Fundamental rights report 2025 : overview and FRA opinions.
Date: 2025-06-10
Institutions: European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights
Subjects: European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights, activity report, operation of the Institutions

FUNDAMENTAL 
RIGHTS REPORT – 
2025

This publication is an excerpt from the annual report 

of the European Union Agency for Fundamental 

Rights (FRA), the Fundamental Rights Report 2025. 

It presents selected critical developments in 

fundamental rights in 2024, as well as the key findings 

and FRA opinions from the report’s chapters. These 

cover elections, gender-based violence and the EU 

Charter of Fundamental Rights. FRA opinions outline 

the agency’s position and are calls to action. They 

set out practical ways forward for the European 

Commission, EU Member States and the Council of 

Europe, among others, to address the fundamental 

rights issues raised.

D
N
A
W
E
I

V
R
E
V
O

S
N
O

I

N

I

P
O

A
R
F

1 Introduction

2 Setting the scene: 

fundamental rights in a 
changing political landscape

6 Fundamental rights in 

2024: major developments 
and FRA research

15 Looking ahead 

to 2025 and beyond

18 FRA opinions – 

Respect for fundamental 
rights in the electoral 
process

20 FRA opinions – 

Effectively protecting 
women victims of violence

23 FRA opinions – 

Implementation and use of 
the Charter at the national 
level 

 
 
 
Manuscript completed in April 2025

Neither the European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights nor any person acting on behalf of the European 
Union Agency for Fundamental Rights is responsible for the use that might be made of the following information. 

Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2025

Print 

ISBN 978-92-9489-525-7 

ISSN 2467-2599 

doi:10.2811/7319939 

TK-01-25-003-EN-C

PDF 

ISBN 978-92-9489-524-0 

ISSN 2467-2823 

doi:10.2811/8851969 

TK-01-25-003-EN-N

© European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights, 2025

Reproduction is authorised provided the source is acknowledged. 

For any use or reproduction of photos or other material that is not under the copyright of the European Union 
Agency for Fundamental Rights, permission must be sought directly from the copyright holders. 

Photo credits:
Cover: © I / Adobe Stock; Right 3 / Adobe Stock; Peter Fleming / Adobe Stock
Page 3: © I / Adobe Stock 
Page 6: © Liubomir / Adobe Stock 
Page 20: © Peter Fleming / Adobe Stock 
Page 22: © Fizkes / Adobe Stock 
Page 24: © Right 3 / Adobe Stock

INTRODUCTION

This overview report is an excerpt from the annual report of the European 
Union Agency for Fundamental Rights (FRA), the Fundamental Rights 
Report 2025. It presents selected critical developments in fundamental 
rights in 2024, as well as the key findings and FRA opinions from the 
report’s chapters. These cover elections, gender-based violence and the 
EU Charter of Fundamental Rights. FRA opinions outline the agency’s 
position and are calls to action. They set out practical ways forward for 
the European Commission, EU Member States and the Council of Europe, 
among others, to address the fundamental rights issues raised. 

In  2024,  geopolitical  changes  and  both  legislative  and  societal 
developments put a strain on fundamental rights in the EU. Divisive 
identity politics played a role in increasing levels of racism and hate. 
People of various ethnic backgrounds and religious communities suffer as 
a result. Hate speech and harmful content continue to spread unchecked 
online. Rapid digital changes and artificial intelligence (AI) developments 
threaten to exacerbate existing inequalities. Incidents of thousands of 
people losing their lives at sea and allegations of ill treatment at borders 
raise alarms about the treatment of asylum seekers and migrants. These 
trends threaten democratic values and equality, posing a risk to people’s 
fundamental rights.

Despite the challenges faced in 2024, there are positive developments. 
The EU has introduced legislation to regulate online spaces and AI, seeking 
to ensure a digital environment that respects fundamental rights. The 
2024 European elections marked a pivotal moment for the EU, ushering 
in a new mandate. The new European Parliament, European Commission 
and strategic priorities provide a renewed focus for the EU over the next 
five years.

