity  of  heavy 
metals to water per Member State, 2022 

Source: EEA, ‘ ndustrial pollution intensity indicators – EU large industry 
air  pollution  damage  costs  intensity’,  European   ndustrial  Emissions 
Portal, 
https://industry.eea.europa.eu/analyse/industrial-
emissions-indicator. 

2024, 

Overall, the industrial emissions to water in the EU have 
decreased  over  time  for  all  the  main  pollutants.  On 
average in the EU, they appear to be decoupled from the 
industrial  activity  which  has  increased  over  the  same 
period (expressed in GVA), as shown in Figure 19. 

Figure 19: Industrial releases of pollutants to water and 
industrial activity in the EU-27 

Source: EEA, ‘ ndustrial pollution intensity indicators – EU large industry 
water  pollution  intensity’,  European   ndustrial  Emissions  Portal,  2024, 
https://industry.eea.europa.eu/analyse/industrial-emissions-indicator. 

Figure 21:  Relative  releases  to  water  from  industry  in 
Cyprus (%), 2022 

100%

75%

50%

25%

0%

Total nitrogen

Total phosphorus

Livestock

Source: EEA, ‘Industrial reporting under the Industrial Emissions Directive 
2010/75/EU  and  European  Pollutant  Release  and  Transfer  Register 
Regulation (EC) No 166/2006 – ver. 12 0 Sep  202  (tabular data)’, EEA 
Geospatial 
2024, 
Catalogue, 
https://doi.org/10.2909/cf5e54c1-be99-4426-bcad-baa26c4f27a0. 

13 September 

Data 

NB:  Cd,  cadmium;  Hg, mercury;  Ni,  nickel;  Pb,  lead;  TOC,  total  organic 
carbon; total N, total nitrogen; total P, total phosphorous. 

Source: EEA, ‘National air pollutant emissions data viewer 2005–2022’, 
25 June 
https://www.eea.europa.eu/en/topics/in-depth/air-
pollution/national-air-pollutant-emissions-data-viewer-2005-2022. 

2024, 

IED  provisions  on  public  information  and  participation 
require Member States to adopt transposition legislation 
enabling members of the public to have access to relevant 
information  and  participate  in  the  approval  process  for 
potentially  polluting  installations.  Thus,  the  public  and 
non-governmental  organisations 
(NGOs),  alongside 
competent authorities, play a role in ensuring compliance 

(81) 

European  Environment  Agency,  LRTAP,  Air  pollutant  emissions 
data viewer (Gothenburg Protocol, LRTAP Convention) 1990-2022, 

https://www.eea.europa.eu/en/topics/in-depth/air-
pollution/air-pollutant-emissions-data-viewer-1990-2022. 

2025 Environmental Implementation Review – Cyprus 

 
 
 
 
 
 
of  these  permits  with  EU  legislation.  The  IED  contains 
mandatory  requirements  on  environmental  inspections, 
requiring a site visit to take place at least every 1–3 years, 
using  risk-based  criteria.  In  addition,  IED  enforcement 
provisions require Member States to determine effective, 
proportionate,  and  dissuasive  penalties  applicable  to 
infringements  of  IED-based  national  provisions.  In  the 
revised  directive, 
that  worst 
the  provisions 
infringements can be sanctioned by fines of at least 3% of 
the  annual  EU  turnover  of  the  legal  person.  The  revised 
IED  also  introduces  a  right  to  compensation  for  people 
whose health has been harmed by such infringements. 

set 

The development of best available techniques (BATs), BAT 
reference  documents  and  BAT  conclusions  ensures 
effective collaboration between stakeholders and enables 
better implementation of the IED. 

Since  the  2022  EIR,  the  Commission  has  adopted  BAT 
conclusions on (i) ferrous metal processing, (ii) the textiles 
industry,  (iii)  common  waste  gas  management  and 
in  the  chemical  sector  and  (iv) 
treatment  systems 
smitheries and foundries. 

The  Commission  relies  on  the  efforts  of  national 
competent  authorities  to  implement  the  legally  binding 
BAT  conclusions  and  associated  BAT  emission  levels  in 
environmental permits. This should result in considerable 
and continuous reductions in pollution. 

2025 priority actions 

•  Reduce industrial air pollution damage and intensity. 
• 
Engage  with  industry  and  environmental  NGOs  to 
ensure proper contribution to and implementation of 
BAT conclusions and ensure timely updates to permits 
following the publication of BAT conclusions. 
Ensure  effective  public  participation  and  access  to 
justice in relation to the IED. 

• 

Major industrial accidents prevention – Seveso 

The  main  objectives  of  EU  policy  on  the  prevention  of 
major industrial accidents are to: 

(i)  control  major-accident  hazards  involving  dangerous 

(ii) 

substances, especially chemicals; 
limit the consequences of such accidents for human 
health and the environment; 

(iii)  continuously 

improve 

the 

prevention 

of, 

preparedness for and response to major accidents. 

The cornerstone of the policy is Directive 2012/18/EU (the 

Cyprus  26 

Seveso III Directive) (82). 

The overview below of industrial plants regulated by the 
Seveso III Directive (‘Seveso establishments’) is based on 
data  reported  on  eSPIRS  (e-Seveso  Plants  Information 
Retrieval  System)  for  2022–2024 (83)  and  the  report  by 
Cyprus on the implementation of the Seveso III Directive 
for 2019–2022 (84). 

In  2024,  of  the  25  Seveso  establishments  in  Cyprus,  18 
were  categorised  as  lower-tier  establishments  and  7  as 
upper-tier establishments (UTEs), based on the quantity of 
hazardous  substances  likely  to  be  present.  UTEs  are 
subject to more stringent requirements. The growth in the 
number  of  Seveso  establishments 
in 
Figure 22. 

is  presented 

Figure 22:  Number  of  Seveso  establishments  in  Cyprus, 
2018, 2022 and 2024 

2022, 

Sources:  European  Commission:  Directorate-General  for  Environment, 
Assessment and summary of Member States’ implementation reports for 
(implementing  Directive 
Implementing  Decision 
2014/896/EU 
involving 
2012/18/EU  on  the  control  of  major  accident  hazards 
dangerous  substances),  Publications  Office  of  the  European  Union, 
Luxembourg, 
https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-
/publication/94d57d74-735b-11ec-9136-01aa75ed71a1/language-
en/format-PDF/source-search;  eSPIRS  data,  extractions  from  2022  and 
reports  on 
2024;  Analysis  and  summary  of  Member  States' 
implementation of Directive 2012/18/EU on the control of major accident 
hazards  involving  dangerous  substances  according  to  the  format 
established  by  Commission  Implementing  Decision  2014/896/EU  - 
Publications  Office  of  the  EU,  https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-
detail/-/publication/9bd73087-e9b8-11ef-b5e9-
01aa75ed71a1/language-en. 

Member  States  are  required  to  draw  up  external 
emergency plans (EEPs). These EEPs are essential to allow 
proper  preparation  and  effective  implementation  of  the 
necessary  actions  to  protect  the  environment  and  the 
population should a major industrial accident occur. 

(82)  Directive  2012/18/EU  of  the  European  Parliament  and  of  the 
Council  of  4 July  2012  on  the  control  of  major-accident  hazards 
involving  dangerous  substances,  amending  and  subsequently 
repealing  Council  Directive  96/82/EC  (OJ  L 197,  24.7.2012,  p. 1), 
https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/dir/2012/18/oj. 

(83) 

(84) 

https://espirs.jrc.ec.europa.eu/en/espirs/content; data extracted 
in September 2024. 
As provided for by Article 21(2) of the Seveso III Directive. 

2025 Environmental Implementation Review – Cyprus 

 
 
 
According to Cyprus, in 2022, an EEP was required for all 
11 UTEs. All of these EEPs have been tested over the last 
three years. The summary is shown in Figure 23. 

Figure 24: Share of UTEs for which information on safety 
measures  and  requisite  behaviours  was  actively  made 
available to the public per Member State (%), 2022 

Figure 23: Situation regarding EEPs in Cyprus, 2022 

Cyprus  27 

2022, 

Sources:  European  Commission:  Directorate-General  for  Environment, 
Assessment and summary of Member States’ implementation reports for 
(implementing  Directive 
Implementing  Decision 
2014/896/EU 
2012/18/EU  on  the  control  of  major  accident  hazards 
involving 
dangerous  substances),  Publications  Office  of  the  European  Union, 
Luxembourg, 
https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-
/publication/94d57d74-735b-11ec-9136-01aa75ed71a1/language-
en/format-PDF/source-search;  eSPIRS  data,  extractions  from  2022  and 
2024;  Analysis  and  summary  of  Member  States' 
reports  on 
implementation of Directive 2012/18/EU on the control of major accident 
hazards  involving  dangerous  substances  according  to  the  format 
established  by  Commission  Implementing  Decision  2014/896/EU  - 
Publications  Office  of  the  EU,  https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-
detail/-/publication/9bd73087-e9b8-11ef-b5e9-
01aa75ed71a1/language-en. 

The  public  information  referred  to  in  Annex V  to  the 
Seveso III  Directive –  especially  about  how  the  public 
concerned  will  be  warned  if  there  is  a  major  accident, 
appropriate  behaviour  in  the  event  of  a  major  accident, 
and the date of the last site visit – is permanently available 
for all Seveso establishments in Cyprus. 

The  shares  of  UTEs  for  which  information  on  safety 
measures  and  requisite  behaviours  was  actively  made 
available to the public in 2022 in the EU-27 are presented 
in Figure 24. This provision on knowledge is an important 
provision of the Seveso III Directive, as awareness by the 
the 
public  of 
consequences of a major industrial accident. 

information  may  ameliorate 

this 

N.B. No data available for Greece. 

2022, 

Sources:  European  Commission:  Directorate-General  for  Environment, 
Assessment and summary of Member States’ implementation reports for 
(implementing  Directive 
Implementing  Decision 
2014/896/EU 
2012/18/EU  on  the  control  of  major  accident  hazards 
involving 
dangerous  substances),  Publications  Office  of  the  European  Union, 
https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-
Luxembourg, 
/publication/94d57d74-735b-11ec-9136-01aa75ed71a1/language-
en/format-PDF/source-search;  eSPIRS  data,  extractions  from  2022  and 
2024;  Analysis  and  summary  of  Member  States' 
reports  on 
implementation of Directive 2012/18/EU on the control of major accident 
hazards  involving  dangerous  substances  according  to  the  format 
established  by  Commission  Implementing  Decision  2014/896/EU  - 
Publications  Office  of  the  EU,  https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-
detail/-/publication/9bd73087-e9b8-11ef-b5e9-
01aa75ed71a1/language-en. 

No data available for Greece. 

Mercury Regulation 

The  Mercury  Regulation  establishes  measures  and 
conditions concerning the use and storage of and trade in 
mercury,  mercury  compounds  and  mixtures  of  mercury, 
the manufacture and use of and trade in mercury-added 
products and the management of mercury waste, in order 
to ensure a high level of protection of human health and 
the  environment  from  anthropogenic  emissions  and 
releases of mercury and mercury compounds. The revision 
of the Mercury Regulation adopted in 2024 sets out rules 
to address the last intentional uses of mercury in the EU 
by  phasing  out  the  use  of  dental  amalgam  by  1 January 
2025 except when deemed strictly necessary by the dental 
practitioner  based  on  the  specific  medical  needs  of  the 
patient,  and  prohibiting  the  manufacture  and  export  of 
additional mercury-containing lamps from 1 January 2026 
or 1 January 2027 (depending on the lamp category). 

In  2019,  21 %  of  the  dental  treatments  were  still  using 
dental  amalgam,  which  represented  a  challenge  for 
Cyprus to phase out its use on 1 January 2025. However, 
measures  should  have  been  put  in  place  to  ensure  a 
socially  and  economically  sound  phase-out,  including  an 
adequate  reimbursement  of  the  alternatives  to  dental 

2025 Environmental Implementation Review – Cyprus 

 
 
 
amalgam  through  the  health  insurance  scheme  and  the 
training  of  dental  practitioners.  The  Commission 
is 
monitoring whether the phase-out has taken place under 
the terms and conditions of the regulation. Cyprus will also 
need  to  ensure  that  the  manufacture  and  export  of 
mercury-containing lamps are prohibited by the deadlines 
set out in the Mercury Regulation. 

Noise 

The Environmental Noise Directive (85) requires a common 
approach to avoid, prevent and reduce the harmful effects 
of  noise.  The  designated  authorities  are  responsible  for 
making  and  approving  noise  maps  and  action  plans  for 
agglomerations,  major  roads,  major  railways  and  major 
airports.  Member  States  decide  on  noise  limits  that  are 
not  set  at  the  EU  level.  Nevertheless,  the  zero  pollution 
action  plan  sets  as  a  2030  target  a  30 %  reduction 
compared  with  2017  in  the  share  of  people  chronically 
disturbed by transport noise. 

Excessive noise from aircraft, railways and roads is one of 
the main causes of environmental health‐related issues in 
the  EU.  It  can  cause  ischaemic  heart  disease,  stroke, 
interrupted sleep, cognitive impairment and stress (86). 

In  Cyprus,  environmental  noise  is  estimated  to  cause  at 
least  around  40  cases  of 
ischaemic  heart  disease 
annually (87)  and  some  15 000  people  to  suffer  from 
disturbed sleep  (88). 

Based  on  the  latest  set  of  information  analysed,  Cyprus 
has  completed  its  noise  mapping  of  agglomerations, 
roads, railways and airports. 

Action  plans  for  noise  management  for  agglomerations, 
roads,  railways  and  airports  must  be  updated  and 

(85)  Directive  2002/49/EC  of  the  European  Parliament  and  of  the 
Council  of  25 June  2002  relating  to  the  assessment  and 
management  of  environmental  noise –  Declaration  by  the 
Commission  in  the  Conciliation  Committee  on  the  directive 
relating  to  the  assessment  and  management  of  environmental 
noise (OJ L 189, 18.7.2002, p. 12), https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A32002L0049. 

(87) 

(86)  WHO,  Environmental  Noise  Guidelines  for  the  European  Region, 
Copenhagen, 
2018, 
https://www.who.int/europe/publications/i/item/978928905356
3https://www.who.int/europe/publications/i/item/97892890535
63. 
These figures are an estimation by the EEA based on (i) the data 
reported  by  Member  States  on  noise  exposure  covered  by 
Directive 2002/49/EC for the round of noise mapping of 2022; (ii) 
European  Topic  Centre  on  Air  Pollution,  Transport,  Noise  and 
Industrial  Pollution  (ETC/ATNI),  Noise 
Indicators  under  the 
Environmental Noise Directive 2021: Methodology for estimating 
missing  data,  Eionet  report  ETC/ATNI  No 2021/06,  Kjeller,  2021; 
and  (iii)  the  methodology  for  health  impact  calculations  in 
European  Topic  Centre  on  Air  Pollution  and  Climate  Change 
Mitigation  (ETC/ACM),  Implications  of  environmental  noise  on 
health  and  wellbeing 
in  Europe,  Eionet  Report  ETC/ACM 
No 2018/10, Bilthoven, 2018). 

Cyprus  28 

submitted  to  the  Commission  every  five  years.  The 
deadline for reporting noise action plans under the most 
recent  reporting  cycle  was  18 January  2025;  these  plans 
have not been assessed yet. 

Cyprus  received  two  priority  actions  in  the  2022  EIR:  to 
complete (i) noise mapping and (ii) noise action plans. The 
first  priority  action  on  noise  mapping  was  fulfilled  as 
detailed  above.  Given  that  reporting  under  the  most 
recent reporting cycle for noise action plans is due in early 
2025,  these  have  not  been  assessed.  Therefore,  this 
second priority action is maintained for the 2025 EIR. 

2025 priority action 

• 

Complete  and  implement  action  plans  on  noise 
management. 

Water quality and management 

EU  legislation  and  policy  requires  that  the  impact  of 
pressures on transitional waters, coastal waters and fresh 
water  (including  surface  waters  and  groundwater)  be 
significantly reduced. Achieving, maintaining or enhancing 
a  good  status  of  waterbodies  as  defined  by  the  Water 
Framework Directive will ensure that EU citizens and the 
environment benefit from good-quality and safe drinking 
and bathing water. It will further ensure that the nutrient 
cycle  (nitrogen  and  phosphorus)  is  managed  in  a  more 
sustainable and resource-efficient way. 

