Impact driver : marking milestones and opportunities for gender equality in the EU.
Date: 2025-06-19
Institutions: European Institute for Gender Equality
Subjects: EU action, EU strategy, anti-discriminatory measure, civil society, digital divide, economic transition, equal pay, equal treatment, foreign policy, gender equality, gender mainstreaming, gender-based violence, governance, health care system, labour market, participation of women, position of women, women's rights

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©

Beijing Platform for Action +30

Impact driver: Marking milestones 
and opportunities for gender 
equality in the EU

An EU Agency

 
 
Impact driver: Marking milestones 
and opportunities for gender 
equality in the EU

European Institute for Gender Equality

The European Institute for Gender Equality 
(EIGE) produces independent research and 
shares best practice to promote gender equality 
and eliminate discrimination based on gender. 
As the EU agency for gender equality, we help 
people achieve equal opportunities so everyone 
can thrive, independent of their gender and 
background.

We combine research, data and tools to 
help policymakers design measures that are 
inclusive, transformative and promote gender 
equality in all areas of life. We communicate 
our expertise and research effectively. We work 
closely with partners to raise awareness. We do 
this at the EU and national levels, and with EU 
candidate and potential candidate countries.

Cite this publication:
EIGE (2025), Impact driver: Marking milestones 
and opportunities for gender equality in the 
EU, Publications Office of the European Union, 
Luxembourg.

This report is based on the study to review 
the implementation of the Beijing Platform 
for Action in the EU (Beijing + 30), which was 
contracted by EIGE to PPMI Group UAB.

© European Institute for Gender Equality, 2025

Reproduction is authorised provided the source 
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EIGE does not own the copyright in relation to 
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Luxembourg: Publications Office of the 
European Union, 2025

PDF 

ISBN 978-92-9486-300-3 
doi:10.2839/8280076 
MH-01-25-030-EN-N

European Institute for Gender Equality
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Contributors:

•  Study team of PPMI Group UAB: Cecilia Francisco Carcelén, Hedvika Janečková, Simon Carpentier, 
Yuliia Shevchenko, Sofia Jamal, Camée Ptak, Amelie Eckersley, Sara Anselmo, Camilla Mattaliano 
Belforti and Hanna Siarova.

•  Other contributors: Susan Buckingham (independent researcher), Professor Sara De Vido (Ca’ 

Foscari University of Venice), Professor Jane Freedman (Paris 8 University), Dr Elisabeth Klatzer 
(independent researcher), Dr Courtney McNamara (Newcastle University), Dr Liza Mügge 
(University of Amsterdam), Professor Claudia Padovani (University of Padova) and Dr Daria 
Popova (University of Essex).

•  Additional contributions: the Polish Presidency of the Council of the European Union, the 

European Commission, in particular the Gender Equality Unit at the European Commission’s 
Directorate-General for Justice and Consumers, the Commission’s high-level group on gender 
mainstreaming, and the members of EIGE’s Experts’ Forum provided their feedback on the 
report.

European Institute for Gender Equality

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Contents

Executive summary  .................................................................................................................................................... 11

Introduction  ................................................................................................................................................................. 20

1.  Institutional developments at the EU level since 2019  ................................................................................. 22
1.1.  Structures for the promotion of gender equality in the EU  ................................................................. 22
1.2.  Legislative developments and trends  ...................................................................................................... 26
1.3.  Policy developments and trends  ............................................................................................................... 28
1.4.  Developments and trends in gender mainstreaming  ............................................................................ 30

2.  Policies and developments in the 12 critical areas of concern in the EU since 2019 ................................ 39
2.1.  Women and poverty (area A)  .................................................................................................................... 39
2.2.  Education and training of women (area B)  .............................................................................................. 47
2.3.  Women and health (area C)  ........................................................................................................................ 56
2.4.  Violence against women (area D)  .............................................................................................................. 67
2.5.  Women and armed conflict (area E)  ......................................................................................................... 78
2.6.  Women and the economy (area F)  ............................................................................................................ 85
2.7.  Women in power and decision-making roles (area G)  ........................................................................... 95
2.8.  Institutional mechanisms for the advancement of women (area H)  ..............................................  104
2.9.  Human rights of women (area I)  ............................................................................................................  114
2.10.  Women and the media (area J)  ............................................................................................................  122
2.11.  Women and the environment (area K)  ...............................................................................................  129
2.12.  The girl child (area L)  ..............................................................................................................................  138

3.  Beyond the Beijing Platform for Action + 30: recommendations for action  ..........................................  147

References .................................................................................................................................................................  159

Legislation and related documents  ......................................................................................................................  210
EU level  .................................................................................................................................................................  210
National level  ......................................................................................................................................................  213

Annex 1.  Beijing Platform for Action objectives and targets for the sustainable development 

goals  .........................................................................................................................................................  214

Annex 2.  Methodology for tracking gender equality mainstreaming in the EU budget  ..........................  216

Annex 3.  Gender equality and gender mainstreaming in the ‘union of equality’ strategies  ..................  218

Annex 4.  Additional supporting information  ....................................................................................................  220

Annex 5.  EIGE’s data collection on institutional mechanisms for gender equality and gender 

mainstreaming (area H)  .......................................................................................................................  223

Annex 6.  EIGE’s work on harmonising the collection of administrative data at the EU level on 

violence against women  .......................................................................................................................  228

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European Institute for Gender Equality

List of figures

Figure 1.  Political structures supporting gender equality in the European Parliament
Figure 2.  EU directives in the area of gender equality since 2019
Figure 3.  Gender equality strategy for 2020–2025: objectives and focus areas
Figure 4.  People AROPE, by sex and country (% of total population, 2018 and 2023)
Figure 5.  People AROPE, by subgroup (% of population, EU, 2018 and 2023)
Figure 6.  People aged 18–74 years providing childcare and doing housework every day, by sex 

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27
29
41
42

(% of respondents, EU, 2024)

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48
Figure 7.  Gender equality objectives of the European education area
50
Figure 8.  Graduates in tertiary education, by sex and field of education (%, EU, 2022)
Figure 9.  Individuals’ level of digital skills, by sex (% of population aged 16–74 years, EU, 2015–2023) 52
Figure 10.  People not participating in formal or non-formal education and training due to 

family reasons, by sex and country (% of population aged 18–69 years, 2022)

Figure 11. Healthy life years, by sex (years, EU, 2018–2021)
Figure 12.  Breast cancer screening rates among women, by country (% of population aged 

50–69 years, 2022)

Figure 13.  Main provisions of the directive on combating violence against women and domestic 

violence

Figure 14.  Overview of the EU legal and policy framework to tackle human trafficking
Figure 15.  Ever-partnered women aged 18–74 years who have experienced violence by an 

intimate partner, by occurrence of last episode and country (%, 2021–2024)

Figure 16.  Total number of recorded offences of rape and sexual assault (EU, 2019–2022)
Figure 17.  Percentage of ever-working women aged 18–74 years who have experienced sexual 

harassment at work, by occurrence of last episode and country (%, 2021–2024)

Figure 18.  Percentage of women aged 16–29 years reporting experiences of cyber harassment 

in the past 12 months, by country (% of the population, 2020)

Figure 19.  Percentage of women aged 17–84 years who have experienced stalking, by 

occurrence of last episode and country (%, 2021–2024)

Figure 20.  Women’s representation in EU institutions and agencies that address security 

concerns, 2025

Figure 21.  Proportion of women as full-time members of national armed forces (%, EU, 2014 

and 2021)

Figure 22.  Total number of asylum applications, by sex (EU, 2019–2023)
Figure 23.  Overview of the new directives promoting gender equality in the labour market
Figure 24.  Gender employment gap, by country (pp, EU, 2018 and 2023)
Figure 25.  Gender employment gap by the number of children, citizenship, age and education 

level (pp, EU, 2018 and 2023)

Figure 26.  Part-time employment among those aged 20–64 years, by country and sex (% of 

total employment, EU, 2023)

Figure 27.  Seats held by women in the single/lower house of the national/federal parliaments, 

by country (% of seats, pp difference, 2018 and Q4 2024)

Figure 28.  Forms of violence experienced by women parliamentarians in Europe (% of all 

women parliamentarians surveyed, 2018)

Figure 29.  Positions held by women and men on the boards of the largest listed companies, by 

country (% of board members, first six months of 2024)

Figure 30.  Positions held by women in the decision-making bodies of the national central 

banks, by country (% of members, pp difference, 2019 and 2024)

Figure 31.  Provisions of the equality bodies directives

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List of figures

Figure 32.  Average score for each indicator in relation to its theoretical maximum (% of the EU-

25 and the EU-27, 2021 and 2024)

Figure 33.  Status of commitment to the promotion of gender equality (H1, governmental 

commitment only: H1a–H1e, 2024)

Figure 34.  Commitment, structures and methods for gender mainstreaming (H3, total score out 

of 14, 2024)

Figure 35.  Governments’ commitment to ex ante gender impact assessments (2024)
Figure 36.  Gender budgeting in ministerial budgets (2024)
Figure 37.  Overview of the European Parliament’s recent resolutions to address women’s 

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human rights

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Figure 38. Protection of LGBTIQ rights across Member States since 2019
120
Figure 39.  Women employed in media-related sectors of activity (pp difference, EU, 2019 and 2022) 124
Figure 40.  Proportion of women among employee representatives, executives, board members, 

non-executives, chief executives and presidents in national public broadcasters (%, 
EU, 2019 and 2023)

Figure 41.  Frequency of sustainable behaviour, by sex and type of activity (% of respondents 

aged 18–74 years, EU, 2024)

Figure 42.  Proportion of women among the highest-ranking civil servants in ministries with 
jurisdictions covering the environment, transport and energy, by country (%, EU, 
2019 and 2023)
Figure 43.  European child guarantee
Figure 44.  Girls’ and boys’ educational performance in basic skills (mean score, EU-26, 2022)
Figure 45.  Frequency of girls and boys (aged 16–18 years) performing general house 

maintenance tasks (e.g. repairs, gardening and service arrangement) (%, EU, 2024)
Figure 46.  Frequency of girls and boys (aged 16–18 years) performing household chores (e.g. 

cooking, laundry and cleaning) (%, EU, 2024)

Figure 47.  15-year-olds reporting multiple health complaints more than once a week (%, EU, 

2014–2022)

Figure 48.  15-year-olds who reported feeling lonely ‘most of the time’ or ‘always’, by sex and 

country (%, EU, 2021–2022)

Figure A1.  Council of the European Union conclusions in the area of gender equality (2019–2024)
Figure A2.  Indicators for monitoring institutional mechanisms for the promotion of gender 

equality and gender mainstreaming, 2024
Figure A3.  Questions included in the scoring of sub-indicator H2a

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List of tables

Table 1.  Personnel resources working on gender equality, by type of body, 2024
Table A1.  BPfA objectives and SDG targets
Table A2.  Assessment criteria for assigning scores in the gender tracking methodology
Table A3.  ‘Union of equality’ strategies and other related strategies since 2019
Table A4.  Legislative quotas in Member States applied to the single/lower house of the 

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national/federal parliament (2023)

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Table A5.  Quotas in place in Member States to promote gender balance on corporate boards (2023) 221
Table A6.  Overview of support and protection services for victims of violence against women in 

222
Table A7.  Overview of EIGE’s 13 indicators for measuring intimate partner / domestic / any violence 228

the EU (2022)

List of boxes

Box 1.  Other structures supporting the Commission in the area of gender equality
Box 2.  Fighting energy poverty among women in Mediterranean areas
Box 3.  Addressing period poverty in France
Box 4.  Advancing gender equality in academia and the careers of women in research
Box 5.  Addressing the skilled labour demands of the green transition to support women
Box 6.  Supporting women in academia juggling professional and care responsibilities
Box 7.  Addressing gender bias in learning materials
Box 8.  Providing teachers with practical tools to tackle gender stereotypes in classrooms
Box 9.  Preventing gender-based violence in higher education and research institutions
Box 10.  Expanded use of AI improves the successful diagnosis rate for breast cancer
Box 11.  Expanding prevention screening programmes in Poland
Box 12.  Advocacy and legal support against obstetric violence in Belgium and Italy 
Box 13.  Recognition of femicide as a distinct crime in Malta, Cyprus, Belgium and Croatia
Box 14.  Strengthening legal measures against domestic violence
Box 15.  Examples of efforts to tackle intimate partner violence in Member States during the 

COVID-19 pandemic

Box 16.  Raising awareness about human trafficking and the exploitation of women
Box 17.  Women in military conscription in the EU
Box 18.  Supporting migrant women and girls who experience sexual and gender-based violence
Box 20.  Expanding inclusion and diversity practices in the workplace
Box 21.  Addressing the gender pay gap in Ireland
Box 22.  Promoting entrepreneurship among women in Italy
Box 23.  Fostering a better work–life balance in Greece while creating formal employment in the 

care sector

Box 24.  Efforts to promote equal representation and participation of women in politics
Box 25.  Examples of projects aiming to support women leaders
Box 26.  Gender quotas in sports leadership
Box 27.  Equality bodies and the pay transparency directive
Box 28.  Gender mainstreaming in the RRPs
Box 29.  Examples of GRPP in Belgium and Spain
Box 30.  Example of the promotion of gender equality at the municipal level in Luxembourg

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List of boxes

Box 31.  An example of data collection and dissemination efforts concerning women’s green 

entrepreneurship

Box 32.  Funding for women’s rights and gender equality organisations
Box 33.  Progress towards the decriminalisation of abortion in Malta
Box 34.  National efforts to ensure safe access to abortion clinics
Box 35.  Addressing gender-based violence against Roma women
Box 36.  Legislative advances in the protection of LGBTIQ rights
Box 37.  Separating spousal income for the allowance for disabled adults in France
Box 38.  How Germany ensures social security for freelance journalists
Box 39.  Promoting a fair portrayal of women and men in the media
Box 40.  The Algorithm Register of the Dutch government
Box 41.  Intersectionality on screen: GLAAD’s annual TV representation report
Box 42.  Enhancing the accessibility of gender data in the media
Box 43.  Strengthening women’s employment in the transport sector
Box 44.  Empowerment of women entrepreneurs in the energy sector and support for lone-

mother households

Box 45.  Leading the digital transformation and creating sustainable and gender-responsive 

industrial policies

Box 46.  Supporting gender mainstreaming in DRR
Box 47.  European Week of Action for Girls
Box 48.  Educational toolkits to help address gender stereotypes
Box 49.  Initiatives to improve the participation of girls in STEM
Box 50.  Austria’s approach to CSE
Box 51.  Enhanced protection and support for child victims of domestic violence in Portugal
Box 52.  Supporting teachers in addressing bullying and discrimination towards girls and boys
Box 53.  Engaging young people in discussions about women’s rights and gender equality

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Member State codes

BE 

BG 

CZ 

DK 

DE 

EE 

IE 

EL 

ES 

FR 

Belgium

Bulgaria

Czechia

Denmark

Germany

Estonia

Ireland

Greece

Spain

France

HR 

Croatia

IT 

CY 

LV 

Italy

Cyprus

Latvia

LT 

LU 

Lithuania

Luxembourg

HU 

Hungary

MT 

Malta

NL 

AT 

PL 

PT 

Netherlands

Austria

Poland

Portugal

RO 

Romania

SI 

SK 

FI 

SE 

Slovenia

Slovakia

Finland

Sweden

EU-27  27 EU Member States

European Institute for Gender Equality

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Abbreviations

artificial intelligence
at risk of poverty or social 
exclusion
Beijing Platform for Action

AI 
AROPE 

BPfA 
CARE  
Survey 

CEDAW 

COP 
CPR 
CSE 
CSO 
DG 
DRR 
DSA 
ECEC 
EEAS 
EESC 

Survey of Gender Gaps in Unpaid 
Care, Individual and Social 
Activities
Committee on the Elimination of 
All Forms of Discrimination against 
Women
Conference of the Parties
common provisions regulation
comprehensive sexuality education
civil-society organisation
directorate-general
disaster risk reduction
Digital Services Act
early childhood education and care
European External Action Service
European Economic and Social 
Committee
European Institute for Gender 
Equality
Employment, Social Policy, Health, 
and Consumer Affairs Council
European Pillar of Social Rights
European Network of Equality 
Bodies
European Regional Development 
Fund
European Social Fund Plus
European Trade Union 
Confederation
European Agency for Safety and 
Health at Work
Eurofound  European Foundation for the 

EPSR 
Equinet 

ESF+ 
ETUC 

EU-OSHA 

EPSCO 

ERDF 

EIGE 

EU-SILC 

Improvement of Living and 
Working Conditions
EU Statistics on Income and Living 
Conditions

MEP 

FGM 
FRA 

GAP 
GRPP 

ILO 
IPU 
ISCED 

LFS 
LGBTIQ (1) 

MFF 
NATO 
NGO 
OECD 

FEMM  
Committee  European Parliament Committee on 
Women’s Rights and Gender Equality
female genital mutilation
European Union Agency for 
Fundamental Rights
gender action plan
gender-responsive public 
procurement
International Labour Organization
Inter-Parliamentary Union
International Standard 
Classification of Education
Labour Force Survey
lesbian, gay, bisexual, trans, 
intersex, queer
Member of the European 
Parliament
multiannual financial framework
North Atlantic Treaty Organisation
non-governmental organisation
Organisation for Economic 
Co-operation and Development
Parliamentary Assembly of the 
Council of Europe
programme for international 
student assessment
percentage point(s)
recovery and resilience plan
sustainable development goal
sexual and reproductive health and 
rights
science, technology, engineering, 
arts and mathematics
science, technology, engineering 
and mathematics
temporary protection directive
UN Framework Convention on 
Climate Change
World Health Organization
women, peace and security

pp 
RRP 
SDG 
SRHR 

TPD 
UNFCCC 

WHO 
WPS 

STEAM 

STEM 

PACE 

PISA 

 (1)  This report uses the abbreviation LGBTIQ following the terminology used in the Communication from the Commission to 

the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions – A 
union of equality: LGBTIQ equality strategy 2020–2025, COM(2020) 698 final of 12 November 2020, https://eur-lex.europa.
eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:52020DC0698. It represents an inclusive umbrella term for people whose sexual 
orientation differs from heteronormativity and whose gender identity falls outside binary categories. The language used 
to represent this very heterogeneous group continuously evolves towards greater inclusion, and different actors and 
institutions have adopted different versions of the abbreviation (LGBT, LGBTQI and LGBTI). The report uses institutions’ 
chosen abbreviations when describing the results of their work.

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European Institute for Gender Equality

Executive summary

Gender equality: key to the EU’s success in 
uncertain times

The EU is navigating profound global and 
internal challenges that require coordinated, 
forward-thinking solutions. Economically, the 
EU is facing a slowdown in growth and 
challenges to its competitiveness, exacerbated 
by an ageing population and a shrinking 
workforce. These pressures highlight the urgent 
need for sustained innovation and investment. 
Geopolitical tensions, including the Russian war 
of aggression against Ukraine, have exposed 
critical vulnerabilities, particularly in energy 
dependence. Similarly, the global race for 
technological leadership has revealed 
innovation weaknesses in the EU. At the same 
time, strengthening anti-democratic forces are 
testing the EU’s commitment to democratic 
principles, human rights and gender equality.

Gender equality emerges as a critical enabler of 
EU success in addressing these challenges and 
achieving its objectives in uncertain times. 
Empowering women and ensuring their full 
participation across all sectors can significantly 
enhance productivity and competitiveness. 
Diverse leadership and gender-balanced teams 
drive innovation and are essential to close gaps 
in high-growth sectors, such as digital 
technology and the green transition industries. 
Promoting inclusive digital and green transitions 
will strengthen the EU’s global standing and 
help deliver on commitments to gender equality 
and sustainability – imperatives for 
safeguarding the EU’s prosperity. Moreover, 
addressing gender disparities in employment 
and education will unlock a broader talent pool, 
mitigating demographic pressures. Gender-
responsive policies in areas such as childcare, 
long-term care and flexible work arrangements, 
along with the equitable distribution of unpaid 
care work between women and men, will also 
strengthen social cohesion and economic 
resilience, framing care as a cornerstone of 
Europe’s economy. These policies are not only 
vital for achieving gender equality, but also 
essential for fostering a more resilient society – 
particularly in the polycrisis context. The EU’s 

2024 Gender Equality Index score of 71.0 (out of 
100) shows that the EU is getting closer to 
achieving gender equality, but progress is slow 
and the goal is, as yet, far from realised.

As the EU strives to uphold the common values 
set out in Article 2 of the Treaty on European 
Union and to strengthen internal unity, 
advancing gender equality also reinforces trust 
and shared values. By keeping gender equality 
central to its priorities, the EU can address 
immediate challenges and build a foundation 
for an equitable and prosperous future for all. 
This report aims to provide the evidence 
needed for change and inspire a collective 
commitment to transforming the EU into a 
place where everyone can thrive and enjoy 
gender equality.

Sixth general review of the implementation 
of the Beijing Platform for Action in the EU

In this context, the Beijing Platform for Action 
(BPfA), established at the fourth UN World 
Conference on Women in 1995, remains more 
relevant than ever. It serves as a reference 
framework for eliminating gender inequalities 
and advancing women’s empowerment across 
its 12 critical areas of concern. With unanimous 
support from all EU Member States, the BPfA 
plays a crucial role in shaping the gender 
equality policies of the EU and its Member 
States.

To mark the 30th anniversary of the BPfA in 
2025, the UN Commission on the Status of 
Women will review global and regional progress 
on gender equality, including within the EU. This 
milestone provides an opportunity to reflect on 
the advances made, to align these advances 
with the sustainable development goals and to 
identify synergies that can drive a fair and 
sustainable future. Within this framework, the 
European Institute for Gender Equality 
continues to provide essential support, offering 
annual thematic reviews that inform and guide 
EU-wide progress towards the achievement of 
the BPfA’s objectives, ensuring gender equality 

European Institute for Gender Equality

11

Executive summary

remains central to addressing Europe’s most 
pressing challenges.

This report is the sixth general review of all 12 
areas of concern of the implementation of the 
BPfA in the EU, 30 years after its establishment 
(‘BPfA + 30’), and covers 2019–2024. It reviews 
the progress made by the EU in gender equality 
since the previous general BPfA review in 2019, 
highlighting both opportunities and challenges 
that persist or have emerged in recent years. 
These challenges include issues brought about 
by digitalisation and multiple crises, such as the 
COVID-19 pandemic, the Russian war of 
aggression against Ukraine and ongoing 
pushback against gender equality.

This executive summary of findings from the 
BPfA + 30 review is organised around seven key 
themes. These highlight key findings that 
emerge from the review, which cut across 
multiple areas of the BPfA and are closely 
interconnected:

1)  thriving in a gender-equal and inclusive 

economy;

2)  providing gender-responsive social 

protection and services;

3)  eradicating gender-based violence, stigma 

and stereotypes;

4)  fostering parity democracy, accountability 

and gender-responsive institutions;
5)  shaping a digital transformation that 

promotes gender equality;

6)  advancing a socially fair green transition 
that leaves no woman or girl behind;
7)  achieving peaceful and inclusive societies 
and advancing gender equality across the 
world.

1.  Thriving in a gender-equal and inclusive 

economy

Since the previous general BPfA review of all 12 
areas of concern, the EU has made substantial 
strides in promoting gender equality within the 
economic sphere. Notable advancements 
include the introduction of three landmark 
directives on work–life balance, gender balance 
on corporate boards and pay transparency. 
These legislative measures signal a solid 

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European Institute for Gender Equality

commitment to tackling gender disparities in 
caregiving responsibilities, decision-making and 
pay. The European care strategy was also 
launched by the Commission to ensure high-
quality, affordable and accessible care services 
with better working conditions and work–life 
balance for carers, most of whom are women.

Employment rates among women and men 
have demonstrated resilience in the face of 
recent challenges, including the COVID-19 
pandemic and economic downturns. However, 
gender gaps persist. In 2023, 80 % of men aged 
20–64 years were employed, compared with 
70 % of similarly aged women. Slowly rising 
employment does not guarantee equal 
opportunities for all groups. Disadvantaged 
communities such as Roma face severe 
employment disparities. In 2021, only 28 % of 
Roma women aged 20–64 years were 
employed, compared with 58 % of Roma men, 
resulting in a high prevalence of 
intergenerational poverty and extreme social 
and economic exclusion of Roma women.

Time poverty, worsened by increased caregiving 
demands during the pandemic, is further 
affecting women’s ability to balance work and 
family responsibilities, and often results in 
reduced hours or exit from the workforce. 
Similarly, while there was a small reduction of 1.7 
pp in the gender pay gap in the EU since 2019, it 
remained at 12 % in 2023.

Gender stereotypes, reinforced by familial, 
cultural and institutional influences, exacerbate 
gender segregation in various sectors. 
Significant gender disparities remain in the 
digital and green economies. This is especially 
apparent in ICT, where women make up only 
one fifth of the workforce. This under-
representation limits women’s access to high-
paying jobs and their advancement in fields 
such as artificial intelligence (AI) and renewable 
energy, where women constitute just one third 
of specialists. Similar gaps exist in 
entrepreneurship, with women making up only 
19 % of ICT entrepreneurs and 10 % of start-up 
founders. Gender biases in investment and a 
lack of financial support for women contribute 
to the under-representation of women in 
entrepreneurship and innovation. Moreover, 

unequal access to financial resources creates 
gender disparities in financial confidence and 
the ability to engage with financial products 
and build wealth in the long term.

Despite progress in the past five years, 
women’s representation in economic leadership 
remains low. In the EU, only one in three 
ministers overseeing economic portfolios such 
as finance and trade is a woman. Since 2019, a 
woman has led the European Central Bank; 
however, women hold just 2 of 26 seats on its 
governing council. Meanwhile, the boards of the 
largest publicly listed companies in the EU 
consist of 34 % women. This reflects a 6 pp 
increase from 28 % in 2019. While progress has 
been slow, countries that have adopted 
corporate quotas and/or targets are seeing 
rapid gains. These improvements could 
accelerate as Member States implement the 
targets of the new directive on gender balance 
on corporate boards into national law.

To create a more equitable and inclusive 
economy, it is essential to address gender gaps 
as the digital and green transitions reshape the 
labour market. Key actions include offering 
targeted support for women in science, 
technology, engineering and mathematics 
(STEM) and ICT, tackling barriers to entry and 
retention, promoting lifelong learning and 
addressing the under-representation of women 
in entrepreneurship. Enhancing financial 
literacy and improving women’s access to 
capital will enable them to engage more 
confidently with investments and business 
opportunities. Enhancing working conditions in 
the care sector and encouraging more men to 
take on both paid and unpaid caregiving roles 
could help to challenge stereotypes and meet 
the growing demand for care as the EU 
population ages. Strengthening work–life 
balance policies, expanding flexible working 
options, ensuring equal parental leave and 
encouraging companies to adopt gender 
equality plans with more transparent human 
resources practices will contribute to building a 
more inclusive economy. In addition, increasing 
pay transparency and ensuring that companies 
report on gender pay gaps will be critical to 
closing wage disparities and fostering greater 

Executive summary

accountability regarding the achievement of 
gender equality within the economic sphere.

2.  Providing gender-responsive social 

protection and services

Over the past five years, the EU has introduced 
key policies to strengthen gender-responsive 
social protection and services. Providing 
support to parents by better reconciling family 
aspirations and paid work, notably by ensuring 
access to high-quality early childhood 
education and care and long-term care services, 
has been high on the EU policy agenda. 
Initiatives such as the European child guarantee 
aim to ensure that Member States provide 
essential services for girls and boys at risk of 
poverty. In addition, two Council 
recommendations have promoted safety nets 
and social protection for non-standard workers 
and the self-employed. The adequate minimum 
wages directive, adopted in 2022, establishes a 
framework for adequate minimum wages. This 
benefits many women, who are often in low-
wage jobs. The Commission’s gender equality 
strategy for 2020–2025 and, in particular, 
various European Parliament resolutions have 
underlined the importance of accessible 
services related to sexual and reproductive 
health and rights. These include contraception, 
menstrual products and abortion, which are 
fundamental to human dignity and gender 
equality. Significantly, France and Slovenia are 
examples of countries that have explicitly 
enshrined the right to abortion in their 
constitutions. This provides a benchmark for 
other Member States in safeguarding sexual 
and reproductive health and rights.

Between 2018 and 2023, the shares of women 
and men at risk of poverty or social exclusion 
fell marginally to 22 % of women and 20 % of 
men. However, women remain more vulnerable 
to poverty in its multiple dimensions, such as 
energy poverty, inadequate housing and 
limited access to finance. Roma women, lone 
mothers and older women are at the highest 
risk of income, energy and housing poverty.

Disparities in access to education persist due to 
gender biases and biased societal norms. 

European Institute for Gender Equality

13

Executive summary

Gender stereotypes, perpetuated by families, 
teacher biases, gendered learning materials and 
media, continue to discourage girls from 
entering STEM fields. Such biases also deter 
boys from entering careers traditionally 
dominated by women in fields such as care and 
education. Educational disparities are especially 
stark in Roma communities, where 28 % of 
women and girls lack formal education, 
compared with 18 % of Roma men and boys. 
The implementation of comprehensive 
sexuality education also remains inconsistent 
across the EU, with only a few Member States 
addressing issues such as mutual consent and 
gender-based violence.

Access to abortion remains unequal across the 
EU, and in some Member States it is becoming 
increasingly difficult. Healthcare and care 
services also require improvements in 
accessibility, affordability and quality. Women 
living in rural areas, in particular, face limited 
access to healthcare. This affects older women 
in particular, who encounter compounded 
challenges due to their age and the scarcity of 
services. Economic barriers such as high costs 
contribute to unmet health needs, with women 
being slightly more likely than men to cite cost, 
waiting times or distance as obstacles. For 
migrant women, particularly those in an 
irregular situation, additional barriers such as 
complex administrative processes and fear of 
deportation further limit access to healthcare, 
especially for non-emergency care. By 2035, the 
population aged 65 years or older is expected 
to grow by 23 %. This contrasts with a 
projected increase of 7 % in employment in the 
care sector. This situation highlights an urgent 
need to address care demands, support the care 
workforce and improve their working 
conditions.

To foster comprehensive gender-responsive 
social protections, it is equally urgent to 
address issues such as the housing crisis and 
energy poverty in ways that acknowledge and 
tackle existing gender disparities. In particular, 
a robust anti-poverty strategy with clear 
targets and a well-rounded focus on reducing 
women’s poverty will strengthen social 
protection across the EU. Finally, essential steps 
need to be taken to ensure that public services 

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European Institute for Gender Equality

promote gender equality in various areas. 
These include the call for high gender-
responsive standards at the national level for 
reproductive and sexual healthcare, in line with 
international commitments (e.g. the BPfA and 
sustainable development goals), the 
implementation of gender-sensitive education 
curricula and the creation of national standards 
for comprehensive sexuality education and 
educational materials that eliminate gender 
stereotypes.

3.  Eradicating gender-based violence, 

stigma and stereotypes

In 2023, the EU acceded to the Istanbul 
Convention, which entered into force for the EU 
on 1 October 2023. This was followed in 2024 
by the adoption of the first EU directive to 
combat violence against women and domestic 
violence. These were historic landmarks in 
building a comprehensive legal framework 
against gender-based violence in the EU. The EU 
has also reinforced its fight against trafficking 
by delivering the revised anti-trafficking 
directive and the EU strategy on combating 
trafficking in human beings (2021–2025). 
Another milestone is that intersectional 
discrimination was legally defined at the EU 
level for the first time in the pay transparency 
directive.

Despite these achievements, significant 
challenges persist in fully addressing violence 
against women. For instance, cyberviolence 
against women and girls is a growing concern in 
the digital age. This manifests in various forms, 
from cyberstalking to the non-consensual 
sharing of intimate images. Reports of sexual 
assault and rape rose markedly between 2019 
and 2022. Evidence points to a significant rise 
in attacks and murders specifically targeting 
transgender individuals in Europe. Roma 
women face high levels of discrimination and a 
heightened risk of gender-based violence. 
Women with disabilities also face high levels of 
gender-based violence and severe violations of 
their sexual and reproductive rights. Gender 
stereotypes and stigma continue to hinder 
gender equality. For instance, gender-based 
stigma impedes men from seeking mental 

health support despite being almost four times 
more likely than women to die from intentional 
self-harm.

To build an EU free of gender-based violence, 
stigma and stereotypes, it is essential to 
prioritise the incorporation into national 
legislation of the EU directive on combating 
violence against women and domestic violence. 
Recognising femicide as an offence distinct 
from homicide and adopting a consent-based 
definition of rape across all Member States are 
key steps to ensuring justice and protection for 
victims of gender-based violence and sexual 
violence. Comprehensive and well-funded 
victim support services are also needed to 
address the diverse needs of victims of violence 
against women. Furthermore, the collection of 
comparable data and the harmonisation of 
definitions of gender-based violence are 
necessary to create a robust, coordinated 
response across Member States.

Efforts to combat gender-based cyberviolence 
require the enforcement of the Digital Services 
Act. This means ensuring that online platforms 
take proactive measures to prevent and 
address gender-based cyberviolence, such as 
cyberstalking, online harassment and the 
non-consensual sharing of intimate images. It 
also entails holding platforms accountable for 
monitoring harmful content, implementing 
effective reporting mechanisms and removing 
illegal or abusive material promptly to protect 
victims and reduce the prevalence of such 
violence. In addition, improving the legal 
framework on anti-discrimination would 
further strengthen protections and 
accountability across the EU.

Finally, tackling persistent stereotypes that 
harm women, girls, men and boys demands 
sustained efforts from a wide range of 
stakeholders, including governments, 
educational and media institutions, and civil 
society. These efforts should encompass public 
awareness campaigns and educational 
initiatives to promote gender equality and 
challenge harmful norms. Specifically, 
enhancing media literacy and tackling gendered 
disinformation are critical measures needed to 
counter the online spread of misogynistic 

Executive summary

ideologies, particularly among young men and 
boys, who may resist policies and cultural shifts 
promoting gender equality. These efforts are 
vital to ensure that everyone in the EU can 
thrive without fear of gender-based violence, 
discrimination or harmful stereotypes.

4.  Fostering parity democracy, 

accountability and gender-responsive 
institutions

The European Commission of 2019–2024 was 
the most gender balanced in its history, with 
Ursula von der Leyen as the first woman to 
serve as Commission President. Building on the 
progress of the 2019–2024 term, the European 
Commission for the 2024–2029 term continues 
to make strides in achieving gender balance. 
Apart from the Commission President staying 
on for the 2024–2029 term, four of the six 
assigned Executive Vice-Presidents are women. 
After the 2024 elections, women made up 39 % 
of the European Parliament, a decrease from 
41 % in the previous political term. This 
represents the first-ever decline in the 
proportion of women Members of the European 
Parliament, which had been consistently 
growing since 1979.

Under the guiding theme of a ‘union of 
equality’ of the 2019–2024 Commission, key 
highlights of that Commission include the 
appointment of the first-ever Commissioner for 
Equality, and the adoption of the gender 
equality strategy for 2020–2025. This strategy 
signals a solid commitment to gender-targeted 
actions. It also highlights the mainstreaming of 
a gender equality perspective and 
intersectionality as the way to achieve gender 
equality across EU policymaking. Further 
institutional achievements at the EU level 
include the establishment of the Task Force on 
Equality to coordinate the equality policy 
agenda and ensure equality mainstreaming 
throughout the Commission, and the adoption 
of a methodology to track gender -equality-
related expenditure as a cross-cutting objective 
of the EU’s long-term budget. These efforts 
underline the EU’s progress in institutionalising 
gender equality, affirming it as a core priority in 
EU governance and policymaking. In addition, 

European Institute for Gender Equality

15

Executive summary

the introduction of the two parallel directives 
setting common standards for equality bodies 
marked a crucial milestone in advancing 
accountability for gender equality and non-
discrimination in the Member States. EU 
institutions also took steps to protect women 
politicians, journalists and public figures from 
misogynistic and anti-democratic attacks. At 
the national level, the representation of women 
in parliaments has increased by 2 pp since 
2018, reaching 33 % by the end of 2024. 
However, only seven Member States have 
achieved gender balance (BE, DK, ES, NL, AT, FI 
and SE). In six Member States (IE, EL, CY, HU, RO 
and SK), women constitute fewer than 25 % of 
members of parliament. Member States that 
have legislative gender quotas in place slightly 
outperform those without them, and the most 
significant impact is expected in the long run. 
In 2024, women continue to hold ministerial 
positions mainly in social affairs, health and 
education.

In 2024, most Member States have a senior 
minister responsible for gender equality. 
However, variations exist between Member 
States in terms of the levels of resources, effort 
and governmental structures dedicated to 
ensuring the effective promotion of gender 
equality and gender mainstreaming across all 
governmental work. For example, in three 
Member States (ES, FR and LU), the governmental 
body responsible for gender equality policy is 
located at the highest level of the government 
hierarchy, functioning as an entire ministry, while, 
in most other Member States, such governmental 
bodies are located within a department of a 
ministry, limiting their power and visibility in 
promoting gender equality. Over half of the 
Member States have an active action plan on 
gender equality and have gender focal points 
within ministries. However, across the Member 
States, there has been a noticeable decline in the 
use of gender mainstreaming tools such as 
gender impact assessments.

continue to face high levels of violence, 
including cyberviolence, aimed at limiting their 
participation in decision-making and in the 
public sphere. Women’s rights organisations 
and activists face increasing attacks, hate 
speech and funding cuts. Growing evidence 
indicates that anti-gender discourses online are 
linked to radicalisation and extremism.

Fostering gender-responsive institutions across 
the EU requires gender equality and gender 
mainstreaming to be embedded as central 
priorities in policymaking and governance. This 
entails allocating adequate authority, resources 
and structures at the national and EU levels. 
Coordinating mechanisms dedicated to gender 
equality at all levels will enhance accountability 
and ensure consistency in policymaking. 
Specifically, strengthening gender 
mainstreaming and gender budgeting is 
essential for ensuring that policies and funding 
decisions consistently consider gender impacts 
and actively promote gender equality.

Achieving parity democracy calls for decisive 
measures to ensure the balanced participation 
of women and men in elections and decision-
making processes, reflecting democratic 
principles. This includes implementing 
legislative gender quotas based on parity 
(50/50) to achieve equal representation in 
political decision-making. Equally important is 
fostering safe and supportive environments in 
which women’s rights organisations and civil 
society can operate freely and ensuring that 
they receive sufficient funding. These efforts 
need to be reinforced by robust measures to 
address and prevent violence and harassment, 
both online and offline – in particular, violence 
targeting women in public roles, such as 
politicians, journalists and activists. These 
actions are indispensable to advancing gender 
equality in decision-making and safeguarding 
democratic values across the EU.

Anti-gender movements have grown in 
visibility and influence since 2019, particularly 
in the transnational digital space. Such 
movements are attempting to roll back 
women’s rights in many Member States. 
Women in politics and women public figures 

5.  Shaping a digital transformation that 

promotes gender equality

The digital transition is at a pivotal moment. 
Significant efforts are under way to promote 
gender equality in a range of fields, from 

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European Institute for Gender Equality

education and work to health and 
communications. Central to this vision is the 
EU’s 2022 Digital Decade policy programme. 
This aims to double the number of ICT 
professionals to 20 million by 2030, with a 
strong emphasis on gender balance and 
boosting the number of women in STEM. 
Initiatives such as the women in digital 
strategy – and the broader 2030 Digital 
Decade – are driving efforts to increase the 
representation of women in technology fields. 
Meanwhile, the new European innovation 
agenda is empowering women innovators 
through entrepreneurship and leadership 
programmes. The introduction of the Digital 
Services Act marked a substantial step 
forwards in combating gender-based violence 
online by requiring large platforms to mitigate 
exposure to harmful content. Advances in 
healthcare technology include AI solutions to 
ease caregiver burdens and AI-enhanced breast 
cancer detection. These highlight the potential 
of digitalisation to support care provision and 
to improve women’s health outcomes.

A number of challenges hinder a gender-equal 
digital transition. Women remain under-
represented in the ICT sector – especially in 
leadership roles – and face persistent pay gaps. 
Gender stereotypes and work cultures 
dominated by men, which can be characterised 
by long working hours and insufficient work–
life balance policies, hinder women’s entry into 
and retention in technology careers. Only 23 % 
of women with STEM degrees secure 
technology roles, compared with 44 % of men. 
Furthermore, many women drop out of 
technology careers between the ages of 30 and 
44 years due to a lack of work–life balance 
culture in the workplace. The sector’s gender 
disparities are mirrored in education, with 
women earning five times fewer degrees in ICT 
than men. As automation reshapes the labour 
market, job displacement is a risk for many 
roles. Meanwhile, women continue to face 
additional barriers, such as the predominant 
share of unpaid care work, that limit their 
opportunities for upskilling and retraining to 
enable the transition into emerging jobs.

The COVID-19 pandemic accelerated workplace 
digitalisation, but also exacerbated digital 

Executive summary

disparities, disproportionately affecting carers’ 
productivity and work–life balance. Teleworking 
is often concentrated in higher-paying jobs that 
require advanced qualifications, leaving many 
lower-wage frontline workers (a group in which 
women are over-represented) without such 
opportunities. For those with access to 
telework, maintaining work–life boundaries and 
the right to disconnect can be a real challenge. 
The digital workplace also creates new avenues 
for violence and harassment. Among 
teleworkers, women experience harassment or 
bullying at twice the rate of men (6 % of 
women compared with 3 % of men).

The increasing reliance on digital technologies, 
including AI, is transforming hiring, task allocation 
and performance evaluation processes. AI-driven 
recruitment processes risk perpetuating gender 
biases in candidate selection. Among teleworkers, 
36 % of women and 31 % of men report 
experiencing increased use of digital technologies 
for surveillance, such as camera and keystroke 
monitoring to track their remote work. Women 
face a higher pressure, as they usually experience 
more caregiving interruptions.

While digitalisation in the healthcare sector 
appears promising, it still overlooks the needs 
of women and can perpetuate existing biases 
and health disparities. For example, many AI 
algorithms used in diagnostics and treatment 
are trained on datasets that primarily reflect 
men patients. This can lead to misdiagnoses for 
women, particularly of conditions such as 
cardiovascular disease, where symptoms often 
differ between women and men. Older women, 
in particular, face barriers to accessing digital 
health technologies, further widening the 
digital divide. In addition, the digital transition 
has introduced new forms of gender-based 
violence, such as cyber harassment.

To ensure a digital transition that promotes 
gender equality for all, there is an urgent need 
to address systemic digital inequalities and 
adopt gender-responsive approaches across the 
various domains of digital transformation. 
Diverse STEM role models need to be 
showcased, and education frameworks need to 
be strengthened to counter gender biases in 
career aspirations early in children’s 

European Institute for Gender Equality

17

Executive summary

development. Developments in AI need to 
adhere to the Artificial Intelligence Act and 
incorporate gender impact assessments and 
gender-based violence considerations to 
prevent discrimination and improve algorithmic 
accountability. Stringent controls on 
algorithmic systems will contribute to a safer 
digital environment.

Furthermore, the equal participation of women 
needs to be ensured in ICT and all professions 
related to the digital transition. This requires 
targeted training, mentorship and funding 
opportunities and the transformation of 
workplace cultures to foster gender equality. 
This transformation should address 
unconscious biases and establish flexible, 
supportive work environments with robust 
gender equality policies. Finally, it remains 
essential to expand digital literacy and lifelong 
learning opportunities, especially for older 
women and caregivers, while mitigating job 
displacement risks.

6. Advancing a socially fair green transition 

that leaves no woman or girl behind

The green transition is at a critical juncture. The 
climate and environmental crises are 
intersecting with gender inequalities to create 
some of the most pressing sustainable 
development challenges of our time. The 
European Green Deal, launched in 2019, aims to 
achieve climate neutrality in the EU by 2050 
and recognises the need for a socially fair 
transition. However, it has faced criticism for 
omitting a comprehensive gender-
transformative approach. Even so, increasing 
attention is being paid to gender inequalities in 
the green transition in the context of EU funds, 
such as the Just Transition Fund and the Social 
Climate Fund, and to gender inequalities in EU 
policies for transport and agriculture.

The social and environmental impacts of the 
green transition have a gendered dimension. 
Women are often more environmentally 
conscious than men, adopting eco-friendly 
practices in their daily lives. However, 
responsibilities such as managing household 
sustainability can reinforce traditional care 

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European Institute for Gender Equality

roles. This perpetuates the association of 
‘greenness’ with femininity and deters men 
from participating in sustainable practices that 
are perceived as threats to masculinity. Young 
women are making significant contributions to 
climate activism. Despite this, in 2024, the 
representation of women in formal decision-
making processes at the national level and in 
international climate negotiations remained 
limited. Globally, the EU’s actions 
disproportionately have an impact on 
disadvantaged groups, including women in the 
Global South and Indigenous women, who face 
intensified risks of poverty, exploitation and 
gender-based violence as a result of climate 
change.

Women’s economic vulnerabilities are 
exacerbated during climate crises, as they are 
more likely than men to have unstable jobs or 
to have lower incomes and fewer assets than 
men. Women’s caregiving roles put them at the 
forefront of disaster response. Climate-induced 
stressors such as heatwaves, floods or droughts 
have been linked to higher rates of gender-
based violence, often in relation to heightened 
(financial) stress or climate-related migration, 
including human trafficking. This highlights the 
need for climate adaptation measures that 
adopt a gender perspective. Moreover, gender 
stereotypes continue to limit women’s access 
to sectors of strategic importance for the green 
transition. For instance, only 25 % of workers in 
the energy sector and 17 % in the transport 
sector are women.

To achieve a gender-responsive green 
transition, it is essential to prioritise a gender 
and intersectional perspective across climate 
and environmental policies. This includes 
embedding a gender-responsive approach into 
the implementation of the European Green 
Deal, ensuring its alignment with the gender 
equality strategy. This involves embedding 
gender considerations systematically, rather 
than treating them as optional, across all key 
areas of the green transition, including 
agriculture, energy and transport. Disaster risk 
reduction and climate adaptation plans require 
gender-specific needs to be addressed through 
comprehensive gender impact assessments, 
ensuring that women’s perspectives are 

integral to resilience planning. Moreover, 
recognising and supporting unpaid care work, 
which is predominantly carried out by women, 
is vital to addressing the interconnected 
challenges of climate change and care. At the 
same time, targeted measures need to address 
the rise in gender-based violence, which is 
exacerbated by climate-related crises. Finally, 
focused actions are needed to empower women 
in critical sectors of the green transition. These 
include providing targeted training, addressing 
workplace discrimination and actively 
promoting women’s leadership.

7.  Achieving peaceful and inclusive 

societies and advancing gender equality 
across the world

The EU women, peace and security agenda and 
gender equality action plan III (2021–2027) 
have enhanced the priority given to gender 
equality considerations in EU external actions. 
Under gender equality action plan III, the 
Commission pledged to direct 85 % of new 
actions in external relations towards gender 
equality. By 2024, 26 Member States had 
adopted a national action plan on women, 
peace and security, and the Commission had 
achieved gender parity in the senior positions 
in charge of security. Meanwhile, the 
representation of women in national armed 
forces has increased steadily over the past few 
years. There has also been an increase in 
appointments of dedicated gender advisers to 
EU civilian missions. Most missions now include 
gender equality concerns in their mandatory 
induction training. Moreover, the directive on 
violence against women and domestic violence 
has criminalised female genital mutilation, 
demonstrating the EU’s commitment to 
eradicating this practice worldwide.

Nonetheless, the EU faces ongoing challenges in 
addressing increasing migration pressure due 
to the Russian war of aggression against 
Ukraine, other conflicts and climate change. 

Executive summary

Women experience gender-based barriers to 
seeking asylum, and disproportionate 
discrimination and violence at border controls, 
in particular affecting racialised women. Many 
Member States still do not consider the needs 
of women asylum seekers and refugees. Only 
six Member States (BE, DK, EL, FR, HU and PT) 
explicitly acknowledge the risk of female 
genital mutilation as grounds for asylum. In 
addition, while the temporary protection 
directive facilitated the entry into the EU of 
millions of Ukrainians seeking refuge (many of 
whom were women and girls), many of them 
face unmet needs in sexual and reproductive 
healthcare.

Emerging security threats demand innovative 
approaches that integrate a gender perspective 
as an effective response to today’s complex 
and rapidly evolving global environment. In the 
digital era, disinformation exacerbates 
misogynistic views and creates a fertile ground 
for violent extremism and anti-feminist, racist 
and anti-immigration hate speech. Similarly, 
climate change gives rise to new security 
challenges, such as gender-based violence 
against women both within and beyond the EU. 
Despite these pressing issues, women remain 
significantly under-represented in national 
security agencies, ministerial roles and 
cybersecurity across the EU.

Strengthening the implementation of the EU’s 
women, peace and security agenda remains a 
critical priority. Achieving this involves 
conducting gender impact assessments on 
security policies to mitigate gender-based risks 
and ensure that EU defence policies uphold 
women’s rights. Gender-responsive measures 
play a key role in protecting women refugees 
and asylum seekers, with a focus on securing 
adequate reception conditions, access to sexual 
and reproductive health services and protection 
from gender-based violence. Revisions to 
existing frameworks are essential to address 
these needs effectively.

European Institute for Gender Equality

19

Introduction

Gender equality: key to the EU’s success in 
uncertain times

The EU is facing profound global and internal 
challenges, including changes to the economic 
landscape, geopolitical tensions, strengthening 
anti-democratic forces and a slowdown in 
innovation. Challenges such as these have 
exposed significant vulnerabilities, including 
energy dependence and a shrinking workforce, 
and have intensified internal debate among EU 
Member States. These challenges test the EU’s 
commitment to democratic principles, human 
rights and gender equality and highlight that a 
sustained, coordinated path forwards is of the 
utmost importance. In these uncertain times, 
the EU requires forward-thinking solutions, 
investment and sustained innovation.

Gender equality is a key contributor to EU 
success in addressing these challenges. To 
safeguard the EU’s prosperity, it is essential to 
deliver on commitments to gender equality and 
sustainability. Diverse leadership and gender-
balanced teams drive innovation, and inclusive 
digital and green transitions will strengthen 
the EU’s global standing. Significant 
enhancements in productivity and 
competitiveness can be achieved by 
empowering women and facilitating their full 
participation in society, particularly in high-
growth sectors. Moreover, addressing gender 
disparities in employment and education will 
broaden the talent pool, ameliorating 
demographic pressures. Gender-responsive care 
policies will strengthen economic resilience and 
social cohesion, while also highlighting the 
importance of care work to Europe’s economy. 
These policies are not only vital to achieving 
gender equality but also essential for fostering 
a more resilient and inclusive society – 
particularly in the face of polycrises, such as the 
COVID-19 pandemic, climate and environmental 
challenges, and the ongoing and increasing 
economic and security instability exacerbated 
by geopolitical tensions.

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European Institute for Gender Equality

As the EU strives to uphold its core values and 
democratic principles and strengthen internal 
unity, advancing gender equality also reinforces 
trust and shared values. By keeping gender 
equality central to its priorities, the EU can 
more effectively address challenges and build a 
foundation for a fairer, more prosperous future 
for all. This report provides the evidence 
needed for change and to inspire a collective 
commitment to make the EU a place where 
everyone can thrive and enjoy gender equality.

Sixth general review of the implementation 
of the Beijing Platform for Action in the EU

Established in 1995 at the UN World Conference 
on Women, the Beijing Platform for Action 
(BPfA) provides a roadmap for worldwide 
efforts to end discrimination against women 
and girls and to improve their status across 12 
key areas. Supported unanimously by all 
Member States, the BPfA plays a crucial role in 
shaping the gender equality policies of the EU 
and its Member States.

To mark the 30th anniversary of the BPfA in 
2025, the 69th session of the UN Commission 
on the Status of Women will review the 
progress made towards gender equality and 
women’s rights globally, including within the 
EU. Given the EU’s commitment to integrating 
the UN 2030 Agenda for Sustainable 
Development into all of its policies, 2025 also 
marks a pivotal moment at which to review 
progress towards the sustainable development 
goals (SDGs) and reflect on synergies that can 
drive a fair and sustainable future (see 
Annex 1).

Within this framework, the European Institute 
for Gender Equality (EIGE) continues to provide 
essential support, offering annual thematic 
reviews that inform and guide EU-wide 
progress towards the achievement of the BPfA’s 
objectives, ensuring that gender equality 
remains central to addressing Europe’s most 
pressing challenges.

Introduction

Gender and
intersectional
perspective

EU
megatrends

Life-course
perspective

Context of
multiple
crises

Key guiding
principles and
perspectives of
the sixth BPfA
EU review

Digital and
green
transition

EU social
dimension

This report is the sixth overarching review of 
the implementation of the BPfA objectives 
across all 12 areas of concern in the EU 
(‘BPfA + 30’). The main objective of this report 
is to present an overview of the key EU policy 
developments and trends in gender equality 
across the 12 critical areas of concern of the 
BPfA since 2019. It offers evidence on progress, 
challenges and opportunities for future policy 
discussions and recommendations. The report 
also includes examples of legal and policy 
actions promoting gender equality at the EU 
and national levels.

The analysis focuses on the period following the 
previous general BPfA review of all 12 areas of 
concern, highlighting key findings from 2019 to 
2024 or the most recent available findings. It 

draws on a review of official BPfA indicators 
and additional EU-wide data. Where data and 
information are available, intersectional and 
life-course perspectives are also reflected.

The report takes into account the context of 
multiple crises and EU megatrends.

The report consists of three chapters. The first 
chapter provides an assessment of institutional 
developments related to gender equality at the 
EU level. The second chapter analyses major 
trends and developments in the BPfA’s 12 areas 
of concern at the EU and national levels. 
Practical recommendations for action to 
address key gender equality challenges are 
presented in the final chapter.

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1.  Institutional developments at the EU level since 

2019

This chapter presents the institutional, legal 
and policy context of gender equality in the EU. 
It provides an overview of the structures that 
support gender equality, key legislative 
developments since 2019, significant policy 
advances and the progress made in 
mainstreaming a gender perspective into major 
EU strategies, financial resources and selected 
policy areas. Further details on legislative and 
policy developments in the 12 critical areas of 
the BPfA are included in the progress review for 
each area in Chapter 2.

1.1.  Structures for the 

promotion of gender 
equality in the EU

1.1.1.  EU institutions and bodies

1.1.1.1.  The commitment to gender 

equality was elevated with the 
appointment of a Commissioner 
for Equality and coordinated 
efforts across the Commission

In the 2019 political guidelines for the EU, the 
newly elected Commission President, Ursula 
von der Leyen, indicated that ‘equality for all 
and equality in all its senses’ was one of the 
major priorities of the Commission (European 
Commission: DG Communication and von der 
Leyen, 2019). To demonstrate this commitment, 
the Commission President appointed for the 
first time a Commissioner for Equality. The 
mandate of the Commissioner for Equality was 

to develop EU anti-discrimination legislation, 
lead the gender equality strategy and 
implement the UN Convention on the Rights of 
Persons with Disabilities in the EU. The 
Commissioner’s mandate was also to step up 
the EU’s response to gender-based violence, 
support the EU’s accession to the Istanbul 
Convention and promote the work–life balance 
directive and other new directives (von der 
Leyen, 2019).

Following the 2024 European elections, von der 
Leyen was re-elected as Commission President 
and a new College of Commissioners was 
announced. In the new line-up, while equality 
was maintained as an explicit area of 
responsibility, it is no longer a stand-alone 
portfolio. It has been combined with 
preparedness and crisis management. In the 
area of equality, the mandate of the new 
Commissioner shows a continuation in 
promoting ‘a union of equality’ as central to the 
Commission’s work over the next five years 
(von der Leyen, 2024b).

In the Commission, several units across 
different directorates-general (DGs) contribute 
to achieving gender equality. DG Justice and 
Consumers is central to this effort. The Gender 
Equality Unit in DG Justice and Consumers 
oversees new legislation and policies on gender 
equality, the monitoring of the gender equality 
acquis and operational tasks relating to the 
planning, monitoring, coordination and central 
reporting of gender equality and gender 
mainstreaming activities (EIGE, n.d.-a). Other 

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1.  Institutional developments at the EU level since 2019

units within the Commission also work on gender equality in internal EU policies (2), policies relating to 
external action (3) and human resources (4).

To support the Commissioner for Equality and the equality mainstreaming efforts within the DGs, in 
2020 the Commission set up a Task Force on Equality, which is made up of equality coordinators and a 
secretariat. The role of the equality coordinators (who are representatives of the DGs and the European 
External Action Service (EEAS)) is to raise awareness of the importance of the equality policy agenda, to 
mainstream equality into policies developed by their DGs and to contribute to the implementation of 
‘union of equality’ strategies (European Commission, n.d.-k). This includes the development of an 
equality mainstreaming action plan for their DGs. The secretariat of the task force raises awareness 
about and builds capacity on equality topics and equality mainstreaming across EU policies and activities 
(European Commission, n.d.-k). Other important structures also support the Commission in the area of 
gender equality (Box 1).

Box 1.  Other structures supporting the Commission in the area of gender equality

Initiatives aimed at enhancing collaboration and policy formulation on gender equality in the EU 
include the following.

•  The Advisory Committee on Equal Opportunities for Women and Men – which brings together 
representatives of Member States, civil society, social partner organisations and representatives 
from international organisations – assists the Commission in formulating and implementing 
activities to promote gender equality.

•  The High-level Group on Gender Mainstreaming is an informal group and comprises high-level 
civil servants from the Member State ministries responsible for gender mainstreaming at the 
national level. It supports the EU presidencies in identifying relevant policy areas and topics of 
gender equality to be addressed, including as part of the BPfA.

•  The Commission also collaborates with the Scientific Analysis and Advice on Gender Equality 

(SAAGE) network and the European Equality Law Network.

Initiatives aimed at enhancing the collection, analysis and use of data in the EU include:

•  Eurostat’s Equality and Non-Discrimination Statistics Task Force, which develops guidelines for 

statistical terminology, enhances data dissemination, shares best practices and suggests 
improvements for data coverage;

•  the Subgroup on Equality Data, set up by the EU High-level Group on Non-discrimination, 

Equality and Diversity, which compiles national practices, assesses data quality, supports the 
implementation of Commission strategies and fosters knowledge exchange.

 (2)  For instance, the Fundamental Rights Policy Unit in DG Justice and Consumers contributes to gender equality as a part of 
the fundamental rights agenda, and the Gender Sector of the Democracy, Equality and Culture Unit in DG Research and 
Innovation works on gender mainstreaming in research and innovation.

 (3)  The Gender Equality, Human Rights and Democratic Governance Unit in DG International Partnerships and the Human 

Rights and Civil Society Team within the Thematic Support – Rule of Law, Governance and Security Unit in DG Enlargement 
and Eastern Neighbourhood contributed to the EU’s external actions by promoting gender equality in international 
development and partnerships, complementing the work of the European External Action Service.

 (4)  In 2020, the Commission created the Diversity and Inclusion Office as part of DG Human Resources and Security to 

implement the commitments of the EU equality policies and promote a culture of inclusiveness in the organisation. The 
Management Development and Support Unit and the Executive Staff Unit in DG Human Resources and Security ensure the 
implementation of the gender-balanced management objective.

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1.  Institutional developments at the EU level since 2019

1.1.1.2.  The European Parliament 

Committee on Women’s Rights 
and Gender Equality remains the 
core political body in charge of 
advancing women’s rights and 
gender equality

The Committee on Women’s Rights and 
Gender Equality (the FEMM Committee) 
oversees gender equality topics and is 
responsible for the implementation and further 
development of gender mainstreaming in all 
policy sectors in the European Parliament 
(Figure 1). The FEMM Committee is recognised 
for its vital role in drawing attention to gender 
inequalities as an integral part of policy 
developments in the European Parliament. It 
generally collaborates with other committees 
on legislative processes, such as the Committee 
on Civil Liberties, Justice and Home Affairs and 

the Committee on Employment and Social 
Affairs, by contributing opinions or 
amendments that introduce a gender 
perspective into specific legislative files. 
Between July 2019 and June 2022, the FEMM 
Committee focused on gender mainstreaming 
in budgets, economic issues, fundamental 
rights, democracy, labour markets, climate and 
digitalisation, but its impact on legislative files, 
especially in the Committee on Budgets and the 
Committee on Economic and Monetary Affairs, 
was limited (Samek Lodovici et al., 2023). 
Despite this, the FEMM Committee successfully 
introduced gender equality considerations into 
the EU’s COVID-19 recovery fund (Elomäki and 
Kantola, 2023). Since 2016, most of the 
European Parliament’s committees have 
adopted gender mainstreaming action plans 
(European Parliament, n.d.).

Figure 1.  Political structures supporting gender equality in the European Parliament

•  Adopts opinions and reports to integrate a 

gender perspective in the legislative work of 
the European Parliament

•  Coordinates the Network of Members in 

FEMM committe

charge of Gender Mainstreaming 

•  Conducts targeted actions on gender equality, 

e.g. workshops, meetings with National 
Parliaments, sends ad hoc delegations

High-level group 
on gender equality 
and diversity

•  Promotes equal representation of 

women and men and diversity at all 
levels of the Parliament 

•  Ensures a safe and supportive 

workplace

•  Reports on the implementation of 

the gender action plan

Other committees

•  Adopt gender mainstreaming plans
•  Appoint Members of the European Parliament 

in the Network of Members in charge of 
Gender Mainstreaming

European
Parliament’s 
Bureau

•  Adopted and monitors the Gender 

Action Plan (2021)

Source: Created by the authors, based on EPRS (2021).

Notably, the FEMM Committee has faced the 
recurrent threat of losing its specific focus on 
gender equality by having other areas of 
non-discrimination also fall under its 
jurisdiction. In 2023, a proposal suggested the 
restructuring of the FEMM Committee into a 
temporary committee with reduced legislative 

power, which the FEMM Committee opposed 
(Euractiv, 2023a, 2023b). This case underlines 
the ongoing risks to dedicated gender equality 
structures (see also Section 2.8). Other 
structures support gender equality on the 
administrative side of the European 
Parliament (5).

 (5)  The administrative structures of the European Parliament that also support gender equality are the Equality, Inclusion and 

Diversity Unit in DG Personnel; the equality and diversity coordinators; the Committee on Equal Opportunities and 
Diversity; and the Staff Committee (for more on this, see EPRS, 2021).

