Shaping learning and skills for Europe : a time for commitment.
Date: 2025-06-20
Institutions: Cedefop
Subjects: continuing education, cooperation in the field of education, digital literacy, labour market, learning, professional qualifications, vocational education, vocational training, worker adaptability

Shaping learning 
and skills for Europe
A time for commitment

Please cite this publication as:
Cedefop. (2025). Shaping learning and skills for Europe: a time for  
commitment. Publications Office of the European Union.  
http://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2801/2783450

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Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2025

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Shaping learning and  
skills for Europe: a time for 
commitment

Contents  

CONTENTS 

  .................................................................................................. 2 

INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................. 3 

CHAPTER 1.  THE NEW STRATEGIC LANDSCAPE ...................................... 5 
1.1.  A three-pronged challenge ........................................................ 5 

1.2.  A brighter but disorderly scenario .............................................. 7 

1.3.  Making the most of Europeans’ potential ................................... 9 

CHAPTER 2.  WHERE WE ARE ..................................................................... 12 
2.1.  VET and skills in the EU at a glance ........................................ 12 

2.2.  On the way to Herning ............................................................. 17 

CHAPTER 3.  NAVIGATING THE EVOLVING LANDSCAPE ......................... 21 
3.1.  An EU skills intelligence infrastructure ..................................... 21 

3.2.  Reimagining adult skills development ...................................... 24 

3.3.  Making individuals’ learning outcomes visible and valued ....... 27 

CHAPTER 4.  BEYOND THE HORIZON: FIVE (WISHFUL THINKING) 

POINTS OF FOCUS FOR POLICY DEVELOPMENT ............. 30 

4.1.  Empowering autonomous and proactive skills development       

(accessibility) ........................................................................... 30 

4.2.  Fostering engagement and diversity (inclusion) ....................... 31 

4.3.  Ensuring quality across diverse qualifications and credentials 

(quality) ................................................................................... 32 

4.4.  Supporting lifelong and lifewide skills development 

 (innovation) ............................................................................ 33 

4.5.  Moving beyond the academic-vocational divide  

(attractiveness) ........................................................................ 34 

CHAPTER 5.  A TIME FOR COMMITMENT ................................................... 36 

2 

 
 
Introduction 

This document is a sequel to the discussion paper released in 2020 (1) to inform 
the Osnabrück declaration for vocational education and training (VET) and outline 
challenges and opportunities for VET up to 2030, which largely remain valid today. 
Nevertheless,  five  years  later,  as  European  VET  prepares  for  the  new  Herning 
Declaration,  it  is  time  for  an  update.  Cedefop  uses  the  opportunity  of  its  50th 
anniversary  to  revisit  the  challenges  and  opportunities  identified  in  2020, 
strategically reflecting on what they mean for shaping learning and skills for Europe 
today.  

Since 1975, Cedefop has provided evidence to support a common EU VET 
policy and conducted research and analysis to map trends in vocational training. 
Over  time,  work  on  comparing  VET  qualifications  shifted  from  input-  and  job 
description-based approaches to approaches that focus on outputs and learning 
outcomes.  Alongside  expanding  work  on  qualifications  and  qualifications 
frameworks,  there  has  been  an  increased  emphasis  on  mapping  labour  market 
needs and skills trends.  

In the past decade, Cedefop has increasingly focused on providing evidence 
to support the labour market relevance of VET, its attractiveness, and the factors 
and  tools that  promote  excellence  and  inclusion. More  recently,  and for the  first 
time  systematically  in  the  2020  discussion  paper,  Cedefop  has  placed  much 
greater  emphasis  on  the  importance  of  accessible,  inclusive  and  effective  adult 
learning and training systems. 

The  twin  transition,  demographic  challenges,  and  accelerating  and  partly 
uncertain  technological  and  societal  changes  make  it  difficult  to  address  the 
multidimensional,  complex,  and  continuously  evolving  skills  challenges  and 
mismatches  Europe  faces.  The  skill  needs  are  immense.  Cedefop  skills 
intelligence  consistently highlights  severe  skills  bottlenecks  and  reveals that  not 
enough people have the skills required to shape and upscale the green transition. 
landscape, 
characterises the state of play of VET and skills using the latest statistical evidence 
and  skills  intelligence,  and  offers  ideas  on  how  best  to  navigate  this  evolving 
landscape. It outlines what is needed to address the skills challenge, reinvent adult 

This  paper  provides  an  overview  of 

the  new  strategic 

(1)  Cedefop, & ETF. (2020). The importance of being vocational: challenges and 
opportunities for VET in the next decade: Cedefop and ETF discussion paper. 
Publications Office of the European Union.  

3 

 
 
 
skills  development,  and  value  all  skills  and  learning.  Finally,  it  identifies  five 
overarching areas for policy innovation.  

Throughout  the  paper,  we  emphasize  the  crucial  need  for  Europe  to  move 
beyond thinking in policy silos and to integrate skills development and matching 
across employment, education, innovation, competitiveness, migration, and other 
policy domains. Vocational education and training and skills should become part 
of the backbone of most, if not all, EU and national policies. To signal the change 
in  mindset  this  requires,  we  introduce  the  term  VET  and  skills  development,  or 
VET-S policies. 

This  transition  from  VET  to  VET-S  policies  reflects  the  evolving  nature  of 
learning.  The  addition  of  ‘S’  for  ‘skills  development’  explicitly  acknowledges  the 
wider range of adult learning needs, beyond those seeking a specific vocational 
qualification. It also aligns with the growing need for individuals to adapt and reskill 
continuously  throughout  their  careers.  Further,  it  resonates  more  strongly  with 
individual  learners,  highlighting  the  personal  and  professional  benefits  of 
continuous growth and adaptability. This shifts the focus from simply obtaining a 
certificate  to  the  broader  goal  of  enhancing  their  capabilities  and  potential.  This 
forward-thinking terminology positions VET-S policies as relevant and responsive 
to the evolving demands of the labour market and individual development. 

4 

CHAPTER 1. 
The new strategic landscape 

1.1.  A three-pronged challenge 

Compared  to  the  previous  policy  cycle,  Europe  must  now  reframe  its  skills  and 
vocational  training  policies,  placing  greater  emphasis  on  addressing  the  key 
challenges of productivity, equality, and strategic autonomy. 

More jobs is not enough 
The Draghi report has given a renewed push to the European productivity agenda, 
highlighting  the  urgent  need  to  address  Europe's  declining  competitiveness, 
primarily due to low investment and productivity growth. Productivity growth in the 
EU  has  been  trending  downwards  for  decades  and  has  remained  below  1%  in 
recent years – a significant decline from the 1.8% rate observed before the Great 
Financial Crisis of 2007-08. 

While  the  EU  is  on  track  to  meet  its  employment  target,  this  productivity 
slowdown  underscores  the  risk  of  a  low-skills  equilibrium  trapping  many  EU 
regions  and  sectors.  This  self-reinforcing  cycle  occurs  when  companies  in  low-
productivity sectors invest less in training and upskilling their workforce. Workers 
with limited skills are confined to low-wage jobs with few opportunities for career 
progression. Consequently, the concentration of workers in low-productivity jobs 
and the lack of investment in learning perpetuate weak overall productivity growth.  
As a result, low-wage work is more prevalent in Europe than the average in 
OECD countries, with a progressively widening gap – from +0.4 percentage points 
in 2014 to +1.8 percentage points in 2022 (2). In fact, even in a year of employment 
growth like 2022, the share of working poor increased suggesting that creating jobs 
is not enough, and more refined, targeted policies are necessary. 

From price to skills competition 

Low productivity growth and rising inequality are closely interconnected. The 
‘low-skills trap’ directly contributes to inequality by limiting upward mobility for low-
skilled workers, while a broader decline in productivity worsens these disparities. 
Slower  productivity  growth  leads  to  stagnant  wages  for  many  workers,  as 
businesses  are  less  inclined  to  offer  significant  wage  increases.  It  also  creates 
unequal  opportunities  of  professional  development,  particularly  for  those  in  low-

(2)  OECD. (2024). Data explorer. Distribution of earnings database. 

5 

 
 
skill jobs. Since new technologies tend to favour higher-skilled workers, skill gaps 
prevent  businesses from  effectively  adopting  and  spreading these technologies, 
while widening the wage gap between skilled and unskilled workers. Moreover, as 
economic growth slows, governments may face pressure to cut social spending, 
training  programmes.  This 
including 
disproportionately affects low-income earners, further widening the gap.  

in  education  and 

investments 

While  Europe  performs  comparatively  well  in  education  and  training,  a 
significant  share  of  its  population  does  not  hold  at  least  an  upper  secondary 
degree,  while  almost  half  of  the  adult  population  potentially  needs  upskilling  or 
reskilling. The employment rate gap for low-skilled individuals shows no signs of 
narrowing over time and, in fact, reached a record high in 2024. It stands at nearly 
44 percentage  points  compared  to  the  population  with  high  qualifications,  and 
26 percentage  points  compared  to  those  with  intermediate  qualifications.  Poor 
employment  outcomes  and  career  prospects  for this  group  are major  causes  of 
low productivity and wage inequality.  

In  the  context  of  skill  gaps  and  shortages,  investing  in  skills  development 
through further education, work-based learning and continuing training for adults 
can yield significant returns. However, the infrastructure for continuing VET (CVET) 
and skills development is insufficient in many Member States. 

Skills for strategic resilience 
The new geopolitical landscape also necessitates a renewed emphasis on skills 
development and matching. Europe's economic resilience, essential for navigating 
global  uncertainties,  has  been  severely  tested.  This  crisis  has  revealed  the 
vulnerabilities of a growth model heavily reliant on non-high-tech sectors, low-cost 
energy supply, and global supply chains. Moving away from this model, combined 
with  the  accelerated  restructuring  of  the  European  economy  and  the  rapid 
emergence of certain tech sectors, presents significant new challenges to the EU's 
long-term competitiveness. 

The  European  economy  can  no  longer  rely  on  expansionary  international 
trade. As countries prioritise domestic industries, the rise of protectionist policies 
will  further  disrupt  global  trade  and  reduce  economic  opportunities  for  EU 
industries. This will affect the demand for certain skills and require adjustments in 
education  and  training  programmes  to  meet  evolving  industry  needs.  The 
persistently high vacancy rate across the EU highlights the urgent need to equip 
the  workforce  with  the  skills  required  to  succeed  in  this  new  economic  reality. 
Addressing  these  challenges  will  help  avoid  a  low-skills  equilibrium  and  ensure 
inclusive and sustainable growth. 