Water Framework Directive 

The Water Framework Directive (89) is the cornerstone of 
EU  water  policy  in  the  21st  century (90).  The  Water 
Framework 
other  water-related 
and 
directives (91) form the basis of sustainable and integrated 

Directive 

(88)  More information on the adverse health effects of noise pollution 

(89) 

(90) 
(91) 

the 

include 

the  Groundwater  Directive 

is available at: 
https://www.eea.europa.eu/themes/human/noise/noise-2  
https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32000L0060. 
https://environment.ec.europa.eu/topics/water_en. 
These 
(https://eur-
lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex%3A32006L0118), 
the  Environmental  Quality  Standards  Directive  (https://eur-
lex.europa.eu/eli/dir/2008/105/oj), 
Directive 
(https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A32007L0060), the Bathing Water 
(https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
Directive 
Urban 
content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex%3A32006L0007), 
Wastewater 
(https://eur-
Directive 
lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex%3A31991L0271), 
the 
(https://eur-
new 
lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A32020L2184), 
Directive 
content/EN/ALL/?uri=celex%3A31991L0676), 
(https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/en/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A32008L0056) 

Nitrates 
(https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
MSFD 

Drinking  Water 

Treatment 

Directive 

Floods 

and 

the 

IED 

the 

the 

the 

2025 Environmental Implementation Review – Cyprus 

 
 
  
 
water management in the EU. They aim to achieve a high 
level  of  protection  of  water  resources,  prevention  of 
further  deterioration  and  restoration  to  good  status. 
These  objectives  are  very 
important  for  the  EU’s 
competitiveness,  strategic  autonomy  and  security,  yet 
have become even more challenging in the face of climate 
change affecting our precious water resources. 

The Water Framework Directive establishes a procedural 
framework for reaching good surface water ecological and 
chemical  status  and  good  groundwater  quantitative  and 
chemical status. This implies monitoring and classification 
of all waterbodies, assessment  of pressures and impacts 
and identification of the most cost-effective measures to 
achieve the objectives of the directive. The directive dates 
from 2000 and set an initial deadline of 2015 for achieving 
its objectives, with the option to extend the deadline to 
the  end  of  2027.  Every  six  years,  Member  States  must 
report their river basin management plans (RBMPs) to the 
Commission. They should cover river basin districts in their 
countries,  some  of  which  may  be  shared  with  other 
countries. The Commission has assessed the third cycle of 
RBMPs, which were to be submitted by March 2022, and 
reported  its  findings  to  the  European  Parliament  and  to 
the Council on 4th February 2025 (92) 

the  Commission 

In  November  2024, 
initiated  an 
infringement  procedure  against  Cyprus  for  its  failure  to 
comply with Article 11 of the Water Framework Directive, 
according  to  which  Member  States  must  establish  a 
programme  of  measures  for  each  river  basin  district, 
which  should  include,  among  other  things,  measures  to 
control  different  types  of  water  use.  These  control 
measures  must  be  reviewed  periodically.  However,  in 
Cyprus,  national  legislation  does  not  impose  any  kind  of 
periodic review (93). 

Cyprus  is  facing  water  scarcity,  as  evidenced  by  the 
Seasonal Water Exploitation Index +94. In 2022, this index 
reaches 91.8%, which is much above 40%, a sign of severe 
scarcity.  This  seasonal  index  at  national  level  does  not 
reflect the situation at river basin level95, though this is not 
applicable for Cyprus. 

(https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A32010L0075). 

(92)   ENV - Bibliothèque 
(93) 
(94)   Water  scarcity  conditions  in  Europe  |  European  Environment 

Case INFR(2024)2227. 

Agency's home page. 

(95)   Percentage of seasons with water stress | European Environment 

(96) 

Agency's home page. 
https://environment.ec.europa.eu/law-and-
governance/environmental-implementation-review_en#country-
reports. 

Cyprus  29 

2025 priority action 

• 

Ensure  periodic  reviews  of  permits  for  discharges, 
abstractions  and  other  water  uses, 
including 
hydropower pressures. 

Floods Directive 

Every six years, following the same reporting cycle as the 
RBMPs,  all  Member  States  report  their  flood  risk 
management  plans  (FRMPs),  based  on  the  flood  hazard 
and  risk  maps  (FHRMs)  and  the  preliminary  flood  risk 
assessments  drawn  up  during  the  second  cycle  (2016–
2021). 

The  Commission  assessed  the  FRMPs  and  reported  its 
findings to the European Parliament and to the Council on 
4th  February  2025,  together  with  the  assessment  of  the 
RBMPs. 

Cyprus did not submit the third RBMPs and second FRMPs 
by March 2022, as required under the Water Framework 
Directive  and  the  Floods  Directive.  The  Commission 
opened  an  infringement  procedure  for  late  reporting. 
Cyprus finally reported its third RBMPs in December 2023 
and  its  second  FRMPs  in  January  2024.  However,  as  a 
result of the late reporting, the Commission has not been 
in  a  position  to  assess  the  plans  and  include  such 
assessment in its report to the European Parliament and 
to the Council. 

As a consequence, the EIR report cannot be updated for 
Cyprus and reference is made to the 2022 EIR for the latest 
state of play (96). 

Drinking Water Directive 

The recast Drinking Water Directive is now applicable, and 
Member States were required to transpose its provisions 
into their national legal systems by 12 January 2023. Since 
into  force  of  the  recast  directive,  the 
the  entry 
several  delegated  and 
Commission  has  adopted 
implementing  acts  establishing  (i)  a  watch 
list  of 
substances  and  compounds  of  concern  for  drinking 
water (97), (ii) a methodology for measuring microplastics 
in drinking water (98) and (iii) an EU system for testing and 
approving materials that will be allowed to be in contact 
with drinking water (99). Member States will have to take 

(97) 

(98) 

https://environment.ec.europa.eu/publications/implementing-
decision-drinking-water-directive-watch-list_en. 
Commission Delegated Decision (EU) 2024/1441 of 11 March 2024 
supplementing  Directive  (EU)  2020/2184  of  the  European 
Parliament and of the Council by laying down a methodology to 
measure microplastics in water intended for human consumption 
(notified  under  document  C(2024) 1459)  (OJ  L,  2024/1441, 
21.5.2024), http://data.europa.eu/eli/dec_del/2024/1441/oj. 
2024/365, 

23.4.2024, 
http://data.europa.eu/eli/dec_impl/2024/365/oj; OJ L, 2024/367, 

(99)  OJ L, 

2025 Environmental Implementation Review – Cyprus 

 
 
 
 
these  various  Commission  acts 
implementing the recast directive. 

into  account  when 

Finally,  the  Commission  has  now  received  data  from 
Member States on the quality of drinking water in 2017–
2019. 

The  quality  of  drinking  water  (supplied  by  large  water 
suppliers)  in  Cyprus  does  not  give  rise  to  concern (100). 
From  January  2026,  the  European  quality  standards  for 
per-  and  polyfluoroalkyl  substances  (PFAS)  in  drinking 
water  will  apply,  ensuring  harmonised  Member  States’ 
reporting of PFAS monitoring data in the future. 

Bathing Water Directive 

The  Bathing  Water  Directive  requires  Member  States  to 
monitor and assess bathing water. It requires that, during 
the  bathing  season,  Member  States  disseminate  to  the 
public information on bathing water quality actively and 
promptly. In particular, notices banning or advising against 
bathing should be rapidly and easily identifiable. 

Figure 25  shows  that  in  2023,  out  of  the  123  Cypriot 
bathing  waters,  120 
(97.6 %)  were  of  excellent 
quality (101).  No  bathing  waters  were  found  to  be  of 
sufficient  or  poor  quality.  Detailed  information  on  the 
Cypriot  bathing  waters  is  available  from  a  national 
portal (102) and through an interactive map viewer of the 
EEA (103). 

Figure 25:  Bathing  water  quality  per  Member  State, 
Albania and Switzerland (%), 2023. 

2024/369, 

http://data.europa.eu/eli/dec_impl/2024/367/oj; 
23.4.2024, 
OJ L, 
23.4.2024, 
http://data.europa.eu/eli/reg_del/2024/369/oj;  OJ L,  2024/368, 
23.4.2024, http://data.europa.eu/eli/dec_impl/2024/368/oj; OJ L, 
2024/370, 
23.4.2024, 
http://data.europa.eu/eli/reg_del/2024/370/oj;  OJ L,  2024/371, 
23.4.2024,  http://data.europa.eu/eli/reg_del/2024/371/oj;  see 
the  Commission  web  page  on  all  six  delegated  acts  for  more 
information 
(https://environment.ec.europa.eu/publications/delegated-acts-
drinking-water-directive_en). 
In  summary,  the  compliance  for  all  parameter  groups  in  Cyprus 
was at least 98.59 % in 2017, 98.33 % in 2018 and 98.42 % in 2019. 

(100) 

(101)  Three (2.4 %) bathing waters were not classified. 

Cyprus  30 

Source:  EEA,  European  Bathing  Water  Quality 
No 04/2024, 
https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/european-bathing-water-
quality-in-2023/. 

in  2023,  briefing 
2024, 

Copenhagen, 

Nitrates Directive 

The  Nitrates  Directive (104)  aims  to  protect  water  quality 
across  Europe  by  preventing  nitrates  from  agricultural 
sources that can pollute groundwater and surface waters 
and by promoting the use of good farming practices. 

The  latest  Commission  report  on  the  implementation  of 
the Nitrates Directive (105), dating back to 2021, warns that 
nitrates are still causing harmful pollution to water in the 
EU. Excessive nitrates in water are harmful to both human 
health  and  ecosystems,  causing  oxygen  depletion  and 
eutrophication. Cleaning of waters by national authorities 
or  farmers,  where  it  has  been  undertaken,  has  had  a 
positive  impact  on  the  drinking  water  supply  and  on 
biodiversity.  It  has  also  benefited  the  sectors –  such  as 
fisheries and tourism – that depend on biodiversity and on 
a good supply of drinking water. Nevertheless, excessive 
fertilisation remains a  problem in  many parts of the EU. 
The  report  on  the 
implementation  of  the  Nitrates 
Directive covering 2020–2023 will be available in 2025. 

The  analysis  of  Cyprus’s  RBMPs  has  identified  nutrients 
from  agriculture  as  an 
for 
groundwater /  surface  waters  that  is  affecting  these 
waters’  good  status  as  one  of  the  main  factors  in  not 
meeting the WFD objectives. 

important  pressure 

In  2022,  Cyprus  received  a  priority  action  on  tackling 
nutrient  pollution,  especially  nitrates  from  agriculture, 
through  the  implementation  of  the  Nitrates  Directive. 
Since  the  report  on  the  implementation  of  the  Nitrates 
Directive covering 2020–2023 will be available in 2025, the 
2022  EIR  priority  action  cannot  be  assessed  and  is 
repeated. 

2025 priority action 

• 

Tackle  nutrients  pollution,  especially  nitrates  from 
implementation  of  the 
agriculture,  through  the 
Nitrates Directive. 

(102)

https://www.moa.gov.cy/moa/environment/environmentne
w.nsf/All/9E7057F0FB6B8067C2257F6200327E0D?OpenDocume
nt. 

(103)  EEA, ‘State of bathing waters in 202 ’, EEA website, last updated 
2023), 

28 May 
https://www.eea.europa.eu/themes/water/europes-seas-and-
coasts/assessments/state-of-bathing-water/state-of-bathing-
waters-in-2020. 

(8 June 

2024 

(104)  https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-

content/EN/TXT/?qid=1561542776070&uri=CELEX:01991L0676-
20081211. 

(105)  https://environment.ec.europa.eu/topics/water/nitrates_en. 

2025 Environmental Implementation Review – Cyprus 

 
 
 
 
Cyprus  31 

Urban Wastewater Treatment Directive 

The  Urban  Wastewater  Treatment  Directive  (UWWTD) 
aims to protect human health and the environment from 
the effects of untreated urban waste water. It therefore 
requires Member States to collect and treat (secondary or 
biological  treatment)  waste  water  in  all  urban  areas  of 
more  than  2 000  people,  and  to  apply  a  more  stringent 
than  secondary,  with  nitrogen  and/or 
treatment 
phosphorus  removal,  to  the  waste  water  generated  in 
urban areas, also known as agglomerations, of more than 
10 000 people, before they are discharged into waters and 
their  catchments,  when  they  are  sensitive  to  nitrogen 
and/or phosphorus (i.e. eutrophic or tending to become 
eutrophic). 

Overall, in Cyprus, the compliance rate was 84 % in 2020. 
total,  28  agglomerations,  generating  159 700 
In 
population  equivalent  of  urban  waste  water,  did  not 
comply with the requirements of the directive. 

agglomerations  were  still  not  in  compliance  with  the 
directive (108).  If  Cyprus  fails  to  comply,  the  Commission 
may refer the case to the Court of Justice of the European 
Union and ask for the imposition of penalties. In light of 
this and the 2022 priority action, it is essential that Cyprus 
takes  the  necessary  measures  to  comply  with  the 
requirements of the directive. 

This  is  all  the  more  important  as  the  directive  has  been 
revised  in  order  to,  among  other  things,  strengthen 
existing  treatment  standards and  establish  an  additional 
treatment of micropollutants in urban waste water. Other 
new  requirements  relate  to  moving  towards  the  energy 
neutrality  of  the  sector,  establishing  an  EPR  system  to 
ensure sustainable financing of micropollutant treatment 
by  the  most  polluting  industries  and  ensuring  access  to 
sanitation,  especially  for  vulnerable  and  marginalised 
groups. Cyprus has until 31 July 2027 to transpose the new 
directive into its national legal system. 

Figure 26:  Proportion  of  urban  waste  water  that  fully 
complies with the UWWTD (%), 2020 

Regarding  the  2022  priority  action,  despite  the  progress 
made, Cyprus has not fully implemented the UWWTD. 

2025 priority action 

• 

the  necessary  measures 

full 
Take 
implementation  of  the  current  urban  waste  water 
treatment  directive,  taking  into  account  the  new 
requirements of the recast directive. 

to  ensure 

Chemicals 

The EU seeks to ensure that chemicals are produced and 
used  in  a  way  that  minimises  any  significant  adverse 
effects on human health and the environment. In October 
2020, the Commission published its chemicals strategy for 
sustainability  towards  a  toxic-free  environment (109), 
which  led  to  some  systemic  changes  in  EU  chemicals 
legislation. The strategy is part of the EU’s zero pollution 
ambition –  a  key  commitment  of  the  European  Green 
Deal. 

The  EU’s  chemicals  legislation (110)  provides  a  baseline 
protection for human health and the environment. It also 

67/548/EEC  and  1999/45/EC,  and  amending  Regulation  (EC) 
No 1907/2006 
p. 1), 
L 353, 
https://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/c6b6a31d-8359-
11ee-99ba-01aa75ed71a1.0004.02/DOC_2. 