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1.  Institutional developments at the EU level since 2019

1.1.1.3.  The Council of the European Union 

lacks a special formation that 
would regularly gather the EU 
ministers responsible for gender 
equality

Gender equality is generally addressed in 
meetings of the Employment, Social Policy, 
Health and Consumer Affairs Council (EPSCO), 
which adopts conclusions on various subjects 
relating to gender equality and women’s rights, 
primarily focusing on the follow-up to the BPfA. 
Since 2019, the Council of the European Union has 
adopted conclusions on gender-equal economies, 
the gender impact of the COVID-19 pandemic and 
gender mainstreaming in the EU budget, among 
others (see the timeline of conclusions in 
Annex 4). Other Council formations address 
gender equality with a nexus on other topics, 
such as human rights (the Working Party on 
Human Rights) or international partnerships (the 
Working Party on Development Cooperation and 
International Partnerships). As a substitute for a 
permanent gender equality council, EU 
presidencies occasionally organise informal 
meetings of gender equality ministers. In May 
2024, the Belgian Presidency organised the first 
meeting of EPSCO ministers dedicated entirely to 
equality issues. The presidency proposed that a 
reference to ‘equality’ be included in EPSCO’s 
name. No formal decision has yet been made 
(General Secretariat of the Council, 2024). 
Furthermore, the Council of the European Union 
would benefit from an internal network or task 
force dedicated to gender mainstreaming in 
policymaking and decision-making processes (6).

1.1.1.4.  EU advisory bodies remain active 
in promoting gender equality in 
various areas

The European Committee of the Regions and 
the European Economic and Social Committee 
(EESC) play major roles in EU policymaking. The 
European Committee of the Regions is an 
advisory body to the Council, the European 
Commission and the European Parliament. It is 

composed of locally and regionally elected 
representatives from the 27 Member States. 
One of its initiatives, ‘For more women in 
politics’, aims to improve gender balance in 
politics, especially at the local and regional 
levels (European Committee of the Regions, 
n.d.). The EESC, meanwhile, as an advisory body 
to the EU institutions, represents a broad 
spectrum of stakeholders, including employers, 
trade unions and social, occupational, economic 
and cultural organisations. Since 2020, the EESC 
has focused on key gender equality issues, such 
as promoting pay transparency, women’s 
entrepreneurship, women’s participation in the 
labour market and the gender dimension of 
energy poverty (EESC, n.d., 2023a, 2023b). In its 
rules of procedure, the EESC commits to 
ensuring that there is compliance with the 
principles of gender equality and non-
discrimination in all of its bodies.

1.1.1.5.  EIGE and other EU agencies 

support gender equality in EU 
policies and debates with evidence 
and data

EIGE collects, analyses and disseminates gender 
equality data to support policy integration. 
Since 2010, EIGE has aided the Council of the 
European Union in monitoring progress on the 
BPfA and proposing new indicators, with its 
reports informing EPSCO conclusions on gender 
equality. EIGE’s Gender Equality Index is 
recognised as a key benchmark for gender 
equality in the EU. In recent years, EIGE has 
become a key research centre and source for 
gender mainstreaming tools, which support EU 
decision-making and policymaking (PPMI, 
2023).

EIGE also seeks synergies with other EU 
agencies, such as the European Union Agency 
for Fundamental Rights (FRA), the European 
Foundation for the Improvement of Living and 
Working Conditions (Eurofound) and the 
European Agency for Safety and Health at 
Work (EU-OSHA). As part of its thematic 

 (6)  Under its General Secretariat, the Council of the European Union has a Diversity and Inclusion Unit dedicated to human 

resources.

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1.  Institutional developments at the EU level since 2019

research, FRA includes gender in its data 
collection and analysis alongside other 
dimensions such as ethnicity and age (FRA, 
n.d.). EIGE and FRA also cooperate to collect 
data on violence against women (the EU 
Gender-based Violence Survey). Eurofound and 
EU-OSHA adopt a gender mainstreaming 
approach in their social, employment and 
work-related research.

1.1.2.  Other organisations at the EU 

level

1.1.2.1.  The coordinated gender equality 
efforts of EU social partners have 
diminished, despite their vital role 
in advancing EU social policy

European social partner organisations, including 
the European Trade Union Confederation 
(ETUC), the Union of Industrial and Employers’ 
Confederations of Europe (BusinessEurope), the 
Association of Crafts and Small and Medium-
sized Enterprises (SMEunited) and Services of 
General Interest Europe (SGI Europe), play a 
crucial role in shaping EU social policy – 
including gender equality – through social 
dialogue. In recent years, the ETUC has 
broadened its focus to include issues such as 
the gender pay gap, harassment and work–life 
balance. Employer organisations have focused 
on women’s employment and labour market 
segregation (Elomäki and Kantola, 2022). 
Although these organisations signed a 
framework for actions on gender equality in 
2005, recent efforts have stalled due to 
disagreements, and joint gender equality 
initiatives were excluded from the 2019–2021 
and 2022–2024 work programmes (Elomäki 
and Kantola, 2022). Even so, in 2020, the social 
partners agreed on recommendations to 
improve childcare services in the EU (ETUC et al., 
2020).

Social partners at the EU level are also active in 
44 sectoral social dialogue committees, 
operating with the support of the European 
Commission. At the time of writing, half of their 
work programmes included actions related 
specifically to gender equality.

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European Institute for Gender Equality

1.1.2.2.  European civil-society 

organisations notably contribute 
to initiating, shaping and 
providing expertise to develop EU 
gender equality policy

The BPfA highlights the involvement of civil-
society organisations (CSOs), especially 
women’s organisations (e.g. the European 
Women’s Lobby), in implementing gender 
mainstreaming. It calls on governments to 
collaborate with CSOs for this purpose. 
However, CSOs also face a growing backlash, 
including hate speech and violent attacks on 
activists who are promoting the rights of 
women and lesbian, gay, bisexual, trans, 
intersex, queer (LGBTIQ) people. The adverse 
effects of these pushbacks are explored in 
detail in Chapter 2, including in Sections 2.7, 2.8 
and 2.9.

1.2.  Legislative 

developments and 
trends

1.2.1.  Since 2019, new directives 
have strengthened the EU 
legal framework for gender 
equality

The EU gender equality acquis, which comprises 
key treaty provisions and the Charter of 
Fundamental Rights, as well as relevant 
legislation and case-law, has been further 
strengthened since 2019 through the adoption 
of new directives (as summarised in Figure 2).

The work–life balance directive marks a pivotal 
advance in EU gender equality policy, moving 
beyond 30 years of soft law and policy 
coordination to set concrete minimum 
standards for parental leave, paternity leave, 
carers’ leave and flexible work arrangements 
for workers with care responsibilities across all 
Member States. The adoption of the directive 
on improving gender balance on company 
boards and the EU pay transparency directive 
demonstrates a commitment to tackling gender 

1.  Institutional developments at the EU level since 2019

disparities in economic decision-making, 
gender-based pay discrimination and the 
gender pay gap. Together, these laws make 
practical steps towards dismantling the ‘glass 

ceiling’, offering qualified women a genuine 
opportunity to secure top positions on 
company boards.

Figure 2.  EU directives in the area of gender equality since 2019

Directive on work–life balance for parents and carers 
(Directive (EU) 2019/1158, 2019)

Date of 
proposal

Date of 
adoption

Date of 
incorporation 
into national 
law

Increase the participation of women in the labour market and the 
take-up of family-related leave and flexible working arrangements 
for parents and carers.

Directive on improving the gender balance among directors of 
listed companies (Directive (EU) 2022/2381, 2022)

Establish targets to accelerate progress towards gender balance in 
corporate boards. By 30 June 2026:
•  women hold at least 40 % of non-executive board positions;
•  women hold at least 33 % of all director positions.

Pay transparency directive (Directive (EU) 2023/970, 2023)

Combat pay discrimination and help close the gender pay gap in the 
EU; first EU directive to recognise ‘intersectional discrimination’.

Directive on combating violence against women and domestic 
violence (Directive (EU) 2024/1385, 2024)

Establish minimum rules to prevent and combat violence against 
women and domestic violence in the EU, protect victims and grant 
them access to justice.

Directives on standards for equality bodies
(Council Directive (EU) 2024/1499 and Directive (EU) 2024/1500, 
2024)

Establish binding standards for equality bodies to improve their 
effectiveness and guarantee their independence.

2017

2019

2022

2012

2022

2024 (expires 
in 2038)

2021

2023

2026

2022

2024

2027

2022

2024

2026

Source: Created by the authors, based on the texts of the relevant directives and proposals for these directives.

While these directives set important 
benchmarks for gender equality in the 
economic sphere, they are considered minimum 
standards; therefore, some social dimensions 
remain less well addressed (EIGE, 2022k). For 
instance, the work–life balance directive does 
not fully capture the diversity of caregiving 
relationships and family structures (Chieregato, 
2020). Meanwhile, the directive on improving 
gender balance exempts Member States in 
which women already hold 30 % of non-
executive director roles or 25 % of all director 

positions or where similar targets have been 
set (Article 12, Directive (EU) 2022/2381). This 
exemption may result in some countries 
maintaining minimal targets below a gender 
balance, rather than pursuing greater gender 
representation (EWL, 2022). In addition, it has 
been pointed out that the exclusion of small 
and medium-sized enterprises is a major gap in 
the directive on pay transparency (EWL, 2021). 
All of the abovementioned directives are 
explored in greater detail under the relevant 
BPfA areas in Chapter 2.

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1.  Institutional developments at the EU level since 2019

1.2.2.  The EU’s accession to the 

Istanbul Convention and the 
adoption of a new directive 
mark historic steps towards 
eradicating violence against 
women in the EU

Recent achievements towards an EU-wide 
framework to combat gender-based violence 
may signal a new, comprehensive approach to 
gender equality, with the Commission taking 
action in various fields not previously covered 
by EU law (EIGE, 2022k). After facing several 
obstacles, in June 2023, the EU acceded to the 
Council of Europe Convention on Preventing 
and Combating Violence against Women and 
Domestic Violence (the Istanbul Convention). 
The EU’s accession is limited to matters that fall 
under the EU’s external exclusive jurisdiction – 
that is, matters relating to judicial cooperation, 
asylum and non-refoulement, the EU 
institutions and the public administration of 
the EU (European Parliament, 2023a). Even so, 
the EU’s accession to the Istanbul Convention 
can serve as a binding framework for a unified 
EU approach to tackling violence against 
women. As of February 2024, 22 Member States 
have acceded to the convention (7).

In March 2022, as the accession to the Istanbul 
Convention stalled, the Commission proposed a 
directive on combating violence against 
women and domestic violence at the EU level. 
However, this proposal sparked division 
between the Parliament and the Council. In June 
2023, the Council adopted a general approach 
that removed the consent-based definition of 
rape, arguing that it exceeded the EU‘s legal 
jurisdiction (8). The directive nevertheless 
adopts a holistic approach to combat violence 
against women and domestic violence in all 
spheres of life, including online, by putting 
forward measures related to prevention, 
protection, prosecution, victim support and 
access to justice. The directive also recognises 
female genital mutilation (FGM), forced 

marriage and certain forms of cyberviolence as 
crimes.

1.3.  Policy developments 

and trends

1.3.1.  The Commission President’s 

political guidelines 
(2019–2024) placed a 
stronger emphasis on gender 
equality than the previous 
Commission did

In her political guidelines, von der Leyen 
reaffirmed several key principles of gender 
equality under the heading of a ‘union of 
equality’ (European Commission: DG 
Communication and von der Leyen, 2019). The 
2019–2024 political guidelines represented a 
shift in the framing of gender equality, making 
it a fundamental right rather than just an 
economic issue (Hubert and Jacquot, 2023). This 
contrasts with Jean-Claude Juncker’s 2014–
2019 guidelines, which lacked specific mentions 
of gender equality (EIGE, 2020c; Hubert and 
Jacquot, 2024). Von der Leyen’s guidelines also 
emphasised equal pay and gender balance on 
company boards and committed to establishing 
a gender-equal College of Commissioners. The 
2024–2029 political guidelines maintain the 
framework of working towards a ‘union of 
equality’, commit to adopting a post-2025 
gender equality strategy and announce a new 
roadmap for women’s rights to be presented on 
International Women’s Day in 2025 (von der 
Leyen, 2024a).

 (7)  Bulgaria, Czechia, Lithuania, Hungary and Slovakia have not acceded to the convention.
 (8)  Just The Facts | EU Directive on Combating Violence Against Women, Explained, https://www.europeanmovement.ie/eu-

directive-on-combatting-violence-against-women-explained/.

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1.  Institutional developments at the EU level since 2019

1.3.2.  The gender equality strategy 
for 2020–2025 made a 
renewed commitment to the 
dual approach towards gender 
equality and intersectionality 
across EU policies

In March 2020, the Commission introduced the 
gender equality strategy for 2020–2025 (9). 
This communication outlined key objectives and 

actions in the advance towards a gender-equal 
Europe, and these are summarised in Figure 3. 
The strategy reflects the Commission’s 
commitment to a dual approach to gender 
equality, combining targeted measures with 
enhanced gender mainstreaming across all 
stages of policy design and EU policy areas. The 
strategy also emphasises intersectionality as a 
cross-cutting principle to ensure inclusive 
implementation.

Figure 3.  Gender equality strategy for 2020–2025: objectives and focus areas

1. Being free from violence and stereotypes
–  Ending gender-based violence
–  Challenging gender stereotypes

3. Leading equally throughout society
–  Achieving gender balance in decision-making 

and politics

5. Funding actions to make progress in gender 

equality in the EU

–  Gender dimension in the multiannual financial 

framework and EU funds
–  Dedicated funding for CSOs

2. Thriving in a gender-equal economy
–  Closing gender gaps in the labour market
–  Equal participations across different sectors of the 

economy

–  Addressing the gender pay, pension gap and care gap

4. Gender mainstreaming and an intersectional 

perspective in EU policies

–  Gender mainstreaming in all major Commission 

initiatives

–  Intersectionality and other ‘union of equality’ 

strategies

6. Addressing gender equality and women’s empowerment across the world
–  Gender equality as a core value of the EU’s external relations, partnerships, trade policy, neighbourhood and enlargement 

policies, etc.

Source: Summary created by the authors, based on the Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the 
Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions – A union of equality: gender 
equality strategy 2020–2025, COM(2020) 152 final of 5 March 2020, https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/
TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A52020DC0152.

The adoption of the gender equality strategy 
for 2020–2025 as a communication represented 
a significant advancement over its 
predecessor – the strategic engagement for 
gender equality for 2016–2019 – which was a 
staff working document and therefore was not 
endorsed by the College of Commissioners 
(European Commission, 2015). This document 
lacked broader political commitment, concrete 
benchmarks and a designated budget. Without 
these elements, progress on targets and 
indicators remained both unmeasurable and 

unattainable (Debusscher, 2023; EIGE, 2020c; 
European Court of Auditors, 2021).

Since adopting the gender equality strategy for 
2020–2025, the Commission has published 
annual monitoring reports detailing progress 
on EU gender equality policies and gender 
mainstreaming (European Commission, 2021a, 
2022a, 2023a). In cooperation with EIGE, the 
Commission and the Joint Research Centre have 
also launched the Gender Equality Strategy 
Monitoring Portal (European Commission, 

 (9)  Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social 

Committee and the Committee of the Regions – A union of equality: gender equality strategy 2020–2025, COM(2020) 152 
final of 5 March 2020, https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A52020DC0152.

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1.  Institutional developments at the EU level since 2019

n.d.-e). It focuses on the first three of the six 
strategic objectives of the strategy at the 
Member State and EU levels. The European 
Court of Auditors has, however, highlighted a 
lack of specific targets and monitoring 
indicators in the gender equality strategy for 
2020–2025 that would allow progress to be 
tracked on gender equality, along with an 
absence of systematic gender mainstreaming 
across all EU policy domains (European Court of 
Auditors, 2021).

1.3.3.  The Commission has adopted 
other EU policies with 
significant relevance to 
gender equality and the ‘union 
of equality’

In June 2020, the Commission introduced its 
first EU strategy on victims’ rights 
(2020–2025) (10), aiming to empower victims of 
crime, including victims of gender-based 
violence. Following this, in 2021, the European 
Pillar of Social Rights (EPSR) action plan was 
unveiled, highlighting gender equality and 
setting targets for women’s labour market 
participation and early childhood education (11). 
In 2022, the European care strategy was 
introduced (12), with the aim of addressing the 
needs of both caregivers, many of whom are 
women, and recipients of care. To live up to its 
commitment to build a union of equality, in 
2020 and 2021 the Commission adopted five 
equality strategies, which are presented in 
greater detail in Section 1.4.5.

1.4.  Developments and 

trends in gender 
mainstreaming

1.4.1.  Green and digital transitions

1.4.1.1.  The European Green Deal 

recognises the need for a socially 
fair green transition but falls short 
of concrete solutions for gender 
mainstreaming

In December 2019, the European Commission 
adopted the European Green Deal (13) as its 
growth strategy to make the EU economy 
sustainable while tackling climate and 
environment-related challenges. One of the 
strategy’s foremost objectives is to lead the EU 
towards achieving climate neutrality by 2050. 
To achieve the abovementioned goals, the 
Commission introduced the Just Transition 
Mechanism, the Just Transition Fund and the 
Social Climate Fund. The emphasis on achieving 
a ‘just’ and ‘socially fair’ transition underlines 
the recognition that certain groups may be 
disproportionately affected by climate change.

However, there has been ongoing scrutiny 
regarding how well the European Green Deal 
addresses gender equality (Akgüç and 
Arabadjieva, 2024; EEB and WECF, 2021). It has 
been observed that the European Green Deal 
acknowledges gender issues, but does not offer 
gender-transformative solutions to address 
entrenched inequalities (EEB and WECF, 2021). 

 (10)  Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social 

Committee and the Committee of the Regions – EU strategy on victims’ rights (2020–2025), COM(2020) 258 final of 
24 June 2020, https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A52020DC0258.

 (11)  Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social 

Committee and the Committee of the Regions – The European Pillar of Social Rights action plan, COM(2021) 102 final of 
4 March 2021, https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/
TXT/?uri=COM%3A2021%3A102%3AFIN&qid=1614928358298#PP1Contents.

 (12)  Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social 

Committee and the Committee of the Regions on the European care strategy, COM(2022) 440 final of 7 September 2022, 
https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A52022DC0440.

 (13)  Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the European Council, the Council, the European 

Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions – The European Green Deal, COM(2019) 640 final of 
11 December 2019, https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/
TXT/?qid=1576150542719&uri=COM%3A2019%3A640%3AFIN.

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1.  Institutional developments at the EU level since 2019

#DiversityInTransport, have been launched and 
are active. Furthermore, the Connecting Europe 
Facility and the EU new urban mobility 
framework recognise the need to consider 
gendered mobility patterns in measures to 
enhance public transport (15) (European 
Parliament, 2021a). While these two initiatives 
explicitly mention gender mainstreaming, it 
remains uncertain how this principle is put into 
practice.

1.4.1.3.  A more robust integration of a 

gender perspective is essential in 
EU agricultural policies

The farm-to-fork strategy under the European 
Green Deal aims to create a fair, healthy and 
environmentally sustainable EU food system by 
reducing the environmental impact of the food 
chain and increasing its resilience. Although 
women are more vulnerable to food insecurity – 
particularly those with lower levels of education 
and a higher number of children (Grimaccia and 
Naccarato, 2022) – gender equality is 
mentioned only briefly in the strategy, under 
non-EU-country cooperation, with little focus 
being given within the EU (EIGE, 2024m). The 
common agricultural policy for 2023–2027, 
adopted by the Commission in 2021, promotes 
gender equality by encouraging the 
involvement of women in farming. This is the 
first time this aspect has been integrated into 
the common agricultural policy objectives. 
However, Member States are only 
recommended, rather than required, to assess 
the situation of women in the sector and to 
develop targeted measures (EIGE, 2024m).

The European Green Deal is not fully aligned 
with the EU’s dual approach to gender equality. 
The weak approach to gender equality, 
including an intersectional perspective, limits 
support for women and men facing structural 
and overlapping inequalities, such as for young 
and older people, ethnic minority groups and 
low-income groups (EEB and WECF, 2021). 
Furthermore, critics argue that the European 
Green Deal adopts a technoscientific and 
economic approach that sidelines crucial social 
dimensions such as care work and gender 
justice (Akgüç et al., 2022).

1.4.1.2.  The sustainable and smart 

mobility strategy aims to advance 
gender equality in EU transport 
and mobility policies

The European Green Deal’s goal to create a 
sustainable transport sector also has significant 
gender implications. Women and men have 
different travel patterns, with women generally 
being more reliant on public and sustainable 
transport. In 2023, women made up just 17 % 
of the transport workforce in the EU, with the 
highest share noted in Malta (31 %) and the 
lowest share in Romania (10 %) (Eurostat, 
2025).

The sustainable and smart mobility strategy 
outlines the path towards reducing emissions 
from the transport sector and ensuring 
accessible mobility for transport users 
(European Parliament, 2021d). The Commission 
commits to applying equality mainstreaming (14) 
in transport policy initiatives as part of the 
sustainable and smart mobility strategy and to 
launching initiatives to increase the 
attractiveness of the transport sector. Several 
initiatives, such as the ‘Women in transport – 
EU platform for change’ initiative (see also 
Box 43) and the network of ambassadors for 

 (14)  To help the European Commission’s staff apply equality mainstreaming in their daily work, a handbook on equality 

mainstreaming in transport was developed and published (European Commission: Directorate-General for Mobility and 
Transport, 2024).

 (15)  Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social 

Committee and the Committee of the Regions – The European Pillar of Social Rights action plan, COM(2021) 102 final of 
4 March 2021, https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/
TXT/?uri=COM%3A2021%3A102%3AFIN&qid=1614928358298#PP1Contents.

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1.  Institutional developments at the EU level since 2019

1.4.1.4.  Gender considerations in the EU 

digital strategy focus primarily on 
increasing women’s representation 
in ICT and STEM

In February 2020, the Commission presented 
the EU’s agenda for shaping Europe’s digital 
future (16). Specifically, this asserts that women 
can and should pursue fulfilling technological 
careers. It emphasises the need for European 
technology to leverage women’s skills and 
capabilities. To support this, the Commission 
aims for the EU to have 20 million employed ICT 
specialists by 2030 and promotes gender 
balance in the sector, which is critical for a 
successful digital transformation. EU efforts to 
advance the digital transition could benefit 
from a broader approach, for example by 
addressing how gender stereotypes and biases, 
beginning in education, hinder women’s entry 
into key digital fields, and the additional 
challenges in the workforce, including women’s 
limited opportunities for advancement and 
their under-representation in leadership (EIGE, 
2020d) (for more on this, see Sections 2.2 and 
2.6).

1.4.1.5.  The Digital Services Act and the 

Artificial Intelligence Act address 
potential risks related to gender-
based violence and discrimination

In 2022, the Commission adopted the Digital 
Services Act (DSA), which aims to ensure a 
secure and trustworthy online environment for 
EU citizens and imposes obligations on 
platforms to prevent exposure to illegal 
content, including materials that might 
constitute gender-based violence (Regulation 
(EU) 2022/2065). By identifying gender-based 

violence as a category of systemic risk for large 
online platforms, the act urges relevant 
providers to assess and mitigate current and 
potential adverse effects. The Artificial 
Intelligence (AI) Act, adopted in 2024, is part 
of a wider package of policy measures to 
support the development of trustworthy AI, 
which would guarantee safety, fundamental 
rights and human-centric AI and prevent AI 
discrimination.

1.4.2.  Gender equality and gender 

budgeting in EU financial 
resources

1.4.2.1.  Gender equality is one of the four 

cross-cutting principles in the 
multiannual financial framework 
for 2021–2027, yet the least well 
integrated

The multiannual financial framework (MFF), the 
EU’s long-term budget, holds considerable 
potential to promote gender equality across all 
financial resources (EIGE, 2019b, 2020c). 
However, the MFF for 2014–2020 took a weak 
stand on gender equality, with little attention 
being paid to gender equality in its provisions 
and implementation (EIGE, 2020c; European 
Court of Auditors, 2021).

In the MFF for 2021–2027, gender equality is 
considered a cross-cutting policy priority (17) 
that should be integrated throughout the 
implementation and monitoring of relevant 
programmes (European Commission, n.d.-c; 
Article 16(f) of the interinstitutional agreement 
on budgetary discipline of 16 December 
2020 (18). In reality, however, there is limited 

 (16)  Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social 

Committee of the Regions – Shaping Europe’s digital future, COM(2020) 67 final of 19 February 2020, https://eur-lex.
europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A52020DC0067&qid=1709241539630.

 (17)  The cross-cutting priorities in the EU budget include climate action and biodiversity, digital transformation, alignment with 
the SDGs and gender equality. The definition of gender equality as a cross-cutting principle reflects the dual approach, 
which includes specific measures (‘the promotion of equality between women and men’) alongside gender mainstreaming 
(EIGE, 2019b).

 (18)  Interinstitutional agreement of 16 December 2020 between the European Parliament, the Council of the European Union 
and the European Commission on budgetary discipline, on cooperation in budgetary matters and on sound financial 
management, as well as on new own resources, including a roadmap towards the introduction of new own resources (OJ 
L 433I, 22.12.2020, p. 28).

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1.  Institutional developments at the EU level since 2019

evidence that gender mainstreaming has been 
systematically applied when preparing the 
programmes of the MFF for 2021–2027 
(European Court of Auditors, 2021). Of the eight 
impact assessments audited, only the 
European Social Fund Plus (ESF+) included a 
gender analysis. The others did not reference 
gender equality or use sex-disaggregated data 
(European Court of Auditors, 2021). Unlike 
climate and biodiversity objectives, which have 
specific quantitative targets (19), similar 
quantitative targets were not adopted for 
gender equality in the EU budget. According to 
the European Court of Auditors (2022), gender 
equality is the least well-integrated cross-
cutting priority in the EU’s long-term budget.

1.4.2.2.  The cohesion policy funds 

maintain provisions on gender 
mainstreaming

The Commission has committed to ensuring 
that specific EU funds integrate a gender 
perspective (European Commission, 2020f). The 
common provisions regulation (CPR) for the 
2021–2027 shared management funds (20) also 
establishes gender equality as a cross-cutting 
principle (Article 9(2), Regulation (EU) 
2021/1060). It mandates that Member States 
and the Commission must promote equality 
between women and men and ensure the 
integration of a gender perspective throughout 

the preparation, implementation, monitoring, 
reporting and evaluation of programmes (21).

To support the mapping of programmes that 
have objectives relating to gender equality, the 
CPR also introduces a code system for 
calculating support for gender equality in the 
cohesion policy funds (the European Regional 
Development Fund (ERDF), the ESF+, the 
Cohesion Fund and the Just Transition Fund) 
(Regulation (EU) 2021/1060) (22). However, this 
does not constitute a full system to track 
financing for gender equality throughout the 
programming cycle, as advocated by 
stakeholders (EIGE, 2019b). Furthermore, 
Annex IV of the CPR stipulates that having a 
‘national strategic framework for gender 
equality’ is an enabling condition applicable to 
certain specific objectives under the ERDF and 
the ESF+ (23) on enhancing the inclusiveness of 
the labour market and promoting a gender-
balanced labour market, respectively. This 
means that, until this enabling condition is 
fulfilled, the Commission will not reimburse the 
expenditure declared by the Member States 
under the relevant specific objectives.

The ESF+ regulation (24) includes an article on 
gender equality, equal opportunities and 
non-discrimination (Article 6, Regulation (EU) 
2021/1057). It establishes that Member States 
and the Commission should use the ESF+ to 
increase the participation of women in 

 (19)  At least 30 % of the resources available under the MFF for 2021–2027 and NextGenerationEU (the EU recovery instrument) 
are required to address climate objectives, and 8 % of annual spending in 2024 and 10 % in 2026 and 2027 have to be 
dedicated to biodiversity objectives.

 (20)  These comprise the European Regional Development Fund; the ESF+; the Cohesion Fund; the Just Transition Fund; the 

European Maritime, Fisheries and Aquaculture Fund; the Asylum, Migration and Integration Fund; the Internal Security 
Fund; and the Border Management and Visa Instrument.

 (21)  The CPR also provides for Member States to organise partnership agreements with (among others) relevant bodies 
responsible for gender equality and civil society, to implement the funds (Article 8). For each specific objective, each 
programme must set out actions to safeguard equality, inclusion and non-discrimination (Article 22). Finally, when 
selecting operations, the CPR establishes that managing authorities have to establish and apply criteria and procedures 
that ensure gender equality and are non-discriminatory (Article 73).

 (22)  The codes used are 1 for gender targeting, 2 for gender mainstreaming and 3 for gender neutrality. The categorisation of 
the gender equality dimension is carried out ex ante by management authorities at the level of a programme’s specific 
objective.

 (23)  This applies to the ERDF’s specific objective on ‘enhancing the effectiveness and inclusiveness of labour markets and access 
to quality employment through developing social infrastructure and promoting social economy’ and to the ESF+’s specific 
objective on ‘promoting a gender-balanced labour market participation, equal working conditions, and a better work/life 
balance including through access to affordable childcare, and care for dependent persons’.

 (24)  In addition, the ESF+ regulation establishes that personal data collected for the common indicators used to monitor the 

implementation of programmes for general support and other specific strands must be broken down by gender (Article 23, 
Annex I and Annex II).

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1.  Institutional developments at the EU level since 2019

employment. In addition, it seeks to improve 
the reconciliation of work with personal life and 
to combat the feminisation of poverty and 
gender discrimination in the labour market, 
education and training (Article 6, Regulation 
(EU) 2021/1057). For this purpose, 1 of the 13 
specific objectives of the ESF+ is to promote 
‘gender-balanced labour market participation, 
equal working conditions, and a better work–
life balance including through access to 
affordable early childhood education and care 
and care for dependent persons’ (Article 4(c), 
Regulation (EU) 2021/1057).

Overall, beyond the gender equality code 
system, the enabling condition and Article 6 of 
the ESF+, the cohesion policy funds neither 
establish further steps to operationalise the 
cross-cutting principle of gender equality nor 
envisage the use of gender mainstreaming 
tools. For instance, there is no thematic 
objective, quantitative target or requirement to 
provide information on how the programming 
cycle and programme implementation 
contribute to achieving the gender equality 
objectives (EIGE, 2019b).

1.4.2.3.  In 2023, the Commission 

introduced a methodology to track 
gender-equality-related 
expenditure in the EU budget

In the 2023 draft budget, the Commission 
tested a methodology for tracking expenditure 
on gender equality across all EU spending 
programmes, as required by the MFF for 2021–
2027 interinstitutional agreement on 
budgetary discipline (see Annex 2). In 2024, the 
monitoring of gender expenditure was 
strengthened by the inclusion in statements of 
sex-disaggregated data per programme 
(European Commission, 2024b). Reporting on 
the consolidated data for 2021, 2022 and 2023 
indicates that, out of a total EU budget of 
EUR 1 019.07 billion, 11 % contributed 
concretely to the promotion of gender equality 
(scores 2 and 1), amounting to 
EUR 114.36 billion (European Commission, 
2024b). In contrast 69 % had no significant 
bearing on gender equality (score 0). According 
to the Commission, in 2023, the total EU budget 

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European Institute for Gender Equality

expenditure on projects receiving gender scores 
of 2 and 1 increased significantly, compared 
with the amounts reported for 2021 and 2022 
(European Commission, n.d.-d). Despite this 
increase, there is insufficient evidence backing 
many programmes’ contributions to gender 
equality.

The assessment criteria used by the 
Commission to assign these scores do not align 
with the minimum criteria used for 
international standards such as the 
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and 
Development (OECD) gender equality marker 
(OECD, 2016) or EIGE’s tool for the cohesion 
policy funds (EIGE, 2022f). For example, the 
OECD and EIGE would require gender-specific 
objectives or indicators disaggregated by sex as 
a minimum criterion to be considered for scores 
2 and 1. The Commission does not include these 
in its methodology (European Court of Auditors, 
2022). As observed by the European Court of 
Auditors (2022), the Commission’s 
methodology also overlooks potential negative 
impacts of the programmes, focusing solely on 
whether they reduce gender inequalities 
without accounting for potential increases in 
them. Importantly, expenditure tracking is only 
one tool within gender budgeting and works 
best when complemented by other tools to 
fully assess how funds are spent to promote 
gender equality (EIGE, 2019a, 2022f). While the 
Commission’s approach marks some progress, 
further steps are needed to achieve 
comprehensive gender budgeting.

1.4.2.4.  While the Recovery and Resilience 
Facility aims to address the 
impacts of crises on women, its 
provisions fall short of the EU’s 
dual approach to gender equality

To support long-term recovery from the COVID-
19 crisis at the EU level, the European 
Commission launched NextGenerationEU, a 
temporary recovery instrument. The core 
element of this fund is the Recovery and 
Resilience Facility. It provides Member States 
with access to grants and loans to finance 
reforms and investments aimed at countering 

the effects of the COVID-19 crisis and achieving 
sustainable growth.

The Recovery and Resilience Facility regulation 
recognises the adverse impacts of the crisis on 
women, yet its regulatory provisions in relation 
to gender equality are limited. The requirement 
for national recovery and resilience plans (RRPs) 
to include a stand-alone explanation describing 
how the plan contributes to ‘gender equality 
and equal opportunities for all and the 
mainstreaming of those objectives’ does not 
establish a duty on the Member States to 
include gender-targeted measures in their RRPs 
and to conduct gender mainstreaming. Owing 
to the lack of formal requirements and the 
often weak gender mainstreaming and gender 
budgeting frameworks at the national level, 
gender equality rarely extends beyond the 
stand-alone explanation on gender equality 
(EIGE, 2023e). Only two Member States have 
mainstreamed gender in a comprehensive way 
in their RRPs. Furthermore, a gender 
perspective is largely missing from RRPs’ 
measures proposed under the digital and green 
pillars. Gender-targeted measures, when 
included in RRPs, tend to focus on promoting 
women’s participation in the labour market, 
work–life balance, and equal pay and pensions. 
Closing gender gaps in care or gender-based 
violence has received less attention (EIGE, 
2023e).

1.4.3.  Gender equality in the 

European semester

1.4.3.1.  Most European semester 

instruments have enhanced the 
attention paid to gender gaps in 
employment, the labour market, 
care, work–life balance and digital 
skills

The European semester is the EU’s framework 
for coordinating economic and social policies. 
Since 2018, the principles of the EPSR have 
been integrated into the European semester 
cycle, focusing on equal opportunities, fair 
working conditions and social protection. The 
semester’s joint employment reports and 

1.  Institutional developments at the EU level since 2019

country reports provide valuable analyses of 
the social situation in the EU, highlighting 
national challenges and offering 
recommendations on gender quality (EIGE, 
2020c). While alert monitoring reports focus 
primarily on economic imbalances, generally 
with limited attention to gender equality (EIGE, 
2020c), the joint employment reports make 
significant efforts to incorporate gender-
sensitive monitoring, offering data 
disaggregated by sex. The impact of COVID-19 
on women, particularly in lower-paid sectors, 
and the need for quality childcare and long-
term care services have been consistently 
highlighted. Since 2020, the employment 
guidelines (2020–2023) have also placed a 
strong emphasis on gender equality, addressing 
issues such as the gender pay gap, women’s 
participation in the labour market and 
leadership roles, in addition to work–life 
balance and pay transparency, while also 
tackling gender stereotypes.

1.4.3.2.  In contrast, gender-equality-

related, country-specific 
recommendations have become 
more scattered since 2019

Country-specific recommendations are a core 
coordination instrument of the European 
semester and have the potential to support 
gender-responsive economic and structural 
reforms at the national level. However, an 
analysis of these recommendations over recent 
years shows that they are primarily gender-
blind or have been used instrumentally to 
promote an economic understanding of gender 
equality that reproduces hierarchies and 
inequalities (EIGE, 2020c; Elomäki, 2023; Klatzer 
and Rinaldi, 2020; O’Dwyer, 2022).

In 2019, several Member States received 
targeted recommendations to improve 
women’s employment, particularly among 
women with young children, by enhancing 
access to affordable, quality childcare and 
long-term care. One Member State was also 
advised to address the gender pay gap, while 
others received guidance on improving care 
systems (Elomäki, 2023). However, since 2020, 
attention to gender-related themes has 

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1.  Institutional developments at the EU level since 2019

diminished. In 2021, Member States received 
only fiscal recommendations. In 2022 and 2023, 
a handful of Member States received 
recommendations to improve access to long-
term care and early childhood education and 
care (ECEC) services. Since 2022, the European 
semester has been adapted to consider the 
implementation of the national RRPs. Emerging 
evidence suggests that, because the 
Commission expected Member States to 
address gender issues through their recovery 
plans, this has led to reduced attention in the 
country-specific recommendations (Elomäki, 
2023).

While other European semester instruments 
have increasingly highlighted gender gaps in 
employment and the need for improved care 
systems to support women’s labour market 
participation, the framing of these remains 
economic, emphasising growth and labour 
supply rather than social well-being (Cavaghan 
and Elomäki, 2022; Elomäki, 2023). In addition, 
over recent years, a vital focus of the country-
specific recommendations has been to advance 
investment in energy infrastructure and 
efficiency. Member States have been 
recommended to support households in the 
context of energy price hikes in 2022. By 2023, 
all Member States were urged to wind down 
energy support measures while protecting ‘the 
most vulnerable households’. This shift in the 
focus of the country-specific recommendations 
from social issues to the green transition and 
energy concerns suggests an emerging trend 
whereby gender considerations may be 
overshadowed (Cavaghan and Elomäki, 2022).

1.4.4.  Gender mainstreaming in 

selected EU policy areas

1.4.4.1.  The EU has intensified its efforts 
to integrate gender equality into 
its external actions

In November 2020, the Commission and the 
High Representative of the Union for Foreign 
Affairs and Security Policy introduced the 
action plan on gender equality and women’s 
empowerment in external action for 

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2021–2025, extended to 2027 (known as the 
gender action plan (GAP) III) (European 
Commission and High Representative of the 
Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy, 
2020). Building upon the EU gender equality 
strategy and GAP II, the action plan seeks to 
promote gender equality in all EU external 
actions. GAP III adopts a gender-transformative 
and intersectional approach. Moreover, GAP III 
has broadened its scope by integrating the 
women, peace and security (WPS) agenda and 
addressing the challenges and opportunities 
presented by the green and digital transitions. 
This demonstrates a broader understanding of 
gender equality issues and an expansion of its 
thematic areas in comparison with GAP II. In 
addition, the Commission pledged to direct 
85 % of new actions in external relations 
towards gender equality by 2027.

In November 2023, the Commission released a 
joint midterm report on the implementation 
of GAP III, highlighting achievements such as 
improved alignment between policy and 
programming, resulting in more initiatives and 
funding for gender equality (European 
Commission, 2023m). However, the report also 
stresses the need for further efforts. This 
includes allocating adequate resources to meet 
targets and reinforcing gender-transformative 
approaches to tackle conflicts, climate change, 
technology-related risks and the backlash 
against women’s rights (DG International 
Partnerships, 2023).

1.4.4.2.  The EU has strengthened the 

adoption of a gender perspective 
in its funding for research and 
innovation

The field of research and innovation continues 
to be an area in which the EU adopts a strong 
gender perspective. Under Horizon 2020, the 
EU’s largest research and innovation 
programme, which ran from 2014 to 2020, 
gender was a cross-cutting issue and was 
mainstreamed in each of the different parts of 
the work programme (EIGE, 2022h). The new 
framework for 2021–2027, Horizon Europe, 
aims to intensify these efforts. It requires 
organisations to have in place a gender 

1.  Institutional developments at the EU level since 2019

equality plan in order to access funding, and 
promotes the integration of a gender 
dimension into research content (25). The 
programme also aims to increase gender 
balance, with a target of 50 % women in expert 
groups and evaluation committees (European 
Commission n.d.-l, 2024e).

1.4.4.3.  The EU security union strategy 

reinforces commitments to gender 
equality

In July 2020, the Commission adopted the EU 
security union strategy (2020–2025) (26). This 
emphasises a secure environment for everyone, 
regardless of racial or ethnic origin, religion, 
gender, age or sexual orientation. The strategy 
advocates for the EU’s accession to the Istanbul 
Convention and the inclusion of violence 
against women in the list of EU crimes. It also 
stresses the importance of ensuring that 
victims of domestic violence and sexual 
exploitation can access their rights. In addition, 
the sixth progress report on the strategy’s 
implementation highlights the need to increase 
the participation of women in the EU 
cybersecurity workforce, in which they remain 
under-represented (European Commission, 
2023e).

1.4.4.4.  Initiatives in the area of migration 
are undergoing significant 
transformation, risking a lack of 
attention to gender equality

Migration was a critical policy area in the 
Commission’s political guidelines for 2019–2024 
(European Commission, n.d.-g). In March 2022, 
the Council of the European Union activated the 
temporary protection directive (TPD), 
efficiently assisting millions of Ukrainians, 

many of whom are women and girls, in seeking 
refuge in the EU (for more on this, see 
Sections 2.3 and 2.5). In December 2023, the 
European Parliament and Council reached a 
political agreement on the new pact on 
migration and asylum, aiming for a balanced 
distribution of asylum applications among 
Member States and streamlined border 
procedures (European Council and Council of the 
European Union, 2024). However, the pact drew 
criticism from CSOs, international organisations 
and some Member States due to the risk of 
increasing the vulnerability of asylum seekers. 
Accelerated procedures might undermine 
safeguards such as legal aid and heighten 
detention risks, especially for women, children 
and other vulnerable groups (Amnesty 
International, 2023b; Human Rights Watch, 
2023a).

1.4.5.  Gender mainstreaming in the 
‘union of equality’ strategies

In line with the ‘union of equality’ agenda and 
the commitment to use intersectionality as a 
cross-cutting principle in the gender equality 
strategy, the Commission has, since 2020, 
adopted strategies in relation to other grounds 
of discrimination and related fields (compiled in 
detail in Annex 3).

These strategies adopt a gender perspective to 
varying degrees and underline the 
intersectionality of gender with other personal 
characteristics and identities. However, while 
some strategies, such as the EU youth strategy 
and the EU Roma strategic framework for 
equality, inclusion and participation, 
acknowledge multiple forms of discrimination, 
they do not integrate a gender perspective 
consistently into their objectives and actions. 

 (25)  EIGE has developed the Gender Equality in Academia and Research tool to provide guidance for research and innovation 

organisations and research funding bodies on developing and implementing an effective and sustainable gender equality 
plan. The tool is available at https://eige.europa.eu/gender-mainstreaming/toolkits/gear?language_content_entity=en.
 (26)  Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the European Council, the European Economic and Social 
Committee and the Committee of the Regions on the EU security union strategy, COM(2020) 605 final of 24 July 2020, 
https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX%3A52020DC0605.

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1.  Institutional developments at the EU level since 2019

The EU anti-racism action plan (27) recognises 
the increased risks women face from emerging 
technologies, including AI-based facial 
recognition, which can misclassify women from 
minority racial or ethnic backgrounds. However, 
the plan does not address the specific 
challenges that women face with regard to 
employment, education, health and housing 
when experiencing discrimination based on race 
or ethnicity. Similarly, the EU strategy on 
combating antisemitism (European 
Commission, 2021h) emphasises a commitment 
to non-discrimination. However, it does not 
fully address how gender discrimination 
interacts with race, ethnicity and religion. This 
inconsistency highlights the need for a more 
thorough integration of a gender perspective 
across all strategies.

Overall, certain strategies, such as the strategy 
for the rights of persons with disabilities 
(European Commission, 2021g), the LGBTIQ 
equality strategy and the strategy on the 
rights of the child, explicitly focus on gender 
gaps and gender-based violence. However, the 
effectiveness of the ‘union of equality’ and 
other related strategies would be improved 
from more consistent application of a gender 
lens across strategies and a unified framework 
for monitoring and assessing the 
implementation of these strategies (European 
Commission, 2021g, 2020c, 2021i). The use of 
different reporting methods between 
strategies complicates the evaluation of 
progress towards equality in a consistent way.

 (27) Communication From the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social 

Committee and the Committee of the Regions – A union of equality: EU anti-racism action plan 2020–2025, COM(2020) 565 
final of 18 September 2020, https://commission.europa.eu/system/files/2020-09/a_union_of_equality_eu_action_plan_
against_racism_2020_-2025_en.pdf.

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2.  Policies and developments in the 12 critical 

areas of concern in the EU since 2019

This chapter reviews key achievements, 
challenges, policy developments and trends in the 
12 BPfA areas of concern since 2019. Additional 
information is provided in the annexes. Annex 1 
examines the links between the BPfA objectives 
and the SDGs, with a particular focus on SDG 5 – 
achieving gender equality and empowering all 
women and girls. Each BPfA area also highlights 
how its objectives intersect with other relevant 
SDGs, demonstrating the broader connections to 
global development priorities.

2.1.  Women and poverty 

(area A)

Under the BPfA, Member States have 
committed to addressing women’s poverty and 

ensuring equal rights and access to economic 
resources, such as savings and credit. Area A 
focuses on developing gender-sensitive policies, 
methodologies and research to meet the 
specific needs of women in poverty. The 
officially agreed EU indicators (28) to monitor 
progress in this area consist of inactivity rates 
and the intersections of gender with age, 
family type and migrant status among those 
considered at risk of poverty (AROP). However, 
these indicators provide only a partial view, 
focusing on income-based and economic 
measures. For this reason, this section 
addresses additional dimensions that capture 
the complex reality of poverty.

Area A (women and poverty) alignment with SDGs

1.2  Reduce at least by half the proportion of women and men of all ages 

living in poverty in all its dimensions

1.4  Equal rights to economic resources and equal access to basic services, 

new technology and financial services

5.4  Recognise and value unpaid care and domestic work through the 

provision of public services, infrastructure and social protection policies 
and the promotion of shared responsibility within the family

8.5  Achieve full employment and decent work for all women and men

For the BPfA + 30 review, the thematic focus and priority topics of area A include: 

Analysing the impact of 
COVID-19 on heightened 
time poverty among 
women

Understanding the 
effects of energy 
poverty on gender 
inequalities

Tackling the gender 
repercussions of 
inadequate housing and 
homelessness

Examining gender 
disparities in financial 
literacy levels

These thematic priorities aim to illustrate the 
multidimensional nature of poverty experienced 
by women and men in all of their diversity, 

particularly amid multiple crises and 
megatrends. Climate change and challenges 
related to the digital and labour market 

 (28)  See more information in all BPfA indicators in EIGE’s Gender Statistics Database.

European Institute for Gender Equality

39

2.  Policies and developments in the 12 critical areas of concern in the EU since 2019

transformation, alongside economic downturns 
resulting from the COVID-19 pandemic, conflicts 
and crises, such as the Russian war of aggression 
against Ukraine, growing social divisions and 
persistent inflation, have deepened existing 
issues and unveiled new dimensions of poverty.

2.1.1.  EU policy developments

Since 2018, the EU has made significant strides 
towards addressing poverty and social 
exclusion. Many initiatives have the potential to 
have a positive impact on women and men. 
However, they are not harmonised under a 
common strategy and do not consistently 
integrate a gender perspective. The EPSR and 
its action plan set an agenda for actions that 
enhance gender equality and reduce the risk of 
poverty and social exclusion. The EPSR 
established a target to reduce the number of 
people at risk of poverty and social exclusion 
(AROPE) by at least 15 million by 2030 
(compared with 2019), of whom at least 
5 million should be children. To achieve this, the 
EU has adopted complementary initiatives that 
directly address poverty and social exclusion, 
thereby highlighting the EPSR’s role in 
promoting cohesive social policies.

One such initiative is the European child 
guarantee, which aims to ensure that all girls 
and boys who are at risk of poverty and social 
exclusion (AROPE) have access to key services, 
such as ECEC and healthcare. The non-binding 
Council recommendation on adequate 
minimum income ensuring active inclusion 
seeks to strengthen the safety nets for women 
and men by combining adequate minimum 
income benefits with other monetary benefits. 
The Council recommendation on access to 
social protection for workers and the self-
employed promotes access to social protection 
for all, in particular for non-standard workers 
and the self-employed. Finally, the adequate 
minimum wages directive establishes a 
framework for adequate minimum wages. 
Although minimum wages are seen as a 
gender-neutral policy, women are more likely 
than men to earn minimum wage, with 
differing indirect effects on their employment 
and working hours (Eurofound, 2024b).

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European Institute for Gender Equality

The EU has also introduced further policies that 
support the economic empowerment of women 
and girls. For example, the work–life balance 
directive, the European care strategy and two 
Council recommendations on long-term care 
and ECEC aim to promote the participation of 
carers in the labour market. Furthermore, the 
Commission President’s political guidelines for 
2024–2029 emphasise the importance of 
ensuring that new forms of work do not lead to 
fewer rights and include a pledge to introduce a 
right to disconnect (von der Leyen, 2024a). 
These measures will improve work–life balance 
for workers and carers and will make care 
systems more resilient, which could, in turn, 
reduce time poverty. In addition, the Council 
directive on value added tax allows Member 
States to waive value added tax on menstrual 
products, addressing a gender-specific financial 
burden associated with period poverty.

The European Green Deal seeks to ensure a 
socially fair green transition by addressing 
energy and transport poverty, promoting clean 
energy and supporting communities and 
workers in adapting to sustainability. However, 
it has faced criticism for being gender-blind and 
inadequately addressing climate justice from a 
social perspective – see more on this in 
Section 1.4.1.1. To prevent gender inequalities 
being reinforced, measures such as the Council 
recommendation on ensuring a fair transition 
towards climate neutrality address 
employment and social aspects linked to the 
green transition. This recommendation 
identifies women, especially lone mothers and 
older women, as being at a high risk of energy 
poverty and housing cost overburden.

Various financial instruments offer a 
framework for Member States to implement 
EU-supported measures targeting poverty and 
social exclusion. With a total budget of more 
than EUR 99 billion, the ESF+ establishes a 
general objective for Member States and the 
Commission to combat the feminisation of 
poverty (Regulation (EU) 2021/1057). The 
Commission reported that, between 2021 and 
2023, Member States allocated EUR 1.32 billion 
to interventions primarily focusing on gender 
equality and EUR 27.25 billion to interventions 
in which gender equality was a significant 

2.  Policies and developments in the 12 critical areas of concern in the EU since 2019

objective (European Commission, 2023n). For 
the specific objectives of promoting gender-
balanced labour market participation, equal 
working conditions and better work–life 
balance, Member States have implemented 
programmes worth EUR 3.6 billion (European 
Commission, 2023a). Another significant 
instrument is the ERDF, with EUR 220 billion 
dedicated to poverty and social inclusion 
measures (for more on the cohesion policy 
funds, see Section 1.4.2.2).

The first ever EU anti-poverty strategy, set out 
in von der Leyen’s 2024–2029 political 
guidelines, presents an opportunity to prioritise 
poverty reduction at the EU level. Reinforcing 
this strategy through a new gender equality 
strategy would provide the opportunity to 
adopt gender-specific measures that address 
the gendered dimensions of poverty across 
multiple domains.

2.1.2.  Key challenges and trends

2.1.2.1.  In the EU, more than 90 million 
people are at risk of poverty or 
social exclusion, with women 
continuing to be more affected

Between 2018 and 2023, there were no major 
changes in the estimated number of women 
(51 million) and men (44 million) in the EU who 
are AROPE (29). In 2023, 22 % of women and 
20 % of men were AROPE in the EU. The risk of 
poverty or social exclusion varied widely 
between Member States in 2023 (Figure 4), 
with rates for women ranging from 33 % in 
Romania to 14 % in Czechia and Slovenia and 
for men ranging from 31 % in Romania to 10 % 
in Czechia.

Figure 4.  People AROPE, by sex and country (% of total population, 2018 and 2023)

40

30

20

10

0

RO BG LV ES EE EL LT IT HR LU

EU-27 DE FR HU MT PT IE BE DK AT SE CY NL PL SK FI CZ SI

Women (2023)

Men (2023)

Women (2018)

Men (2018)

NB: There was a break in the time series of EU Statistics on Income and Living Conditions (EU-SILC) data for Croatia in 2023.
Source: Eurostat EU-SILC data (ilc_peps01n).

The AROPE indicator primarily covers between-
country and household-type disparities in the 
risk of poverty and social exclusion. However, 
this measure underestimates actual gender 
gaps, as household-level measurements often 
mask differences between women and men 
within the same household, largely due to the 
underlying assumption that household economic 

resources are equally pooled and shared among 
household members. Therefore, the gender gaps 
captured primarily reflect disparities arising 
from a higher share of women than men being in 
single-adult households, such as single parents 
or older people living alone. In 2022, 48 % of 
lone-mother households and 38 % of lone-father 
households in the EU were AROPE (30). This 

 (29)  The official BPfA indicator is the at-risk-of-poverty (AROP) rate, which captures the share of the population with an 

equivalised disposable income below 60 % of the national median income after social transfers. This report, however, uses 
the AROPE rate, an EU headline indicator, as it provides a more comprehensive assessment of poverty and social exclusion 
by capturing the number of people experiencing at least one of the following three conditions: monetary poverty after 
social transfers, severe material and social deprivation, or low work intensity.

 (30)  EIGE calculations based on 2022 EU-SILC microdata.

European Institute for Gender Equality

41

2.  Policies and developments in the 12 critical areas of concern in the EU since 2019

significant gender gap shows how gendered 
structural barriers and caregiving responsibilities 
lead to higher poverty risks for lone mothers 
than for lone fathers. At the same time, it 
highlights the vulnerability of lone-parent 
households compared with the general 
population, with AROPE rates in the latter being 
22 % for women and 19 % for men.

The combined effect of gender and other power 
dynamics places certain demographic groups at a 
greater risk of poverty or social exclusion (Figure 5). 
Whereas women and men from non-EU countries 

and inactive women and men experience the 
highest risks among all of the groups analysed, the 
largest gender gap, at 5 percentage points (pp), is 
observed among older people aged 65 or above. 
Compared with men, the heightened risk among 
older women is linked to gender disparities in 
employment and income throughout their lives, 
which subsequently affects their pensions (EIGE, 
2020d). Women’s limited participation in the labour 
market is often caused by their disproportionate 
caregiving and household responsibilities, which 
results in fewer paid work hours and in low-paid 
and precarious employment (EIGE, 2020d).

Figure 5.  People AROPE, by subgroup (% of population, EU, 2018 and 2023)

Women

Men

Gender gap 
(pp) in 2023

Gender gap 
(pp) in 2018

Gap change 
since 2018

Disability

Without disabilities
With disabilities

Citizenship

EU citizen
Non-EU citizen

Age

15–24
25–54
55–64
65+

Education

Low
Medium
High

Activity and employment

Employed
Not employed
Inactive
Retired

Overall

Total population

19
30

29
47

27
20
23
22

36
21
11

11
33
43
21

17
28

27
44

26
19
20
17

33
18
10

12
31
45
17

22

20

2
2

2
3

1
1
3
5

3
3
1

–1
2
–2
4

2

2
2

3
1

2
1
3
6

2
2
1

–1
2
–5
4

2

  Gap decreased 

  No change 

  Gap increased

NB: The gender gaps in 2023 and 2018 are the authors’ own calculations. The dimension ‘disability’ refers to the population 
aged 16 years or over. The dimensions ‘citizenship’, ‘education’ and ‘activity and employment’ refer to the population aged 
18 years or over. Data included for EU citizens in 2018 and 2023 under the section ‘citizenship’ are of low reliability (due to the 
small sample size). Educational attainment includes people who have completed International Standard Classification of 
Education (ISCED) level 0–2 (low), ISCED level 3 or 4 (medium) or ISCED level 5–8 (high). Gap changes: positive changes are 
those that have decreased since 2018 (in green), with a gender gap change of ≥ – 1; negative changes are those that have 
increased since 2018 (in red), with a gender gap change of ≥ 1; and no change since 2018 (in yellow) is equal to a gender gap 
increase/decrease between – 1 and 1 pp.
Source: Eurostat EU-SILC data (ilc_peps01n, ilc_peps02n, ilc_peps04n, ilc_peps05n, hlth_dpe010).

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2.  Policies and developments in the 12 critical areas of concern in the EU since 2019

Trans people experience increased vulnerability 
to poverty due to the violence they face from 
their families and society because of their 
gender identity (ILGA-Europe, 2023b). In the 
2019 FRA LGBTI Survey II, 46 % of trans 
respondents reported difficulties in making 
ends meet and 54 % of trans women reported 
financial hardship (Karsay, 2021). Roma 
communities are also disproportionately 
affected, with 80 % living below the national 
poverty threshold in 2021 across eight 
surveyed EU countries (EL, ES, HR, IT, HU, PL, PT 
and RO), in addition to North Macedonia and 
Serbia (FRA, 2022b). This disparity is further 
shaped by gendered employment patterns, as 
only 28 % of Roma women aged 20–64 are 
employed, compared with 58 % of comparable 
Roma men (FRA, 2022b).

Overall, while the AROPE rate provides valuable 
insights into key dimensions of poverty and 

social exclusion, it falls short of capturing the 
extent of gender inequalities in these areas, 
such as the extent of unpaid care 
responsibilities and gender-unequal access to 
resources, including individual access to jobs. 
Beyond the dimensions measured by AROPE, 
other dimensions of poverty – such as time 
poverty, energy and transport poverty, 
inadequate housing, homelessness, period 
poverty, and the autonomy to access and 
manage financial and economic resources – also 
carry significant gender equality implications 
and are closely linked to who is at a greater risk 
of poverty and social exclusion.

2.1.2.2.  Time poverty caused by unpaid 

care and household responsibilities 
restricts women’s economic 
independence – a problem 
worsened by COVID-19 

Time poverty is defined as the lack of available time after accounting for paid 
employment, unpaid work, study and other basic life necessities. It deprives 
individuals of the time and autonomy needed to ensure decent working 
conditions, financial independence, training, and access to basic resources and 
services necessary for a healthy life. This type of poverty also prevents people 
from fully participating in their communities and societies.

Source: European Parliament (2022c).

Women in the EU are more prone to 
experiencing time poverty than men, due to 
spending a greater amount of time on unpaid 
work, such as caregiving or housework (Aloè, 
2023; Giménez-Nadal and Molina, 2020; Giurge 
et al., 2020; Figure 6). As a result, women 

devote less time than men to social activities 
(EIGE, 2023i). In 2022, only 29 % of working 
women in the EU engaged in sporting, cultural 
or leisure activities outside their home at least 
daily or several times a week, compared with 
34 % of men (EIGE, 2023i).

Figure 6.  People aged 18–74 years providing childcare and doing housework every day, by sex (% of 

respondents, EU, 2024)

People doing housework
every day

Parents caring for children aged 
0–12 for at least 35 hours per week 
(approximately 5 hours or 
more per day)

67

46

43

20

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Women

Men

Source: EIGE’s Survey of Gender Gaps in Unpaid Care, Individual and Social Activities (CARE Survey), second wave (2024).

European Institute for Gender Equality

43

2.  Policies and developments in the 12 critical areas of concern in the EU since 2019

Time poverty particularly limits women’s ability 
to engage in full-time employment, reducing 
their income potential and increasing their 
reliance on low-wage or part-time jobs, which in 
turn increases their risk of poverty (Rodgers, 
2023). This issue became more pronounced 
during the COVID-19 pandemic, as remote work 
and the closure of schools and childcare services 
intensified more women’s than men’s uptake of 
care responsibilities, revealing a tendency to fall 
back on gender stereotypical family patterns for 
work–life balance (Alfano et al., 2024; Blázquez 
et al., 2024; Caki, 2022). As a result, women’s 
work–life balance suffered disproportionately, 
with 18 % of women reducing their paid 
working hours, compared with only 3 % of men, 
who were far less affected by the increased 
need for caregiving (EIGE, 2021b).

In a Flash Eurobarometer conducted in 2022, 
which focused solely on women respondents, 
38 % of women reported that the pandemic 
had had a negative impact on their income, 
with 25 % attributing this to an increase in 
unpaid work at home (31) (European Parliament, 
2022b). This reduction in working hours 
affected women’s financial independence. 
According to EIGE’s estimates, government 

policies to mitigate the pandemic’s impact on 
incomes had either a poverty-reducing or a 
neutral effect on poverty among working-age 
women and men. Without these temporary 
measures, the COVID-19 labour market shock 
would have led to higher poverty rates (EIGE, 
2023e). Nonetheless, these tax-benefit 
measures were short term and their positive 
effects on poverty were also temporary.

2.1.2.3.  Following the pandemic and the 

Russian war of aggression against 
Ukraine, the surge in energy prices 
is disproportionately affecting 
women

Since 2020, energy prices have risen 
significantly, initially triggered by the COVID-19 
pandemic and subsequently intensified by the 
Russian war of aggression against Ukraine 
(Carfora et al., 2022). Even though prices have 
fallen since the peak of the crisis, they remain 
higher than pre-pandemic levels (Hansens and 
Kálmán, 2024). In this context, energy poverty 
has surged as a pressing concern in the EU, 
affecting daily life (EIGE, 2023i).

Energy poverty lacks an official definition in the EU. It generally refers to a 
household’s lack of access to essential energy services, such as heating, hot water, 
cooling, lighting and energy to power appliances. Energy poverty often results 
from a combination of inadequate income, poor energy efficiency and high energy 
prices. It is typically measured at the household level rather than the individual 
level, which can obscure the true extent of women’s energy poverty.

Source: European Parliament (2023b).

Between 2018 and 2023, the proportion of 
both women and men aged 16 and over who 
could not keep their homes adequately warm 
rose from 7 % to 9 % (Eurostat, 2024j). For 
those with a limiting or severely limiting 
disability, the rate rose by 4 pp, reaching 16 % 
for women and 15 % for men (Eurostat, 2024j). 

Women are at a higher risk of experiencing 
energy poverty than men due to gender 
inequalities in the economic, social and 
decision-making spheres, such as lower 
earnings and increased time spent at home, 
which may expose them to more adverse 
physical and mental health outcomes 

 (31)  The Flash Eurobarometer gathered women’s opinions on the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on violence against women, 

mental health and women’s working lives. It was conducted exclusively among women and girls (EU citizens) aged 
15 years and over.

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European Institute for Gender Equality

2.  Policies and developments in the 12 critical areas of concern in the EU since 2019

(Papadimitriou et al., 2023). In 2022, more 
women than men fell behind in paying their 
energy bills, with lone mothers and women 
who live alone facing the greatest difficulties 
(Eurofound, 2022).

Climate change, including more frequent and 
intense heatwaves, is making summer energy 
poverty a pressing issue, especially in southern 
Europe (Torrego-Gómez et al., 2024; Box 2). 
Research from Spain shows that women-led 
households, particularly older women over 65 
who live alone, are most affected (Heredia et 
al., 2022; Núñez-Peiró et al., 2021). Research 
and quantitative data for the EU on summer 
poverty are still limited, with the most 
comprehensive and recent data provided by a 
2012 ad hoc EU-SILC module, which found that 
19 % of the EU population struggled to keep 
their homes cool during summer (Eurostat, 
2023e). Since then, accelerating global warming 
is further exacerbating the issue.