6 

In  this  context,  going  against  the  prevailing  winds  of  protectionism,  Europe 
has  an  opportunity  to  promote  international  mobility  of  talent  and  streamline 
pathways for skilled individuals, actively seeking and welcoming the diverse skills 
required to fuel innovation, productivity, and growth. 

1.2.  A brighter but disorderly scenario 

The EU has the potential to lead in green technologies, artificial intelligence, and 
digital  innovation.  A  renewed  ‘triple  D’  strategy  –  namely,  digitalise  and 
decarbonise the economy and increase defence capacity – could drive economic 
growth,  create  quality  jobs,  and  boost  productivity.  While  expectations  from  AI 
adoption,  lower  risks  related  to  energy  supply,  and  the  possibility  of  further 
monetary easing suggest stronger medium-term growth, significant uncertainties 
lie ahead for Europe. 

Green transition challenges 
A greener Union has clear potential to enhance the EU’s resilience and security. 
Focusing on sustainability could lead to a more resilient and competitive economy, 
while  addressing  climate  change  and  environmental  concerns.  This  forms  an 
essential basis of Europe's so-called open strategic autonomy (OSA). Diversifying 
energy sources and improving energy efficiency are crucial to moving away from 
fossil  fuel  dependence  and  reducing  vulnerability  to  energy  price  shocks, 
integrating  security  and  environmental  considerations.  However,  prospective 
scenarios  include  both  orderly  and  disorderly  transition  pathways.  Rising 
geopolitical  tensions  have  made  the  transition  trajectory  more  turbulent,  with 
growing political fragmentation and lower commitments from some countries. As a 
result,  despite  accelerating  climate  change,  the  road  to  net  zero  appears  more 
challenging for many Member States. Geopolitical tensions are pushing countries 
to  focus  increasingly  on  domestic  issues,  while  fiscal  stagnation  may  limit  the 
resources needed for climate financing. 

In this context, the green transition, while offering opportunities for economic 
growth  and  job  creation,  presents  significant  challenges.  It  requires  navigating 
trade-offs,  such  as  balancing  short-term  economic  growth  with 
complex 
environmental protection and minimising geopolitical risks. The costs and benefits 
of the green transition are unevenly distributed across regions and sectors, further 
complicating the policy landscape. In any case, greening the economy demands a 
substantial shift in the skills of the European workforce. While market forces play 
a role, a successful green transition depends significantly on proactive government 
policies and the commitment of EU countries to energy and environmental goals. 

7 

It requires both a stable and predictable regulatory environment (foundation), and 
a  comprehensive  upskilling  and  reskilling  strategy  (enabler).  Employers  have  a 
stronger role in defining the demand for skills and learning, while learning providers 
need better support to understand and meet the employers’ evolving skill needs. 
Equipping  individuals  with  specialised  knowledge  and  practical  abilities  requires 
significant investment and reforms in skills, education, and training policy. 

Digital transformation gains momentum 
Emerging  technologies  can  drive  productivity  growth  in  Europe.  Although 
comprehensive data on generative AI investment are limited, available evidence 
suggests  a  significant  gap  between  the  EU  and  the  US,  with  EU  organisations 
lagging  by  an  estimated  40-50 %.  The  latest  AI  Index  report  estimates  that, 
between  2013  and  2023,  private  investment  in  artificial  intelligence  in  the  EU 
amounted to only a fifth of that in China and a tenth of that in the United States, a 
gap  which  appears  to  be  widening.  If  this  trend  continues,  it  could  irreversibly 
undermine  the  European  innovation  system,  jeopardising  EU  productivity  and 
growth.  Historically,  EU  policy  responses  may  have  prioritised  technological 
infrastructure development, but paid insufficient attention to critical investments in 
workforce skills,  effective  management  practices,  and  other  essential  factors  for 
successfully adopting digital technology in workplaces. 

Analysing  the  relationship  between  digitalisation  and  evolving  skillsets  in 
European  workplaces  reveals  both  the  potential  of  digital  technologies  to  boost 
productivity  and  the  risks  of  labour  market  disruption  and  skills  mismatches. 
Predictably, introducing new technologies often faces resistance from individuals 
and organisations, particularly from employees concerned about job displacement 
or  lacking  the  necessary  skills.  Smaller  organisations  may  struggle  more  with 
adopting emerging technologies due to limited financial and managerial resources 
and a shortage of digitally skilled employees. Investing in complementary areas, 
such as upskilling and reskilling programmes, is therefore vital for a human-centric 
digital transition. A lack of skilled workforce and significant skill gaps will not only 
hinder  the  success  of  the  digital  transition  but  also  lead  to  a  suboptimal  and 
potentially disruptive digital transformation process. 

Europe's demographic crossroads 
Evidence shows that EU countries in the final phase of the demographic transition 
tend  to  fall  below  the  replacement  level,  forecasting  a  scenario  of  chronically 
insufficient generational renewal. Despite the negative natural balance, the EU's 
working-age  population  has  so  far  been  supported  by  greater  labour  market 
participation by older workers and women and, importantly, by the contribution of 

8 

immigration,  including  the  significant  arrival  of  refugees  from  Ukraine  in  recent 
years. 

However, current trends will not be enough to compensate for the decline in 
the  working-age  population  in  the  medium  and  long  term.  In  addition,  despite 
recent progress made at the EU level, political uncertainty may reduce the potential 
role of migration in the future. The growing demand for migration governance that 
ensures  certainty,  regularity  and  order  is  difficult  to  reconcile  with  managing 
migration flows, which are complex, mixed and constantly evolving. As migration 
policies  may  become  more  restrictive,  the  global  competition  to  attract  talent  is 
intensifying,  fuelled  by  labour  and  skill  shortages  in  many  advanced  mature 
economies. This global phenomenon, combined with increasing intellectual labour 
mobility  within  the  Union,  can  generate  a  talent  development  trap  in  many 
European regions and dramatically increase interregional disparities. 

All  of  this  makes  even  it  more  crucial  to  generate  social  wellbeing  and 
economic  development  on  new  foundations  compared  to  the  past,  focusing 
especially  on  the  quality  of  work  and  the  valorisation  of  human  capital  in 
combination with the use of new technologies. 

1.3.  Making the most of Europeans’ potential 

There is widespread agreement across the EU that public policy focusing on skills 
and  vocational  learning  is  vital  for  the  Union.  Labour  shortages  and  skill  gaps 
across  the  EU  pose  a  significant  challenge,  hindering  companies’  productivity, 
innovation,  and  competitiveness.  This  ultimately  affects  the  EU's  sustainable 
growth. Several recent EU policy documents emphasise the need for a major shift 
in approach and increased investment in skills to tackle this challenge effectively. 

European consensus on skills development 
In  early  2024,  the  European  Commission  released  a  new  Communication  on 
labour  and  skill  shortages  in  the  EU  in  the  form  of  an  action  plan.  This  plan 
advocates  for  concerted  action  and  outlines  several  measures,  including  skills 
policies,  working  conditions,  intra-EU mobility,  and  attracting talent from  outside 
the EU. In the political guidelines presented in July 2024, European Commission 
President  Ursula  von  der  Leyen  called  for  a  radical  increase  in  efforts  to  boost 
investment  in  skills  and  tackle  labour  and  skill  shortages.  The  Union  of  Skills, 
launched  in  March  2025,  signals  ambition  and  determination  to  improve  EU 
education,  training,  and  lifelong  learning  in  the  coming  years.  These  policy 
priorities  are  reflected  in  the  mandate  of  the  new  Executive  Vice-President  for 
People,  Skills  and  Preparedness,  which  emphasises  the  need  to  address  skill 

9 

gaps. The mandate also includes a skills portability initiative and the development 
of  large-scale  partnerships  to  upskill  and  reskill  workers  in  key  industrial 
ecosystems. 

In  2024,  the  Letta  report  on  the  single  market  and  the  Draghi  report  on 
competitiveness  uncovered  structural  weaknesses  in  the  EU  economy,  putting 
labour shortages and skill gaps in the spotlight. Letta’s report views investment in 
skills as a core driver of knowledge creation and innovation. It calls for European 
programmes to enhance basic skills, digital skills, and literacy, which are essential 
to empower citizens to participate fully in the knowledge economy. Draghi’s report 
includes  a  comprehensive  section  on  the  role  of  learning  and  skills  policy  in 
fostering European competitiveness. It details the shortcomings of current policies 
and  calls  for  improved  data  gathering  and  intelligence,  curriculum  revision, 
certification  harmonisation,  VET  systems  reform,  and  increased  investment  in 
adult learning. 

The  Draghi  Report  also  makes  it  clear  that  skills  policies  and  industrial 
strategy  are  two  sides  of  the  same  coin.  For  the  EU  to  achieve  its  industrial 
ambitions, it must prioritise investment in developing a skilled workforce, equipped 
to  drive  innovation  and  growth  in  key  areas  such  as  advanced  technologies, 
renewable  energy,  and  digital  transformation.  Aligning  education  and  training 
systems  with  industry  needs  will  require  new  and  stronger  approaches  to 
stakeholder  cooperation,  particularly  social  dialogue  between  employer  and 
employee organisations. 

While  offering  broad  support,  the  Draghi  report  faces  challenges  in 
implementation due to fragmentation and uncertain political consensus. The report 
highlights  the  strong  link  between  VET  and  skills  development  policies  (VET-S) 
and structural, regulatory and governance reforms needed to encourage business 
innovation and address productivity growth. These policies will not succeed without 
changes to VET-S policies that anticipate and meet the evolving needs of the future 
workforce. 

A renewed vision for learning and skills in Europe 
The good news is that there are several areas of VET-S systems where the EU 
Member  States  perform  well.  In  the  EU,  the  proportion  of  young  people  who 
achieve at least upper secondary education is higher than the average in OECD 
countries,  and  European  universities  are  generally  of  high  quality.  Focusing  on 
initial VET, latest data show that students enrolled in upper secondary vocational 
education in the EU remain stable around 50% of all upper secondary students, 
indicating the continued popularity of vocational pathways. Over 70% of students 
in initial vocational education and training (IVET) are enrolled in programmes that 

10 

allow direct access to tertiary education, demonstrating that IVET is no longer a 
dead-end learning pathway. 

In  contrast,  there  is  still a  significant  gap  in  continuing  VET  and  adult  skills 
development  in  many  EU  Member  States.  Despite  an  increase  in  employer-
sponsored training, demand for CVET falls short of its potential, often focusing on 
mandatory training rather than addressing emerging skill needs. To make matters 
worse,  participation  in  learning  among  those  not  employed  or  not  supported  by 
their employers is even lower. Uneven participation of adults in skills development 
activities  further  exacerbates  the  issue,  with  individuals  with  lower  educational 
attainment  and  those  from  disadvantaged  backgrounds  often  missing  out  on 
crucial learning opportunities in adulthood. This is particularly concerning, not only 
because  almost  half  of  European  adults  are  estimated  to  have  low  or  outdated 
skills, but also because the value and labour market advantages of IVET depend 
crucially on the existence of well-functioning CVET and adult learning systems. 