This overview of the Fundamental Rights Report 2025 presents selected 
critical developments affecting fundamental rights in 2024. Research 
from FRA published in 2024 provides new insights into equality and life 
experiences derived from surveys of people across the EU. 

It summarises findings from research, as well as highlighting new 
legislation that is important from the perspective of fundamental rights, 
such as new laws about AI and in the field of migration. These themes 
emerged from FRA’s research and analysis of fundamental rights issues 
and the work that FRA was doing in 2024. The decision to include certain 
topics also considered their alignment with the issues that people in the 
EU care about, according to the latest general population surveys. 

1

SETTING THE SCENE: FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS 
IN A CHANGING POLITICAL LANDSCAPE

Fundamental rights under stress

The  prevailing  socioeconomic  conditions,  geopolitical  changes 
internationally and conflicts put fundamental rights in the EU under 
stress. The year was marked by conflict continuing in the Middle East 
and the ongoing Russian aggression against Ukraine. 

More than 4 million displaced people from Ukraine remain in the EU and are 
entitled to legal residence and access to work, housing and legal assistance, 
education and healthcare (1). War in Gaza raged on and contributed to 
spikes in antisemitism (2) and anti-Muslim hatred in the EU (3). Its impact 
can be seen in racism, discrimination and polarisation (4). The fall of the 
Assad regime in late 2024 led some EU countries to reconsider their 
policies on Syrian refugees and migrants. While some explored returns 
or voluntary repatriation incentives, others paused asylum decisions. In 
its conclusions of 19 December 2024, the European Council reaffirmed the 
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees’ call for safe, voluntary 
and dignified returns of Syrian refugees (5). 

The combined impact of these external challenges in the EU is clear, 
as 44 % of people in Europe believe that achieving peace and stability 
would most positively affect their lives, according to recent Eurobarometer 
survey findings (6).

Racism, discrimination, bias-motivated harassment and hate crime are 
a daily reality for many people. Inequality continues to disadvantage 
people of various ethnic backgrounds and religions. Respect for equality 
and non-discrimination are foundational values of the EU, enshrined 
in the EU Charter of Fundamental Rights, and the subject of binding 
obligations under EU law. However, the evidence FRA has collected, 
presented in this overview, indicates the existence of an ongoing pattern 
of racism and discrimination. Jews, Muslims, Black people and Roma are 
significantly affected, as well as migrants and lesbian, gay, bisexual, 
transgender, intersex and queer (LGBTIQ) people, FRA’s research shows. 
Offensive content targeting these groups online on social media platforms 
demonstrates this trend and exacerbates it. 

Hateful content can spread quickly online and is difficult to regulate, 
adding to the challenge. Women disproportionately experience the 
highest volume of online hate, which often manifests as denigration and 
contains sexualised content (7).

Against this background, people across the EU continued to struggle 
financially in the ongoing challenging socioeconomic conditions. The cost 
of living is a key concern for the people in Europe, as Eurobarometer’s 
general population survey for 2024 indicates (8). 

While not everyone is affected in the same way, rising energy prices 
have a widespread impact on most of the population. Many individuals 
and households face challenges in managing their expenses, with a 
growing number struggling to make ends meet (9). For example, energy 

2

poverty disproportionately affects those already at risk of poverty and 
exacerbates existing inequalities for disadvantaged groups. To fight 
climate change while also considering that many people are struggling 
amid rising costs, FRA called on the EU and its Member States to ensure 
their national climate and energy plans align with the 2030 agenda’s 
commitment to ‘leave no one behind’ (10).

Finally, in a major global shift, many countries around the world held 
elections in 2024, electing new leaders and shaking up the world order. 
Fundamental rights may not feature so highly on the agenda. New 
leadership brings with it uncertainties, including changes in the new US 
administration. The European elections in 2024 were also a critical moment 
of change for the EU as it sets course in a new direction. The new EU 
priorities and these developments are discussed in the following section.

Fundamental rights in the new EU priorities

2024 was a year of political change for the EU. The elections in June brought 
in a new European Parliament with new leaders and new members, and 
a new European Commission and legislature with refreshed priorities 
for the EU. 