Box 2.  Fighting energy poverty 
among women in 
Mediterranean areas

Between September 2019 and August 
2023, the Horizon-2020-funded 
EmpowerMed project was launched to 
combat energy poverty in coastal 
Mediterranean areas, including Barcelona 
(ES), Marseille (FR), Zadar (HR), Padua (IT) 
and Obala (SI). The project aimed to 
alleviate energy poverty and improve the 
health of those affected, with a particular 
focus on women. Its actions included 
installing energy-saving devices, energy 
advice training, group meetings on energy 
and health, and advocacy campaigns.

2.1.2.4.  Lack of affordable and good-

quality housing is limiting housing 
access for women and men

The EU is facing a severe shortage of 
affordable, quality housing (Colomb and 
Gallent, 2022; Delclós and Vidal, 2021; Housing 
Europe, 2023), with rents rising by 10 pp and 
house prices by 33 pp between 2018 and 2023 

(Eurostat, 2024g, 2024h). Such increases, 
outpacing inflation and average wage growth 
(Kálmán, 2022), affect household spending on 
housing. The impact of this is evident in the 
housing cost overburden rate, which measures 
the percentage of people living in households 
that spend at least 40 % of their disposable 
income on housing. Among those at risk of 
poverty, the burden is three times higher than 
that of the total population, affecting 34 % of 
women and 33 % of men in this group 
(Eurostat, 2024i).

Soaring housing prices have become one of the 
most significant challenges for young people 
trying to gain independence (Eurofound, 
2024a). As of 2023, 45 % of women and 54 % 
of men aged 18–34 in the EU still lived with 
their parents (Eurostat, 2024r). While men are 
more likely to remain at home longer, societal 
expectations often pressure women to leave 
their homes earlier, in particular because of 
traditional gender roles around caregiving and 
starting families (Klimova Chaloupkova, 2023). 
Even when young women and men manage to 
secure housing, limited financial resources 
mean that they are likely to rent rather than 
buy (Eurofound, 2023). This reliance on rented 
housing can lead to inadequate living 
conditions. For instance, in 2023, 26 % of young 
women and men aged 15–29 lived in 
overcrowded households, which is 9 pp higher 
than in the total population (Eurostat, 2024n).

Members of the LGBTIQ community face 
heightened vulnerability in the housing crisis 
due to societal norms and expectations 
surrounding gender and sexual orientation. 
These pressures often lead to identity-related 
family conflicts, a lack of institutional support 
and social rejection, all of which can make it 
harder to access stable housing and essential 
resources (Feantsa, 2023; Pettas et al., 2022; 
Sauvaire and Stella, 2022).

Gender inequalities in pay make women 
particularly vulnerable to rising housing prices 
(Baptista et al., 2017; Equinet, 2020). For 
victims of gender-based violence, limited 
options for affordable and quality housing can 
trap them in or lead them back to abusive 
situations (Bretherton and Mayock, 2021). 

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45

2.  Policies and developments in the 12 critical areas of concern in the EU since 2019

Housing insecurity among women often goes 
under-reported, partly due to restrictive 
definitions of homelessness that focus on 
emergency shelters and rough sleeping 
(Bretherton, J. and Mayock, P. 2021). Due to 
stigma and a fear of service settings that are 
dominated by men, women are more likely than 
men to delay seeking formal homeless services 
until all informal options have been exhausted 
(Bretherton and Mayock, 2021; Sales and 
Guijarro, 2017). As a result, women in particular 
experience forms of hidden homelessness, such 

as in the case of lone mothers and their children 
staying with friends or family (Mayock and 
Sheridan, 2020).

2.1.2.5.  There has been an increase in 

initiatives to combat period 
poverty across Member States, but 
EU-wide data are needed to 
understand the full extent of this 
issue

Period poverty is defined as the lack of access to menstrual products, proper 
sanitation facilities and menstrual education. Due to gender stereotypes and 
stigma, women and girls may be reluctant to talk about their periods and feel 
uncomfortable asking others for menstrual products if they are having problems 
obtaining them. As a multidimensional issue with far-reaching consequences, 
period poverty has an impact on both health and societal participation. The lack of 
access to safe and hygienic period products can force women and girls to use 
unsafe alternatives or to extend the use of products beyond safe limits. This can 
lead to serious health issues and hinder societal participation, causing women and 
girls to miss school, work or social activities.

Sources: Holst et al. (2022) and Jaafar et al. (2023).

Awareness of period poverty in the EU has 
increased in recent years following advocacy 
from civil society (Santana de Almeida, 2021). 
Since 2018, a few initiatives at the EU and 
Member State levels have been implemented to 
tackle the issue. These efforts include providing 
free products in schools, universities and 
prisons, as exemplified by an initiative in 
France, reported in Box 3.

Estimates suggest that women in the EU spend 
an average of EUR 27 000 on period products 
throughout their lifetime (32). Despite this 
significant expenditure, comprehensive data on 
period poverty remain scarce. Limited and 
inconsistent data from Member States suggest 
that around 1 in 10 women experience period 
poverty (European Commission, n.d.-f; Heerts, 
2022). The current cost-of-living crisis further 
reduces women’s ability to afford essential 
supplies such as period products (Feenstra et 
al., 2024).

Box 3.  Addressing period poverty in 

France

A survey conducted among 6 500 women 
in France showed that 13 % of 
respondents had, at some point in their 
lifetimes, had to choose between 
purchasing period products and purchasing 
an essential item such as food (DW, 2021). 
In 2021, a budget of EUR 5 million was 
allocated to funding initiatives to address 
period poverty, which affects almost 
2 million women annually in the country 
(European Commission, 2022a). As part of 
these initiatives, during the 2020–2021 
school year, the Lille region introduced a 
programme offering free period products 
in high schools. In 2024, France introduced 
reimbursement for reusable sanitary 
protection for all young women under the 
age of 26.

 (32)  Parliamentary question on exemption from VAT for menstrual hygiene products, https://www.europarl.europa.eu/doceo/
document/E-9-2021-003636_EN.html#:~:text=Parliamentary%20question%20%7C%20Exemption% 20from%20VAT,% 
2D003636% 2F2021%20%7C%20European%20Parliament.

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2.  Policies and developments in the 12 critical areas of concern in the EU since 2019

2.1.2.6.  Gender inequalities in care, pay 

and decision-making limit 
women’s financial independence, 
which increases their risk of 
poverty

The BPfA emphasises the need for women to 
have control over economic resources, including 
access to savings, credit mechanisms and 
financial institutions. Such access strengthens 
resilience against economic shocks and fosters 
financial security, helping prevent poverty 
(Innovations for Poverty Action, 2017; Müller et 
al., 2024). However, systemic factors such as 
gendered caregiving roles and unequal pay 
limit women’s opportunities for financial 
planning and independence, affecting their 
long-term financial resilience and well-being 
(EIGE, 2024e). Gender differences in digital 
skills, particularly among older, rural and 
lower-income women, affect digital financial 
literacy, creating barriers as services become 
increasingly digitalised (EAPN, 2022; European 
Commission and OECD, 2022; Ray et al., 2022; 
Tandi, 2022).

A 2023 Eurobarometer shows that only 13 % of 
women in the EU report a high level of financial 
literacy, compared with 24 % of men (European 
Commission, 2023j). In terms of retirement 
security, 74 % of women report feeling 
confident in their long-term financial security, 
compared with 81 % of men. Meanwhile, 30 % 
of women, compared with 37 % of men, state 
that they have sufficient savings to cover six 
months of expenses if their income ceased 
(European Commission, 2023j). These disparities 
are rooted in broader gender inequalities rather 
than women’s inherent lack of financial 
capabilities. Systemic factors, such as gender 
gaps in employment, pay and wealth and 
women’s under-representation in decision-
making roles, limit their opportunities to 
engage in strategic and longer-term financial 
planning of their own or their household’s 
financial resources (EIGE, 2024e). In addition, 
traditional financial literacy metrics often 
emphasise knowledge of riskier investments, 
which are more likely to be pursued by men 
than women, while the everyday financial 
management tasks frequently managed by 
women are undervalued (Fisher and Yao, 2017; 

Hung et al., 2012). This approach may 
inadequately reflect the diverse financial 
competencies and reflect gender stereotypes.

Economic violence can also impede victims’ 
ability to develop financial literacy (Johnson et 
al., 2022). The perpetrator’s use of economic 
control, exploitation and sabotage (as defined 
in EIGE, 2023m) reinforces financial dependence 
and limits the victim’s access to resources and 
opportunities such as education and 
employment. With inflation at its highest level 
in decades, the ongoing cost-of-living crisis 
could potentially lead to more frequent and 
severe instances of economic violence. This is 
because financial difficulties increase stress and 
heighten the potential for family conflicts 
(Zumsteeg, 2022). For more on economic 
violence, see Section 2.4.

2.2.  Education and training 
of women (area B)

The BPfA’s objectives in area B focus on 
developing non-discriminatory education and 
training, ensuring equal access to education 
and promoting lifelong learning and training for 
women and girls. Area B aims to enhance 
women’s access to vocational training, science 
and technology. It also advocates for lifelong 
education and training for women and seeks to 
develop gender-sensitive educational content 
and teaching methods to promote gender 
equality.

The officially agreed EU indicators to monitor 
progress in this area focus on women and men 
graduates in tertiary and vocational education 
in science, technology, engineering and 
mathematics (STEM) and in the field of 
education, health and welfare; the employment 
rate of women and men by their degree of 
higher education attained; and the number of 
women and men in academic staff positions. 
The current indicators partially address key EU 
challenges, including horizontal and vertical 
segregation, but do not account for the impact 
of gender stereotypes, intersecting 
characteristics or gender-based violence in 
educational settings.

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2.  Policies and developments in the 12 critical areas of concern in the EU since 2019

Area B (education and training of women) alignment with SDGs

5.2  Eliminate violence against all women and girls in the public and private 

spheres

5.b  Enhance the use of technology to promote the empowerment of women

4.3  Equal access for all women and men to affordable and quality technical, 

vocational and tertiary education

4.5  Eliminate gender disparities in education and ensure equal access to all 

levels of education and vocational training for the vulnerable

For the BPfA + 30 review, the thematic focus and priority topics of area B include: 

Addressing gender 
segregation in 
education

Promoting STEM 
education among 
women and girls and 
equal lifelong learning 
opportunities

Adopting a gender  
perspective in education 
policies amid a digital 
transition

Tackling gender-based 
violence in education 
settings

These topics highlight the need to ensure that 
education systems across the EU champion 
gender equality in order to address pressing 
challenges to our economies and to our 
democracies, including disinformation and anti-
gender mobilisation. In the context of the green 
transition and the digital economy, it is also 
essential to leverage education to address skills 
shortages and close the gender gap, ensuring 
both women and men are included in all areas.

2.2.1.  EU policy developments

Addressing gender gaps and unequal 
opportunities in education and training for girls 
and boys, women and men in all their diversity 

is a key element of the strategic framework for 
cooperation to achieve the European education 
area (Council of the European Union, 2021). This 
falls under the first European education area 
strategic priority on ‘Improving quality, equity, 
inclusion and success for all in education and 
training’. The previous strategic framework for 
education and training (2020) primarily 
focused on addressing specific gender-related 
issues, such as promoting equal participation in 
education and careers, especially in science, 
technology, engineering, arts and mathematics 
(STEAM). The European education area 
(Figure 7) emphasises the integration of 
gender-sensitive practices into overall 
strategies, comprehensive school education 
curricula and methods.

Figure 7.  Gender equality objectives of the European education area

Challenging and tackling 
stereotypes in education, in 
the field of study and in career 
choices, especially in STEAM 
subjects

Addressing gender-specific 
issues, such as boys’ 
underachievement, bullying 
and sexual harassment

Developing better gender 
sensitivity in education 
processes and institutions

Source: Council of the European Union (2021).

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2.  Policies and developments in the 12 critical areas of concern in the EU since 2019

The European education area also focuses on 
building societal resilience and preparing for 
the green and digital transitions (Council of the 
European Union, 2021). Several key initiatives, 
such as the digital education action plan for 
2021–2027 (European Commission, 2020b) and 
the updated European skills agenda, promote 
women’s participation in STEM studies and 
careers. Practical elements of the digital 
education action plan (33) include creating 
gender-inclusive digital education content and 
advocating for flexible learning paths. Other 
initiatives in this realm include the women in 
digital strategy and Europe’s Digital Decade, 
which aim to achieve the employment of 
20 million ICT specialists by 2030, alongside 
efforts to achieve increased representation of 
women in the field. However, such a goal may 
prove overly ambitious, given the persistent 
challenges relating to women’s representation 
in the sector. Other efforts have focused on 
training and skills development to improve the 
employment opportunities of young people in 
the EU. For example, the youth guarantee 
scheme provides a framework for young people 
to receive guidance and promotes technical and 
soft skills, and aims to enhance the 
attractiveness and sustainability of higher 
education careers as outlined in the Council 
recommendation adopted in late 2024.

In terms of research, the EU has been 
continuously expanding the potential of the 
European research area to function as a 
catalyst to advance gender equality (European 
Commission, 2022i). The EU’s ongoing 
commitment to gender mainstreaming in 
research and innovation has been reinforced by 
the introduction of gender equality plans, 
which are required to access Horizon Europe 
funding (see Section 1.4.4). Other recent 
commitments to fostering gender equality, 
diversity and inclusiveness are outlined in 
initiatives such as the EU Prize for Women 
Innovators and the manifesto for gender-
inclusive STE(A)M education and careers 
(European Commission, 2023h).

Overall, EU policy for education and training 
provides a comprehensive framework to 
address persistent and emerging gender 
equality issues. However, despite the EU’s 
recognition of key issues, progress has been 
limited due to the insufficient implementation 
of gender mainstreaming and targeted actions 
at the national level (Evagorou et al., 2024; 
European Commission: DG Education, Youth, 
Sport and Culture, 2023). To address the deeply 
rooted gender roles and stereotypes that shape 
the educational choices and future academic 
and professional trajectories of young women 
and men, consistent policy efforts are needed 
that involve communities, parents, teachers 
and other key stakeholders.

2.2.2.  Key challenges and trends

2.2.2.1.  Member States have made 

significant strides in gender parity 
in educational attainment

Member States have maintained steady gender 
parity levels in educational attainment over the 
past five years. In 2022, 56 % of bachelor’s 
degree graduates were women, while doctoral 
degrees were split almost evenly between 
women (48 %) and men (52 %). Gender parity 
also exists among vocational education 
graduates (Eurostat, 2024f).

Despite progress in educational attainment, 
women still face disadvantages after 
graduation. While young men are more likely to 
leave school early than young women (11 % 
versus 8 %, respectively) (van Driel et al., 2023), 
women are over-represented among people not 
in employment, education or training, 
particularly in Czechia, Hungary, Poland and 
Romania (Eurostat, 2023b). This suggests that, 
although young women may graduate at higher 
rates, there are still barriers that restrict their 
involvement in the labour market. Persistent 
gender stereotyping, occupational segregation, 
gender inequalities in caregiving roles and 

 (33)  For instance, the digital education action plan includes initiatives like Girls Go Circular and e-STEAM festivals aimed at 

empowering more girls and women to pursue STEM studies and careers.

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49

2.  Policies and developments in the 12 critical areas of concern in the EU since 2019

societal expectations often limit women’s 
access to certain jobs, especially in higher-
paying sectors (Mathys, 2019; UNESCO, 2021b).

Moreover, advancements in access to education 
do not guarantee equal opportunities for all 
groups. For instance, disadvantaged 
communities such as Roma face severe 
educational disparities. Only a quarter of Roma 
children are enrolled in early education (FRA, 
2022b), with cultural norms in the community 
disproportionately affecting women and girls. 
Estimates show that 28 % of Roma women and 
girls lack a formal education, compared with 
18 % of Roma men and boys (Andrei et al., 
2015).

2.2.2.2.  Horizontal segregation persists as 

gender stereotypes influence 
students’ career choices

Systemic gender stereotypes originating in the 
educational sector significantly influence 
women’s experiences in the labour market, 

leading to gender disparities in specific 
industries (EIGE, 2024k). For example, only 
around a fifth of engineering, manufacturing, 
construction and ICT graduates are women 
(Figure 8). As a result, in 2023, women made up 
just one fifth of the ICT workforce (De Luca, 
2023). Similarly, the strong association between 
women and care roles is evident in early 
childhood education, where 95 % of teachers 
are women (Eurostat, 2022a).

Demographic shifts in the EU, such as an ageing 
population and migration patterns, are 
increasing demand for healthcare 
professionals – a field in which women are 
significantly over-represented. In 2022, nearly 
three times as many women graduated from 
health and welfare programmes as men 
(Eurostat, 2024f) (see also Section 2.3.2.4). In 
the long term, men’s avoidance of educational 
paths dominated by women poses challenges in 
terms of meeting rising demands for care, 
particularly in nursing (OECD and European 
Union, 2022).

Figure 8.  Graduates in tertiary education, by sex and field of education (%, EU, 2022)

100

80

60

40

20

0

43

57

54

46

Total
(tertiary)

Total
(vocational)

79

21

ICT

40

60

25

75

20

80

79

21

Engineering, 
manufacturing 
and construction

Natural sciences, 
mathematics and 
statistics

Health and
welfare

Education

Women

Men

Source: Eurostat, UOE education statistics (educ_uoe_grad02).

Women are also significantly under-
represented in research and innovation and 
among scientists in high-technology sectors. In 
2019, only one fifth of the nearly 32 million 
scientists and engineers in these sectors across 
the EU were women (Eurostat, 2023a). At the 
EU level, only 5 % of inventor teams are gender 

balanced (European Commission, 2024g). These 
disparities largely stem from the unequal 
appreciation of women and men and the 
differing capabilities that continue to be 
attributed to them. It is essential that these 
structural barriers and implicit biases in 
research and academia are addressed in order 

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2.  Policies and developments in the 12 critical areas of concern in the EU since 2019

to foster greater inclusivity in research and 

innovation (Box 4 describes efforts at the 
national level).

Box 4.  Advancing gender equality in academia and the careers of women in research

In 2019, the Research Council of Finland, formerly the Academy of Finland, a governmental funding 
body for scientific research, adopted its equality and non-discrimination plan (2019–2020). This 
plan aims to integrate gender equality and non-discrimination into all aspects of its operations, 
focusing on enhancing processes, communication and staff competencies. Key objectives include 
supporting the careers of young and women researchers and advancing gender equality within 
scientific research (Academy of Finland, 2019).

The unequal representation of women and men 
in various professions is linked not only to 
societal stereotypes (EIGE, 2017a), but also to 
cultural discouragement (European Parliament, 
2021d), a lack of role models (van Driel et al., 
2023) and unconscious bias in recruitment and 
workplace culture (European Commission, 
2020a; Kube et al., 2024). Schools, vocational 
education and training institutions, and higher 
education institutions perpetuate gender gaps 
early on. Teachers’ gender biases, whether 
conscious or unconscious, can shape grading 
and students’ career paths, with praise often 
being given to boys for their achievements in 
STEM subjects and to girls for reading and the 
humanities (van Driel et al., 2023).

Meanwhile, boys’ limited engagement and 
poorer outcomes in reading are linked to 
stereotypes that label reading as ‘feminine’. 
The study in 2022 by the programme for 
international student assessment (PISA) 
showed strong gender differences in 
underachievement in reading, with boys in the 
EU underperforming girls by more than 5 pp in 
all Member States, with the difference 
exceeding 10 pp in around half of the Member 
States (European Commission: DG Education, 
Youth, Sport and Culture, 2024). In turn, 
traditional norms of masculinity encourage 
disruptive behaviour (European Commission, 
2021j). These societal expectations make it 
equally challenging for men to enter careers 
dominated by women, such as teaching, as they 
face pressure for not conforming to masculine 
ideals. Similarly, adhering to gender roles and 
stereotypes continues to divert girls away from 
STEM fields (Evagorou et al., 2024).

2.2.2.3.  The green and digital transitions 

offer new opportunities to 
increase women’s involvement in 
STEM and tackle the skills 
mismatch through lifelong 
learning

Digitalisation profoundly affects all aspects of 
life, requiring individuals to continuously 
update their digital skills. The need for constant 
retraining highlights the growing importance of 
lifelong learning, including in the context of 
adaptation to climate change. However, 
globally, only one third of AI and renewable 
energy specialists are women (World Economic 
Forum, 2023). This underlines the need to 
remove barriers that hinder women from 
pursuing lifelong learning, thereby enabling 
them to contribute to sustainable development 
and to the green and digital transitions (Box 5 
gives examples of action at the national level) 
(UN Women, 2023b).

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2.  Policies and developments in the 12 critical areas of concern in the EU since 2019

Box 5.  Addressing the skilled labour 
demands of the green transition to 
support women

In 2020, Austria’s Ministry of Climate 
Action, Environment, Energy, Mobility, 
Innovation and Technology established the 
Just Transition Working Group on training 
and reskilling. This initiative aims to 
address the skilled labour demands of the 
green transition. Training is targeted at 
girls, young women, those seeking 
retraining, unemployed people, socially 
disadvantaged individuals and people with 
disabilities.

Supported by the German government 
and led by the non-governmental 
organisation LIFE, the Ökothek initiative 
has been offering extensive career support 
to women from diverse backgrounds in 
Berlin for more than a decade. Ökothek 

provides workshops covering current 
environmental and climate issues and 
sessions empowering women to build the 
confidence to pursue sustainable career 
pathways. Between 2021 and 2024, more 
than 1 000 women took part in Ökothek’s 
activities (EIGE, 2024n).

Digital skills, in particular, are essential for work 
and life. Overall, men possess slightly higher 
levels of advanced digital skills than women 
(Figure 9), yet women consistently demonstrate 
strong proficiency in digital skills. Among 
young people aged 16–24, more women (72 %) 
have basic or above-basic digital skills than 
men (68 %) (Eurostat, 2024k). Meanwhile, older 
women are especially disadvantaged (Eurostat, 
2024k). The widest gap exists in the 55–74 age 
group, where 18 % of men possess above-basic 
skills, compared with only 11 % of women.

Figure 9.  Individuals’ level of digital skills, by sex (% of population aged 16–74 years, EU, 2015–2023)

40

30

20

10

0

27

24

24

29

27

22

32

27

26

27

26

25

29

30

25

33

28

25

28

25

28

27

29

25

29

27

18

17

18

17

Women

Men

Women

Men

Women

Men

Women

Men

Women

Men

2015

2017

2019

2021

2023

Above basic digital skills

Basic digital skills

Low digital skills

NB: There was a break in the time series in 2019 for Czechia, Italy, Latvia and Luxembourg and the data are of low reliability 
for Italy in 2017.
Source: Eurostat (isoc_sk_dskl_i21, isoc_sk_dskl_i).

The rising demand for digital skills presents an 
opportunity to improve gender balance in a 
sector that is as dominated by men as ICT, 
highlighting the importance of increasing 
women’s access to these skills. However, such a 
focus should not imply that women lack the 
necessary capabilities. Instead, it underlines the 
need to address broader systemic issues within 
the industry that shape and limit women’s 
ambitions (Ryan and Morgenroth, 2024). For 
example, persistent wage inequality and 
ingrained stereotypes continue to obstruct 

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European Institute for Gender Equality

progress towards gender parity in ICT (for more 
on this, see Section 2.6).

Addressing these structural barriers requires 
not only a commitment to lifelong learning, but 
also lifelong learning opportunities to be 
designed to account for gendered challenges. 
While women in the EU participate in lifelong 
learning activities more frequently than men 
(EIGE, 2019a), participation varies widely 
between Member States (Figure 10). Family 
responsibilities pose a greater barrier to lifelong 
learning for women than for men, thus 

2.  Policies and developments in the 12 critical areas of concern in the EU since 2019

correlating with women’s tendency to take 
career breaks for caregiving (EIGE, 2023a). 
Research shows that improving the accessibility 
and affordability of formal childcare services is 
essential to ensuring that both women and 

men can participate continuously in the labour 
market and in lifelong learning activities 
(EIGE, 2019c), ensuring better rates of re-entry 
into to the workforce after caregiving breaks 
(Doerr, 2022).

Figure 10.  People not participating in formal or non-formal education and training due to family 

reasons, by sex and country (% of population aged 18–69 years, 2022)

57

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

44

42

40

37 37

35 35 34 33 33

31

29 29 28 28 28

29

26 25 25

23 23

20 20 19

17

14

CY MT AT NL ES HR CZ IE LU SK HU DE PL

EU-27 PT BG SE RO LV IT SI FR EL EE FI LT BE DK

Women

Men

NB: Data are missing for Bulgaria (men), and the reliability is low for Denmark (women) and for Denmark, Lithuania and 
Slovakia (men).
Source: Eurostat (trng_aes_176).

2.2.2.4.  Increased use of digital 

technologies in learning and 
working reveals gender gaps in 
technology skills and highlights 
the need to support teachers with 
the integration of artificial 
intelligence in classrooms

While girls and young women have made 
notable strides in digital competencies, 
challenges remain in building self-confidence in 
digital skills and in navigating gender biases in 
education and technology. While 68 % of girls 
aged 16–19 in the EU have basic or above-basic 
digital skills – slightly exceeding the figure for 
boys (65 %) – the reverse gender gap occurs in 
relation to more advanced skills (Eurostat, 
2024a). In the EU, only 9 % of 16- to 24-year-
old women have programming skills, compared 
with 19 % of similarly aged men, highlighting a 
disparity in coding and software development 
(OECD, 2023d). Furthermore, issues with 

self-confidence persist, with boys often 
overestimating their digital skills and girls 
underestimating theirs (EIGE, 2020d). In 
addition, more women (27 %) than men (17 %) 
voice concerns about having insufficient time or 
confidence with regard to learning about AI 
(OrielSquare, 2023).

The COVID-19 pandemic accelerated the shift to 
distance learning but also worsened existing 
educational disparities for students who have 
limited access to digital resources or who 
experience learning challenges (De Witte and 
François, 2023). Over one quarter of adolescents 
report that the COVID-19 pandemic had a 
negative effect on their school performance, 
with girls reporting greater impacts than 
boys (34) (Cosma et al., 2023). Among those 
students who reported high levels of 
psychological health complaints related to the 
pandemic, 34 % of girls experienced negative 
impacts on school performance, compared with 
14 % of boys (Cosma et al., 2023). The 
pandemic had a larger negative impact on 

 (34) Based on survey results from 17 Member States and Kazakhstan, Moldova, Serbia and the United Kingdom (Scotland).

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2.  Policies and developments in the 12 critical areas of concern in the EU since 2019

women than men in academic research and 
teaching, as they faced greater challenges than 
men in maintaining research outputs and in 
reconciling teaching activities with personal life, 
mainly due to their increased shouldering of 
care responsibilities for children and/or other 
dependants (Peña et al., 2022). Acknowledging 
gendered impacts is crucial to implementing 
tailored support initiatives that address the 
specific needs of affected groups, such as the 
initiative profiled in Box 6.

Box 6.  Supporting women in 

academia juggling professional 
and care responsibilities

The project ‘Equalising opportunities for 
researchers balancing work and parental 
care during the COVID-19 pandemic’ by 
POB Society of the Future at Jagiellonian 
University, Poland, offered grants to 
support researchers juggling professional 
and care responsibilities for children up to 
15 years of age. These ‘pro-equality mini 
grants’ aimed to reduce inequalities in 
research and publications, in particular 
benefiting women in academia, who often 
face greater caregiving burdens than men 
in academia. The programme allows 
researchers to delegate work, where they 
can be replaced by other people 
(assistants, translators or proofreaders), 
thereby allowing them to focus on 
preparing scientific publications.

The increasing use in learning of online and 
digital resources such as AI also introduces new 
uncertainties around gender bias in the 
classroom. Many educators still lack the 
necessary support and confidence to integrate 
modern technological tools into teaching 
practices (OECD, 2023c). Women teachers are 
more worried than their men counterparts 
about their lack of confidence in learning about 
AI, while men teachers are more likely than 
their women counterparts to use AI tools in the 
classroom (OrielSquare, 2023). At the same 
time, AI systems used in learning may rely on 

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European Institute for Gender Equality

gender stereotypes concerning behaviours, 
characteristics and roles (see Section 2.10.2.5).

2.2.2.5.  Education can reduce gender 
discrimination by promoting 
values of equality and respect, 
leading to a more inclusive and 
democratic society

The BPfA urges countries to develop curricula, 
textbooks and pedagogies that are free from 
gender stereotypes. Despite this call, existing 
toolkits to identify and question gender 
stereotypes, efforts at the EU and national 
levels (Box 7) and educational materials in the 
EU often continue to reinforce gender 
stereotypes, affecting the aspirations and 
perceptions of young students (European 
Commission: DG Education, Youth, Sport and 
Culture, 2023; UNESCO, 2020). One significant 
issue is the lack of women role models in 
educational materials. Studies have found that 
prominent men figures are typically 
highlighted, while women’s contributions are 
either minimised or omitted, particularly in 
subjects such as history and science (Van de 
Rozenberg et al., 2023). The language and 
imagery in these materials often also 
perpetuate stereotypical depictions of women 
and men (European Commission: DG Education, 
Youth, Sport and Culture, 2023; UNESCO, 2020). 
Men are frequently described as ‘clever’ or 
‘responsible’, terms that convey agency and 
capability. At the same time, women are often 
portrayed in passive or supportive roles, if they 
are present at all. Such portrayals, subtle as 
they might seem, carry implicit messages about 
gendered roles and behaviours, shaping young 
learners’ career ambitions and worldviews.

Box 7.  Addressing gender bias in 
learning materials

The GirlsInScience project of Leiden 
University in the Netherlands provides 
insights into gender representation in 
educational materials. A comprehensive 
analysis of more than 20 000 characters 
appearing in textbooks reveals areas in 

2.  Policies and developments in the 12 critical areas of concern in the EU since 2019

which women are under-represented, such 
as in scientific, athletic and technical roles. 
The project also looked into the impact of 
students’ gender on grading patterns 
among teachers. The team produced 
practical guidelines for educational 
publishers on improving inclusivity in 
textbooks, emphasising the need to 
include more women, people of colour and 
LGBTIQ people (European Commission, 
2022g; Van Veen et al., 2022).

Efforts to counteract gender stereotypes can 
include the proactive removal of biased 
materials from reading lists (European 
Commission: DG Education, Youth, Sport and 
Culture, 2023) and increasing the 
representation of women and girls in textbooks 
to emphasise their contributions to various 
fields (De la Torre-Sierra and Guichot-Reina, 
2022). Teachers can play a crucial role by 
identifying gender biases in learning materials 
and discussing these with students (see, for 
example, Box 8). When gender equality is not 
confined to specific lessons or subjects, such as 
civic education, but integrated across the 
curriculum, it enables students to recognise and 
challenge various gender stereotypes, 
promoting a more inclusive and democratic 
society.

Box 8.  Providing teachers with 

practical tools to tackle gender 
stereotypes in classrooms

The ‘Growing up Equal’ project addresses 
gender stereotypes in primary education 
(third and fourth grades) in Bulgaria. By 
providing teachers and school 
administrations with guidelines and tools 
to effectively tackle gender stereotypes in 
educational settings, it aims to raise 
awareness among education professionals 
about the impact of stereotypes on life 
choices, starting from primary education 
(Development Aid, 2021). Meanwhile, the 

Kinder project, supported by EU funding, 
aimed to develop gender-responsive 
training and resources for early childhood 
educators in Spain, Croatia and Portugal. 
The project ended in 2023 and produced 
outputs including policy reports and 
educational guidelines that integrated 
gender-related themes into pedagogical 
practices across these countries.

2.2.2.6.  Gender-based violence in 

educational settings affects 
women’s safety and the well-being 
of students and staff

Gender-based violence in research and 
education is a persistent issue in the EU, 2018; 
Bondestam, 2024). For example, a 2022 UniSafe 
survey of staff and students from 46 research 
organisations across 15 European countries 
found that two in three survey respondents 
had experienced at least one form of gender-
based violence (35) (Lipinsky et al., 2022). 
Greater proportions of women (66 %) and 
non-binary people (74 %) reported such 
experiences than men (56 %).

In a national survey conducted in Sweden, more 
than half of women PhD students reported 
experiencing some form of undesired sexual 
attention since they had taken up their 
positions (Rudolfsson et al., 2022). Similarly, an 
Irish national survey on sexual violence found 
that 6 in 10 students had encountered 
sexualised comments (Higher Education 
Authority, 2022). A 2020 report by the 
European Research and Innovation Area 
Committee noted that the majority of Member 
States lack consistent measures to combat 
gender-based violence in higher education 
(ERAC, 2020). Even where measures exist (see, 
for example, Box 9), there is often a lack of 
consistent implementation policies.

 (35)  These include psychological violence, sexual harassment, economic violence, cyberviolence, physical violence and sexual 

violence.

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2.  Policies and developments in the 12 critical areas of concern in the EU since 2019

Box 9.  Preventing gender-based 

violence in higher education 
and research institutions

In Ireland, the Higher Education Authority 
launched the ‘Ending sexual violence and 
harassment in higher education 
institutions implementation plan for 
2022–2024’ in October 2022. The plan was 
developed on the basis of national surveys 
of students and staff and aims to create a 
system for students to disclose incidents 
and for institutional policies and initiatives 
to be developed based on consent (Higher 
Education Authority, 2022).

The Zero-Tolerance Code of Conduct: 
Counteracting gender-based violence, 
including sexual harassment, in the EU 
research and innovation system, published 
in 2024, was developed by the European 
Research Area Forum subgroup on 
inclusive gender equality, in cooperation 
with the European Commission. The code 
aims to address incidents of gender-based 
violence in research and higher education 
environments by setting out a common 
approach, definitions and a list of 
principles to guide Member States and 
other stakeholders (European Commission: 
DG Research and Innovation, 2024b).

During the COVID-19 pandemic, girls more than 
boys faced heightened exposure to 
cyberbullying, with studies pointing to parental 
control being a protective factor against 
cyberbullying for boys more than girls and an 
overall lack of institutional resources for victims 
(Marinoni et al., 2023; Rebollo-Catalan and 

Mayor-Buzon, 2020). Most victims of 
cyberbullying in schools have previously been 
bullied offline, with a significant percentage 
experiencing both online and offline forms of 
bullying (UNESCO, 2019). See Sections 2.4.2.4 
and 2.12.2.4 for discussions about violence 
against women and girls in cyberspace.

2.3.  Women and health 

(area C)

Under the BPfA, the Member States have 
committed to upholding women’s right to the 
highest attainable standards of physical and 
mental health, acknowledging that enjoying 
this right is essential for their well-being and 
participation in all areas of public and private 
life. Area C aims to ensure universal access to 
quality healthcare services for women, 
including sexual and reproductive healthcare. It 
also aims to reduce those health risks specific 
to women, to address mental health issues and 
to combat discrimination in healthcare settings. 
Finally, it also calls for increased research and 
data collection on women’s health issues in 
order to better inform policies and 
programmes (36).

The officially agreed EU indicators to track 
progress in area C cover healthy life years, 
access to healthcare and deaths due to 
cardiovascular diseases. Notable gaps include 
the lack of data on sexual and reproductive 
health and rights (SRHR), the role of women in 
health governance and gender balance in 
medical research from an intersectional 
perspective.

 (36)  Sexual and reproductive rights are covered in both area C (women and health) and area I (the human rights of women).

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Area C (women and health) alignment with SDGs

5.1  No discrimination against all women and girls
5.6  Universal access to sexual and reproductive health and 

reproductive rights

3.7  Universal access to sexual and reproductive healthcare services
3.8  Universal health coverage

10.2  Social, economic and political inclusion of all, irrespective of 

age, sex, disability, race, ethnicity, origin, religion or economic 
or other status

For the BPfA + 30 review, the thematic focus and priority topics of area C include:

Assessing the impacts 
of the COVID-19 
pandemic on the 
physical and mental 
health of women and 
men

Promoting 
gender-sensitive and 
intersectional quality 
healthcare and 
preventive programmes

Tackling violence 
against women as both 
patients and healthcare 
professionals

Providing safe and 
high-quality sexual and 
reproductive health 
services

The above thematic priorities aim to address 
critical health challenges, both current and 
future, that affect women and men in all their 
diversity, such as an ageing population. The 
COVID-19 pandemic exposed significant 
vulnerabilities in our healthcare systems. 
Current multiple threats, such as climate change 
and the Russian war of aggression against 
Ukraine, further highlight the necessity of 
incorporating gender and intersectional 
perspectives into health policies and research. 
Integrating this approach is crucial to 
recognising the diverse and interconnected 
factors that influence the health of women and 
men and to ensuring equitable healthcare 
solutions, particularly in preparation for future 
crises.

2.3.1.  EU policy developments

With health policies primarily falling under the 
jurisdiction of the Member States, the EU’s role 
in public health has traditionally been of a 
complementary nature. However, the EU’s 

involvement in public health has grown in 
response to major health crises such as the 
COVID-19 pandemic (European Commission: DG 
Education, Youth, Sport and Culture, 2023; 
UNESCO, 2020). Article 168 of the Treaty on the 
Functioning of the European Union provides the 
legal basis for EU actions in the areas of public 
health, disease prevention and cross-border 
health coordination. The EU also encourages a 
‘health in all policies’ approach to integrate 
health considerations into various policy 
sectors.

The right to access healthcare is enshrined in 
principle 16 of the EPSR. Its action plan 
encourages Member States to digitalise 
healthcare systems and tackle health 
inequalities. However, these efforts have fallen 
short, with evidence suggesting that 
digitalisation is worsening disparities for 
low-income groups, particularly women (EAPN, 
2022). Building on this focus on digitalisation, 
the Commission has announced an AI strategy 
aimed at enhancing industrial uses of AI in 
public services, including healthcare, 

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2.  Policies and developments in the 12 critical areas of concern in the EU since 2019

demonstrating its commitment to technological 
advancements in the health sector (von der 
Leyen, 2024a). Nonetheless, careful 
implementation is required to prevent the 
further reinforcement of existing inequalities.

One of the key policy developments relevant to 
health is the 2022 European care strategy, 
which aims to address health and social care 
disparities across the EU. The strategy provides 
a roadmap for Member States to improve 
long-term care. This, in the context of 
demographic change, can support the health 
and well-being of women and men in old age. 
However, because the strategy mainly focuses 
on formal care, it lacks provisions aimed at 
informal carers and any binding measures to 
mitigate health impacts on caregivers (see also 
Section 2.6). Moreover, in the communication 
on demographic change in Europe, the 
Commission indicates the importance of gender 
equality to EU and national policies that 
address demographic change. The 
communication notes that policies should 
enhance women’s access to the labour market, 
ensuring it is adequate; broaden the provision 
of affordable, high-quality childcare and 
long-term care; and ensure that policy solutions 
empower current and future generations 
(European Commission, 2023l).

In a broader sense, the EU gender equality 
strategy for 2020–2025 commits to facilitating 
the sharing of good practices between Member 
States and stakeholders with regard to the 
gender aspects of health, including SRHR. The 
strategy recognises gender-specific health risks 
and integrates gender considerations into 
initiatives such as the EU beating cancer 
plan (37). This plan includes a new cancer 
screening scheme, which aims to ensure that 
90 % of the population who qualify for breast, 
cervical and colorectal cancer screening are 
offered screening by 2025. As another example, 
the new clinical trials regulation requires the 
sex of participants in clinical trials to be 
considered, thereby addressing concerns about 
potential adverse side effects that are more 

common among, or exclusive to, women 
(Regulation (EU) 2022/641).

The EU4health programme for 2021–2027 is 
an EU funding programme that implements EU 
health legislative and non-legislative priorities. 
In 2023, the European Commission’s 
performance review of the EU4health 
programme estimated that the amount spent 
on interventions with an expected positive 
impact on gender equality amounted to 
EUR 178.1 million, which was an increase 
compared with the programme’s two previous 
years (European Commission, 2023g). The 
regulation establishing the EU4health 
programme suggests the possibility of 
supporting studies on the influence of gender 
on disease characteristics to enhance 
knowledge, prevention, diagnosis, monitoring 
and treatment (Regulation (EU) 2021/522, 
recital 25). Although the data collected through 
the programme have not yet been 
disaggregated by sex, thus hampering gender 
analysis, data allowing disaggregation by sex 
are expected in 2025. Under this framework, 
the Commission also launched the ‘Healthier 
together’ EU non-communicable diseases 
initiative in 2022 to help Member States 
prevent and manage diseases such as 
cardiovascular diseases, diabetes and 
neurological disorders. The initiative promotes 
‘age, gender and culture-sensitive strategies’ 
across all its areas to enhance effectiveness.

In June 2021, the European Parliament passed a 
resolution on SRHR in the EU, urging the EU to 
support Member States in upholding these 
rights, which are essential to human dignity 
(European Parliament, 2021b). The resolution 
emphasised access to abortion (see also 
Section 2.9), contraception, fertility treatments, 
birth-related healthcare and menstrual 
products as basic goods, while advocating for 
the rights of intersex people and the 
establishment of an EU Special Envoy on SRHR. 
The resolution also highlighted abuses, 
including gynaecological and obstetric violence, 
calling on Member States to implement 

 (37) Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council – Europe’s beating cancer plan, 

COM(2021) 44 final of 3 February 2021, https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex:52021DC0044.

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informed procedures to ensure consent and 
better training for healthcare professionals. The 
BPfA also calls for actions on SRHR, stressing 
the importance of the provision of financial and 
institutional support for research on safe, 
effective, affordable and acceptable methods 
and technologies for the reproductive and 
sexual health of women and men. It also 
emphasises the need to provide appropriate 
material, financial and logistical assistance to 
non-governmental organisations (NGOs) for 
young people, empowering them to address the 
concerns of young people in the area of health, 
including sexual and reproductive health.

In response to heightened public attention 
towards mental health, which has been 
amplified by the COVID-19 pandemic, in July 
2022 the Parliament adopted a resolution on 
mental health in the digital world of work 
(European Parliament, 2022d). This addressed 
work-related mental health issues and gender 
inequalities. However, the resolution overlooked 
the mental health challenges faced by women 
during life events such as pregnancy and 
menopause (Alblooshi et al., 2023). In addition, 
in June 2023, the Commission adopted a 
communication on a comprehensive approach 
to mental health (38) urging Member States to 
implement a prevention-oriented approach, 
integrating mental health into EU policies as a 
public health priority. The communication 
adopts an intersectional perspective, focusing 
on vulnerable populations that may experience 
multiple forms of discrimination, such as lone 
mothers in poverty, people with disabilities, 
refugees and displaced people, young people 
and LGBTIQ people.

2.3.2.  Key challenges and trends

2.3.2.1.  Healthcare systems and 

technology can improve health 
outcomes by addressing 
embedded gender disparities more 
effectively

Advances in healthcare systems across the EU 
have improved living standards, reducing 
infectious diseases and leading to longer, 
healthier lives for all. Nonetheless, the Gender 
Equality Index shows slow progress in gender 
equality in health, with the shares of women 
and men who perceive their health as very 
good or good falling in two thirds of Member 
States (EIGE, 2024k). Many conditions sensitive 
to sex and gender lack sufficient research, 
funding and resources, including prioritisation.

On the positive side, new technologies such as 
e-health and AI provide new opportunities to 
further enhance healthcare and the detection 
of diseases (Box 10). However, they have also 
introduced certain challenges, including a lack 
of a gender equality perspective in digital 
health solutions. This may be due to the 
exclusion from the app design of women, 
particularly those with racial or ethnic minority 
backgrounds (Figueroa et al., 2021). For 
example, many fitness and health-tracking 
apps overlook the specific health needs of 
women, such as menstrual health (Cifor and 
Garcia, 2020). Similarly, AI can exacerbate 
gender, age and racial biases, leading to 
adverse health outcomes (Ulnicane, 2024). The 
current accountability framework also places 
the responsibility for AI-related errors on 
medical professionals (Park et al., 2020), adding 
pressure to a strained sector and potentially 
exacerbating stress and anxiety among its 
workforce of predominantly women.

 (38)  Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social 

Committee and the Committee of the Regions on a comprehensive approach to mental health, COM(2023) 298 final of 
7 June 2023, https://health.ec.europa.eu/document/download/cef45b6d-a871-44d5-9d62-3cecc47eda89_
en?filename=com_2023_298_1_act_en.pdf.

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2.  Policies and developments in the 12 critical areas of concern in the EU since 2019

Box 10.  Expanded use of AI improves 
the successful diagnosis rate 
for breast cancer

In Denmark, Transpara, an AI tool designed 
to read mammograms, has been employed 
to enhance the efficiency of breast cancer 
screenings, reducing radiologists’ workload 
by 63 %. A 2022 study indicated that the 
sensitivity of AI-based screenings was 
comparable to that of radiologists and 
that the AI-based approach outperformed 
the traditional double readings by 
radiologists, producing 2 % fewer false 
positives (Lauritzen et al., 2022).

The rise of digitalisation, along with unhealthy 
lifestyles, pollution and climate change, is also 
creating new gendered health challenges 
(EXPH, 2019; Tong et al., 2022). Sedentary 
behaviours, driven by the prolonged use of 
digital devices and increased screen time, are 
contributing to rising rates of obesity, diabetes 
and cardiovascular diseases (Bailey et al., 2019). 
Poor dietary choices, influenced by the 

widespread availability of processed foods, 
along with income and time poverty (see 
Section 2.1), further exacerbate these health 
issues (Silva et al., 2023), particularly for lone 
parents and caregivers, who are mostly women 
(Venn and Strazdins, 2017). Digitalisation has 
also introduced stressors that affect mental 
health. Hyper-connectivity and the pressure 
associated with social media can lead to 
anxiety, depression and other mental health 
disorders, which are more common among girls 
than boys (for more on this, see 
Section 2.12.2.2).

2.3.2.2.  The COVID-19 pandemic 

highlighted gender disparities in 
health, from infection rates to 
access to sexual and reproductive 
services

The COVID-19 pandemic prompted gender 
disparities in healthy life years and longevity, 
contributing to an increase in the gender gap in 
life expectancy (Figure 11).

Figure 11. Healthy life years, by sex (years, EU, 2018–2021)

64.2

63.7

65.1

64.2

64.5

63.5

64.2

63.1

2018

2019

2020

2021

NB: There was a break in the time series for Luxembourg in 2020 and 2021.
Source: Eurostat (hlth_hlye).

Women

Men

Attempts to live up to hegemonic masculinity 
can negatively affect men’s health and well-
being in various ways, contributing to men’s 
experience of a lower number of healthy life 
years. It can push men towards behaviours that 
damage their health (Berke et al., 2020). In 2019, 
13 % of men in the EU consumed alcohol daily, 
compared with 4 % of women (Eurostat, 2021a). 
Furthermore, in 2019, 22 % of men in the EU 
were daily smokers of cigarettes, compared with 
15 % of women (Eurostat, 2022b).

The COVID-19 pandemic contributed to a decline 
in healthy life years for both women and men. 
Its gender-specific effects illustrate a 
phenomenon known as the gender paradox in 
the pandemic’s impact (Bambra et al., 2021). 
While men’s life expectancies have shortened 
and they experienced higher mortality rates 
during the COVID-19 pandemic, infection rates 
were higher among women, due to their 
predominant roles in frontline healthcare, 
where they constitute 76 % of the workforce in 
the EU (EIGE, 2023b).

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2.  Policies and developments in the 12 critical areas of concern in the EU since 2019

The gender paradox in health reveals a significant disparity: while women 
generally live longer than men, they often spend fewer of those years in good 
health. This paradox is attributed to a mix of biological factors, like hormones that 
may protect women from chronic diseases, behavioural patterns and social 
determinants of health. Studies show that, in Europe, the health disparities 
between women and men are also influenced by societal gender norms.

Source: Summary by the authors based on Doyal (1995) and Bird and Rieker (2012).

In addition, the pandemic disrupted women’s 
access to sexual and reproductive health 
services, including contraception and abortion 
(van Benschoten et al., 2022). It also 
exacerbated intimate partner violence, with the 
number of cases reported rising significantly 
during lockdowns (for more, see 
Section 2.4.2.2).

2.3.2.3.  The pandemic exposed significant 
gender disparities in mental health 
impacts, with evidence showing 
the need to address stigma 
affecting women and men

Lockdowns across many Member States 
severely disrupted work–life balance, resulting 
in the loss of income and jobs, increased care 
responsibilities and heightened mental strain 
(EIGE, 2022g). Mothers more than fathers faced 
increased parental stress and burnout during 
the COVID-19 pandemic (Johnson et al., 2021). 
While women more than men generally were 
more likely to experience sadness and 
depression, job loss was associated with 
depression deterioration only for men 
(Paccagnella and Pongiglione, 2022). More 
broadly, the 2023 Flash Eurobarometer on 
mental health found that men generally felt 
calmer and less tired than women, who often 
juggle work and family responsibilities. It also 
showed that women’s mental health was more 
affected by global events than men’s (including 
the COVID-19 pandemic, the Russian war of 
aggression against Ukraine, the climate crisis 
and the food and energy crisis) and there was a 
greater impact of social media on young 
women than on young men (European 
Commission, 2023l).

While women and men experience emotions to 
the same extent, women tend to be more 
aware of them and engage in more varied 
emotional regulation strategies, including 
receiving diagnoses and treatment for 
depression (Swetlitz, 2021). In contrast, 
although men also experience mental health 
challenges, they are less likely to seek help due 
to gender norms and traditional notions of 
masculinity that discourage being perceived as 
vulnerable and seeking psychological support 
(Gough and Novikova, 2020). The stigma that 
delays or prevents them from accessing 
necessary mental health services (Baker et al., 
2020; Croft et al., 2021) is one of the 
contributing factors to the fact that men are 
four times more likely than women to die by 
suicide (Eurostat, 2023c). This stigma has a 
particularly detrimental impact on men who 
experience socioeconomic challenges and 
discrimination, including gay, bisexual and trans 
men, men with refugee status, men with 
migrant backgrounds and those belonging to 
ethnic minorities, and men who are homeless or 
in prison (Baker et al., 2020). Disproportionate 
stress and social pressures due to having a 
non-normative sexual orientation can increase 
the risk of substance use and health risk 
behaviours, including of contracting sexually 
transmitted diseases (Lu et al., 2019).

Public awareness of mental health grew during 
the pandemic, sparking greater media 
attention and efforts to reduce stigma (Mitchell 
et al., 2023), although challenges remain. For 
example, the digitalisation of mental health 
services has created accessibility challenges for 
vulnerable groups that lack internet access or 
digital skills, such as homeless individuals, older 
people, people with limited language skills and 

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2.  Policies and developments in the 12 critical areas of concern in the EU since 2019

people living in rural or remote areas (EAPN, 
2022; Haimi, 2023).

2.3.2.4.  The gender equality gap in the 
healthcare sector affects both 
patients and workers

Most Member States are experiencing severe 
shortages of healthcare workers (WHO, 2022c). 
The current number of care workers and their 
job conditions do not match the trend of 
expanding and evolving care demands in the 
context of an ageing population and the 
changing nature of families (EIGE, 2023a; ILO, 
2018). As the World Health Organization (WHO) 
highlights, the crisis in the healthcare 
workforce is a crisis of both healthcare and 
gender equality (Kluge and Azzopardi-Muscat, 
2023).

Gender inequalities in unpaid care work and its 
undervaluation translate into gender disparities 
at work, particularly in the care sector (ILO, 
2018). Although women constitute 76 % of the 
health workforce in Europe (EIGE, 2023b), they 
face a 24 % pay gap (WHO, 2022d) and worse 
working conditions and higher rates of 
workplace violence and sexual harassment than 
men, and occupy fewer leadership positions 
than men (Kuhlmann et al., 2023).

Access to healthcare is especially limited in rural 
areas, where older women and men face 
compounded inequalities due to age and limited 
healthcare access (Carson et al., 2024). Regional 
disparities across the EU worsen this issue, as 
shortages of family doctors and public 
infrastructure leave those living in poverty – 
particularly women and older people – with long 
waiting lists and inaccessible private facilities. 
This situation is further aggravated by the 
greater number of private hospitals than public 
hospitals, which exacerbates regional and 
socioeconomic disparities (EAPN, 2022), with 
women slightly more likely than men to report 
cost, waiting list or distance as reasons for their 
needs remaining unmet (Eurostat, 2024s).

To address care deficits in the Global North, 
women from the Global South are moving to 
provide essential services – a phenomenon 

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known as the ‘global care chain’ (Donato and 
Gabaccia, 2015; Gammage, 2021). This trend 
reflects a growing demand for labour in the 
care economy, where migrant women dominate 
the workforce (Ogawa R., 2024). However, this 
dynamic intensifies care deficits in the Global 
South and poses challenges for migrant women, 
such as family separation and adverse mental 
health impacts (WHO, 2017). Moreover, migrant 
women working in these sectors are often 
employed in low-paid and highly exploitative 
roles with limited access to support services, a 
situation worsened by the COVID-19 pandemic 
(ILO, 2021b).

2.3.2.5.  Improving working conditions in 

the healthcare sector includes 
tackling the violence 
disproportionately faced by 
healthcare workers and caregivers

Healthcare professionals, predominantly 
women, face a high risk of workplace violence 
from both colleagues and patients, with 23 % 
of EU healthcare workers experiencing negative 
behaviours, including violence, in 2021 
(European Policy Centre, 2023). Women nurses 
are twice as likely to be subjected to such 
violence as other professional groups (European 
Nursing Research Foundation, 2022). In 
addition, nurses from migrant and ethnic 
minority backgrounds often face discrimination 
and prejudice from patients and colleagues, 
leading to biased attitudes, unfair treatment 
and unequal professional opportunities (Antón-
Solanas et al., 2022). The COVID-19 pandemic 
intensified these issues, resulting in increased 
verbal and physical abuse, although the 
severity of this is often under-reported 
(European Policy Centre, 2023). This violence 
significantly affects the physical and mental 
health of healthcare workers, the majority of 
whom are women (EIGE, 2021a).

Additionally, informal caregivers, predominantly 
women, report poorer physical health, including 
higher risks of chronic conditions such as 
hypertension, cardiovascular disease (Zajdel et 
al., 2023) and mental health issues, including 
depression and anxiety (Petrini et al., 2019). 
High levels of caregiver stress and burnout can 

2.  Policies and developments in the 12 critical areas of concern in the EU since 2019

diminish care quality, leading to neglect and 
poor health outcomes for recipients (Bom et al., 
2018). ICT-based solutions can alleviate 
caregiver burden (Madara Marasinghe, 2016). 
For instance, digital tools provide crucial support 
for caregivers of patients with Alzheimer’s 
disease, aiding in disease understanding and 
crisis management (Martínez-Alcalá et al., 
2016). In addition, these technologies enable 
caregivers to monitor the health status of frail 
individuals through features such as activity 
tracking and assessing the risk of falls 
(Medrano-Gil et al., 2018).

2.3.2.6.  An ageing population reveals 
heightened vulnerabilities for 
older women, particularly with 
regard to abuse in long-term care 
settings

The population of the EU aged 15 to 64 is 
expected to decline (Eurostat, 2023d), while the 
older population is expected to grow 
substantially. By 2100, centenarian women are 
expected to outnumber centenarian men by 
three to one (Eurostat, 2023d). This 
demographic shift will intensify pressure on 
welfare and health systems, given the growing 
demand for care and supporting technologies.

‘Gendered ageism’ describes the intersection 
between age and gender discrimination, with 
older women facing unique challenges due to the 
combined effects of both. These challenges are 
particularly pronounced in settings such as 
nursing homes and long-term care facilities, 
where older women are at an increased risk of 
violence, from both caregivers and healthcare 
professionals. This includes coercive and 
controlling behaviours such as withholding 
medications, assistive devices or essential 
aspects of care, in addition to neglect and 
financial abuse (39) (WHO et al., 2024). Despite 
the severe impact of such abuse, it remains 
largely under-reported in global and national 
data.

2.3.2.7.  Women are particularly vulnerable 

to cardiovascular diseases and 
antimicrobial resistance due to 
biological, socioeconomic and 
environmental factors

Cardiovascular disease is a leading cause of 
death among women. It is worsened by climate 
change, which increases cardiovascular risks as 
a result of rising temperatures and air pollution 
(Smith et al., 2014; WHO, 2024). Women face 
heightened vulnerability due to socioeconomic 
disparities, caregiving stress and gender-
specific health factors (WHO Regional Office 
for Europe, 2020). For example, reproductive 
health conditions, such as early or late 
menarche, polycystic ovary syndrome and 
complications during pregnancy, constitute 
unique cardiovascular risks for women (O’Kelly 
et al., 2022).

While cardiovascular disease mortality rates 
have declined, they have decreased more slowly 
for women (Andrade et al., 2023). 
Cardiovascular disease in women remains 
underdiagnosed and undertreated (Vogel et al., 
2021). Women often present with atypical 
symptoms such as nausea, back and neck pain, 
or fatigue, which are frequently misattributed 
to non-cardiac causes – unlike men, whose 
chest pain is more readily recognised as 
indicative of cardiac issues (Haider et al., 2020). 
This disparity in diagnosis and treatment can 
be attributed not only to biological differences 
but also to the influence of gender stereotypes 
and insufficient knowledge among healthcare 
providers regarding gender-specific 
presentations of cardiovascular disease (Al 
Hamid et al., 2024).

Antimicrobial resistance is also a gendered 
health risk. Women’s medical treatments for 
childbirth, abortion and urinary tract infections 
expose them to drug-resistant pathogens (Ny 
et al., 2019). Moreover, since more women than 
men work in health, education and welfare, 
they are more exposed to infectious agents 

 (39)  Definitions of economic and financial abuse are often ambiguous and vary between studies. For instance, some survey 

instruments on violence against older people focus on the theft of money and possessions, while others focus on coercion 
or impersonation that results in the surrender of rights or property or the signing/changing of a legal document, enabling 
the perpetrator to obtain property or services.

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2.  Policies and developments in the 12 critical areas of concern in the EU since 2019

than men (Lewandowski et al., 2021; WHO, 
2007).

2.3.2.8.  Despite the effectiveness of early 

detection in reducing breast 
cancer mortality, screening rates 
vary significantly between EU 
countries

In 2022, 374 800 women and 4 400 men were 
estimated to have been diagnosed with breast 
cancer in the EU. In the same year, 95 800 
women and 1 200 men were estimated to have 

died from it. Half of new breast cancer cases in 
women occurred in those aged 45–69, while, 
among new breast cancer cases in men, half 
occurred in those aged 70 years or more 
(European Commission, 2023b). Early detection 
through screening can significantly reduce 
mortality; however, screening rates vary 
significantly between EU countries (Figure 12), 
revealing disparities in access to life-saving 
services for women. To address these 
disparities, Box 11 highlights recent efforts in 
Poland to expand prevention screening 
programmes.

Figure 12.  Breast cancer screening rates among women, by country (% of population aged 50–

69 years, 2022)

100

82

81

78

70

70

50

0

63

62

60

58

57

54

52

52

48

44

41

35

30

29

28

FI

SE

SI

NL

IE

EE

HR

CZ

LT

BE

IT

LU

DE

FR

MT

AT

PO

LV

CY

SK

NB: Programme-based data. The rate shown is the proportion of women aged 50–69 years who received a mammogram 
within the preceding two years (or according to the specific screening frequency recommended in each country). This is shown 
as a proportion of women eligible for an organised screening programme. Data are not available for Bulgaria, Denmark, Greece, 
Spain, Hungary, Portugal and Romania. Data for Germany and Finland are estimated. Data for France and Luxembourg are 
provisional. Definitions differ for Slovakia and Sweden. Definitions differ and data are provisional for Ireland. There is a break 
in the time series and definitions differ for Malta.
Source: Eurostat (hlth_ps_prev).

Box 11.  Expanding prevention screening programmes in Poland

In 2023, Poland’s Ministry of Health expanded breast and cervical cancer screening programmes to 
include women aged 45–74, broadening the previous range of 50–69. Free cytology screenings, 
previously limited to women aged 25–59, were extended to include those aged 25–64 (Ministry of 
Health of Poland, 2023a). In addition, the human papillomavirus vaccine was made available for free 
to all children aged 9–18 (Ministry of Health of Poland, 2023b).

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2.3.2.9.  The troubling prevalence of 

gynaecological and obstetric 
violence across the EU highlights 
the urgent need for a unified 
definition and improved data 
collection

Despite the lack of a universally accepted definition, gynaecological and obstetric 
violence refers to various forms of mistreatment experienced during obstetric and 
gynaecological care. This includes psychological, physical and sexual abuse, such as 
humiliation, a lack of privacy, coercion and non-consensual medical procedures, 
verbal abuse, forced medical actions such as sterilisation and abortion without 
consent, and unnecessary procedures, including certain labour inductions and 
caesarean sections. It also involves the refusal or delay of essential care, such as 
pain management, and of abortion services and the denial of a birth companion.

Source: European Parliament (2024f).

There is a lack of high-quality EU-wide data on 
these specific forms of violence, highlighting 
the need for improved data collection to fully 
understand these phenomena. Existing studies 
reveal worrying trends at the Member State 
level. A 2021 survey in Belgium revealed 
widespread obstetric violence, with consent 
absent in 49 % of medical procedures and 40 % 
of women reporting that they had experienced 
obstetric violence (Guiot and Cosentino, 2024). 
In Portugal, 62 % of women report that their 
consent was not sought for the use of 
instruments during childbirth (Costa et al., 
2022). In Finland, 38 % of women describe 
having undergone violent or painful procedures 
during childbirth (Immonen et al., 2019). In 
Germany, between 20 % and 33 % of women 
have experienced verbal abuse in obstetric 
settings (Beck-Hiestermann et al., 2023). In 
Spain, around 35 % of women encountered 
sarcastic or discrediting remarks (Mena-Tudela 
et al., 2020). CSOs can play an important role in 
addressing these issues by raising awareness, 
advocating for change and supporting women 
who experience mistreatment, as shown in 
Box 12.

These findings not only highlight the need for 
better data but also underline broader gender 
disparities in sexual and reproductive 
healthcare – see also Section 2.9. WHO has 
emphasised that the development of 

contraceptives for men is crucial for achieving 
gender equality and advocating for family 
planning as a shared responsibility (WHO, 
2022b). At present, the only effective 
contraceptive methods readily available for 
men are condoms and vasectomy, highlighting 
the need for the development of safer and less 
invasive contraceptives for men (Sitruk-Ware 
and Wang, 2024). Another example is universal 
vaccination against human papillomavirus to 
prevent genital cancer and warts. Vaccination 
of both girls and boys, as promoted through 
Europe’s beating cancer plan, would provide 
greater levels of protection for all and would 
free women and girls from having sole 
responsibility for preventing a human 
papillomavirus infection and from stigma 
(European Cancer Organisation, 2020).