The  EU's  current  strategy  on  VET  clearly  emphasises  the  need  for  a  more 
systematic  approach  to  skills  development  for  all  adults  across  Member  States. 
However, while the aspiration of 'making lifelong learning a reality' has long been 
voiced, simply aiming for this goal is no longer enough. We must now move beyond 
ambition into action, and actively re-examine what constitutes lifelong learning in 
today's world, finding new and innovative ways to truly integrate it into the evolving 
reality of our societies. This is perhaps the most important challenge in view of the 
forthcoming policy cycle. 

To support innovative, targeted, and even unconventional policies, we need 
to  pinpoint  where  we  are  on  track,  what  needs  attention,  and  where  Europe  is 
falling behind. 

11 

CHAPTER 2. 
Where we are 

2.1.  VET and skills in the EU at a glance 

Reflecting  the  EU's  policy  focus  and  targets,  Cedefop's  analysis  draws  on  its 
comprehensive  and  systematic  VET  data  monitoring  to  provide  insights  into  the 
current landscape of skills development across the EU. 

A shifting skills landscape 
The European labour market is undergoing rapid transformation, with increasing 
demand for a more skilled workforce expected in the coming decade. Employment 
in  knowledge-intensive  activities  reached  37%  of  total  employment  in  2023. 
According  to  Cedefop  skills  forecasts,  employment  for  individuals  with  tertiary 
qualifications is expected to rise by a further 21% between 2025 and 2035, while 
the  number  of  individuals  with  medium-level  qualifications  in  employment  will 
remain largely stable, with a slight drop of about 1%. As a result, by 2035, fewer 
than 10% of the employed population will be low-qualified. 

In line with these trends, the number of individuals in highly skilled occupations 
such  as  managers,  professionals  and  technicians,  is  expected  to  grow  by  10%, 
compared to smaller or negative changes in other occupational groups. The trend 
towards  a  service-based  economy  in  the  labour  market  will  also  continue,  with 
tertiary sectors projected to account for over three-quarters of total employment. 

Mixed progress in education and training against EU targets 
The EU is making progress in increasing attendance in early childhood education 
and  care.  While  participation  for  children  aged  three  to  the  starting  age  of 
compulsory education is expected to grow, it is projected to fall slightly short of its 
2030 target of 96%. Major concerns exist regarding the basic skills of 15-year-old 
students.  The  share  of  low  achievers  in  reading,  mathematics,  and  science  is 
significantly above the 2030 target of less than 15%, and showing an unfavourable 
upward trend. 

More  positive  trends  are  observed  in  engagement  with  and  attainment  of, 
initial education. The share of early leavers from education and training is declining 
and is projected to meet the 2030 target of less than 9%. Similarly, the share of 
25- to 34-year-olds with tertiary educational is increasing and is also projected to 
meet and exceed the 2030 target of at least 45%. NEET rates for young people 
are also showing favourable progress and are projected to meet the 2030 target of 

12 

 
less  than  9%.  In  contrast,  while  the  employment  rate  for  20-  to  64-year-olds  is 
increasing and is projected to meet the 2030 target of 78%, the share of adults with 
at least basic digital skills is significantly below the 2025 (70%) and 2030 (80%) 
targets, with current progress suggesting a considerable shortfall.  

IVET plays a vital role, particularly at upper secondary level 
Initial  VET  (IVET) remains  essential  for  keeping  young  people  in  education  and 
training,  raising  their  skills,  and  enabling  transitions  to  further  learning  and 
employment. Thanks to support policies in many European countries, about half of 
all upper secondary students participate in IVET, with minimal changes since 2015. 
In  2022,  around  9  million  students  were  enrolled  in  IVET.  However,  significant 
differences persist across countries and genders, with female participation notably 
lower. 

IVET  is  also  almost  exclusive  present  in  post-secondary  non-tertiary  and 
short-cycle  tertiary  education,  although  the  absolute  numbers  are  considerably 
lower than at the upper secondary level. At these levels, enrolment trends have 
seen minor changes since 2015, and participation remains concentrated in a few 
countries. Short-cycle tertiary VET students make up a small but significant share 
(around 7.5% in 2022) of all tertiary education students (3). 

Increasingly international and work-based IVET 
Cross-border mobility of IVET learners is increasing, although the average number 
of  foreign  languages  learned  by  VET  students  remains  lower  than  that  of  their 
counterparts in general education. Provisional estimates indicate that the 5.1% of 
IVET learners with learning mobility abroad reached in 2022 is still below the 2025 
target of 8% (and the 2030 target of 12%). However, current projections suggest 
these targets are not out of reach. 

Work-based learning has become a structural element of IVET systems, with 
nearly  one-third  of  enterprises  with  10  or  more  employees  relying  on 
apprenticeships  in  2020.  The  EU  target  of  60%  of  recent  VET  graduates 
experiencing  work-based  learning  by  2025  was  already  exceeded  in  2023, 
reaching  64.5%.  However,  considerable  cross-country  variations  persist  in  the 
prevalence  and  characteristics  of  work-based  learning.  Research  suggests  that 
structured  work-based  learning  of  longer  duration,  with  pay  and  mandatory 
curriculum  inclusion,  leads  to  better  employment  outcomes (4).  A more  exacting 

(3)  Serafini, S., & Soares Marques, M. (2025). What is new in IVET? Key pointers from 

statistics. Cedefop data insights. 

(4)  Cedefop  (2021).  The  role  of  work-based  learning  in  VET  and  tertiary  education. 

Publications Office of the European Union. Cedefop research paper, 80.  

13 

 
definition of work-based learning, requiring at least 25% of the curriculum to take 
place  outside the  school  environment,  estimates that  only  around  30%  of  upper 
secondary VET students were enrolled in such programmes in 2022 (5).  

IVET provides skills for the labour market, but imbalances persist 
IVET continues to provide skills across the labour market, including STEM fields. 
In 2022, almost half of all upper secondary graduates in the EU earned a vocational 
qualification. Significant proportions graduated in engineering, manufacturing, and 
construction (33%), business, administration and law (18%), and personal services 
(15%).  STEM-related  graduates made  up  around  39%  of  upper  secondary  VET 
graduates. However, the share of IVET graduates in ICT remains comparatively 
low  (less  than  5%),  while  significant  gender  imbalances  persist,  particularly  in 
STEM  subjects.  Females  are  underrepresented  in  engineering  trades  (7%)  and 
ICT (12%) but overrepresented in health and welfare fields (over 80%) (6). 

IVET  provides  increasing  access  to  further  learning,  and  is  good  for 
employability 
In  2022,  most  upper  secondary  IVET  students  in  the  EU  were  enrolled  in 
programmes  granting  direct  access  to  tertiary  education  (73%).  However,  only 
around 38% of recent graduates with a medium-level vocational qualification were 
in further formal education or training in 2023, compared to 82% of graduates with 
a  medium-level  general  qualification.  In  addition,  recent  VET  graduates  enjoy 
favourable employment rates. The employment rate of recent VET graduates not 
in  further  education  and  training  was  estimated  at  81.0%  in  2023,  showing  a 
positive trend towards meeting the 2025 target of 82%. This is significantly higher 
(13.4 percentage points) than that of recent graduates from general education who 
are  not  in  further  education  or  training.  Although  IVET  generally  leads  to  better 
employment  outcomes  across  most  EU  Member  States,  the  extent  of  this 
advantage varies, with a few countries showing a negative difference. 

Adults with medium-level vocational qualifications as their highest educational 
degree  also  have  a  favourable  employment  rate  (78.2%  in  2023),  compared  to 
those  with  medium-level  general  qualifications  or  low  educational  attainment 
(64.4% and 58.3% respectively). This already exceeds the overall 2023 average 
employment rate for 20- to 64-year-olds (75.3%) and the 2030 target for the overall 
employment  rate  of  20-  to  64-year-olds,  regardless  of  educational  attainment 

(5)  Serafini, S., & Soares Marques, M. (2025). What is new in IVET? Key pointers from 

statistics. Cedefop data insights.  

(6)  Serafini, S., & Soares Marques, M. (2025). What is new in IVET? Key pointers from 

statistics. Cedefop data insights. 

14 

 
(78%). Despite these positive outcomes, the public image of upper secondary IVET 
remains less favourable compared to general education at the same level (7). 

Challenges in achieving adult learning participation targets 
While participation rates in the past four weeks showed more favourable progress 
between  2021  and  2023,  new  indicators  and  targets  for  the  post-2020  period 
present a complex picture. Based on the EU Labour Force Survey (LFS), the 2022 
participation rate in adult learning (in the previous 12 months) was around 25%, 
significantly below the 2025 and 2030 targets. However, the 2022 Adult Education 
Survey  (AES)  indicates  a  considerably  higher  participation  rate  of  39.5%  when 
excluding guided on-the-job training, and 46.6% when including it, the latter being 
close to the 2025 target (8). 

Although current measurement methods present some ambiguities that need 
clarification,  it  is  evident  is  that  despite  the  increase  observed  in  the  AES  data 
(excluding guided on-the-job training) since 2016, current trends suggest that the 
EU  will  likely  fall  short  of  its  2025  and  2030  targets.  Similar  challenges  are 
expected in increasing participation among low-qualified and unemployed adults.  
Participation  in  adult  education  and  training  remains  predominantly  non-
formal, job-related, and employer-sponsored (9). Employer-sponsored job-related 
non-formal training is estimated to account for around 80% of total adult learning 
participation.  Data  on  employer-sponsored  training  from  the  2020  Continuing 
Vocational Training Survey (CVTS) suggest resilience to the COVID-19 pandemic 
but  do  not  indicate  an  expansion  of  CVT  activities.  However,  other  forms  of 
employer-sponsored  CVT  –  besides  formal  courses  –  are  now  more  common, 
including guided on-the-job training and self-directed learning. Online learning is 
also becoming increasingly frequent among adults. 

Inequalities and barriers persist in the participation of adults in learning 
Significant inequalities in adult learning participation exist across a wide range of 
factors,  including  age,  educational  attainment,  employment  status,  vocational 
orientation, occupation, sector, enterprise size, and degree of urbanisation. 

Both employer and individuals face obstacles that hinder greater participation 
in adult learning. Based on CVTS data, when employers identify skill gaps in their 

(7)  See footnote 5.  