Strategic policy documents released by the EU institutions give an 
indication of what is to come over the next five years in the new 
policy cycle. The European Council’s strategic agenda for 2024–2029 (11), 
President von der Leyen’s political guidelines (12) and the mission letters 
to the commissioners (13) also articulate the EU’s priorities. Within these 
documents, there are signs of both increased protection for fundamental 
rights and areas where there may be setbacks.

3

The EU has three priorities, according to the strategic agenda, each 
of which will potentially impact fundamental rights – both positively 
and negatively (14). First, the EU is prioritising safeguarding a free and 
democratic Europe, including through upholding the values of the EU and 
living up to these values at the global level. This priority goes hand in hand 
with respect for fundamental rights in the Charter, including the right to 
freedom of expression (Article 11) and the right to organise under the right 
to peaceful assembly (Article 12), which are foundational to a democratic 
society. Chapter 1 of the Fundamental Rights Report 2025, ‘Respect 
for fundamental rights in the electoral process’, discusses upholding 
democratic values and fundamental rights in more detail.

In addition, the EU’s accession to the European Convention on Human 
Rights is currently in progress. That will ensure greater consistency in 
upholding human rights in EU Member States, and in the EU itself (15), 
guaranteeing people’s fundamental rights.

The second priority concerns maintaining a strong and secure Europe, 
including through strengthening security and defence, implementing a 
comprehensive approach to migration and border management, and 
preparing for another wave of enlargement. Although security is a 
necessary precondition for the enjoyment of rights and freedom, there 
is an indication that changes in this area may put a strain on fundamental 
rights. 

For example, heightened border controls and migration management 
must be compliant with fundamental rights. The risk of ill treatment at 
borders is a known issue that FRA has been documenting. The section 
‘Migration and asylum at EU external borders’ discusses it in more detail. 
It warrants close oversight and responses in line with EU and international 
obligations in striking the right balance between increased security 
measures and respecting people’s rights to dignity and freedom from 
inhuman or degrading treatment.

A further security-related development is prioritising the safety of 
citizens, from both online and offline threats. This could be a step towards 
addressing the issues of online hate and harmful content on social media, 
as discussed in the section ‘Racism, hate crime and discrimination’. 
Safety online is also discussed in Chapter 2 of the Fundamental Rights 
Report 2025, ‘Protecting women who are victims of crime’, in relation to 
hate posted online, which most often targets women.

The  third  and  final  priority  focuses  on  fostering  a  prosperous  and 
competitive Europe, including through delivering on the green and digital 
transitions. The focus on competitiveness in the economy may lead 
to discussion about regulation and obligations, which might present 
a challenge in upholding fundamental rights. For example, prioritising 
growth may weaken rights protections for workers or consumers, and 
the expansion of digital technology in our societies could pose risks to 
a range of rights alongside concerns about privacy and data protection. 

Changes to adapt to and mitigate climate change may affect not only the 
business world but also those in society who struggle amid rising costs 
of living. The move towards a just transition will have an impact on jobs 
in many different sectors and affect people’s livelihoods. Delivering on 
these objectives means effectively integrating fundamental rights in any 

4

initiatives put forward in these areas to meet policy objectives known as 
‘leaving no one behind’. Examples are provided in FRA’s recent publication 
on ensuring compliance with fundamental rights in the European Green 
Deal (16).

As part of the European Green Deal, the EU introduced new rules on 
human rights, sustainability and responsible business practices (17). These 
include the corporate sustainability due diligence directive (CSDDD) (18), 
the corporate sustainability reporting directive (19) and the EU taxonomy 
regulation (20). 

However, proposed changes will have an impact on these rules. Changing 
political objectives following the European elections and subsequent 
global events put pressure on these rules. As part of a plan to improve 
European competitiveness, on 8 November 2024 the European Commission 
President,  Ursula  von  der  Leyen,  announced  plans  to  simplify  EU 
sustainability-reporting rules by consolidating and streamlining them (21). 
On 29 January 2025, the Commission presented the Competitiveness 
Compass to guide policy during the 2024–2029 mandate, introducing the 
‘Sustainability Omnibus’ as the first in a series of simplification omnibus 
packages. It aims to simplify sustainability-reporting requirements, as 
well as sustainability due diligence and taxonomy. On 26 February 2025, 
the first of these simplifications was announced, proposing substantial 
changes to the CSDDD and corporate sustainability reporting directive. 