Box 12.  Advocacy and legal support 
against obstetric violence in Belgium 
and Italy 

In Belgium, significant policy 
developments have been observed, with 
obstetric and gynaecological violence 
included in several key strategic 
documents at both the federal and the 
regional levels (European Parliament, 
2024c). For example, the Belgian national 
action plan to fight gender-based violence 

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(2021–2025) acknowledges the existence 
of this form of violence and emphasises its 
prevention, despite it not being covered 
under the Istanbul Convention.

In Italy, advocacy efforts and legal cases 
have raised awareness of obstetric 
violence, prompting discussions among 
both medical professionals and 
policymakers. CSOs such as Osservatorio 
sulla Violenza Ostetrica (Ovoitalia) and 
activists have supported women who have 
experienced mistreatment during 
childbirth, advocating for policy changes 
and promoting the adoption of guidelines 
to prevent and address obstetric violence 
(Ovoitalia, n.d.).

2.3.2.10.  The intersection between gender 

and migration status creates 
unique challenges in terms of 
women’s access to healthcare, 
especially those in irregular 
situations

Asylum seekers, refugees and undocumented 
migrants in the EU face numerous barriers to 
accessing healthcare, including limited social 
protections, language and administrative 
challenges, the fear of deportation, and 
discriminatory sexist or racist practices 
(O’Donnell, 2018; Sawadogo et al., 2023). While 
these obstacles have an impact on both 
migrant women and men, migrant women – 
particularly those in irregular situations – face 
unique challenges due to the intersection of 
gender and migrant status, which amplifies 
their marginalisation and vulnerability. These 
challenges make it harder for migrant women 
to access care for chronic illness, disability, 
long-term health needs and SRHR services 
(European Network of Migrant Women, 2023). 
Many lack access to maternity and non-
emergency healthcare, often forcing them to 

work until late in their pregnancy or to return 
to work prematurely, with serious 
consequences for both their health and the 
health of their children (Fair et al., 2020; ILO, 
2021a). The digitalisation of healthcare further 
complicates access, as it requires strong digital 
skills, language proficiency and at least basic 
administrative and legal knowledge (Buchert et 
al., 2023).

Since the outset of the Russian war of 
aggression against Ukraine, more than 8 million 
people, mostly women and children, have 
become displaced across the EU. While the TPD 
grants women and girls access to essential 
SRHR services, significant gaps remain in 
emergency contraception, safe abortion and 
psychological support (EIGE, 2024o). Practical 
and financial barriers further limit access. These 
include high costs, language issues and 
restrictive national legislation, such as 
requirements for prescriptions, parental 
consent and age limits. Overall, only half of the 
26 Member States surveyed provide free sexual 
health and reproductive services for such 
individuals (EIGE, 2024o). Referral mechanisms 
for victims of conflict-related sexual violence 
are poorly coordinated, leaving rape crisis 
centres, NGOs and women’s rights 
organisations to bridge critical gaps in SRHR 
services (for more on this, see Section 2.5.2.4).

2.3.2.11.  A gender-responsive approach, 

including an intersectional 
perspective, is essential for 
equitably advancing medical 
knowledge and practice

An intersectional approach to understanding 
treatment response and health outcomes for 
women and men in all their diversity is still 
lacking (Gross et al., 2022; Subramaniapillai et 
al., 2024). For example, a review of 75 clinical 
trials on COVID-19 vaccines found that only 

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24 % of them disaggregated outcomes by sex 
and just 13 % considered implications 
separately for both women and men (Heidari et 
al., 2021). This is despite the documented sex 
differences in vaccine side effects and 
gendered patterns of vaccine hesitancy (Brady 
et al., 2021). Failing to incorporate sex and 
gender into biomedical research leads to 
significant societal and financial costs. 
Although estimates of economic costs are rare, 
women account for over 66 % of deaths 
attributable to adverse drug reactions in the 
EU, leading to an estimated annual cost of 
EUR 52 billion (Care4everyBody, n.d.).

2.4.  Violence against 
women (area D)

Under the BPfA, all Member States have 
committed to preventing and eradicating 
violence against women. This commitment is 
based on three strategic objectives: developing 

and implementing integrated measures to 
prevent and eliminate violence against women, 
enhancing data collection and research on 
violence against women, and combating the 
trafficking of women and providing support to 
victims.

Since 2002, 10 EU indicators have tracked 
progress towards these objectives (EIGE, n.d.-b), 
focusing on the profiles of women victims and 
men perpetrators of domestic violence, 
workplace sexual harassment, support services 
and state measures. These indicators have 
significant shortcomings. In terms of 
conceptualisation, the current indicators assess 
domestic violence rather than intimate partner 
violence, while other forms of violence against 
women are not addressed. Furthermore, the 
scarcity of comparable data across the EU 
complicates the measurement of progress 
(EIGE, 2020c), although the recent EU-wide 
gender-based violence survey, which collected 
data from 2020 to 2024, sheds an important 
light on violence prevalence (EIGE, 2024d).

Area D (violence against women) alignment with SDGs

5.2  Eliminate all forms of violence against all women and girls in the public and private spheres, including 

trafficking and sexual and other types of exploitation

For the BPfA + 30 review, the thematic focus and priority topics of area D include:

Combating femicide, 
sexual violence and 
intimate partner 
violence

Adopting a uniform 
approach to 
cyber violence

Harmonising definitions 
and strengthening data 
collection

Tackling female genital 
mutilation and human 
trafficking

Recent crises have intensified the challenges 
involved in combating violence against women. 
The COVID-19 pandemic led to increased 
intimate partner violence and exposed gaps in 
support for vulnerable groups. The digital 

transformation has fuelled cyberviolence (EIGE, 
2022c), and climate change and the Russian war 
of aggression against Ukraine have increased 
the risks of trafficking and gender-based 
violence (Cimino and Degani, 2023; UNDP, 2020). 

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Rising reports of sexual violence highlight the 
need for stronger prevention and response 
measures, but conflicting definitions of rape 
lead to inaction (European Parliament, 2025). 
This section underlines the urgent priorities and 
future actions needed to effectively combat 
violence against women in the EU.

2.4.1.  EU policy developments

Since 2019, the EU has undertaken significant 
legal and policy developments to address 
violence against women, beginning with the EU 
gender equality strategy for 2020–2025. This 
outlines a firm commitment to ending violence 
against women (European Commission, 2020d). 
In June 2023, the EU’s accession to the Istanbul 

Convention marked a major step forwards in 
establishing a comprehensive legal framework 
to eliminate violence against women (Council of 
Europe, 2023b). Further solidifying these 
efforts, the adoption of the new directive to 
combat violence against women and domestic 
violence in May 2024 represented another 
critical milestone (Directive (EU) 2024/1385). 
The directive introduced the first-ever EU rules 
to prevent and combat violence against women 
and domestic violence. It establishes minimum 
rules concerning the definition of criminal 
offences and penalties in the areas of sexual 
exploitation of women and children, 
cyberviolence and the rights of victims. It also 
sets out provisions relating to early 
intervention, prevention and the protection of 
victims (Figure 13).

Figure 13.  Main provisions of the directive on combating violence against women and domestic 
violence

Harmonised definitions of female 
genital mutilation and forced 
marriage

Harmonised definitions of 
various forms of cyberviolence

Reporting and access to justice, 
early intervention, protection and 
support

Adoption of a victim-centred and 
intersectional approach for 
groups at risk

Prevention addressing the root 
causes of violence and harmful 
stereotypes

Accurate data collection, 
improving data comparability 
and standardisation

Source: Summary by the authors based on Directive (EU) 2024/1385.

In June 2020, the European Commission 
introduced the EU strategy on victims’ rights 
(2020–2025) to enhance support and 
protection for victims of crime, in particular 
women disproportionately affected by 
domestic violence, sexual assault and 
trafficking (European Commission, 2020d). The 
strategy calls for tailored support and 
prevention that focuses on challenging harmful 
attitudes and behaviours that perpetuate 
violence against women. The EU has also 
launched comprehensive measures to combat 
human trafficking (Figure 14).

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2.  Policies and developments in the 12 critical areas of concern in the EU since 2019

Figure 14.  Overview of the EU legal and policy framework to tackle human trafficking

Strategy on combating 
trafficking in human 
beings (2021–2025)

EU common 
anti-trafficking plan 
(2022)

Recognises human trafficking as a form of gender-based violence and its 
disproportionate impact on women and girls, and highlights the increased 
risk for groups such as Roma, LGBTIQ people and people with disabilities.

Introduced to address risks related to the Russian war of aggression against 
Ukraine. Includes efforts on combating gender-based violence and 
integrates a gender- and child-centred perspective throughout all actions.

Revisions to the EU 
anti-trafficking directive 
(2024)

The updates to the EU's anti-trafficking law cover additional forms of 
exploitation such as forced marriage, illegal adoption and surrogacy. They 
also require Member States to ensure that specialised assistance and 
support for victims take a gender-sensitive approach. They also establish 
that training for professionals in contact with victims must adopt a 
gender-sensitive approach.

Source: Summary by the authors based on Directive (EU) 2024/1712 and European Commission (2021j, 2022b, 2024f).

In 2023, the Commission proposed amendments 
to the victims’ rights directive to improve 
victims’ access to information, support services 
and legal protection, with the aim of ensuring a 
more victim-centred justice system. While 
these amendments acknowledge the specific 
vulnerabilities of children and women victims of 
violence, they neglect other disadvantaged 
groups, such as LGBTIQ people and women from 
ethnic minorities. The revisions to the anti-
trafficking directive also aim to improve victim 
identification and access to justice, including 
addressing the specific needs of children 
(Directive (EU) 2024/1712; OSCE, 2021). 
However, the potential for overlooking or 
misidentifying victims who do not conform 
with typical trafficking victim stereotypes, 
including men and boys, remains unaddressed 
(Directive (EU) 2024/1712; OSCE, 2021).

2.4.2.  Key challenges and trends

2.4.2.1.  Recognising femicide as a distinct 
criminal offence is vital to 
effectively tackling this gender-
based crime

Femicide is the most extreme form of violence 
against women. Official reports from 17 

Member States reveal that 788 women were 
killed by their intimate partner or a family 
member in 2022 (Eurostat, 2024l). 
Comprehensive data and qualitative insights on 
this issue remain limited across the EU. The 
available data may underestimate the scope of 
this issue by overlooking orphaned children, 
bereaved parents and the siblings of murdered 
women as direct victims (EIGE, 2023g).

At the EU level, there is a lack of consensus on a 
standardised definition, which often leads to 
femicide being classified under general 
homicide and obscuring its true prevalence 
(EIGE, 2023g, 2023p). Defining femicide as ‘the 
killing of a woman or girl because of her 
gender’ (EIGE, 2023p) is critical to 
understanding its unique root causes (which 
are linked to gender discrimination and power 
imbalances) and to fostering effective 
investigations and preventive measures (UN 
Women, 2020b). Spain became the first 
Member State to systematically count and 
record different types of femicide in 2021, 
setting a precedent for comprehensive data 
collection to better grasp the scope and 
severity of femicide (Ministerio de Igualdad, 
Gobierno de España, 2021). Box 13 sets out 
similar developments in Malta, Cyprus, Belgium 
and Croatia.

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Box 13.  Recognition of femicide as a distinct crime in Malta, Cyprus, Belgium and Croatia

• 

• 

• 

• 

In June 2022, Malta officially recognised femicide as a distinct criminal offence, following 
unanimous approval by parliament (Ministry for Equality, Research and Innovation and Ministry 
for Justice and Governance, 2022).
In July 2022, Cyprus passed a new law making femicide a separate crime punishable by a 
potential lifetime jail sentence (CYLAW, 2022).
In July 2023, Belgium introduced significant legislation aimed at addressing femicide and 
gender-related killings. The law distinguishes between intimate femicide, non-intimate femicide 
and indirect femicide (40).
In March 2024, Croatia’s parliament approved a bill to make femicide a specific criminal offence. 
The new legislation imposes stringent sentences, ranging from 10 to 40 years for perpetrators of 
violence against women (Ministarstvo pravosuđa, uprave i digitalne transformacije, 2024).

2.4.2.2.  The prevalence of intimate partner 
violence against women demands 
urgent action to enhance targeted 
measures across the EU

Intimate partner violence is the most common 
form of violence against women. It 
encompasses any act of physical, sexual, 
psychological or economic violence occurring 

between former or current spouses or partners, 
regardless of whether the perpetrator shares or 
shared the same residence as the victim (EIGE, 
2025d). According to the EU Gender-based 
Violence Survey (2021 wave), around one third 
(32 %) of women in the EU have experienced 
violence by an intimate partner during their 
adulthood (Figure 15 gives a breakdown by 
Member State).

Figure 15.  Ever-partnered women aged 18–74 years who have experienced violence by an intimate 

partner, by occurrence of last episode and country (%, 2021–2024)

55 53

51 49 48 47

45 45

42 41

38

25

24

17
12 11 12

20

8

22

11

17

7

21

10

17

7

35 34 33 32 32 31 31 30 30 29 28 28 26 26

16 15 14 14 15

13 13 13 13

7

6

6

5

6

5

5

5

6

10 11 10 11 11 11 10
4
4

4

4

5

5

4

10

5

8

4

8

3

23

21 20

60

40

20

0

I

U F
H

K
S

O
R

E
S

U
L

K
D

Y
C

L
E

E
E

T
A

E
I

Z
C

L
N

E
D

E
B

T
L

R
F

V
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S
E

I

R S
H

T
M

T
I

T
P

G
B

L
P

7
2
-
U
E

Last 12 months

Last 5 years

Adulthood

NB: The reliability of the data for the last 12 months in Ireland is low. For Italy, definitions differ and data from the last 
12 months and the last 5 years are not available. The data for the EU-27 are estimates and do not include Italy.
Source: Data collection for the EU Gender-based Violence Survey (2021 wave), coordinated by Eurostat, FRA and EIGE; Eurostat 
(gbv_ipv_occ).

 (40) Loi sur la prévention et la lutte contre les femicides https://www.ejustice.just.fgov.be/mopdf/2023/08/31_1.pdf#Page8.

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2.  Policies and developments in the 12 critical areas of concern in the EU since 2019

Women aged 18–29 years are more likely to 
report intimate partner violence than any other 
age group (Eurostat, 2024c). This increased 
reporting among younger women is likely to 
reflect a greater awareness of their rights (Cho 
et al., 2015) and may be influenced by 
improved access to support services, changing 
societal attitudes and relationship dynamics 
(Pathak et al., 2019). Box 14 gives some 
examples of measures taken by Latvia, 
Lithuania and Portugal to strengthen their legal 
frameworks on domestic violence.

Box 14.  Strengthening legal measures 

against domestic violence

• 

In July 2023, Latvia revised its police 
legislation to enable police officers to 
separate individuals who pose a threat 
to a victim without requiring the victim 
to file a written application (Law 
Library of Congress, 2023).

•  Lithuania’s new law on protection 

against domestic violence, effective 
from 1 July 2023, promotes 
collaboration between national and 
local authorities, including the police, 
support centres, child protection 
services, hospitals and municipal 
representatives. This initiative is 
designed to bolster the effectiveness of 
a new emergency barring order. The 
Ministry of Social Security and Labour 
of the Republic of Lithuania provides 
more information, aiming to increase 
awareness of the new measures.
In January 2023, a law was approved in 
Portugal to enable spouses to avoid the 
previously mandatory conciliation/
mediation phase in the divorce 
procedure when one of them is 
suspected or convicted of domestic 
violence offences (CIG, 2023).

• 

Although not always the case, violence against 
women is predominantly perpetrated by men 
(Flood, 2022; FRA, 2014). Harmful stereotypes 
about masculinity that are passed on to men 
and boys teach them to respond to conflict with 
violence, to compete and to dominate their 

partners and others (MenEngage Alliance, 
2018). Both the Istanbul Convention and the EU 
directive on combating violence against women 
and domestic violence establish the importance 
of working with perpetrators and fighting 
gender stereotypes and gender roles. This can 
be done through comprehensive sexuality 
education and educational programmes that 
promote critical reflection on gender roles, 
violence and relationships between men and 
women (Fleming et al., 2015; MenEngage 
Alliance, 2018). Evidence suggests that men 
may overestimate how comfortable other men 
are around sexist behaviours, which may lead 
them to refrain from speaking up owing to fear 
of other people’s reactions, particularly in 
contexts dominated by men (Flood, 2022). 
Encouraging men to speak up and increase their 
knowledge of and skills in how to intervene 
could be an effective way to challenge 
discriminatory gender norms (MenEngage 
Alliance, 2018).

The COVID-19 pandemic worsened intimate 
partner violence in the EU due to new stressors 
such as infection risks, financial constraints and 
increased isolation (McNeil et al., 2023). In 
particular, this affected trans women, women 
with disabilities and migrant women (EIGE, 
2021b). Despite improvements, the availability 
of support services such as helplines and 
shelters (WAVE, 2023) remains insufficient (see 
Table A6, in Annex 4). During the COVID-19 
pandemic, only a few Member States (ES, HR 
and PT) included measures addressing violence 
against women in their RRPs (EIGE, 2023f). 
Box 15 gives examples of some Member States’ 
efforts to tackle intimate partner violence 
during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Even before the crisis, resources were already 
limited, and the pandemic further diverted 
funding towards crisis management (EIGE, 
2021c). As a result, support services faced 
heightened challenges, with insufficient 
funding and a lack of government guidance 
limiting their ability to provide adequate 
services to victims (EIGE, 2021c). In line with the 
directive on combating violence against 
women, EIGE will collaborate with relevant 
stakeholders to support Member States in 

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mapping the availability of these services in the 
coming years.

Box 15.  Examples of efforts to tackle 
intimate partner violence in 
Member States during the 
COVID-19 pandemic

• 

• 

• 

• 

In Bulgaria, the SHE project aims to 
combat domestic violence against 
women by creating and implementing a 
training programme for human 
resources specialists in public 
administration. This initiative 
responded to the increased need for 
workplace-based support during 
COVID-19 lockdowns, aiming to 
empower professionals to identify, 
assist and refer victims effectively 
(Institute of Public Administration, 
2021).
In Ireland, a national interagency plan 
was implemented to address domestic 
abuse as part of the country’s COVID-19 
response. The judicial services 
maintained the provision of services by 
giving priority to domestic violence 
cases (EIGE, 2021d).
In Spain, the government introduced 
the code word ‘mascarilla 19’ as a 
discreet communication method for 
victims of gender-based violence to 
seek assistance during the lockdown. 
This collaborative effort involved 
healthcare workers, police and service 
providers. Similar strategies have been 
adopted by other countries (EIGE, 
2021d).
In Slovenia, the police initiated 
awareness-raising efforts to empower 
victims to report violence and assure 
them that support remained accessible 
despite the pandemic (EIGE, 2021d).

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2.4.2.3.  The increased rate of sexual 

violence and harassment in the EU 
underlines the urgent need for 
improved prevention and response 
strategies

The definition of rape in legal systems remains 
contentious. Human rights and women’s 
organisations advocate for a consent-based 
definition, arguing that the force-based 
approach contributes to under-reporting and 
inadequate prosecution (EWL, 2023; Human 
Rights Watch, 2023b). It excludes behaviours 
that undermine a victim’s autonomy and lead 
to unwanted sexual acts (Dowds, 2020; 
Schneider, 2020). However, proving consent is 
challenging and often shifts the focus to the 
victim’s actions instead of it being on the 
perpetrator’s behaviour (Dowds, 2020; 
Schneider, 2020). Intense debates over the 
adoption of an EU-wide consent-based 
definition of rape led to its omission from the 
directive on combating violence against women 
(Peseckyte, 2023). However, the directive sets 
out measures relating to awareness-raising 
campaigns or programmes, the making 
available and distribution of consent education 
material, and the wide dissemination of 
information on measures of rape prevention. A 
consent-based definition of rape applies in 
those Member States that have acceded to the 
Istanbul Convention.

Despite critical under-reporting issues, recorded 
offences related to sexual assault and rape 
increased markedly between 2019 and 2022 
(Figure 16). In 2022, there was a 25 % increase 
in documented cases of sexual assault against 
women in the EU, and reported cases of rape 
surged by 40 % compared with 2019. Women 
also remain disproportionately vulnerable to 
sexual harassment in the workplace. Available 
data reveal that around one in three women 
(31 %) who have ever worked have experienced 
sexual harassment in the workplace in their 
adulthood in the EU (Figure 17 sets out the 
situation per Member State). In the youngest 
age group (18–29 years), two in five women 
(42 %) have experienced sexual harassment at 
work (EIGE, 2024d).

2.  Policies and developments in the 12 critical areas of concern in the EU since 2019

Increased reports of violence may reflect 
different trends. On the positive side, it may 
reflect greater awareness and willingness 
among victims to speak out, influenced by 
movements such as #MeToo (see also 

Section 2.10.2.4). On the negative side, it may 
also point to increasing violence rates. Regular 
data collection is key to better understanding, 
identifying and responding to negative 
developments.

Figure 16.  Total number of recorded offences of rape and sexual assault (EU, 2019–2022)

108 523

60 632

106 039

63 575

123 294

76 764

135 444

84 996

140 000

120 000

100 000

80 000

60 000

40 000

20 000

0

2019

2020

2021

2022

Rape

Sexual assault

NB: Data for rape are not available for Italy (2019–2022); data for sexual assault are not available for Italy, Luxembourg or 
Hungary (2019–2022).
Source: Eurostat (crim_off_cat).

Improving confidence in the judicial system is 
crucial to countering under-reporting and to 
granting victims the right to a fair trial, as 
outlined in Article 47 of the EU Charter of 
Fundamental Rights. Women continue to report 
lower levels of confidence in the judicial system 
than men, and their representation across 

judicial roles is highly varied. Women remain 
under-represented in law enforcement, 
constituting 30 % of prison staff and 20 % of 
police officers, compared with 28 % and 18 %, 
respectively, in 2019 (Eurostat, 2024b). By 
2022, women made up 64 % of judges, up from 
57 % in 2019.

Figure 17.  Percentage of ever-working women aged 18–74 years who have experienced sexual 

harassment at work, by occurrence of last episode and country (%, 2021–2024)

60

55 54 53 53

46

44 43 41 41 40 40

36

33 33 33 32 32 31 31

28 27 27

40

24 26 24

26

20

11

0

19 17 17 16

19 18 20

9

10

5

6

7

7

7

6

7

4

14 12
6

4

15 14 14 15 13 13 12 11 10

6

6

7

3

4

4

4

5

3

19

8

3

15 13 12 12 11
6
5
4
3

5

7

2

2

2

2

I

E F
S

K
S

U
L

K
D

E
I

L
E

R
F

L
N

U
H

Y
C

R
H

E
E

E
B

O
R

E
D

I

S

Z
C

S
E

T
M

T
A

T
L

T
I

L
P

T
P

G
B

V
L

7
2
-
U
E

Last 12 months

Last 5 years

Adulthood

NB: Definitions differ in Italy and the EU-27 figures are estimates.
Source: Data collection for the EU Gender-based Violence Survey (2021 wave), coordinated by Eurostat, FRA and EIGE; Eurostat 
(gbv_shw_occ).

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2.4.2.4.  Adopting a unified approach to 

cyberviolence and enhancing 
digital safeguards are key to 
addressing online risks that 
particularly affect younger women

Cyberviolence against women and girls is 
rooted in power imbalances and is a growing 
concern in the digital age, driven by the 
increased use of digital technologies and 
amplified by the exponential growth of user 
online presence (EIGE, 2025b). Women face 
disproportionate dangers online, such as 
cyberstalking, harassment, doxing (41) and the 
non-consensual sharing of intimate images 
(Hofstetter and Pourmalek, 2023; Park et al., 
2023). Generative AI applications, automation 
and generative algorithms greatly exacerbate 
cyberviolence, as they extend the reach of 
perpetrators, enabling them to commit violent 
acts, such as automated harassment, image-
based sexual abuse or online discrimination, at 
a distance (EIGE, 2025b). The ensuing 
consequences are vast, including harm to 
physical and mental health, reduced online 
participation, and negative impacts on the 
victim’s relationships, employment and 

economic situation (EIGE, 2022d; Park et al., 
2023).

The 2020 FRA Fundamental Rights Survey 
found that more than 13 % of women across 
the EU have experienced cyber harassment in 
the past five years. This share rises to 25 % 
among young women (aged 16–29) (FRA, 
2020). Different age groups experience varying 
forms of cyberviolence, with cyberbullying and 
image abuse mostly affecting girls and younger 
women and cyber harassment and identity 
theft affecting older women (EIGE, 2022c). 
Reporting and responses vary between Member 
States due to factors such as awareness, 
cultural attitudes and legal frameworks (FRA, 
2020) (Figure 18). Lesbian, bisexual and 
transgender women, women from racial 
minorities and women from different religious 
groups experience high levels of cyberviolence 
due to the multiplicative effects of 
discrimination, violence and hate crimes (Lomba 
et al., 2021). These groups may also experience 
higher mental health impacts from 
cyberviolence due to this multiplicative effect 
(Lomba et al., 2021).

Figure 18.  Percentage of women aged 16–29 years reporting experiences of cyber harassment in the 

past 12 months, by country (% of the population, 2020)

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

25

23 22 22

19 19

17 17 16 16 16 16 15 15 15 14 14 14 13 13

11

9

7

5

4

E
D

U
L

Z
C

I

R F
F

K
S

E
E

I

S

E
B

7
2
-
U
E

R
H

E
I

K
D

V
L

E
S

S
E

T
L

L
P

T
A

L
N

O
R

U
H

T
P

T
I

Y
C

3

3

3

L
E

T
M

)
*
(
G
B

(*) The survey conducted in Bulgaria involved a small sample size. 
NB: The survey asked about the following acts of cyber harassment: incidents in which somebody (1) sent you emails or text 
messages that were offensive or threatening and (2) posted offensive or threatening material about you on the internet (e.g. 
on YouTube, Facebook, Instagram, Pinterest, Snapchat, LinkedIn, Twitter or WhatsApp).
Source: FRA Fundamental Rights Survey, 2020 (a_har12m_cyb).

 (41)  Doxing refers to online researching and publishing of private information on the internet to publicly expose and shame the 

person targeted (EWL, 2017).

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2.  Policies and developments in the 12 critical areas of concern in the EU since 2019

The EU directive on combating violence against 
women sets out uniform criminal law 
definitions of the most common forms of 
cyberviolence (non-consensual sharing of 
intimate or manipulated material (including 
‘deepfakes’), cyberstalking, cyber harassment 
(including cyberflashing and doxing) and cyber 
incitement to violence or hatred based on 
gender). It also requires Member States to 
ensure the removal of certain online content 
criminalised under the directive and the 
provision of specialist support services for 
victims of cybercrimes. National policies often 
focus on protecting children and young people 
from cyberviolence, overlooking its gender 
dimension (EIGE, 2022c). Romania is the only 
Member State with laws that specifically define 
cyberviolence. Several Member States (e.g. EL, 
IT, CY and SI) have adopted laws that tackle 
specific types of cyberviolence (e.g. 
cyberbullying, cyber harassment and 
cyberstalking), while other Member States 
address cyberviolence in domestic violence 
policies (BG, CZ, DE, ES, IT, MT, PT and RO) (EIGE, 
2022c).

To support Member States in tackling 
cyberviolence, in 2024, EIGE developed a 

measurement framework, definitions, 
indicators and recommendations for cross-
border collaboration (EIGE, 2025b) and guidance 
for digital platforms on implementing gender-
sensitive policies (EIGE, 2024r). This research 
shows that digital platforms face challenges in 
addressing cyberviolence again women and 
girls, including due to the persistence of 
gender-neutral language and approaches, a lack 
of recognition that cyberviolence crosses 
platforms and physical boundaries, and a lack 
of adequate training and support for human 
content moderators. On the positive side, 
automated moderation can enhance 
cyberviolence policing alongside human efforts, 
social media can provide valuable data on 
perpetrators’ behaviours and incidents of 
cyberviolence, and methods such as data 
scraping and digital ethnography can offer 
deep insights into cyberviolence against 
women and girls.

2.4.2.5.  Comprehensive data collection 

requires harmonised definitions of 
violence against women at the EU 
level

The Istanbul Convention strengthens the international legal framework on 
violence against women by harmonising standards through specific requirements. 
This leads to agreed-upon definitions, rights and principles, enhancing monitoring 
frameworks and data collection across Member States. Countries, regardless of 
accession, can use the convention as a reference to improve their national 
frameworks. A unified approach supports better data collection and monitoring, 
essential for assessing progress and implementing effective policies.

Source: Meurens et al. (2020).

Differences in classifications, recording 
practices and definitions create significant data 
gaps, limiting the potential for a comprehensive 
understanding to be gained of the prevalence, 
causes and impacts of violence against women. 
In addition to standardised definitions, there is 
a need for data collection to include critical 
variables such as sexual orientation, migration 
background and disability status to fully 
understand violence against women at the 
intersection of these factors (EIGE, 2023m; see 

also Section 2.9). The directive on combating 
violence against women requires improved data 
collection through surveys and administrative 
sources (Article 44). EIGE will continue to 
support Member States in implementing these 
provisions (see Annex 6 for more on EIGE’s work 
on data collection).

Psychological and economic violence are 
significant aspects of violence against women, 
recognised as part of domestic violence by the 

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2.  Policies and developments in the 12 critical areas of concern in the EU since 2019

directive on combating violence against 
women. Psychological violence, such as 
emotional abuse, coercive control, stalking and 
harassment, is widespread in the EU and often 
accompanies or precedes other forms of 
violence against women (EIGE, 2022b). For 
example, the EU Gender-based Violence Survey 
(2021 wave) shows that violence against 
women perpetrated by a lifetime intimate 
partner is higher (32 %) when psychological 
violence is included (EIGE, 2024d).

Psychological violence and coercive control are 
criminalised in some form in all Member States, 
usually under domestic violence legislation or 
general provisions. EIGE (2022b) found that 
such criminalisation can have limitations, with 
many criminal offences not matching well with 
the behaviour typical of these forms of 
violence. In 2021, only five Member States had 
specific laws targeting psychological violence or 
coercive control (DK, IE, ES, FR and HU). Belgium 
has a legal definition of coercive control in its 
legislation on femicide (see Box 13).

Economic violence disproportionately affects 
women with disabilities, women with migrant 
backgrounds and women from ethnic or 
religious minorities (EIGE, 2024e). According to 
the EU Gender-based Violence Survey (42), 8 % of 
(ever-partnered) women have experienced their 
partners (ever) forbidding them to work or 
controlling family finances and excessively 
controlling their spending. Despite this, only 
nine Member States (BE, BG, HR, LT, HU, MT, RO, 
SI and SK) have explicitly criminalised it in their 
domestic violence legislation (EIGE, 2023l).

Stalking is a significant concern for women in 
the EU (Figure 19). It is defined by the Istanbul 
Convention as ‘the intentional conduct of 
repeatedly engaging in threatening conduct 
directed at another person, causing her or him 
to fear for her or his safety’ (Article 34). 
Stalking can extend to ICT-facilitated forms 
such as cyberstalking (De Vido and Sosa, 2021).

Figure 19.  Percentage of women aged 17–84 years who have experienced stalking, by occurrence of 

last episode and country (%, 2021–2024)

40

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

32

30 29

27 26 26 25

14

10

11 10

9

9

10

5

4

4

4

4

4

4

24 24 24 23 22 22 22 22

19 19 19 18

14 13

8

4

9

3

9

3

10

4

8

2

6

2

9

4

7

3

7

8

7

8

7

6

3

3

3

3

2

2

2

12

7

11 10 10

6

3

5

2

3

1

9

3

1

SK

FI

SE

LU

EL

CY MT

FR

PT DK

BE HU AT

IE NL

SI

ES HR

EE DE RO CZ

PL BG

LV

LT

Last 12 months

Last 5 years

Adulthood

NB: No data were available for Italy and there was low reliability for the ‘last 5 years’ (NL, AT and PL) and for the ‘last 
12 months’ (CZ, DE, IE, CY, LT, HU, NL, AT, PL, RO and SI); EU-27 figures are estimates.
Source: Data collection for the EU Gender-based Violence Survey (2021 wave), coordinated by Eurostat, FRA and EIGE; Eurostat 
(gbv_st_occ).

 (42)  Eurostat calculations based on EIGE’s request; more survey results can be found at EIGE (2024d).

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2.  Policies and developments in the 12 critical areas of concern in the EU since 2019

While all Member States criminalise stalking, 
definitions vary, with some focusing on 
perpetrators’ actions or intent and others 
requiring victims to show behavioural changes 
as a consequence of being stalked (EIGE, 
2022b). There is an ongoing debate about 
whether psychological impacts such as distress 
and fear should be elements of stalking (Fissel 
et al., 2024; Logan and Walker, 2021). Some 
argue that fear is a central feature of stalking; 
it allows it to be differentiated from 
harassment and is linked to the higher impact 
experienced by the victims (Chan and Sheridan, 
2020; Logan and Walker, 2021). However, critics 
worry that these subjective experiences are 
hard to prove and may cause some cases or 
early signs of stalking to be overlooked if they 
do not cause the victims fear (Fissel et al., 2024; 
Van Der Aa, 2018).

2.4.2.6.  Strengthening responses to female 

genital mutilation and enhancing 
digital safeguards against human 
trafficking are crucial to effectively 
tackling other forms of gender-
based violence

The EU has strengthened its commitment to 
combating FGM globally by prioritising it in the 
EU action plan on human rights and democracy 
and in GAP III. In 2020, the Parliament also 
adopted a resolution outlining an EU strategy 
to globally eradicate FGM (European Parliament, 
2020a). The directive on combating violence 
against women criminalises FGM explicitly for 
the first time in EU law.

All Member States have criminalised FGM, 
but legal specifics vary. In 20 Member 
States, FGM is explicitly mentioned in 
criminal law. In contrast, others (BG, CZ, LV, 
HU, PL, SI and SK) use general criminal 
legislation, which can pose challenges due to 
vague definitions (EIGE, 2022e). Only six 

Member States (BE, DK, EL, FR, HU and PT) 
explicitly recognise the risk of FGM as 
grounds for asylum (EIGE, 2022e). Despite 
limited data, EIGE estimates that between 
2011 and 2019, up to 93 042 girls in 13 
Member States were at risk of FGM (EIGE, 
2022e) (43). The use of technology (e.g. 
cross-border social media forums) has shown 
promising results in overcoming challenges 
in engaging with affected communities to 
raise awareness and tackle the cross-border 
nature of FGM (OHCHR, 2024).

The latest evidence from the EU shows that 
the EU has reinforced its fight against 
trafficking (European Commission, 2025). 
Box 16 outlines examples of awareness 
raising about human trafficking and the 
exploitation of women. From 2021 to 2022, 
the number of registered victims increased 
by almost 21 % due to better detection of 
victims. The majority of victims during this 
period were non-EU citizens (54 %) and 
women and girls (65 %), who were mostly 
trafficked for sexual exploitation (92 % of the 
cases). Despite progress, challenges persist, 
such as low numbers of prosecutions and 
convictions, difficulties in collecting evidence 
and online trafficking. New challenges 
emerge, including new forms of exploitation 
and the link with high-level criminal 
organisations.

Box 16.  Raising awareness about 

human trafficking and the 
exploitation of women

• 

In 2022, Estonia launched the campaign 
Mõtle õige peaga (‘Think with the right 
head’) to combat the exploitation of 
women through trafficking or working 
in prostitution (European Commission, 
2023a).

 (43)  The 13 Member States surveyed in EIGE’s studies were Belgium, Denmark, Ireland, Greece, Spain, France, Italy, Cyprus, 

Luxembourg, Malta, Austria, Portugal and Sweden. These results reflect a high-risk scenario. A low-risk scenario suggests 
that migration and acculturation have lowered the prevalence of FGM among first-generation migrants, with the risk still 
being present but diminished among second-generation migrants. In contrast, in a high-risk scenario, the prevalence of 
FGM remains unchanged for both first- and second-generation migrants, unaffected by migration and acculturation (EIGE, 
2022e).

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2.  Policies and developments in the 12 critical areas of concern in the EU since 2019

• 

In 2024, the European Commission 
launched an awareness-raising 
campaign entitled ‘End human 
trafficking. Break the invisible chain’ to 
inform citizens about the reality of this 
crime and to help put an end to 
trafficking in human beings.

The increasing use of technology and online 
platforms, which accelerated during the COVID-
19 pandemic, has also been noted in human 
trafficking, with traffickers exploiting social 
media, dating apps and online job 
advertisements to recruit victims (Council of 
Europe, 2022b). Recruitment strategies include 
the ‘lover boy’ technique, which recently 
targeted Ukrainian women refugees on Tinder 
(Townsend, 2022). The volume of online data, 
encrypted communications and limited 
technical expertise in law enforcement makes 
investigating these crimes difficult (Council of 
Europe, 2022b).

2.5.  Women and armed 
conflict (area E)

Under the BPfA, Member States have 
committed to seven strategic objectives to 
address the challenges faced by women in 
armed conflicts: increasing women’s role in 
conflict resolution, protecting women in 
conflict zones, reducing military spending, 
promoting non-violent conflict resolution, 
addressing human rights violations, 
supporting peacebuilding efforts and 
providing aid to refugee women and other 
displaced women in need of international 
protection.

To help monitor progress in area E, four EU 
indicators were agreed upon. These encompass 
gender equality training for diplomatic, civilian 
and military defence staff; women’s 
participation in conflict prevention and 
resolution; resource allocation for gender 
equality in conflict-affected countries; and the 
status of women migrants and asylum seekers 
from conflict-affected areas. However, these 
indicators are subject to persistent challenges 
in data collection, making it difficult to 
effectively evaluate progress, among other 
limitations (EIGE, 2020c).

Area E (women and armed conflict) alignment with SDGs

5.2  Eliminate violence against all women and girls in the public and private 

spheres

5.c   Sound policies and enforceable legislation for the promotion of gender 

equality and the empowerment of all women and girls

16.1  Reduce all forms of violence and related death rates everywhere
16.7  Responsive, inclusive, participatory and representative decision-making at all 

levels

For the BPfA + 30 review, the thematic focus and priority topics of area E include:

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2.  Policies and developments in the 12 critical areas of concern in the EU since 2019

Recognising 
gender-specific security 
challenges in the 
context of digitalisation 
and climate change

Improving women’s 
representation in the 
security and defence 
sectors

Adopting a 
gender-sensitive 
perspective within 
security strategies and 
humanitarian action

These thematic priorities bring a gender and 
intersectional lens to debates on emerging 
security threats such as terrorism, 
cybersecurity and climate change. They 
emphasise women’s vital role in peacebuilding 
and conflict resolution in the EU and beyond, 
calling for gender-responsive security policies 
that value women’s experiences and reduce the 
gender-based impacts of conflict.

2.5.1.  EU policy developments

In 2018, the EU adopted its first-ever Council 
conclusions on WPS, establishing the EU 
strategic approach to WPS (Council of the 
European Union, 2018). This builds upon the 
principles of UN Security Council Resolution 
1325 – a landmark resolution that addresses 
the disproportionate impact of armed conflict 
on women and girls and calls for their greater 
involvement in peace and security efforts (UN 
Security Council, 2000).

Following this, in July 2019, the Council of the 
European Union adopted the EU action plan on 
WPS for 2019–2024 (Council of the European 
Union, 2019). This put into action the 2018 
Council conclusions by focusing on six objectives: 
participation, gender mainstreaming, leading by 
example, prevention, protection and relief, and 
recovery. It was also accompanied by a detailed 
achievement plan. Incorporating the WPS 
agenda as a thematic priority under GAP III has 
expanded the scope of gender equality efforts in 
external actions. Member States that are 
engaged in WPS have primarily concentrated on 

assisting partner countries by bolstering CSOs, 
combating sexual and gender-based violence 
and promoting women’s involvement and 
leadership in peacebuilding initiatives (European 
Commission and European External Action 
Service 2023). The 2022 Council conclusions on 
WPS emphasised the need for further efforts 
across the Member States (Council of the 
European Union, 2022). In 2024, all Member 
States except Hungary had adopted a national 
action plan on WPS at some point, although 
some now require renewal (WILPF, n.d.).

Further reinforcing these commitments, in 
October 2020, the European Parliament 
adopted a resolution on gender equality in the 
EU’s foreign and security policy (European 
Parliament, 2020). This resolution calls on the 
EU and Member States to continue enhancing 
the rights of women and girls through the EU’s 
foreign and security actions and to embrace a 
feminist approach to foreign and security 
policy. As of April 2024, Germany, Spain, France, 
Luxembourg, the Netherlands and Slovenia 
have formally introduced such a feminist 
foreign policy. In 2014, Sweden adopted the 
world’s first feminist foreign policy but then 
abandoned it in 2022 (Human Rights Watch, 
2022b; UN Women, 2023a).

To further address gender disparities in security 
policies, the EEAS launched the strategy and 
action plan to enhance women’s participation in 
civilian common security and defence policy 
missions for 2021–2024 in December 2021 
(EEAS, 2021). Its objective was for women to 
make up at least 40 % of international staff by 

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2024. To achieve this goal, the strategy focused 
on promoting equality in hiring, retention and 
career growth; ensuring an inclusive, 
harassment-free workplace; engaging 
leadership to drive change; and strengthening 
strategic communication.

Despite progress, the gender perspective 
remains inadequately integrated into strategies 
addressing violent extremism, radicalisation 
and terrorism, despite research highlighting its 
critical importance (DCAF et al., 2020; OSCE, 
2022). For example, the 2020 counter terrorism 
agenda does not include a gender perspective 
(European Commission, 2020e).

The EU security agenda also addresses the 
challenges posed by climate change. In 2023, 
the European Commission and the High 
Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs 
and Security Policy issued a joint 
communication outlining the EU’s strategy to 
address the growing impact of climate change 
and environmental degradation on peace, 
security and defence (European Commission 
and High Representative of the Union for 
Foreign Affairs and Security Policy, 2023). The 
document calls for a gender-focused approach 
to climate-related security, noting the 
disproportionate effects of climate change on 
women and on communities in disadvantaged 
conditions. Critics argue that gender 
inequalities are still regarded as a secondary 
concern in the EU’s external climate policy, 
which reinforces the stereotype of women from 
the Global South being vulnerable (Allwood, 
2021). This can lead to a minimisation of the 
impacts that they experience, of the cross-
border nature of climate change and of the 

challenges faced by different groups (Allwood, 
2021).

2.5.2.  Key challenges and trends

2.5.2.1.  The new security paradigm 

requires a gender-responsive 
approach to address the 
impacts of the growth of 
cyberspace and of climate 
change on gender equality

Emerging security threats emphasise the need 
for innovative approaches that include a 
gender lens in response to the complex and 
dynamic global landscape. For instance, it is 
essential to address gender in cybersecurity 
due to the unique risks that women face 
online, such as harassment, surveillance, 
doxing, cyberstalking, disinformation and the 
unauthorised sharing of intimate images 
(Hofstetter and Pourmalek, 2023). Advanced 
technologies, including AI and smart devices, 
introduce new gender-specific cyber threats 
and forms of intimate partner violence 
(Slupska, 2019). The under-representation of 
women in the cybersecurity workforce, at just 
7 % in Europe in 2020, is also a factor limiting 
the diversity of perspectives needed for 
comprehensive solutions: (European 
Commission, DG for Communications 
Networks, Content and Technology, 2021). As 
a result, digital technologies risk reinforcing 
existing gender biases and oppressive 
structures, leading to greater insecurity and 
instability.

The changing security paradigm requires adaptation to diverse threats and 
technological advancements, such as AI, autonomous weapons and quantum 
technologies. Geopolitical shifts, hybrid threats and societal pressures call for new 
legal frameworks and cooperation. Emerging innovations such as the ‘metaverse’ 
present opportunities but also pose challenges, including the potential use of AI 
and biotechnologies in hybrid warfare.

Source: European Commission (2023c).

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Violent extremism is another growing threat, 
exacerbated by digital spaces that amplify 
gendered narratives. Violent misogyny, often 
rooted in beliefs in the supremacy of men 
(DeCook and Kelly, 2021), is linked to both 
violence against women and violent extremism. 
Perpetrators of violence against women are 
noted to particularly support extremism, with 
many of them having histories of violent 
extremism, radicalisation and terrorism, along 
with committing violence against women 
(OSCE, 2022). Digital platforms increasingly 
connect anti-gender rhetoric with 
radicalisation, fuelling violence both online and 
offline (Hofstetter and Pourmalek, 2023).

Online extremism and hybrid threats are highly 
gendered, with content and messages often 
reinforcing gender stereotypes and targeting 
specific gender audiences (Scheuble and 
Oezmen, 2022). As an example, far-right groups 
have used the hijab in disinformation 
campaigns to incite anti-immigrant sentiments 
under the pretence of defending women’s 
rights (Freedman et al., 2021). Such tactics 
often involve creating false stories (e.g. about 
sexual violence) specifically to divide 
communities (Freedman et al., 2021).

Addressing the nexus between climate change 
and security is also crucial to prevent further 
gender inequalities. While comprehensive EU 
data are lacking, Member States are likely to 
face some negative trends. For example, women 
often experience gender-based violence during 
displacement related to climate change, while 
facing inadequate security and a lack of privacy 
and stability (Moumita and Desai, 2021).

2.5.2.2.  Women’s representation in the 

security and defence sectors has 
improved in the EU and most 
Member States, but progress is 
slow

The BPfA emphasises the importance of 
women’s full and equal participation in conflict 
prevention and resolution. At the EU level, 
progress is noted in women’s representation in 
institutions and agencies addressing security 
concerns (EIGE, 2023i). The European 
Commission has achieved overall gender parity 
in senior positions dealing with security and 
defence, although progress has been uneven 
across specific directorates. For example, at the 
beginning of 2025, the leadership roles in the 
European Commission’s DG Defence Industry 
and Space were entirely taken up by men 
(Figure 20). Despite progress, gender disparities 
remain high within the European Parliament’s 
security and defence committees, and women 
are also significantly under-represented in top 
executive roles across EU agencies specialising 
in security. The data from February 2025 
showed, for example, that, while the EU 
Parliament’s Committee on Security and 
Defence has a woman as Chair, all four of its 
Vice-Chairs are men (Figure 20). Similarly, at the 
European Defence Agency, both the Head and 
the Chief Executive are men and only two of the 
six members (17 %) of the management team 
are women.

At the national level, progress in appointing 
women as defence ministers across the Member 
States has been slow. As of 2023, only seven 
women held this crucial position (BE, CZ, ES, LV, 
NL, AT and PT) (EIGE, 2023i). Women also 
occupy just 6 of the 25 senior minister roles 
overseeing migration and border control in the 
EU, down from eight in 2019 (EIGE, 2023i) (44). 
This minimal change highlights the persistent 
influence of gender norms and stereotypes in 
allocating high-profile ministerial roles.

 (44) EIGE, Gender Statistics Database (unpublished microdata). This excludes Belgium and Portugal, which have no cabinet-level 

minister specifically handling migration and border control. Instead, these responsibilities fall on junior ministers.

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2.  Policies and developments in the 12 critical areas of concern in the EU since 2019

Figure 20.  Women’s representation in EU institutions and agencies that address security concerns, 

2025

European Parliament

European Commission

EU agencies

•  The Committee on Civil Liberties, 

•  The leadership of DG Migration 

•  At the European Defence Agency, 

Justice and Home Affairs is 
chaired by a man, with two of the 
four Vice-Chairs being women. 
Women constitute 49 % of its 75 
members.

•  The Committee on Foreign 

Affairs is also chaired by a man, 
with only one woman among its 
four Vice-Chairs. Women 
represent just 18 % of its 
79 members.

•  The Committee on Security and 
Defence has a woman Chair and 
all four Vice-Chairs are men, yet 
only 23 % of its 43 members are 
women.

and Home Affairs includes a man 
as Commissioner, and the acting 
Director General is a woman (she 
is also Deputy Director), with the 
other two Deputy Directors being 
men.

•  In contrast, the DG for Defence 

Industry and Space is led by men 
in both the Commissioner and 
Director General roles.
•  The EU Anti-trafficking 

Coordinator is currently a 
woman.

both the Head and the Chief 
Executive are men, and only two 
of the six members (17 %) of the 
management team are women.

•  The Executive Director of the 
European Union Agency for 
Cybersecurity is a man.

•  At the European Border and 

Coast Guard Agency (Frontex), 
the Executive Director is a man 
and one of the three Deputy 
Executive Directors is a woman.
•  The European Union Agency for 
Law Enforcement Cooperation 
(Europol) is led by a woman 
Executive Director, with all three 
Deputy Directors being men.

Source: EIGE presentation of data from publicly available sources (February 2025).

Across those Member States that are either 
North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) 
members or NATO partners, the most recent 
data available from 2021 show that women 
constituted only 11 % of national armed forces. 

Since 2014, most Member States have seen a 
slow but steady rise in women’s participation in 
national armed forces (Figure 21 and Box 17), 
except for slight declines in Estonia and Latvia.

Figure 21.  Proportion of women as full-time members of national armed forces (%, EU, 2014 and 2021)

25

20

15

10

5

0

20

17 17

16 16

15

14

13 13 13 13 13

12

11 11

10 10

9

9

8

7

7

7

7

5

4

HU BG FR EL LV SI CZ HR PT ES DE SK LT

EU-25 NL SE BE EE DK LU IT RO PL IE FI AT

2021

2014

NB: Ireland and Austria are NATO partner nations; Finland was a partner nation until joining NATO in 2023. The latest available 
data for Denmark, Ireland, the Netherlands, Poland and Romania are from 2020. Data for Malta are unavailable. Cyprus is 
neither a NATO member nor a NATO partner.
Source: NATO 2014 and 2021 summaries of the national reports of NATO member and partner nations.

Women and LGTBIQ people continue to face 
discrimination, harassment and violence based 

on their sex, sexual orientation or gender 
identity that impedes their full and equal 

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2.  Policies and developments in the 12 critical areas of concern in the EU since 2019

participation in the armed forces in the EU 
(Euromil, 2024). Gendered disinformation 
marginalises women and maintains men-
dominated power structures by reinforcing 
harmful narratives (Prudhoe et al., 2024). In 
addition, structural and logistical issues exist, 
such as inadequate facilities, inadequate 

childcare and poorly adapted uniforms (Atkins, 
2018; Strand et al., 2022). Combined with 
insufficient access to training, the absence of 
mentorship opportunities and unequal 
treatment (Siplane, 2017), this results in 
women being under-represented in the military 
sector, especially at a senior level.

Box 17.  Women in military conscription in the EU

In 2017, Sweden became the first EU country to adopt gender-neutral mandatory military service, 
requiring both women and men to serve (Persson and Sundevall, 2019). This has led to an annual 
increase in the number of women joining the military (Swedish Armed Forces, 2020). As of 2023, 
women made up 24 % of the total number of staff employed in the Swedish Armed Forces (Swedish 
Armed Forces, 2024). However, progress has been uneven, with more women joining the navy and 
the air force than the army (Swedish Armed Forces, 2020; Swedish Defence University, 2023).

In March 2024, Denmark introduced a draft bill to include women in military conscription, although 
debates are still ongoing (Euractiv, 2024). Other Member States such as Estonia, Lithuania and 
Finland allow women to apply for military service voluntarily, which is a common approach in most 
Member States (Persson and Sundevall, 2019).

2.5.2.3.  The EU’s humanitarian and civilian 
missions have made considerable 
strides in institutionalising gender 
equality, but more efforts are 
needed

Appointing gender advisers and implementing 
regular gender-related training are essential to 
integrating a gender perspective into EU 
common security and defence. From 2015 to 
2020, there was a notable increase in gender 
adviser positions in civilian missions (EEAS, 
2022). The adoption of internal gender focal 
point networks has been significantly 
strengthened, increasing from just two 
missions having such networks in 2015 to 9 out 
of 12 missions having such networks in 2020 
(EEAS, 2022). However, these roles often lack 
adequate resources, and staffing them in 
military missions remains a challenge (EEAS, 
2022). In December 2020, women made up 
29 % of all personnel in civilian common 
security and defence missions, with 24 % of 
international staff being women (EEAS, 2021). 
Among international staff, women represented 
26 % of contracted staff and 23 % of seconded 
personnel, with the number of women 

seconded by Member States declining since 
2015. This highlights the need for increased 
efforts to promote gender equality within 
common security and defence missions.

Most common security and defence missions 
now also include human rights and gender 
aspects in their mandatory induction training, 
and new specialised training courses have been 
introduced on topics such as gender-based 
violence and UN Security Council Resolution 
1325 (EEAS, 2022). However, not all staff 
categories receive sufficient gender-related 
training, and training responsibilities are 
fragmented across Member States (EEAS, 
2022). According to the Commission, in 2021, 
96 % of all initiatives funded by DG European 
Civil Protection and Humanitarian Aid 
Operations effectively integrated gender and 
age considerations (DG European Civil 
Protection and Humanitarian Aid Operations, 
2023). Funding allocated to tackling gender-
based violence within EU humanitarian policies 
has also increased significantly (DG European 
Civil Protection and Humanitarian Aid 
Operations, 2023). Despite these advances, 
research shows that many projects that claim 

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to integrate gender equality considerations do 
not meet the OECD’s minimum recommended 
criteria, as many projects fail to assess and 
address unintended consequences, including 
gender-based violence (Grabowski and Essick, 
2020).

2.5.2.4.  Responding to the gender-specific 

challenges faced by refugee and 
asylum-seeking women is key

Between 2019 and 2023, asylum applications in 
the EU increased steadily, except for a brief 
decline in 2020, probably due to the COVID-19 
pandemic (Figure 22). The most recent data 

show that, in 2024, there was a slight annual 
decrease in asylum applications in the EU.

In 2023, women made up 30 % of asylum 
applicants at the EU level, a decrease from 37 % 
in 2019. This reduction reflects the gendered 
obstacles that hinder women’s ability to reach 
the EU and claim asylum (Freedman et al., 
2023). In countries of origin, women experience 
greater economic barriers, such as a lower 
ability to generate income, but also barriers 
related to patriarchal practices that hinder their 
autonomy to migrate (ILO, 2021b; Schiele, 
2024). Research shows that the higher the 
gender inequality in a country, the lower the 
relative number of women asylum seekers 
(Schiele, 2024).

Figure 22.  Total number of asylum applications, by sex (EU, 2019–2023)

789 465

682 395

440 315

448 465

258 280

306 590

165 700

189 000

278 000

339 870

800 000

600 000

400 000

200 000

0

2019

2020

2021

2022

2023

Women

Men

Source: Eurostat, asylum statistics (migr_asyappctza).

Racialised women from Africa, the Middle East 
and South Asia also often face discrimination 
and violence at border controls and upon arrival 
in EU host countries (Amnesty International, 
2022b; Human Rights Watch, 2022c). 
Increasingly restrictive border and migration 
regimes in Member States have created 
additional risks for refugee women. For 
example, policies that externalise asylum 
(shifting the processing of asylum claims to 

other regions) can increase the risk of gender-
based violence (Freedman, 2024). Blocking 
entry or returning asylum seekers to their 
departure point may expose refugee women to 
detention and severe violence in their countries 
of origin. Migrant women and girls who have 
experienced sexual and gender-based violence 
require tailored support from local authorities 
to address their specific needs and ensure their 
safety (Box 18 gives an example).

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Box 18.  Supporting migrant women and girls who experience sexual and gender-based 

violence

The Equalcity project, funded by the EU’s rights, equality and citizenship programme, helps local 
authorities to support and protect migrants at risk or who have survived sexual and gender-based 
violence. As part of this project, the NGO Femmes en détresse ASBL in Luxembourg has developed a 
toolbox to offer tailored support to migrant women and girls who have experienced sexual and 
gender-based violence. This toolbox is intended for use by frontline professionals and practitioners 
working with migrant communities, especially women and girls, in medical, psychosocial, legal, 
administrative or general assistance roles.

The Belgian Institute for the Equality of Women and Men, together with migrant organisations and 
Ukrainian refugees, developed a practical toolkit entitled Recognition, detection and referral of 
signs of sexual violence in (Ukrainian) refugees. The toolkit targets professionals, providing 
practical tips for supporting victims of sexual violence and references to other projects aiding 
refugees at risk of sexual violence.

Since the start of the Russian war of aggression 
against Ukraine, there has been a significant 
influx of Ukrainian refugees into the EU, mainly 
women and children (UN Women and CARE 
International, 2022). In response, the EU 
brought into force the TPD to offer immediate 
and collective protection. In 2022, 83 % of 
temporary protection statuses were granted to 
Ukrainian women, compared with 17 % being 
granted to Ukrainian men. In 2023, women 
(76 %) continued to outnumber men (24 %). 
With some exceptions, Ukrainian men aged 
18–60 are not allowed to leave the country. The 
TPD is currently in effect until March 2026. The 
uncertainty of temporary extensions 
complicates opportunities for refugees to build 
sustainable futures, for example in employment 
and education (Picum, 2024).

Despite the vital support provided by the TPD, 
reports indicate that Ukrainian women and girls 
remain highly vulnerable to sexual exploitation 
and abuse and often face difficulties in 
accessing sexual and reproductive health 
services (EIGE, 2024o; see also Section 2.3.2.10). 
Referral mechanisms for victims of conflict-
related sexual violence in the EU are currently 
inconsistent, with many Member States lacking 
national guidelines and specialised training to 
adequately address the needs of these victims 
(EIGE, 2024o). Roma and LBTQI women refugees 
from Ukraine encounter additional barriers, 
such as a lack of legal documentation, 
discrimination and persecution based on their 

ethnicity, gender identity or sexual orientation 
(NGO Working Group on Women, Peace and 
Security, 2022). The challenges faced by 
Ukrainian refugees highlight the urgent need 
for continuous efforts to implement gender-
sensitive protective measures within the EU’s 
refugee policies, ensuring that women and men 
from all countries of origin are adequately 
supported.

2.6.  Women and the 
economy (area F)

Under the BPfA, Member States have 
committed to advancing gender equality within 
the economy. Area F aims to promote women’s 
economic rights and independence by 
facilitating their equal access to resources, 
employment, markets, finance and trade, while 
also promoting appropriate working conditions. 
In addition, it seeks to recognise unpaid care 
work, calling for shared care responsibilities and 
the provision of social services.

The officially agreed EU indicators to monitor 
progress in this area include the representation 
of women and men in occupations within STEM 
and the field of education, health and welfare; 
self-employment and full- and part-time 
employment rates; and the gender pay gap. 
Although these indicators highlight barriers to 
women’s participation in the labour market, 

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they do not address the underlying causes and 
dynamics, such as discrimination in hiring 

practices and the unequal sharing of unpaid 
care work.

Area F (women and the economy) alignment with SDGs

5.4  Recognise and value unpaid care and domestic work through the provision of 
public services, infrastructure and social protection policies and the promotion 
of shared responsibility within the family 

5.b  Use enabling technology to promote the empowerment of women

8.3  Promote policies that support decent job creation, entrepreneurship, creativity 

and innovation, including through access to financial services

8.8  Protect labour rights and promote safe and secure working environments, in 

particular for women migrant workers and those in precarious employment

10.4  Adopt fiscal, wage and social protection policies that achieve greater equality

For the BPfA + 30 review, the thematic focus and priority topics of area F include: 

Addressing gender gaps 
in employment and 
caregiving 
responsibilities

Tackling the gendered 
effects of COVID-19 on 
the digitalisation of 
work

Promoting women’s 
financial independence 
and women’s 
entrepreneurship

Analysing women’s 
participation in jobs for 
the digital and green 
transitions 

This thematic focus highlights the critical 
importance of increasing women’s economic 
opportunities and independence to achieve 
gender equality in the context of multiple crises 
and accelerated technological change. The 
COVID-19 pandemic, the Russian war of 
aggression against Ukraine and the consequent 
economic downturns have greatly affected 
women’s participation in the labour market. 
Such disruptions make it imperative to embed 
gender equality within the digital and green 
transitions, ensuring that both women and men 
benefit from these changes.

2.6.1.  EU policy developments

Since 2018, the EU has made significant strides 
in fostering social inclusion by promoting 
gender equality in the labour market. Measures 

have been adopted to combat the effects of 
crises, close the gender care gap, ensure decent 
working conditions, reduce the gender pay gap 
and achieve equal participation across different 
sectors of the economy, including those of the 
digital transition. Section 2.1.2.6 reviews some 
of these developments.

However, further actions are needed to ensure 
full and equal participation in the labour 
market. Crucial to making progress towards the 
targets of the EPSR action plan is addressing 
the unequal distribution of unpaid work 
between women and men and promoting 
work–life balance policies. Examples of 
measures that tackle the gender care gap 
include the European care strategy, which aims 
to support Member States in ensuring quality, 
affordable and accessible care services through 
a range of EU-level actions, with a particular 

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focus on the long-term care workforce 
(European Commission, 2022d). The strategy is 
supported by two Council recommendations 
on access to affordable high-quality long-
term care and ECEC. The work–life balance 
directive also seeks to improve families’ access 
to leave and flexible work arrangements to 
facilitate women’s participation in the labour 
market and a more equitable share of unpaid 
care duties. However, it allows Member States 

to make entitlements and benefits conditional 
on a minimum duration of work, thereby risking 
the exclusion of a growing number of workers 
in unstable and non-standard employment.

Since 2019, four key directives have been 
adopted to ensure decent working conditions, 
including flexibility and security for workers in 
the digital economy (Figure 23).

Figure 23.  Overview of the new directives promoting gender equality in the labour market

Directive on transparent 
and predictable working 
conditions (2019)

Adequate minimum 
wage directive (2022)

Addresses insufficient protection for workers in more precarious jobs, in 
which women are over-represented

Requires Member States to set adequate minimum wage levels. This benefits 
women, who are over-represented in the lowest-paid sectors and more 
affected by low wages

Pay transparency 
directive (2023)

Aims to tackle pay discrimination between women and men and to contribute 
to closing the gender gap through binding provisions

Directive on improving working 
conditions in platform work (2024)

Aims to ensure working conditions and the protection of personal data in 
platform work, but insufficiently addresses gender and ethnic inequalities, as 
many platform workers are women and migrants

Source: Summary by the authors, based on Directive (EU) 2019/1152, Directive (EU) 2022/2041, Directive (EU) 2023/970 and 
Directive 2024/2831.

In the realm of emerging technologies, the AI 
Act addresses gender equality and non-
discrimination by identifying high-risk systems 
that could perpetuate patterns of 
discrimination against women (Lütz, 2022) (see 
more in Section 2.10). Finally, policies aimed to 
achieve equal participation across various 
economic sectors have also been enacted. For 
instance, the new European innovation agenda 
supports women innovators through 
entrepreneurship and leadership programmes. 
Moreover, the Council recommendation on 
strengthening social dialogue promotes 
gender equality and equal opportunities among 
social partners.