31.12.2008, 

(OJ 

(110)  Namely,  Regulation 

(EC)  No 1907/2006  of  the  European 
Parliament  and  of  the  Council  of  18 December  2006  concerning 
the  registration,  evaluation,  authorisation  and  restriction  of 
chemicals  (REACH),  establishing  a  European  Chemicals  Agency, 
amending Directive 1999/45/EC and repealing Council Regulation 
(EEC) No 793/93 and Commission Regulation (EC) No 1488/94 as 
well as Council Directive 76/769/EEC and Commission Directives 
91/155/EEC,  93/67/EEC,  93/105/EC  and  2000/21/EC  (OJ  L 396, 
https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
30/12/2006, 

p. 1), 

Source:  12th  technical  assessment  of  UWWTD 
Publications Office of the EU 

implementation  - 

In its ruling of 3 March 2020 (106), the Court of Justice of 
the  European  Union  found  that  31  agglomerations  in 
Cyprus  were  not  in  compliance  with  the  directive.  The 
infringement  procedure (107) 
Commission 
against  Cyprus  in  May  2023  because  29  of  these  31 

initiated  an 

(106) 

Judgment of 5 March 2020, Commission v Cyprus (Collection and 
treatment of urban waste water), C-248/19, EU:C:2020:171. 
(107)  Under  Article 260  of  the  Treaty  on  the  Functioning  of  the 

European Union. 
(108) 
INFR(2017)2046. 
(109)  Communication 

to 

from 

the  Commission 

the  European 
Parliament,  the  Council,  the  European  Economic  and  Social 
Committee  and  the  Committee  of  the  Regions –  Chemicals 
strategy  for  sustainability:  Towards  a  toxic-free  environment, 
COM(2020) 667 
final  of  14 October  2020,  https://eur-
lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/?uri=COM%3A2020%3A667%3AFIN;  Regulation 
(EC) No 1272/2008 of the European Parliament and of the Council 
of 16 December 2008 on classification, labelling and packaging of 
substances  and  mixtures,  amending  and  repealing  Directives 

2025 Environmental Implementation Review – Cyprus 

 
 
 
 
ensures  stability  and  predictability 
operating in the internal market. 

for  businesses 

and 

enforcement 

Since 2007, the Commission has gathered information on 
the  Registration,  Evaluation, 
the  enforcement  of 
Authorisation  and  Restriction  of  Chemicals  (REACH) 
Regulation and the Classification, Labelling and Packaging 
(CLP)  Regulation.  In  December  2020,  the  Commission 
assessed  the  Member  States’  reports (111)  on  the 
implementation 
these 
regulations (112).  It  is  apparent  from  the  Commission’s 
report  that  there  are  still  many  disparities 
in  the 
implementation  of  the  REACH  and  CLP  Regulations, 
law  enforcement.  Recorded 
notably  in  the  area  of 
compliance levels in Member States, generally quite stable 
over time, appear to be getting slightly worse. This may be 
because  (i)  enforcement  authorities  are  becoming  more 
effective in detecting non-compliant products/companies; 
and (ii) more non-compliant products are being placed on 
the EU market. 

of 

In August 2021, the Commission published a measurable 
assessment  of the enforcement (113) of the two main EU 
regulations  on  chemicals  using  a  set  of  indicators  on 
different  aspects  of  enforcement.  Since  2021,  the  list  of 
chemicals  subject  to  restrictions  has  been  expanded  as 
new entries have been added to Annex XVII to the REACH 
Regulation (114). 

In  2023,  new  hazard  classes  were  added  to  the  CLP 
Regulation, and the revision of the regulation was tabled 
(published  on  20 November  2024)  (115).  The  new  hazard 

content/en/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A32006R1907; and Regulation (EC) 
No 1272/2008 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 
16 December  2008  on  classification,  labelling  and  packaging  of 
substances  and  mixtures,  amending  and  repealing  Directives 
67/548/EEC  and  1999/45/EC,  and  amending  Regulation  (EC) 
No 1907/2006 
L 353,  31.12.2008,  p. 1),  https://eur-
(OJ 
lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A02008R1272-20221217. 
(111)  European Commission, Technical assistance to review the existing 
Member  States  reporting  questionnaire  under  Articles 117(1)  of 
REACH and 46(2) of CLP – Final report, Publications Office of the 
European 
2020, 
https://circabc.europa.eu/ui/group/8ee3c69a-bccb-4f22-89ca-
277e35de7c63/library/a4abce8c-8425-455f-b7e6-
0ead917bde6b/details. 
In 
Article 46(2) of the CLP Regulation. 

line  with  Article 117(1)  of  the  REACH  Regulation  and 

Luxembourg, 

Union, 

(112) 

the 

European 

(113)  European  Commission,  Directorate-General  for  Internal  Market, 
Industry,  Entrepreneurship  and  SMEs,  REACH  and  CLP 
Enforcement: EU level enforcement indicators, Publications Office 
2021, 
Union, 
of 
https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-
/publication/e5c3e461-0f85-11ec-9151-01aa75ed71a1/. 
(114)  These are substances in tattoo inks and permanent make-up, N,N-
dimethylformamide, formaldehyde (and formaldehyde releasers), 
lead in PVC (polyvinyl chloride), siloxanes (D4, D5, D6) and, finally, 
microplastics. 

Luxembourg, 

(115)  Regulation (EU) 2024/2865 of the European Parliament and of the 
Council  of  23  October  2024  amending  Regulation  (EC)  No 

Cyprus  32 

classes  cover  endocrine  disruptors  and  persistence-
related  hazards  while  the  revision  of  the  regulation 
encompasses  new  rules  on  online  sales  to  better  tackle 
non-compliances  observed  over  the  years.  Also  in  2023, 
the  Conference  of  the  Parties  of  the  Stockholm 
Convention (COP) decided to include, in its Annex A (which 
lists  banned  substances),  three  new  chemicals (116).  The 
Commission  is  working  on  the  delegated  acts  to  include 
these  substances  in  Annex I  to  the  Persistent  Organic 
Pollutants Regulation by 2025 at the latest. 

Responsibility  for  checking  compliance  with  REACH  lies 
with the Cypriot Department of Labour Inspection, which 
sets  priorities  for  enforcement  activities  on  an  annual 
basis (117). 

Cyprus  has  fully  implemented  both  the  REACH  and  CLP 
enforcement strategies (118). 

The  Member  States’  reporting  exercise  set  out 
in 
Article 117 of the REACH Regulation and Article 46 of the 
CLP Regulation is conducted every five years. The results 
of  the  coming  one  are  expected  in  2025,  hence  the 
absence  of  new  country-specific  data  on  enforcement 
since 2022. 

In 2022, in Cyprus 11 staff members were allocated to the 
enforcement of the REACH and CLP Regulations (119). 

In  2020,  an  EU  coordinated  enforcement  project  on 
products sold online, called the REACH-EN-FORCE (REF)-8 

1272/2008 on classification, labelling and packaging of substances 
and mixtures, OJ L, 2024/2865, 20.11.2024, p.1 (Regulation - EU - 
2024/2865 - EN - EUR-Lex). 

(116)  These are methoxychlor, dechlorane plus and UV-328. In the case 
of the pesticide methoxychlor, there are no exemptions from the 
ban. However, for the two plastic additives, dechlorane plus and 
UV-328,  the  COP  decision 
lists  some  time-limited  specific 
exemptions. 

(117)  European Commission, Technical assistance to review the existing 
Member  States  reporting  questionnaire  under  Articles 117(1)  of 
REACH and 46(2) of CLP – Final report, Publications Office of the 
European 
p. 68, 
https://circabc.europa.eu/ui/group/8ee3c69a-bccb-4f22-89ca-
277e35de7c63/library/a4abce8c-8425-455f-b7e6-
0ead917bde6b/details. 

Luxembourg, 

Union, 

2020, 

(118)  European Commission, Technical assistance to review the existing 
Member  States  reporting  questionnaire  under  Articles 117(1)  of 
REACH and 46(2) of CLP – Final report, Publications Office of the 
European 
p. 76, 
https://circabc.europa.eu/ui/group/8ee3c69a-bccb-4f22-89ca-
277e35de7c63/library/a4abce8c-8425-455f-b7e6-
0ead917bde6b/details. 

Luxembourg, 

Union, 

2020, 

(119)  European Commission, Technical assistance to review the existing 
Member  States  reporting  questionnaire  under  Articles 117(1)  of 
REACH and 46(2) of CLP – Final report, Publications Office of the 
p. 75, 
European 
https://circabc.europa.eu/ui/group/8ee3c69a-bccb-4f22-89ca-
277e35de7c63/library/a4abce8c-8425-455f-b7e6-
0ead917bde6b/details. 

Luxembourg, 

Union, 

2020, 

2025 Environmental Implementation Review – Cyprus 

 
 
project (120), was conducted (Cyprus did not participate in 
the project). The report was adopted in November 2021, 
so it could not be taken into account in the previous EIR. 

Figure 27: Compliance of imported products – results of 
the REF-8 project (%) 

Cyprus  33 

Figure 28:  Number  of  REF-8  checks  performed  per 
100 000 inhabitants (EU average = 1.24) 

A  risk  approach  was  used  for  the  targeting  of  control 
measures in order to maximise the chances of finding non-
compliances.  Therefore, 
rates 
presented above cannot be considered the average non-
compliance  rates  of  products  in  the  EU.  However,  the 
proportion  of  non-compliance  cases  found  in  the  REF-8 
project are of concern. 

the  non-compliance 

Cyprus  did  not  participate  in  the  REF-8  coordinated 
enforcement  project.  Online  sales  have  been  proved  to 
correspond consistently to higher non-compliance rates in 
checks  performed  across  the  EU,  in  particular  when 
related to imported products. 

In  2022,  Cyprus  received  a  priority  action  related  to 
upgrading  administrative  capacities  in  implementation 
and  enforcement  to  move  towards  a  policy  of  zero 
tolerance of non-compliance. In the absence of reporting 
since 2022, no progress has been shown and this priority 
action  remains  valid  in  2025,  partly  because  of  the 
experience with the REF-8 project. 

2025 priority actions 

•  Upgrade 

the 

capacities 

in 
administrative 
implementation and enforcement towards a policy of 
zero tolerance for non-compliance. 
Increase involvement in the activities of the Forum for 
Exchange  of  Information  on  Enforcement  of  the 
European  Chemicals  Agency, 
the 
in 
coordinated enforcement projects, called REFs. 
Increase  customs  controls  and  controls  of  products 
sold online with regard to compliance with chemicals 
legislations. 

including 

• 

• 

(120)  European Chemicals Agency, REF-8 project report on enforcement 
of the CLP, REACH and BPR duties related to substances, mixtures 
p. 20, 
and 

Helsinki, 

articles 

online, 

2021, 

sold 

https://echa.europa.eu/documents/10162/17088/project_report
_ref-8_en.pdf/ccf2c453-da0e-c185-908e-
3a0343b25802?t=1638885422475. 

2025 Environmental Implementation Review – Cyprus 

 
 
 
 
 
Cyprus  34 

4. Climate action

The impacts of climate change have continued to increase 
in recent years, inflicting damage and suffering in the EU 
and around the world. Globally, 2023 was the hottest year 
on  record,  while  Europe  has  been  warming  twice  as 
quickly  as  the  global  average,  and  is  now  the  fastest-
warming  continent.  The  frequency  and  severity  of 
extreme  climate  events  are  also  increasing.  Against  this 
backdrop, the EU has demonstrated its determination to 
implement  the  European  Green  Deal  and  to  become 
climate neutral and resilient by 2050, ensuring sustainable 
competitiveness  and  supporting  EU  industry  in  the  net-
zero  transition.  The  European  Climate  Law  is  the  EU’s 
response  to  the  need  for  action.  It  sets  the  objective  of 
achieving climate neutrality by 2050 and a midterm target 
of a reduction in GHG emissions of at least 55 % by 2030, 
and outlines the adaptation efforts necessary to adjust to 
climate  change’s  present  and  future  impacts.  Almost  all 
the  ‘Fit  for  55’  proposals set  out  in  the  European  Green 
law,  and  the  European 
in 
Deal  have  been  agreed 
Commission  recommended  a  new  intermediate  climate 
target of a 90 % reduction in emissions by 2040. In 2024, 
the  Member  States  submitted  updated  national  energy 
and climate plans for 2021–2030, reflecting the increased 
ambition  of  the  revised  EU  legislation.  In  2024,  the 
European Commission also released, jointly with the EEA, 
the first-ever European climate risk assessment. 

Forestry (122). The package has been fully adopted, and the 
Member States have been implementing the legislation. 

The key strategic document at country level is the National 
Energy and Climate Plan (NECP) (123). Cyprus submitted its 
updated plan in December 2024 after the deadline set by 
the  Regulation  on  the  Governance  of  the  Energy  Union 
and Climate Action124. The European Commission assessed 
the plan and the extent to which Cyprus has followed the 
recommendations for the draft version. The findings from 
the assessment are: 

• 

• 

• 

Emissions  under  the  Effort  Sharing  Regulation  will 
decrease  by  26%  in  2030  compared  to  2005,  and 
Cyprus will have to close the gap towards its target of 
32%. 
The  latest  projections  show  a  gap  to  the  LULUCF 
target, meaning that current levels of removals have 
been insufficient.  
Cyprus  is  in  line  with  its  target  for  the  share  of 
renewable energy and targets for energy efficiency. 

To minimise the impacts of climate policies on vulnerable 
people  and  sectors,  Cyprus  is  using  the  Just  Transition 
Fund  and  will  use  Social  Climate  Fund  from  2026.  (for 
more information, see Chapter 5 – Finance). 

Figure 29: Total GHG  emissions (excluding international 
aviation), 1990–2022 

its  Member  States  need 

Over  the  last  three  decades,  since  1990,  the  EU  has 
achieved  steady  decreases  in  its  emissions,  reaching  a 
running  total  in  2022  of  – 32.5 % (121).  However,  the  EU 
their 
and 
implementation  efforts  and  accelerate  emissions 
reduction to stay on track to reach their targets of a 55 % 
reduction  in  net  GHG  emissions  by  2030  and  climate 
neutrality  by  2050.  Between  1990  and  2022,  net  GHG 
emissions of Cyprus increased by 56 %,  making it one of 
the countries with a net increase. 

to  step  up 

The  ‘Fit  for  55’  legislative  package  reflects  the  need  to 
speed up the green transition. It includes (i) strengthening 
and expanding the EU emissions trading system (ETS), with 
the  creation  of  a  new,  second,  ETS  for  transport  and 
buildings together with a dedicated Social Climate Fund to 
help  citizens  during  the  transition;  (ii)  increasing  targets 
under  the  effort  sharing  regulation;  and  (iii)  a  revised 
for  Land  Use,  Land  Use  Change  and 
regulation 

The EU emissions trading system 

The  EU  ETS  is  the  key  tool  for  reducing  GHG  emissions 
cost-effectively across all Member States. It is the world’s 
biggest carbon market, covering around 40 % of the EU’s 

(121)  EU  net  domestic  emissions,  including  the  land  use,  land-use 
change and forestry (LULUCF) sector and excluding international 
aviation. 

(122)  A  full  overview  of  the  Fit  for  55  package  is  available  at 
https://commission.europa.eu/strategy-and-policy/priorities-
2019-2024/european-green-deal/delivering-european-green-
deal/fit-55-delivering-proposals_en. 

(123)  More  information  about  NECP  is  on  the  dedicated  website 
https://energy.ec.europa.eu/topics/energy-strategy/national-
energy-and-climate-plans-necps_en 

(124)    Article 14 of regulation 2018/1999 on the Governance of the Energy 

Union and Climate Action 

2025 Environmental Implementation Review – Cyprus 

 
 
 
Cyprus  35 

Effort sharing 

from  domestic  transport 

The  Effort  Sharing  Regulation (ESR) (128)  covers  GHG 
emissions 
(excluding  CO₂ 
emissions  from  aviation),  buildings,  agriculture,  small 
industry and waste. Emissions from these sectors account 
for  around  60 %  of  the  EU’s  domestic  emissions.  The 
regulation  sets  the  EU-wide  target  to  reduce  emissions 
from the effort sharing sectors by 40 % by 2030 compared 
to 2005 levels. This overall target for the EU translates to 
binding  national  emission  reduction  targets  for  each 
Member State. 

Cyprus‘s target is – 32 %. 

In  addition  to  the  2030  targets,  Member  States  have 
annual GHG emissions limits (annual emission allocations), 
reducing every year until 2030. 

There  is  some  flexibility  to  take  account  of  annual 
fluctuations 
in  emissions,  by  trading  emissions  and 
transfers from the ETS and LULUCF. 

Based  on  historical  emissions  and  the  most  updated 
projections, Cyprus will need to implement new measures 
and/or  use  available  flexibilities  to  achieve  its  2030  ESR 
target. Projected gap to the 2030 target is 6.1 percentage 
points. 

The largest contributor is the transport sector, which was 
accountable for 46 % of all emissions in 2022. Emissions of 
the sector decreased by 4 % from 2005 to 2022. But there 
is a worrying trend in the most  recent  years – emissions 
have increased by 5 % since 2015. In Cyprus, the transition 
to sustainable transport is still in its infancy. Cyprus has no 
inland  waterways;  all  domestic  freight 
railways  or 
transport is carried out on roads. Only 13 % of passenger 
travel  is  by  public  transport  (buses  and  coaches).  With 
battery electric vehicles constituting a mere 0.1 % of the 
passenger car fleet in 2022, Cyprus has one of the lowest 
adoption rates in the EU (EU average is 1.2 %). In 2023, the 
island had 190 publicly accessible charging points, or one 
for every 6 electric vehicles (the EU average is 1:10). 