(8)  Bainbridge, S., & Serafini, M. (2024). Measuring participation in adult learning: new 

targets, methods and data. Cedefop data insights.  

(9)  Cedefop. (2025.). Statistics: key indicators on VET. [Online tool]; Cedefop. (2015). 
Job-related adult learning and continuing vocational training in Europe: a statistical 
picture. Cedefop research paper, 48. Publications Office of the European Union 

15 

 
workforce, they often prefer recruiting new staff or relying on apprenticeships rather 
than sponsoring continuing vocational training. Employers report several obstacles 
to training, the most frequent being high workload, lack of time for staff, and the 
costs  of  CVT  courses.  From  the  individual  perspective,  AES  data  show that the 
most common reasons for not participating in desired adult education and training 
are schedule conflicts, family responsibilities, and costs. 

In  this  context,  guidance  for  adult  learning  plays  an  important  role. 
Approximately one-fifth of adults in the EU received guidance for adult learning in 
the year before the 2022 AES survey, with considerable variation across countries 
and socioeconomic groups. Preliminary analysis suggests that participation rates 
in  adult  learning  are  significantly  higher  among  those  who  received  guidance. 
These data confirm findings from the Cedefop 2019 survey on adult learning and 
CVET, which showed that a large majority of adults in the EU agreed that more 
information and guidance would encourage participation in work-related training. 

Employers prioritise technical and job-specific skills 
When  asked  about  the  most  important  skills  for  their  enterprises'  future 
development,  employers  largely  highlight  technical,  practical,  and  job-specific 
skills.  These  are  the  skills  most  frequently  identified  by  enterprises  (43.2%, 
according to the 2020 CVST data).  

General  and  transversal  skills  such  as  teamwork  (41.9%)  and  customer 
handling  (36.5%)  are  also  considered  important.  Less  frequently  mentioned, 
though  still  significant,  are  problem-solving  skills  (25.2%),  management  skills 
(23.1%)  and  IT  skills,  either  general  (21.5%)  or  professional  (13%).  Office 
administration and foreign languages skills are much less frequently cited, ranging 
between 8% and 10%. It is also worth noting that a significant portion of training 
focuses on obligatory courses, such as health and safety at work (26.3% of total 
training hours in CVT courses). 

The low priority businesses give to oral and written communication, alongside 
numeracy and literacy skills, when deciding on training provision confirms the need 
to strengthen the role of public policies to develop key competences. In contrast, 
addressing the importance, variety, and rapid changes in technical, practical, and 
job-specific  skill  requirements  poses  a  challenge  for  both  initial  and  continuing 
education  and  training  systems.  While  making  IVET  more  responsive  remains 
important,  these  challenges  can  only  be  fully  addressed  through  more  flexible 
work-based and on-the-job learning elements. 

16 

2.2.  On the way to Herning 

Building on the momentum of the 2020 Council Recommendation on VET and the 
Osnabrück  Declaration (10),  Cedefop's  ongoing  monitoring  of  the  Copenhagen 
Process across the EU-27+ (11) reveals tangible progress in realising the European 
priorities  for  VET.  Cedefop's  analysis  shows  that,  since  2020,  leveraging  prior 
reforms and new measures outlined in the national implementation plans on VET 
(NIPs), countries have made significant advancements (12), notably in aligning VET 
with labour market demands, tailoring individual learning pathways, and expanding 
lifelong learning opportunities. 

Key positive trends include (13): 

(a)  Curriculum  reforms  and  modernisation.  Many  countries  have  updated  their 
VET  standards  and  curricula  and  introduced  new  VET  programmes 
incorporating  emerging  technologies  and  green  and  digital  skills.  Some 
from  narrow,  task-specific  curricula  and 
countries  are  moving  away 
programmes, reflecting the need for wider skillsets in the labour market. 
(b)  Skills intelligence. Some countries have started developing national systems 
of  skills  intelligence,  which,  in  the  future,  will  inform,  among  others,  the 
modernisation of VET curricula and standards. 

(c)  Expanding work-based learning. Strengthening apprenticeships, other work-
based learning models, and workplace learning is seen as crucial for bridging 
education and employment. 

(d)  Establishing 

flexible  and  modular 

learning.  More  countries  are  now 
training  programmes,  and 
implementing  microcredentials,  modular 
recognition of prior learning to enhance learning flexibility and attractiveness 
from  a  lifelong  learning  perspective.  Countries  are  offering  learners  the 
possibility  to  vary  the  duration  and  workload  in  line  with  their  abilities  and 
needs or to increase choice by offering electives (i.e. elective units/modules 
or subjects). 
Investing in VET infrastructure and promoting benefits of VET. Governments 
have been modernising VET facilities to ensure access to he most up-to-date 
infrastructure,  promoting  VET  careers  through  success  stories,  and  career 

(e) 

(10)  Cedefop.  (2024). Moving  towards  common  policy  goals  and  aligned  progress 

reporting. Publications Office of the European Union.  

(11)  EU Member States, plus Norway and Iceland. 

(12)  Cedefop. (2024). Vocational education and training policy briefs 2023: National policy 

developments in vocational education and training.  

(13)  Cedefop, & ReferNet. (2025). Timeline of VET policies in Europe. 

17 

 
fairs,  and  encouraging  participation  in  national  and  international  skills 
competitions. 

(f)  Strengthening partnerships among VET stakeholders. National, regional and 
local  governments,  social  partners,  VET  providers,  and  experts  are 
increasingly involved in shaping and implementing VET policies. 

(g)  Supporting lifelong learning. Almost all EU-27+ countries continue to provide 
financial  and  non-financial  support  for  participation  in  CVET,  reskilling  and 
upskilling.  They  are  also  developing  short-term  training  programmes  for 
various  learner  groups,  including  low-skilled  individuals,  migrants,  early 
leavers, and the unemployed. 

(h)  Making VET an attractive option for all learners. To make VET an attractive 
path  for  all  learners,  countries  have  worked  on  expanding  VET  to  higher 
levels,  supporting  teacher  and  trainer  professional  development,  improving 
infrastructure,  adopting  digital  solutions,  and  developing  their  lifelong 
guidance systems. In addition, countries are promoting internationalisation of 
VET and mobility opportunities for learners and teachers. 

Prior policy efforts had already enhanced the transparency and portability of 
skills and qualifications (14). Over recent decades, increasing attention has been 
given  to  the  importance  of  bridging  different  types  of  learning,  whether  within 
formal, non-formal, or informal contexts. Greater value is being placed on learning 
outside formal systems, with growing recognition of its role in building skills and 
supporting  progression.  These  improvements  build  on  the  progress  made  in 
developing  or  strengthening  qualification  frameworks (15),  establishing  credit 
systems to support the accumulation and transfer of learning, enhancing quality 
assurance,  encouraging  the  validation  of  non-formal  and  informal  learning,  and 
improving the recognition of qualifications across Member States.  

Despite  the  progress  made,  the  findings  show  that  challenges  remain. 
Countries need more time to implement the ambitious policy agendas set out in 
their  national 
in  national 
circumstances, some common challenges have persisted, highlighting the areas 
where further policy effort is needed. 

implementation  plans.  Even  with  differences 

Boosting CVET and turning lifelong learning into reality for all  
CVET and lifelong learning have been the focus of many measures outlined in the 
NIPs,  which  typically  include  training  initiatives  targeting  specific  groups,  mostly 

(14)  Cedefop. (2024). Transparency and transferability of learning outcomes: a 20-year 

journey: Analysis of developments at European and national level. Cedefop research 
paper. Publications Office of the European Union.  

(15)  Cedefop. (2023). NQF online tool. [Online tool]. 

18 

 
low-skilled  and  unemployed  individuals.  While  the  digital  availability  of  these 
resources  is  increasing,  concerns  remain  about  their  relevance  and  quality.  In 
addition, participation numbers in such programmes remain low, requiring further 
efforts  to  expand  and  promote  them.  It  is  also  important  to  monitor  and  ensure 
access to these programmes for all groups of learners.  

The provision of training programmes will benefit from being combined with 
relevant support, such as lifelong guidance services, validation and recognition of 
prior learning, and incentives. Given the variety of CVET providers and different 
forms of learning, countries need to consolidate their quality assurance systems 
and frameworks for CVET to reduce fragmentation. 

Strengthening stakeholder involvement in implementing VET policies 
To  address  persistent  coordination  failures,  many  countries  have  enhanced 
stakeholder  involvement  by  adapting  governance  structures,  clarifying roles  and 
responsibilities,  and  establishing  feedback  mechanisms  within  national  expert 
teams,  working  groups,  and  sector  skills  councils.  This  often  involves  social 
dialogue  and  tripartite  governance, 
institutions,  employer 
organisations,  and  employee  organisations.  However,  there  is  a  need  to 
strengthen  the  representation  of  teachers  and  students,  as  well  as  the  role  of 
stakeholders at regional and local levels.  

including  public 

Attracting and maintaining competent teachers and trainers  
Ensuring  systematic  opportunities  for  the  professional  development  of  teachers 
and  trainers  remains  a  key  focus  of  national  policies  in  most  countries. 
Implementing  constantly  updated  VET  curricula and  programmes,  particularly  in 
response to the digital and green transitions, and working effectively with learners 
from vulnerable groups requires competent and well-equipped educators. These 
professionals face growing demands on their skills, an increasing workload, and 
being  asked  to  perform multiple  roles  –  such  as  managing  dual  programmes  or 
providing  career  guidance  –  often  against  a  backdrop  of  unattractive  pay  and 
working conditions.  

While many countries are experiencing teacher and trainer shortages, only 
a  few  have  planned  actions  to  develop  career  pathways  or  incentives  to  attract 
individuals  to  VET  teaching  and  training,  including  from the  private  sector,  or to 
cultivate  a  new  generation  of  educators.  Countries  would  benefit 
from 
strengthening  efforts  to  attract  individuals  to  the  profession  and  leveraging  the 
potential  of  digitalisation  to  support  teachers  and  trainers  in  their  professional 
development. 

19 

Embracing the green transition in VET 
Measures related to the green transition are particularly relevant for making VET 
agile, excellent and attractive. The move towards embracing the green transition 
in VET has become more visible since 2020, but integrating the relevant skills into 
VET curricula and programmes and making VET providers green and sustainable 
remains challenging. There is a gap between policy discourse and implementation, 
and many measures are still being developed. Countries need to intensify efforts 
to understand better the skills associated with the green transition and the sectors 
it affects, review their VET qualifications, occupational standards and programmes, 
and prepare their teachers and trainers accordingly. 