While presented as a means to alleviate regulatory burdens on businesses, 
a number of these changes – if adopted – risk weakening human rights 
and environmental protections. At the time of writing, the competent 
EU institutions are still discussing these proposals. It remains to be seen 
how the proposed changes will affect human rights protection under 
the CSDDD – and the extent to which the changes are consistent with 
human rights due diligence, as enshrined in the United Nations Guiding 
Principles on Business and Human Rights (22) and the Organisation for 
Economic Co-operation and Development guidelines. 

In summary, the new political leadership in various countries, including 
the EU, is operating in a highly volatile and unpredictable international 
environment. This introduces uncertainty due to potential policy shifts 
regarding fundamental rights. The EU’s new priorities may both strengthen 
and weaken fundamental rights protection. While these new priorities – 
safeguarding democracy, enhancing security and ensuring a prosperous, 
competitive Europe – represent a continuation of progress in some 
areas, they also introduce new challenges. The focus on security and 
competitiveness, along with broader regulatory simplification efforts, 
may undermine fundamental rights protections, particularly in areas 
such as human rights, environmental protection, data protection and 
AI governance. Aligning these priorities with fundamental rights is a 
challenge for the forthcoming period.

The  remainder  of  this  overview  looks  at  selected  key  issues  for 
fundamental rights. It focuses on issues that were important in 2024 
from a fundamental rights perspective and highlights major legislative 
developments in 2024 in digitalisation, AI, and migration and asylum. It 
showcases the new FRA data published in 2024 on the high levels of 
racism and discrimination. It concludes with a section looking ahead to 
2025 and beyond. 

5

FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS IN 2024: 
MAJOR DEVELOPMENTS AND FRA RESEARCH

This section presents the major developments in 2024 from the perspective 
of fundamental rights. It provides an overview of major trends and analysis 
drawn from data and research that FRA published in 2024, in three areas.

Racism, hate crime and discrimination

Discrimination, often combined with hate and racism, continues to plague 
today’s society, affecting everyone who is seen as different. Hate speech 
and harassment, including hate crime and physical bias-motivated 
violent crime, are very real threats. Harassment can include offensive 
or threatening comments, and threats of violence both in person and in 
messages received online. There is also a growing risk of the kinds of 
attitudes behind racist and discriminatory acts becoming normalised.

Black people, Roma and people from different ethnic backgrounds face 
racist harassment and racial discrimination. People are targeted on account 
of their religious beliefs, with the war in Gaza prompting rising antisemitism, 
alongside anti-Muslim hatred in the EU. 

Acts like these violate people’s fundamental rights, including the right 
to the protection of their human dignity, the right to respect for their 
private and family life, the right to non-discrimination and the right to 
freedom of thought, conscience and religion.

6

Fears, misconceptions and ‘othering’ fuel discrimination and intolerance, 
and stand in the way of ensuring inclusive, equal and respectful societies. 
It is not only these individuals who suffer. Institutionalised racism also 
has an impact on public trust in institutions. It can lead to rifts in social 
cohesion and affects the democratic values the EU is built upon. 

In 2024, FRA published data highlighting the inequality and discrimination 
that millions experience across the EU. The results of FRA’s surveys asking 
Black people, Jews, Muslims and LGBTIQ people in the EU about their 
experiences, published in the last year, show widespread hatred, reflecting 
systemic racial discrimination. Unequal treatment and discrimination 
hamper their lives. This section only presents the main research outputs 
from FRA in 2024 and does not provide an overview of other groups 
potentially affected in similar ways.

Antisemitism remains a live issue in the EU. The latest FRA survey data 
on antisemitism, published in 2024, show that Jewish people in the EU 
today continue to fear for their safety and their security (23). Over a third 
(37 %) of Jews who took part in the survey say they have been harassed 
because they are Jewish. 