Buildings accounted for 12 % of effort sharing emissions. 
Emissions  have  been  stagnating  over  last  few  years. 
Cyprus’  current  energy-saving  efforts  in  the  residential 
sector  are  delivering  more  ambitious  results  than  the 
target set for the whole building sector. 

total GHG emissions from electricity and heat generation, 
the  manufacturing  industry,  aviation  within  Europe (125) 
and, from 2024, maritime transport also. 

The system sets a limit or cap on the total amount of GHGs 
that  can  be  emitted  at  the  EU  level.  Within  this  limit, 
companies buy emissions allowances (one allowance gives 
the right to emit 1 t of CO2 eq (carbon dioxide equivalent)), 
in auctions or through trading allowances with others. The 
cap is reduced annually to ensure that overall emissions in 
the sectors covered decrease over time. 

The emissions under the ETS decreased by 13 % from 2005 
to 2023. 

In  2023,  power  generation  accounted  for  70 %  of  total 
emissions  in  Cyprus,  significantly  higher  than  the  EU 
average. This is largely due to the historical dominance of 
imported oil as the primary energy source on the island. 
The  cement  and  lime  sector  virtually  constituted  the 
remaining  29 %  of  emissions.  From  2019  to  2023,  ETS 
emissions  in  Cyprus  fluctuated  only  slightly,  with  a  total 
increase  by  3 %,  composed  by  a  7 %  decrease  of  GHG 
emissions  in  the  power  sector  (mostly  in  2020)  and  an 
increase  by  9 %  of  emissions  from  cement  and  lime 
production. Since 2013, Cyprus has shown a trajectory of 
slightly increasing ETS  emissions, with power  generation 
being the dominant contributor. 

From 2027, a new emissions trading system, called ETS 2, 
for  buildings,  road  transport  and  additional  sectors 
(mainly  industry  not  covered  by  the  current  ETS)  will 
become  fully  operational (126).  Member  States  should 
have  notified  full  transposition  the  provisions  of  the 
revised  EU  ETS  directive  related  to  the  new  ETS  2  into 
law  by  30 June  2024.  Cyprus  did  not 
national 
communicate  full  transposition  into  national  law  by  this 
deadline.  The  Commission 
therefore  opened  an 
infringement procedure against Cyprus on 25 July 2024, by 
sending  a  letter  of  formal  notice  for  failing  to  fully 
transpose the provisions into national law. 

Cyprus  has  since  partially  notified  transposition  of  the 
relevant  provisions  of  the  ETS  2  Directive  to  the 
Commission. The monitoring and reporting requirements 
and the obligation to hold a permit to carry out activities 
under ETS 2 will commence on 1 January 2025. 

The  Commission  also  opened  infringement  procedures 
against Cyprus on 25 January 2024, by sending a letter of 
formal  notice  for  failing  to  fully  transpose  previous 
revisions of ETS Directive (127) into national law. Cyprus has 
since  notified  full  transposition  of  the  abovementioned 
directives to the Commission. 

(125)  Flights between the EU Member States including departing flights 
to Norway, Iceland, Switzerland and the United Kingdom. 

(126)  Directive 

(EU) 

2023/959 

(https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-

(127)  Directive - 2023/959 - EN - EUR-Lex and Directive - 2023/958 - EN 

- EUR-Lex 
(128)  Regulation 

(EU) 

2018/842 

(https://eur-

content/EN/TXT/?uri=uriserv:OJ.L_.2023.130.01.0134.01.ENG) 

lex.europa.eu/eli/reg/2018/842). 

2025 Environmental Implementation Review – Cyprus 

 
 
Figure 30:  Effort  sharing  emissions  by  sector, 
2022 

Land use, land use change and forestry 

The  Land Use, Land-Used  Change and Forestry (LULUCF) 
sector plays a significant role in achieving the EU’s climate 
neutrality goal. In the EU, this sector absorbs more GHGs 
than it emits, removing significant volumes of carbon from 
the atmosphere. Thus, it is the only sector with negative 
emissions. 

Cyprus’ LULUCF sector has seen a  modest  decline in net 
removals post-2017. 

Cyprus‘ target in 2030 is to enhance land removals by an 
additional –63 kt of CO2 equivalent compared to the yearly 
average of the period 2016–2018. The latest  projections 
show a gap compared to the 2030 target of 0.2 Mt of CO2 
equivalent.  Therefore,  Cyprus  needs  to  apply  additional 
measures to reach its 2030 target. 

Adaptation to climate change 

Halting all GHG emissions would still not prevent climate 
impacts that are already occurring. Therefore, adaptation 
to  climate  change  is  also  a  key  component  of  climate 
policy. 

Cyprus  is  in  two  out  of  three  regions  identified  as  a 
hotspots  of  climate  risks  most  affected  by  climate 
change –  Southern  Europe  and 
low-lying  coastal 
regions (129). 

(129)  European  Climate  Risk  Assessment  (EUCRA).  2024.  Available  at 

European Climate Risk Assessment (europa.eu) 

(130)  European  Environmental  Agency.  Is  Europe  on  track  towards 
climate resilience? Status of reported national adaptation actions 

Cyprus  36 

low 

Cyprus is experiencing high anthropic pressure on habitats 
in  coastal  zones.  It  has 
and  ecosystems,  especially 
comparatively 
rainfall  and  high 
levels  of 
temperatures,  which  contribute  to  the  highest  level  of 
water stress in the EU. Water management will need to be 
prioritised to manage the risk of electricity disruption as 
floods,  heat  and  drought  have  an  impact  on  energy 
production. Cyprus is one of the six worst  performers  in 
the  EU  on  private  insurance  coverage  against  damage 
from climate hazards. 

Cyprus  has  a  high  degree  of  vulnerability  to  climate 
change; its national adaptation policies and measures are 
its  national  adaptation 
insufficient.  Cyprus  has  had 
strategy  in  place  since  2017,  but  it  has  never  been 
updated. There are also no sectoral plans (130). 

The  country’s  approach  to  climate  change  adaptation  is 
mostly  non-binding  for  the  moment.  It  will  be  crucial  to 
improve  institutional  arrangements  to  boost  climate 
resilience and long-term competitiveness. 

European  Commission  identified  four  priority  actions  in 
the 2022 edition of the review. 

Despite  some  progress 
last  years,  the  share  of 
in 
renewables  remains  below  the  EU  average,  especially  in 
electricity generation. 

Energy efficiency of buildings has improved substantially. 

There is still no progress in car fleet electrification. 

Despite  notable  progress  within  Cyprus’ 
innovation 
ecosystem, the country still trails behind many other EU 
Member States. 

2025 priority actions 

• 

Implement all polices and measures that are needed 
to  achieve  targets  laid  down  in  the  Effort  Sharing 
Regulation  (ESR)  and  LULUCF  regulation.  More 
detailed priority actions are set out in the assessment 
of  the  final  National  Energy  and  Climate  Plan 
(NECP)(131).  

in 
https://www.eea.europa.eu/ds_resolveuid/6I58BV7EJR 

Available 

2023. 

from 

here: 

(131)     National energy and climate plans 

2025 Environmental Implementation Review – Cyprus 

 
 
 
Part II: Enabling framework – implementation tools

5. Financing 

Cyprus  37 

The EU budget supports climate investment in Cyprus with 
significant amounts in 2021–2027, with revenues from the 
ETS  also  feeding  into  the  national  budget.  During  2020–
from  auctioning  reached 
2022,  Cyprus’s  revenues 
EUR 221 million  in  total,  with  more  than  100 %  of  this 
spent  on  climate  and  energy,  corresponding 
to 
EUR 293 million. 

In  addition,  the  annual  investment  needed  to  meet  its 
environmental  objectives 
in  the  areas  of  pollution 
prevention and control, the circular economy and waste, 
water protection and management, and biodiversity and 
ecosystems is estimated to be EUR 569 million per year in 
Cyprus. 

These  four  environmental  areas  currently  receive  total 
funding of around EUR 357 million per year; thus, there is 
a gap of EUR 211 million per year. 

The  environmental  investment  gap  is  largely  balanced 
across the objectives, being the highest in biodiversity and 
ecosystems (EUR 96 million per year). 

Climate finance landmarks 

EU funding for climate action 

The EU budget supports climate action in the EU-27 with 
EUR 657.8 billion  in  the  2021–2027  budgetary  period 
across  the  various  programmes  and  funds,  representing 
an  overall  34.3 %  contribution  level.  Of  this,  cohesion 
policy provides EUR 120 billion (over half of it through the 
European  Regional  Development  Fund  (ERDF)),  the 
recovery and resilience facility (RRF) EUR 275.7 billion and 
CAP EUR 145.9 billion (132). 

In  Cyprus,  the  EU  cohesion  policy  (considering  the  EU 
contribution  amount)  provides  EUR 368 million 
for 
climate  action  in  2021–2027  (with  41 %  of  this  via  the 

ERDF),  with  a  further  EUR 23 million  from  the  European 
Maritime, Fisheries and Aquaculture Fund (133). 

The  RRF  contributes  to  climate  finance  in  Cyprus  with 
EUR 0.55 billion  up  to  2026,  representing  45 %  of  the 
RRP (134). 

The  European 
(EIB)  provided 
Investment  Bank 
EUR 109.9 billion  financing  across  the  EU-27  between 
2021  and  mid  2024  to  support  energy,  transport  and 
industry  projects  that  are  aligned  with  the  EU’s  climate 
objectives. Of this amount, EUR 134 million was assigned 
to Cyprus in the reference period (135). 

National financing, including EU emissions trading 
system revenues 

to  EUR 40.1 million 

totalling  EUR 221 million 

Revenues  from  the  auctioning  of  emission  allowances 
under  the  EU  ETS,  which  feed  directly  into  national 
budgets,  amounted 
in  2020, 
EUR 78.4 million in 2021 and EUR 102.9 million in 2022 in 
those  years, 
Cyprus, 
representing  around  132 %  of  the  auctioning  revenues. 
The  auctioning  revenues  go  to  a  fund  that  different 
ministries can use for climate and energy purposes. This 
fund also receives money from the general budget, hence 
the  revenues  spent  on  climate  and  energy  overall  being 
more than 100 % of auctioning revenues (136). 

in 

From the remaining part of the EU ETS revenues that feed 
into  the  Innovation  Fund  and  the  Modernisation  Fund, 
further  support  is  available  to  climate  action  at  the  EU 
level (137). 

the  environment 

It should be noted that investment in climate action also 
supports 
the 
environmental  investments  described  in  the  following 
sections  cannot  be  regarded  as  entirely  additional  to 
climate investment (138). 

therefore, 

and, 

(132)  European  Commission,  Statement  of  Estimates  of  the  European 
Commission –  For  the  financial  year  2025,  Publications  Office  of 
the 
pp. 94–96, 
https://commission.europa.eu/document/download/7a0420e1-
599e-4246-9131-ccb7d505d6d9_en?filename=DB2025-
Statement-of-Estimates_1.pdf. 

European  Union, 

Luxembourg, 

2024, 

(133)  See 

the 

Cohesion 

Open 

Data 

Platform 

(https://cohesiondata.ec.europa.eu/). 

(134)  EU  Commission  datasets  and  the  Recovery  and  Resilience 
(https://ec.europa.eu/economy_finance/recovery-

Scoreboard 
and-resilience-scoreboard/index.html). 

(135)  A 

list  of 

financed  projects 

is  provided  by 

the  EIB 

(https://www.eib.org/en/projects/loans/index.htm). 

(136)  European  Commission:  Directorate-General  for  Climate  Action, 
Progress Report 2023 – Climate action, Publications Office of the 
European 
2023, 
https://climate.ec.europa.eu/news-your-voice/news/climate-
action-progress-report-2023-2023-10-24_en. 

Luxembourg, 

Union, 

(137)  European  Commission:  Directorate-General  for  Climate  Action, 
Progress Report 2023 – Climate action, Publications Office of the 
European 
2023, 
https://climate.ec.europa.eu/news-your-voice/news/climate-
action-progress-report-2023-2023-10-24_en. 

Luxembourg, 

Union, 

(138)  NB:  Indirect  investments  (from  climate  and  other  policies)  in 

support of the environment are accounted for via the tracking. 

2025 Environmental Implementation Review – Cyprus 

 
 
Environmental financing and investments 

Table 1: Key environmental allocations from EU funds to 
Cyprus (million EUR), 2021–2027 

Cyprus  38 

This section describes Cyprus’s investment needs, current 
financing  and  gaps  as 
four 
environmental  objectives  beyond  climate  objectives, 
namely  tackling  pollution,  the  circular  economy  and 
waste,  water  protection  and  management,  and 
biodiversity and ecosystems (139). 

relate 

they 

the 

to 

The environment overall 

Investment needs 

The  overall  environmental 
investment  needs  to  be 
sufficient  to  enable  Cyprus  to  meet  its  objectives  in  the 
areas  of  pollution  prevention  and  control,  the  circular 
economy and waste, water protection and management, 
and biodiversity and ecosystems. The required investment 
is  estimated  to  be  EUR 569 million  per  year  (in  2022 
prices). 

The  estimated  requirement  is  balanced  across  the  four 
environmental objectives, with a slight dominance of the 
water and the biodiversity objective. 

Current investments 

To implement the environmental investments needed, the 
available  financing  is  estimated  to  currently  reach  an 
annual  EUR 357 million  in  Cyprus  from  EU  and  national 
sources combined (in 2022 prices). 

Total  environmental  funding  from  the  multiannual 
financial  framework  (MFF)  is  estimated  to  reach  around 
EUR 503 million for Cyprus in total, during 2021–2027 (or 
EUR 72 million per year). 

Instrument 

Cohesion policy 
ERDF 
Cohesion Fund 
Just Transition Fund 

CAP 
European Agricultural Guarantee Fund 
European  Agricultural  Fund  for  Rural 
Development 

European  Maritime,  Fisheries  and 
Aquaculture Fund 

Other MFF sources 
RRF (d) (2021–2026) 

Allocations 

305.7 (a) 
146.2 
126.7 
32.8 
72.6 (b) 
35.1 
37.4 

12.6 

111.6 (c) 

 293 

(a) 

(b) 

(c) 

(d) 

European  Commission,  2021-2027  cohesion  policy  (planned) 
allocations in EU amount excluding national co-financing, based on 
the  tracking  in  the  Common  Provisions  Regulation  (CPR,  2021) 
Annex I. Please note potential data changes that may have arisen 
between the EIR preparation cut-off date (31 October 2024) and 
information: 
its  publication  date.  Source  and 
https://cohesiondata.ec.europa.eu/2021-2027-
Categorisation/2021-2027-Planned-finances-detailed-
categorisation/hgyj-gyin/about_data. 

further 

Regulation (EU) 2021/2115 of the European Parliament and of the 
Council  of  2 December  2021  establishing  rules  on  support  for 
strategic  plans  to  be  drawn  up  by  Member  States  under  the 
common agricultural policy (CAP strategic plans) and financed by 
the  European  Agricultural  Guarantee  Fund  (EAGF)  and  by  the 
European  Agricultural  Fund  for  Rural  Development  (EAFRD)  and 
repealing Regulations (EU) No 1305/2013 and (EU) No 1307/2013 
(OJ 
https://eur-
p. 1), 
lex.europa.eu/eli/reg/2021/2115. 

6.12.2021, 

Annex XI, 

L 435 

Note that 2021-2027 combines factual data for 2021 and 2022 and 
expenditure  under  the  relevant  specific  objectives  (SOs)  of  the 
CAP strategic plans from 2023, using the EU biodiversity tracking 
methodology  (https://commission.europa.eu/system/files/2023-
06/Biodiversity%20tracking%20methodology%20for%20each%20
programme%202023.pdf). Source: European Commission.  

Space  Fund,  Horizon  Europe,  LIFE  and  the  Connecting  Europe 
Facility. 