2.6.2.  Key challenges and trends

2.6.2.1.  Labour market participation of 
women and men has remained 
resilient in the face of crises, but 
significant measures are still 
needed to meet the EU 2030 target

Labour market participation across the EU has 
shown resilience in the face of recent crises, 
with employment levels among both women 
and men being maintained or even increasing. 
Since 2018, participation rates have increased, 
even amid challenges such as the COVID-19 
pandemic, the Russian war of aggression 
against Ukraine, high inflation and economic 
slowdowns (European Commission, 2023g).

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Despite these gains, gender inequalities in 
labour market participation persist. In 2023, 
while 80 % of men aged 20–64 were employed, 

only 70 % of women in the same age group 
were in the workforce, revealing a persistent 
gender employment gap (Figure 24).

Figure 24.  Gender employment gap, by country (pp, EU, 2018 and 2023)

20 20

19

14 14

12

20

15

10

5

0

10 10 10

9

9

8

8

8

8

8

8

7

7

6

6

6

6

5

3

2 2

0.2

EL

IT RO CZ MT PL

EU IE

ES

CY HU BE DE HR NL AT SK BG LU DK FR PT

SI

SE

LV EE

LT

FI

2018

2023

NB: Authors’ own calculations, based on the difference between the employment rates of women and men aged 20–64 years. 
There was a break in the time series for Italy in 2018 and for Denmark and Croatia in 2023.
Source: Eurostat, EU Labour Force Survey (LFS) (lfsi_emp_a).

Having children widens the employment gap 
more significantly for women than for men, and 
this disparity persists across all levels of 
education and across different citizenship 
categories (Figure 25). This underscores the 
importance of adopting an intersectional 
perspective (Box 19), as gender interacts with 
other factors – such as education, ethnicity and 
migrant status – creating strong inequalities in 
the labour market and beyond.

During the pandemic, women’s employment 
was disproportionately affected, with younger 
women and those in low-paid sectors 
experiencing the most significant job losses. 
While men also faced job losses, the sectors hit 
hardest by the pandemic, such as hospitality 
and retail, employed a higher proportion of 
women (EIGE, 2022l).

Box 19.  Tackling gender and racial 

inequalities through targeted 
support for Roma women

The Czech strategy for Roma equality, 
inclusion and participation for 2021–2030 
identifies the status of Roma women as a 
cross-cutting priority. It includes measures 
to improve employment opportunities, 
such as conducting research on 
economically inactive Roma women and 
creating more effective employment 
support programmes, particularly for 
Roma women. In addition, the Government 
Council for Gender Equality set up the 
Working Group on Issues of Roma Women 
in 2021 to ensure the coordination of goals 
and measures related to gender equality 
among Roma, as outlined in the strategy 
for Roma equality, inclusion and 
participation for 2021–2030 and the 
strategy for gender equality for 2021–
2030 (Office of the Government of the 
Czech Republic, 2021).

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Figure 25.  Gender employment gap by the number of children, citizenship, age and education level (pp, 

EU, 2018 and 2023)

Characteristic

Women

Men

Gender gap 
(pp) 2023 

Gender  gap 
(pp) 2018

Gap change

Number of children < 6 years old

No children
1 child
2 children
3 children or more

Citizenship

EU-27 citizen
Non-EU-27 citizen

Age

15–24
25–54
55–64
65–74

Education

Low
Medium
High

Total

Age: 20–64

68
71
73
57

67
49

33
77
58
8

38
67
84

75
83
90
84

75
71

37
87
70
14

54
78
89

– 7
– 12
– 17
– 27

– 8
– 22

– 4
– 10
– 12
– 6

– 16
– 11
– 5

– 8
– 24
– 27
– 35

– 10
– 21

– 4
– 12
– 14
– 5

– 17
– 12
– 7

70

80

– 10

– 11

  Gap decreased 

  No change 

  Gap increased

NB: There was a break in the time series for the EU LFS. The age group in the ‘education’ category is 15–64 years, in the 
‘citizenship’ category is 15–64 years and in the ‘number of children’ category is 18–64 years. Educational attainment includes 
people who have completed ISCED level 0–2 (low), ISCED level 3 or 4 (medium) or ISCED level 5–8 (high). Gap changes: positive 
changes are those that have decreased since 2018 (in green), with a gender gap change of ≥ – 1; negative changes are those 
that have increased since 2018 (in red), with a gender gap change of ≥ 1; and no change since 2018 (in yellow) is equal to a 
gender gap increase/decrease between – 1 and 1 pp.
Source: Eurostat, EU LFS (lfsa_ergaed, lfst_hheredch, lfsa_ergan).

By 2021, women’s labour market participation 
surpassed its 2019 pre-pandemic levels 
(European Commission, 2023a). Between 2021 
and 2023, the employment rate for women aged 
20–64 increased by 3 pp, compared with a 2 pp 
increase for men (Eurostat, 2024b). If Member 
States continue to strengthen their efforts, they 
can further narrow the gender employment gap 

from 10 pp in 2023 to approximately 6 pp at the 
EU level, moving towards the 2030 target set by 
the EPSR action plan (45). As exemplified by the 
initiative in Box 20, engaging directly with 
private sector stakeholders may accelerate this 
progress, for example by addressing barriers to 
entering the workplace.

 (45)  The EPSR’s target for 2030 is to at least halve the gender employment gap from 12 pp in 2019 (European Commission, 

2021k).

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2.  Policies and developments in the 12 critical areas of concern in the EU since 2019

Box 20.  Expanding inclusion and 
diversity practices in the 
workplace

Latvia’s Society Integration Foundation 
launched the diversity mentor programme 
to support employers in fostering inclusive 
workplaces. Participants in the programme 
had the chance to expand their knowledge 
about diversity and to design tailored 
solutions for their workplaces, such as 
developing a diversity and inclusion 
strategy or creating internal training 
programmes. The programme specifically 
supports the inclusion of women in the 
workplace (Community Integration 
Foundation, 2023).

2.6.2.2.  Addressing gender gaps in pay and 

wealth is essential to support 
women’s financial independence

Financial independence requires financial 
ability, which reflects financial literacy and 
self-efficacy, that is, the confidence to make 
sound financial decisions. Given the 
multidimensional nature of the term, EIGE 
proposed a multidimensional, gender-sensitive 
framework for measuring financial 
independence. It suggests assessing financial 
independence across three core dimensions, 
showing close interlinks between them: (1) 
income, (2) wealth and (3) power and control 
(EIGE, 2024e).

In terms of income, the unadjusted gender pay 
gap indicates continued disparities in earnings 
between women and men. Despite narrowing 
over the past five years and ongoing efforts by 
Member States at the legislative level (see an 
example in Box 21), the gap at the EU level 
remained at 13 % in 2022, down from 14 % in 
2018 (Eurostat, 2024d). The gap varies 
significantly across Member States but remains 
above 10 % in most countries. Estonia records the 
highest gap at 21 %, while Luxembourg has the 
lowest at – 1 %. From a life-course perspective, 
the gender pension gap, which stood at 26 % in 
the EU in 2022, demonstrates the impact of 
accumulated lifetime gender inequalities 

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(Eurostat, 2024e). These include gender 
disparities in working hours, time spent out of the 
labour market due to caregiving responsibilities, 
and labour market segregation, as women are 
concentrated in lower-paying sectors.

Box 21.  Addressing the gender pay 

gap in Ireland

In Ireland, the Gender Pay Gap Information 
Act was enacted in 2021. This mandates 
the disclosure of pay information by 
employers with a workforce of 250 or 
more – a requirement that will later 
expand to include organisations with at 
least 50 employees (Irish Statute Book, 
2021). Organisations will need to explain 
any gender disparities in pay identified 
(European Commission, 2022a).

While related, the gender wealth gap and the 
gender income gap may be influenced by 
different factors and reflect distinct trends. 
Although the income gap contributes to the 
wealth gap between women and men, it is not 
the only factor. For example, research notes 
that the wealth gap between women and men 
in France is widening (from 9 % in 1998 to 16 % 
in 2015), even though wage inequalities are 
decreasing (Leleu et al., 2024). Gender gaps in 
wealth widen during the accumulation of 
wealth and its transmission within families, 
driven by persistent, under-explored 
inequalities. Economically weaker partners 
within couples, who are predominantly still 
women, may be disadvantaged in terms of the 
full comprehension of the legal effects of 
wealth accumulation. Although notaries, as 
under Belgian law, could help to avoid such a 
gap, they are lacking gender-sensitive training 
and so awareness and adequate action are 
lacking (Leleu et al., 2024).

While EU-wide data are not available, studies 
from various Member States show that the 
gender wealth gap widens with age to the 
detriment of women, especially for women in 
couples with children compared with those 
without (EIGE, 2024e; Meriküll et al., 2021; 
Qureshi, 2023). According to the 2022 Global 

2.  Policies and developments in the 12 critical areas of concern in the EU since 2019

Gender Wealth Equity Report (46), based on data 
from 11 Member States (BE, DK, DE, IE, ES, FR, IT, 
NL, AT, PL and SE), Norway, the United Kingdom 
and Switzerland, the gap in accumulated wealth 
is most prominent for women in senior 
positions (Bessière and Gollac, 2021; WTW, 
2022). Among those in senior positions, women 
have 34 % less wealth than men. In turn, 
women in frontline operational roles have 11 % 
less wealth than men in the same roles 
(Bessière and Gollac, 2021; WTW, 2022). This 
disparity results from the gender pay gap and 
slower career advancement for women in senior 
roles than for men (WTW, 2022).

Amid ongoing economic challenges in the EU, 
including the cost-of-living crisis, gender 
inequalities in financial independence are likely 
to worsen and disproportionately affect 
women (Eurofound, 2022; European Parliament, 
2024d). Supporting women’s equal 
participation in the economy and addressing 
economic abuse are key steps towards enabling 
them to take control of their financial futures 
and to lead secure, independent lives. For more 
on economic violence, see Section 2.4.2.5.

2.6.2.3.  Women’s entrepreneurship is 

growing, but further support is 
needed for women-led STEM and 
ICT ventures

The gender gap in wealth is influenced by a 
number of economic factors, such as self-
employment and entrepreneurship, in which 
men participate more than women (EIGE, 
2024e). For instance, between 2018 and 2022, 
only 6 % of women in the EU were actively 
involved in starting or managing a new 
business (OECD and European Commission, 
2023). Although women make up nearly 40 % 
of all entrepreneurs (European Investment 
Bank, 2020), they account for just 19 % of 
entrepreneurs in the ICT sector and for less 

than 15 % of start-up founders Instead of this 
reference, include: EPRS, 2023b.

The funding gap is particularly stark in the 
STEM sector. In the EU, venture-capital-backed 
technology companies with all-men founding 
teams secure 93 % of the capital invested, while 
all-women teams secure only 2 % (Pitchbook, 
2025). This imbalance is partly due to the 
under-representation of women in investment 
decision-making roles. As a result, men 
investors tend to view women-led ventures as 
riskier and see entrepreneurship as mostly a 
field for men (European Investment Bank, 
2020). Despite these challenges, women-
founded technology scale-ups – defined as 
ventures with over 50 employees and with 
funding since 2017 – recently grew faster than 
their competitors and were notably more 
focused on having a positive impact on society 
(European Institute of Innovation & Technology, 
2023). Addressing gender biases and increasing 
support for women entrepreneurs (as in the 
example in Box 22), particularly in sectors 
dominated by men such as STEM, presents an 
opportunity to drive innovation, foster inclusive 
growth and create a more sustainable and 
equitable economy for all.

Box 22.  Promoting entrepreneurship 
among women in Italy

In September 2021, the Italian 
government established a EUR 400 million 
fund initiative to enhance women’s 
entrepreneurship. It aims to refine existing 
support frameworks for women 
entrepreneurs to boost their impact, help 
implement already active entrepreneurial 
projects and offer support for women-led 
start-ups through mentoring and 
technical-managerial assistance.

 (46) The Global Gender Wealth Equity Index estimates how women and men accumulate wealth over their careers by projecting 
various sources of wealth, such as state and mandatory benefits, employer-sponsored retirement plans, real estate and 
personal savings. The model shows how wealth accumulation is affected by different job types and salary levels, using a 
sample of roles that represent the workforce. The chosen roles are based on WTW’s Global 50 data, which represent the 
typical working population of WTW’s clients in each country.

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2.6.2.4.  More equal sharing of caregiving 

responsibilities and access to 
formal care services are essential 
to enable women’s full 
participation in the labour market

Workplace culture significantly affects the ability 
of fathers to take parental leave. This is often 
shaped by traditional stereotypes with childcare 
viewed as primarily a mother’s role, particularly 
in heterosexual couples (Andersen, 2018; Närvi 
and Salmi, 2019). Fathers in same-sex couples 
experience greater flexibility, as workplaces may 
be more accepting of childcare responsibilities in 
these cases (Evertsson and Malmquist, 2023). 
Financial factors and job security also have an 
impact on the take-up of parental leave by 
fathers (Närvi and Salmi, 2019). In addition, 
fathers with higher incomes and stable positions 
are better able to take leave. Those in insecure 
jobs or who have recently been unemployed may 
prioritise income stability (Närvi and Salmi, 
2019). Many fathers resort to alternatives such 
as unpaid time off, taking annual leave or 
working part-time to participate more actively in 
childcare, exacerbating gender inequalities for 
those less able to sustain income loss (Evertsson 
and Malmquist, 2023).

Traditional gender roles frame men as primary 
breadwinners while women are expected to 
prioritise family and caregiving responsibilities 
over career ambitions (Aarntzen et al., 2023; 
Hanlon, 2012). Although attitudes towards 
gender roles in the labour market have changed 

considerably (e.g. in 2021, for around 60 % of 
the EU population, women’s career ambitions 
were not secondary to their family 
responsibilities, while men were no longer 
thought of as the sole providers for the family), 
attitudes towards sharing unpaid care 
housework have seen less change (European 
Commission, 2024c). As a result, women 
continue to shoulder the overwhelming 
majority of unpaid care work (UNECE and UN 
Women, 2021). According to EIGE’s 2024 Survey 
of Gender Gaps in Unpaid Care, Individual and 
Social Activities (CARE Survey) (second wave), 
around 43 % of women with children under 
12 years old spend at least 35 hours per week 
(approximately 5 hours or more per day) day on 
childcare, compared with 20 % of men.

In 2023, women in all Member States except 
Romania worked part-time more often than men 
(Figure 26). Among those providing long-term 
care in 2022, 42 % of women worked part-time, 
compared with 29 % of men (EIGE, 2023a). In 
2023, 26 % of women said their main reason for 
engaging in part-time work was the need to care 
for adults with disabilities or children, in contrast 
with 6 % of men (Eurostat, 2024m, 2024o). These 
disproportionate care duties and the lack of 
access to formal care services negatively affect 
women’s work–life balance, lifetime earnings, 
career advancement and overall economic 
productivity (Zacharenko and Elomäki, 2022). This 
struggle is reflected in employment rates, with 
the gender employment gap widening with the 
number of children (see Figure 25).

Figure 26.  Part-time employment among those aged 20–64 years, by country and sex (% of total 

employment, EU, 2023)

61

51

48

60

40

20

0

37

32 31 30 28 28 26 26

21 20

17 17

12 12 11 11 10

9

8

8

6

5

4

3

2

NL AT DE BE DK IT

LU IE

EU SE

FR ES

FI

EE MT EL

SI

CZ CY PT

LV PL

LT HU SK HR RO BG

Source: Eurostat, EU LFS (lfsa_eppga).

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Men

2.  Policies and developments in the 12 critical areas of concern in the EU since 2019

Due to the ageing population and the increasing 
demand for long-term care, more targeted 
policies are needed to reduce the burden on 
caregivers (for an example, see Box 23), who 
remain predominantly women (Chieregato, 
2020; EDF, 2022b; EIGE, 2021b). Despite a 
projected 23 % increase in the size of the 
population aged 65 or older by 2035, 
anticipated employment growth in the care 
sector is only 7 % (Cedefop, 2023). Reskilling 
and upskilling men for roles in the care sector 
can widen job opportunities for men within 
local areas and help to challenge traditional 
gender stereotypes (Boys in Care, 2019). For 
example, this could be done by integrating 
emotional and physical caregiving into 
vocational training and promoting healthier 
forms of masculinity. Ultimately, this shift could 
help reframe care work as a shared societal 
responsibility, rather than the responsibility of 
women.

The reconciliation of paid work and care 
dilemmas has received a lot of research and 
policy attention. The most recent research 
findings of the rEUsilience project (47) suggest a 
care trilemma, which refers to the trade-offs in 
key decisions that families occupied with care 
tasks, especially low-resourced families, are 
forced to make when they face three types of 
resource scarcity: paid work that can be 
accommodated with care, too little income 
support when paid work is not available and 
time scarcity. For example, working in a full-
time job or additional hours might improve 
material conditions but leave less time for 
self-care and care for family members. This 
trilemma could be resolved by providing an 
adequate and universal system of child-related 
income support; adequate, flexible and inclusive 
childcare and parental leave policies; and, 
finally, universal family support services that 
can offer both general and specific family 
support (Daly, 2024; Leon and Cerrillo, 2023).

Box 23.  Fostering a better work–life balance in Greece while creating formal employment 

in the care sector

In 2020, Greece launched the neighbourhood babysitters programme, aimed at fostering a better 
work–life balance and creating formal employment opportunities in the care sector, thereby 
reducing informal work. This initiative offers childcare services for infants up to 2.5 years old, 
managed by certified caregivers. It also provides financial assistance to parents, which they can use 
to compensate a certified caregiver.

2.6.2.5.  The digital transition facilitates 
remote work, which introduces 
new opportunities and challenges 
for women and men teleworkers

The COVID-19 pandemic accelerated workplace 
digitalisation by emphasising the importance of 
digital tools in facilitating remote work 
(European Commission, 2023g). This shift has 
highlighted remote work as a flexible work 
arrangement that can enhance work–life 
balance, shorten commuting time and offer 
opportunities to employees with reduced 
mobility. Despite these benefits, the 
widespread adoption of remote work has also 

revealed a growing gap between those who can 
take advantage of such arrangements and 
those who cannot. Specifically, remote roles are 
often concentrated in higher-paying jobs that 
require advanced qualifications, leaving many 
lower-waged frontline workers (a group in 
which women are over-represented) without 
access to such opportunities (Hansen et al., 
2023).

Even for those with access to remote work, 
challenges such as maintaining work–life 
boundaries and having the right to disconnect 
can undermine its advantages. For instance, 
increased stress and disrupted work–life 

 (47)  https://reusilience.eu/.

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balance became common during the pandemic, 
particularly for mothers balancing work and 
caregiving responsibilities (Arabadjieva and 
Franklin, 2023). Additionally, many women who 
telework due to caregiving responsibilities 
often become ‘invisible’ to employers and 
colleagues. This invisibility can limit their 
opportunities for career advancement, pay rises 
and promotions (Arabadjieva and Franklin, 
2023; UNESCO et al., 2022). The resulting 
isolation and limited face-to-face interactions 
may also lead to loneliness and emotional 
strain, hindering long-term professional growth 
(Flynn et al., 2024).

Teleworking has also been associated with 
other health issues, such as fatigue, headaches, 
eyestrain and anxiety, which are reported 
significantly more often by teleworkers than 
on-site workers (Eurofound, 2020). These 
health problems contribute to psychosocial risk 
factors that can adversely affect mental and 
physical health, with women being particularly 
vulnerable – see more in Section 2.3.2.5. The 
digital workplace also creates new avenues for 
violence and harassment, as technology blurs 
the lines between personal and professional 
communication, allowing misconduct to go 
unnoticed (York, 2022). Among teleworkers, 
women experience harassment or bullying at 
twice the rate of men (6 % versus 3 %, 
respectively) and face violence or verbal abuse 
more frequently (9 % versus 6 %, respectively) 
(EU-OSHA, 2024).

2.6.2.6.  The use of artificial intelligence 
technologies in recruitment and 
human resource management 
creates new risks relating to 
gender bias and discrimination

The digital transition in the labour market has 
increased reliance on AI technologies, 
transforming hiring, task allocation and 
performance evaluation processes. The use of 
AI-driven systems in recruitment raises 
concerns over gender bias, limited worker 
autonomy and impacts on well-being (Nguyen 

and Mateescu, 2019). For instance, hiring 
algorithms are often trained on data 
predominantly from white men, which can 
create biases against candidates based on 
gender, race or disability (EIGE, 2022a).

Employers may also use AI-powered 
surveillance technologies such as camera and 
keystroke monitoring to track their remote-
working employees (Skelton, 2020). Among 
teleworkers, 36 % of women and 31 % of men 
report experiencing increased surveillance 
through digital technologies (48) (EU-OSHA, 
2024). The algorithmic standards used in AI 
surveillance systems are typically developed 
using limited data based on men with no 
disabilities (De Stefano, 2015). This can unfairly 
penalise workers whose behaviour, speed or 
work practices differ from these narrow 
standards. Women face a higher risk of being 
penalised, as they are more likely to be primary 
caregivers and may need to leave their 
workstations to deal with family interruptions 
while working from home (EIGE, 2022a). 
Platform workers, who are more often subject 
to algorithmic management such as customer 
ratings and performance scores as opposed to 
traditional managerial oversight (European 
Commission, 2019; Hannák et al., 2017; 
Westhoff, 2023), are left with limited support 
structures to address workplace issues. This 
means that heightened psychosocial risks, 
unfair treatment based on gender or age and 
sexual harassment remain under-reported 
(EIGE, 2022a).

2.6.2.7.  Addressing horizontal gender 
segregation is crucial for both 
women and men to benefit fully 
from the digital and green 
transitions in the labour market

As the green and digital transitions advance, 
the demand for skilled workers in sectors such 
as STEM, ICT, energy and transport is expected 
to grow (European Commission: DG Education, 
Youth, Sport and Culture et al., 2023). However, 
these sectors already face skills shortages, 

 (48)  Based on a 2022 EU-OSHA survey, covering all Member States plus Iceland and Norway.

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2.  Policies and developments in the 12 critical areas of concern in the EU since 2019

which are likely to be exacerbated by the 
increasing demand (European Commission, 
2023g). At the same time, these fields are 
marked by structural gender segregation, with 
men making up the majority of the workforce. 
This imbalance means that women may not 
benefit fully from the opportunities emerging 
in these industries.

In addition to gender stereotypes that shape 
educational choices (see Section 2.2.2.2), 
another key factor contributing to gender 
occupational segregation is the ‘leaky pipeline’ 
phenomenon (Chowdhury et al., 2021). This 
refers to the gradual loss of women from 
certain fields as they face challenges that make 
it difficult to remain and advance in their 
careers (Berry et al., 2022). For example, 
women in ICT jobs leave the sector at higher 
rates than men due to the gender pay gap, 
gender stereotypes about men’s ‘better 
suitability’, a lack of women in leadership roles 
and slower career advancement in an industry 
dominated by men (EIGE, 2023i). Consequently, 
there remains a largely untapped pool of 
female talent.

In the rapidly evolving field of AI, since 2020, 
there has been an upward trajectory in the 
worldwide representation of women among 
researchers at international conferences, 
suggesting a positive development (European 
Commission: Joint Research Centre et al., 2022). 
However, as AI professionals progress in their 
careers, the effects of the ‘leaky pipeline’ 
become more pronounced. In 2019, while 

women in the EU and in the United Kingdom 
constituted almost 20 % of AI professionals 
with zero to two years of experience, this 
number dropped to just 12 % among those 
with more than 10 years’ experience (LinkedIn, 
2019).

2.7.  Women in power and 
decision-making roles 
(area G)

Under the BPfA, Member States have 
committed to promoting the equal 
representation and participation of women in 
decision-making and leadership roles across all 
areas of life, recognising gender equality as key 
to fair governance. Area G calls for electoral 
systems to be revised and for the use of 
positive actions such as quotas to achieve 
gender parity in public office and to transform 
organisational cultures to remove 
discriminatory practices. The officially agreed 
EU indicators to track progress in area G cover 
the representation of women in different areas 
of public life and decision-making (e.g. 
parliaments at all levels, political parties, civil 
service, supreme courts, central banks, 
company boards and social partners). However, 
they do not fully measure whether women’s 
and men’s roles are equally important or if 
policies are promoting gender balance 
effectively.

Area G (women in power and decision-making) alignment with SDGs

5.5  Ensure women’s full and effective participation and equal opportunities for leadership at all levels of 

decision-making in political, economic and public life

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For the BPfA + 30 review, the thematic focus and priority topics of area G include:

Improving the gender 
balance in power and 
political 
decision-making

Promoting the equal 
and full participation of 
women in politics

Recognising women’s 
participation in 
civil-society movements

Advancing gender 
balance in economic 
decision-making and 
other areas

These priority topics reflect the need to ensure 
that decision-making processes in the EU 
equally reflect the perspectives and needs of 
women and men in all their diversity. Following 
the COVID-19 pandemic, the ongoing climate 
crisis and the Russian war of aggression against 
Ukraine, inclusive leadership and gender 
balance in all spheres of power matter more 
than ever.

2.7.1.  EU policy developments

Achieving gender balance in decision-making is 
a key priority of the EU gender equality 
strategy (European Commission, 2020d), but 
the EU’s power to promote gender balance in 
decision-making varies by policy area. EU 
efforts have focused on improving the gender 
balance in economic decision-making, along 
with some initiatives to enhance parity 
democracy in the European Parliament. 
Adopting Directive (EU) 2022/2381 on 
improving the gender balance among the 
directors of listed companies was a key step 
towards addressing the under-representation 
of women in corporate management and 
improving transparency in the selection of 
board members (see Figure 2). It requires large, 
listed EU companies to achieve gender balance 
on their boards by 30 June 2026, with a target 
of women making up at least 40 % of non-
executive board members or 33 % of all 
directors.

There is an ongoing debate about the 
introduction of EU-level legislation to ease the 

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inclusion of gender equality provisions in the 
election of Members of the European 
Parliament (MEPs) (EIGE, 2024l). In May 2022, 
the European Parliament adopted a proposal 
for a Council regulation concerning the 
election of MEPs via direct universal suffrage 
(European Parliament, 2022b), which proposed 
the implementation of quotas or zipped lists, 
alternating women and men candidates but 
without specifying the quota percentage or 
penalties for non-compliance (EPRS, 2022). In 
addition, provisions were suggested for the 
temporary replacement of MEPs on maternity, 
paternity or parental leave and long-term sick 
leave.

In 2021, the European Commission proposed 
amendments to the regulation on the statute 
and funding of European political parties 
(European Commission, 2021l), mandating that 
European political parties incorporate rules on 
gender equality into their statutes. The 
European Parliament has acknowledged that 
voluntary measures have proven insufficient to 
achieve gender parity in parliaments and has 
proposed amendments to ensure gender 
balance in the governing bodies of European 
political parties and foundations, along with 
the adoption of gender equality plans 
(European Commission, 2021c). Because all of 
these changes require unanimous support from 
the Member States and remain under 
discussion, no new EU-level measures were 
introduced in the 2024 elections.

2.  Policies and developments in the 12 critical areas of concern in the EU since 2019

2.7.2.  Key challenges and trends

2.7.2.1.  The European Parliament and the 

Commission in 2019–2024 were 
the most gender balanced in 
history, but women’s presence in 
national parliaments remains low

The 2019–2024 European Commission 
numbered 12 women and 14 men and was 
chaired by a woman president. At the beginning 
of the 2019–2024 term, women constituted 
41 % of MEPs (EIGE, 2024l). The share of women 
fell to 40 % in the second half of 2022, due to 
the post-Brexit restructuring of seats (EIGE, 
2024l). By the end of the mandate, women 

made up 40 % of MEPs, exceeding the EU 
average for national/federal parliaments 
(33 %). In a historic turn, following the 2024 
elections, the share of women MEPs reduced for 
the first time since the first direct elections in 
1979 (EIGE, 2024a). After the June 2024 
elections, women now occupy 39 % of seats in 
the European Parliament (EIGE, 2024a).

The representation of women in national 
parliaments varies greatly by country, from 
46 % women in Sweden and Finland to 14 % in 
Cyprus, as of the end of 2024. Although the EU 
average has increased by 2 pp since 2018, 
setbacks have been seen in eight Member 
States (BG, EE, FR, IT, CY, PT, RO and SE) 
(Figure 27).

Figure 27.  Seats held by women in the single/lower house of the national/federal parliaments, by 

country (% of seats, pp difference, 2018 and Q4 2024)

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

0.5

4.0

7.6

2.9

3.4

7.4 0.6

-3.6

0.3

Gender balance

4.8

3.3

2.2

11.2

14.4

2.9

2.8

9.0

13.0

-1.0

13.3

-0.9

3.0

1.1 2.5 2.1

5.0

3.6

2.0

I

E F
S

K
D

S
E

E
B

L
N

T
A

R
F

T
P

E
D

I

S

U
L

R
H

7
2
-
U
E

T
I

L
P

V
L

T
L

E
E

T
M

G
B

Z
C

L
E

E
I

K
S

O
R

U
H

Y
C

2024 (Q4)

2018

NB: Gender balance is defined as 40–60 % women. The values above the bars on the figure represent the pp difference 
between 2018 and Q4 2024 in the number of seats held by women in the single/lower house of the national/federal 
parliament.
Source: EIGE, Gender Statistics Database, data collection on women and men in decision-making.

Notable increases in women’s representation 
have been observed in Croatia and Malta (with 
rises of 14 pp and 13 pp, respectively). Only 
seven Member States have achieved gender 
balance, with women making up more than 
40 % of members of national/federal 
parliaments in Sweden, Finland, Denmark, 
Spain, Belgium, the Netherlands and Austria. In 

six Member States, women constitute less than 
25 % of parliament members (EL, IE, SK, RO, HU 
and CY).

At the beginning of 2024, five Member States 
(DK, EE, IT, LV and LT) had a woman prime 
minister (49), and women represented 
approximately one third (34 %) of all senior 

 (49)  The prime ministers of Estonia and Italy are the first women in their countries to serve in this role.

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ministers across the EU. Although women are 
gaining representation in the national 
ministries of some Member States, they 
frequently hold ministerial positions in policy 
areas that are typically linked to traditional 
women’s roles, such as social affairs, health and 
education. Only one in three ministers in the EU 

with an economic position (finance, trade or 
agriculture), infrastructure position (transport 
or the environment) or core portfolio such as 
foreign affairs and defence is a woman (EIGE, 
2024f). For examples of attempts to promote 
women’s participation in politics in Ireland, 
Austria, Slovenia and Slovakia, see Box 24.

Box 24.  Efforts to promote equal representation and participation of women in politics

• 

In Ireland, the Irish Citizens’ Assembly on Gender Equality, created in 2019, aims to develop 
recommendations to the Oireachtas (the bicameral parliament of Ireland) on addressing gender 
inequality through inclusive public participation. These recommendations include key proposals 
such as extending gender quotas in elections and public-funded bodies, family leave for elected 
representatives and flexible work arrangements. Despite being considered groundbreaking, a 
2024 referendum to amend a sexist constitutional article concerning women’s roles in the home 
failed to gain enough support (Bürgerrat, 2024; Citizens’ Assembly, n.d., 2021; Joint Committee 
on Gender Equality, Houses of the Oireachtas, 2022).

•  Since 2022, to mark the International Day of the Girl, the Austrian Directorate-General for 
Women and Equality and the Association of the Austrian Municipalities (Österreichischer 
Gemeindebund) launched the ‘Girls in politics’ initiative. This programme allows girls aged 6 to 
18 to shadow their mayoresses or mayors for a day, giving them first-hand exposure to regional 
politics, challenging gender stereotypes and inspiring interest in politics.

• 

•  Slovenia’s 2022 ‘Empowering women in active society’ project, implemented by the Ministry of 
Labour, Family, Social Affairs and Equal Opportunities, focused on overcoming barriers to young 
women’s participation in politics by challenging gender stereotypes and promoting their civic 
and political engagement.
In Slovakia, a civil association called Zakrúžkuj ženu (Circle the Woman) actively campaigns for 
the equal representation of women in politics. Founded by experts, activists and volunteers 
dedicated to creating a balanced society, it originated from the ‘Circle the woman’ campaign, 
which promoted voting for women candidates in the 2023 parliamentary elections (Kazar et al., 
2023).

Despite overall improvements since 2018, the 
leadership of major political parties (i.e. parties 
with at least 5 % of seats in the national 
parliament) remains predominantly in men’s 
hands. In 2024, women accounted for only 26 % 
of party leaders, representing an 8 pp increase 
since 2018 (EIGE, 2024d). The share of women 
among deputy leaders has decreased by 1 pp 
since 2018, with women accounting for 34 % of 
these positions in 2024 (EIGE, 2024g).

2.7.2.2.  Legislative actions stimulate 

progress towards gender-balanced 
decision-making, but more efforts 
are needed, including 
comprehensive and intersectional 
data

The Committee on the Elimination of All Forms 
of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) 
2024 General Recommendation No 40 on equal 
and inclusive representation of women in 
decision-making systems calls for women’s and 
men’s equal access to and equal power within 
decision-making systems (CEDAW, 2024). The 
recommendation sets out a roadmap to 50:50 
parity and states that lower targets for 

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women’s representation in decision-making are 
incompatible with the goal of eliminating 
discrimination against women (CEDAW, 2024).

As of March 2024, 11 Member States had 
legislative quotas for parliaments: Belgium and 
France (50 %); Ireland, Greece, Spain, Croatia, 
Italy, Luxembourg and Portugal (40 %); and 
Poland and Slovenia (35 %) (see more in 
Annex 4). Research shows that quotas are 
effective in promoting gender balance, 
especially if they are well designed and 
enforced with penalties (EPRS, 2023a). In 2023, 
Member States with quotas slightly 
outperformed those without (50) (34 % versus 
33 %, respectively) (EIGE, 2024j). These results 
become more significant in the long run, as 
countries with quotas are projected to achieve 
gender balance by 2031, compared with 2039 
for those without (EIGE, 2024j; European 
Commission, 2024a). Therefore, progress 
appears slower among those countries without 
quotas. However, even if the quota target is 
met on electoral lists, this does not necessarily 
translate into meeting the target in terms of 
elected seats (EPRS, 2023a). This highlights the 
need for higher quotas and enforcement 
mechanisms, including sanctions for non-
compliance and placement rules to ensure equal 
visibility for women and men (EPRS, 2023a).

Intersectional data, although very scant, reveal 
the under-representation of certain groups, 
such as Roma women (EPRS, 2024b). Following 
Brexit, while racialised women made up 57 % of 
racialised MEPs in 2019–2024, up from 39 % in 
the previous mandate (ENAR, 2024), overall 
ethnic minority representation in the European 
Parliament remains low (4 %), despite such 
groups constituting 10 % of the population 
(ENAR, 2019, 2020). In national parliaments, 

women’s representation remains more or less 
consistent until the age of 50 (36–37 %) but 
declines from there, with women over 70 
holding fewer than 20 % of seats. Only 4 % of 
members of parliament in the EU are under the 
age of 30, of which 37 % are women (EIGE, 
2024l). No Member States have specific 
measures in place to promote the political 
participation of women from minority groups. 
The lack of data based on racial or ethnic 
identity hinders efforts to address 
intersectional inequalities.

2.7.2.3.  The increasing violence against 

women who are active in politics 
poses a significant challenge to 
their political participation and 
political rights

Violence against women in politics takes 
various forms, aimed at controlling and limiting 
their participation in decision-making. Hostile 
environments, stereotypes and discrimination 
create a chilling effect. This deters women from 
political engagement (National Democratic 
Institute, 2021), worsens their under-
representation, discourages future generations 
from entering politics (EIGE, 2022c, 2024l; EPRS, 
2024a) and provides a fertile ground for 
violence to thrive (EPRS, 2024a). A 2018 survey 
by the Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU) and the 
Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of 
Europe (PACE) (51) revealed high levels of sexism, 
harassment and violence against women 
parliamentarians in Europe (Figure 28). Women 
under 40 in particular were targeted, with 76 % 
of such women reporting acts of cyberviolence, 
especially for their political views and women’s 
rights advocacy.

 (50)  Taking into account Member States in which quotas are voluntary or where no measures have been implemented.
 (51)  The joint survey conducted by the IPU and PACE was based on responses from 123 women from 45 European countries, 

including 25 Member States. There were no respondents from Malta or Slovakia.

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Figure 28.  Forms of violence experienced by women parliamentarians in Europe (% of all women 

parliamentarians surveyed, 2018)

Economic violence

Physical violence

Sexual violence

Online violence

Psychological violence

14

15

25

58

85

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

Source: IPU–PACE survey, 2018.

Gendered disinformation, which is often racially 
charged, portrays women candidates as 
unqualified or overly emotional (Allen, 2023; 
Thakur and Hankerson, 2021), diverting focus 
from policy discussions to personal attacks. 
According to the IPU–PACE survey, one third of 
women parliamentarians report that such 
violence has affected their freedom of 
expression, leading them to become more 
cautious and to seek less visibility (IPU and 
PACE, 2018). Similarly, a 2023 survey by the 
Council of European Municipalities and 
Regions (52) reported on the consequences of 
violence experienced by elected women in local 
and regional roles. These included impacts on 
their private life (31 %), quitting social media or 
restricting access to their accounts (32 %), 
becoming less vocal about a political conflict 
(21 %), and deciding not to run for office again 

(9 %) (Council of European Municipalities and 
Regions, 2024).

2.7.2.4.  Beyond party politics, women 

leaders in civil-society movements 
in the EU face unique challenges in 
achieving systemic change

CSOs are critical drivers of gender equality in 
the EU. However, those CSOs working towards 
gender equality and for women’s rights face 
various challenges, including funding cuts and 
attacks from anti-gender movements (see 
Sections 2.8.2.6 and 2.9.2.1). Beyond those 
organisations that work specifically on gender 
equality, CSOs play a key social, environmental 
and economic role in the EU today. However, 
women’s leadership in these organisations has 
frequently been overlooked (Lang, 2021).

Feminist leadership promotes systemic change by challenging traditional power 
structures and fostering more equitable systems. It calls for a shift from 
conventional ‘hero-style’, individualistic leadership to relational, collaborative 
models based on collective power, coalition-building, care, diversity and inclusion 
as central elements of leadership.

Source: Summary by the authors, based on Charveriat et al. (2024).

 (52)  The Council of European Municipalities and Regions survey was based on responses from 2 424 elected women at the local, 

intermediate and regional levels in 31 European countries.

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A survey of 148 women CSO leaders at the EU 
and Member State levels revealed widespread 
burnout among them (Charveriat et al., 2024). 
Many experienced exhaustion and poor health 
due to overwork and the financial insecurity 
faced by CSOs. Despite its being a feminised 
sector, men still dominate senior positions in 
and the boards of CSOs. Many organisations 
retain outdated patriarchal leadership 

structures, hindering the ability of women 
leaders to enact transformative change 
(Charveriat et al., 2024). These challenges 
threaten the missions of CSOs and the potential 
for women to drive change within their 
organisations and in European societies. Box 25 
provides examples of initiatives to support 
leadership by women.

Box 25.  Examples of projects aiming to support women leaders

•  Women entrepreneurs, particularly in ICT and STEM sectors, face challenges in accessing funding 
for new businesses. To address this, the EU-funded Women TechEU programme (2024–2026) 
supports women-led technology start-ups in Europe. Aiming to promote a gender-balanced 
entrepreneurship ecosystem, the programme targets early-stage start-ups founded or 
co-founded by women in top management roles (chief executive officers, chief technology 
officers, etc.). It will support 160 beneficiaries, providing personalised business development 
programmes, including mentoring and training, along with EUR 75 000 in grants.
In 2020, the Folke Bernadotte Academy, Sweden’s government agency for peace, security and 
development, launched the gender-responsive leadership initiative. This includes an online 
learning programme for leaders and managers in organisations such as the EU, the UN, the 
Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe and the African Union. The programme 
includes workshops, skills practice and personal coaching to help leaders promote gender 
equality in peace and security work.

• 

literature showing a positive correlation of 
gender diversity on boards with corporate 
innovation and with greater investments in 
climate change innovation and the 
sustainability agenda (García-Sánchez et al., 
2023; Griffin et al., 2021).

2.7.2.5.  The proportion of women on the 

boards of the largest listed 
companies in the EU has reached 
an all-time high, but economic 
decisions are still mostly taken by 
men

In 2024, the boards (53) of the largest publicly 
listed companies registered in the EU comprised 
only 34 % women. This is an increase of 6 pp 
since 2019 (when the figure was 28 %), yet it 
remains below the gender balance threshold of 
40 %. Six Member States have achieved the 
gender balance level of 40 % on their boards 
(Figure 29), while setbacks occurred in four 
Member States compared with 2019 (LV, HU, SI 
and SK). This is despite the large body of 

 (53)  Data on board members cover all members of the highest decision-making body in each company (i.e. chairpersons, 

non-executive directors, senior executives and employee representatives, where present). The highest decision-making 
body is usually termed the supervisory board (in the case of a two-tier governance system) or the board of directors (in a 
unitary system). More information is available via EIGE’s Gender Statistics Database.

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Figure 29.  Positions held by women and men on the boards of the largest listed companies, by country 

(% of board members, first six months of 2024)

100

80

60

40

20

0

47 44 43 42 41 41 39 39 38 37 35 35 34

Gender balance

27 27 26 26 25 25 24 24 23 23

FR IT DK NL ES IE DE FI BE SE AT PT

EU-27 LT EL CZ SK HR RO LV LU PL SI

Women

Men

Quota

18 17 13 11

9

BG MT EE HU CY

NB: Certain Member States have binding quotas, as follows: Belgium (33 %), Germany (30 %), Greece (25 %; from 2020), France 
(40 %), Italy (40 %), the Netherlands (33 %; from 2022), Austria (30 %) and Portugal (33 %).
Source: EIGE, Gender Statistics Database, data collection on women and men in decision-making.

Progress towards the better representation of 
women on boards has been slow, but countries 
with corporate quotas have seen rapid 
improvements (EIGE, 2023h, 2024i). In 2023, 
women made up over 39 % of board members 
in the eight Member States with quotas (BE, DE, 
EL, FR, IT, NL, AT and PT), compared with 34 % in 
those using soft measures (DK, EE, IE, ES, HR, LV, 
LU, PL, RO, SI, FI and SE), and just 17 % in 
countries that took no action (BG, CZ, CY, LT, HU, 
MT and SK) (EIGE, 2024i).

This highlights the effectiveness of quotas in 
promoting gender balance on boards (EIGE, 
2023h, 2024i). Member States with binding 
quotas have already met or are closer to 
meeting the 2026 targets set by the directive 
on improving the gender balance among the 
directors of listed companies, while countries 
without quotas (e.g. BG, EE, CY, HU, MT and RO) 
still lag behind. Although the proportion of 
women in top executive roles such as chief 
executive officers has remained around 8 % 
since 2019, there has been a 6 pp increase in 
women in senior executive positions, reaching 
23 % in 2024. However, only 9 % of women 
occupy the seat of president (EIGE, 2024h).

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2.7.2.6.  Since 2019, a woman has led the 

European Central Bank, but gender 
imbalance persists in central banks 
across the EU

Research indicates that greater gender balance 
in central banks leads to more proactive 
monetary policies (Masciandaro et al., 2020). 
Despite this, women remain under-represented 
in the European Central Bank, with only two 
women on its 26-member governing council. 
Christine Lagarde became the first woman 
President of the European Central Bank in 2019.

On average, women make up 32 % of the 
decision-making bodies of national central 
banks (Figure 30), an increase from 24 % in 
2019. However, key decisions in Austria, 
Romania and Slovakia are made exclusively by 
men. In September 2024, despite progress in 
deputy governor roles, with women holding 
38 % of these positions (up from 28 % in 2019), 
the role of governor in all national banks in the 
EU (except for that in Spain) is held by a man. 
Despite their higher educational attainment, 
women continue to face a glass ceiling that 
limits their ability to reach leadership positions 
(European Commission, 2023a). Among others, 
barriers include women being assigned to 
positions with lower visibility and fewer 
networking opportunities, a lack of mentorship, 
gender stereotypes and differential treatment 

2.  Policies and developments in the 12 critical areas of concern in the EU since 2019

between women and men that undermines 

women’s confidence and self-esteem (Babic and 
Hansez, 2021; Taparia and Lenka, 2022).

Figure 30.  Positions held by women in the decision-making bodies of the national central banks, by 

country (% of members, pp difference, 2019 and 2024)

3

0

42

40

22 22

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

10

7

2

0

0

– 20

Gender balance

– 43

13

8

0

10

0

– 5

0

23

30

29

– 2

0

– 11

0

0

LV ES LT FR IT LU PT IE BE MT SE DK DE FI

EU-27 CZ PL HR NL SI EL EE BG CY HU AT RO SK

2024

2019

NB: The count includes the governors, deputy/vice-governors and members of all key decision-making bodies. The values 
above the bars represent the pp difference between 2019 and 2024 (September).
Source: EIGE, Gender Statistics Database, data collection on women and men in decision-making.

A significant gender imbalance remains in the 
sports sector. In 2023, only 22 % of members of 
national sports federation boards were women. 
This is a slight rise from 16 % in 2019, according 
to data on the top 10 most popular sports in 
each country (EIGE, 2024q). For examples of the 
introduction of gender quotas in sports 
leadership in France, Spain and Greece, see 
Box 26.

2.7.2.7.  Gradual improvements have 

occurred in recent years, but the 
number of women in decision-
making positions in research and 
sports remains low

Women remain under-represented in decision-
making roles across key social institutions. In 
science, women hold 28 % of the seats in the 
highest decision-making bodies of national 
academies, a 5 pp increase since 2019. Gender 
balance in research funding organisations (54) 
was achieved in 2021. By 2024, women 
represented 43 % of the members of the 
highest decision-making bodies of these 
organisations. Country disparities persist, 
especially in the nine Member States in which 
fewer than one third of decision-makers are 
women (in descending order: IT, CZ, BE, PL, CY, 
HR, HU, EL and SK) (EIGE, 2023d).

 (54) Research funding organisations are self-governed funding organisations that allocate national public funds to research 
organisations, programmes or projects in the countries covered. For these organisations, a chairperson and members of 
the highest decision-making body are counted. In cases where there is no research funding organisation fulfilling these 
criteria, the ministry responsible for allocating the funds is covered and the decision-makers are identified on a case-by-
case basis due to inherent differences. More information is available via EIGE’s Gender Statistics Database.

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Box 26.  Gender quotas in sports 
leadership

2.8.  Institutional 

Despite the increasing participation of 
women in sports and their achievements 
as elite athletes, their representation in 
top sports management positions remains 
limited. Few countries have adopted 
gender quotas in sports decision-making. 
In 2014, France mandated gender parity in 
sports federation leadership, while Spain 
has introduced a 33 % quota for national 
sports federation boards (Valiente, 2022). 
In 2020, Greece passed law 4276/2020 on 
composition of sports clubs/associations 
management boards requiring that at 
least one third of candidates for 
management board positions, including 
the president, be women. The limited use 
of gender quotas in EU sports leadership 
signals that there is an opportunity for 
more further action to be taken to boost 
women’s representation.

mechanisms for the 
advancement of 
women (area H)

Under the BPfA, all Member States have 
committed to establishing institutional 
mechanisms to promote, advocate and support 
gender equality and the mainstreaming of 
gender equality concerns across policy areas. In 
the EU, institutional mechanisms entail 
governmental, independent and other bodies 
for the promotion of gender equality and make 
sure that women’s rights are supported and 
protected in all areas of society. The objectives 
of area H include ensuring a high level of 
governmental responsibility for gender 
equality, integrating a gender perspective into 
all policymaking and disseminating sex-
disaggregated data and information.

Area H (institutional mechanisms for the advancement of women) 
alignment with SDGs

5.c  Sound policies and enforceable legislation for the promotion of gender 

equality and the empowerment of all women and girls

16.7  Responsive, inclusive, participatory and representative decision-making 

at all levels

16.b  Promote and enforce non-discriminatory laws and policies

17.18  Increase the availability of high-quality data disaggregated by gender 

and other characteristics

This section reviews the indicators in area H on the status of institutional mechanisms in the Member 
States:

Governmental 
commitment, structures 
and accountability for 
promoting gender 
equality

Resources allocated to 
national gender 
equality bodies

The use of gender 
mainstreaming 
methods and tools in 
policymaking

The production and 
dissemination of 
sex-disaggregated 
statistics

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Advances in these institutional mechanisms 
underpin progress in the other areas of the 
BPfA, making them vital to achieving gender 
equality (EIGE, 2020a).

2.8.1.  EU policy developments

The main policy development at the EU level in 
the area of institutional mechanisms since 2019 
concerns the adoption of the two parallel 
directives strengthening the independence and 
functioning of the EU’s equality bodies.

In 2022, the Commission put forward two 
‘parallel proposals’ with different legal bases to 
establish minimum binding standards for 
equality bodies to enhance their mandate and 
effectiveness (European Commission, n.d.-b). 
Adopted in 2024, one of the directives focuses 
on equality between men and women in 
employment and occupation, while the other 
concerns sex, racial or ethnic origin, religion or 
belief, disability, age and sexual orientation (55) 
(Council Directive (EU) 2024/1499; Directive 
(EU) 2024/1500). Together, they establish 
EU-wide minimum requirements for equality 
bodies, as listed in Figure 31.

Figure 31.  Provisions of the equality bodies directives

Mandate: equality bodies’ jurisdiction has been 
extended to combat discrimination on the grounds of 
religion or belief, disability, age and sexual orientation 
in the area of employment, along with discrimination 
based on sex in the area of social security.

Enhanced powers: equality bodies need to be 
empowered to investigate discrimination cases, issue 
opinions or binding decisions, act in courts and 
propose an alternative dispute resolution mechanism, 
such as conciliation or mediation, to the parties in a 
complaint procedure.

Sufficient resources: Member States are obligated to 
provide equality bodies with the human, technical and 
financial resources necessary to exercise all of their 
powers effectively.

Consultation on law- and policymaking processes: 
public institutions are asked to consult equality bodies 
on matters related to discrimination and equal 
treatment.

Independence: equality bodies are legally required to 
be free from external influence.

Accessibility: equality bodies’ services are required to 
be free and accessible to all victims. 

Awareness raising and prevention: equality bodies 
need to be empowered to promote equality 
effectively.

Reporting: equality bodies are required to produce 
regular reports on the state of equal treatment and 
discrimination.

Source: Summary prepared by Equinet (2024a).

Member States already had an obligation under 
the EU equal treatment directives (56) to 
designate an independent equality body to 
promote equality and combat discrimination 
(Equinet, 2023). However, the previous 
provisions left considerable discretion to the 
Member States regarding the mandate, 
independence and resources of these equality 
bodies. This resulted in unequal protection 
against discrimination across the EU (Equinet, 

2023). The new standards for the independence 
and functioning of equality bodies will ensure 
more effective protection from discrimination 
for everyone in the EU. Member States are 
required to incorporate the directives into 
national law by 2026. Furthermore, the 
European Network of Equality Bodies (Equinet) 
supports national equality bodies in promoting 
equality and combating discrimination while 
strengthening their capacities at the EU level 

 (55)  Specifically, the second directive establishes binding standards for equality bodies in the fields of (1) equal treatment between 

people irrespective of their racial or ethnic origin; (2) equal treatment in matters of employment and occupation between people 
irrespective of their religion or belief, disability, age or sexual orientation; and (3) equal treatment between women and men in 
matters of social security and in the access to and supply of goods and services.

 (56) Council Directive 2000/43/EC, Council Directive 2004/113/EC, Directive 2010/41/EU.

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2.  Policies and developments in the 12 critical areas of concern in the EU since 2019

through collaboration, expertise and 
contributions to the development and 
implementation of EU equality policies and 
legislation (Equinet, 2024b).

The EU has limited powers to regulate 
governmental gender equality bodies at the 
national level. Governmental gender equality 
bodies are bodies within government whose 
purpose is to design, coordinate and implement 
government policies for gender equality. Such 
bodies are ministries or departments within 
ministerial structures, but can also be 
government agencies (EIGE, 2023c).

The EU works with Member States to support 
gender mainstreaming through collective 
learning and collaboration, for example through 
the High-Level Group on Gender 
Mainstreaming. In addition, the subgroup on 
equality data of the High-Level Group on 
Non-discrimination, Equality and Diversity 
supports Member States in collecting data that 
reflect inequalities (see also Box 1 in 
Section 1.1.1.1). 

The Commission also coordinates the mutual 
learning programme in gender equality to 
support the exchange of good practices among 

the Member States (European Commission, 
n.d.-h). In 2022, the Commission (DG Structural 
Reform Support, now the Commission’s Reform 
and Investment Task Force) also launched a 
flagship project on gender mainstreaming in 
public policy and budgeting as part of the 
technical support instrument, which provides 
funds for Member States to design and 
implement resilience-enhancing reforms. EIGE 
also reestablished the Thematic Network on 
Gender Mainstreaming in 2019 to provide a 
space for practitioners in the Member States 
and EU institutions to exchange information. In 
addition, the Commission has acknowledged 
the importance of enhancing engagement with 
CSOs and protecting their work, given their 
crucial role in tackling societal challenges and 
upholding human rights (von der Leyen, 
2024a).

2.8.2.  Key challenges and trends

2.8.2.1.  Member States are committed to 

promoting gender equality, but 
institutional mechanisms to make 
it happen need to be strengthened

Area H, unlike other areas, relies on a set of four officially agreed indicators, 
specifically updated by EIGE to monitor progress and track changes in gender 
equality policies and structures across EU Member States. In 2021, EIGE revised 
the conceptual and measurement framework for these indicators. The revision 
shifted the focus from simply assessing the presence of gender equality and 
gender mainstreaming structures and processes to evaluating their actual 
effectiveness in practice since the adoption of the BPfA. Based on this updated 
framework, EIGE conducted two ad hoc data collection exercises in 2021 and 2024.  
Data were collected between April and May 2024. Annex 5 provides further 
methodological information of this data collection.

gender equality, in the resourcing of 
independent gender equality bodies and in the 
production and dissemination of statistics 
disaggregated by sex. However, there was a 
notable decline in the use of dedicated tools 
and methods for gender mainstreaming in this 
period.

For monitoring purposes, ‘national gender 
equality bodies’ refers to two types of bodies: 
governmental gender equality bodies (within 
government) and independent gender equality 
bodies (outside government). Data collected by 
EIGE in 2024 about institutional mechanisms 
show little change across the Member States 
compared with the situation in 2021 when 
summarised as an EU average (Figure 32). 
Compared with 2021, in 2024, minor progress 
was made in the commitment to promoting 

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Figure 32.  Average score for each indicator in relation to its theoretical maximum (% of the EU-25 and 

the EU-27, 2021 and 2024)

%
2
6
=
4
9

.

1
9

.

15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0

%
4
3
=
7
4

.

2
5

.

%
0
6
=
6
3

.

4
3

.

%
7
4
=
9
1

.

7
1

.

H1 Status of commitment
to the promotion of gender
equality

H2 Human resources
of the national gender
equality bodies

H3 Gender mainstreaming

H4 Production and
dissemination of statistics
disaggregated by sex

Theoretical maximum

EU average, 2021

EU average, 2024

NB: Data for 2021 exclude Ireland and France (hence EU-25) and are incomplete for Hungary.
Source: EIGE, data collection on institutional mechanisms in 2021 and 2024 (EIGE 2025c).

2.8.2.2.  The responsibility for promoting 
gender equality is vested in the 
highest levels of government 
across the Member States, but 
more efforts are needed to 
translate this into a practical and 
well-resourced gender equality 
strategy or action plan

Figure 33 summarises the EU average score and 
Member States’ scores regarding the status of 
their commitment to promoting gender 
equality within governmental structures across 
various indicators. Scores are generally high in 
terms of visible commitments to the promotion 
of gender equality, with an average combined 
score of 70 % for the three subindicators 
dealing with the highest level of responsibility 

in government (H1a, 91 %), the position of the 
gender equality body within the government 
hierarchy (H1c, 52 %) and the scope of the 
mandate of that body (H1d, 67 %) (EIGE, 
2025a).

Placing the responsibility for promoting gender 
equality on a senior minister (57) should increase 
the power to promote gender equality across 
the government (EIGE, 2023c). In 2024, all but 
five Member States (BE, EL, MT, PT and SK) had a 
senior minister with direct responsibility for 
promoting gender equality. This situation is 
slightly worse than in 2021, as three countries 
(MT, PT and SK) have demoted this responsibility 
to a junior minister (58), while two Member States 
have raised their commitment to gender 
equality to the highest level (PL and RO).

 (57) A member of the government who has a seat on the cabinet or council of ministers.
 (58)  Members of the government who do not have a seat on the cabinet.

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107

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
2.  Policies and developments in the 12 critical areas of concern in the EU since 2019

Figure 33.  Status of commitment to the promotion of gender equality (H1, governmental commitment 

only: H1a–H1e, 2024)

10.3

8.7 9.0

8.5

8.2

6.7

7.5

7.2

5.2

9.2

9.2

8.7

9.0

9.0

7.3

6.7

7.2

6.7

5.9

5.7

4.7

8.2

7.5 7.2

7.2

6.2

12

10

8

6

4

2

0

EU
average

BE BG CZ DK DE

EE

IE

EL

ES FR HR

IT CY LV LT LU HU MT NL AT PL PT RO

SI SK

FI SE

H1a

H1c

H1d

H1e

H1a - highest responsibility for promoting gender equality within government; 
H1c - position of the governmental body within the government structure; 
H1d - mandate and functions of the governmental body; 
H1e - accountability of the government for the promotion of gender equality.
Source: EIGE, data collection on institutional mechanisms in 2024.

The positioning of governmental gender 
equality bodies is crucial, as those that are 
given a full ministry have greater authority in 
promoting gender equality, while those 
situated within a department or a 
governmental agency may face more 
limitations (EIGE, 2023c). In 2024, three Member 
States (ES, FR and LU) had positioned their 
governmental gender equality bodies at the 
highest level, that is, as an entire ministry. The 
remaining Member States positioned their 
governmental gender equality bodies either as 
a section or department of a ministry or as a 
governmental agency. Compared with being an 
entire ministry, such positioning of 
governmental gender equality bodies may 
provide a lower degree of visibility and power, 
such as in terms of influencing policymaking.

In 2024 (April–May), governmental 
accountability for gender equality continued to 
be limited in many Member States. Nine 
Member States did not have an overarching 
gender equality strategy (BE, IE, FR, LV, LT, HU, 
AT, PL and PT) and 15 Member States had an 
active action plan exclusively on gender 
equality (BG, CZ, EE, EL, ES, FR, HR, CY, LT, LU, HU, 
MT, PT, RO and SK). In 11 Member States (BE, 
DK, ES, LT, LU, MT, NL, AT, PT, RO and SE), the 
governmental body responsible for the 

promotion of gender equality reported to 
parliament at least once a year.

2.8.2.3.  Further efforts are needed to 

provide resources to gender 
equality bodies and strengthen 
the capacity to focus on gender 
equality within bodies with a 
wider equalities remit

On average in 2024, Member States scored 47 % 
for this indicator, suggesting that both 
governmental and independent gender equality 
bodies are under-resourced (scoring an average 
of 49 % and 45 % respectively; see Figure 32).

More than half of Member States in 2024 have 
a governmental body whose gender equality 
mandate is combined with other non-
discrimination and equality-related functions. 
Nearly all governmental bodies were found to 
be empowered to carry out all relevant 
functions relating to gender equality. However, 
when a governmental body with a mandate for 
gender equality is combined with other non-
discrimination areas, this may limit its capacity 
to focus specifically on promoting gender 
equality through policies, awareness raising 
and information, due to insufficient resources.

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A similar trend was found among independent 
bodies, most of which have a mandate for 
gender equality combined with other non-
discrimination areas. In 2024, five Member 
States (BE, ES, IT, PT and FI) had an independent 
body exclusively focusing on gender equality, 
thereby increasing the capacity to focus efforts 
on gender equality.

Effective institutional mechanisms for gender 
equality demand adequate human and financial 
resources (EIGE, 2023c). In 2024, five countries 
scored the maximum possible for a well-
resourced governmental gender equality body 

(2 points) and nine scored 1.5 out of the 
maximum possible of 2 for independent gender 
equality bodies. Eleven governmental bodies 
have fewer than five personnel dedicated to 
gender equality, and nine independent bodies 
have fewer than ten staff working on gender 
equality. Table 1 provides further detail on the 
scoring of indicator H2 by subindicator, 
grouping countries according to the size band 
for each type of body and showing (1) where 
total staff numbers have been adjusted to 
reflect time spent on gender equality issues 
and (2) where the data cover multiple bodies.

Table 1.  Personnel resources working on gender equality, by type of body, 2024

Personnel

Score

Governmental 
bodies (H2a)

Independent 
bodies (H2b)

< 5

0

BG (a), LV (a), 
HU (a), PL (a), 
SK (a)

5–10

0.5

10–25

1

25–100

1.5

EE (a), IE (a), HR, 
CY (b), LT (a), SI

CZ, DK (b), LU, 
MT (a), NL (a), FI

BE, IT (a), AT (b), 
PT (b), RO (a)

100 +

2

DE (b), EL (b), 
ES (b), FR (b), 
SE (b)

CZ, IT, LU, MT, PL

DK, EE, CY, SI

DE, HR, LV, LT, 
AT, PT, RO, SK, 
FI (a)

BE, BG, IE, EL, ES, 
FR, HU, NL, SE

(a)  Data cover at least one body with a mandate for gender equality combined with other equality-related functions for which 

the total number of staff was adjusted for the estimated proportion of time dedicated to gender issues.

(b)  Data cover at least one body with a wider equality remit in which staff work 75–100 % of the time on gender issues; thus, 

the total number of staff was not adjusted (upper limit of the range always used as the adjustment factor).

NB: For data collected in 2012 and 2018, this result was normalised by expressing resources per million population or per 
million people employed. In practice, this tends to give higher results for smaller countries and lower results for larger 
countries. The 2021 study used absolute numbers, which, despite posing some inherent risks to comparability, was justified on 
the basis that a minimum number of people is required to deliver effective services, regardless of the size of the country. As a 
result of changes in the measurement framework, the data are not comparable with previous data collections (EIGE, 2023l).
Source: EIGE, data collection on institutional mechanisms, 2024.

Resource limitation makes it challenging for 
bodies to fulfil the increasingly demanding 
tasks and functions necessary for effective 
national gender equality machinery, especially 

given their new responsibilities arising from 
initiatives such as the pay transparency 
directive (Box 27) and the directives on equality 
bodies.