Similarly, Muslims experience racism and discrimination, which FRA’s 
research published in 2024 clearly indicates. Almost one in two Muslims 
(47 %) experience racial discrimination (24). Muslim men, women and 
children experience this frequently in schools, at workplaces and on our 
streets.

Soaring numbers of incidents of hate targeted at Jews and Muslims are 
also evidenced by research that the European Commission against Racism 
and Intolerance published in 2024 (25). 

Racism  is  not  limited  to  interactions  between  people  in  society. 
Institutionalised racist attitudes can also be ingrained in public services 
and government policies. Racism exists in public services, such as police 
forces, that are designed to protect the communities they serve. In 2024, 
FRA published the first EU-wide report on racism in policing (26). It shows 
that racism in policing continues to be an issue and is widespread across 
the EU. Racism in policing has far-reaching effects, fuelling social exclusion 
and harming trust in police forces.

People who identify as LGBTIQ face similar challenges. FRA’s survey of 
LGBTIQ people last year, one of the biggest surveys of its kind in the 
world, underscored the need for inclusive policies that consider the 
diversity of LGBTIQ people (27). The data, published in 2024, show that 
many experience harassment and hate-motivated violence, with trans 
and intersex people facing the worst of it. Almost 50 % of LGBTIQ people 
who took part in the survey were victims of hate-motivated harassment.

Discriminatory experiences can be more extreme for someone who 
identifies as belonging to more than one of these groups that typically 
face discrimination, or also has other characteristics, such as age or gender, 
resulting in a unique experience of discrimination. By way of example, 
more than half of Muslim respondents felt they had been discriminated 
against on more than one ground such as their skin colour, religion and 
ethnic or immigrant background (28). These findings on intersectionality 
suggest that, although non-discrimination is part of existing laws designed 
to ensure equality, enforcement is needed to counteract these trends.

7

Developments to address racism, hate crime and 
discrimination in 2024

Developments in 2024 represent a small step forward. There have been 
no major new developments, but initiatives and enforcement attempts 
build on the existing body of legal standards to prevent racism, hate 
crime and discrimination.

To address racism, the Commission acts to ensure that racism is punishable 
by criminal penalties under the framework decision on racism and 
xenophobia (29). To do this, the Commission launched infringement cases, 
bringing the total number of infringement proceedings since 2020 to 
14 (30). Eight cases have since been closed, and other Member States are 
making progress although their cases remain open. The Commission’s 
action in this area should encourage countries to align with EU standards.

To tackle hate crime, in 2024, the Commission brought together citizens in 
the first European citizens’ panel on tackling hatred, to discuss the causes 
of hate in society (31). Their recommendations address media literacy and 
the role of online platforms. The panel is also a strong example of how 
citizens can play an important role in shaping policies.

Also relevant to the EU and progress in this area is the work of the 
Council of Europe. It also took initiatives on hate crime in 2024. A new 
recommendation, adopted by the Council of Europe’s Committee of 
Ministers, includes a wider definition of hate crime so that member states 
can more effectively prosecute such crimes (32).

With a view to combating discrimination, in 2024 the European Commission 
published progress reports about its equality strategies and action plans on 
antisemitism (33) and LGBTIQ equality (34), and EU and national action plans 
against racism (35). This last report states that infringement proceedings 
remain ongoing against three Member States that do not implement the 
racial equality directive. This is one example of how these assessments 
show that, although there has been progress, not all countries have done 
enough to implement the existing requirements. In addition, in 2025, 
two of the major EU equality strategies will be renewed: the strategy 
designed to promote equality for LGBTIQ people and the strategy to fight 
racism (36). The rise in anti-Muslim hatred in the last year is a further 
reason to consider this phenomenon and to take action to counter it. 
Implementing these strategies along with independent monitoring and 
accountability is crucial to tackle discrimination.

Furthermore, new directives that the EU adopted in 2024 aim to strengthen 
the role of equality bodies (37). Increasing the independence, mandate, 
resources and powers of these bodies should make their work to combat 
discrimination more effective.