Outside  the  MFF.  Note  that  the  RRF  applies  a  similar 
environmental tracking scheme (set in the RRF Regulation, Annex 
V )  as  the  EU’s  cohesion  policy   RRF  dataset  version  used:  July 
2024, prior to 2025 revisions. Data source: European Commission. 

Cyprus,  in  addition  to  receiving  EU  funds  earmarked 
specifically  for  it  in  2021–2027,  can  also  benefit  from 
funding programmes that can be accessed at the EU level 
and which are open to all Member States. These include 
the LIFE programme (140) (EUR 5.4 billion), Horizon Europe 
(EUR 95.5 billion) (141), 
Europe 
the 

Connecting 

(139)  Research, development and innovation is accounted under each 
environmental objective. The financing needs, baselines and gap 
estimates are based on the Directorate-General for Environment’s 
internal  analysis  (of  2024).  Throughout  this  chapter,  specific 
references are provided to the most important data sources used. 

(140)  https://cinea.ec.europa.eu/programmes/life_en. 
(141)  European  Commission,  Horizon  Europe,  https://research-and-
innovation.ec.europa.eu/funding/funding-opportunities/funding-
programmes-and-open-calls/horizon-europe_en. 

2025 Environmental Implementation Review – Cyprus 

 
 
 
Facility (EUR 33.7 billion) (142) and funds that be mobilised 
through the InvestEU programme (143). 

Cyprus’s RRP supports climate objectives through funding 
of  EUR 0.55 billion  (45 %  of  total),  with  an  additional 
EUR 0.03 billion (2.1 % of total) for the environment. 

EIB  provided 

EUR 167.9 million 

The 
in 
around 
environment-related  financial  contributions  to  Cyprus 
from  2021  to  mid  2024,  most  of  them  related  to  water 
projects 
followed  by  sustainable 
energy, transport and industrial projects (EUR 54 million), 
which  provide  significant  co-benefits  to  reducing  air 
pollution, environmental noise and other pollution. 

(EUR 105 million), 

The  EU’s  total  national  expenditure  on  environmental 
protection  (operating  plus  capital  expenditure)  was 
EUR 298 billion  in  2020  and  EUR 321 billion  in  2021, 
representing  around  2.2 %  of  EU-27  GDP.  In  Cyprus,  the 
total national environmental protection expenditure was 
EUR 250 million  in  2020  and  EUR 311 million  in  2021, 
representing 1.1 % and 1.2 % of GDP, respectively. 

Of  the  total  environmental  expenditure,  the  national 
capital  expenditure 
(investment)  on  environmental 
protection  amounted  to  EUR 54.5 billion  in  2020  and 
EUR 59.9 billion in 2021 in the EU-27, representing around 
In  Cyprus,  the  national 
0.4 %  of  the  EU’s  GDP. 
environmental 
reached 
protection 
EUR 24 million  in  2020,  rising  to  EUR 54 million  in  2021, 
representing around 0.1 % and 0.2 % of GDP, respectively. 

investment 

protection 

investment 

Splitting by institutional sector, 12.7 % of Cyprus’s national 
environmental 
(capital 
expenditure) comes from the general government budget, 
from  specialist  private-sector 
with  37.3 %  coming 
producers (of environmental protection services, such as 
waste and water companies) and  50 % from the general 
business  sector,  whose  environmental  activities  are 
usually ancillary to its main activities. At the EU level, 38 % 
of  environmental  protection  investment  comes  from 
governments,  40 % 
specialist  private-sector 
producers and 22 % from the general business sector (144). 

from 

Cyprus  39 

The gap 

To meet its four environmental objectives beyond climate 
change, the additional investment need over the current 
levels (i.e. the gap) reaches an estimated EUR 211 million 
per  year  in  Cyprus,  representing  around  0.78 %  of  the 
national GDP, being around the EU average (0.77 %). 

Figure 31: Environmental financing, needs and gaps  per 
Member State (% of GDP) 

Source: Analysis of Directorate-General for Environment. 

The following table provides the distributions of Cyprus’s 
environmental  investment  gap  (expressed  in  various 
forms) by environmental objective. 

Table 2: Summary of environmental investment gaps in 
Cyprus per year, 2021–2027 

Environmental 
objective 

Investment gap per year  

Million 
EUR (2022 
prices) 

% of 
total 

% of GDP 

Cyprus’s  total  financing  for  environmental  investment 
reaches  an  estimated  EUR 357 million  per  year  (in  2022 
prices),  including  EU  funding  and  national  public  and 
national private expenditure. Of the total, the share of EU 
fund (including EIB funds) reaches 36 %, with around 64 % 
national  financing.  The  total  public  financing  (EU  plus 
national public) represents 44 % of the total. 

Pollution prevention 
and control 

Circular economy and 
waste 

Water management 
and water industries 

33 

15.8 

0.12 

53 

25.1 

0.20 

29 

13.9 

0.11 

(142)  The  Connecting  Europe  Facility  Transport  part  also  includes 
EUR 11.3 billion  transferred  from  the  Cohesion  Fund,  of  which 
30 % will be made available, on a competitive basis, to all Member 
States  eligible  for  the  Cohesion  Fund.  The  remaining  70 %  will 
respect the national envelopes until 31 December 2023. 

(143)  The  InvestEU  Fund  is  set  to  mobilise  over  EUR 372 billion  of 
investment through an EU budget guarantee of EUR 26.2 billion to 
back  the  investment  of  financial  partners such as  the  EIB  group 
and others. 

(144)  Eurostat, 

‘Environmental  protection  expenditure  accounts’, 

env_ac_epea. 

2025 Environmental Implementation Review – Cyprus 

 
 
 
 
Biodiversity and 
ecosystems 

96 

45.2 

0.35 

total. EIB financing contributes  9 % and national sources 
reach 35.3 % (148). 

Total 

211 

100.0 

0.78 

The gap 

Cyprus  40 

Source: Directorate-General for Environment analysis. 

Pollution prevention and control 

Investment needs 

In pollution prevention and control,  Cyprus’s investment 
needs  are  estimated  to  reach  EUR 113 million  per  year 
(including  baseline  investments)  in  2021–2027.  Most  of 
this,  EUR 102 million,  relates  to  air  pollution  control,  to 
comply with the clean air requirements for the five main 
air  pollutants  under  the  NECD  by  2030.  The  estimated 
needs to reduce environmental noise reach EUR 41 million 
per  year,  most  of  which  is  delivered  by  the  (same) 
sustainable  energy  and  transport  investments  that  also 
benefit clean air (145). Industrial site remediation requires 
an  estimated  EUR 5 million  per  year.  Microplastics 
pollution  and  the  chemicals  strategy  require  around 
EUR 3–4 million per year (each) (146). 

Current investments 

investment 

levels  supporting  pollution 
The  current 
prevention and control reach an estimated EUR 80 million 
per  year  in  Cyprus  in  2021–2027.  Most  of  the  financing 
concerns  clean  air  (EUR 75 million  per  year).  Protection 
from environmental noise receives around EUR 15 million 
per year, with a further EUR 4 million for site remediation. 
There is further national financing of EUR 270 million per 
year,  which 
(clearly)  allocated  to  specific 
environmental objectives.(147) 

is  not 

In Cyprus, the EU MFF provides an estimated 21.3 % of the 
clean  air  financing  (mostly  via  cohesion  policy),  with  a 
further  34.4 % from the RRF, adding up to  55.7 % of the 

To meet its environmental objectives concerning pollution 
prevention  and  control  (towards  zero  pollution),  Cyprus 
needs  to  provide  an  additional  EUR 33 million  per  year 
(0.12 % of GDP), mostly related to clean air. The adequate 
investments 
implementation  of  the  NECP  with  the 
included  for  sustainable  energy  and  transport  would 
largely  deliver  this,  while 
in  many  Member  States 
additional measures and investments may be required to 
comply with the ammonia reduction requirements. 

According to the latest (2023) NAPCP review report (149), 
Cyprus complied with ammonia reduction requirements in 
2020 and 2021  (while  not  complying with  SO2 reduction 
requirements), and it is at medium  levels of  risk  of non-
compliance  concerning  the  NECD’s  2030  emission 
reduction commitments for SO2 and PM2.5, based on the 
policies and measures in its NAPCP that take into account 
climate, energy and CAP plans and financing baselines. 

Circular economy and waste 

Investment needs 

Cyprus’s investment needs in circular economy and waste 
reach  EUR 137 million  per  year 
(including  baseline 
investments).  Most  of  this,  around  EUR 110 million  per 
year, relates to circular economy measures in the mobility, 
food  and  built  environment  systems,  with  a  further 
EUR 27 million  necessary 
for  waste  management 
(municipal  and  packaging  waste),  covering  waste 
collection,  biowaste  treatment,  recycling  reprocessors, 
waste-sorting  facilities,  and  digitalisation  of  the  waste 
registry. The amount for waste excludes the investments 
needed for the uptake of circularity and waste prevention 
across the economy (150). 

(145)  2021 

assessment 

Phenomena 

project 
(https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-
/publication/f4cd7465-a95d-11eb-9585-01aa75ed71a1)  and  the 
Directive 
Commission’s 
implementation 
report 
(https://environment.ec.europa.eu/system/files/2023-
03/COM_2023_139_1_EN_ACT_part1_v3.pdf). 

Environmental 

Noise 

202  

(146)  European  Commission,  Third  Clean  Air  Outlook,  Brussels,  2022, 

https://environment.ec.europa.eu/topics/air/clean-air-
outlook_en. See also the impact assessment for the revision of the 
AAQD, available from the Commission web page on the proposed 
revision 
(https://environment.ec.europa.eu/publications/revision-eu-
ambient-air-quality-legislation_en). 

(147)   Through  the  tracking  of  EU  funds,  EIB  projects  and  national 
expenditure (EPEA accounts, Eurostat). Note that the bulk of clean 
air  financing  is  provided  as  a  contribution  from  climate  (energy 
and  transport)  measures,  as  per  the  tracking  schemes  in  the 
Common  Provisions  Regulation  Annex  I  and  the  RRF  Regulation 
Annex  VI.  Further 
tracking: 
https://commission.europa.eu/document/download/0a80484e-

information  on  clean  air 

2409-4749-94c6-
3b23bc6bae8f_en?filename=Clean%20air%20methodology_0.pdf 
(148)  Through  the  tracking  of  EU  funds,  EIB  projects  and  national 
expenditure (EPEA accounts, Eurostat). Note that the bulk of clean 
air  financing  is  provided  as  a  contribution  from  climate  (energy 
and  transport)  measures,  as  per  the  tracking  schemes  in  the 
Common  Provisions  Regulation  Annex  I  and  the  RRF  Regulation 
Annex  VI.  Further 
tracking: 
https://commission.europa.eu/document/download/0a80484e-
2409-4749-94c6-
3b23bc6bae8f_en?filename=Clean%20air%20methodology_0.pdf 
(149)  European Commission, ‘National air pollution control programmes 
website, 
European 

information  on  clean  air 

Commission 

projections’, 

and 
https://environment.ec.europa.eu/topics/air/reducing-
emissions-air-pollutants/national-air-pollution-control-
programmes-and-projections_en. 

(150)  See Systemiq and Ellen MacArthur Foundation, Achieving ‘Growth 
Within’, 2017; and European Commission: Directorate-General for 
Environment, Study on investment needs in the waste sector and 

2025 Environmental Implementation Review – Cyprus 

 
 
 
Current investments 

Circular economy investments across the economy reach 
around  EUR 70 million  per  year  in  Cyprus  in  2021-2027, 
for  waste 
further  EUR 1 million  provided 
with  a 
management that does not constitute circular economy. 

Around 6.7 % of the combined financing for circularity and 
waste comes from the EU MFF, with a further 2.2 % from 
the  RRF,  adding  up  to  8.9 %  of  the  total.  EIB  loans 
identified  in  support  of  circularity  and  waste  represent 
1.5 %  of  the  total.  The  share  of  national  financing  is 
absolutely  overwhelming,  reaching  89.7 %  of  the  total 
financing (151). 

The gap 

To  meet  its  environmental  objectives  concerning  the 
circular  economy  and  waste,  Cyprus  needs  to  increase 
circular  economy 
investments  by  an  estimated 
EUR 40 million per year, with an additional EUR 13 million 
concerning  waste  management  action,  not  belonging  to 
to 
circular 
EUR 53 million  per  year,  representing  0.2 %  of  Cyprus 
GDP. 

economy.  Combined, 

amounts 

this 

Of  the  circular  economy  gap,  EUR 11 million  relates  to 
recent  initiatives,  such  as  the  eco-design  for  sustainable 
products,  packaging  and  packaging  waste,  labelling  and 
digital  tools,  CRM  recycling,  and  measures  proposed 
under the amendment of the Waste Framework Directive, 
and EUR 30 million constitutes further investment need to 
unlock Cyprus’s circular economy potential. 

Water protection and management 

Investment needs 

The  annual  water  investment  needs  reach  an  estimated 
EUR 169 million (in 2022 prices) in Cyprus. This comprises 
investment needs both for the water industry and for the 
protection and the management of water. The largest part 
of  the  total  annual  need,  EUR 104 million,  relates  to 
drinking  water  measures.  A  further  EUR 46 million  per 
year  is  need  for  the  management  of  waste  water  (also 
including  additional  costs  associated  with  the  revised 

on  the  financing  of  municipal  waste  management  in  Member 
States,  Publications  Office  of  the  European  Union,  Luxembourg, 
2019, 
https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-
/publication/4d5f8355-bcad-11e9-9d01-01aa75ed71a1. 

(151)  Waste management and circular economy expenditure tracking in 
the  EU  funds,  EIB  projects  and  in  the  national  expenditure 
(Eurostat).  Datasets:  EPEA  accounts  (env_epi)  and  circular 
economy private investments (cei_cie012). 

(152)  See  European  Commission,  ‘Estimating  investment  needs  and 
financing capacities for water-related investment in EU Member 
States’, 
2020, 
2  May 
https://commission.europa.eu/news/estimating-investment-
needs-and-financing-capacities-water-related-investment-eu-
member-states-2020-05-28_en;  and  OECD,  Financing  Water 
Supply, Sanitation and flood Protection: Challenges in EU Member 

Cyprus  41 

UWWTD).  Additional  needs  for  the  Water  Framework 
Directive 
(protection  of  water)  are  estimated  at 
EUR 18 million per year (152). 

Current investments 

Water investments in Cyprus are estimated to be around 
EUR 140 million per year (in 2022 prices) in 2021–2027. Of 
this,  EUR 36 million  supports  wastewater  management, 
EUR 90 million drinking water and around EUR 14 million 
the  other  aspects  of  the  Water  Framework  Directive 
(water management and protection). 

Of the total water financing, 9.6 % is provided by the EU 
MFF (mostly through cohesion policy), with a further 4.8 % 
from the RRF, reaching 14.4 % combined. EIB financing is 
around 10 % of the total, while the bulk of financing comes 
from national sources ( 75.5 %) (153). 

The gap 

To  meet  the  various  environmental  targets  under  the 
Water  Framework  Directive  and  the  Floods  Directive, 
Cyprus’s water investment gap reaches EUR 29 million per 
year  (0.11 %  of  GDP),  with  around  half  of  it  related  to 
drinking  water  (EUR 15 million  per  year).  Wastewater 
measures  require  an  additional  EUR 10 million  per  year, 
with an additional EUR 4-5 million needed  for the Water 
Framework  Directive  per  year  over  the  existing  levels  of 
financing. 

Biodiversity and ecosystems 

Investment needs 

The investment needs for biodiversity and ecosystems are 
estimated to be EUR 149 million per year (in 2022 prices) 
in  Cyprus  in  2021–2027.  This  includes  the  following 
financing needs: 

•  Cyprus’s  PAF (154)  concerning  the  Natura  2000  areas: 

EUR 7.5 million per year, mostly running costs; 

•  additional BDS costs (155): EUR 104 million per year on 

top of the PAF; 

States  and  policy  options,  OECD  Publishing,  Paris,  2020, 
https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/environment/financing-water-
supply-sanitation-and-flood-protection_6893cdac-en. 