Sustaining  reform  effort  in  the  context  of  political  change  and  funding 
availability 
Despite unprecedented availability of EU funding for VET reforms, countries still 
face resource and financial constraints. Many rely on EU financial mechanisms, 
such as the Recovery and Resilience Facility, Erasmus+, and the ESF+, and the 
Instrument for Pre-accession Assistance (IPA) for CCs. However, delays in funding 
availability can disrupt implementation, while uncertainty hinders policy planning. 
In addition, as VET modernisation projects conclude – such as those supporting 
centres of excellence or apprenticeships – regular operational costs must shift to 
national  budgets  and  employers  to  ensure  continuity  and  sustainability  of  the 
results achieved. 

In  this  context,  limited  capacity  for  monitoring  and  evaluating  fund  usage 
remains a challenge. Assessing the impact of completed projects and integrating 
findings into VET systems often requires policy decisions or legislative provisions, 
which can be slow but essential. Shifts in policy priorities resulting from political 
implementation,  as  new 
changes  can  also  affect  measure  and  project 
governments  may  postpone  or  halt  policy  developments,  delaying  reform. 
Changes  or  restructuring  in  public  administration  can  also  result  in  unclear 
responsibility allocation among ministries and agencies. It is essential for countries' 
commitments to be clearly communicated and upheld by all stakeholders. 

To align VET better with current and future needs, and raise its attractiveness, 
countries  must  strengthen  the  coordination  of  their  policy  frameworks  and  their 
resource allocation mechanisms. 

20 

CHAPTER 3. 
Navigating the evolving landscape 

Getting Europe’s VET-S systems ready for the increasing speed of change and the 
new  strategic  landscape  so  that  they  enable  the  radical  upscaling  of  learning, 
training  and  skilling  is  a  daunting  task.  This  is  particularly true  given the  lack  of 
systematic approaches to adult skills development in a future world of work where 
the  currency  of  someone’s  skills  matters  more  than  qualifications,  and  where 
continuous  learning  is  an  integral  part  of  work  and  a  driver  of  productivity, 
employability and career progression. 

3.1.  An EU skills intelligence infrastructure 

Skill shortages are commonly understood as the difficulty employers face in filling 
vacancies due to a lack of people with the right qualifications, skills or experience. 
Cedefop surveys and analysis show that skill shortages, strictly speaking, are only 
a subset of overall recruitment bottlenecks. The skills challenges Europe faces are 
multidimensional,  complex,  and  constantly  evolving.  They  go  far  beyond  the 
headline figures highlighting labour and skill shortages, which are currently in the 
spotlight. 

Unpacking  Europe’s  skills  challenges  and  developing  targeted  policy 

responses are hindered by several misconceptions. 

Setting recruitment difficulties equal to labour or skills shortages. 
Not  all  shortages  measured  via  employer  surveys  or  job  vacancy  statistics  are 
linked  to  supply-related causes, such  as  a  general  shortage  of  labour  supply  or 
ineffective education and training systems, particularly in providing individuals with 
labour market-relevant skills. Many shortages are also linked to demand-related 
causes. This may happen when certain occupations, the education programmes 
leading to them, or wage and working conditions are not considered attractive; or 
when  companies’  recruitment  processes,  or  job  matching  processes  more 
generally,  do  not  work  properly.  Understanding  exactly  what  is  ‘in  shortage’  – 
people, skills, attractiveness, quality working conditions – is vital for addressing it.  

One-dimensional conceptualisations of skills levels 
No  single  type  of  skill  needs  analysis  can  provide  satisfactory  answers. 
Distinguishing  between  low-,  medium-  and  high-skilled  jobs  or  people  may  help 
present macro-patterns or trends over time, but it is of little use when addressing 

21 

 
 
skills imbalances at the individual (micro) or sectoral (meso) level. Occupational 
categories or highest achieved education may serve as proxies for skills levels or 
mismatches, but they do not map people’s skills profiles and skills imbalances in 
detail.  Skills  analysis  and  anticipation  not  only  need  further  development  to 
become more granular and fit for different purposes, but also require effective use 
by a range of actors. This involves making such information and intelligence more 
relevant and accessible. 

Undervaluing the contribution of adult learning 
Despite  its  ageing  population  and  shrinking  youth  cohorts,  Europe's  policy  still 
prioritises  initial  education  and  skills  for  young  people  over  adult  education  and 
training. Cedefop’s European Skills Index shows that Europe has made the most 
progress  in  people’s  labour  market  activation  and  skills  matching.  However, 
progress in skills development has been limited, with only modest improvements 
in basic education and in education and training for adults. The significant potential 
learning demand of many adults does not translate into access to, or participation 
in, training opportunities because of a lack of information, time, financial constraints 
or simply because employers do not consider learning and training for an ageing 
workforce a worthwhile investment. 

Short-sighted approaches to labour and skills imbalances 
Understanding which occupations, qualifications or skills profiles are in shortage 
or  surplus  today  is  of  little  use  for  proactive  skills  governance  and  effective 
management of skills formation systems. In rapidly changing economies driven by 
expanding  technology  and  evolving  societal  realities,  today's  surpluses  could 
become  medium-term  shortages.  Similarly,  current  shortages  might  become 
irrelevant in the near future due to technology-powered job carving, which enables 
greater output with fewer workers. For this reason, the intelligence required must 
encompass a broad range of approaches, perspectives and time horizons.  

The way forward for skills intelligence in Europe 
Understanding  labour  market  and  skill  trends  in  countries,  regions,  sectors  and 
occupations is key to identifying skills challenges and shaping a just and inclusive 
future  of  work.  Skills  intelligence  must  comprehensively  cover  labour  and  skills 
demand  and  supply  aspects,  go  beyond  broad  characterisations  of  skills levels, 
and  consider  the  short,  medium,  and  longer  term (16).  Cedefop’s  second 
generation of skills intelligence incorporates these ideas and has become a major 
contributor to understanding and projecting how the worlds of work and learning 

(16)  Cedefop. (2025). Skills intelligence. [Online tool] 

22 

 
are  changing (17).  Over  the  years,  Cedefop  has  added  new  tools  to  its  skills 
intelligence  portfolio.  Methods  such  as  big  data-powered  analysis (18),  skills 
foresight,  and  short-term  skills  anticipation (19)  now  complement  other 
representative,  statistical  or  survey-based (20) (21)  approaches  to  contextualising 
labour market dynamics. These methods have gained traction because they add 
unique  value  added  in  a  context  where  change  is  accelerating  and the future  is 
less certain. 

Nevertheless, there is ample room for further development and innovation in 
skills  intelligence  and,  importantly,  for  doing  more  to  address  user  needs.  It  is 
crucial to accelerate the development of reliable, fit-for-purpose and stakeholder-
focused  skills  intelligence  in  the  Member  States  to  make  VET-S  systems  more 
responsive and effective. Countries where skills anticipation has recently started 
to  develop can  learn  from  those  with  a  long-standing  skills  intelligence tradition. 
Cedefop's next-generation skills intelligence can serve as a building block of an 
EU  skills  intelligence  infrastructure,  supporting  systems  and  approaches  at 
national,  regional  and  sectoral  levels.  This  can  be  developed  around  four  main 
pillars. 
(a)  EU skills intelligence blueprint: to guide countries and regions in building their 
own skills intelligence and governance systems. As a minimum, the blueprint 
should include common standards for collecting information, guidance on how 
best  to  develop  evidence  and  intelligence,  and  an  overview  of  governance 
and  stakeholder  engagement  principles  and  practices  that  have  proven 
effective.  

(b)  Shared  data  infrastructure,  methodologies,  and  data  collection  tools  at 
European level: to provide countries and regions with data and tools where 
economies of scale and scope can be leveraged. Expanding Cedefop's online 
job  advertisements  data  collection  (SkillsOVATE),  the  European  Skills  and 
Jobs Survey, and other Cedefop skills intelligence tools are good examples. 
(c)  Support and coordination mechanisms: to help countries and regions develop 
skills  intelligence,  encourage  the  use  of  the  EU  skills  intelligence  blueprint, 

(17)  Cedefop. (2024). Next generation skills intelligence for more learning and better 
matching: Skills anticipation trends, opportunities and challenges in EU Member 
States. Cedefop policy brief. Publications Office of the European Union.   

(18)  Cedefop. (2025). Skills OVATE. [Online tool].  

(19)  Cedefop. (2025). STAS: Europe's new tool for short-term anticipation of skill trends 

and VET demand. Cedefop virtual get-together, 26 February 2025. s 

(20)  Cedefop. (2014-). European skills and jobs survey. [Online tool].  

(21)  Cedefop. (2025). Skills empower workers in the AI revolution: first findings from 

Cedefop’s AI skills survey. Cedefop policy brief. Publications Office of the European 
Union.  

23 

 
and  foster  coordination  and  partnerships  among  key  national,  regional  and 
sectoral VET-S ecosystems.   

(d)  Thematic  skills  focus:  to  give  countries  and  regions  EU-wide  analysis  on 
emerging  skill  trends  of  general  interest  (green,  digital,  ageing,  talent 
attraction, etc.) and provide guidance on how such trends may inform policy 
design and implementation. 

3.2.  Reimagining adult skills development 

Today’s  labour  markets  are  marked  by  significant  uncertainty  regarding  career 
trajectories. Not only do young people in education and training face the challenge 
of preparing for a labour market in constant transformation, but many adults also 
struggle to align their skills with rapidly evolving demands. Adults’ participation in 
learning depends on their learning autonomy, access to information, the quality of 
learning opportunities, and exposure to learning at work (22). 

For many individuals, continuing to learn throughout life (lifelong) and across 
multiple contexts (life-wide) remains neither a tangible opportunity nor an explicit 
objective.  A  key  factor  is  the  foundational  role  of  the  schooling  system,  which 
shapes  attitudes  toward  learning  and  the  capacity  to  continue  learning  beyond 
formal education (23). When the education system fails to nurture positive attitudes 
towards learning, it undermines people’s ability to engage in lifelong learning and 
limits their opportunities for personal and professional growth. The availability and 
effectiveness of services that holistically and seamlessly empower individuals to 
pursue learning, alongside employers’ engagement and support for learning, are 
further decisive factors in shaping adults’ learning and career trajectories. 

The system's blind spot 
Policy responses often take a categorical approach, focusing on target groups such 
as low-skilled or the unemployed, which frequently fails to reflect the complexity of 
individuals’  realities (24).  Support  services  are  usually  designed  within  an 

(22)  Cedefop (2020). Empowering adults through upskilling and reskilling pathways. 