Box 27.  Equality bodies and the pay transparency directive

Under the pay transparency directive, equality bodies are involved in tackling gender-based pay 
discrimination (Directive (EU) 2023/970) and have the right to request information on gender pay 
gaps, to engage in court proceedings on behalf or in support of workers in cases of alleged 
infringements and to monitor compliance with pay transparency measures (Equinet, 2022). As 
outlined by the directive, equality bodies should be sufficiently resourced to perform these tasks 
effectively. Examples of good practices include the following (Equinet, 2022):

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2.  Policies and developments in the 12 critical areas of concern in the EU since 2019

•  the Institute of Women in Spain participates in biannual meetings to monitor the effective 

implementation of the equal pay regulation in collaboration with the Ministry of Labour, the 
Ministry of Equality and social partners;

•  the Federal Anti-Discrimination Agency in Germany provides the ‘Eg-check.de’ tool for gender-
oriented wage analysis, allowing employers and employee representatives to assess pay 
regulations and practices for potential discrimination;

•  the Gender Equality and Equal Treatment Commissioner in Estonia, in collaboration with various 
institutions, has developed a web-based ‘earnings application’, which provides transparency 
regarding occupation-based gender composition and wage gaps.

2.8.2.4.  Across the Member States, there is 
significant room for improvement 
in the use of gender 
mainstreaming tools such as 
gender impact assessments and 
gender budgeting

Despite some notable exceptions (in BE, DK, ES, 
AT, PT and SE), the implementation of gender 
mainstreaming remains uneven across the 
Member States (Figure 34). Commitment to and 
the use of gender mainstreaming structures and 
tools saw a notable decline in 2024 compared 

with previous years, making it the weakest 
aspect of institutional mechanisms, with an 
average score of 34 %. The comparison among 
the 25 Member States with data in both years 
shows that the average score in 2024 had gone 
down by 2 pp since 2021, falling from 37 % to 
35 % The data show that independent gender 
equality bodies are not routinely consulted on 
new policy/legislation (H3d, 16 %), and the 
application of gender mainstreaming tools (e.g. 
gender budgeting, gender impact assessments 
and effective training of staff) is patchily 
implemented in most Member States (H3c, 28 %).

Figure 34.  Commitment, structures and methods for gender mainstreaming (H3, total score out of 14, 

2024)

14

12

10

8

6

4

2

0

8.9

8.5

4.7

6.0

4.3

9.9

3.8 3.4

3.3

1.0

6.5

4.5

5.0

5.9

4.9

3.4

3.3

2.8

2.0

9.0

7.8

7.9

5.0

3.8 3.8

3.0

0.0

0.3

EU
average

BE BG CZ DK DE

EE

IE

EL

ES FR HR

IT CY LV LT LU HU MT NL AT PL PT RO

SI SK

FI SE

H3a Commitment

H3b Structures

H3c Methods

H3d Consultation

Source: EIGE, data collection on institutional mechanisms, 2024.

As of 2024, all Member States except five (CY, 
LU, HU, PL and SK) had adopted some form of 
commitment to the implementation of gender 
mainstreaming. However, these commitments 
are not always legally binding. This is key, 
because EIGE’s research shows that the practical 
implementation of gender mainstreaming is 
more prevalent in those Member States with 

legislation mandating the use of gender 
mainstreaming and gender budgeting (EIGE, 
2023l). In 2024, only a few Member States (BE, 
CZ, ES, FR, AT, PT and FI) possessed dedicated 
structures such as units, departments or 
internal working groups specifically dedicated 
to gender mainstreaming within each ministry. 
Over half of the Member States (BE, BG, CZ, DK, 

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ES, FR, HR, CY, LT, LU, MT, AT, RO, SI, FI and SE) 
have gender focal points in ministries, that is, 
contact people for gender mainstreaming and/
or an interministerial group, a coordinating 
body or a network of contact people to conduct 
gender mainstreaming. 

In terms of the methods used for gender 
mainstreaming, in 2024 most Member States 

had a legal obligation to carry out ex ante 
gender impact assessments (Figure 35). The 
use of gender budgeting is limited and, in many 
Member States, is still a relatively unknown 
method (Figure 36). Similarly, gender training 
for government staff occurs on an ad hoc basis 
in most Member States.

Figure 35.  Governments’ commitment to ex 
ante gender impact assessments 
(2024)

Figure 36.  Gender budgeting in ministerial 

budgets (2024)

9: BG, CZ,
DK, EE, HR,
CY, LU, NL,
SK

13: BE, CZ,
DK, DE, EE,
ES, FR, HR,
LV, NL, PT,
SK, SE

10: IE, EL,
IT, CY, LT,
LU, MT, PL,
RO, SI

3: BG, AT,
FI

6: BE, ES
IT, AT, FI,
SE

2: DE, PT

9: IE, EL,
FR, LV, LT,
MT, PL, RO,
SI

Legal obligation

A legal obligation in some cases

Widely used in most ministries

Used by some ministries

No legal obligation

Still in its foundational stages

Practically an unknown 
concept

NB: No data were available for Hungary.
Source: EIGE, data collection institutional mechanisms, 2024.

However, some Member States have made 
significant strides by integrating gender 
equality considerations into their RRPs, 
demonstrating the potential for gender 
mainstreaming in national policy frameworks 
(Box 28).

Box 28.  Gender mainstreaming in the 
RRPs

Spain and Italy have established gender 
equality as a fundamental priority in their 
RRPs, employing gender mainstreaming 
tools and integrating gender 
considerations.

Spain’s RRP identifies gender equality 
challenges within the policy areas 
addressed, mainstreams gender into the 
objectives of measures and acknowledges 
gender gaps in the sector for each 
measure. Commitment to gender equality 
from high-level political leadership plays a 
crucial role in advancing gender 
mainstreaming in Spain’s RRP, supported 
by existing gender equality structures 
within each ministry and established 
processes such as the gender impact 
assessment for the national budget (EIGE, 
2023e).

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Similarly, Italy’s RRP includes an ex ante 
gender analysis for each of its six priority 
pillars, based on sex-disaggregated data 
and evidence from the Department of 
Equal Opportunities. In addition, the 
interventions under each measure are 
classified according to their contribution to 
gender equality based on qualitative and 
quantitative assessments carried out as 
part of an ex ante evaluation by the Italian 
Ministry of Economy (EIGE, 2023e).

Gender-responsive public procurement (GRPP) is 
another key method for integrating a gender 
perspective into public policies and 
expenditures, as public institutions in the EU 
are major investors, spending some 
EUR 2 trillion per year on the purchase of goods, 
services and works. Their procurement practices 
can directly promote gender equality, support 
sustainable procurement and improve 
efficiency in public spending (EIGE, 2022j) 
(Box 29 sets out national examples).

Box 29.  Examples of GRPP in Belgium 

and Spain

Although the legal framework on GRPP 
remains limited across Member States, 
notable examples include the following 
(EIGE, 2022i).

•  The city of Brussels (Belgium) 

• 

incorporated GRPP into its fourth action 
plan for equality between women and 
men (2020–2022), focusing on the 
training of procurement officers on 
gender issues.
In Spain, the public administration 
applies social criteria in its public 
contracts, including a gender 
perspective. The national Institute of 
Women provides guidance on GRPP. 
Equally, other bodies in charge of 
gender equality at the local and 
regional levels have achieved the 
systematic integration of a gender 
perspective into public procurement.

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Gender equality bodies play a key role in 
promoting GRPP through coordination, 
awareness raising, training and collaboration on 
the drafting of instruments and guides 
alongside public administrations. In 2022, EIGE 
also launched a step-by-step toolkit to support 
the implementation of GRPP by contracting 
authorities at all levels in the EU (EIGE, 2022i). 
Other levels of administration also have an 
important role to play in supporting broader 
gender equality objectives. For instance, 
municipalities, being closer to the citizens they 
serve, are in a unique position to address 
gender equality in a practical and targeted 
manner, as exemplified in Box 30.

Box 30.  Example of the promotion of 
gender equality at the 
municipal level in 
Luxembourg

Luxembourg’s Ministry of Equality 
between Women and Men has created a 
thematic website to centralise information 
relevant to municipalities on promoting 
gender equality locally. The website offers 
separate access for political 
representatives, municipal staff and the 
public, and provides comprehensive details 
on integrating gender equality across 
municipal activities. It features an 
interactive map detailing specific equality 
measures implemented in each of 
Luxembourg’s 100 municipalities.

2.8.2.5.  There is generally a commitment 
among governments to produce 
statistics disaggregated by sex, 
but this does not translate into the 
effective dissemination of gender 
statistics

In 2024, nine Member States (BE, BG, ES, FR, HR, 
IT, MT, RO and SE) had in place a legal obligation 
for the national statistical office to collect 
statistics disaggregated by sex. This is a 
significant obligation that is placed on the 
centralised bodies that are best placed to 
collect and disseminate statistics to all 

2.  Policies and developments in the 12 critical areas of concern in the EU since 2019

policymakers (for examples, see Box 31). 
However, such a commitment to collecting 
statistics does not clearly correlate with more 
effective dissemination of gender statistics. As 
of 2024, greater efforts are needed in seven 
Member States (BG, EE, EL, IT, CY, MT and PL), as 
they scored a third (33 %) or less of the 
maximum possible score for indicator H4. A 
website is an important tool for disseminating 
such statistics to support gender 
mainstreaming, but 10 Member States in 2024 
did not possess a website (or section of a 
website) dedicated to this purpose (BG, EE, EL, 
HR, IT, CY, MT, PL, RO and SI).

Box 31.  An example of data collection 

and dissemination efforts 
concerning women’s green 
entrepreneurship

Led by the Gender Equality Unit of the 
Spanish Ministry for Ecological Transition 
and Demographic Challenge, this initiative 
focuses on gathering gender-sensitive 
data on women’s roles in the ecological 
transition, especially in rural areas. Key 
project activities include:

•  the development and dissemination of 
sex-disaggregated indicators and 
gender-sensitive analysis across green 
entrepreneurship and rural business 
sectors;

•  conducting comparative studies with EU 
countries and temporal analyses to 
track progress;

•  using diverse data sources such as the 

Spanish Labour Force Survey, the EU LFS 
and the Gender Entrepreneurship 
Monitor for in-depth insights.

This initiative has created a database on 
women’s involvement in rural and green 
entrepreneurship to inform evidence-
based policymaking and enhance women’s 
participation in these sectors. The 

initiative aligns with the European Green 
Deal, the Spanish RRP, the Spanish just 
transition strategy and the Spanish 
strategic plan for the effective equality of 
women and men (2022–2025) (Ministerio 
para la Transición Ecológica y el Reto 
Demográfico, 2023).

2.8.2.6.  Emerging trends in government 

and politics paint a mixed picture 
for governmental and civil-society 
actors working for gender equality

The BPfA + 25 review (2020) already 
highlighted the shrinking space for civil society 
amid an organised resistance to women’s rights 
that has emerged from campaigning against 
‘gender ideology’ (59) (EIGE, 2020c). These 
efforts have restricted the operating space and 
funding for CSOs and activists advocating for 
women’s rights and LGBTIQ rights (EIGE, 2022k; 
FRA, 2021). They have also contributed to a 
spike in attacks targeting CSOs and activists, 
including hate speech, abusive lawsuits, 
property damage and violent physical attacks 
(EIGE, 2022k; FRA, 2021; see also Section 2.9.

This situation creates a chilling effect on civil 
society and reduces policymakers’ ambition to 
tackle gender equality issues. For instance, 
topics such as SRHR, including comprehensive 
sexuality education, same-sex marriage and 
LGBTIQ rights, are made increasingly 
contentious at the national and EU levels (EIGE, 
2022k). Furthermore, recent political trends and 
movements opposing gender equality are 
gaining power in a growing number of Member 
States. This can make it increasingly difficult to 
advance gender equality legislation and to 
maintain and strengthen institutional 
mechanisms (Guerrina et al., 2023).

Furthermore, across the Member States, the 
involvement of CSOs in shaping gender equality 
policies is inconsistent and often ad hoc (EIGE, 
2024o). The absence of systematic procedures 

 (59)  ‘Gender ideology’ is a concept created as a purposeful misinterpretation of the term ‘gender’ to gather support for 

restrictive traditional gender roles, the traditional family and criticism of various progressive causes that are seen as 
challenging these beliefs (EIGE, 2020c).

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and regular consultation processes hampers 
both transparency and inclusivity. In addition, 
governments frequently rely on unpaid 
contributions, which weigh most heavily on 
smaller organisations that bring diverse 
perspectives (EIGE, 2024o). The COVID-19 
pandemic exacerbated this shrinking space, as 
many Member States neglected to engage 
women’s organisations in decision-making and 
did not consult them during the preparation of 
their recovery plans (EIGE, 2023f).

Despite the current challenges, significant 
opportunities exist to strengthen institutional 
mechanisms and the work of gender equality 

actors in civil society. For example, digital 
communication tools can boost engagement 
among civil society and gender experts, 
especially for under-represented groups in 
decision-making spaces, such as young women 
and women living in rural areas. Equally, the 
digital transformation of governments and 
administrations can provide unique 
opportunities to develop built-in gender 
mainstreaming tools as part of public policy 
and budget making and to improve the 
systematic collection of administrative sex-
disaggregated data. For details of some efforts 
to support gender equality efforts from CSOs, 
see Box 32.

Box 32.  Funding for women’s rights and gender equality organisations

•  The EU citizenship, equality, rights and values programme, with a total budget for 2021–2027 

of EUR 1.6 billion, provides funding to organisations at all levels working to support EU rights and 
values, including those promoting gender equality and gender mainstreaming and working to 
end gender-based violence (European Commission, n.d.-a).

•  The Alliance for Gender Equality in Europe, established in 2021, is the only pooled fund bringing 
together diverse donors to advance gender equality and women’s rights in Europe. It was created 
to support an underfunded sector driven by limited support from national governments, by the 
allocation of EU funds in this area mostly to the Global South and by weak philanthropic 
involvement. Through the adoption of an intersectional approach, the alliance provides funding 
to and strengthens the capacity of small, frontline organisations working on gender equality 
across Europe (Alliance for Gender Equality in Europe, n.d.).

The EU lacks indicators to track the progress of 
the BPfA objectives in area I. EIGE suggests that 
the ratification and enforcement of 
fundamental human rights treaties and 
legislation be examined and that the rights of 
the most socioeconomically disadvantaged 
women be reviewed, including those with 
disabilities, Roma women, LGBTIQ people and 
migrant women (EIGE, 2020b).

2.9.  Human rights of 

women (area I)

The BPfA’s objectives in area I affirm the 
universality of women’s human rights across all 
spheres and emphasise sexual and reproductive 
rights, including the freedom to choose if and 
when to have children. These objectives call for 
the ratification and implementation of 
international human rights instruments such as 
the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms 
of Discrimination against Women, which all 
Member States have ratified. The objectives 
also urge governments to integrate women’s 
rights into national laws, addressing features 
such as race, disability and socioeconomic 
status.

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Area I (human rights of women) alignment with SDGs

5  Gender equality

10  Reduced inequalities

16  Peace, justice and strong institutions

For the BPfA + 30 review, the thematic focus and priority topics of area I include:

Strengthening 
democratic processes 
and institutions

Ensuring access to safe 
abortion

Tackling intersectional 
discrimination and 
gender-based violence

These topics shed light on current threats to 
women’s human rights in the EU, including 
democratic backsliding, anti-gender 
movements and multidimensional crises. These 
forces have exposed vulnerabilities in 
democratic institutions, undermined legal 
protections and endangered access to essential 
SRHR, including abortion. They have also 
intensified socioeconomic disparities, 
perpetuating intersectional discrimination and 
violence, particularly against LGBTIQ women, 
women with disabilities and women from 
ethnic minorities.

2.9.1.  EU policy developments

Under von der Leyen’s Commission of 2019–
2024, the priority ‘a new push for European 
democracy’ and the theme of a ‘union of 
equality’ saw several new strategies and action 
plans aimed at women’s human rights. These 

included the European democracy action plan, 
the EU gender equality strategy for 2020–
2025, the LGBTIQ equality strategy and the 
Roma strategic framework (2020–2030) (see 
more in Section 1.4.5). The pay transparency 
directive marked a milestone in legally defining 
intersectional discrimination (Council of the 
European Union and the European Council, 
2023), and the adoption of the directives on 
equality bodies was also a significant 
milestone (see more in Section 2.8.1). However, 
progress on an anti-discrimination directive 
(European Commission, 2008) has stalled due 
to the inability to reach unanimity in the 
Council despite growing support (European 
Parliament, 2024a). This directive would 
enforce the principle of equal treatment outside 
the labour market, irrespective of age, 
disability, sexual orientation or religious belief.

In December 2021, the Commission issued a 
communication to expand the list of EU crimes 

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to include hate speech and hate crime (60), 
covering bases such as gender, sexuality, race 
and religion. The communication acknowledges 
the specific threats faced by women, 
particularly online, with groups such as the 
‘manosphere’ and ‘incels’ amplifying 
misogynistic rhetoric. If adopted by the Council, 
the communication would create a legal basis 
for criminalising offline misogynistic hate 
speech or hate crimes. The initiative aims to 
complement the directive on violence against 
women and domestic violence, which 
specifically criminalises misogynistic hate 
speech online (European Commission, 2023a).

In recent years, the Parliament has urged action 
on intersectional discrimination. Although 
European Parliament resolutions are non-
binding, they reflect ongoing concerns at the 
EU level (Figure 37). It has also advocated for 
the inclusion of abortion rights into the EU 
Charter of Fundamental Rights. This stance 
challenges the influence of conservative 
movements, which oppose ‘gender ideology’ 
and promote anti-abortion policies (Beláňová, 
2020; Kováts, 2017; Vida, 2019).

Figure 37.  Overview of the European Parliament’s recent resolutions to address women’s human rights

Resolution on intersectional 
discrimination in the EU 
(July 2022)

•  Brings to light the compounded discrimination experienced by women of 

African, Middle Eastern, Latin American and Asian descent

•  Emphasises the intertwined nature of racial, religious and gender biases 

and employs an intersectional lens to tackle discrimination

Resolution on the 
regulation of prostitution in 
the EU (September 2023)

Resolution on the inclusion 
of the right to abortion in 
the EU Charter of 
Fundamental Rights 
(April 2024)

•  Stresses the need for comprehensive data collection and addresses the 

cross-border and socioeconomic dimensions of prostitution

•  Calls for a pan-European approach on banning the purchase of people in 
prostitution, particularly those under the age of 21 and those who are 
pregnant

•  Underlines SRHR as fundamental rights, calling for the decriminalisation 

of abortion across all Member States

•  Highlights the importance of bodily autonomy and access to healthcare

Source: Summary by the authors, based on European Parliament (2022e, 2023c, 2024c).

The European Parliament has called for common 
EU guidelines to harmonise protection and 
support for people in prostitution, 
emphasising the need to address the root 
causes of exploitation, such as poverty and 
discrimination (see, for example, Resolution 
2022/2139). The Council of Europe’s 
Commissioner for Human Rights has reinforced 
the need for a human-rights-based approach to 
the protection of sex workers’ rights, safety 
and bodily autonomy, while acknowledging 

that this cannot be secured through the 
criminalisation of sex work (Council of Europe, 
2024). Prostitution also remains a contentious 
issue among civil-society groups. Some 
advocate for the decriminalisation of sex work 
and the protection of sex workers’ rights 
(Amnesty International, 2022c; European Sex 
Workers Rights Alliance, 2024). Others oppose 
the recognition of prostitution as work, arguing 
it could legitimise exploitation, and call for its 

 (60)  Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council – A more inclusive and protective Europe: 
Extending the list of EU crimes to hate speech and hate crime, COM(2021) 777 final of 9 December 2021, https://eur-lex.
europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:52021DC0777.

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abolition (European Network of Migrant 
Women, 2019; EWL, 2024).

2.9.2.  Key challenges and trends

2.9.2.1.    A strong democracy is crucial for 

the promotion of gender equality, 
ensuring women’s rights and 
dismantling discriminatory 
practices in the EU

Since 2019, anti-feminist and anti-gender 
movements have gained momentum in their 
attempts to roll back women’s rights, 
particularly in areas such as violence against 
women and SRHR. These movements align with 
the rise of new governing systems in which 
emotional appeals and personal beliefs 
dominate politics and anti-democratic actors 
gain influence (European Commission, n.d.-i). 
Anti-gender mobilisation has become a 
transnational movement, uniting politicians, 
parties and organisations across the EU to 
undermine women’s rights (Graff and 
Korolczuk, 2022).

Often, populist and far-right parties openly 
oppose gender equality (Kantola and 
Lombardo, 2021). Gender equality and 
democracy are closely linked. Democratic 
principles support gender equality, while 
feminist movements promote democratisation 
by challenging exclusion and advocating for 
social justice (Bellamy et al., 2018; Lombardo et 
al., 2021). Anti-gender movements thrive in 
backsliding democracies and are essential in 
de-democratisation attempts, pushing for 
traditional gender and heteronormative norms 
(Butler, 2021). These movements thrive on the 
fake arguments that feminists hate men, and 
they promote the idea of men as the victims of 
discrimination as a result of gender equality 
policies (Hopkins-Doyle et al., 2024; Vázquez et 
al., 2024). These movements are often backed 
by religious, conservative and nationalist 
groups and rely on clandestine transnational 
funding systems. They work to discredit 
women’s rights organisations, compete for 
resources and influence policy (EPF, 2021; Ortiz 
et al., 2023; UN Women, 2020a). As a result, 
women’s rights organisations face both 

physical and verbal threats and are targeted 
with online attacks, surveillance, 
criminalisation, legal restrictions and strategic 
lawsuits (European Commission, 2023d).

In some Member States, the Istanbul 
Convention has been framed as an attack 
against the traditional heterosexual family, 
leading to opposition and even regression, 
particularly with regard to measures aimed at 
preventing and countering gender-based 
violence (EIGE, 2022k; Roggeband and Krizsán, 
2021). As observed by international 
organisations, anti-gender policies in Hungary 
and Poland have resulted in rollbacks on SRHR, 
increased restrictions on LGBTIQ people and 
educational reforms promoting traditional 
family values (Amnesty International, 2024a; 
Human Rights Watch, 2022a). To counter these 
trends, the European Commission adopted the 
European democracy action plan in 2020. This 
plan aims to protect and strengthen democracy 
across Member States by taking proactive steps 
against anti-democratic actions and hate 
speech that discourage women and other 
groups from political engagement (European 
Commission, 2020f). The Commission has also 
called on Member States to monitor the civic 
space to ensure that CSOs working on women’s 
rights, SRHR and the rights of LGBTIQ people 
are protected and can operate without fear of 
attacks, online or offline (European 
Commission, 2023d).

2.9.2.2.  Access to legal and safe abortion is 
essential to women’s human 
rights, yet it remains uneven 
across the EU

The provision of legal and safe abortion is a 
fundamental component of women’s right to 
life and to the prohibition of torture and 
inhuman or degrading treatment, as outlined in 
the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms 
of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW, 
2022, 2023). The historical development of the 
right to abortion varies across EU countries 
(Leskošek, 2022). In Slovenia, for example, 
abortion was unconditionally recognised in the 
1974 constitution, contributing to fewer 
abortions due to creating conditions for 
inclusive parenting and wider childcare 

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possibilities within social and institutional 
structures (Leskošek, 2022). In a recent move, 
France enshrined the right to abortion in its 
constitution in 2024, marking a historic move 
amid global rollbacks on abortion rights 
(Congrès, 2024). These landmark decisions set 
powerful standards for other Member States, 
addressing mounting concerns over global 
threats to SRHR. Positive developments, 
although less extensive, have also been 
observed in other countries, such as Malta 
(Box 33).

Box 33.  Progress towards the 

decriminalisation of abortion 
in Malta

In response to pressure from national and 
international human rights organisations, 
Malta introduced a new law in June 2023 
permitting abortion, but only when a 
woman’s life or health is at risk 
(Government Gazette of Malta, 2023). The 
criminal code previously enforced a strict 
ban on abortion in all situations, with 
severe penalties, including imprisonment, 
for those involved in performing or 
assisting abortions (Center for 
Reproductive Rights, 2023b). Despite 
progress, critics call for more 
comprehensive reforms to guarantee 
access to safe and legal abortion (Amnesty 
International, 2023c).

In contrast, some countries have tightened 
abortion rules and access. As of 2022, it became 
mandatory in Hungary for doctors to sign a 
document confirming that the pregnant woman 
listened to the heartbeat of the foetus before the 
procedure (Dyer, 2022). Poland also implemented 
a near-total abortion ban in 2021, allowing the 
procedure only if the pregnant woman’s life or 
health was at risk or if the pregnancy resulted 
from a crime (Amnesty International, 2024b). In 
2024, the Polish parliament began discussing 
amendments to liberalise the law, potentially 
allowing abortion until the 12th week of 
pregnancy; however, securing the parliamentary 
majority necessary to reform the abortion law 
may not yet be possible (Amnesty, 2024b).

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Access to abortion remains restricted across the 
EU, even where it is legal. In 2021, only 13 
Member States covered abortion through 
national health insurance (BE, DK, IE, EL, ES, FR, IT, 
LU, NL, PT, SI, FI and SE) (EPF and International 
Planned Parenthood Foundation, 2021). In other 
countries, the lack of coverage creates financial 
barriers, particularly for low-income women. In 
addition, mandatory waiting periods in nine 
Member States (BE, DE, IE, IT, LV, LU, HU, PT and 
SK) cause further delays (Center for 
Reproductive Rights, 2023a). Gynaecologists’ 
ability to conscientiously object also creates 
geographical barriers and inequalities in access 
to abortion. In Italy, for example, 65 % of 
gynaecologists refuse to perform abortions 
(Italian Minister of Health, 2022).

These barriers disproportionately affect women 
from lower socioeconomic backgrounds and 
ethnic minorities or those living in rural areas 
(WHO, 2022a). Transgender and non-binary 
individuals encounter additional challenges 
when seeking abortions, for example due to 
discrimination and inadequate training among 
healthcare providers (Fiorilli and Ruocco, 2019; 
Saadat et al., 2023).

Violence and harassment outside abortion clinics 
are growing issues across the EU, creating hostile 
environments both for those seeking abortions 
and for providers and pro-abortion activists. 
Incidents include verbal abuse, physical threats 
and aggression (Amnesty International, 2023a; 
Fiala et al., 2020). The international funding that 
supports these movements reveals transnational 
efforts by anti-gender groups to roll back 
women’s SRHR (Amnesty International, 2023a; 
EPF, 2021). For examples of national attempts in 
Ireland and Spain to ensure safe access to 
abortion clinics, see Box 34.

Box 34.  National efforts to ensure 

safe access to abortion clinics

In Ireland, the Safe Access Zones Act 2024 
establishes safe and legally defined access 
zones that are 100 metres from an 
entrance or exit to premises where a 
general practitioner and/or gynaecologist/
obstetrician provides services. Within these 

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zones, certain conduct aimed at impeding 
access to or influencing decisions 
concerning termination of pregnancy 
services is now prohibited. The law defines 
penalties for violations, including fines and 
imprisonment (An Bille Sláinte 2023 [Health 
Bill 2023]; Department of Health, 2024).

In 2022, Spain also passed a law that 
criminalises gatherings in front of abortion 
clinics. Anybody who attempts to prevent 
people from exercising their right to 
abortion through harassment, insults, 
intimidation or threats faces a jail term of 
between 3 and 12 months or community 
service (Ley Orgánica 4/2022).

2.9.2.3.  Addressing the unique experiences 

of women from ethnic minorities 
and religious groups is essential to 
advancing the human rights of all 
women

Roma women continue to face high levels of 
discrimination and a heightened risk of gender-
based violence across the EU. In 2021, an 
average of 35 % of Roma women and men in 
eight Member States (CZ, EL, ES, HR, HU, IT, PT 
and RO) reported experiencing discrimination in 
key areas of life due to their ethnicity, with 
little change since 2016 (FRA, 2022b). Between 
2012 and 2020, Roma inclusion policies in the 
EU demonstrated insufficient gender sensitivity 
(Sanchís-Ramón et al., 2023). In 2023, only 24 % 
of Eurobarometer respondents believed that 
efforts to integrate Roma populations in their 
countries were effective (European Commission, 
2023h).

Roma women face specific challenges in 
employment, education and healthcare. In 
2021, only 28 % of Roma women aged 20–64 
were employed, compared with 58 % of Roma 
men in the same age group (FRA, 2022b). Only 
26 % of Roma women (compared with 37 % of 
Roma men) had completed upper-secondary 
education. Additionally, 16 % of Roma women 
(compared with 13 % of Roma men) faced 

difficulties in accessing healthcare, often due to 
discrimination and financial barriers (FRA, 
2022b). For an example of a transnational 
project aiming to address domestic violence 
against Roma women, see Box 35.

Box 35.  Addressing gender-based 

violence against Roma women

The Pattern project, supported by the EU’s 
rights, equality and citizenship 
programme, aims to prevent and combat 
domestic violence against Roma women in 
Bulgaria, Greece and Portugal. This 
initiative aims to enhance the skills of 
Roma cultural mediators and professionals 
in handling cases of domestic violence.

During the COVID-19 pandemic, racial 
discrimination, stigmatisation and violence 
against individuals of Asian descent increased 
significantly, with Asian women being 
disproportionately affected (Wang and 
Madrisotti, 2023). Far-right parties exploited the 
crisis to foster xenophobic narratives, promoting 
fear and exclusion (Human Rights Watch, 2020).

Islamophobia has surged in the EU, in particular 
targeting Muslim women (Amnesty International, 
2022a). For example, displaying religious symbols 
and attire in schools and workplaces has become 
contentious in some Member States. A 2023 
ruling from the EU’s top court that permitted 
bans on religious symbols in government offices 
(opinion of Advocate General Collins of 4 May 
2023 (61)) may lead to further restrictions. This 
could force Muslim women into financial 
instability and social exclusion if they are forced 
to choose between religious practices and 
employment (Open Society, 2022).

Migrant women in precarious situations face 
greater risks of domestic violence (Khaligh et al., 
2022). Many are not adequately protected, 
especially if their residency rights depend on a 
family member. The citizens’ rights directive 
(Directive 2004/38/EC) allows victims to retain 
their residency rights after divorce or separation 

 (61)  Opinion of Advocate General Collins of 4 May 2023, OP v Commune d’Ans, C-148/22, ECLI:EU:C:2023:378.

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(Article 13). However, it requires them to be 
economically active and to have comprehensive 
health insurance. This contrasts with the 
protective approach in Article 59 of the Istanbul 
Convention. This requirement of the directive is 
problematic, since, in the EU, women constitute a 
slight majority of the migrant population, but 
migrant women are more often economically 
inactive than migrant men (Blower-Nassiri, 2023).

2.9.2.4.  Legal protections for LGBTIQ 
people have been expanded, 
although the situation remains 
uneven across Member States

Article 21 of the EU Charter of Fundamental 
Rights recognises sexual orientation among the 

grounds for discrimination but does not explicitly 
cover gender identity or expression (ILGA-Europe, 
n.d.). Protection is mainly limited to employment, 
leaving gaps in social protection, healthcare, 
education and access to goods and services 
(ILGA-Europe, n.d.). The 2020 EU LGBTIQ equality 
strategy marked a significant step forwards in 
promoting and supporting LGBTIQ rights in the 
EU. Another important step was taken in 2021 by 
the European Parliament, which declared the EU 
an ‘LGBTIQ freedom zone’ in response to 
discriminatory actions in Hungary and Poland 
(European Parliament, 2021c). While national 
protections remain uneven, positive legal trends 
have emerged since 2019 (Figure 38).

Figure 38. Protection of LGBTIQ rights across Member States since 2019

Legal recognition of same-sex couples

As of 2024, 17 Member States had legalised same-sex marriage (BE, DK, DE, EE, IE, EL, ES, FR, LV, LU, MT, NL, AT, PT, 
SI, FI and SE), up from 13 in 2019. In total, 19 Member States still recognise same-sex registered partnerships, but 
some (BE, DK, DE, IE, FR and SE) have transitioned to exclusively recognising marriage for same-sex couples, 
phasing out new registered partnerships but maintaining rights for those already in such partnerships. Bulgaria, 
Lithuania, Poland, Romania and Slovakia continue to provide no legal recognition for same-sex couples.

Right to joint adoption, medically assisted insemination and trans parenthood

In 2024, joint adoption for same-sex couples was legally recognised in 17 Member States (BE, DK, DE, EE, IE, EL, ES, 
FR, HR, LU, MT, NL, AT, PT, SI, FI and SE), up from 12 in 2019. In 2024, medically assisted insemination for same-sex 
couples was available in 13 Member States (BE, DK, EE, IE, ES, FR, LU, MT, NL, AT, PT, FI and SE), up from 11 in 2019. 
Trans parenthood was recognised in five Member States in 2024 (BE, MT, SI, FI and SE), up from two in 2019.

Legal recognition of non-binary gender 

As of 2024, only Germany gives full legal recognition to the non-binary gender identity, while Denmark and Malta offer 
partial recognition. In 2019, the Belgian Constitutional Court ruled the 2017 Trans Law unconstitutional in that it did 
not allow for non-binary and gender-fluid people to change their birth certificate in order to correctly register their 
gender identity. In 2023, an amendment was passed, allowing gender-fluid people to use the administrative procedure 
for legal gender recognition multiple times (previously, the change was possible only once), responding partially to the 
court’s ruling. In France, the Court of Justice of the European Union declared it unlawful for the national railway to 
collect civil titles, potentially advancing non-binary rights across the EU. Nevertheless, seven Member States (BG, CZ, CY, 
LV, HU, RO and SK) still require compulsory sterilisation for legal gender recognition (ILGA-Europe, 2024a). The situation 
in Czechia may soon improve following a ruling by the Constitutional Court in May 2024, which declared that 
mandatory sterilisation as a prerequisite for legal gender recognition violates individuals’ fundamental rights to bodily 
integrity and personal autonomy. Czech lawmakers have been given until mid 2025 to address this issue.

Source: ILGA-Europe (2019a, 2019b, 2022, 2024a, 2024b).

Despite decreases in rates of discrimination 
against lesbian and bisexual women and gay 
and bisexual men from 2019 to 2023, 
transgender individuals still face high levels of 

discrimination (FRA, 2024). In 2023, 64 % of 
transgender women and 63 % of transgender 
men reported experiencing discrimination in 
the preceding year, the highest rates among 

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LGBTIQ groups (FRA, 2024). Evidence points to a 
significant rise in attacks and murders 
specifically targeting transgender individuals in 
Europe (ILGA-Europe, 2023a). LGBTIQ people 
under-report discrimination and violence. This is 
due to a belief that reporting will not lead to 
any change (49 %), a fear of not being taken 
seriously (33 %) and a lack of trust in 
authorities (31 %) (FRA, 2024). For an example 
of legislative progress for the protection of 
LGBTIQ rights in Portugal, see Box 36.

Box 36.  Legislative advances in the 
protection of LGBTIQ rights

Portugal’s Law No 15/2024 bans forced 
conversion practices related to sexual 
orientation and gender identity, with 
penalties of up to three years’ 
imprisonment or fines for attempts to alter 
these traits and up to five years for 
irreversible medical or surgical interventions 
(CIG, 2024). In 2021, Portugal had issued 
Law No 85/2021 prohibiting discrimination 
on the basis of gender identity or sexual 
orientation with regard to the eligibility to 
donate blood (CIG, 2021b).

2.9.2.5.  Women with disabilities in the EU 
are at a heightened risk of gender-
based violence and endure unique 
forms of abuse that exploit their 
specific vulnerabilities

In the EU, approximately 33 % of women who 
have ever had a partner and who have some 
form of disability and 49 % of such women with 
severe disabilities have experienced violence by 
an intimate partner (Eurostat, 2021b). Financial 
abuse is a widespread form of violence against 
women with disabilities (García-Cuéllar et al., 
2023). Financial dependency further limits 
autonomy and traps victims in abusive 
situations (Council of Europe, 2022a). Sexual 
violence is experienced by around twice the 
proportion of women with disabilities as 
non-disabled women (Ledingham et al., 2022).

Women with disabilities are also exposed to 
specific forms of abuse, including withdrawing 
or controlling essential support for independent 
living and communication, such as wheelchairs 
or communication assistance (Women Enabled 
International, n.d.). For an example of 
legislative progress in protecting the rights of 
disabled people in France, see Box 37. Other 
forms of abuse include inhibiting help with 
crucial daily activities, such as bathing, eating 
and menstrual management (Council of Europe, 
2022a). In institutional settings, reporting is 
made difficult due to isolation, power 
imbalances and a lack of access to external help 
(Council of Europe, 2022a).

Box 37.  Separating spousal income for 

the allowance for disabled 
adults in France

The policy of separating spousal income 
for the allowance for disabled adults in 
France came into effect in October 2023, 
individualising the resources used to 
allocate the allowance. This aims to 
enhance financial autonomy for people 
with disabilities by excluding household 
income from the eligibility criteria and 
considering only the personal income of 
the person with disabilities. This allows 
beneficiaries to receive adequate support 
without being financially dependent on 
their spouse’s income (République 
Française, 2023).

Women with disabilities also face significant 
violations of their SRHR, including involuntary 
sterilisation, contraception and abortion. In 
total, 13 Member States still allow forced 
sterilisation, citing reasons such as the 
individual’s ‘best interests’ or ‘protection from 
abuse’ (EDF, 2022a). Women and girls with 
disabilities face harmful stereotypes that deny 
and ignore their sexuality. They are often 
excluded from sexuality education, thereby 
increasing their vulnerability to sexual violence 
(Council of Europe, 2022a). Their under-
representation in decision-making bodies such 
as national parliaments, disability coordination 
mechanisms and gender institutions limits their 

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influence on issues that affect them (EIGE, 
2024l; UN Women, 2019).

Nonetheless, women with disabilities are 
emerging as influential leaders, particularly 
through social media, showing leadership and 
the potential for transformative political impact 
(UN Women, 2019). 

2.10.  Women and the 

media (area J)

Under area J of the BPfA, all Member States 
have committed to promoting gender equality 
in the media. This includes increasing women’s 

participation in and access to roles involving 
freedom of expression and decision-making 
within the media and via new communication 
technologies, as well as promoting balanced, 
non-stereotyped portrayals of women in the 
media.

The officially agreed EU indicators to track 
progress in area J cover the representation of 
women in decision-making roles and on the 
boards of media organisations and the 
existence of policies promoting gender equality 
within these entities. However, due to the 
emergence of new media platforms and digital 
technologies, these indicators fall short of 
adequately capturing gender representation 
and portrayal in the media industry.

Area J (women and media) alignment with SDGs

5.2  Eliminate violence against all women and girls in the public and private spheres

5.5  Ensure women’s full and effective participation and equal opportunities for leaderships at all levels of 

decision-making in political, economic and public life

5.b  Enhance the use of technology to promote the empowerment of women

For the BPfA + 30 review, the thematic focus and priority topics of area J include:

Fostering women’s 
participation in 
decision-making in the 
media industry

Promoting equal, fair 
and safe working 
conditions for women 
and men in the media 
industry

Tackling gender-based 
cyberviolence against 
media professionals and 
public figures

Challenging gender 
stereotypes in the 
media, amplified by AI

These priority topics reflect how the COVID-19 
pandemic has accelerated the digital 
transformation of communication 
environments, bringing to light new and 
emerging challenges in gender equality. These 
include unequal participation in digital 
developments, along with online and offline 

gender-based violence against women 
journalists and public figures. There are also 
enduring challenges, such as precarious working 
conditions, which particularly affect women in 
the media industry. Amid the AI-fuelled digital 
revolution, in which the media plays a pivotal 
role, achieving full and gender-equal 

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representation, tackling gender stereotypes 
and improving conditions in the media industry 
are crucial for women to benefit from 
technological advancements fully.

2.10.1.  EU policy developments

Within the EU, shared jurisdiction exists over 
certain aspects of women and the media, 
particularly those elements that fall within 
consumer protection, such as advertising. 
However, the fragmentation of the media 
sector, which spans both traditional and digital 
platforms, has led to diverse regulatory 
approaches among Member States. For 
example, advertising, news media, cultural 
products and digital technologies are often 
regulated as separate policy domains in various 
countries.

While gender equality in the media has long 
been an EU concern, actions have intensified 
since 2019. The EU gender equality strategy 
for 2020–2025 recognises the pervasive nature 
of cyberviolence targeting women and girls and 
the far-reaching effects of cyberviolence, cyber 
harassment and cyberbullying on social media 
platforms. It also highlights the need to combat 
gender stereotypes and violence against 
women in the media and in the digital sphere.

The European Parliament has taken steps to 
address gender disparities in the digital realm. 
The resolution with recommendations to the 
Commission on combating gender-based 
violence: cyberviolence stressed the rise of 
cyberviolence and called for measures to 
combat and criminalise gender-based violence 
online (European Parliament, 2021e). Building 
upon this, the directive on combating violence 
against women acknowledges the specific 
challenges faced by women journalists, women 
politicians and human rights defenders, who 
are particularly vulnerable to cyberviolence due 
to both their gender and their profession (see 
Section 2.7.2.3). This concern was previously 
highlighted in the Commission’s 2021 
recommendation on the protection, safety 
and empowerment of journalists and other 
media professionals. This recommendation 

acknowledges that women journalists, as well 
as those from minority groups and those 
reporting on equality issues, are particularly 
vulnerable to discrimination, threats and 
attacks (European Commission, 2021b).

Nevertheless, challenges persist in translating 
policy goals into tangible outcomes. Soft 
measures, such as self-regulatory initiatives 
and codes of conduct, predominate in the EU 
context with regard to both traditional and 
digital media. The limited results in fostering 
gender equality in the media through such soft 
measures invite the consideration of more 
robust frameworks to address systemic 
inequalities and promote gender diversity 
within media organisations and content 
(Cusumano et al., 2021; Jørgensen and Zuleta, 
2020; Vega Montiel, 2021).

While the DSA (Regulation (EU) 2022/2065) 
and the AI Act (Regulation (EU) 2024/1689) 
represent significant steps forward in 
regulating the digital landscape, they fall short 
in addressing certain gender-specific concerns. 
The DSA aims to create a secure online 
environment and mitigate risks, including the 
risks of gender-based violence. However, it does 
not address the negative impacts of social 
media on women and girls from an 
intersectional perspective (Allen, 2023; EIGE, 
2024b). Similarly, the AI Act, while promoting 
transparency and non-discriminatory AI 
technology, fails to address the specific 
challenges women face, such as biases in AI 
recruitment and processes that perpetuate 
patterns of discrimination.

2.10.2.  Key challenges and trends

2.10.2.1.  Gender balance has been 
achieved in some media 
professions, but there are 
patterns of stagnation across the 
multifaceted professions of the 
media industry

The rapid expansion of the media industry and 
its growing need for a skilled workforce have 

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paved the way for the increased involvement of 
women in various sectors. As shown in 
Figure 39, in 2022, women made up 51 % of 
those employed in programming and 
broadcasting, 46 % of those employed in 
publishing and 43 % of those employed in 
advertising and market research, thereby 
achieving gender balance. However, aside from 
a 5 pp increase in publishing activities, progress 
since 2019 has been limited. This shows 
stagnation in the level of women’s 
representation in media professions. Jobs in 
computer programming, consultancy and 

related activities are predominantly held by 
men, with only 24 % of women occupying such 
roles in 2022. Women are also significantly 
under-represented in telecommunications 
(33 %) and information service activities 
(38 %). Despite the expansion of the media 
industry, since 2019 women have continued to 
be under-represented across various subsectors 
and occupations – including photographers, 
writers, producers, social media content 
creators and others – reflecting persistent 
gender segregation within the sector.

Figure 39.  Women employed in media-related sectors of activity (pp difference, EU, 2019 and 2022)

1

5

– 1

2

– 1

1

1

60
50
40
30
20
10
0

Advertising and 
market research

Publishing
activities

Programming
and broadcasting 
activities

Information
service activities

Telecommunications

Computer 
programming, 
consultancy and 
related activities

Motion picture,
video and
television 
programme 
production, sound 
recording and music 
publishing activities

2022

2019 (change)

NB: The values above the bars on the figure represent the pp difference between 2019 and 2022.
Source: Eurostat, EU LFS (lfsa_egan22d).

Similarly, significant gender disparities can be 
seen in the film industry, with a clear vertical 
segregation in prestigious creative roles. 
Women accounted for just 26 % of directors, 
11 % of cinematographers and 10 % of 
composers in European films from 2018 to 
2022. In contrast, the gender ratio on-screen is 
more balanced, with women making up 41 % of 
lead actors during the same period (European 
Audiovisual Observatory, 2023). However, data 
show that the presence of at least one woman 
co-director leads to greater gender balance 
within film crews. For instance, between 2018 
and 2022, the share of women screenwriters 
increased from 29 % to 77 % in films directed 
by at least one woman (European Audiovisual 
Observatory, 2023).

Despite the efforts made, progress in increasing 
the number of women in decision-making roles 
within media organisations remains slow. From 
2019 to 2023, beyond a marginal increase of 
3 pp among executive members, women’s 
representation remained relatively stable 
among presidents and board members, but 
decreased among chief executive officers, 
employee representatives and non-executive 
members (Figure 40). Similarly, in 2023, women 
accounted for only 37 % of members of media 
regulatory authorities, reflecting a marginal 
increase of 3 pp since 2019. While 15 Member 
States have reached gender balance in these 
authorities (in descending order: BG, IE, FI, PL, 
AT, LV, EE, RO, NL, ES, FR, DK, LU, IT and SE), 
women still account for fewer than one third of 
members in 10 Member States (in descending 
order: DE, CY, HR, LT, CZ, BE, MT, PT, SI and HU).

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Figure 40.  Proportion of women among employee representatives, executives, board members, non-

executives, chief executives and presidents in national public broadcasters (%, EU, 2019 and 
2023)

39

36

38

38

37

37

34

32

32

32

46

44

50

40

30

20

10

0

Employee
representatives

Executives

Members

Non-executives

Chief executives

Presidents

2019

2023

Source: EIGE, Gender Statistics Database, data collection on women and men in decision-making.

2.10.2.2.  Working conditions for women in 

media sectors are affected by 
multiple crises and are challenged 
by digitalisation

Women in the media often face obstacles due 
to the disproportionate amount of unpaid care 
work they have to take on. For example, many 
women in the industry struggle to balance long 
working hours with family responsibilities. This 
challenge intensified during the COVID-19 
pandemic, when work collided with increased 
caregiving duties. These pressures limit 
women’s career advancement and contribute to 
ongoing gender pay gaps, as setbacks early on 
in women’s careers can be difficult to overcome 
later on (International Federation of Journalists, 
2020).

Women working in the cultural and creative 
sectors struggle to combine paid and unpaid 
work due to poor working conditions, atypical 
work patterns, irregular income and weak social 
protections, further exacerbated by limited 
access to care services. These challenges 

increase the vulnerability of women to 
underpaid or unpaid work, and they are more 
likely to be subject to discrimination and 
harassment (European Parliament, 2023d). 
These concerns have led to the adoption of a 
proposal for an EU framework to improve the 
living and working conditions for cultural and 
creative workers (European Parliament, 2023d). 
As exemplified by Box 38, Germany offers a 
promising model for addressing such issues.

A recent survey on the status and working 
conditions of artists and professionals in the 
cultural and creative sectors in Europe 
highlights that women are disproportionately 
affected. The findings indicate that 48 % of 
women, compared with 42 % of men, reported 
poor working conditions. Furthermore, 88 % of 
women artists and professionals in the cultural 
and creative sectors indicated that they were 
unfairly remunerated for their efforts, while 
75 % of women respondents (compared with 
64 % of men) reported having insufficient 
access to social protections (Panteia and 
Culture Action Europe, 2024).

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Box 38.  How Germany ensures social 
security for freelance 
journalists

In Germany, the 
Künstlersozialversicherungsgesetz, also 
referred to as the Artists’ Social Security 
Act, provides social security coverage for 
freelance artists and publicists, including 
journalists. This law ensures that freelance 
professionals in these fields have access to 
the same social security benefits as 
employees, protecting them against social 
risks such as illness, retirement and 
unemployment. Freelance women 
journalists receive comprehensive social 
security coverage, including health 
insurance, pension contributions, 
maternity leave and unemployment 
benefits (Künstlersozialkasse – Artists’ 
Social Security Fund, 2023).

2.10.2.3.  The media plays a pivotal role in 
shaping societal perceptions and 
challenging gender norms and 
stereotypes, which persist in 
news media coverage

In a ‘mediatised’ society, voice and visibility in 
the media constitute valuable resources that 
can be converted into societal influence (Djerf-
Pierre and Edström, 2020). Gender equality in 
the media goes beyond mere numbers. Instead, 
it is a state in which women and men, in all 
their diversity, have equal status in media 
organisations and content (Djerf-Pierre and 
Edström, 2020). However, news media coverage 
often lacks a gender dimension and fails to 
challenge gender stereotypes. Although it has 
always proved a subjective challenge to define 
which stories challenge gender stereotypes, the 
sixth edition of the Global Media Monitoring 
Project found that, in 2020, only 2 % of stories 
in Europe (62) clearly challenged gender 
stereotypes (GMMP, 2020).

In particular, stories on topics related to 
violence and women often fail to challenge 
stereotypes (GMMP, 2020). For instance, in 
televised news about COVID-19, health 
specialists were the experts most often 
featured, yet only one in three was a woman, 
despite women constituting the majority of the 
workforce in the health sector, particularly in 
lower-ranking roles (GMMP, 2020) (for more on 
this, see Section 2.3.2.4). Moreover, by failing to 
challenge entrenched gender norms and 
attitudes, news media coverage of gender-
based violence can contribute to normalising 
and perpetuating the very injustices that are 
the focus of these stories. Box 39 sets out 
examples of the promotion of fair portrayals of 
women and men in the media.

Box 39.  Promoting a fair portrayal of 
women and men in the media

• 

• 

‘Rewriting the story: Gender, media and 
politics’ is an EU-funded project led by 
the International Federation of 
Journalists in collaboration with the 
University of Padova (Italy) and the 
Permanent Conference of the 
Mediterranean Audiovisual Operators. It 
aims to address barriers to the fair 
representation of women and men in 
politics and public life by tackling 
stereotypes. The project focuses on 
enhancing the skills of journalists, 
media students and public broadcasters 
in gender-sensitive political reporting, 
while promoting a gender-equal 
newsroom culture and gender-
transformative media policies 
(International Federation of Journalists, 
2022).
In 2021, the Ministry of Social Security 
and Labour of Lithuania supported a 
large-scale informational and 
educational campaign to emphasise 
that gender stereotypes may lead to 
domestic violence. It was launched in 

 (62)  List of participating countries: Austria, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, 

France, Georgia, Greenland, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Malta, Moldova, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, 
Romania, Russia, Serbia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Türkiye and the United Kingdom.

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response to an increase in domestic 
violence during the COVID-19 pandemic. 
The campaign, which was circulated 
through eight TV shows on national 
television, was called ‘I can’t be silent’ 
(Negaliu tylėti) and also included 
articles in print and online media, along 
with communication campaigns on 
social networks and outdoor billboards 
(Ministry of Social Security and Labour 
of the Republic of Lithuania, 2021).

2.10.2.4.  While social media has been 

instrumental in amplifying 
women’s voices, the escalation of 
cyberviolence against women 
poses significant challenges to 
their professional and civic 
participation

Online platforms have emerged as critical 
arenas in the fight for gender equality and 
women’s rights, with both feminist and anti-
feminist groups leveraging these spaces to 
advance their agendas (Holm, 2022). For 
example, social media movements such as 
#MeToo and Time’s Up have brought attention 
to gender-based violence (Botti et al., 2019; 
Levy and Mattsson, 2023). Initially focusing on 
the entertainment and film sectors, these 
movements have catalysed broader reforms 
and discussions that promote a culture of 
accountability aimed at addressing gender 
inequality in the media and implementing 
stricter anti-harassment policies (Nordic Council 
of Ministers and NIKK, 2018). These efforts 
have also prompted calls for greater diversity in 
the representation of women in the media 
(Garrido and Zaptsi, 2021).

Cyberviolence disproportionately affects women 
in positions of power, particularly if they are 
young or belong to certain ethnic or sexual 
minority groups, deterring them from 
participating in public discourse (UNESCO, 2021a; 

see also Section 2.7.2.3). Women politicians and 
journalists experience higher levels of online 
harassment than men, often focusing on physical 
threats including sexual violence (63). Experiences 
of harassment or aggressive interactions silence 
individual women, limiting the freedom of the 
press and democratic dialogue while also creating 
a chilling effect on those women who are 
considering entry into these professions (IPU and 
PACE, 2018; Park et al., 2023).

2.10.2.5.  Artificial intelligence technologies 
hold immense potential to tackle 
gender stereotypes and 
disparities in the media, but their 
effectiveness depends on 
addressing existing biases

AI has the potential to notably enhance the 
diversity and accessibility of media content. 
Advances in deep learning are enhancing the 
effectiveness of AI tools in detecting gender-
based violence and online harassment (Novitzky 
et al., 2023; Vyawahare et al., 2024). Meanwhile, 
speech recognition and automated captioning 
innovations are making media more accessible 
to people with disabilities (Guo et al., 2020).

However, AI systems may inadvertently 
perpetuate gender stereotypes, leading to 
discriminatory outcomes and exacerbating 
gender disparities (Council of Europe, 2022b; EIGE, 
2022a). Targeted advertising and content-
recommendation algorithms on social media 
platforms contribute significantly to this issue, 
since they rely on demographic data and user 
behaviour to personalise content. For instance, AI 
may disproportionately show job advertisements 
to men for fields dominated by men, while 
displaying jobs in typically feminised sectors to 
women, perpetuating occupational segregation, 
such as in STEM (Lambrecht and Tucker, 2016). 
Similarly, social media advertisements for beauty 
products targeted at women frequently reinforce 
narrow beauty ideals, perpetuating gender 
stereotypes (Fosch-Villaronga et al., 2021).

 (63)  An offence having been committed against a person because that person was a public representative, a journalist or a 
human rights defender is established as an aggravating circumstance in the directive on combating violence against 
women and domestic violence (Article 11).

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Content-moderation algorithms also show 
biases. For example, Instagram has been 
criticised for ‘shadowbanning’ (64) women’s 
content, especially when it involves nudity or 
sexuality, while similar content involving men’s 
bodies is not treated in the same way (Are, 
2021; Gillespie, 2018). In turn, anti-feminist 
activists take advantage of the opaque nature 
of platform algorithms and their specific 
technical functions, such as hyperlinking and 
anonymity, to challenge feminist politics (Ging, 
2019). This lack of transparency makes it 
difficult to identify and address discriminatory 
practices (Park et al., 2023).

AI-driven moderation practices also tend to 
reinforce intersectional biases, 
disproportionately affecting not only LGBTIQ 
people and people of colour – specifically Black 
women – but also obese people and abortion 
activists. This reflects broader societal 
oppressions replicated on and by such 
platforms (Appelman, 2023). The mere 
presence of certain terms, such as ‘Muslim’, can 
trigger algorithms to predict text as offensive, 
leading to its flagging for moderation, with 
more negative consequences for Muslim women 
than men. For example, the feminine version of 
‘Muslim’ in Italian (musulmana) is rated more 
negatively by these models than its masculine 
counterpart (musulmano) (FRA, 2022a). This 
discrepancy reflects intersectional bias, 
combining gender with ethnicity or religion, 
and underlines the challenges of applying 
natural language processing to gendered 
languages. Thus, it is challenging to hold 
platforms accountable for the ways in which 
their algorithms reflect and perpetuate 
stereotypes and prejudices (Scatiggio, 2021).

The AI Act adopted in 2024 in the EU offers a 
prospect for the development of trustworthy 
AI, fundamental rights and human-centric AI 
and the prevention of AI discrimination. To 
address some of these challenges nationally, 
initiatives such as the Netherlands’ Algorithm 
Register, outlined in Box 40, offer a step 
towards greater transparency.

Box 40.  The Algorithm Register of the 

Dutch government

The Algorithm Register of the Dutch 
government is a transparency initiative 
whereby government algorithms are 
publicly listed and evaluated for biases, 
including gender bias. The register aims to 
build public trust by making algorithmic 
processes accessible and understandable, 
allowing public scrutiny and feedback. 
Government agencies must submit their 
algorithms for inclusion, provide detailed 
documentation and undergo rigorous 
evaluations to detect and mitigate biases. 
The register is continuously updated to 
reflect new algorithms and improvements, 
ensuring ongoing accountability and 
fairness in governmental AI systems (The 
Algorithm Register, n.d.).

2.10.2.6.  In the evolving media landscape, 

gender inequality persists, yet 
our understanding remains 
limited due to a lack of 
comprehensive data and research

Growing awareness of gender-related issues in 
the media and the increased involvement of 
women in the industry have marked significant 
steps towards addressing gender disparities. 
Nevertheless, significant gaps in the 
comprehensiveness of data and research hinder 
a complete understanding of challenges such as 
gender discrimination, bias and stigmatisation 
in the digital realm – especially from an 
intersectional perspective (Gouma and Dorer, 
2019) (Box 41).

Box 41.  Intersectionality on screen: 
GLAAD’s annual TV 
representation report

GLAAD’s Where We Are on TV report 
analyses LGBTIQ representation across TV 
networks and eight streaming platforms 

 (64) ‘Shadowbanning’ is a subtle and covert form of censorship that reduces the visibility of a user’s content, effectively 

curtailing the user’s reach without their awareness (Are, 2021).

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in the United States (Amazon, Hulu, 
Netflix, Apple TV+, Disney+, HBO Max, 
Peacock and Paramount+). Intersectional 
data on the media are collected and 
analysed, considering factors such as 
gender, race, sexual orientation and 
disability status. The report highlights 
progress and gaps, encouraging the media 
industry to enhance LGBTIQ representation 
and storytelling (GLAAD, 2023). Although 
it focuses on US shows, the report’s 
relevance extends to the EU, as US TV 
heavily influences global media trends and 
European viewers frequently consume 
content on these platforms. The report 
also serves as a benchmark for European 
media to evaluate and enhance LGBTIQ 
representation.

This is especially evident on newer digital media 
platforms such as TikTok and Instagram, where 
representations of women often revolve around 
the objectification and commodification of their 
bodies, along with traditional gender 
stereotypes (Yin and Binti Abdullah, 2024). For 
instance, the ‘tradwife’ social media trend 
champions traditional gender roles by 
portraying men as sole providers and women as 
caretakers of the home and children (Proctor, 
2023; Sykes and Hopner, 2024). The tradwife 
movement often intersects with far-right 
ideologies, including white supremacy, by 
integrating extremist views into content about 
domestic life and family values (Zahay, 2022). 
Similarly, the rise of ‘crypto influencers’ directs 
young men towards stereotypically masculine 
careers such as (cryptocurrency) trading, while 
overlooking young women in discussions about 
financial opportunities (Henshaw, 2023; 
Jagolinzer, 2024).

While these platforms reflect ongoing issues, 
especially with regard to the rise of digital 
media and AI technologies, advances in data 
collection and accessibility offer some 
solutions. Examples of these are highlighted in 
Box 42. A focus on enhancing inclusive 
representation, tackling gender stereotypes 
and improving women’s working conditions is 
essential to ensure that women and men in all 
their diversity benefit fully from technological 

advances and continue to shape media 
narratives.

Box 42.  Enhancing the accessibility of 

gender data in the media

The Comparing Gender and Media 
Equality across the Globe dataset, 
prepared by the Department of 
Journalism, Media and Communication 
from the University of Gothenburg 
(Sweden), contains three pooled 
datasets: the Global Media Monitoring 
Project, the Global Report on the Status 
of Women in the News Media of the 
International Women’s Media Foundation 
and EIGE data. These include hundreds of 
indicators to make comparable data on 
gender and media more accessible and to 
measure the level of gender equality in 
news media content in different 
countries (Färdigh et al., 2022).

2.11.  Women and the 

environment (area K)

Under the BPfA, Member States have 
committed to supporting women’s 
contributions to environmental protection and 
sustainable development. Key goals include 
ensuring women’s active involvement in all 
levels of environmental decision-making, 
integrating a gender perspective into 
sustainability policies and programmes, and 
creating mechanisms to assess the gender-
specific impacts of development and 
environmental policies.

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The EU’s official indicators for monitoring 
progress in this area primarily focus on tracking 
women’s representation in climate-related 
decision-making and the proportion of women 
and men graduating in science and technology. 
The lack of monitoring of the integration of a 
gender perspective into policymaking or the 

gendered impacts of environmental policies 
creates a notable gap between the 
comprehensive goals of the BPfA and the 
existing monitoring framework, leaving 
essential aspects of gender equality in 
environmental policy untracked.

Area K (women and the environment) alignment with SDGs

1.5  Build the resilience of people in poverty and vulnerable situations and reduce their exposure and 

vulnerability to climate-related extreme events

13.b  Promote mechanisms for raising capacity for effective climate-change-related planning and 
management including focusing on women, youth and local and marginalised communities

For the BPfA + 30 review, the thematic focus and priority topics of area K include:

Assessing the gender 
impacts of climate 
change

Promoting women’s 
roles and leadership in 
environmental 
decision-making at all 
levels

Adopting a gender 
perspective in policies 
for sustainable 
development

Achieving gender 
balance in studies and 
professions for the 
green transition

In the context of the European Green Deal and 
global environmental challenges such as climate 
change and the degradation of our ecosystems, 
these priority topics explore the contributions 
of women and men in all their diversity to a 
socially fair green transition within our 
communities and households. The topics aim to 
shed light on the importance of gender equality 
in environmental leadership, recognising that it 
is critical to achieve balanced representation in 
policymaking institutions and professions 
aimed at environmental sustainability. 
Addressing the current under-representation of 
women in these spaces is essential to 
developing inclusive environmental policies 
that address gender impacts and ensure no one 

is left behind. However, evaluating the current 
state and evolving dynamics of environmental 
and gender-related concerns is often 
challenging, due to the absence of standardised 
national and EU-wide data.

2.11.1.  EU policy developments

In 2019, the European Parliament declared a 
climate and environmental emergency, 
recognising that climate action must include 
strong social and inclusive measures to ensure a 
fair and equitable transition (European 
Parliament, 2019). Since then, in the wake of 
growing environmental challenges, the EU has 

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adopted significant policy developments and 
legislation. Notably, the European Green Deal 
was launched as the EU’s growth strategy to 
transform the EU into a competitive and 
resource-efficient economy on the path to 
climate neutrality by 2050. This ambition is 
reinforced by the European Climate Law, which 
legally commits the EU to this climate neutrality 
goal (Regulation (EU) 2021/1119). However, as 
discussed in Section 1.4.1.1, the European Green 
Deal has faced criticism for failing to adopt a 
gender perspective and a gender 
mainstreaming approach (Allwood, 2020; 
European Parliament, 2020b).