(153)  Water investment levels are estimated through tracking EU funds, 
EIB projects and national expenditure (EPEA accounts, Eurostat). 
(154)  European Commission, ‘Financing Natura 2000 – Prioritised action 
website, 

European 

frameworks’, 
https://environment.ec.europa.eu/topics/nature-and-
biodiversity/natura-2000/financing-natura-2000_en. 

Commission 

(155)  See European Commission: Directorate-General for Environment, 
Biodiversity  Financing  and  Tracking –  Final  report,  Publications 
2022, 
Office 
https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-
/publication/793eb6ec-dbd6-11ec-a534-
01aa75ed71a1/language-en. 

European  Union, 

Luxembourg, 

the 

of 

2025 Environmental Implementation Review – Cyprus 

 
 
•  sustainable 

soil 

management 

costs (156): 

EUR 38 million per year. 

Current investments 

and  other  relevant  cross-cutting  measures,  Cyprus’s 
investment gap is estimated to be EUR 96 million per year, 
corresponding to 0.4 % of its GDP. 

Cyprus  42 

The current level of biodiversity financing is estimated to 
be EUR 54 million per year (in 2022 prices) in 2021–2027. 
56 % of this is considered direct financing to biodiversity 
and ecosystems, with a  100 % coefficient  in the tracking 
schemes. 

15 % of the total financing is estimated to come from EU 
cohesion  policy  and  18 %  from  CAP.  The  EU  MFF 
altogether accounts for 58 % of the financing and the RRF 
for 5.6 %, adding up to a total of 63 % from the EU budget. 
The rest, 37 %, comes from national sources (157). 

At  1.9 %,  Cyprus’s  share  of  RRF  funding  is  above  the 
average  share  dedicated  to  supporting  measures  for 
biodiversity. However, Cyprus has the lowest share of the 
CAP budget, with only 15.3 % of its CAP budget for 2021–
2027 contributing to biodiversity, under the EU average. 
Lastly, 10.2 % of Cyprus’s cohesion policy EU contribution 
is  estimated  to  contribute  to  biodiversity  (disregarding 
ESF+), well above the EU average. 

Figure 32: 2021–2027 contributions to biodiversity from 
the main EU instruments per Member State (% of policy 
total) 

NB: ESF+, European Social Fund Plus. 

The gap 

To  meet  the  environmental  objectives  concerning  the 
protection and restoration of biodiversity and ecosystems 

(156)  See Proposal for a directive of the European Parliament and of the 
Council  on  soil  monitoring  and  resilience  (Soil  Monitoring  Law) 
COM(2023) 416 
2023, 
https://environment.ec.europa.eu/publications/proposal-
directive-soil-monitoring-and-resilience_en. 
in 
biodiversity 

(157)  Based  on 

tracking 

budget 

5 July 

final 

the 

EU 

of 

Public financial management 

Green budgeting practices 

Green  budgeting  refers  to  the  use  of  budgetary  tools  to 
achieve climate and environmental goals. Some Member 
States  already  use  green  budgeting  tools  for  identifying 
and  tracking  green  expenditures  and/or  revenues   (158). 
Green budgeting practices provide increased transparency 
on the environmental implications of budgetary policies. 

The  Commission  has  developed  a  non-mandatory  green 
budgeting  reference  framework  that  brings  together 
methodologies  for  assessing  the  impacts  of  budgets  on 
climate and environmental goals (159). 

To help Member States develop national green budgeting 
and  thereby  improve  policy  coherence  and  support  the 
green  transition,  the  Commission  facilitated  a  technical 
support instrument (TSI) project on green budgeting from 
2021  to  2024 (160).  Cyprus  participated  in  the  training, 
which  helped  advance  its  planning  of  a  national  green 
budgeting framework. 

Cyprus  has  also  been  selected  for  the  next  round  of  TSI 
projects  on  green  budgeting,  starting  in  2025.  The 
country’s  focus  will  be  on  developing  a  standardized 
methodology for tagging and activity-based budgeting. 

Beyond green budgeting, to improve policy outcomes, the 
Commission  has  also  drawn  up  climate-proofing  and 
sustainability-proofing  guidance (161),  as  tools  to  assess 
project  eligibility  and  compliance  with  environmental 
legislation and criteria. 

Green taxation and tax reform 

Total environmental taxes amounted to EUR 609 million in 
Cyprus in 2022, representing 2.2 % of its GDP (EU average: 
2.0 %).  Energy  taxes  formed  the  largest  component  of 
environmental taxes, accounting for 1.5 % of GDP, slightly 

eu_en#:~:text=European%20Commission%20Green%20Budgetin
g%20Survey%C2%A0.  

(159)  European  Commission, 

‘European  Union  green  budgeting 
https://economy-

2022, 

framework’, 

reference 
finance.ec.europa.eu/economic-and-fiscal-governance/green-
budgeting-eu_en. 

(https://circabc.europa.eu/ui/group/3f466d71-92a7-49eb-9c63-
6cb0fadf29dc/library/8e44293a-d97f-496d-8769-50365780acde), 
and national expenditure into biodiversity from the Classification 
of the Functions of Government accounts. 

(158)  European  Commission,  Green  Budgeting  in  the  EU.  Key  Insights 
from the 2023 European Commission Survey of Green Budgeting 
Practices, 
https://economy-
finance.ec.europa.eu/economic-and-fiscal-governance/national-
fiscal-frameworks-eu-member-states/green-budgeting-

2023, 

(160)  https://reform-support.ec.europa.eu/what-we-do/revenue-

administration-and-public-financial-management/supporting-
implementation-green-budgeting-practices-eu_en. 

(161)  Commission notice – Technical guidance on the climate proofing 
of infrastructure in the period 2021–2027 (OJ C 373, 16.09.2021, 
https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-
p. 1), 
/publication/23a24b21-16d0-11ec-b4fe-
01aa75ed71a1/language-en. 

2025 Environmental Implementation Review – Cyprus 

 
 
 
lower  than  the  EU  average  of  1.6 %.  Transport  taxes,  at 
0.42 % of GDP, were around the EU average (0.4 %), while 
taxes on pollution and resources, at 0.25 %, were higher 
than  the  EU  average  (0.08 %).  In  2022,  environmental 
taxes in Cyprus accounted for 6 % of total revenues from 
taxes  and  social  security  contributions  (above  the  EU 
average of 5.0 %) (162). 

Figure 33: Environmental taxes per Member State, 2022 

Cyprus  43 

During 2021–2023 combined, Cyprus issued green bonds 
worth USD 5.6 million (EUR 5.2 million), issuance of all of 
which took place in 2023. 

During  2014–2023,  83 %  of  the  green  bonds  issued  by 
European  countries  (excluding  supranational  entities) 
served objectives in energy, buildings or transport, while 
5 % supported objectives in water, 5.1 % related to land 
use  (with  links  to  nature  and  ecosystems)  and  3.8 %  to 
applied  to  waste  management.  By  2023,  the  combined 
share of energy, buildings and transport had decreased to 
73 %, the shares of waste management and land use had 
increased (to 5.9 % and 8.4 %, respectively) and the share 
of water had remained around 5 %. 

In  2021–2023,  31.7 %  of  the  European  green  bonds 
(excluding  supranational 
issued  by 
financial  corporates,  29.1 %  by  sovereign  governments 
and  23.1 %  by  non-financial  corporates.  8.3 %  of  the 
issuances was linked to government-backed entities, 6.4 % 
to developments banks and 1.4 % to local governments. 

issuances)  was 

Figure 34: Value of green bonds issued per Member State 
(billion EUR), 2021, 2022 and 2023 

The EU Green Deal emphasises the role of well-designed 
tax  reforms  (e.g.  shifts  from  taxing  labour  to  taxing 
pollution) to boost economic growth and resilience and to 
foster  a  fairer  society  and  a  just  transition  through  the 
right price signals. The Green Deal promotes the ‘polluter-
pays  principle’,  which  makes  polluters  bear  the  costs  to 
prevent, control and remedy pollution. 

According to a 2024 study (163), Cyprus does not apply any 
emission  charges  or  product  charges.  It  applies  user 
charges,  namely  a 
landscape  and  nature 
for 
protection, a volumetric charge for water abstraction and 
charges for mineral extraction. 

fee 

Green bonds and sustainable bonds 

In 2023, the total value of green bonds issued by Member 
States  was  USD 245 billion  (EUR 227 billion),  up  from 
USD 234 billion (EUR 198 billion) in 2021 (164). 

Data source: Climatebonds.net, with some additional data from national 
sources (e.g. Croatia, Slovenia). 

Environmentally harmful subsidies 

Addressing  and  phasing  out  environmentally  harmful 
subsidies,  in  particular  fossil  fuel  subsidies  (FFS),  is  a 

(162)  Eurostat, ‘Environmental taxes accounts’, env_eta. 
(163)  European  Commission:  Directorate-General  for  Environment, 
Candidates  for  Taxing  Environmental  Bads  at  National  Level, 
Publications  Office  of  the  European  Union,  Luxembourg,  2024, 
Annex 1, 
https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-
/publication/35c1bbdf-2931-11ef-9290-01aa75ed71a1/language-
en. 

(164)  Climate  bonds  initiative  (https://www.climatebonds.net/).  NB. 
Additionally (and not included in this), national sources indicated 
EUR 544.8 million issuance for Croatia, in 2022-2023, and a slightly 
higher  amount  for  Slovenia  (+0.27  billion)  during  2021-2023  in 
total. 

2025 Environmental Implementation Review – Cyprus 

 
 
 
 
 
 
further  step  towards  achieving  the  eighth  environment 
action  programme  objectives  and 
the  enabling 
conditions (165). FFS are costly for public budgets and make 
it difficult to achieve European Green Deal objectives. 

The overall downward trend of FFS mentioned in past EIRs 
was disrupted from 2022 due to the European response to 
the 2021 energy crisis and subsequent increase in energy 
prices. 

As  a  direct  consequence,  annual  FFS  in  the  EU  have 
increased to EUR 109 billion in 2023 from EUR 57 billion in 
2020.  From  2021  to  2023,  there  has  been  a  marked 
increase in annual FFS of 72 % in the EU (166). 

For the majority of the Member States (16), the year 2022 
saw  a  peak  in  the  amount  of  overall  FFS.  A  decline  was 
then observed in 2023 (167). In particular, FFS for coal and 
lignite, natural gas and oil increased in 2022 and a strong 
increase was observed for natural gas subsidies. 

In Cyprus, the energy subsidies were stable until 2018, and 
tripled in 2020. As part of this, FFS reached EUR 0.3 billion 
in  2020,  gradually  decreasing  since  then  (down  to 
EUR 0.1 billion in 2023). 

As a share of GDP, FFS in 2022 ranged from 1.8 % in Croatia 
to less than 0.1 % in Denmark and Sweden. Cyprus’s value 
reached 0.3 %, below the EU average (0.8 %) (168). 

(165)  Article 3(h) and 3(v) of the eighth environment action programme. 
(166)  European  Commission,  2024  Report  on  Energy  Subsidies  in  the 
COM(2025), 

European 
https://ec.europa.eu/transparency/documents-
register/detail?ref=COM(2025)17&lang=en 

Union, 

Cyprus  44 

Figure 35:  Energy  subsidies  by  energy  carrier  (billion 
EUR), 2015–2023 

NB: RES, renewable energy source. 
Source : analysis of Directorate-General Energy 

The additional investment need over the current levels – 
the  environmental  gap  –  reaches  an  estimated  EUR  212 
million per year in Cyprus, representing around 0.79 % of 
the national gross domestic product, being lower than the 
EU average (0.77 %). 

2025 priority action 

•  Use more national funding (for instance by increasing 
taxes  in  favour  of  the  environment  and  reducing 
environmentally  harmful  subsidies),  EU  funding  and 
private funding to help close the investment gap. 

(167)  16 Member States: BE, EE, IE, EL, ES, FR, HR, IT, CY, LT, HU, NL, AT, 

PT, RO and SE. 

(168)  European  Commission,  2024  Report  on  Energy  Subsidies  in  the 
COM(2025), 

Union, 

European 
https://ec.europa.eu/transparency/documents-
register/detail?ref=COM(2025)17&lang=en 

2025 Environmental Implementation Review – Cyprus 

 
 
 
 
Cyprus  45 

6. Environmental governance 

Information, public participation and access to 
justice 

Table 3:  Cyprus  dashboard  on  implementation  of  the 
Inspire Directive, 2016–2023 

2016 

2023 

Legend 

to 

(iii) 

and 

access 

justice 

Citizens  can  more  effectively  protect  the  environment  if 
they rely on the three ‘pillars’ of the Aarhus Convention: 
(i)  access  to  information,  (ii)  public  participation  in 
decision-making 
in 
environmental  matters.  It  is  of  crucial  importance  to 
public  authorities,  the  public  and  businesses  that 
environmental 
is  shared  efficiently  and 
effectively (169).  Public  participation  allows  authorities  to 
make  decisions  that  take  public  concerns  into  account. 
Access to justice is a set of guarantees that allows citizens 
and  NGOs  to  use  national  courts  to  protect  the 
environment, safeguard the rights of citizens and ensure 
accountability  of  authorities (170).  It  includes  the  right  to 
bring legal challenges (‘legal standing’) (171). 

information 

Environmental information 

This  section  focuses  on  the  implementation  of  the 
Infrastructure  for  Spatial  Information  in  the  European 
Community (Inspire) Directive. The Inspire Directive aims 
to  set  up  a  European  spatial-data  infrastructure  for 
sharing environmental spatial information between public 
authorities across Europe. It is expected that this will help 
policymaking  across  boundaries  and  facilitate  public 
access  to  this  information.  Geographic  information  is 
needed  for  good  governance  at  all  levels  and  should  be 
readily and transparently available. 

Cyprus’s  performance 
Inspire 
Directive  has  been  reviewed  based  on  its  2023  country 
fiche (172) (see Table 3) and shows some progress. 

implementing  the 

in 

(169)  The  Aarhus 

Convention 

(https://unece.org/environment-
policy/public-participation/aarhus-convention/text),  the  Access 
to  Environmental  Information  Directive  (Directive  2003/4/EC) 
(https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32003L0004) 
Inspire 
Directive  (Directive  2007/2/EC)  (https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/ALL/?uri=CELEX:32007L0002) together create a legal 
foundation for the sharing of environmental information between 
public authorities and with the public. 

and 

the 

(170)  These  guarantees  are  explained  in  the  European  Commission’s 
2017  notice  on  access  to  justice  in  environmental  matters 

effective 

Effective coordination and data sharing  ■  Implementation  of 
Ensure 
this  provision  is  well 
■  ■ 
coordination 
advanced  or  (nearly) 
completed. 
Outstanding issues are 
minor  and  can  be 
addressed 
easily. 
Percentage > 89 % 

Data 
without obstacle 

Inspire performance indicators 

■  ■ 

sharing 

(i)  Conformity  of 
metadata 

■  ■ 

(ii)  Conformity  of 
spatial datasets (a) 

■  ■ 

(iii)  Accessibility  of 
spatial 
datasets 
through  view  and 
download services 

(iv)  Conformity  of 
network services 

■  ■ 

■  ■ 

■  Implementation of 
this  provision  has 
started 
and  made 
some  or  substantial 
progress,  but  is  still 
not  close  to  being 
completed. 
Percentage = 31–89 % 

■  Implementation  of 
this provision is falling 
significantly  behind. 
Serious  efforts  are 
necessary to close the 
implementation  gap. 
Percentage < 31 % 

(a) 

In  2016,  the  deadlines  for  implementation  of  spatial  data 
interoperability  were  still  in  the  future:  23 November  2017  for 
Annex I data and 21 October 2020 for Annex II and III data. It must 
also  be  considered  that  this  indicator  will  in  many  cases  never 
reach 100 % conformity, as the majority of countries provide as-is 
datasets in addition to the Inspire-harmonised datasets. 

Source:  European  Commission,  ‘Cyprus’,  Inspire  Knowledge  Base, 
https://knowledge-base.inspire.ec.europa.eu/cyprus_en. 

In 2022, Cyprus received a priority action on the need to 
improve access to spatial data and services. It has made 
and 
limited 

identification 

progress 

data 

on 

(https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/ALL/?uri=CELEX:52017XC0818(02))  and  a  related 
2018 citizen’s guide (https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-
/publication/2b362f0a-bfe4-11e8-99ee-01aa75ed71a1/language-
en/format-PDF). 