To build on the existing data on affected vulnerable groups, FRA is 
collecting data examining the experiences of Roma people, and the 
racism, discrimination and hate crime that these communities face (38). 
These findings will be published in 2025 and be used as evidence in the 
interim assessment of the 2020–2030 EU Roma framework (39).

Overall, despite small steps forward being made in 2024, the high levels 
of intolerance seen in FRA’s research in 2024 are alarming. The findings 
show a lack of progress over the years, despite laws designed to prohibit 
discrimination under the EU treaties, the Charter and EU equality law. 
For example, related to discrimination, the evaluations of the equality 

8

strategies conducted by the European Commission illustrate areas where 
Member States seem to fall short. Member States should do more to 
enforce laws and adhere to the standards that have been set. 

To address these issues, FRA reiterates its calls to the EU and its Member 
States, put forward in its publications. These include practical steps that 
the EU and Member States can take.

 ― First, to prevent discrimination, FRA reiterates its call to the European 
Commission and Member States to enforce existing EU anti-discrimination 
legislation and policy. They should put in place independent monitoring 
mechanisms based on robust and regularly collected equality data on 
all grounds of discrimination and for all areas of life covered by the 
law. For more detail, see FRA opinion 2 in Being Muslim in the EU (40).
 ― Second, to tackle antisemitism, Member States should ensure effective 
monitoring and appropriate funding of strategies and action plans. 
For more detail, see FRA opinion 1 in Jewish People’s Experiences and 
Perceptions of Antisemitism (41).

 ― Third, to address anti-Muslim hatred, and racism more broadly, 
Member States should enforce sanctions against racial and religious 
discrimination, in line with the racial equality directive. For more 
detail, see FRA opinion 1 in Being Muslim in the EU (42).

Digitalisation and artificial intelligence

AI  is  increasingly  used  in  daily  life.  Many  people,  businesses  and 
governments are using it to speed up routine tasks and save time. 

While there are endless opportunities and benefits, using AI can negatively 
affect fundamental rights. For example, technology and algorithms 
designed to detect and stop the spread of hate speech may be biased 
and lead to discrimination with the over-removal or under-removal 
of certain content. This can put people at a disadvantage based on 
protected characteristics, such as their ethnic background. There have 
been numerous examples of the pitfalls and dangers of using new 
technologies, such as gender-biased machine translations and ineffective 
facial recognition systems (43). 

FRA’s report on biased algorithms also illustrated these risks, showing that 
algorithms that may be used for detecting hate speech online are easily biased 
towards or against certain groups (44). These results show that algorithms 
are not neutral and may lead to discriminatory treatment. They embed 
societal biases and can perpetuate, reinforce or even create discrimination. 
Given that AI and related technologies can be used in all areas of life and 
a variety of ways, all fundamental rights may be affected in various ways.

Social media and online platforms rely on such algorithms to moderate 
content online. When these platforms do not moderate harmful content, 
people are at greater risk. There are major challenges in detecting and 
removing hate speech from social media. FRA’s research found that 
women are most often the targets of hate posted online (45). Examples 
of this can include misogyny, abusive content and threats. 

These examples show that AI and similar technologies used on online 
platforms can have real-world consequences. Regulation of online 
platforms is necessary because they can easily have an impact on 
fundamental rights including non-discrimination, gender equality, and 
personal data and privacy, alongside freedom of expression.

9

In recent years there has been a drive for more regulation, and protecting 
fundamental rights has been one of the main impetuses behind it. 
Developments in 2024 are highlighted in the following section.

Developments to regulate digital technologies in 2024

There were significant developments in 2024 regarding the regulation of 
digital technology and online spaces. Major new legislation to regulate 
online platforms came into force in 2024 in the shape of the Digital Services 
Act (DSA) (46). The DSA regulates the conduct of online service providers 
and platforms, including social media platforms. Importantly, platforms 
must remove unlawful content that is posted online, such as hate speech. 
Hateful content online can have an impact on people’s mental health. 