One crucial component of the European Green 
Deal is the energy transition, which focuses on 
boosting the use of renewable energy sources, 
improving energy efficiency and ensuring 
reliable, cost-effective energy for all. Key 
legislative packages, such as the clean energy 
for all Europeans package and the fit for 55 
package, aim to facilitate the energy transition 
while addressing social inequalities, including 
gender disparities. Nevertheless, these 
initiatives often fail to adequately address 
gender and intersectional inequalities. For 
example, the clean energy for all Europeans 
package refers to ‘vulnerable citizens’ without 
explicitly addressing gender issues.

In parallel, the EU’s Recovery and Resilience 
Facility, a central component of the 
NextGenerationEU fund, prioritises climate-
related reforms, requiring Member States to 
allocate at least 37 % of their national RRPs to 
green transition measures. This emphasis on 
climate action contrasts starkly with its 
insufficient focus on gender equality. 
Furthermore, a gender perspective is largely 
missing from the RRP measures proposed under 
the digital and green pillars, thus running the 
risk that the EU-funded twin transitions are not 
gender responsive (EIGE, 2023e) (for more on 
this, see Section 1.4.2.4). The Recovery and 
Resilience Facility is also crucial to the 

implementation of the repowerEU plan, aimed 
at reducing the EU’s reliance on Russian fossil 
fuels and advancing clean energy (European 
Commission, 2022f). However, the gender 
equality focus of the plan is minimal, as it 
overlooks the specific challenges that women 
face during the energy transition, particularly in 
vulnerable households (Lonergan et al., 2022) 
(for more on this, see Section 2.1).

The EU’s commitment to disaster resilience and 
preparedness is equally vital amid increasing 
climate and geopolitical risks. The announced 
European Civil Defence Mechanism, combined 
with the European climate adaptation plan, 
will play a key role in supporting Member States 
through comprehensive planning and 
preparedness initiatives (von der Leyen, 2024a). 
These efforts will build on the EU climate 
change adaptation strategy, adopted in 2021, 
with the aim of creating a climate-resilient 
society by 2050 (European Commission, 2021e). 
Although the strategy acknowledges different 
adaptive capacities among women and men, 
older people, people with disabilities and 
displaced people, critics have highlighted gaps 
in the addressing of gender and intersectional 
disparities (Goldsmith et al., 2021; Nenning, 
2022). In addition, the strategy fails to 
incorporate a care perspective, despite 
increasing recognition of the climate–care 
nexus. This further marginalises care work, 
which is predominantly carried out by women 
(MacGregor et al., 2022; WECF, 2022).

In the field of disaster risk reduction (DRR), the 
European roadmap for the implementation of 
the Sendai framework for DRR (65) calls for 
national DRR-coordinating mechanisms to 
include gender-sensitive representation. The 
EUR-OPA major hazards agreement, to which 
several Member States are signatories (BG, EL, 
HR, CY, LU, MT, PT, RO and SK), includes a high-
level commitment to gender equality, including 
the incorporation of a gender perspective into 
DRR projects and activities (EUR-OPA, 2018). 

 (65)  The Sendai framework for DRR for 2015–2030 outlines seven targets, along with the following four priorities for action to 
prevent new disaster risks and reduce existing risks: (1) understanding disaster risk, (2) strengthening disaster risk 
governance to manage disaster risk, (3) investing in disaster reduction for resilience and (4) enhancing disaster 
preparedness for effective response and to ‘build back better’ in recovery, rehabilitation and reconstruction (UNISDR, 
2015).

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Finally, the EU and its Member States are also 
committed to key environmental agreements 
at the international level, namely the three Rio 
conventions (66) and gender action plans 
(UNCCD, 2018; UNFCCC Secretariat, 2023).

2.11.2.  Key challenges and trends

2.11.2.1.  Women play a crucial role in 

promoting environmental 
sustainability at home, but 
environmental discourses and 
efforts risk reinforcing traditional 
gender stereotypes

EIGE’s CARE Survey suggests that women are 
more environmentally aware and consistent 
than men in their eco-friendly behaviour and 
consumption patterns (Figure 41). Gender 

stereotypes shape the ways in which women 
and men think and act in terms of consumption 
patterns and sustainability (Bloodhart and 
Swim, 2020). Such stereotypes portray women 
as agents of care and keepers of the natural 
world (Wilde and Parry, 2022). At the same 
time, they tend to discourage men from 
engaging in sustainable behaviours, which are 
viewed as threatening traditional notions of 
masculinity (Brough et al., 2016; Wilson, 2023). 
Movements such as the ‘zero waste lifestyle’ 
often frame public environmental issues and 
household sustainability as feminised concerns, 
reinforcing traditional gender roles in cooking, 
cleaning and grocery shopping (Wilde and 
Parry, 2022). Advocates of these movements 
frequently invoke traditional gender roles, 
similar to those seen in the ‘tradwife’ 
movement (for more on this, see 
Section 2.10.2.6).

Figure 41.  Frequency of sustainable behaviour, by sex and type of activity (% of respondents aged 

18–74 years, EU, 2024)

Recycling

Avoid 
plastics 
andsingle-
use 
products

Avoid 
animal 
products

Buy used 
instead 
of new 
items

Women

Men

Women

Men

Women

Men

Women

Men

40

35

23

20

30

26

69

63

27

32

4

5

36

37

53

51

55

57

23

28

24

29

15

17

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Regularly

Sometimes

Never

Source: EIGE’s CARE Survey, second wave (2024).

At the same time, ecological degradation can be 
linked to patriarchal structures, as power is 

maintained through dominance over and the 
oppression of both women and nature, with the 

 (66)  The three Rio conventions, adopted at the 1992 Earth Summit, are the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change 

(UNFCCC), the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD). The 
UNFCCC focuses on mitigating climate change impacts and fostering adaptation, the CBD targets the conservation of 
biodiversity and equitable benefit sharing, and the UNCCD emphasises sustainable land management and combating 
desertification (United Nations, 1992a, 1992b, 1994).

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view that the natural world exists to be 
controlled (Pease, 2019). This explains a 
tendency among men to consider solutions 
based on ‘fixing’ (e.g. water desalinisation), 
which reinforce a sense of domination, as 
opposed to breaking unsustainable patterns of 
consumption and finding a more balanced fit 
with the environment (Bloodhart and Swim, 
2020). It is therefore critical to recognise how 
gender roles are constructed within 
environmental discourses and public policies.

2.11.2.2.  Young women climate activists 
are leading the push for climate 
action

The EU gender equality strategy for 2020–2025 
recognises the pivotal role that young women 
play in leading the movement for climate action 
(European Commission, 2020d). Research shows 
that young climate activists are influential in 
raising awareness, influencing public opinion 
and pressuring national governments and 

international bodies to adopt and strengthen 
climate policies (Heidrich and Nakonieczna-
Bartosiewicz, 2021).

The ‘Fridays for future’ movement, which has 
notably high participation by women, has 
become a key force in global and EU climate 
activism (Fisher, 2019), reflecting the broader 
engagement of women in environmental 
activism (de Moor et al., 2020; Wahlström et al., 
2019). This movement not only influences 
climate policy but also fosters active 
democratic engagement, with young women at 
the forefront. Similarly, women’s environmental 
organisations further emphasise the links 
between gender equality, social justice and 
environmental sustainability. Nevertheless, the 
scarcity of data and the complexity of tracking 
civic engagement make it challenging to assess 
women’s leadership at the grassroots level, 
despite the critical role that such leadership 
plays in shaping effective environmental 
policies and initiatives (OECD, 2022).

Women’s environmental organisations contribute to the fight against climate 
change and make sure that women’s voices and needs are taken into account in 
creating a more sustainable future. Their work is key in pushing for more inclusive 
environmental policies. Recognising, supporting and funding the work of CSOs that 
focus on equality issues in the EU is vital. This includes financial support, capacity 
building and giving them a platform. Examples of key NGOs in the EU are GenderCC 
and Women Engage for a Common Future.

The active participation of young women in 
climate activism highlights the necessity for 
gender-sensitive environmental policies and the 
potential to shape a more sustainable and 
equitable future (Piispa and Kiilakoski, 2022). 
Activism also reveals gaps and delays in 
environmental policy, creating political tension 
and pressure for urgent action, which can be 
difficult within the EU’s political and economic 
constraints. The ‘green backlash’ from fossil-
fuel-dependent industries and climate-sceptical 
groups stems from the view that environmental 
initiatives are threats to established economic 
structures, and this movement often aligns 
with authoritarian movements that embrace a 
blend of climate denial, racism and misogyny, 

which are on the rise (Daggett, 2018; Hultman, 
2017).

2.11.2.3.  Women continue to be under-

represented in the workforce of 
the transport and energy sectors 
in the EU and could be further 
disadvantaged by digitalisation 
and automation

The EU sustainable and smart mobility strategy, 
part of the European Green Deal, prioritises 
increasing the participation of women and 
young people in the transport sector. In 2023, 
women made up just 17 % of the transport 

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workforce in the EU, with the highest share 
noted in Malta (31 %) and the lowest share in 
Romania (10 %) (Eurostat, 2025). Gender 
distribution varied sharply across EU transport 
subsectors: women accounted for 41 % of the 
air transport workforce in 2023, compared with 
21 % in water transport and just 15 % in land 
transport (Eurostat, 2025). Despite some 
progress and initiatives (Box 43), this figure has 
barely changed since 2018 (67), highlighting that 
there has been stagnation in achieving gender 
balance (for more on this, see EIGE, 2023i).

Box 43.  Strengthening women’s 

employment in the transport 
sector

The ‘Women in transport – EU platform for 
change’, launched by the European 
Commission in 2017, aims to strengthen 
women’s employment and equal 
opportunities in the transport sector 
(European Commission, n.d.-k). It includes 
a declaration on equal opportunities, 
emphasising the importance of sex-
disaggregated data to inform policy 
planning, monitor progress and evaluate 
measures. To boost women’s employment 
in the sector, it advocates for company-
based measures and broader societal 
efforts to combat stereotypes through 
early education.

In 2022, the share of women in the energy 
sector was around 25 %, up from around 20 % 
in 2010 (European Commission: DG Research 
and Innovation, 2024a). This fragile 
improvement saw a slight decline in 2022 from 
26 % in 2021. Most of the growth came from 
rising shares of women in the 25–54 and 55–64 
age groups, while the share of women in the 
under-25 group declined, signalling a possibly 
concerning trend. Furthermore, in 2021, women 
represented 68 % of the part-time contracts in 
the EU energy sector, and women were 6.3 
times more likely than men to be on part-time 

contracts (15 % versus 2 %, respectively) 
(European Commission: DG Research and 
Innovation, 2024a).

Available data at the international level indicate 
that, in the renewable energy sector, the 
percentage of women employees may be 
higher, around 32 %, and reaching 40 % in the 
solar photovoltaic industry (IRENA, 2019). 
Nonetheless, the higher figures were a result of 
a higher share of women in administrative jobs 
(45 %) than in technical positions, suggesting 
that the share of women in renewables is not 
higher than in the conventional energy sector 
(28 %) (European Commission: DG Research and 
Innovation, 2024a). While these figures reflect 
a somewhat positive, although fragile, trend 
towards gender balance, achieving gender 
balance in the energy sector is a major 
challenge, including due to the specific nature 
of energy-related roles, gender stereotypes 
and the limited impact of corporate gender 
equality measures. Addressing this gap requires 
diverse stakeholders’ targeted efforts 
(European Commission: DG Research and 
Innovation, 2024a). Innovative approaches, 
such as the gender and social inclusion example 
in Box 44, can help.

Digitalisation and automation are set to have a 
significant impact on the transport and energy 
sectors. About 80 % of the transport employers 
surveyed by the European Commission 
mentioned expecting up to 20 % of jobs in the 
transport sector to be lost in the next decade 
(European Commission: DG Mobility and 
Transport, 2021). Preliminary research suggests 
that women will be disproportionately affected 
in the short term (European Transport Workers’ 
Federation, 2021), as automation threatens to 
displace roles traditionally held by women, such 
as clerical and administrative positions. 
Conversely, men may face greater long-term 
risks in manual labour roles, such as driving and 
factory work (European Transport Workers’ 
Federation, 2021). As the green transition 
unfolds, reducing gender inequalities in these 

 (67) Calculations based on employment by sex, age and detailed economic activity (from 2008 onwards, general industrial 

classification of economic activities within the European Union (NACE) revision 2 two-digit level) (LFSA_EGAN22D), EU LFS, 
2014–2023.

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sectors requires broader social barriers to be 
addressed, such as those that limit women’s 
educational choices, skills development and 
employment opportunities (Baruah and Gaudet, 
2022). In addition, specific obstacles to entry 
and retention in the energy and transport 
workforce need to be tackled (Clancy and 
Feenstra, 2019) – for more on this, see 
Section 2.6.2.2.

Box 44.  Empowerment of women 

entrepreneurs in the energy 
sector and support for lone-
mother households

WEnCoop, Greece’s first women-centred 
social energy cooperative, was founded in 
2020 to empower women through energy-
related projects. Backed by the Greek 
Association of Women Entrepreneurs, it is 
run by 60 women from diverse business 
backgrounds and offers flexible share 
distribution to increase the accessibility of 
shareholding. Along with generating 
income, WEnCoop fully covers members’ 
energy consumption and, when possible, 
provides free energy to vulnerable groups 
and single-mother families (WEnCoop, 
n.d.).

2.11.2.4.  Over time, the presence of 

women in environmental 
decision-making roles has 
increased, but some Member 
States are lagging behind

Women’s participation in environmental 
decision-making is critical to advancing gender 
equality and effective climate action (OECD, 
2022). Research shows that countries with high 
levels of gender equality tend to have lower CO2 
emissions, suggesting that advancing gender 
equality both supports climate action and 
strengthens democratic governance (McGee et 
al., 2020) (for examples, see Box 45). However, 
although women are often over-represented in 
environmental grassroots movements and 

activism, their representation diminishes in 
more formal and institutionalised settings 
(OECD, 2022).

Box 45.  Leading the digital 

transformation and creating 
sustainable and gender-
responsive industrial policies

• 

IndustriALL, a global trade union 
federation established in Denmark, 
formed a gender equality task force in 
2022. This focuses on incorporating 
gender equality into discussions on 
sustainable industrial policy. 
IndustriALL’s action plan for 2021–2025 
aims to enhance women’s rights and 
address inequalities, ensuring that 
strategies, policies and measures for 
developing a sustainable industrial 
policy and a just transition are 
responsive to gender considerations 
(IndustriALL Global Union, 2021).
•  The EU-funded project GRASS Ceiling, 

led by South East Technological 
University (Ireland), aims to boost 
women-led innovation in farming and 
rural areas. The project aims to 
establish nine ‘living labs’ in Croatia, 
Ireland, Italy, Lithuania, the 
Netherlands, Norway, Scotland, Spain 
and Sweden. Each lab will train six to 
eight women in innovative practices 
such as smart farming and ecotourism.

Progress is also evident at the level of EU 
institutions. In 2023, women constituted 52 % 
of members in the cabinets of DGs dealing with 
environmental issues (68), indicating a positive 
shift towards gender balance compared with 
35 % in 2018 (EIGE, 2024c). Notably, women 
made up 71 % of cabinet members in DG 
Environment. However, representation varies 
between DGs, with women making up 29 % of 
DG Energy in 2023 (EIGE, 2024c). Moreover, in 
the 2019–2024 Commission, two out of the four 
Commissioners overseeing these DGs were 

 (68)  The DGs considered are DG Climate Action, DG Energy, DG Mobility and Transport and DG Environment.

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women, indicating a gradual shift towards 
gender parity at the top levels of EU 
environmental policymaking.

There has also been an upward trend in 
women’s participation in climate negotiations 
at the international level, which is now 
approaching gender balance. Historically, 
women have been under-represented in these 
global forums, such as at the COP meetings 
under the UNFCCC. At COP28 in December 2023, 
women accounted for 53 % of the EU 
delegation, compared with 42 % in 2018 
(WEDO, 2024b) (69). Among the Member States 
at COP28, Estonia, Spain and Finland had the 
highest representation of women, while 
Luxembourg and Poland had the lowest. Only 
Estonia, Italy, Hungary, Slovenia and Slovakia 
had appointed a woman as their head of 
delegation. Despite increased representation, 
however, women speak less than men during 
negotiations and are often excluded from 
finance and technology discussions, focusing 
instead on gender, education and 
empowerment issues (WEDO, 2024a).

The varying levels of representation of women 
as national ministers dealing with environment 
and climate change remain a challenge across 
the Member States. On average, in 2023, 
women constituted 31 % of national ministers 
in the EU responsible for portfolios such as the 
environment, climate change, transport and 
energy, marking a notable increase of 20 pp 
since 2018 (EIGE, 2023j). However, women’s 
representation varies widely between Member 
States.

In 2023, women constituted 45 % of the 
highest-ranking civil servants in ministries with 
jurisdictions covering the environment, 
transport and energy (EIGE, 2024p). Bulgaria 
and Slovenia lead the way, with women in these 
countries occupying 63 % and 60 % of 
positions, respectively. In contrast, the 
representation in Ireland and Denmark is lower, 
with women making up only 15 % and 13 % of 
these roles, respectively (Figure 42) (EIGE, 
2024p). While the upward trend in women’s 
representation at the level of national 
ministries indicates significant progress, these 
percentages reveal that gender balance is yet 
to be achieved.

Figure 42.  Proportion of women among the highest-ranking civil servants in ministries with 

jurisdictions covering the environment, transport and energy, by country (%, EU, 2019 and 
2023)

100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0

63

60

55

54

53

53

50

50

48

45

47

45

44

43

42

42

41

38

38

37

37

36

34

33

29

27

15

13

I

G S
B

L
E

I
F

R
H

K
S

V
L

O
R

E
S

T
I

E
D

7
2
-
U
E

E
B

T
P

L
N

E
E

S
E

Y
C

T
L

T
M

R
F

L
P

T
A

U
L

U
H

Z
C

E
I

K
D

Source: EIGE, Gender Statistics Database (bpfa_k_offic_k1__wmid_env_natmin_admin).

2023

2019

 (69)  These percentages are calculated and presented on the basis of the gender climate tracker by WEDO, which has collected 

data on women’s participation in their national party delegations at every UNFCCC meeting since 2008.

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2.11.2.5.  Women are disproportionately 

affected by disasters and 
climate-induced migration, both 
across the EU and globally

Climate change is causing more extreme 
weather events, a rise in sea levels, and shifts 
in the geographical distribution of agricultural 
zones and infectious diseases. These factors 
increase the EU’s vulnerability to disasters are 
increasingly driving migration within and 
beyond the EU (Mawby and Applebaum, 2020), 
particularly affecting women, who constitute 
the majority of people displaced by climate 
change and extreme weather events (Sidun and 
Gibbons, 2023; UN, 2022b).

Climate and other environmental crises, coupled 
with gender inequality, are the greatest 
challenges to sustainable development of our 
time (UN, 2022a). Due to a combination of 
social, economic and cultural factors that shape 
gender dynamics, crises and disasters affect 
women and men differently, even if they live in 
the same household (Erman et al., 2021). Social 
expectations and roles often place women in 
caregiving positions within families and 
communities, intensifying their responsibilities 
during and after disasters and limiting their 
ability to engage in broader resilience and 
recovery activities (Wernhart et al., 2021). 
Economically, women are more likely to have 
lower incomes, less stable jobs and fewer assets 
than men, making them more vulnerable to the 
financial impacts of disasters (Erman et al., 
2021).

Gender-based violence is also exacerbated 
during emergencies, with rates of domestic 
violence rising in slow-onset disasters such as 
droughts (UN Women, 2022). For instance, 
studies conducted in Spain have linked 
heatwaves to a rise in intimate partner violence 
(Sanz-Barbero et al., 2018). According to the 
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, the 
widespread and increasing impacts of climate 
change are also amplifying the vulnerability of 
individuals to human trafficking (UNODC, 2022). 
More research is needed to thoroughly examine 
the gendered impacts of extreme weather 

events and climate change, especially on the 
prevalence of gender-based violence in the EU.

In terms of climate justice, the emissions and 
consumption patterns of the Global North, 
including the EU, have far-reaching impacts that 
extend well beyond Europe. These 
disproportionately affect vulnerable 
communities in developing and least-developed 
countries. Indigenous communities, which have 
historically contributed little to global 
emissions, bear a disproportionate share of the 
consequences of the climate crisis (Giacomini, 
2020; ILO, 2017; Turquet et al., 2023). 
Indigenous women, in particular, face 
heightened risks of discrimination, exclusion, 
exploitation and gender-based violence as 
climate change exacerbates their economic and 
social vulnerabilities (Csevár, 2021). These 
include precarious working conditions, a lack of 
social protections and increased poverty 
(Birkmann et al., 2022; ILO, 2017).

2.11.2.6.  Disaster risk reduction policies at 

the national level are falling 
behind in integrating a gender 
perspective

The frequency and severity of climate and 
weather extremes necessitates stronger EU 
DRR policies to manage various climate risks 
(EEA, 2024). Although the importance of 
integrating a gender perspective is recognised 
at the EU level, at the national level there are 
still notable gaps in integrating a gender 
perspective in DRR (Wernhart et al., 2021). 
Some Member States, such as Spain, Austria 
and Sweden, stand out for their efforts to 
incorporate gender considerations into the 
context of DRR, climate change adaptation and 
mitigation, showcasing the potential for more 
comprehensive and inclusive approaches 
(Box 46). These successes can be attributed to 
their implementation of gender mainstreaming 
strategies that include gender impact 
assessments, gender equality training and the 
collection of sex-disaggregated data. These 
measures ensure that gender-specific needs 
and vulnerabilities are addressed in decision-
making processes (Breil et al., 2021).

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Box 46.  Supporting gender 

mainstreaming in DRR

An example of how to support gender 
mainstreaming in DRR is Women Exchange 
4 Disaster Risk Reduction (We4DRR), an 
international network coordinated by the 
Austrian Federal Ministry of Agriculture, 
Forestry, Environment and Water 
Management. We4DRR is a Europe-wide 
network for exchanges between women in 
science, administration, policy and practice 
working in the fields of natural hazard 
management and DRR. The aim of this 
network of women experts is not only to 
discuss issues regarding gender and 
natural hazards, but also to strengthen 
the expertise and increase the visibility of 
women professionals by enabling the 
transnational exchange of knowledge and 
experiences (Die Wildbach- und 
Lawinenverbauung, n.d.).

However, there are notable gaps and limitations 
in the data on gender equality and the 
environment (Grantham, 2023). Most research 
on the gender impacts of climate change, 
including adaptation and mitigation efforts, 
focuses on countries outside Europe. This lack 
of region-specific data limits the understanding 
of how climate change uniquely affects women 
and men in the EU in their social and political 
systems. Furthermore, climate change goes 
beyond environmental problems. It is also a 
social crisis that encompasses interactions 

between multiple oppressions. Research shows 
that age, class and education can all have an 
impact on vulnerability and the strategies used 
to face environmental crises (Kuran et al., 2020; 
Ravera et al., 2016). Pregnant women, for 
instance, are particularly vulnerable during 
weather events, as these can induce obstetric 
complications (Perkins, 2018; Samuels et al., 
2022). Older women also face higher mortality 
risks during heatwaves than men, due to 
physiological differences in heat response 
(Leach et al., 2024). 

2.12.  The girl child (area L)

Under the BPfA, area L focuses on the 
elimination of all forms of discrimination and 
violence against the girl child, developing girls’ 
skills and promoting their awareness of and 
participation in social, economic and political 
life. The official EU indicators used to monitor 
progress in this area include the difference in 
academic performance between girls and boys 
aged 15 in mathematics and science, the 
proportion of girls and boys aged 15 who 
expect to be working in science-related fields at 
the age of 30, the parameters of sexuality 
education in schools and the level of 
dissatisfaction among girls and boys with their 
bodies. However, these indicators might not 
fully reflect the complexity of how attitudes 
towards gender roles are formed or the impact 
that these biases have on young people’s lives 
and career choices.

Area L (the girl child) alignment with SDGs

5.1  End all forms of discrimination against all women and girls everywhere
5.3  Eliminate all harmful practices, such as child, early and forced marriage and female 

genital mutilation

4.7  Ensure that all learners acquire the knowledge and skills needed to promote 

sustainable development, human rights, gender equality, culture of peace and 
non-violence, global citizenship and appreciation of cultural diversity

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For the BPfA + 30 review, some of the priority topics of area L are:

Assessing the 
educational 
accomplishments and 
career aspirations of 
girls and boys

Understanding the body 
self-image and mental 
health of girls and boys

Tackling discrimination 
and violence against 
girls

Fostering enhanced 
sex and relationship 
education

While some issues in this section overlap with 
other BPfA areas, this section offers a deeper 
analysis with particular reference to the girl 
child. It builds on the definition of a ‘child’ in 
the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child 
and defines a ‘girl child’ as a girl or young 
woman up to the age of 18. The priority topics 
chosen for this section highlight policy-level 
efforts in the EU to establish legal support 
mechanisms to safeguard children’s social 
rights, combat child sexual abuse and gender-
based violence, and address gender stereotypes 
within and beyond the education sector. This 
underlines evolving concerns resulting from the 
expansion of cyberspace, the green transition, 
increasing mental health issues and various 
forms of violence affecting girls.

2.12.1.  EU policy developments

Besides the EU strategy on the rights of the 
child for 2021–2024 (see Section 1.4.5), a key 
milestone in improving the situation of girls 
and boys in the EU is the European child 
guarantee (Figure 43). Adopted in June 2021, it 
recommends that Member States address 
poverty and social exclusion among children, 
including through the provision of accessible, 
affordable and high-quality ECEC, encouraged 
by the Barcelona targets for 2030 and the 
quality frameworks for ECEC. It also recognises 
the importance of a gender perspective when 
designing social inclusion measures. It is the 
first EU-level policy instrument that aims to 
address exclusion in childhood and to break the 
poverty cycle across generations.

Figure 43.  European child guarantee

Principle 11 of the European Pillar of Social Rights on childcare and support for children

To break the
cycle of poverty,
Member States should
guarantee for girls
and boys in need

Free and effective access
to ECEC

Free education and 
school-based activities

At least one free healthy
meal each school day

Free and effective 
healthcare access 

Healthy nutrition

Adequate housing

Gender perspective in the policy framework

Source: Created by the authors, based on Council Recommendation (EU) 2021/1004.

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All 27 Member States have published their child 
guarantee action plans (European Commission, 
2024d). However, the level of ambition varies 
(Eurochild, 2023; European Parliament, 2022a). 
To track the European child guarantee, the 
Commission and the Social Protection 
Committee prepared a common monitoring 
framework that prioritises child-specific 
indicators over those at the household level, 
but only selected indicators are disaggregated 
by sex (European Commission, 2024h).

The protection of girls in general falls within 
the scope of child protection legislation, with 
recent EU strategies focusing on enhancing 
safeguards against various forms of abuse and 
promoting online safety. In 2020, the 
Commission adopted an EU strategy for a more 
effective fight against child sexual abuse. 
Published at the height of the pandemic, the 
strategy points to how COVID-19 made child 
sexual abuse more difficult to detect. It 
highlights the heightened vulnerability of girls, 
including those with intersecting backgrounds, 
and issues such as child trafficking (European 
Commission, 2020g). In line with rising risks in 
cyberspace, the European strategy for a better 
internet for kids, launched in May 2022, tackles 
issues such as exposure to harmful content and 
promotes gender diversity in ICT roles 
(European Commission, 2022c).

One noteworthy development has been the 
increased acknowledgement of the importance 
of comprehensive sexuality education (CSE) and 
the establishment of standards for its 
implementation. The gender equality strategy 
for 2020–2025 asserts that the effective 
prevention of gender-based violence requires 
young people to be educated about gender 
equality and non-violent relationships. Building 
on this, the 2021 resolution on SRHR saw the 
European Parliament recognise CSE as a key 
contributor to gender equality (European 
Parliament, 2021d). It called on the Member 

States to ensure universal access to evidence-
based and age-appropriate CSE.

Harmful practices against girls have also 
received more legislative and policy responses, 
addressing the previous lack of binding 
instruments to protect victims. The EU’s 
accession to the Istanbul Convention and the 
adoption of the directive on violence against 
women and domestic violence will support 
greater protection for girls, specifically through 
the EU-wide criminalisation of FGM, forced 
marriage and certain forms of cyberviolence 
(see Section 2.4.2.6).

These initiatives (see Box 47) represent a 
comprehensive effort to combat violence 
against girls, both online and offline, ensuring 
equitable education for girls and boys. However, 
disparities remain. Key challenges include 
tackling sexist and racist content online, 
removing barriers to girls in STEM, addressing 
young people’s mental health needs and 
engaging in ongoing collaboration between 
educators, health professionals and law 
enforcement to ensure robust protections.

Box 47.  European Week of Action for 
Girls

Held during the week of the International 
Day of the Girl (11 October), the European 
Week of Action for Girls is organised by a 
coalition of eight CSOs to ensure girls’ 
voices and aspirations are heard by the EU 
institutions and that girls’ rights are at the 
core of the EU’s external action. The 
coalition aims to co-create a space with 
and for young people. With the theme ‘EU 
for girls’, the 2023 and 2024 editions of 
the European Week of Action for Girls 
focused on holding EU leaders accountable 
for better progress on girls’ rights in the 
context of the 2024 European 
Parliamentary elections. 

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2.12.2.  Key challenges and trends

2.12.2.1.  Girls continue to perform better 
than boys in reading and science, 
but gender stereotypes are 
holding girls back from thriving 
in a technology-driven future

According to PISA scores for 2022 across the 
Member States (70), girls surpassed boys in 

reading by 29 points and in science by 4 points. 
In contrast, boys outperformed girls by 6 points 
in mathematics (71) (Figure 44). Boys are more 
frequently top performers in mathematics than 
girls, and the gender gap is noteworthy across 
all countries (OECD, 2023b).

Figure 44.  Girls’ and boys’ educational performance in basic skills (mean score, EU-26, 2022)

Mathematics

Reading

Science

469

475

455

440

450

460

470

Girls

Boys

483

483

479

480

490

500

NB: Data are missing for Luxembourg.
Source: OECD (2023b).

Importantly, girls show decreasing interest in 
STEM as they age, from secondary education 
onwards (Lyons et al., 2022). This indicates that 
gender differences in achievements in STEM are 
due not to innate abilities, but instead to 
gender stereotypes formed since early 
childhood by family, culture and institutional 
dynamics (Evagorou et al., 2024). Gender 
stereotypes may strengthen girls’ beliefs that 
they will not enjoy science and mathematics. 
Equally, as STEM subjects are associated with 
talent and brilliance, girls are more likely to be 
less confident in their mathematics and science 
abilities than boys (Napp and Breda, 2022; 
OECD, 2023b).

The gender stereotypes that affect girls and 
boys perpetuate inequalities. They are shaped 
and reinforced by community perceptions, 
societal norms, institutional practices (Stewart 
et al., 2021) and online interactions (Horvát 
and González-Bailón, 2024). In educational 
settings, conscious and unconscious biases 
from teachers, a gender bias in textbooks and 
learning materials, and societal factors prevent 
girls from pursuing careers in STEM (this is also 
discussed in Sections 2.2.2.2 and 2.2.2.5). 
Equipping teachers to challenge these 
stereotypes and build girls’ confidence in STEM 
subjects is essential in addressing these 
disparities (see an example of an EU initiative in 
Box 48).

 (70)  2022 PISA data on this topic do not include Luxembourg.
 (71) PISA scores do not have a theoretical minimum or maximum score. They are set in relation to the variations in results 

observed across all test participants.

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Box 48.  Educational toolkits to help 
address gender stereotypes

The European Commission produced a 
toolkit for primary and secondary school 
teachers to tackle gender stereotypes 
that focuses on the transport sector 
(European Commission, 2021l). Available in 
all EU languages, the toolkit aims to 
support teachers in facilitating discussions 
about gender stereotypes, using the 
transport sector as an example. It can also 
be used by school leaders, school 
counsellors and parents. The goal is to help 
young learners understand that 
occupations are not reserved for a 
particular gender, promoting a more 
inclusive perspective on career 
opportunities.

Amid strong gender stereotypes for 
occupational choices, there is a growing number 
of initiatives that support girls to identify 
career tracks in the fields in which women’s 
participation is still rather low, such as STEM 
(Box 49 summarises a few such initiatives at 
the national and EU levels). At the same time, 
gender stereotypes continue to restrict boys’ 
entry into fields dominated by women such as 
education and health, and significantly fewer 
efforts are dedicated to encouraging boys’ 
participation in these areas (Meeussen et al., 
2019).

Box 49.  Initiatives to improve the 

participation of girls in STEM

• 

‘Girls go circular’ is a free online training 
programme that aims to train 40 000 
girls in digital and entrepreneurial skills 
across all Member States by 2027.
•  Entrepreneurship and STEAM festivals, 
organised by the European Commission 
and the European Innovation and SMEs 
Executive Agency, offer hybrid 
workshops for girls to build their 
entrepreneurial and digital 
competencies (European Commission, 
2022e).

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•  The German government is actively 
promoting women in STEM fields 
through initiatives such as ‘Girls’ day’, 
‘Klischeefrei’ and ‘Komm, mach MINT’. 
These projects aim to increase interest 
among girls in STEM careers by 
providing internships and events. ‘Girls’ 
day’, the most well-known initiative, 
offers girls one-day internships in STEM 
companies, with around 1.9 million girls 
participating since its inception in 2001.

Children and young people are often exposed to 
gender stereotypes at home, where parental 
role models play a key role in reinforcing 
gendered expectations with regard to 
housework responsibilities. This contributes to 
gender roles being passed from generation to 
generation (Giménez-Nadal et al., 2019). As a 
result, girls and boys may already adopt gender 
roles at home from an early age. For example, 
EIGE’s CARE Survey shows that girls aged 16–18 
more frequently perform housework than boys 
in the same age group. In contrast, boys are 
more often responsible for tasks traditionally 
associated with men, such as repairs, gardening 
and other maintenance-related activities 
(Figure 45 and Figure 46).

Figure 45.  Frequency of girls and boys (aged 
16–18 years) performing general 
house maintenance tasks (e.g. 
repairs, gardening and service 
arrangement) (%, EU, 2024)

52

37

15

16

18

12

29

21

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Every day

4 to 6 days 
per week

1 to 3 days
 per week

Less often 
or never

Girls

Boys

Source: EIGE’s CARE Survey, second wave (2024).

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Figure 46.  Frequency of girls and boys (aged 

Figure 47.  15-year-olds reporting multiple 

16–18 years) performing household 
chores (e.g. cooking, laundry and 
cleaning) (%, EU, 2024)

36

25

32

30

23

21

20

13

Every day

4 to 6 days 
per week

1 to 3 days
 per week

Less often
or never

Girls

Boys

40

30

20

10

0

2.12.2.2.  Girls in the EU report worse mental 
health than boys, particularly after 
the COVID-19 pandemic

Since 2014, girls in the EU have reported more 
health complaints (Figure 47) encompassing both 
physical (e.g. headache, stomach ache or 
backache) and psychological symptoms (feeling 
low, irritability or bad mood, feeling nervous and 
having difficulty in sleeping). In addition, anxiety, 
depression and eating disorders are more 
prevalent among young women than among 
young men in Europe (72) (Castelpietra et al., 
2022).

health complaints more than once a 
week (%, EU, 2014–2022)

50

28

52

30

66

36

80

60

40

20

0

2014

2018

2022

Girls

Boys

NB: The data for Belgium are averaged on the basis of the 
scores for Belgium (French speaking schools) and Belgium 
(Dutch speaking schools).
Source: International HBSC Survey of 2021/2022, 
2017/2018 and 2013/2014.

Children experiencing prolonged periods of 
physical isolation away from their friends, 
teachers, extended families and community 
due to the COVID-19 pandemic worsened 
feelings of loneliness among girls and boys 
(Mental Health Foundation, 2021). In 2021–
2022, girls aged 15 consistently reported 
higher levels of loneliness than boys in all 
Member States (Figure 48).

Figure 48.  15-year-olds who reported feeling lonely ‘most of the time’ or ‘always’, by sex and country 

(%, EU, 2021–2022)

38

36 36 36 35

33 33 32 32 32 31 30 30 30 29 28 28 27 27 26 25 24 24 23 23

20 19 20

18

19

16

14

11 11

21

19

15 14

14

14

11

10

12 12

20 19

16

9

7

13

13

10

11 10

13

6

45

40

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

PL EE LV LT FR IE

EU-27 BE DE RO CZ CY MT SK EL IT LU AT SI FI BG ES SE HR HU PT NL DK

Girls

Boys

NB: The data for Belgium are averaged on the basis of the scores for Belgium (French) and Belgium (Flemish) from the original dataset.
Source: International HBSC Survey of 2021/2022.

 (72) This study covered the EU-27, plus Iceland, Norway, Switzerland and the United Kingdom.

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Gender stereotypes also have an impact on the 
attitudes of girls and boys towards their 
bodies. Objectifying and sexualised portrayals 
of women and girls can contribute to high 
internalised levels of body surveillance and a 
drive for thinness and body shame among girls 
(Leonidas and dos Santos, 2020; Santoniccolo et 
al., 2023). In 2022, 41 % of 15-year-old girls in 
the EU reported feeling too fat, compared with 
25 % of boys (Health Behaviour in School-aged 
Children, 2023c). Similarly, dominant 
masculinities and traditional gender norms 
drive boys and young men to present as strong 
and in control – which can prevent them from 
seeking help (see discussions on stereotypes in 
Sections 2.3 and 2.10).

2.12.2.3.  Girls and boys in the EU face 

barriers to accessing sexuality 
education

CSE remains a challenge across the Member 
States. While the provision of sexuality and 
health education is already mandatory in most 
Member States, practical implementation varies. 
In many Member States, only biological and 
anatomical aspects of sex are covered, together 
with risk prevention – leaving out essential 
elements such as sexual orientation and gender-
based violence (Michielsen and Ivanova, 2022; 
European Commission: DG Employment, Social 
Affairs and Inclusion and Picken, 2020). Topics 
such as love, marriage, partnerships and family 
are also frequently  covered, but typically with a 
focus on traditional values. Few Member States 
cover issues such as gender stereotypes, mutual 
consent, LGBTIQ and topics related to online 
media (Michielsen and Ivanova, 2022; European 
Commission: DG Employment, Social Affairs and 
Inclusion and Picken, 2020).

Comprehensive sexuality education (CSE) is a curriculum-based process of 
teaching and learning about the emotional, physical and social aspects of 
sexuality. It aims to equip children and young people with knowledge, skills and 
values that will empower them to develop respectful social and sexual 
relationships. CSE supports gender equality and prevents gender-based violence 
by examining gender norms and roles, fostering respect for sexual diversity and 
gender differences, and promoting relationships characterised by mutual 
understanding and respect for individual needs and boundaries.

Source: UNESCO et al. (2018).

Young people in the EU also face barriers to 
accessing contraceptives. Only 12 Member 
States (44 %) cover contraceptives in their 
national health system or have special 
contraceptive coverage for young people aged 
19 and under (EPF, 2024). Among 15-year-old 
girls and boys in the EU, 28 % report using 
neither a condom nor a contraceptive pill during 
sexual intercourse (Health Behaviour in School-
aged Children, 2023d).

These topics are still sensitive in some Member 
States and tend to be left out, especially when 
the content and scope of sexuality education 
classes are decided at the school level or when 

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community groups are involved (Michielsen and 
Ivanova, 2022; European Commission: DG 
Employment, Social Affairs and Inclusion and 
Picken, 2020). The anti-gender movement, 
which is often based on grounds of faith, 
opposes gender equality and LGBTIQ rights 
while framing itself as ‘pro-life’ and ‘pro-family’ 
(McEwen and Narayanaswamy, 2023). Such 
conservative activists oppose CSE, women’s 
rights and bodily autonomy (Ipas, 2023). This 
poses challenges in introducing CSE in schools, 
indicating a need for holistic approaches (e.g. 
that adopted in Austria and summarised in 
Box 50) and for careful consideration from 
policymakers.

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Box 50.  Austria’s approach to CSE

Box 51.  Enhanced protection and 

Austria adopts the comprehensive 
approach to sexuality education promoted 
by international standards. In Austria, 
sexuality is regarded as an integral part of 
a child’s development, and sexuality 
education focuses on supporting children’s 
sexual health physically, cognitively and 
emotionally. The curriculum focuses on 
biological aspects and the prevention of 
early pregnancy and sexually transmitted 
infections / human immunodeficiency 
virus, in addition to sexual identity, 
consent, online media and gender-based 
violence (European Commission: DG 
Employment, Social Affairs and Inclusion 
and Picken, 2020).

2.12.2.4.  Girls may be at a higher risk of 

gender-based violence and 
discrimination when gender 
intersects with disability and 
certain ethnic, racial and religious 
backgrounds

Perpetrators of gender-based violence often 
target girls from vulnerable groups due to 
disability, race, ethnic origin, age, religion or 
language (OAS et al., 2022). In Europe, around 
one in five children are victims of some form of 
sexual violence (Council of Europe, 2023a). 
Compared to adults, children are especially 
vulnerable, with 70 % to 85 % knowing their 
perpetrator – often someone they trust 
(European Parliament, 2024b). Around one third 
of children who have been abused never 
disclose it (Thulin et al., 2020). Girls and boys 
with disabilities face a particularly high risk of 
violence due to their dependence on caregivers 
(Koistinen et al., 2019). It is thus essential that 
both girls and boys facing bullying have access 
to strong institutional support systems, with 
schools and teachers playing a central role in 
providing such help (as exemplified in Box 51 
and Box 52).

support for child victims of 
domestic violence in Portugal

In 2021, the Portuguese government 
launched funding for the creation of 
nationwide psychological support services 
for children and young victims of domestic 
violence. A pool of specialised 
psychologists with the expertise necessary 
to support these victims was set up 
(Government of the Portuguese Republic, 
2021). Law No 57/2021 extended 
protections for victims of domestic 
violence, in particular safeguarding 
children by recognising as victims people 
up to 18 years old who are exposed to 
domestic violence (CIG, 2021a).

In online spaces, while both girls and boys in 
the EU are similarly exposed to cyberbullying 
(Health Behaviour in School-aged Children, 
2023b), girls are increasingly exposed to 
gender-based cyberviolence (EIGE, 2022c). 
Young women disproportionately face 
gendered forms of cyber harassment, such as 
online sexual harassment, image-based abuse, 
cyberstalking and the non-consensual sharing 
of intimate images (EIGE, 2022c). Meanwhile, 
across the EU, 15-year-old boys are twice as 
likely to report having committed cyberbullying 
as girls (16 % versus 8 %, respectively) (Health 
Behaviour in School-aged Children, 2023c).

Box 52.  Supporting teachers in 

addressing bullying and 
discrimination towards girls 
and boys

In Romania, a collaboration between the 
National Agency for Equal Opportunities 
for Women and Men and the Ministry of 
Education has engaged 10 000 teachers in 
promoting non-discrimination and equal 
opportunities. As part of this initiative, 
teachers are encouraged to tackle bullying, 
including cyberbullying (European 
Commission, 2023a).

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In the EU, girls and young women from 
immigrant, refugee or asylum-seeking 
backgrounds also face increased risks of 
violence. Those from regions such as North 
Africa, sub-Saharan Africa, eastern Europe and 
central Asia are most at risk of harmful 
practices, such as forced and child marriage and 
FGM. Roma women and girls also face 
heightened risks of these practices (UNFPA, 
2014; Villacampa and Torres, 2020) (see also 
Section 2.4.2.6). Girls and young women in 
forced marriages face a higher risk of sexual 
assault, rape, domestic violence and abuse 
(Psaila et al., 2016). It is thus crucial to address 
this issue using an intersectional perspective to 
ensure that girls seeking refuge are not married 
off in or on the way to the EU.

2.12.2.5.  A new ideological gender divide is 

growing between young women 
and men

Teenage boys and young men are becoming 
more conservative, especially regarding gender 
equality and women’s rights. A study across 
the 27 Member States found that young men 
(aged 18–29) are the group that struggles most 
with accepting advances in women’s rights. 
Many young men believe that promoting 
women’s rights threatens men’s opportunities 
(Off et al., 2022). Polls for the European 
Parliament elections in June 2024 revealed that 
young men in countries such as Germany and 
Spain are more inclined to vote for right-wing 
parties, while young women lean left 
(Schnetzer et al., 2024; Velázquez, 2024). 
Women’s voting patterns have been a crucial 
barrier against the far-right surge in several 
countries (Calvo and Ferrín, 2023). While this is 
still a new phenomenon, similar trends are 
emerging in other parts of the world. For 
instance, in the United Kingdom, young men 
(aged 16–29) are the group that is least 
optimistic about the impact of feminism, and 

one in three young men think it will be harder 
to be a man than a woman in 20 years (73) 
(Campbell et al., 2024). A study across G7 
countries also found that young men show high 
levels of prejudice against women in leadership 
roles (Verian Group, 2024). Engaging young 
people in discussions about equality, gender 
stereotypes and discrimination is crucial to 
shift these attitudes and foster support for 
gender equality (for an example, see Box 53).

Box 53.  Engaging young people in 

discussions about women’s 
rights and gender equality

The Rock de Rack festival, organised by 
Luxembourg’s Ministry of Equality 
between Women and Men in 2019, marked 
the centennial of women’s suffrage and 
centred on young people, democracy and 
equality. It included educational 
workshops on gender equality, organised 
with partners including the University of 
Luxembourg and BEE Secure. An 
interactive debate encouraged young 
people to share their views on gender 
equality and democracy in schools.

One driver of the gender divide among young 
generations is the growing digital exposure to 
‘online misogyny influencers’ who offer advice 
on relationships, mental health, well-being and 
achieving material success and status (Botto 
and Gottzén, 2022; Haslop et al., 2024). The 
content shared by these influencers often 
steers young men towards more conservative 
and misogynistic ideologies. Growth in these 
attitudes among young men could significantly 
challenge the progress made and further 
efforts to achieve gender equality, as they may 
resist policies and cultural shifts aimed at 
promoting women’s rights and reducing gender 
disparities.

 (73)  The study is based on a representative sample of 3 716 adults aged 16 + across the United Kingdom between 17 and 

23 August 2023.

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3.  Beyond the Beijing Platform for Action + 30: 

recommendations for action

The BPfA + 30 review highlights notable 
progress in gender equality within the EU, 
including greater representation of women in 
decision-making, more robust policies against 
gender-based violence and more attempts to 
consider gender inequalities in policymaking. 
Despite these advances, persistent gaps remain 
across all 12 areas of the BPfA, including in 
economic empowerment, unpaid care 
responsibilities and women’s access to strategic 
sectors crucial for the green and digital 
transitions. Moreover, emerging challenges such 
as the digital transformation, climate change, 
the effects of COVID-19 and new security 
threats have exacerbated existing gender 
inequalities and created new ones.

The following recommendations are structured 
around seven themes, outlining actions for EU 
institutions and Member States within the 
remit of their jurisdictions while emphasising 
the importance of collaboration with other 
stakeholders, such as CSOs or social partners. 
Where relevant, specific institutions or 
stakeholders are mentioned to support the 
targeted guidance.

1.  Thriving in a gender-equal and 

inclusive economy

Invest in care work as the backbone of the 
European economy

• 

Invest in gender-responsive social protection 
for informal and formal caregivers and in the 
formal recognition of informal care. Promote 
collective bargaining to improve the 
attractiveness of the care sector, tackle staff 
shortages and increase funding for training 
programmes and support services for care 
workers. Encourage the greater participation 
of men in both paid and unpaid care work. 
Ratify and implement International Labour 
Organization (ILO) Convention 189 to 
promote decent work for domestic workers.

•  Exceed the minimum standards laid down in 
the work–life balance directive. Introduce 
higher levels of compensation for paternity, 
parental and carers’ leave; extend non-
transferable leave; and enhance quality 
flexible working arrangements. Provide 
access to benefits that are not linked to a 
minimum duration of work and expand the 
definition of care to encompass roles beyond 
the family.

•  Propose EU legislation to ensure equal access 

to telework, lay down conditions for 
teleworking and ensure the right to 
disconnect.

•  Address gender gaps and disparities within 
the framework of the European semester. 
Embed gender mainstreaming into the 
European semester. Prioritise tackling 
gender gaps in the labour market and 
enhancing caregiving support, work–life 
balance and access to digital skills.

Address gender inequalities in multiple 
dimensions of poverty and financial 
independence

•  Address women’s poverty as part of the 

• 

post-2025 gender equality strategy. Develop 
a 2030 European anti-poverty strategy with 
targets disaggregated by sex and 
incorporate a gender perspective into the 
European platform on combating 
homelessness. At the national level, exempt 
women’s sanitary products from value 
added tax and take measures to ensure 
lower prices to combat period poverty.
Include individual-based assessments in the 
measurement of poverty. Regularly collect 
and analyse data disaggregated by sex on 
the multidimensional nature of poverty. 
Complement data on income and poverty at 
the household level with assessments of 
individuals in order to better identify 
women’s poverty and financial dependence 
(e.g. in cases of violence against women or 
family dissolution).

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•  Establish a multidimensional concept of 

•  Provide direct funding from Horizon Europe 

financial independence that includes income, 
consumption, wealth and power/control, 
together with standardised indicators for 
EU-wide tracking.

Secure equitable wages and reduce 
precarious employment for all women and 
men

•  Promote women’s entry into and retention 
in the labour market, reduce the gender pay 
gap and support women entrepreneurs 
through policies aimed at strengthening the 
single market. Invest in and promote lifelong 
learning for women and men, particularly 
groups such as older women, carers and 
those affected by the automation of jobs.
•  At the national level, swiftly incorporate the 
directives on adequate minimum wages and 
pay transparency into national legislation. 
Ensure that the provisions on minimum 
wages cover all types of workers and adhere 
to the international standards of 60 % of the 
gross median wage and 50 % of the gross 
average wage. Adjust minimum wages to 
reflect the cost of living through national 
price indexes. Prioritise the implementation 
of the pay transparency directive in 
response to the cost-of-living crisis.
Implement the Council recommendation on 
minimum income. Allow people who are 
receiving income support to accumulate 
earnings from work during short-term or 
sporadic work, probation periods or 
traineeships. Monitor the implementation of 
such support within the framework of the 
European semester and propose a legally 
binding EU directive.

• 

•  Boost gender equality in the review of the 

EPSR action plan in 2025, taking into account 
intersecting inequalities. Set specific targets, 
disaggregated by sex and other 
characteristics, to tackle women’s poverty. 
To tackle the root causes and the 
disproportionate effects of poverty on 
women and men, integrate a gender 
equality perspective into the EU quality jobs 
roadmap, into the focus on digitalisation in 
the world of work and into the new pact for 
European social dialogue.

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and the new European Competitiveness Fund 
to support women entrepreneurs, women-
led small and medium-sized enterprises and 
women researchers and innovators. Place a 
focus on providing tailored guidance on 
debt, investments and digital financial 
literacy, in addition to sponsoring 
networking and coaching initiatives. Collect 
comparable and sex-disaggregated data on 
levels of financial literacy across the EU.
Improve data collection and metrics on 
gendered employment trends, especially in 
the green and energy sectors, to track 
gender equality in the green transition. 
Collect comprehensive data on unpaid work 
(including care and domestic tasks). Ensure 
employment statistics consider parental 
leave uniformly, including details on 
duration, uptake and income replacement.

• 

Ensure gender equality in fiscal policies and 
pension reforms

•  Recognise and compensate unpaid care work 
and ensure pension schemes cover people 
who are self-employed or unemployed, as 
well as those in atypical employment. 
Explore individual taxation options to 
eliminate disincentives for secondary 
earners and address the pay and pension 
gaps associated with an unequal share of 
care accumulated over the life course.

Extend policies on work–life balance and 
promote gender-equal workplace cultures

•  Enforce equal and non-transferable parental 

leave and family-friendly working time 
arrangements, mandate the adoption of 
gender equality plans by companies and 
promote the advancement of women into 
senior positions and leadership. Implement 
initiatives to counter unconscious biases and 
encourage men’s involvement in caregiving 
roles and men’s access to the education, 
health and welfare sectors, while 
strengthening the retention of women in 
fields traditionally dominated by men.

3.  Beyond the Beijing Platform for Action + 30: recommendations for action

•  Ensure women are represented in social 

dialogue, including those in non-standard 
and informal work. Promote social dialogue 
to address gender pay gaps, work–life 
balance, the equal sharing of parental leave 
and zero tolerance towards workplace 
harassment. Incorporate gender-sensitive 
considerations into the pact for European 
social dialogue.

2.  Providing gender-responsive 
social protection and services

Strengthen gender equality considerations 
in social policies

• 

Invest in accessible, affordable and high-
quality gender-responsive ECEC and long-
term care services for family members in 
need of care. Set ambitious targets for 
participation in ECEC, in addition to EU-level 
targets for home-based long-term care 
services, and increase investments in 
working conditions and in health and safety 
in these areas. Support the implementation 
of the European care strategy through 
research and data collection.

•  Create a network of family support services 
that are universal and easy to access and 
that offer both general and specific support 
for families in all their diversity, including 
lone-parent families, families with caring 
needs, same-sex families and those in which 
grandparents or other relatives are actively 
involved in raising children.

•  Support gender-responsive monitoring of 

• 

the European child guarantee national action 
plans. Ensure that all relevant indicators in 
monitoring frameworks are, where possible, 
disaggregated by sex and age.
Implement gender-sensitive regulations and 
labour reforms to ensure fair pay, social 
protections and equitable working 
conditions for workers in non-standard 
work. Adopt the ILO’s recommendations to 
reduce precarious work by restricting the 
use of unstable contracts, limiting their 
duration. Implement safeguards to protect 
collective bargaining rights and guard 

against discrimination, including for non-
standard workers.

Incorporate a gender perspective into 
policies on housing and homelessness

•  Support and invest in social housing as the 
backbone of national housing systems. 
Guarantee that all women and men have 
access to affordable and dignified housing, 
particularly groups that are more vulnerable 
to housing poverty, such as young people, 
lone mothers, older women and women 
fleeing intimate partner violence. Integrate 
social housing as one element in a 
comprehensive housing strategy alongside 
other affordable housing initiatives at the 
national level. Enforce stronger tenant 
protections and rent control measures to 
ensure housing stability. Monitor housing 
exclusion indicators in the European 
semester.

•  Adopt the principle of ‘housing first’ to 

address homelessness in a gender-sensitive 
and intersectional way. This approach 
focuses on providing long-term housing 
without requiring individuals to accept 
support or demonstrate personal progress.

Ensure universal access to healthcare, 
including sexual and reproductive health 
and mental health

•  Ensure universal access to gender-responsive 
healthcare for women and men in all their 
diversity, particularly for groups in 
disadvantaged situations such as women 
and girls with disabilities, migrant women 
and girls, transgender and non-binary 
individuals and women in rural areas. 
Remove barriers to access, such as language 
and financial constraints. Increase 
investment in healthcare facilities in rural 
areas and develop adaptable solutions such 
as mobile health clinics.

•  Address gender inequalities in the 

healthcare workforce. Enhance working 
conditions and health and safety in the 
healthcare sector. Take steps to close the 

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gender pay gap in the sector, in particular 
addressing the persistent devaluation of 
roles predominantly held by women, such as 
nursing. Adopt measures to prevent and 
address gender-based violence within 
healthcare settings. Encourage the 
participation of men and boys in the 
healthcare sector through awareness 
campaigns that challenge traditional gender 
roles. Provide healthcare professionals with 
training to ensure healthcare services are 
gender responsive, inclusive and 
non-stigmatising.

•  Ensure equal access to sexual and 

reproductive health services for all women 
and girls, particularly those affected by 
intersecting forms of discrimination. Ensure 
that men and boys also benefit from 
resources, services and education on sexual 
and reproductive health in stigma-free 
settings. Increase investments to support 
research on safe, effective, affordable and 
acceptable sexual and reproductive health 
technologies, including contraception for all 
genders.
Implement and expand comprehensive 
breast cancer and cervical cancer screening 
programmes. Extend the age ranges of 
women eligible for free screenings.

• 

Adopt a sex and gender approach in health 
research and funding

• 

Incorporate sex and gender considerations 
into EU health programmes and funding 
guidelines for health research.
•  Promote sex- and gender-sensitive 

biomedical, clinical and public health 
research. Enhance research on women’s 
health, including sex- and gender-specific 
responses to diseases. Implement policies 
favourable to investment in women’s health, 
for example by means of the proposed 
initiative under the European 
competitiveness compass and increased EU 
funding for women’s health, including 
through the EU’s research framework 
programme.

•  Create an expert group on women’s health in 
research and innovation at the EU level to 
address the unmet health needs of women. 

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Enhance research on women’s health, 
focusing on sex-disaggregated data 
collection, national health data systems and 
analyses, in order to improve the delivery of 
national health services for women.

•  Adopt a standardised definition of violence 

in gynaecological and obstetric care. 
Establish minimum standards for 
gynaecological, antenatal, childbirth and 
postnatal care. Promote accountability of 
healthcare providers, facilitate research and 
data collection, and raise awareness about 
gynaecological and obstetric violence as a 
form of violence against women.

3.  Eradicating gender-based 

violence, stigma and stereotypes

Advance the EU legal framework to 
eliminate gender-based violence against 
women and improve the standards for 
women’s human rights

• 

Implement the Istanbul Convention as a 
binding legal instrument in 22 Member 
States and in the EU within the remit of its 
jurisdiction. Transpose the EU directive on 
combating violence against women and 
domestic violence. At the EU level, urge 
those Member States that have not yet 
acceded to the Istanbul Convention to 
expedite this process, and support Member 
States in implementing and monitoring the 
EU directive on violence against women and 
domestic violence.

•  Align the EU legal framework with 

international standards on women’s rights, 
particularly to prevent and combat all forms 
of violence against women as outlined in the 
general recommendations related to the 
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms 
of Discrimination against Women.

•  Ratify ILO Convention 190 on Violence and 

Harassment in the World of Work to 
recognise the right to a world of work free 
from violence and harassment, including 
gender-based violence.

•  Accelerate revisions to the victims’ rights 
directive to address existing gaps in 
protection and support for victims. Integrate 

3.  Beyond the Beijing Platform for Action + 30: recommendations for action

a gender and intersectional perspective into 
these revisions, acknowledging the increased 
vulnerability of groups of people in 
disadvantaged situations.

Advance the EU legal framework on anti-
discrimination

•  Adopt an anti-discrimination directive to 

overcome current gaps in anti-discrimination 
legislation at the EU level. Extend the 
current list of EU crimes in Article 83(1) of 
the Treaty on the Functioning of the 
European Union to include hate crimes and 
hate speech, as a new area of listed crimes.

Strengthen data collection to tackle 
violence against women

• 

In cooperation with EIGE, adapt national 
data-recording systems for intimate partner 
violence to include data on the sex and age 
of the victim and the perpetrator and the 
relationship between the victim and the 
perpetrator. Conduct regular population-
based surveys on violence against women at 
the national level using harmonised 
methodologies, and publish regular reports.

•  Adopt common indicators for tracking 

objectives in relation to women’s human 
rights (area I of the BPfA), focusing on the 
ratification of fundamental human rights 
laws and treaties and the enforcement of 
equality and non-discrimination laws.

Ensure residency rights for victims of 
domestic violence in the EU

•  Amend the citizens’ rights directive 

(Directive 2004/38/EC) to eliminate the 
requirement for non-EU citizens to be 
economically active and to possess health 
insurance in the host Member State in order 
to retain residency rights in the event of 
divorce, the annulment of a marriage or the 
termination of a registered partnership in 
cases of domestic violence during the 
relationship.

Recognise femicide as a distinct offence 
from homicide

•  Recognise femicide as a criminal offence 
separate from homicide in national penal 
codes. Consider orphaned children and the 
parents and siblings of murdered women to 
be victims.

Establish a consent-based framework for 
rape and ensure specialised support 
services

• 

•  Adopt a consent-based definition of rape to 
combat under-reporting and the inadequate 
prosecution of rape. Swiftly implement the 
provisions of the directive on combating 
violence against women with regard to 
education about consent. Promote 
awareness-raising campaigns and 
programmes that aim to deconstruct 
stereotypes that reinforce unequal gender 
and power dynamics, and promote the role 
of consent in sexual relationships.
Increase the availability and accessibility of 
specialised services to respond to rape and 
sexual violence. Strengthen referral 
mechanisms by training professionals, 
particularly those in healthcare, psychosocial 
services and law enforcement. Increase 
funding for support services that address 
the needs of victims in vulnerable situations. 
Strengthen reporting mechanisms and 
adopt mandatory reporting by law 
enforcement, healthcare workers and social 
services of incidents of violence against 
women.

•  Address persistent gender stereotypes and 
bias in justice systems to improve victims’ 
access to justice. Provide gender-sensitive 
training, work–life balance measures and 
professional development for women in 
professions related to the judicial system.
•  Develop practical guidelines to standardise 
CSE curricula across the Member States. 
Ensure these guidelines cover topics such as 
gender-based violence, consent, gender 
stereotypes and unequal power dynamics. 
Adopt CSE training as part of teacher 
education programmes. Engage NGOs 

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working on gender equality in implementing 
evidence-based education programmes.

Eliminate gender stereotypes and gender-
based violence in education

Address economic violence and 
psychological violence as critical forms of 
violence

•  Recognise economic violence and 

psychological violence as separate offences 
or as aggravating circumstances in cases of 
domestic violence or intimate partner 
violence. Align definitions of these offences 
in national frameworks with the Istanbul 
Convention.

Strengthen the response to and awareness 
of gender-based cyberviolence

•  Enforce the DSA and adopt a unified 

approach to cyberviolence by harmonising 
definitions and collecting comparable data. 
Monitor compliance with the DSA and the EU 
directive on combating violence against 
women and domestic violence and ensure 
that digital providers and platforms have 
effective mechanisms for reporting 
complaints and following up, removing 
harmful content and informing victims of 
cyberviolence about support services. 
Incentivise platforms to set up and adhere 
to the code of conduct on combating gender-
based cyberviolence. Strengthen digital 
literacy programmes and initiatives for 
reporting cyberviolence. Address the 
psychological impacts of cyberviolence on 
both young girls and young boys.

Improve the legal framework on forced 
marriage and female genital mutilation

•  Criminalise forced marriage and FGM to 

implement the provisions of the EU directive 
on violence against women and domestic 
violence. Recognise the risk of FGM as a 
ground for asylum and enact corresponding 
legislation to guarantee gender-sensitive 
asylum procedures.