Volume 1: Adult population with potential for upskilling and reskilling. Cedefop 
reference series, 112. Publications Office of the European Union.  
Cedefop (2021). Workplace learning: determinants and consequences: insights from 
the 2019 European company survey. Cedefop working paper, 7. Publications Office 
of the European Union.  

(23)  Cedefop  (2023).  Skills  in  transition:  the  way  to  2035.  Publications  Office  of  the 

European Union.  

(24)  See footnote 23.  

24 

 
institutional  framework  that  prioritises  administrative  structures  and  procedural 
compliance over the diverse needs and experiences of individuals. Consequently, 
access to  learning for  adults  become  fragmented,  uncoordinated,  inflexible,  and 
ultimately unattractive and difficult to navigate (25). 

Further, the life-wide dimension of learning – encompassing non-formal and 
informal learning across workplace, family, community, and digital environments – 
remains  largely  absent. Learning  is  narrowly  understood through  an  institutional 
lens,  with  a  predominant  focus  on  structured,  institutionally  provided  training. 
Experiential  learning  –  whether  acquired  at  and  through  work,  or  through  self-
directed  engagement  with  digital  platforms  –  is  neither  sufficiently  promoted  nor 
adequately valued or utilised. 

The traditional model of continuing vocational education and training (CVET) 
– based primarily on structured, institutional programmes and periodic participation 
– is no longer sufficient in a world shaped by fast-paced technological disruption 
and  evolving  work  environments (26).  It  is  time  to  move  beyond  conventional 
approaches  and  actively  re-examine  what  constitutes  lifelong  learning  today, 
finding new and innovative ways to truly integrate it into the evolving reality of our 
societies. 

The evolving nature of skills development 
Skills development is now a multidimensional phenomenon, taking place across 
varied settings and with varying levels of formality. In particular, the emergence of 
digital  learning  ecosystems  offers  powerful  alternatives  to  conventional  training 
formats, enabling more flexible, self-directed, and experiential learning. Generative 
AI-driven platforms, social media networks, and other digital tools are reshaping 
how 
institutional 
boundaries.  Experiential  learning,  peer-based  knowledge  exchange,  project-
based  and technology-mediated  learning  must  be  acknowledged  and  integrated 
into modern strategies and practices for adult skills development. Recognising the 
value of these diverse learning pathways is key to building resilient, future-ready 
workforces. 

individuals  acquire  knowledge  and  skills,  often  outside 

Importantly,  the  divide  between  learning  and  working  is  increasingly 
dissolving.  Learning  at  and  through  work  is  no  longer  optional.  It  has  become 

(25)  Cedefop (2020). Empowering adults through upskilling and reskilling pathways. 

Volume 1: Adult population with potential for upskilling and reskilling. Cedefop 
reference series, 112. Publications Office of the European Union. 

(26)  Cedefop.  (2025).  Towards  organisations  as  learning  workplaces:  moving  beyond 
certified, institutionalised continuing vocational education and training. Cedefop policy 
brief. Publications Office of the European Union. 

25 

 
essential  for  maintaining  business  competitiveness  and  fostering  organisational 
adaptability.  Nevertheless,  many  enterprises  struggle  to  cultivate  environments 
that utilise and enhance skills of their workforce effectively (27). Training initiatives 
often lack strategic vision, driven more by immediate operational needs than long-
term  goals.  While  individuals  must  be  empowered  to  define  their  own  skill  and 
career development journeys, workplaces must simultaneously embrace their role 
as  active  enablers  of  skills  development.  They  must  foster  cultures  of  learning, 
facilitate access to diverse learning opportunities, and provide environments where 
continuous learning is embedded in daily practice. 

The enabling role of public policy 
The  necessary  evolution  of  adult  skills  development  towards  a  dynamic, 
continuous, and contextual process for all individuals requires a fundamental shift 
in how these capabilities are fostered. From an economic perspective, the capacity 
for  continuous  learning  and  adaptable  skills  across  the  workforce  exhibits 
characteristics  similar  to  ‘merit  goods’.  While  applying  skills  is  individual,  the 
broader benefits of a highly skilled and adaptable population spread widely. This 
means  that  individual  firms  investing  heavily  in  creating  supportive  learning 
environments may struggle  to recoup their  investment fully.  As  a result, rational 
firms may underinvest in learning, leading to a level of overall skills development 
that is sub-optimally low for society as a whole.  

Moreover,  economically  useful  skills  are  often  contextual  and  costly  to 
acquire. Firms face genuine uncertainty about future skill needs are constrained in 
their ability to address this. This is especially true for micro and small enterprises, 
which often lack the capacity to create robust internal learning systems or navigate 
this uncertainty on their own. 

This  combination  of  factors  highlights  the  need  for  public  policy  to  play  a 
central role. Policymakers must find innovative ways to support this evolution by 
creating enabling frameworks for all individuals at every stage. A primary focus on 
micro and small enterprises is essential. Public policy should aim to achieve a more 
socially  optimal  allocation  of  resources  towards  lifelong  learning  and  adaptation 
than the market would deliver alone. 

(27)  Cedefop, Eurofound, Houten, G. v., & Russo, G. (2020). European company survey 
2019:  Workplace  practices  unlocking  employee  potential.  Publications  Office  of  the 
European Union. 

26 

 
3.3.  Making individuals’ learning outcomes visible and 

valued 

The ease with which individuals' skills, qualifications, and learning outcomes are 
understood  and  recognised  across  borders  is  crucial  to  fully  realising  the  free 
movement of citizens and workers across the EU. Nevertheless, strengthening the 
portability  of  learning  outcomes  (or  skills)  within  countries  and  across  sectors 
remains a challenge for many European countries. 

In  today’s  labour market,  individuals  face frequent  and  complex transitions, 
further  complicated  by  the  increased  flexibility  resulting  from  the  expansion  and 
diversification of education and training routes. This dual complexity makes it even 
more challenging for individuals to make informed decisions about their learning 
and career paths. They often bear the consequences of a lack of trust, cooperation, 
and coordination between institutions that fail to recognise each other’s outcomes, 
with  institutional  priorities  overshadowing  individual  learning  acquired  outside 
formal settings. The rise of flexible learning and 'skills-first' approaches had created 
an even more complex landscape of qualifications and credentials, which is difficult 
to implement and scale up without robust quality assurance systems.  

Despite  long-standing  efforts  to  improve  transparency  and  recognition, 
practical  barriers  still  prevent  individuals  from  making  their  learning  outcomes 
visible and valued when they move between countries, sectors, or education and 
training institutions (28). The good news is that the shift towards learning outcomes-
based qualifications frameworks, such as the European qualifications framework 
(EQF) and national qualifications frameworks (NQFs), offers a pathway to greater 
cohesion (29). The ongoing evolution, driven by lifelong learning initiatives, the rise 
of learning outcomes-based qualifications, microcredentials, and NQFs, provides 
a solid foundation for creating seamless learning systems. These systems, centred 
on the individual and based on shared principles, would enable the portability of 
learning outcomes and unlock Europe's full potential.  

To achieve this, a seamless portability and recognition infrastructure must be 
infrastructure  should  operate  across  all  boundaries, 
established.  This 
encompassing  formal,  non-formal,  and  informal  settings,  different  countries, 
educational  institutions,  and  various  education  and  training  subsystems  from  a 
lifelong perspective. The following five pillars are essential for achieving this goal. 

(28)  Cedefop (forthcoming). Lifelong learning in 2000 and in 2020 – What has changed for 

the individual? Cedefop research paper. Publications Office of the European Union. 

(29)  Cedefop  (2024).  Building  a  European  qualifications  map:  development  of  national 
qualifications frameworks (NQFs) across Europe. Publications Office of the European 
Union.  

27 

 
The foundational role of learning outcomes 
Learning outcomes remain the backbone for building understanding, transparency 
and portability. They provide a common language for comparison and recognition 
across different contexts. By systematically incorporating learning outcomes into 
assessment frameworks, standards, qualifications, and other types of certification, 
it  becomes  feasible  to  introduce  descriptions  that  support  the  comparison  and 
transfer  of  qualifications  and  credentials  within  and  across  sectors  and 
countries (30).  Learning  outcomes  facilitate  dialogue  between  education  and 
training institutions and external stakeholders about skill needs and the appropriate 
responses  to  them (31).  This  common  understanding  ensures  consistency  and 
clarity  in  recognition  efforts,  paving  the  way  for  transparent  learning  and 
employment pathways. 

A dynamic and stackable learning approach 
To  achieve  this,  European  and  national  transparency  strategies  must  move 
beyond  silos  and  adopt  a  dynamic  learning  outcomes  approach.  This  approach 
would  capture  learning  outcomes  in  different  settings,  creating  a  foundation  for 
individuals  to  accumulate  and  'stack'  learning  across  various  contexts  and 
throughout  their  lifetime.  Learning  would  be  assessed  using  innovative,  tailored 
methods that ensure validity and reliability, supported by a transparent and clear 
quality assurance mechanism.  

Learning  experiences  would  be  recorded  in  the  form  of  units,  modules, 
credits,  microcredentials,  or  other  forms  of  certification  that  individuals  can 
accumulate or compile into partial or full qualifications. Each of these certifications 
has inherent value, enabling individuals to present a comprehensive picture of their 
learning  experiences.  They  can  also  be  used  independently  to  access  further 
learning  opportunities,  employment,  or  career  advancement,  ultimately 
complementing traditional certificates, degrees, and diplomas (32). 

A digital infrastructure for cross-border and cross-sectoral recognition 
Building on Europass and other successful EU initiatives, a comprehensive digital 
credential infrastructure would enable seamless cross-border and cross-sectoral 
recognition of learning outcomes. It would use existing EU transparency tools to 

(30)  Cedefop  (2024).  Learning  outcomes  going  global:  a  multifaceted  phenomenon. 

Publications Office of the European Union. 

(31)  Cedefop  (2022).  Defining,  writing  and  applying  learning  outcomes:  a  European 

handbook - second edition. Publications Office of the European Union. 