(171)  This  EIR  focuses  on  the  means  used  by  Member  States  to 
guarantee  rights  of  access  to  justice  and  legal  standing  and  to 
overcome other major barriers to bringing cases on environmental 
protection. 

(172)  European  Commission, 

‘Cyprus’, 

Inspire  Knowledge  Base, 

https://knowledge-base.inspire.ec.europa.eu/cyprus_en. 

2025 Environmental Implementation Review – Cyprus 

 
 
 
documentation,  but  implementation  levels  are  still  very 
limited (173).  

More efforts are needed regarding the Inspire Directive, 
particularly to (i) make the data  more widely accessible, 
(ii) improve the conditions for data reuse and (iii) prioritise 
environmental  datasets  in  implementation,  especially 
those 
identified  as  high-value  spatial  datasets  for 
implementing  environmental  legislation.  Therefore,  the 
2022 priority action is repeated. 

Public participation 

Public involvement  at both the planning and the project 
phase  maximises  transparency  and  social  acceptance  of 
programmes  and  projects.  Consultation  with  the  public 
(including  NGOs)  and  environmental,  local  and  regional 
authorities  is  a  key  feature  of  an  effective  impact 
assessment procedure. Such consultation also provides an 
opportunity for public authorities and project promoters 
to  engage  with  the  public  actively  and  meaningfully  by 
making information on the likely significant effects widely 
available. If carried out with due diligence and taking into 
consideration  useful  public  input,  this  process  leads  to 
better-informed decision-making and can promote public 
acceptance.  Making 
increases 
stakeholder  involvement,  thus  lessening  resistance  and 
preventing (or minimising) litigation. On the other hand, it 
is paramount that the procedure is effective. 

information  available 

This  section  examines  how  public 
involvement  and 
transparency are ensured under two instruments, namely 
the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Directive (174) 
and  the  Strategic  Environmental  Assessment  (SEA) 
Directive (175). 

EU law provides for a flexible framework concerning EIAs. 
The aim of this framework is to ensure the application of 

Cyprus  46 

the  necessary  environmental  safeguards,  while  enabling 
speedy  approval  of  projects.  The  Commission  has 
contributed to simplifying and accelerating permitting for 
renewable energy projects and continues to support the 
Member  States  in  this  regard(176).  Cyprus  has  already 
taken 
to  accelerate  permit-issuing 
procedures  taking  advantages  of  the  broad  flexibilities 
offered  by  the  EU  legal  framework,  such  as  creating  a 
streamlining  permit-issuing 
digital  platform 
procedures for renewable energy projects. 

steps  aiming 

and 

(screening, 

scoping,  EIA 

The average speed in the EU for issuing permits involving 
an  EIA  procedure 
is  20.6 months,  with  a  minimum 
duration  of  11.4 months  and  a  maximum  duration  of 
75.7 months (177).  The  duration  of  each  step  in  an  EIA 
process 
report,  public 
consultation, reasoned conclusion, development consent) 
varies considerably between Member States and projects. 
The  available  data  for  Cyprus  show  that  the  average 
duration of the EIA process in Cyprus appears to be shorter 
than the EU average, but definitive conclusions cannot be 
drawn,  as  information  on  the  duration  of  development 
consent  is  missing.  Effective  use  of  EU  procedures  can 
positively  influence  the  timely  approval  of  activities 
underpinning the decarbonisation of the economy on the 
way to net zero by 2050. 

A new report  is not  yet  available on the application and 
effectiveness of the SEA Directive in the EU. Nevertheless, 
a support study has been published with information by 
Member State (178). 

In  2022,  Cyprus  received  a  priority  action  on  publishing 
regular  information  on  the  number  of  EIA  and  SEA 
processes and their outcomes. Taking into consideration 
this  priority  action,  the  EIA  Platform  was  upgraded  and 
now includes all required information (reports, processes, 
outcome); the platform is available online (179). 

(173)  According  to  information  provided  by  Cyprus,  there  has  been 
considerable 
to  environmental 
improvement  on  access 
information  at  the  national  level  through  other  means  (e.g.  the 
implementation  of  the  Open  Data  Directive  and  its  high-value 
datasets  (HVD)  Regulation).  Most  environmental  data  are 
the  National  Open  Data  Portal 
currently  available  on 
(https://www.data.gov.cy/en?language=en).  By  contrast,  the 
national  Inspire  portal  is  experiencing  several  technical  issues, 
which make it less preferable to use and difficult to rely on for both 
authorities and the public. 

(174)  Directive  2011/92/EU  of  the  European  Parliament  and  of  the 
Council of 13 December 2011 on the assessment of the effects of 
certain public and private projects on the environment (OJ L 26, 
28.1.2012, 
https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
p. 1), 
content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A32011L0092. 

(175)  Directive  2001/42/EC  of  the  European  Parliament  and  of  the 
Council of 27 June 2001 on the assessment of the effects of certain 
plans and programmes on the environment (OJ L 197, 21.7.2001, 
p. 30), 
https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/ALL/?uri=CELEX:32001L0042. 

(176)  Commission Staff Working Document  (SWD/2022/0149 final), 18 
May 
(https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A52022SC0149&qid=1653034229
953). 

2022, 

Impact  Assessment 

(177)  European  Commission:  Directorate-General  for  Environment, 
Collection of information and data on the implementation of the 
revised  Environmental 
(EIA)  Directive 
(2011/92/EU) as amended by 2014/52/EU), Publications Office of 
the  European  Union,  Luxembourg,  2024,  Tables 5  and  6, 
https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-
/publication/8349a857-2936-11ef-9290-01aa75ed71a1/. 
(178)  European  Commission:  Directorate-General  for  Environment, 
Lundberg, P., McNeill, A., McGuinn, J., Cantarelli, A. et al., Study 
supporting  the  preparation  of  the  report  on  the  application  and 
effectiveness  of  the  SEA  Directive  (Directive  2001/42/EC)  –  Final 
study,  Publications  Office  of  the  European  Union,  2025, 
https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2779/1615072 

(179)  http://www.eia.moa.gov.cy/. 

2025 Environmental Implementation Review – Cyprus 

 
 
 
Access to justice 

Access to justice, guaranteed by Article 19(1) of the Treaty 
on  European  Union  and  Article 47  of  the  EU  Charter  of 
Fundamental Rights, is a fundamental right and part of the 
democratic process. It is vital to ensure the full application 
of EU law in all Member States and the legal protection of 
the  rights  of  individuals,  including  in  environmental 
matters.  Access  to  justice  is  essential  to  enable  judicial 
review of the decisions of public authorities and to allow 
the  correction  of  any  wrongdoing  committed  by  these 
authorities. 

This  section  provides  a  snapshot  of  the  state  of  play  of 
access to courts by the public, particularly when it comes 
to challenging plans, or the non-adoption of plans, under 
EU law, in the areas of water, waste, air quality and noise, 
irrespective of the form of the legal act (i.e. regulatory act 
or administrative decision). 

As outlined in the 2022 EIR,  any administrative decision, 
whether  environmental  or  otherwise,  can  be  challenged 
by  any  natural  or  legal  person  affected  by  the  decision 
(Article 146 of Cyprus’s constitution). NGOs have standing 
only under specific sectoral laws (EIA Directive, Integrated 
and  Control  Directive (180), 
Pollution 
Environmental  Liability  Directive  (ELD) (181));  otherwise 
they must prove their rights/interests. 

Prevention 

It can be difficult to challenge plans or programmes, since 
there  are  no  specific  rules  in  Cyprus  granting  access  to 
justice on this. Although the Supreme Court of Cyprus has 
the  power  to  review  legislation  or  regulations,  this 
recourse  is  inaccessible  to  individuals  and  NGOs.  The 
Commission  is  assessing  whether  this situation  complies 
with the requirements of the Aarhus Convention. 

In  2022,  Cyprus  received  a  priority  action  on  improving 
access to justice by the public concerned when it comes to 
challenging  administrative  or  regulatory  decisions  and 
omission. There has been no progress. 

2025 priority actions 

•  Make  spatial  data  more  widely  accessible  and 
prioritise  environmental  datasets  in  implementing 
the  Inspire  Directive,  especially  those  identified  as 
high-value 
implementing 
environmental legislation. 
Ensure  that  relevant  information  on  EIA  and  SEA 
procedures 
(including  on  public  participation 
opportunities and on publication of final decisions) is 

spatial  datasets 

for 

• 

Cyprus  47 

• 

electronically accessible in a timely manner, through 
at least a central portal or easily accessible points of 
access, at the appropriate administrative level. 
Improve  access  to  courts  in  national  environmental 
cases by the public concerned and eliminate practical 
barriers, such as length of proceedings and excessive 
costs in some Member States. 

Compliance assurance 

Environmental  compliance  assurance  covers  all  work 
undertaken by public authorities to ensure that industries, 
farmers and others fulfil their obligations to protect water, 
air and nature, to manage waste (182) and to remedy any 
environmental  damage.  It  includes  measures  such  as  (i) 
compliance  promotion,  (ii)  compliance  monitoring  (i.e. 
inspections  and  other  checks),  (iii)  enforcement,  that  is, 
steps taken to stop breaches and impose sanctions, and 
(iv) ensuring damage prevention and remediation in line 
with the polluter-pays principle. 

Compliance promotion, monitoring and enforcement 

Non-compliance  with  environmental  obligations  may 
occur for different reasons, including poor understanding 
or  lack  of  acceptance  of  the  rules,  opportunism  or  even 
criminality.  Compliance  promotion  activities  help  duty-
holders to comply by providing information, guidance and 
other  support.  This  is  particularly  important  in  areas 
where new and complex legislation is put in place. 

When  inspections  and  other  control  activities  identify 
problems,  a  range  of  responses  may  be  appropriate, 
the  use  of  administrative  and  criminal 
including 
enforcement tools. 

It appears that the environmental compliance assurance 
system  in  Cyprus  would  benefit  from  providing  more 
human  and  financial  resources  to 
inspections  and 
enforcement authorities. In November 2023, the Cabinet 
of Ministers decided to establish a task force for carrying 
out 
inspections  on  behalf  of  the  Department  of 
to  combat 
Environment 
environmental  crime.  However,  no  further  information 
was provided in this regard. 

stepped-up  effort 

in  a 

Furthermore,  the  Department  of  Environment  website 
needs to be updated regularly with reliable and consistent 
information and data. 

(180)  Directive  2008/1/EC  of  the  European  Parliament  and  of  the 
Council  of  15 January  2008  concerning  integrated  pollution 
prevention and control (OJ L 24, 29.1.2008, p. 8). 

(181)  Directive  2004/35/EC  of  the  European  Parliament  and  of  the 
Council of 21 April 2004 on environmental liability with regard to 
the  prevention  and  remedying  of  environmental  damage  (OJ 
L 143, 30.4.2004, p. 56). 

(182)  The concept is explained in detail in the European Commission’s 
2018  communication  on  EU  actions  to  improve  environmental 
compliance  and  governance  (https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A52018DC0010)  and  the  related 
Commission staff working document (). 

2025 Environmental Implementation Review – Cyprus 

 
 
A  more  detailed  assessment  of  compliance  assurance 
activities is to be provided in the next EIR. 

Figure 41: EU complaints per million inhabitants 15 May 
2022-31 December 2024 

Cyprus  48 

The  2022  EIR  recommended  that  Cyprus  (i)  provide 
practical  information  to  farmers  and  land  managers  on 
how to comply  with their obligations under the Nitrates 
and  Nature  Directives;  (ii)  collect  and  disseminate 
information  on  the  enforcement  of  environmental  law, 
including  on  the  prosecution  of  environmental  damage 
crimes,  on  ELD  cases  and  on  formal  cooperation 
arrangements  among  the  public  bodies  responsible; 
(iii)·promote  and  improve  formal  or  informal  systems  of 
cooperation  between  the  different  authorities  dealing 
with  environmental  crimes;  (iv)  introduce  measures  to 
financial  security 
encourage 
the  development  of 
instruments  to  enable  operators  to  use 
financial 
guarantees;  and  (iv)  make  information  available  to  the 
public on the complaint-handling system and procedures 
to  facilitate  public  involvement  in  compliance  issues. 
Concerning  compliance  promotion,  monitoring,  and 
criminal  and  administrative  enforcement,  the  2022 
priority  actions  are  not  assessed  here  due  to  a  lack  of 
systematic  information.  Similarly,  the  Commission  is  not 
aware of whether information is easily available online at 
the national level for farmers regarding compliance with 
the Nitrates and Nature Directives, and hence the related 
2022 priority action is not assessed. 

Since  the  2022  EIR,  the  Commission  has  received  8 
complaints relating to the environment in Cyprus. In terms 
of complaints per million inhabitants the amount is 8.56, 
the second-highest number in the EU (Figures 40 and 41).  
The  cases  concerned  alleged  breaches  of  EU  law  in  the 
areas of nature, waste and EIA. 

Figure 40 EU complaints 15 May 2022-31 December 2024

Source: DG Environment complaints data. 

Source:  Eurostat,  ‘Population’  tps00001,  accessed  22  January  2025, 
https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/tps00001/default/tab
le?lang=en, and DG Environment complaints data. 

The new EU Environmental Crime Directive 

The EU has recently strengthened its legal framework on 
tackling  the  most  serious  breaches  of  environmental 
obligations,  notably  by  the  adoption  of  the  new 
Environmental  Crime  Directive  (ECD)  (Directive  (EU) 
2024/1203) (183) and new sectoral legislation with stronger 
provisions  on  compliance  monitoring,  enforcement  and 
penalties. Issues important for the transposition and the 
implementation  of  the  relevant  new  instruments  are 
highlighted below; a detailed assessment of these topics 
will be included in the next EIR once more implementation 
in  place  and  more  systematic 
measures  are  put 
information is available. 

The  new  ECD  replaced  the  2008  ECD  and  introduced 
several  new  offence  categories,  such  as  unlawful  ship 
recycling,  unlawful  water  abstraction,  and  serious 
breaches  of  EU 
legislation  on  chemicals,  mercury, 
fluorinated GHG and IAS of EU concern. It also covered the 
establishment  of  qualified  offences,  subject  to  more 
severe penalties where one of the offences defined in the 
directive  leads  to  serious  widespread  and  substantial 
damage  or  destruction  of  the  environment.  Concrete 
provisions on the types and levels of penalties for natural 
and  legal  persons  who  commit  an  offence  were  also 
introduced.  Other  provisions  will  help  considerably  to 
improve  the  effectiveness  in  combating  environmental 
crime  of  all  actors  along  the  enforcement  chain.  These 
include  obligations  to  ensure  adequate  resources  and 
investigative  tools,  specialised  regular  training  and  the 
establishment  of  cooperation  mechanisms  within  and 

(183)    Directive  2024/1203/EU  on  the  protection  of  the  environment 
https://eur-

criminal 

law 

through 
lex.europa.eu/eli/dir/2024/1203/oj/eng 

2025 Environmental Implementation Review – Cyprus 

 
 
 
 
between Member States as well as national strategies on 
combating environmental crime. 

including  by 

Member  States  are  required  to  transpose  the  new  ECD 
into national law by 21 May 2026 and to take additional 
measures  to  more  effectively  combat  environmental 
crime, 
in  particular  through  training,  coordination, 
cooperation  and  strategic  approaches.  The  Commission 
facilitating  the 
will  provide  support, 
identification  and  sharing  of  good  practices.  Member 
States are expected to ensure the necessary resources and 
specialised  skills  required  and  they  are 
invited  to 
encourage their authorities to support and cooperate with 
the  recognised  EU-level  networks  of  environmental 
enforcement practitioners, such as the EU Network for the 
Implementation  and  Enforcement  of  Environmental 
Law (184),  EnviCrimeNet (185),  the  European  Network  of 
Prosecutors for the Environment (186) and the EU Forum of 
Judges  for  the  Environment (187).  The  European  Union 
Agency for Law Enforcement  Cooperation  and European 
Union  Agency 
Justice  Cooperation 
mechanisms for cooperation on cross-border cases should 
be used more systematically for environmental offences. 

for  Criminal 

Environmental Liability Directive 

The  Environmental  Liability  Directive  ELD  (188)aims  to 
ensure that environmental damage is remediated in kind 
at the expense of those who have caused it, in line with 
the polluter-pays principle. It helps to halt the net loss in 
biodiversity,  as  well  as  reducing  the  number  of 
contaminated  sites  and  protecting  the  environmental 
quality of groundwater and surface waters. The ELD is a 
for  better 
tool  and  a  key  enabler 
cross-cutting 
implementation of EU environmental law. 