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•  Set national standards to ensure that 
educational materials promote gender 
equality and dismantle gender stereotypes. 
Promote CSE, including knowledge about 
consent in interpersonal relationships, as a 
key preventive measure against violence 
against women and domestic violence. 
Review curricula and teaching content to 
ensure their inclusivity and provide 
publishers with guidelines on eliminating 
gender bias in educational materials. Invest 
in the professional development of 
educators to better combat gender 
stereotypes throughout childhood 
education, vocational education and 
training, on-the-job training, adult 
education, and formal and non-formal 
learning educational pathways.

•  Address all forms of gender-based violence 
in education. Establish policies aimed at 
preventing, recognising and responding to 
gender-based violence in educational 
settings. Implement mandatory training 
programmes for all members of the 
education community, in addition to safe 
infrastructure, confidential reporting 
mechanisms and disciplinary actions. Engage 
NGOs working on gender equality in 
implementing evidence-based prevention 
programmes.
Implement gender-sensitive indicators in the 
monitoring of education and training. In 
collaboration with national education 
ministries, promote and rely on both 
quantitative and qualitative research on 
how social norms affect the educational 
performance of women, men, girls and boys. 
Rely on such data to inform policies on 
tackling gender stereotypes.

• 

Address misogynistic attitudes among men 
and boys

•  Counter rising anti-democratic values among 
boys and young men concerning gender 
equality and women’s rights by promoting 
gender equality education in schools, 
strengthening critical media literacy, 

3.  Beyond the Beijing Platform for Action + 30: recommendations for action

countering misinformation and challenging 
gender stereotypes.

•  Cooperate with CSOs to support a bottom-up 
approach to awareness-raising initiatives. 
Engage companies, sports organisations, 
media organisations and other organisations 
in tackling misogyny across all spheres of 
life.

4.  Fostering parity democracy, 
accountability and gender-
responsive institutions

Enhance the status of gender equality and 
gender mainstreaming in EU governance 
and policymaking processes

•  Appoint a Commissioner for Equality with a 

well-funded and well-resourced 
administrative structure to uphold the 
ambitions outlined in the EU treaties, gender 
equality legislation and the ‘union of 
equality’ strategies.

•  Develop a new EU gender equality strategy 
for post-2025 with clear targets, monitoring 
mechanisms and dedicated resources.

• 

•  Strengthen the coordination and 
accountability of EU institutional 
mechanisms to advance gender equality and 
gender mainstreaming. Produce, publish and 
regularly monitor gender mainstreaming 
action plans in all DGs.
Incorporate ex ante gender impact 
assessments and gender analysis 
throughout the policymaking process, 
making the findings of these publicly 
available to inform policies. In line with the 
better regulation agenda, adopt a gender 
perspective, taking into account 
intersectional aspects, across all policy areas. 
Include gender-responsive requirements in 
future revisions of the public procurement 
directive (Directive 2014/24/EU).

•  Adopt a comprehensive gender budgeting 
approach in the EU budget. As part of the 
MFF for 2028–2035, propose mandatory 
gender mainstreaming and budgeting across 
all programmes, including ex ante and ex 
post gender impact assessments and gender 
equality objectives and indicators.

•  Keep gender equality on the agenda of 

discussions on the changing (geo)political 
context and EU’s priorities, such as security 
and competitiveness. Ensure the 
continuation of funding for gender equality, 
combating gender-based violence and 
gender mainstreaming in security and 
competitiveness policies.

•  Strengthen the gender perspective in the 
implementation and monitoring of the 
Recovery and Resilience Facility national 
plans.

•  Establish a dedicated Council formation of 
ministers responsible for gender equality, 
and convene meetings regularly. Strengthen 
the Council’s institutional mechanisms for 
gender mainstreaming, including by 
establishing an internal gender 
mainstreaming network at the General 
Secretariat of the Council.

Reinforce democratic principles to 
safeguard gender equality, address 
violence against women politicians and 
protect women’s human rights 
organisations and activists

•  Collaborate over the monitoring of 

democratic backsliding and reinforce 
democratic principles, ensuring that gender 
equality remains a priority across the EU. 
Counter disinformation regarding gender 
equality and women’s rights through EU 
efforts to protect democracies, such as the 
upcoming European democracy shield 
initiative.

•  Ensure that electoral bodies monitor 
instances of violence against women. 
Provide gender-sensitive training to electoral 
stakeholders and improve access to funding 
for women candidates.

•  Address cyberviolence against women 

politicians, journalists and human rights 
defenders. Update national legal 
frameworks to define types of violence and 
describe investigation, punishment and 
reparation processes. Create synergies with 
platforms to promote transparency and 
accountability in preventing and responding 
to online attacks against women, working 

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together to remove opacity policies that 
could obstruct investigations.

•  Safeguard the operating spaces of activists 
and CSOs. Ensure a safe environment for 
activists and civil society by strengthening 
their protection against online and physical 
violence and harassment. Ensure that the 
successor to the citizens, equality, rights and 
values programme provides increased EU 
funding for gender equality organisations.

•  Engage in meaningful and systematic 

consultations with CSOs working on gender 
equality, human rights, equality and 
women’s rights to ensure the involvement of 
these bodies at all stages of policymaking.
•  Enhance the FEMM Committee’s status and 
influence in legislative and policy processes, 
particularly on economic policies. Reinforce 
gender-equal democracy at the EU level 
through proposed amendments to the 
statutes and funding of European political 
parties and their governing bodies and 
foundations.

Promote gender balance in decision-
making and leadership

•  Enforce legislative gender quotas for all 
elections on the basis of parity. Adopt 
gender quotas for all elections, mandating a 
minimum 50/50 share of women and men 
among candidates. Apply sanctions on 
political parties for non-compliance. 
Expedite the proposed revisions to the 
European Parliament’s regulations to 
enhance gender equality. Revise national 
parliaments’ internal policies to ensure that 
they are gender sensitive and inclusive and 
to strengthen gender mainstreaming within 
parliamentary practices.

•  Ensure the incorporation into national law 
and implementation of the directive on 
improving gender balance among the 
directors of listed companies. At the national 
level, apply penalties on companies for 
non-compliance. Involve independent 
equality bodies in monitoring compliance by 
companies and reporting annually on 
progress. Adopt measures aimed at gender 
auditing and public reporting on gender 

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representation and pay in small and 
medium-sized enterprises.

•  Ensure the equal representation of women 

and men in national central banks, European 
financial institutions and other decision-
making spheres.

•  Collect data disaggregated by sex, age, race, 

ethnicity, disability status and sexual 
orientation within legal constraints in order 
to better understand how diverse groups are 
represented in decision-making. To 
overcome legal and ethical challenges to 
data collection, create legal exceptions that 
cover monitoring and public reporting while 
maintaining the anonymity of respondents.

Strengthen institutional mechanisms for 
gender equality and gender mainstreaming

•  Reinforce national governmental gender 
equality bodies, with their sole focus on 
promoting gender equality and gender 
mainstreaming in policymaking and in line 
with the EU commitment to the dual 
approach. Make their mandate distinct from 
other non-discrimination grounds. 
Strengthen their resources and establish 
their powers at the highest level within the 
governmental structure, preferably as 
ministries, to highlight its importance. 
Incorporate the directives on standards for 
equality bodies into national law. At the EU 
level, create common indicators on the 
functioning of equality bodies through 
collaboration between the Commission, EIGE, 
FRA and Equinet.
Increase the use of gender mainstreaming 
structures, methods and tools. Make gender 
mainstreaming a mandatory practice. 
Strengthen the use of gender analysis, ex 
ante gender impact assessments, gender-
responsive evaluations and gender 
budgeting across all levels of government 
and in all policy areas. Establish gender 
mainstreaming structures by, for example, 
creating focal points in all ministries and a 
cross-ministry coordination body.

• 

•  Adopt national gender equality strategies 

with accompanying action plans that outline 
concrete measures, accountability 

3.  Beyond the Beijing Platform for Action + 30: recommendations for action

mechanisms and adequate financial 
resources to support implementation.

•  Collect and disseminate statistics on gender 
and intersecting inequalities. Regularly 
produce and disseminate gender equality 
reports, incorporating an intersectional 
perspective. Publish comprehensive gender 
statistics on the websites of national 
statistical offices.

5.  Shaping a digital transformation 
that promotes gender equality

Guarantee equitable access to digital skills 
and employment pathways

•  Ensure inclusive access to digital education 
at all stages of life, addressing the specific 
barriers faced by women and other people in 
disadvantaged situations, including the risks 
of deskilling and skills mismatch. Integrate a 
gender-sensitive, intersectional approach 
within the ‘union of skills’ to ensure that all 
groups benefit from digital opportunities, 
from education to professional 
advancement. Create frameworks to 
regularly monitor and evaluate the gendered 
impacts of digitalisation on job structures 
and employment practices and their effects 
on different groups of people.

•  Ensure employment opportunities for 

• 

women in professions related to the digital 
transition. Promote targeted training and 
mentoring programmes for women who 
have limited experience in ICT and digital 
skills. Ensure access to these programmes 
for people with caregiving duties and those 
with limited internet access.
Increase the attention paid to psychosocial 
risks and gender impacts in traditional and 
remote working environments, for example 
in the context of labour inspectorates. 
Ensure a comprehensive approach to 
workplace safety and gender equality, 
including protections for employees and 
self-employed individuals.

Enhance gender equality policies and fair 
working conditions for women in the media 
and digital companies

•  Promote policies to improve working 

conditions and the health and safety of 
women in the media and in digital and 
creative industries. Extend labour 
protections to freelancers and those in 
non-traditional employment. Ensure fair and 
equitable working conditions in the media 
and digital companies. Address care and 
gender pay gaps through comprehensive 
social security, and implement safeguards 
against discrimination, harassment and 
cyberviolence.

•  Foster partnerships between media and 
digital organisations and unions to 
strengthen national, regional and 
international regulatory mechanisms. Adopt 
quotas or targets for women’s 
representation on media boards and in 
leadership roles.

Promote women’s leadership and 
entrepreneurship in high-technology 
sectors

•  Support women in STEM career fields 
through initiatives such as mentoring, 
entrepreneurship and leadership 
programmes to drive innovation and foster 
inclusive growth. Promote the training, 
recruitment and retention of women in the 
professions of the next wave of frontier 
technologies and cutting-edge science, in 
particular AI innovation, supercomputing, 
semiconductors, the internet of things, 
genomics, quantum computing, space 
technology and biotechnology, among 
others.

•  Establish dedicated funding mechanisms 

and incentives for women entrepreneurs in 
high-technology sectors, such as grants, 
low-interest loans and venture capital funds, 
while promoting financial literacy and 
investment readiness through targeted 
training to equip women with the skills 
needed to access and secure financing.

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Embed gender equality into EU digital and 
artificial intelligence strategies and 
initiatives

• 

• 

Integrate gender equality considerations 
into EU digital strategies and regulations to 
address gender biases in algorithms and 
promote the equitable representation of 
women on digital media platforms in terms 
of both content creation and decision-
making roles. Establish enforceable 
measures and impose penalties for non-
compliance instead of relying on self-
regulation by stakeholders in the media.
Introduce mandatory gender equality 
impact assessment as a part of fundamental 
rights impact assessment under the AI Act 
framework to identify and mitigate the 
potential adverse effects of AI tools on 
women and men. Include third-party audits 
to detect and correct algorithmic biases in 
hiring, retention and advancement practices.

•  Explore the potential of AI to enhance the 

diversity and accessibility of media content, 
for example by using deep learning to detect 
gender-based violence and online 
harassment or using speech recognition and 
automated captioning innovations to make 
media more accessible to people with 
disabilities. Incorporate advanced 
technologies and AI to improve diagnostic 
accuracy.

Strengthen social media regulations to 
protect women and girls from 
cyberviolence

•  Cooperate with social media platforms to 
introduce e-safety regulations to protect 
women and girls from cyberviolence and 
harassment on social media, including the 
development of reporting mechanisms, 
penalties, harmful content removal and 
preventive measures. Promote the 
commitment of platforms to the code of 
conduct on combating gender-based 
cyberviolence.
Introduce regulatory measures to promote 
non-stereotypical portrayals of women and 
men. Monitor performance at the national 
level, enforcing compliance and imposing 

• 

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European Institute for Gender Equality

penalties. To support those measures, 
develop media literacy programmes and 
training for journalists and media 
professionals on gender-sensitive content.

Support research and data collection on 
gender equality and intersecting 
inequalities in digitalisation

• 

Invest in research that tracks gender 
equality in the media and the digital 
industries by collecting sex-disaggregated 
data, including with an intersectional 
perspective. Involve national statistical 
agencies, academia and research centres, 
along with media and digital companies, in 
measuring access to gender-sensitive digital 
learning programmes; monitoring women’s 
employment in ICT, STEM and emerging 
digital fields; evaluating AI biases in relation 
to workforce management; tracking working 
conditions in the media and digital sectors; 
and assessing stereotypical portrayals in the 
media.

6.  Advancing a socially fair green 

transition that leaves no woman 
or girl behind

Integrate gender and intersectional 
perspectives in EU climate strategies and 
initiatives

•  Embed gender-specific objectives and 

targets, taking into account an 
intersectional lens, within the European 
Green Deal and related EU climate initiatives. 
Address gaps in the circular economy with 
regard to vital industries such as the power 
and utilities sector by mandating the use of 
gender mainstreaming methods and tools. 
Facilitate the sharing of good practices 
among the Member States, support 
capacity-building initiatives and promote 
gender considerations within climate finance 
mechanisms.

•  Strengthen the gender perspective in 

national energy and climate plans. Enhance 
the assessment of those plans by adopting 

3.  Beyond the Beijing Platform for Action + 30: recommendations for action

gender-responsive frameworks in the 
evaluation process.

•  Adopt gender-sensitive public health 

strategies, including the implementation of 
housing interventions that enhance energy 
efficiency and counteract energy poverty to 
better address the health impacts of climate 
change.

•  Strengthen gender equality considerations 
in EU agricultural and food security policies 
and funding and ensure women farmers 
have equitable access to resources and 
opportunities. Include more robust 
requirements for Member States to tackle 
gender inequalities in agriculture and 
address discriminatory gender norms that 
have an impact on food security and 
nutrition.

•  Actively incorporate a gender perspective 

into climate adaptation, mitigation and DRR 
strategies, and adhere to the EUR-OPA major 
hazards agreement. Involve women, 
especially those from groups in 
disadvantaged situations, in the planning 
and implementation of DRR and climate 
adaptation initiatives.

Promote gender equality in environmental 
decision-making and sustainability efforts

•  Ensure the equal representation of women 
in environmental decision-making at all 
levels, including in national and international 
forums. Promote gender-responsive training 
programmes to ensure the equitable access 
of women to jobs and leadership positions in 
the green, transport and sustainable energy 
sectors.

•  Consult with women’s organisations and 

invest in initiatives that recognise women’s 
environmental efforts. Encourage women, 
girls, men and boys to participate equally in 
sustainability initiatives.

Recognise the vital role of the care sector 
in advancing the green transition

•  Prioritise policies that explicitly include care 
work in green job policies and sustainable 
caregiving practices. This involves targeted 

investment and incentives for green 
caregiving practices and research to broaden 
the knowledge on the role of unpaid and 
paid care work in the green transition.

Address data gaps to inform gender-
responsive environmental policies

•  Establish frameworks to regularly assess the 
gendered impacts of environmental policies, 
energy poverty and transport poverty. 
Prioritise the collection of up-to-date, 
intersectional data disaggregated by sex, 
age, ethnicity, disability and socioeconomic 
status. Address significant data gaps, such 
as the impact of climate change on women’s 
health, gender-based violence and 
employment opportunities in strategic 
sectors of the green transition, such as the 
energy and transport sectors, to develop 
robust, gender-responsive environmental 
policies. Develop clear guidelines for data 
collection and implementation.

•  Develop new indicators to track progress, in 
line with the BPfA, regarding the integration 
of a gender perspective into policies and 
programmes for sustainable development 
and the establishment of mechanisms to 
assess the impact on women of 
development and environmental policies.

7.  Achieving peaceful and inclusive 
societies and advancing gender 
equality across the world

Integrate a feminist approach into security 
frameworks

• 

Integrate into EU security policies a feminist 
approach that aligns with the WPS agenda 
to protect women’s rights. Conduct gender 
impact assessments on security policies to 
mitigate gender-based risks. Evaluate the 
implementation of the EU’s WPS action plan 
and ensure that future policies incorporate 
gender and intersectional perspectives. 
Support Member States in developing 
national action plans and promote a feminist 
approach to foreign and security policy, 

European Institute for Gender Equality

157

3.  Beyond the Beijing Platform for Action + 30: recommendations for action

Strengthen commitments to gender 
equality in external action and EU 
enlargement

•  Fulfil the commitments of GAP III and 
strengthen the adoption of a gender 
perspective in EU humanitarian actions. 
Allocate more funding to gender-related 
actions and programmes in which gender 
equality is a key component.

•  Adopt a post-2027 GAP IV that builds on the 
successes of GAP III, with strong support for 
a gender-transformative approach and even 
more ambitious objectives, especially scaling 
up support for SRHR and women’s rights 
through earmarked funding and monitoring 
tools.

•  Support EU candidate countries in complying 
with the EU gender equality framework. This 
includes newly adopted legislation such as 
the EU directive on violence against women 
and domestic violence. Assert the EU’s 
leading role in multilateral negotiations to 
reform the international order through the 
protection of women’s rights and gender 
mainstreaming.

• 

• 

particularly in areas such as AI, 
cybersecurity, climate security, and 
countering terrorism and radicalisation.
Improve data collection in order to grasp the 
scale and impact of security threats against 
women. Invest urgently in further research 
and in collecting data disaggregated by sex 
to better understand the gender-specific 
and intersecting vulnerabilities that emerge 
from new security concerns.
Increase the representation of women in 
high-profile roles, including defence 
ministers, senior military positions and 
members of parliamentary security and 
defence committees. Consider gender 
quotas for top executive positions in 
security and defence agencies. Address 
exclusionary practices, provide regular 
gender equality training for the armed 
forces and enforce a policy of zero tolerance 
towards sexual harassment and abuse.

Adopt gender-responsive approaches to 
increasing migratory pressures

•  Revise the new pact on migration and 

asylum to prevent increased violence against 
refugees and asylum seekers, especially 
women and children. Avoid border 
securitisation policies and the 
externalisation of asylum processes that 
exacerbate the vulnerability of refugee 
women.

•  Extend the TPD to protect women and girls 
fleeing Ukraine until the Russian war of 
aggression ends, and provide similar 
protection to women and girls fleeing other 
conflict zones. Adopt adequate reception 
conditions to prevent gender-based violence, 
especially sexual violence, against women 
and girl asylum seekers.

158

European Institute for Gender Equality

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Zumsteeg, S. (2022), ‘Increased domestic 
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Legislation and related documents

EU level

Communication from the Commission to the 
European Parliament and the Council – A more 
inclusive and protective Europe: Extending the 
list of EU crimes to hate speech and hate crime, 
COM(2021) 777 final of 9 December 2021, 
https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/
TXT/?uri=CELEX:52021DC0777.

Communication from the Commission to the 
European Parliament and the Council – Europe’s 
beating cancer plan, COM(2021) 44 final of 
3 February 2021, https://eur-lex.europa.eu/
legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex:52021DC0044.

Communication from the Commission to the 
European Parliament, the Council, the European 
Economic and Social Committee and the 
Committee of the Regions – A union of 
equality: EU anti-racism action plan 2020–2025, 
COM(2020) 565 final of 18 September 2020, 
https://commission.europa.eu/system/
files/2020-09/a_union_of_equality_eu_
action_plan_against_racism_2020_-2025_
en.pdf.

Communication from the Commission to the 
European Parliament, the Council, the European 
Economic and Social Committee and the 
Committee of the Regions – A union of 
equality: Gender equality strategy 2020–2025, 
COM(2020) 152 final of 5 March 2020, https://
eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/
TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A52020DC0152.

Communication from the Commission to the 
European Parliament, the Council, the European 
Economic and Social Committee and the 
Committee of the Regions – EU strategy on 
victims’ rights (2020–2025), COM(2020) 258 

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final of 24 June 2020, https://eur-lex.europa.eu/
legal-content/EN/
TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A52020DC0258.

Communication from the Commission to the 
European Parliament, the Council, the European 
Economic and Social Committee and the 
 Committee of the Regions – Shaping Europe’s 
digital future, COM(2020) 67 final of 
19  February 2020, https://eur-lex.europa.eu/
legal-content/EN/TXT/ 
?uri=CELEX%3A52020DC0067&-
qid=1709241539630.

Communication from the Commission to the 
European Parliament, the Council, the European 
Economic and Social Committee and the 
Committee of the Regions – The new EU 
mobility framework, COM(2021) 811 final of 
14 December 2021, https://eur-lex.europa.eu/
legal-content/EN/
TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A52021DC0811.

Communication from the Commission to the 
European Parliament, the Council, the European 
Economic and Social Committee and the 
Committee of the Regions on a comprehensive 
approach to mental health, COM(2023) 298 
final of 7 June 2023, https://health.ec.europa.
eu/document/download/
cef45b6d-a871-44d5-9d62-3cecc47eda89_
en?filename=com_2023_298_1_act_en.pdf.

Communication from the Commission to the 
European Parliament, the Council, the European 
Economic and Social Committee and the 
Committee of the Regions on the European care 
strategy, COM(2022) 440 final of 7 September 
2022, https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/
EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A52022DC0440.

Communication from the Commission to the 
European Parliament, the European Council, the 
Council, the European Economic and Social 
Committee and the Committee of the Regions – 
The European Green Deal, COM(2019) 640 final 
of 11 December 2019, https://eur-lex.europa.
eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?qid=1576150542719
&uri=COM%3A2019%3A640%3AFIN.

Communication from the Commission to the 
European Parliament, the Council, the European 
Economic and Social Committee and the 
 Committee of the Regions – The European Pillar 
of Social Rights action plan, COM(2021) 102 
final of 4 March 2021, https://eur-lex.europa.
eu/legal-content/EN/
TXT/?uri=COM%3A2021%3A102%3AFIN&-
qid=1614928358298#PP1Contents.

Communication from the Commission to the 
European Parliament, the European Council, the 
European Economic and Social Committee and 
the Committee of the Regions on the EU 
security union strategy, COM(2020) 605 final of 
24 July 2020, https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/
PDF/?uri=CELEX%3A52020DC0605.

Council Directive 2000/43/EC of 29 June 2000 
implementing the principle of equal treatment 
between persons irrespective of racial or ethnic 
origin, OJ L 180, 19.7.2000, p. 22, ELI: https://
eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/dir/2000/43/oj/eng.

Council Directive 2004/113/EC of 13 December 
2004 implementing the principle of equal 
treatment between men and women in the 
access to and supply of goods and services, OJ 
L 373, 21.12.2004, p. 37, ELI: https://eur-lex.
europa.eu/eli/dir/2004/113/oj/eng.

Council Directive (EU) 2024/1499 of 7 May 2024 
on standards for equality bodies in the field of 
equal treatment between persons irrespective 
of their racial or ethnic origin, equal treatment 
in matters of employment and occupation 
between persons irrespective of their religion 
or belief, disability, age or sexual orientation, 
equal treatment between women and men in 
matters of social security and in the access to 
and supply of goods and services and amending 
Directives 2000/43/EC and 2004/113/EC, OJ L, 

2024/1499, 29.5.2024, ELI: http://data.europa.
eu/eli/dir/2024/1499/oj/eng.

Directive 2004/38/EC of the European 
Parliament and of the Council of 29 April 2004 
on the right of citizens of the Union and their 
family members to move and reside freely 
within the territory of the Member States 
amending Regulation (EEC) No 1612/68 and 
repealing Directives 64/221/EEC, 68/360/EEC, 
72/194/EEC, 73/148/EEC, 75/34/EEC, 75/35/EEC, 
90/364/EEC, 90/365/EEC and 93/96/EEC, OJ 
L 158, 30.4.2004, p. 77, ELI: https://eur-lex.
europa.eu/eli/dir/2004/38/oj/eng.

Directive 2010/41/EU of the European 
Parliament and of the Council of 7 July 2010 on 
the application of the principle of equal 
treatment between men and women engaged 
in an activity in a self-employed capacity and 
repealing Council Directive 86/613/EEC, OJ 
L 180, 15.7.2010, p. 1, ELI: https://eur-lex.
europa.eu/eli/dir/2010/41/oj/eng.

Directive 2014/24/EU of the European 
Parliament and of the Council of 26 February 
2014 on public procurement and repealing 
Directive 2004/18/EC, OJ L 94, 28.3.2014, p. 65, 
ELI: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/dir/2014/24/
oj/eng.

Directive (EU) 2019/1152 of the European 
Parliament and of the Council of 20 June 2019 
on transparent and predictable working 
conditions in the European Union, OJ L 186, 
11.7.2019, p. 105, ELI: http://data.europa.eu/eli/
dir/2019/1152/oj/eng.

Directive (EU) 2022/2041 of the European 
Parliament and of the Council of 19 October 
2022 on adequate minimum wages in the 
European Union, OJ L 275, 25.10.2022, p. 33, ELI: 
http://data.europa.eu/eli/dir/2022/2041/oj.

Directive (EU) 2022/2381 of the European 
Parliament and of the Council of 23 November 
2022 on improving the gender balance among 
directors of listed companies and related 
measures, OJ L 315, 7.12.2022, p. 44, ELI: 
https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/dir/2022/2381/oj.

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Directive (EU) 2023/970 of the European 
Parliament and of the Council of 10 May 2023 
to strengthen the application of the principle of 
equal pay for equal work or work of equal value 
between men and women through pay 
transparency and enforcement mechanisms, OJ 
L 132, 17.5.2023, p. 21, ELI: http://data.europa.
eu/eli/dir/2023/970/oj/eng.

Directive (EU) 2024/1385 of the European 
Parliament and of the Council of 14 May 2024 
on combating violence against women and 
domestic violence, OJ L, 2024/1385, 24.5.2024, 
ELI: http://data.europa.eu/eli/dir/2024/1385/oj.

Directive (EU) 2024/1500 of the European 
Parliament and of the Council of 14 May 2024 
on standards for equality bodies in the field of 
equal treatment and equal opportunities 
between women and men in matters of 
employment and occupation and amending 
Directives 2006/54/EC and 2010/41/EU, OJ L, 
2024/1500, 29.5.2024, ELI: http://data.europa.
eu/eli/dir/2024/1500/oj/eng.

the climate and security nexus: Addressing the 
impact of climate change and environmental 
degradation on peace, security and defence, 
JOIN(2023) 19 final of 28 June 2023, https://
www.eeas.europa.eu/sites/default/files/
documents/2023/
JOIN_2023_19_1_EN_ACT_part1_v7.pdf.

Joint communication to the European 
Parliament and the Council – EU gender action 
plan III – An ambitious agenda for gender 
equality and women’s empowerment in EU 
EXTERNAL ACTION, JOIN(2020) 17 final of 
25 November 2020, https://eur-lex.europa.eu/
legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex:52020JC0017.

Regulation (EU) 2021/522 of the European 
Parliament and of the Council of 24 March 2021 
establishing a programme for the Union’s 
action in the field of health (‘EU4Health 
programme’) for the period 2021–2027, and 
repealing Regulation (EU) No 282/2014, OJ 
L 107, 26.3.2021, p. 1, ELI: http://data.europa.
eu/eli/reg/2021/522/oj/eng.

Directive (EU) 2024/1712 of the European 
Parliament and of the Council of 13 June 2024 
amending Directive 2011/36/EU on preventing 
and combating trafficking in human beings and 
protecting its victims, OJ L, 2024/1712, 
24.6.2024, ELI: http://data.europa.eu/eli/
dir/2024/1712/oj.

Regulation (EU) 2021/1057 of the European 
Parliament and of the Council of 24 June 2021 
establishing the European Social Fund Plus 
(ESF+) and repealing Regulation (EU) 
No 1296/2013, OJ L 231, 30.6.2021, p. 21, ELI: 
http://data.europa.eu/eli/reg/2021/1057/oj/
eng.

Directive (EU) 2024/2831 of the European 
Parliament and of the Council on improving 
working conditions in platform work, OJ L, 
2024/2831, 11.11.2024, ELI: https://eur-lex.
europa.eu/eli/dir/2024/2831/oj.

Interinstitutional agreement of 16 December 
2020 between the European Parliament, the 
Council of the European Union and the European 
Commission on budgetary discipline, on 
cooperation in budgetary matters and on 
sound financial management, as well as on new 
own resources, including a roadmap towards 
the introduction of new own resources, OJ 
L 433I, 22.12.2020, p. 28, ELI: http://data.
europa.eu/eli/agree_interinstit/2020/1222/oj.

Joint communication to the European 
Parliament and the Council – A new outlook on 

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Regulation (EU) 2021/1060 of the European 
Parliament and of the Council of 24 June 2021 
laying down common provisions on the 
European Regional Development Fund, the 
European Social Fund Plus, the Cohesion Fund, 
the Just Transition Fund and the European 
Maritime, Fisheries and Aquaculture Fund and 
financial rules for those and for the Asylum, 
Migration and Integration Fund, the Internal 
Security Fund and the Instrument for Financial 
Support for Border Management and Visa 
Policy, OJ L 231, 30.6.2021, p. 159, ELI: https://
eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/
TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A32021R1060.

Regulation (EU) 2021/1119 of the European 
Parliament and of the Council of 30 June 2021 
establishing the framework for achieving 
climate neutrality and amending Regulations 

(EC) No 401/2009 and (EU) 2018/1999, OJ 
L 243, 9.7.2021, p. 1, ELI: https://eur-lex.europa.
eu/legal-content/EN/
TXT/?uri=CELEX:32021R1119.

and (EU) 2019/2144 and Directives 2014/90/
EU, (EU) 2016/797 and (EU) 2020/1828, OJ L, 
2024/1689, 12.7.2024, ELI: https://eur-lex.
europa.eu/eli/reg/2024/1689/oj.

Legislation and related documents

Regulation (EU) 2022/641 of the European 
Parliament and of the Council of 12 April 2022 
amending Regulation (EU) No 536/2014 as 
regards a derogation from certain obligations 
concerning investigational medicinal products 
made available in the United Kingdom in 
respect of Northern Ireland and in Cyprus, 
Ireland and Malta, OJ L 118, 20.4.2022, p. 1, ELI: 
https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/
TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A32022R0641.

Regulation (EU) 2022/2065 of the European 
Parliament and of the Council of 19 October 
2022 on a single market for digital services and 
amending Directive 2000/31/EC, OJ L 277, 
27.10.2022, p. 1, ELI: http://data.europa.eu/eli/
reg/2022/2065/oj.

Regulation (EU) 2024/1689 of the European 
Parliament and of the Council of 13 June 2024 
laying down harmonised rules on artificial 
intelligence and amending Regulations (EC) 
No 300/2008, (EU) No 167/2013, (EU) 
No 168/2013, (EU) 2018/858, (EU) 2018/1139 

National level

An Bille Sláinte (Seirbhísí Foirceanta Toirchis) 
(Criosanna Rochtana Sábháilte), 2023 [Health 
(Termination of Pregnancy Services) (Safe 
Access Zones) Bill 2023], No 54 of 2023, https://
data.oireachtas.ie/ie/oireachtas/bill/2023/54/
eng/initiated/b5423d.pdf.

Ley Orgánica 4/2022, de 12 de Abril, por la que 
se modifica la ley orgánica 10/1995, de 23 de 
noviembre, del código penal, para penalizar el 
acoso a las mujeres que acuden a clínicas para 
la interrupción voluntaria del embarazo, 
https://www.boe.es/boe/dias/2022/04/13/
pdfs/BOE-A-2022-6044.pdf.

Loi sur la prévention et la lutte contre les 
féminicides, les homicides fondés sur le genre 
et les violences, No 2023044133, https://www.
ejustice.just.fgov.be/eli/
loi/2023/07/13/2023044133/moniteur.

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Annex 1.  Beijing Platform for Action objectives 

and targets for the sustainable 
development goals

SDG 5, which aims to ‘achieve gender equality 
and empower all women and girls’, cuts across 
all BPfA areas.

Relevant theme in the 
executive summary

BPfA critical 
areas covered

SDGs

Table A1.  BPfA objectives and SDG targets

1.  Thriving in a 

A, B, F, G, J, K

gender-equal and 
inclusive economy

2.  Providing 

gender-responsive 
social protection and 
services

A, B, C, D, F, H, I, 
K, L

SDG 1: end poverty in all its forms everywhere.
SDG 4: ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and 
promote lifelong learning opportunities for all.
SDG 8: promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic 
growth, full and productive employment and decent work for 
all.
SDG 9: build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and 
sustainable industrialisation and foster innovation.
SDG 10: reduce inequality within and among countries.

SDG 1: end poverty in all its forms everywhere.
SDG 2: end hunger, achieve food security and improved 
nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture.
SDG 3: ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at 
all ages.
SDG 4: ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and 
promote lifelong learning opportunities for all.
SDG 6: ensure availability and sustainable management of 
water and sanitation for all.
SDG 7: ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and 
modern energy for all.
SDG 8: promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic 
growth, full and productive employment and decent work for 
all.
SDG 9: build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and 
sustainable industrialisation and foster innovation.
SDG 10: reduce inequality within and among countries.
SDG 11: make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, 
resilient and sustainable.
SDG 12: ensure sustainable consumption and production 
patterns.
SDG 13: take urgent action to combat climate change and its 
impacts.
SDG 15: protect, restore and promote sustainable use of 
terrestrial ecosystems; sustainably manage forests; combat 
desertification; halt and reverse land degradation; and halt 
biodiversity loss.
SDG 17: strengthen the means of implementation and 
revitalise the global partnership for sustainable development.

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Annex 1.  Beijing Platform for Action objectives and targets for the sustainable development goals

Relevant theme in the 
executive summary

BPfA critical 
areas covered

SDGs

3.  Eradicating 

B, C, D, I, J, L

gender-based violence, 
stigma and 
stereotypes

SDG 2: end hunger, achieve food security and improved 
nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture.
SDG 3: ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at 
all ages.
SDG 4: ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and 
promote lifelong learning opportunities for all.
SDG 6: ensure availability and sustainable management of 
water and sanitation for all.
SDG 16: promote peaceful and inclusive societies for 
sustainable development, provide access to justice for all and 
build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all 
levels.

4.  Fostering parity 
democracy, 
accountability and 
gender-responsive 
institutions

G, H, I, J

SDG 17: strengthen the means of implementation and 
revitalise the global partnership for sustainable development.

5.  Shaping a digital 

B, C, D, F, J

transformation that 
promotes gender 
equality

6.  Advancing a socially 
fair green transition 
that leaves no woman 
or girl behind

A, B, F, K, L

E, I

7.  Achieving peaceful and 
inclusive societies and 
advancing gender 
equality across the 
world

SDG 1: end poverty in all its forms everywhere.
SDG 4: ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and 
promote lifelong learning opportunities for all.
SDG 8: promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic 
growth, full and productive employment and decent work for 
all.
SDG 9: build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and 
sustainable industrialisation and foster innovation.
SDG 10: reduce inequality within and among countries.

SDG 1: end poverty in all its forms everywhere.
SDG 4: ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and 
promote lifelong learning opportunities for all.
SDG 7: ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and 
modern energy for all.
SDG 8: promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic 
growth, full and productive employment and decent work for 
all.
SDG 10: reduce inequality within and among countries.
SDG 11: make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, 
resilient and sustainable.
SDG 13: take urgent action to combat climate change and its 
impacts.

SDG 3: ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at 
all ages.
SDG 4: ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and 
promote lifelong learning opportunities for all.
SDG 11: make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, 
resilient and sustainable.
SDG 16: promote peaceful and inclusive societies for 
sustainable development, provide access to justice for all and 
build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all 
levels.

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Annex 2.  Methodology for tracking gender 
equality mainstreaming in the EU budget

The methodology uses the assessment criteria set out in Table A2 and applies one of the scores to 
interventions at the most granular level possible.

Table A2.  Assessment criteria for assigning scores in the gender tracking methodology

Score 0

Score 0*

Score 1

Score 2

The intervention 
does not target 
gender equality.

Stage of 
assessment

Ex ante 
assessment based 
on the 
intervention’s 
design

Ex ante 
assessment based 
on the 
intervention’s 
programming

A gender analysis of the intervention has 
been conducted. The findings from this 
analysis have informed the design of the 
intervention, and gender equality aspects 
have been reflected in the adopted legal 
acts and/or in the performance framework 
of the intervention.

The top-level 
ambition of the 
intervention is to 
advance gender 
equality, which is 
reflected in its 
programming.

A firm commitment 
towards gender 
equality 
undertaken in the 
design of the 
intervention is now 
reflected in the 
intervention’s 
programming: a 
gender equality 
perspective is 
integrated, for 
instance, in the 
annual work 
programme 
executed under 
direct management 
through provisions 
included in grants 
and procurement 
procedures.

The intervention has positive effects ex 
post, proven by quantitative and/or 
qualitative analysis. There is a 
commitment to monitoring and reporting 
on the gender equality results achieved by 
the intervention in the evaluation phase.

A gender analysis 
has yet to be 
conducted. It is 
likely, but not yet 
clear, that the 
intervention can 
have an impact on 
gender equality. 

In the programming 
phase, the 
intervention may 
reinforce its gender 
equality 
perspective, inter 
alia, by planning 
gender equality 
conducive actions or 
issuing guidance to 
reinforce the 
promotion of 
gender equality by 
managing 
authorities.

In the 
implementation 
phase, the 
intervention is 
reassigned to other 
scores (0, 1 or 2), as 
soon as the gender 
equality perspective 
can be sufficiently 
assessed and 
supported by 
quantitative and/or 
qualitative analysis.

Ex post assessment 
based on the 
intervention’s 
implementation

Evidence from the 
implementation of 
the intervention 
confirms that it is 
not relevant to 
gender equality. 

Source: European Commission (2022d).

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Annex 2.  Methodology for tracking gender equality mainstreaming in the EU budget

This methodology tracks (74) contributions to 
gender equality at two stages: ex ante, based 
on policy design and programming (including 
the legal framework), and ex post, based on the 
ongoing assessment of the implementation of 
the interventions (European Commission, 
2022h). Each DG performs its calculation, and 
DG Budget reviews the consistency of all inputs. 
The Task Force on Equality also collaborates in 

the assessment (European Commission, 2022h; 
European Court of Auditors, 2022).

The methodology does not include coefficients 
to weigh the contribution of interventions 
towards gender equality. In other words, the 
Commission commits to report only on the full 
financial envelopes under each score.

 (74)  ‘Expenditure tracking’ is a system to measure the contributions made by different EU spending programmes to an 

overarching policy priority. It requires a detailed understanding of how specific actions contribute to a given policy priority. 
These actions need to be identified in a way that allows the related financial resources to be counted and then aggregated 
at the level of the entire EU budget to monitor progress (European Commission, 2021f).

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Annex 3.  Gender equality and gender 

mainstreaming in the ‘union of equality’ 
strategies

Table A3.  ‘Union of equality’ strategies and 
other related strategies since 2019

EU youth strategy (2019–2027)

EU anti-racism action plan 
(2020–2025)

Action plan on integration and 
inclusion (2021–2027)

Roma strategic framework for 
equality, inclusion and 
participation (2020–2030)

LGBTIQ equality strategy 
(2020–2025)

Strategy for the rights of 
persons with disabilities (2021–
2030)

This strategy aims to promote gender-sensitive approaches, eliminate 
gender stereotypes and discrimination, end gender-based violence and 
ensure equality rights in education, the labour market and the media. One 
of the European youth goals focuses on ‘equality for all genders’, 
addressing the unique challenges faced by young women and non-binary 
and LGBTIQ young people.

This action plan aims to address the heightened risks faced by women, 
particularly with regard to the misclassifying of minority women by 
AI-based facial recognition. It emphasises the need for an intersectional 
approach to combat various forms of racism, including anti-Black racism, 
anti-gypsyism, antisemitism, anti-Asian racism and anti-Muslim hatred. The 
action plan commits to working with Member States to gather 
intersectional data on gender, racial or ethnic origin and religion.

This action plan emphasises gender mainstreaming in efforts by the EU and 
the Member States, recognising that migrant women and girls face unique 
obstacles, including care responsibilities, which hinder their labour market 
and educational participation. It aims to enhance the participation of 
migrant women in the labour market, to support entrepreneurship under 
the investEU programme and to improve awareness and anti-discrimination 
measures in recruitment. It also commits to addressing health challenges 
such as access to prenatal and postnatal care.

This strategic framework raises awareness about discrimination against 
Roma women and promotes the revision of national Roma platforms to 
include Roma women. It sets a target of 45 % paid employment for Roma 
women by 2030 and establishes a sex-disaggregated health goal to 
increase life expectancy for Roma women and men by five years by 2030. It 
also provides a framework for Member States to create national plans with 
gender-responsive measures for Roma women.

This strategy acknowledges the various inequalities faced by LGBTIQ 
individuals and stresses the importance of an intersectional approach, 
aligning with the EU gender equality strategy. It specifically addresses the 
challenges encountered by LGBTIQ women and girls, including gender-based 
violence and harmful practices such as forced abortion and sterilisation.

This strategy highlights the challenges faced by women with disabilities, 
including a higher risk of violence and unequal access to healthcare, and 
encourages Member States to develop inclusive entrepreneurship policies 
for target groups, including women with disabilities. The Commission 
commits to improving access to justice and legal protection for women with 
disabilities.

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Annex 3.  Gender equality and gender mainstreaming in the ‘union of equality’ strategies

EU strategy on the rights of the 
child (2021–2024)

This strategy highlights the limitations imposed by gender stereotypes on 
children’s aspirations, in particular hindering girls’ participation in STEM 
fields. It urges Member States to dismantle these stereotypes and commits 
to combating violence against children, including gender-based violence, by 
tackling harmful practices such as FGM, forced marriage and cyberbullying. 
The strategy emphasises the importance of age- and gender-appropriate 
reporting and support services.

EU strategy on combating 
antisemitism and fostering 
Jewish life (2021–2030)

This strategy aims to address the rising antisemitism in Europe by 
reinforcing efforts to prevent hate, protect Jewish communities and 
promote Holocaust education and remembrance.

Source: Created by the authors, based on the texts of the strategies and action plans outlined from the Publications Office of 
the European Union.

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Annex 4.  Additional supporting information

Figure A1.  Council of the European Union conclusions in the area of gender equality (2019–2024)

Tackling the gender pay gap: Valuation 
and distribution of paid work and unpaid 
care work 
(December 2020)

Presidency conclusions on the gender 
action plan (GAP) III 2021–2025
(December 2020)

Women, peace and security 
(November 2022)
Gender equality in disrupted economies: 
Focus on the young generation 
(December 2022)

 Economic empowerment and financial 
independence of women as a pathway to 
substantive gender equality
(May 2024)

2019

2020

2021

2022

2023

2024

Closing the gender pay gap: Key policies 
and measures
(May 2019)

Socio-economic impact of COVID-19 on 
gender equality
(June 2021)

Implementation of the EU GAP II
(November 2019)

Gender mainstreaming in the EU budget 
(October 2021)

Gender-equal economies in the EU: The 
way forward
(December 2019)

The impact of artificial intelligence on 
gender equality in the labour market 
(December 2021)

Mainstreaming a gender equality 
perspective in policies, programmes, and 
budgets 
(May 2023)

Women and equality in the field of sport 
(November 2023)

Transition of care systems throughout life 
towards holistic, person-centred and 
community-based support models with a 
gender perspective 
(November 2023)

Source: Created by the authors, based on the Council of the European Union and the European Council’s document register 
(https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/documents-publications/).

Table A4.  Legislative quotas in Member States applied to the single/lower house of the national/

federal parliament (2023)

Member 
State

Belgium

Required % of 
under-represented 
gender

50

Provisions

On electoral lists, the difference between the number of 
candidates of each sex should not be more than one. This 
also applies to the list of alternates. The top two candidates 
on an electoral list must be of different sexes.

First use

2002

Ireland

Greece

40 (previously set 
at 30)

The minimum representation of candidates of each sex in 
general elections should be 40 %.

2012

40 (previously set 
at 33)

Lists of candidates should contain at least 40 % of each sex.

2008

Spain

40

Lists of candidates should contain at least 40 % of each sex.

2007

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Required % of 
under-represented 
gender

Annex 4.  Additional supporting information

Provisions

First use

Member 
State

France

Croatia

Italy

Luxembourg

Poland

50

40

40

40

35

Portugal

40 (previously set 
at 33)

Slovenia

35

Source: EIGE (2024j).

The difference between the number of candidates of each 
sex that a party or group of parties presents for a single-
member constituency election cannot be greater than 2 %.

When submitting lists of candidates for the election of 
representatives to the European Parliament, the Croatian 
parliament – and, for local and regional elections, political 
parties and other authorised entities – are obliged to 
establish gender-balanced election lists when candidates of 
one gender are under-represented.

On electoral lists for both the parliament and the senate, 
candidates must be listed alternately by gender. Neither sex 
can account for more than 60 % of candidates on each list.

National legislation on funding for political parties requires 
a 40 % quota for the under-represented sex on all electoral 
lists.

The share of women and men among candidates cannot be 
less than 35 % on electoral lists for elections to the national 
parliament.

Candidate lists for elections to the national assembly must 
be composed in such a way as to promote a minimum 
representation of 40 % of each sex. On electoral lists, 
candidates must be listed alternately by sex.

Neither sex can represent less than 35 % of candidate lists 
for parliamentary elections. Every second candidate in the 
first half of the candidate list must be a woman.

2000

2008

2017

2023

2011

2006

2006

Table A5.  Quotas in place in Member States to promote gender balance on corporate boards (2023)

Year

2011

2015

2017

2020

2022

Member State

Quota (%)

Companies covered

Belgium

France

Italy

Germany

Austria

Portugal

Greece

33

40 (a)

40

30 (a)

30

33

25

Netherlands

33 (a)

State-owned and listed

Listed and large non-listed

State-owned and listed

Listed and large non-listed

State-owned, listed and large

Public and listed private

Listed

Listed

(a)  Specific provisions for executive/management positions.
Source: EIGE (2024i).

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Annex 4.  Additional supporting information

Table A6.  Overview of support and protection services for victims of violence against women in the EU 

(2022)

National 
helplines

Women’s 
shelters

Women’s 
centres

In 2022, 23 Member States had national women’s helplines. Four Member States (BE, LV, MT and 
NL) had yet to provide a national helpline.

In 2022, there were 1 616 women-only shelters across the EU, out of 2 232 shelters accessible 
to women. Although there had been an increase since 2021 (WAVE, 2021), 20 Member States 
were still failing to meet the Istanbul Convention standards, with an average of 39 % of beds 
missing.

In 2022, there were 2 995 women’s centres across the EU, showing a significant increase since 
2021 (WAVE, 2021, 2023). However, this rise should be treated with caution, as this may be 
partially attributed to differences in data availability and the methodology used for data 
collection, and does not necessarily reflect an increase in the levels of provision. In the Member 
States, on average, there is one centre per 76 257 women, which falls short of the Istanbul 
Convention’s recommended level of one women’s centre per 50 000 women. Specialist support 
services (e.g. for victims of forced marriage, FGM and human trafficking) remain scarce.

Rape crisis 
centres

Specialised sexual violence services are available in 18 Member States, but no Member State 
yet complies with the Istanbul Convention’s recommended minimum standard of one centre for 
every 200 000 inhabitants. 82 % of the necessary services are missing in Member States.

Source: WAVE (2023): genvio_ser_avail__wave_helpl, genvio_ser_qual__wave_shelters_icstand and genvio_ser_avail__
wave_beds_shelters.

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Annex 5.  EIGE’s data collection on institutional 
mechanisms for gender equality and 
gender mainstreaming (area H)

This annex details the approach and 
methodology used in EIGE’s 2024 data 
collection on institutional mechanisms for the 
promotion of gender equality and gender 
mainstreaming. Figure A2 presents key 
definitions.

Key definitions

Institutional mechanisms for gender equality 
and gender mainstreaming are bodies and 
processes that serve to promote, advocate and 
support gender equality and the 
mainstreaming of gender issues across all 
policy areas (EIGE, 2023k). For monitoring 
purposes, ‘bodies’ refers to gender equality 
bodies convened at the national level only. 
These are split into two types (EIGE, 2023k).

•  Governmental gender equality bodies are 

bodies within government whose purpose is 
to design, coordinate and implement 
government policies for gender equality. 
Such bodies are normally located within 
ministerial structures but can also be 
government agencies (EIGE, 2023k).
Independent gender equality bodies are 
bodies outside government that are 
mandated to support the equal treatment of 
all people without discrimination on the 
grounds of sex, sometimes as part of a wider 
equalities remit (EIGE, 2023k).

• 

The Council of the European Union has endorsed 
a set of indicators to monitor the 

implementation of area H of the BPfA in the 
Member States (75):

•  H1: status of commitment to the promotion 

of gender equality;

•  H2a: personnel resources of the 

governmental gender equality body;

•  H2b: personnel resources of the designated 
body or bodies for the promotion of equal 
treatment of women and men;

•  H3: gender mainstreaming;
•  H4: production and dissemination of 
statistics disaggregated by sex.

EIGE’s role in monitoring progress

EIGE plays a crucial role in monitoring and 
refining the indicators related to area H of the 
BPfA. The 2024 data collection marks the 
fourth data collection exercise conducted by 
EIGE to assess the status of institutional 
mechanisms for gender equality and gender 
mainstreaming in each Member State (EIGE, 
2025a).

EIGE slightly adapts the indicators used in data 
collections to align with key policy and 
legislative developments at both the EU and 
international levels. These adaptations are 
based on data validation, quality assurance 
processes and stakeholders’ feedback from 
each data collection. The result is a robust 
framework with effective and relevant 
indicators for tracking and assessing progress 
(Figure A2).

 (75) The first set of indicators (H1 to H3) was adopted in 2006 and supplemented with indicator H4 in 2013.

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Annex 5.  EIGE’s data collection on institutional mechanisms for gender equality and gender mainstreaming

Figure A2.  Indicators for monitoring institutional mechanisms for the promotion of gender equality 

and gender mainstreaming, 2024

H1. Status of 
governmental 
commitment to the 
promotion of gender 
equality 

H2. Human resources of 
the national gender 
equality bodies 

H3. Gender 
mainstreaming 

H4. Production and 
dissemination of 
statistics disaggregated 
by sex

H2a: Personnel 
resources of the 
governmental body 

H3a: Status of 
government 
commitment to gender 
mainstreaming 

H4a: Government 
commitment to the 
production of statistics 
disaggregated by sex

H2b: Personnel 
resources of the 
independent body

H4a: [not used]

H4c: Effectiveness of 
efforts to disseminate 
statistics disaggregated 
by sex 

H3b: Governmenta l 
gender mainstreaming 
structures and 
consultation processes 

H3c: Commitment to 
and use of methods and 
tools for gender 
mainstreaming 

H3d: Consultation of 
independent gender 
equality bodies

H1a: Highest 
responsibility for 
promoting gender 
equality within 
government 

H1b: [not used]

H1c: Position of the 
governmental body 
within the government 
structure 

H1d: Mandate and 
functions of the 
governmental body

H1e: Accountability of 
the government for the 
promotion of gender 
equality 

H1f: Mandate and 
functions of the 
independent gender 
equality body

NB: Shaded boxes (H1f, H2b and H3d) represent data collected for independent equality bodies. Data are available from EIGE’s 
Gender Statistics Database.

EIGE’s data collection on institutional 
mechanisms relies on information compiled by 
nominated representatives of national 
authorities, each supported by a national 
researcher with expertise in the area of gender 
equality. The data provided are subject to a 
comprehensive quality assurance process to 
ensure that the information for each country is 
relevant and reliable and adheres to common 
guidelines to facilitate statistical comparison.

Measurement framework

This subsection describes the measurement 
framework applied for the collection of data on 
institutional mechanisms in 2024 and the 
subsequent calculation of indicator values at 
the indicator level, except for indicator H2 
(human resources), for which subindicators are 
also presented.

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Annex 5.  EIGE’s data collection on institutional mechanisms for gender equality and gender mainstreaming

Overview

The measurement framework for monitoring 
institutional mechanisms comprises four main 
indicators (H1–H4), each with a number of 
subindicators. Each of the four indicators is 
calculated as the sum of its subindicator scores, 
resulting in different maximum values for each. 
For overall scoring, each indicator is given equal 
weight. Each indicator is scored as a percentage 
of its maximum value, and then the average of 
these percentages is taken.

Indicator H1: status of commitment to the 
promotion of gender equality

The same list of subindicators under 
indicator H1 used for the 2021 data collection 
was used for the 2024 data collection. The 
subindicators are as follows:

a)  highest responsibility for promoting gender 

equality at the governmental level 
(maximum 2);

b)  permanence of the governmental body (not 

used);

c)  position of the governmental gender 
equality body within the government 
structure (maximum 2);

d)  mandate and functions of the governmental 

gender equality body (maximum 3);

e)  accountability of the government for the 

promotion of gender equality (maximum 5);
f)  mandate and functions of the independent 

gender equality body (maximum 3).

In the current measurement framework, H1 has 
a maximum score of 15.

Indicator H2: human resources of the 
national gender equality bodies

The same list of subindicators under indicator 
H2 used for the 2021 data collection was used 
for the 2024 data collection. The subindicators 
are as follows:

a)  personnel resources of governmental gender 

equality bodies (maximum 2);

b)  personnel resources of independent equality 

bodies (maximum 2).

Therefore, in the current measurement 
framework, H2 has a maximum score of 
4 points.

No changes were made to the scoring model 
since the 2021 data collection. Further 
information on the scoring for these indicators 
is described below.

Subindicator H2a: personnel resources of 
governmental gender equality bodies

Data on the total number of employees of 
governmental gender equality bodies are 
collected in question 5 (Q5). In the case of 
equality bodies with a wider remit, question 6 
(Q6) also collects data on the proportion of the 
time that the total employees (reported in Q5) 
work on gender equality issues. The data are 
collected as a broad range (0–25 %, 25–50 %, 
50–75 %, 75–100 %).

To calculate the total governmental personnel 
resources allocated to gender equality, the total 
employees reported under Q5 are (separately 
for each body) adjusted by the proportion 
reported under Q6 (always using the upper 
limit of the range) as per the following formula:

(Total staff of governmental gender 
equality body, Q5) × (Proportion of time 
spent on gender equality, Q6)

In the light of these challenges, the approach 
taken is to score based on the absolute 
numbers of personnel reported (as calculated 
using the formula above). However, for bodies 
with multiple mandates, it is difficult to 
estimate the time spent on gender equality, 
especially when individuals have roles that span 
multiple grounds rather than separate 
departments for different grounds. In such 
cases, using the upper limit of the percentage 
range may sometimes overestimate the 
number of people working on gender equality.

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Annex 5.  EIGE’s data collection on institutional mechanisms for gender equality and gender mainstreaming

Fundamentally, a team of two or three within a 
unit of a ministry does not have anywhere near 
the same capacity as a team of 25 or more in a 

dedicated department or separate agency. This 
is true irrespective of the size of the population 
served, and the scoring reflects this (Figure A3).

Figure A3.  Questions included in the scoring of sub-indicator H2a

Question/option

Maximum score 

Combined results: 
5: What is the total number of employees in the governmental body?
6: If the mandate of the governmental body includes gender equality combined with 
other non-discrimination areas. Approximately what percentage of time is spent on 
projects focused on gender equality?

100 or more

25–100

10–25

5–10

0–5

Don’t know

2

1.5

1

0.5

0

0

Subindicator H2b: personnel resources of 
independent equality bodies

d)  consultation of independent gender equality 

bodies (maximum 2).

The maximum score for H3 is a total of 
14 points.

Indicator H4: production and dissemination 
of statistics disaggregated by sex

The currently adopted indicator H4 is compiled 
as the sum of scores for three ‘aspects’ with an 
overall maximum score of 6.

In 2021, the previous subindicators H4a and 
H4b were merged into a broadened H4a 
referring to government commitment to the 
‘production’ of statistics (i.e. covering collection 
and dissemination together). In addition, 
subindicator H4c was expanded to consider not 
only the methods used to disseminate gender 
statistics but also the intensity and accessibility 
of the efforts made.

The scoring model applied to subindicator H2b 
is the same as for subindicator H2a (i.e. based 
on absolute numbers of personnel). Similarly to 
the issues under subindicator H2a, there were 
instances where no evidence was provided for 
the data in H2b, making it difficult to verify the 
figures.

Indicator H3: gender mainstreaming

The 2024 questionnaire maintained the revised 
measurement and conceptual framework 
adopted for the 2021 questionnaire. Therefore, 
the list of subindicators for H3 is as follows:

a)  status of government commitment to 
gender mainstreaming (maximum 2);
b)  governmental gender mainstreaming 
structures and consultation processes 
(maximum 4);

c)  commitment to and use of methods and 

tools for gender mainstreaming 
(maximum 6);

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Annex 5.  EIGE’s data collection on institutional mechanisms for gender equality and gender mainstreaming

The revised list of subindicators adopted in the 
2021 data collection and continued in 2024 is 
as follows:

a)  government commitment to the production 

of statistics disaggregated by sex 
(maximum 2);

b)  governmental commitment to the 

dissemination of statistics disaggregated by 
sex (not used – incorporated under H4a);

c)  effectiveness of efforts to disseminate 

statistics disaggregated by sex 
(maximum 4).

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227

Annex 6.  EIGE’s work on harmonising the collection 
of administrative data at the EU level on 
violence against women

Collecting administrative data on violence 
against women is a requirement of Article 44 of 
the new directive on violence against women 
and domestic violence (Directive (EU) 
2024/1385). EIGE has carried out significant 
work in this field. Beginning in 2012, EIGE 
mapped and analysed administrative data 
sources, systems and methodologies for data 
collection on violence against women across all 
Member States, focusing on the police and 
justice sectors (EIGE, 2016a).

Following this, EIGE analysed the definitions 
and terminology used for rape, femicide and 
intimate partner violence at the EU and 
Member State levels (EIGE, 2016b). Between 

2017 and 2018, EIGE conducted a feasibility 
study and proposed a measurement framework 
of 13 indicators to be used by the police and 
justice sectors to harmonise administrative 
data collection (EIGE, 2016b). These 13 
indicators (Table A7) were also developed to 
allow comparability across the EU and to 
support Member States in meeting the 
minimum requirements of the victims’ rights 
directive and the Istanbul Convention (EIGE, 
2016b). Four of the indicators refer to specific 
types of violence against women, as 
established in the Istanbul Convention and the 
directive on violence against women (physical, 
psychological, sexual and economic). Two 
indicators measure rape and femicide.

Table A7.  Overview of EIGE’s 13 indicators for measuring intimate partner / domestic / any violence

Indicator

Unit of measurement

Sex of the 
victim

Sex of the 
perpetrator

Time 
coverage

Women 
and total

Women 
and total

Women 
and total

Women 
and total

n/a

n/a

Men

n/a

Calendar year 
(12 months)

Calendar year 
(12 months)

Calendar year 
(12 months)

Calendar year 
(12 months)

Police sector

Annual number of [women and total] 
victims of [intimate partner / 
domestic / any] violence, as recorded 
by the police

Annual number of reported offences of 
[intimate partner / domestic / any] 
violence against [women and total] 
victims, as recorded by the police

Annual number of men perpetrators of 
[intimate partner / domestic / any] 
violence against [women and total] 
victims, as recorded by the police

Annual number of [women and total] 
victims of [intimate partner / 
domestic / any] physical violence, as 
recorded by the police

Victims

Offences

Perpetrators

Victims (however, if 
victim-level data are 
not available, Member 
States can provide data 
on the number of 
offences related to 
physical violence. This 
must be clarified in the 
2c_metadata_ 
conceptual tab)

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Annex 6.  EIGE’s work on harmonising the collection of administrative data at the EU level

Indicator

Unit of measurement

Sex of the 
victim

Sex of the 
perpetrator

Time 
coverage

Women 
and total

n/a

Calendar year 
(12 months)

Women 
and total

n/a

Calendar year 
(12 months)

Women 
and total

n/a

Calendar year 
(12 months)

Women 
and total

n/a

Calendar year 
(12 months)

Victims (however, if 
victim-level data are 
not available, Member 
States can provide data 
on the number of 
offences related to 
psychological violence. 
This must be clarified in 
the 2c_metadata_ 
conceptual tab)

Victims (however, if 
victim-level data are 
not available, Member 
States can provide data 
on the number of 
offences related to 
sexual violence. This 
must be clarified in the 
2c_metadata_ 
conceptual tab)

Victims (however, if 
victim-level data are 
not available, Member 
States can provide data 
on the number of 
offences related to 
economic violence. This 
must be clarified in the 
2c_metadata_ 
conceptual tab)

Victims (however, if 
victim-level data are 
not available, Member 
States can provide data 
on the number of 
offences related to 
rape. This must be 
clarified in the 2c_
metadata_conceptual 
tab)

Annual number of [women and total] 
victims of [intimate partner / 
domestic / any] psychological violence, 
as recorded by the police

Annual number of [women and total] 
victims of [intimate partner / 
domestic / any] sexual violence, as 
recorded by the police

Annual number of [women and total] 
victims of [intimate partner / 
domestic / any] economic violence, as 
recorded by the police

Annual number of [women and total] 
victims reporting [intimate partner / 
domestic / any] rape, as recorded by 
the police 

Annual number of [women and total] 
victims of [intimate partner / 
domestic / any] [femicide/homicide], 
as recorded by the police

Justice system

Annual number of protection orders 
[applied for and granted] in cases of 
[intimate partner / domestic / any] 
violence against [women and total] 
victims

Victims

Women 
and total

n/a

Calendar year 
(12 months)

Protection orders

Women 
and total

Men

Calendar year 
(12 months)

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Annex 6.  EIGE’s work on harmonising the collection of administrative data at the EU level

Indicator

Unit of measurement

Sex of the 
victim

Sex of the 
perpetrator

Time 
coverage

Annual number of men perpetrators 
prosecuted for [intimate partner / 
domestic / any] violence against 
[women and total] victims

Annual number of men perpetrators 
sentenced for [intimate partner / 
domestic / any] violence against 
[women and total] victims

Number of men perpetrators held in 
prison or with a sanction involving a form 
of deprivation of liberty for [intimate 
partner / domestic / any] violence against 
[women and total] victims

Source: Adapted from EIGE (2023j).

Perpetrators

Perpetrators

Women 
and total

Women 
and total

Men

Men

Perpetrators

Women 
and total

Men 

Calendar year 
(12 months)

Calendar year 
(12 months)

On 
31 December 
of each given 
year  
(2014–2022)

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European Institute for Gender Equality

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