(32)  Cedefop  (2023).  Microcredentials 

training: 
microcredentials  and  evolving  qualifications  systems.  Cedefop  research  paper,  89. 
Publications Office of the European Union. 

labour  market  education  and 

for 

28 

 
interoperability  standards  and  ensure 

establish 
trust  of 
qualifications  and  credentials  obtained  in  different  countries  and  in  different 
education and training subsystems. Information platforms designed to issue and 
verify  digital  credentials  would  give  employers,  recruiters,  and  education  and 
training providers the tools to interpret and assess applicants’ qualifications and 
credentials better.  

the  quality  and 

To  ensure  consistency  and  comparability,  this  infrastructure  should  be 
grounded in a shared European methodology (or guidelines), providing a common 
framework  for  comparing  and  recognising  learning  outcomes  across  diverse 
contexts  and  purposes.  Tools  should  be  developed  to  document,  assess  and 
recognise  learning  outcomes  ensuring  their  quality  and  relevance.  The  use  of 
common formats and controlled vocabularies for learning outcomes and skills can 
standardise descriptions, enabling the effective use of AI, large language models, 
and  new 
recognition  processes.  To  enhance 
interoperability,  comprehensive  NQFs  and  qualifications  or  credentials  registers 
(databases) would document all types of qualification in a clear and comparable 
manner across systems and borders (33).  

technologies 

to  support 

Ensuring trust through coordinated quality assurance 
Developing well-coordinated quality assurance standards and processes is crucial 
to ensuring transparency and trust in learning outcomes, whether obtained from 
formal  education  and  training  systems  or  emerging  providers  outside  of  these 
systems.  To  achieve  this,  Member  States  can  develop  and  adapt  their  quality 
assurance  mechanisms  for  learning  outcomes  issued  by  different  types  of 
providers,  leveraging  existing  mechanisms  wherever  possible.  This  can  be 
supported  by  encouraging  providers  to  publish  catalogues  of  non-formal 
qualifications  and  microcredentials,  including  their  policies  on  recognising 
microcredentials  issued by  other  providers.  By  doing  so,  individuals,  employers, 
and trade unions can make informed decisions about the relevance and value of 
learning outcomes achieved. 

(33)  Cedefop  (2024).  Building  a  European  qualifications  map:  development  of  national 
qualifications frameworks (NQFs) across Europe. Publications Office of the European 
Union. 

29 

 
CHAPTER 4. 
Beyond the horizon: five (wishful thinking) 
points of focus for policy development 

Drawing on an exploration of the future and aspirational goals for VET-S policies, 
this  section  identifies  some  elements  of  the  structural  transformation  needed. 
Recognising the inherent ambition and potential difficulty in realising such systemic 
change,  several  distinct  yet  interconnected  areas  for  policy  development  are 
presented as crucial points of focus. 

4.1.  Empowering autonomous and proactive skills 

development (accessibility) 

Ensuring  accessibility  to  learning,  at  its  core,  is  about  building  autonomy  and 
removing  barriers.  Throughout  life's  critical  transitions  –  whether  moving  from 
education to work, changing careers, or navigating personal change – individuals 
should have access to learning opportunities that gradually strengthen their ability 
to navigate their career journey.  

In tomorrow's adult skills development landscape, access would be universal. 
Everyone,  regardless  of  background,  age,  or  circumstances  would  benefit  from 
tailored support that progressively enhances their learning autonomy, not just skill 
acquisition.  Well-designed  accessibility  measures  would  establish  the  essential 
groundwork for developing learners’ self-efficacy, including clear information about 
skill  needs  in  jobs,  available  pathways,  flexible  learning  approaches,  and 
constructive feedback mechanisms. To make accessibility genuinely meaningful, 
particularly for individuals in vulnerable situations, accessibility would not depend 
solely  on  individual  capacity  or motivation. Instead,  it  would  be  actively  enabled 
through an ecosystem approach centred on the individual’s life circumstances.   

Within such a human-centred ecosystem, service providers across education, 
employment,  and  social  sectors  would  work  collaboratively  across  institutional 
boundaries. A ‘no wrong door’ principle would become central: regardless of where 
an individual first seeks assistance – be it a job centre, school, local authority, or 
community organisation – they would receive coordinated, holistic support tailored 
to their needs. Administrative and funding mechanisms would operate seamlessly 
in  the  background,  eliminating  bureaucratic  barriers, redundant  procedures,  and 
rigid eligibility requirements. This integration would be crucial to ensure that even 

30 

 
 
highly  motivated  learners  are  not  deterred  by  fragmented  or  overly  complex 
systems. 

Ultimately,  this  transformation  would  redefine  institutional  roles  to  develop 
learner autonomy. It would also involve the initial education and training system. 
Cooperation and mutual understanding between different education and training 
systems  would  support  smoother  access 
learning  opportunities  and 
qualifications. This would enable the meaningful combination of learning acquired 
in different contexts. In a manner comparable to what is already seen in general 
and higher education, VET-S systems would also be characterised by easy access 
and  clear  learning  pathways  up  to  higher  levels.  Learners  would  not  face  dead 
ends  or  limited  progression  opportunities.  This  would  be  facilitated  by  strong 
dialogue between all the stakeholders and greater coordination across education 
and training sectors. 

to 

4.2.  Fostering engagement and diversity (inclusion) 

In  many  European  countries,  VET-S  policies  emphasise  a  growing  need  for 
specialised skills at the highest possible levels of performance. At the same time, 
institutional VET-S provision is also seen as a tool to include and integrate learners 
at  risk  of  exclusion.  This  requires  addressing  a  mixed  group  of  individuals  with 
diverse needs and motivations. Inclusive VET-S of the future would therefore place 
greater  emphasis  on  transversal  skills  and  key  competences.  It  would  use 
diversity-sensitive  pedagogy  and  teaching  methods  that  do  not  focus  on  single 
dimensions,  such  as  migration  background,  but  instead  considers  how  different 
aspects of diversity overlap and interact. 

The use of learning outcomes would also support inclusive VET-S provision. 
The flexible nature of learning outcomes allows programmes to meet the needs of 
students  with  special  educational  needs,  while  also  engaging  adults  and  non-
traditional  learner  groups,  breaking  through  gender  patterns,  and,  in  general, 
responding  to  diverse  learner  needs.  This  would  be  achieved  through  the 
modularisation  of  programmes,  validation  of  non-formal  and  informal  learning, 
recognition  of  prior  learning,  development  of  culturally  inclusive  curricula  and 
personalised learning plans.  

Inclusive  VET-S  would  not  rely  solely  on  passive  support  measures.  Many 
individuals, particularly those experiencing multiple and intersecting vulnerabilities, 
do not actively seek learning opportunities, often due to structural, psychological, 
or experiential barriers. To address this, existing barriers would be reduced through 
outreach and awareness campaigns in underrepresented communities, as well as 
recognition  of  prior  learning  and  alternative  entry  pathways.  More  broadly, 

31 

inclusive  VET-S  would  entail  a  shift  toward  proactive,  person-centred  outreach, 
with a stronger focus on collective action mobilised at the local level, where actors 
are best placed to understand and respond to individual needs. 

To  strengthen  such  outreach,  advanced  digital  technologies  –  including  AI-
driven  matching  systems  and  data  analytics  –  would  act  as  powerful  enablers. 
These tools would help identify individuals who are often invisible to conventional 
support  mechanisms:  those  disengaged  from  public  services,  facing  long-term 
unemployment, or at risk of structural exclusion. By detecting early indicators of 
vulnerability,  such  as  low  educational  attainment,  long-term  unemployment, skill 
mismatches, digital exclusion, or geographic isolation, they would enable timely, 
targeted, and personalised interventions. 

Communities are uniquely positioned to act as effective governance spaces 
for  implementing  inclusive  support  and  learning  strategies.  In  the  VET-S  of  the 
future, community-based learning ecosystems would involve all relevant actors – 
employers, trade unions, civil society organisations, public authorities, and service 
providers  –  each  sharing  responsibility  for  identifying  and  engaging  vulnerable 
individuals,  removing  peripheral  barriers  (e.g.  transport,  care  duties,  digital 
access),  and  providing  tailored  guidance  and  support  into  meaningful  learning 
pathways. 

4.3.  Ensuring quality across diverse qualifications and 

credentials (quality) 

As  new  modes  of  training  delivery,  certification,  and  training  providers  emerge, 
quality assurance mechanisms become increasingly essential for ensuring quality 
and building trust in qualifications and credentials acquired in diverse settings. 

In the VET-S systems of tomorrow, the shift towards learning outcomes and 
the full implementation of comprehensive qualifications frameworks across the EU 
will  lead  to  quality  assurance  arrangements  that  focus  more  on  outcome-based 
approaches,  complementing  traditional  input-  and  process-oriented  approaches 
(34).  To  achieve  this,  quality  assurance  systems  will  systematically  monitor  and 
improve  how  learning  outcomes  are  used  at  several  levels,  from  designing 
qualifications and curricula to certifying learning against agreed quality standards. 
As a result, qualifications and credentials will be able to reflect the actual skills and 
competences acquired by learners, regardless of their learning pathway. 

(34)  Cedefop  (2015).  Ensuring  the  quality  of  certification  in  vocational  education  and 
training. Cedefop research paper, 51. Publications Office of the European Union.  

32 

 
Raising  trust  in  qualifications  and  credentials  will  be  a  key  aim  of  quality 
assurance  systems.  Assessment  will  play  a  crucial  role  in  this,  particularly  for 
alternative  pathways  such  as  work-based  learning.  Digital  technologies  and  the 
deployment  of  AI  will  be  used  to  design  assessment  models  that  are  robust, 
trustworthy, scalable, and cost-effective. 

Building  trust  will  also  require  the  active  engagement  of  different  actors  in 
designing  and  implementing  the  overall  quality  assurance  framework.  Future 
quality assurance systems will encourage shared responsibility and collaboration 
among labour market stakeholders by developing targeted measures to motivate 
employers,  trade  union  representatives,  and  other  professional  experts  to 
contribute to the  certification  process  and  quality  assurance  arrangements.  This 
will  improve  the  formulation  of  qualification  requirements,  ensure  valuable 
feedback  on  the  candidates'  achieved  learning  outcomes,  contribute  to  the 
continuous  improvement  of  teaching  and  learning  processes,  and  ultimately 
increase trust in qualifications and credentials. 

Finally, trusting awarding bodies and VET providers will also be pivotal. Future 
quality assurance arrangements will facilitate collaboration with private and non-
formal  providers  in  a  structured  and  coordinated  way.  A  robust  EU  regulatory 
framework will be established to assess and recognise their credentials based on 
specific and commonly agreed quality standards. This framework will simplify and 
standardise the certification of learning outcomes, and increase the transparency 
and portability of qualifications and credentials across the EU. A key component 
will be a dedicated EU register of accredited training providers and programmes, 
overseen  by  a  dedicated  governance  structure.  Such  a  network,  including  all 
Member  States,  will  provide  a  platform  for  coordination,  consistency,  and 
coherence for quality assurance agencies, trusted accrediting bodies, and training 
providers across the EU. 