The  ELD  addresses  cases  of  significant  environmental 
damage  to  protected  species  and  natural  habitats,  and, 
when caused by operators carrying out certain potentially 
hazardous  activities,  also  damages  to  water  and  to  soil. 
The  Commission  has  the  legal  obligation  to  periodically 
evaluate  the  ELD.  The  ELD  has  undergone  the  second 
evaluation (189), which will be finalised in 2025, and which 
was  supported  by  an  external  study (190),  containing, 
among  other  things,  evidence,  views,  reports  and  other 
relevant information gathered from different stakeholder 
groups, including Member States. 

(184)  https://www.impel.eu/en. 
(185) 

LIFE+SATEC 
(https://webgate.ec.europa.eu/life/publicWebsite/project/LIFE2
0-PRE-ES-000001/fight-against-environmental-crime-at-a-
strategic-level-through-the-strengthening-of-envicrimenet-
network-of-experts-in-environmental-criminal-investigations). 

project 

(186)  https://www.environmentalprosecutors.eu. 
(187)  https://www.eufje.org/index.php?lang=en. 
(188 )   Directive 2004/35/EC on environmental liability with regard to the 
prevention and remedying of environmental damage, https://eur-

Cyprus  49 

indicators 

in  assessing 
One  of  the  most  relevant 
implementation  and  enforcement  of  the  ELD  is  the 
number  of  environmental  damage  cases  handled  under 
the  ELD,  especially  when  this  number  is  compared  with 
the  previous  reporting  period.  Fewer  ELD  cases  were 
reported in the second reporting period (2013–2022) than 
in  the  first  one  (2007–2013).  However,  the  downward 
tendency  in  the  number  of  ELD  occurrences  and  their 
overall low number do not necessarily mean that the ELD 
has  achieved  its  objectives,  as  it  needs  to  be  compared 
with the overall number of environmental damage cases, 
some of  which  may have been handled under the other 
liability instruments. 

The ELD has not always been effective in ensuring that the 
polluter  pays,  because  the  liable  operators  often  lack 
financial  capacity  to  carry  out  remediation  measures. 
While the ELD does not provide for a mandatory financial 
security  system,  it  explicitly  calls  for  Member  States  to 
encourage 
financial  security 
instruments  and  markets,  with  the  aim  of  enabling 
operators  to  use  financial  guarantees  to  cover  their 
responsibilities under this directive. 

the  development  of 

From 1 May 2013 to 31 December 2021, Cyprus reported 
one occurrence of an imminent  threat of environmental 
damage  (land  and  water  damage).  In  the  previous 
reporting  period,  there  was  only  one  occurrence  of 
environmental damage reported under the ELD as well. 

Cyprus  has  not  introduced  mandatory  financial  security 
for ELD liabilities and the demand for such instruments is 
low. Environmental insurance policies that provide cover 
for ELD liabilities are not generally available. Additionally, 
environmental extensions to general liability and property 
policies are scarce and, even when they are available, they 
do not provide cover for ELD liabilities. 

The 2022 EIR recommended that Cyprus provide practical 
information  to  farmers  and  land  managers  on  how  to 
comply  with  the  Nature  Directives  and  the  Nitrates 
Directive as well as on the enforcement of environmental 
law,  including  on  the  prosecution  of  environmental 
damage crimes, on ELD cases and on formal cooperation 
arrangements  among  the  public  bodies  responsible.  The 
2022  EIR  also  recommended  promoting  and  improving 
both formal and informal systems of cooperation between 
the  different  authorities  dealing  with  environmental 

lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A02004L0035-20190626. 

(189)  Commission  staff  working  document  -  Evaluation  of  the 

Environmental Liability Directive, forthcoming 2025. 

(190)  European Commission: Directorate-General for Environment and 
Fogleman,  V.,  Study 
in  support  of  the  evaluation  of  the 
Environmental  Liability  Directive  and  its  implementation –  Final 
report,  Publications  Office  of  the  European  Union,  Luxembourg, 
2024, 
https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-
/publication/006d90e5-980a-11ef-a130-
01aa75ed71a1/language-en. 

2025 Environmental Implementation Review – Cyprus 

 
 
to  encourage 

introducing  measures 

the 
crimes, 
development  of  financial  security  instruments  to  enable 
operators  to  use  financial  guarantees,  and  making 
information  available  to  the  public  on  the  complaint-
handling  system  and  procedures  to  facilitate  public 
involvement in compliance issues. 

There is limited information available about the progress 
made on the 2022 priority actions in relation to the ELD. 
The study supporting ELD evaluation revealed that, due to 
the country’s small size and the dominance of small and 
medium-sized  enterprises,  it  is  difficult  to  create  a 
national  market  for  financial  security  instruments,  as 
these  instruments  would  probably  be  too  costly.  The 
efforts  to  implement  other  2022  priority  actions  should 
continue along with implementation of the 2025 priority 
actions. 

2025 priority action 

• 

Encourage the use of training programmes provided 
by  the  Commission  (or  developed  at  the  national 
level) covering the ELD and its interactions with the 
other national liability-related instruments, to ensure 
more  efficient  ELD  implementation,  improve  the 
expertise  of  the  competent  authorities  and  raise 
awareness among all stakeholder groups. 

EU-supported environmental capacity building 

initiative 

The  Commission’s  2023  Compact (191) 
to 
enhance  the  administrative space  identifies  the  capacity 
to  lead  the  green  transition  as  one  of  three  key  pillars, 
along with the public administration skills agenda and the 
capacity  for  Europe’s  Digital  Decade.  Compact  also 
recognises the role of the EIR reporting tool in improving 
environmental  governance.  The  two  main  capacity-
building  opportunities  for  the  environment  provided  by 
the European Commission are the TSI (192) and the TAIEX-
EIR  PEER  2  PEER  tool (193).  The  technical  assistance 
available through the cohesion policy is subject to shared 
management and is not dealt with in this subsection. 

The Commission’s technical support instrument 

The  TSI  provides  Member  States  with  tailor-made 
technical expertise on the design and implementation of 

(191)  See 

the  European  Commission  web  page  on  Compact 
(https://reform-support.ec.europa.eu/public-administration-and-
governance-coordination/enhancing-european-administrative-
space-compact_en). 

(192)  See 

the  European  Commission  web  page  on 

the  TSI 

(https://commission.europa.eu/funding-tenders/find-
funding/eu-funding-programmes/technical-support-
instrument/technical-support-instrument-tsi_en). 

(193)  See the European Commission web page on the TAIEX-EIR PEER 2 
(https://environment.ec.europa.eu/law-and-

PEER 

tool 

Cyprus  50 

reforms.  The  support  is  demand  driven  and  does  not 
require national co-financing. 

The  TSI  had  annual  calls  in  2021,  2022,  2023,  2024  and 
2025.  The  following  environment-related  projects  have 
been selected for Cyprus: 

• 

• 

framework 

ESG (194)  risk  management 
for  the 
financial sector,  Securities and Exchange Commission 
(2023); 
Technical  support  for  floating  photovoltaics,  energy 
storage and offshore renewables in Cyprus,  Ministry 
of  Agriculture,  Rural  Development  and  Environment 
(MARDE) - Department of Environment - Ministry of 
Energy, Commerce and Industry (2023); 

•  Climate  adaptation:  Revision  and  update  of  Cyprus 
national  strategy  on  adaptation  to  climate  change,  
Ministry  of  Agriculture,  Rural  Development  and 
Environment (MARDE) - Department of Environment 
(2023); 
ESG integration in Cyprus government: A materiality 
analysis approach, Office of the Commissioner for the 
Environment (2024); 

• 

•  Reforming,  developing  and  enhancing  the  civil 

protection system, Civil Defence (2024); 

•  Water  losses  reduction  and  compliance  with  the 
Drinking  Water  Directive,  Ministry  of  Agriculture, 
Rural  Development  and  Environment 
-  Water 
Development Department (2025). 
Island Spatial Plan, Ministry of Interior, Department of 
Town Planning and Housing (2025). 

• 

The Commission’s TAIEX-EIR PEER 2 PEER tool 

The Commission launched the TAIEX-EIR PEER 2 PEER tool 
in 2017. It aims to facilitate peer-to-peer learning among 
Member  States’  environmental  authorities  through 
workshops  (single  or  multi-country),  expert  missions 
(where a  delegation of  experts travels to the requesting 
institution) and study visits (where a delegation from the 
requesting institution travels to a host country). Flagship 
multi-country  workshops  are  those  requested  by  the 
Commission to present new and upcoming environmental 
legislation and policy in all Member States (195). 

governance/environmental-implementation-review/peer-2-
peer_en). TAIEX: Technical Assistance and Information Exchange. 
(194) 
‘ESG’ here mean ‘environmental, social and governance’. 
(195)  Flagship  multi-country  workshops  in  the  reporting  period  are: 
Recast  Drinking    Water  Directive  (3  April  2025);  Environmental 
compliance  and  governance  (18  March  2025);  Planning  of 
Renewable  Energy  Projects  (20  February  2025);  Air  Quality: 
Implementation  of  the  revised  Air  Quality  Directive  (16  January 
2025); Industrial safety: awareness raising of emerging risks linked 
with climate change and decarbonation (12 December 2024); Air 

2025 Environmental Implementation Review – Cyprus 

 
 
 
 
Cyprus  was  involved  in  one  multi-country  workshop  on 
new  aspects  in  the  cross-border  cooperation  against 
environmental crime (Hungary, 19–20 November 2024). 

Cyprus  hosted  an  expert  mission  on  best  practice  in 
applying  Article 6(3)  of  the  Habitats  Directive  (25–
26 October 2022). 

2025 priority action 

• 

Improve overall national environmental governance, 
in  particular  administrative  capacity  to  support  the 
green transition and coordination at the regional and 
local levels. 

Cyprus  51 

quality: 
implementation  of  the  NEC  Directive  to  further 
mainstream  air  and  broader  pollution  reduction  in  agricultural 
policy  (25 September  2024);  Industrial  emissions  transposition 
and implementation of the revised directive (12 September 2024); 
Noise:  progress  towards  meeting  Member  States’  noise  limit 
values and EU reduction targets (5 June 2024); Best practice use 
of  environmental  footprint  methods  on  the  EU  market  (30 May 
2024);  Sustainable  finance  (9 November  2023);  Textile  waste 
separate collection, treatment and markets (3 October 2023); EU 
environmental  funding  and  support  (13 June  2023);  Advisory 

service for businesses to go circular (24 April 2023); Digital product 
passport implementation (6 December 2022); Public involvement 
in  planning  and  approval  of  renewable  energy  projects 
(17 November 2022); Environmental compliance and governance 
(14 November  2022);  Biowaste  management  (19–20 September 
2022); and  Renewable energy projects: permit granting processes 
(13 June 2022). NB: The first flagship workshop on zero pollution 
for air, water and soil took place 9 February 2022. 

2025 Environmental Implementation Review – Cyprus 

 
 
 
 
 
Cyprus  52 

Annex 

2025 priority actions 
Circular economy and waste management 
Circular economy 

•  Adopt measures to increase the circular material use rate. 
Waste management 

• 
Complete closure of non-compliant landfills. 
•  Ratify international conventions on ship recycling. 
• 

Improve separate collection at source e.g. through economic instruments, investing in 
infrastructure for separate collection, sorting and recycling, and increasing public awareness. 
Increase the recycling rates of packaging waste. 
Increase the collection and recycling rate of waste electronic and electric equipment (WEEE). 
Improve the system for managing the quality of data on packaging waste in order to build 
coherent and verifiable data sets. 
Invest in waste prevention measures to reduce the total amount of waste generated. 
Ensure the achievement of the 2025 waste targets, following the recommendations made by the 
Commission in the Early Warning Reports where applicable. 

Biodiversity and natural capital 
Nature protection and restoration – Natura 2000 

Complete the Natura 2000 site designation process. 
Finalise the establishment of site-specific conservation objectives and measures for all Natura 
2000 sites (including by adopting their management plans) and ensure their effective 
implementation. 
Ensure the effective implementation of Natura 2000 management plans and sufficient 
administrative capacity and financing both for Natura 2000 and the implementation of the Nature 
Restoration Regulation. Ensure implementation of Prioritised Actions Framework 2021-2027 
(PAFs). 

Recovery of species  

Strengthen the implementation of national anti-poaching measures. 

Recovery of ecosystems 
Implement eco-schemes and agri-environmental measures and practices to address the 
environmental needs of Cyprus. 
Implement and scale-up the uptake of organic farming practices. 

Prevention and management of invasive alien species  

Step up implementation of the IAS Regulation, including with regard to enforcement and capacity 
of inspection authorities. 

• 
• 
• 

• 
• 

• 
• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

Ecosystem assessment and accounting  
Support development of national business and biodiversity network.  

• 
•  Ratify the Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of 

Benefits Arising from their Utilization (ABS) to the Convention on Biological Diversity. 

Zero pollution 
Clean air 

•  As part of the NAPCP, take action towards reducing emissions of air pollutants. 
• 

Ensure full compliance with the current AAQD standards, also in light of future stricter 
requirements under the revised AAQD. 

Industrial emissions 

2025 Environmental Implementation Review – Cyprus 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Cyprus  53 

• 

• 

• 

• 

•  Reduce industrial air pollution damage and intensity. 
• 

Engage with industry and environmental NGOs to ensure proper contribution to and 
implementation of BAT conclusions; and ensure timely update of permits following publication of 
BAT conclusions. 
Ensure effective public participation and access to justice in relation with the IED. 

•  Complete and implement action plans on noise management. 

Water quality and management 

Noise 

Ensure periodic reviews of permits for discharges, abstractions and other water uses, including 
hydropower pressures. 
Tackle nutrients pollution, especially nitrates from agriculture through the implementation of the 
Nitrates Directive. 
Take the necessary measures to ensure full implementation of the current urban wastewater 
treatment directive, taking into account the new requirements of the recast directive. 

Chemicals 
•  Upgrade the administrative capacities in implementation and enforcement towards a policy of 

• 

• 

• 

zero tolerance for non-compliance. 
Increase involvement in the activities of the Forum for Exchange of Information on Enforcement of 
the European Chemicals Agency, including in the coordinated enforcement projects, called REFs. 
Increase customs controls and controls of products sold online with regard to compliance with 
chemicals legislations. 

Climate action 
Implement all polices and measures that are needed to achieve targets laid down in the Effort 
Sharing Regulation (ESR) and the Land Use and Land-Use Change and Forestry (LULUCF) 
Regulation. More detailed priority actions are set out in the assessment of the final National 
Energy and Climate Plan (NECP).  

Financing 

•  Use more national funding (including by increasing taxes in favour of the environment and 

reducing environmentally harmful subsidies), EU funding and private funding to help close the 
investment gap. 

• 

Environmental governance 
Information, public participation and access to justice 
•  Make spatial data more widely accessible and prioritise environmental datasets in implementing 
the Inspire Directive, especially those identified as high-value spatial datasets for implementing 
environmental legislation. 
Ensure that relevant information on EIA and SEA procedures (including on public participation 
opportunities and on publication of final decisions) is electronically accessible in a timely manner, 
through at least a central portal or easily accessible points of access, at the appropriate 
administrative level. 
Improve access to courts in national environmental cases by the public concerned and eliminate 
practical barriers, such as length of proceedings and excessive costs in some Member States. 
Compliance assurance  
Encourage the use of training programmes provided by the Commission (or developed at the 
national level) covering the ELD and its interactions with the other national liability related 
instruments, to ensure more efficient ELD implementation, improve the expertise of the 
competent authorities and raise awareness among all stakeholder groups. 
EU-supported environmental capacity building  
Improve overall national environmental governance, in particular administrative capacity to 
support the green transition and coordination at the regional and local levels. 

• 

• 

• 

2025 Environmental Implementation Review – Cyprus