4.4.  Supporting lifelong and life-wide skills 

development (innovation) 

Tomorrow’s VET-S would represent a fundamental shift from the traditional notion 
of CVET – characterised by periodic upskilling in institutional settings – towards a 
more dynamic and responsive paradigm of continuous skills development for all 
adults. Skills development would become a seamless, ongoing process extending 
across both the life course (lifelong) and the diverse contexts in which adults live 
and work (life-wide). 

From this perspective, innovation is not only about what is taught, but where, 
when and how learning is delivered. In the future VET-S, skills development would 

33 

no longer be predominantly confined to classrooms or formal training centres. It 
would increasingly take place through project-based and experiential learning at 
work, peer-based knowledge exchange, community engagement, and technology-
mediated  environments  such  as  digital  platforms  and  social  learning  networks. 
These  varied  forms  of  learning  reflect  the  lived  realities  of  adults  and  must  be 
acknowledged,  supported,  and  integrated  into  modern  skills  development 
strategies. 

To  remain  innovative  and  impactful,  VET-S  would  promote  excellence  by 
prioritising digital integration and strong partnerships between education providers 
and  industry.  Blended  learning  approaches  that  combine  in-person  training  with 
online  modules  would  become the  norm.  Virtual  simulations,  augmented  reality, 
and interactive e-learning tools, which enhance practical skills development, would 
make  vocational 
immersive.  Stackable  modules  and 
microcredentials  tailored  to  industry  needs  would  be  valuable  tools  for  adult 
learners  seeking to  reskill  in  new fields.  Co-designed  curricula,  apprenticeships, 
and work-integrated learning opportunities would not only enhance job readiness 
but also keep programmes agile and relevant. 

training  more 

For  this  transformation  to  succeed,  skills  frameworks  would  effectively 
integrate emerging workplace and digital learning contexts with traditional certified 
provision while maintaining quality standards and ensuring recognition of learning 
outcomes. This would foster conditions where learning – wherever and however it 
occurs – can be recognised, validated, and connected to broader goals of personal 
development, employability, and social inclusion. 

Innovative  VET-S  would  also  recognise  employers  as  central  actors  within 
lifelong  learning  ecosystems.  Supporting  a  learning  culture  within  the  workplace 
would  be  a  critical  goal  for  future  VET-S  to  ensure  that  lifelong  learning  is  both 
accessible and sustainable for the workforce. This would include tailored funding 
mechanisms,  technical  support,  and  local  partnerships  to  make  engagement  in 
lifelong learning feasible and beneficial, especially for smaller organisations. 

4.5.  Moving beyond the academic-vocational divide 

(attractiveness) 

Promoting parity of esteem between vocational and general/academic education 
has been a long-standing policy goal for EU education and training policy, aiming 
to increase the attractiveness of formal VET. 

Attractiveness  is  not  only  a  matter  of  awareness  and  image.  In  some 
countries,  a  sense  of  devaluation  towards  individuals  with  non-academic 
backgrounds is also fuelled by a societal lack of appreciation for VET compared to 

34 

general/academic  education.  This  perceived  low  value  placed  on  vocational 
pathways  is  not  only  detrimental  to  the  effectiveness  of  education  and  training 
systems  but  also  tends  to  undermine  the  dignity  of  those  pursuing  vocationally 
oriented qualifications. 

Future  VET-S  systems  would  reduce  or  eliminate  the  historical  separation 
between  vocational  and  general/academic  routes.  Most  countries  would  reform 
their systems to make vocational and general education formally more equal by 
developing innovative relationships and integration strategies. This would include 
cooperation between vocational and academic institutions to develop formal links 
through common frameworks, credit recognition, and shared curriculum elements, 
as  well  as  to  open  and  consolidate  new  pathways  between  VET  and  higher 
education. 

The most innovative countries would merge vocational and general education 
into a single system and ultimately abolish the distinction between vocational and 
general routes. They would develop a core program of common general subjects, 
while  simultaneously  offer  a  range  of  educational  options  that  consider  the 
specificities and diverse combinations of general and vocational orientations within 
the educational and training pathways.  

Regardless of structural reforms, the perception of vocational pathways will 
ultimately  remain  linked  to  the  professions  and  societal  roles  they  prepare 
individuals  for.  Future  VET-S  policies  would  fully  acknowledge  the  significant 
influence of social media and other AI-powered platforms on the attractiveness of 
vocationally  oriented  pathways.  Social  media  platforms  will  remain  crucial 
channels, particularly for young people to gather information, form opinions, and 
share  experiences  regarding  education  and  career  options.  Consequently,  the 
attractiveness  of  technical  professions  and  occupations  will  increasingly depend 
on  how  learners  perceive  and  interact  with  online  content.  Future  VET-S  would 
leverage  user-generated  content,  such  as  testimonials,  skill  showcases,  and 
learner narratives on social platforms to shape perceptions of VET. 

35 

CHAPTER 5. 
A time for commitment 

The  rapid  transformation  of  the  EU  labour  market  and  the  steadily  increasing 
demand for a skilled workforce underscore the critical role of vocational education 
and training and skills development (VET-S) in equipping citizens to thrive in this 
evolving landscape. Meeting the evolving challenges, VET-S systems first need to 
ensure that: 
(a)  all young people achieve qualifications equivalent to at least upper secondary 
education  as  an  essential  foundation  to  ensure  an  adaptable  workforce 
capable of meeting future labour and learning demands;  
just  as  European  systems  ensure  access  to  higher  education  from  general 
education pathways, equitable access to further education, adult learning and 
skills development opportunities is guaranteed for all, regardless of their initial 
educational pathway; 
In  this  perspective,  robust  systems  of  continuing  training  and  skills 
development for adults are established across all Member States, providing 
systematic, coordinated, quality-focused, and inclusive support to individuals 
and organisations in keeping pace with rapid change; 

(b) 

(c) 

(d)  VET-S and skills development systems are informed by robust evidence and 
data,  supported  by  skills  intelligence,  and  involve  cross-government  and 
cross-sectoral coordination. 

The strategic objectives outlined thus far represent fundamental and, we trust, 
broadly shared goals for the evolution of education and training systems. On this 
foundation,  our  analysis  has  identified  three  specific  areas  for  intervention, 
focusing on skills intelligence, adult learning, and learning outcomes. In addition, 
key points of focus for policy innovation have been proposed with reference to five 
transversal  areas  for  improvement  relating  to  accessibility,  inclusion,  quality, 
innovation, and attractiveness. These targeted areas for policy development are 
crucial in shaping the future of VET-S systems, enabling them to address emerging 
challenges effectively and leverage new opportunities. 

We  have  also  reiterated  the  particular  emphasis  that  we  believe  should  be 
placed  on  ensuring  that  learning  throughout  life  and  across  multiple  contexts 
becomes a key objective and a tangible opportunity for all Europeans. This is not 
an easy task but is crucial for fostering a highly skilled and adaptable workforce, 
boosting  productivity,  and  ensuring  that  the  benefits  of  economic  growth  are 
shared fairly. Social dialogue plays a crucial role in this. The overarching message 
is one of continued effort and stronger collaboration between all relevant regional 

36 

 
 
and sectoral stakeholders to encourage individuals, companies and VET provider 
involvement in CVET and adult learning, to establish frameworks with incentives 
for  companies  to  invest  in  human  resources  development,  to  promote  flexible 
training arrangements – including workplace, on the job and online learning – and 
to foster cooperation between vocational learning and other relevant policy areas. 
for fostering this stronger collaboration and establishing the necessary frameworks 
and incentives. 

for  success.  Further,  within 

the  skills  matching  problems, 

In  doing  so,  it  is  important  not  to  forget  that  Europe  possesses  the  highest 
potential of human resources in its history. It is no coincidence that, alongside the 
problems of shortages and gaps, the challenges of skills matching remain perhaps 
the most significant and, at the same time, where public policy has the greatest 
the 
potential 
underutilisation of existing skills represents the most critical component. Effective 
skill utilisation hinges on a strong employer-employee relationship, shaped by the 
interaction of worker skills, work environment, and incentives. Cedefop research 
indicates  that  a  significant  and  growing  portion  of  the  skills  challenges  facing 
employers  occur  within  organisations,  where  the  potential  of  available  human 
resources is not fully valued. This highlights the potential of employment based on 
high  employer  expectations  that  encourage  skill  leverage  for  organisational 
benefit, coupled with strong incentives – including non-monetary incentives such 
as engaging roles and development opportunities. 

From this perspective, there is a crucial need to enhance policy efforts towards 
the  skills  demand  side,  particularly  through  measures  beyond  mere  financial 
incentives that can effectively help employers increase their demand for skills and 
invest  in  workplace  learning  and  continuing  training.  This  focus  on  the  demand 
side  is  crucial  for  moving  the  EU  economy  towards  a  higher  skills  equilibrium, 
where  demand  and  supply  are  mutually  reinforcing.  Especially  in  a  context  of  a 
shrinking  workforce,  this  inevitably  implies  putting  people’s  skills  to  good  use, 
reducing skills underutilisation and mismatches, and finally creating the conditions 
for  both  stronger  productivity  growth  and  better  working  conditions.  Further 
research is therefore needed to inform the design of effective policies in this area, 
specifically  on  how  to  support  skills  utilisation  within  organisations,  enhance  the 
role of workplaces in upskilling individuals, and, more ambitiously, foster greater 
workplace ownership of skills policy. 

At Cedefop, we are more determined than ever to empower and inform the 
debate,  and  to  bring  forward  novel  and  concrete  policies  and  priorities  that  can 
help shape a bold vision for VET-S policies in the EU. 

37 

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Shaping learning 
and skills for Europe
A time for commitment

Fifty  years  after  its  founding,  Cedefop  reflects  on  the 
evolution  of  vocational  education  and  training  (VET)  in 
Europe and presents a renewed vision for the future. While 
the  EU  has  built  strong  foundations  in  initial  VET,  major 
challenges  persist  in  adult  learning,  skill  mismatches, 
and the need to integrate VET more closely with broader 
strategic policy goals. 

This  document  advocates  for  a  shift  from  traditional 
VET  policy  to  a  broader  and  integrated  VET  and  Skills 
development (VET-S) approach. Against the backdrop of 
the  twin  transition,  demographic  shifts,  and  geopolitical 
uncertainty, the EU needs to invest in inclusive and future-
ready learning systems that reinforce productivity, equality, 
and strategic autonomy. This will help unlock Europe’s full 
potential and make lifelong learning a reality for all.

Europe 123, 570 01 Thessaloniki (Pylaia), Greece
Postal address: Cedefop service post, 57001 Thermi, Greece
Tel. +30 2310490111, Fax +30 2310490020, Email: info@cedefop.europa.eu

visit our portal www.cedefop.europa.eu