One  example  is  in  the  evidence  from  FRA’s  recent  survey  on  the 
experiences of Jewish people. Over 90 % of survey respondents have 
seen antisemitic content online and 15 % say it negatively affected their 
mental health (47). The new laws under the DSA will enable the EU to hold 
platforms to meet higher standards of transparency and accountability 
and should have a big impact as social media platforms grow and evolve 
or change their policies.

The DSA can support combating the spread of disinformation and election 
interference or manipulation, if implemented effectively. Protecting 
fundamental rights online means protecting both the right to freedom 
of expression and information and the right to non-discrimination. This 
remains an area in which FRA will continue to work in 2025 and 2026 to 
provide for a better understanding of interferences with those rights in 
the online sphere.

Another significant legislative achievement in 2024 was the adoption 
of the Artificial Intelligence Act (48). The AI Act is a welcome and timely 
development that will support the safeguarding of fundamental rights. It 
prohibits AI from being used for the harmful exploitation of vulnerabilities, 
being used in predicting individual criminal behaviour or being used in 
social scoring. 

It also categorises certain AI usage in areas relating to education, 
employment, law enforcement and migration management as high risk 
and requires providers and certain deployers to assess their systems in 
relation to fundamental rights. Fundamental rights impact assessments 
under the AI Act should, when implemented correctly, play a major role 
in ensuring rights compliance. FRA is involved in providing input in the 
development of these impact assessments. 

FRA will also help ensure the effective implementation of the AI Act by 
providing evidence and guidance. It is one of five permanent members 
assigned to the AI Act’s advisory forum, outlined in Article 67 of the act. 
FRA is also working on AI projects focused on assessing high-risk AI, 
remote biometric identification and digitalisation of justice. Results are 
expected to be published in 2025 (49).

In parallel to the regulatory efforts on AI by the EU, the Council of Europe 
adopted the first-ever international legally binding treaty in this field, 
the Framework Convention on Artificial Intelligence and Human Rights, 
Democracy and the Rule of Law (50). The European Commission signed 
the convention on behalf of the EU. Several states also signed it, including 

10

Council of Europe member states and non-members, such as the United 
States. In addition, the Council of Europe is working on several initiatives 
that tackle the protection of human rights when using AI. It adopted 
guidance on impact assessment methodology for AI in 2024 (51). It is 
working on more detailed guidance on promoting equality and preventing 
discrimination in the field of AI (52). 

Both the AI Act and the DSA are important achievements, but it remains 
to be seen how these provisions will be applied in practice. In early 
2025, there was pushback from the United States on regulation related 
to concerns on innovation and competitiveness. Technology developers 
also introduced changes in early 2025 on fact-checking. Similar changes in 
future could have an impact on compliance. Evaluating the implementation 
of both pieces of legislation will be the main task of oversight bodies in 
the coming years. Similarly, changes in how online platforms operate, 
such as changes in content moderation rules or fact-checking, may pose 
a challenge to regulation under the DSA. Innovation in this space is likely 
to continue to pose a challenge to regulation. 

To address these issues, FRA reiterates its calls to the EU and its Member 
States put forward in its publications. These include practical steps that 
the EU and Member States can take.

 ― First, regarding the risk to women online evidenced by FRA’s research, 
one example of action that could be taken is that online platforms 
should pay particular attention to misogyny online. Very large online 
platforms should consider misogyny as one of the systemic risks in 
the context of the risk assessment and mitigation measures that the 
DSA requires. For more detail, see FRA opinion 1 in Online Content 
Moderation – Current challenges in detecting hate speech (53).

 ― Second, to increase the protection of fundamental rights when using 
AI, impact assessments should be used. In addition, accountability 
systems should be put in place to monitor and address any negative 
impact. For more detail, see FRA opinion 3 in Getting the Future 
Right – Artificial intelligence and fundamental rights (54).

 ― Third, there remains a need for more knowledge, awareness and 
resources to check for bias in AI algorithms, as well as access to data 
and datasets. For more detail, see FRA opinion 6 in Bias in Algorithms – 
Artificial intelligence and discrimination (55).

Migration and asylum at EU external borders

Migration remains a priority for the EU and a highly topical issue across 
many Member States. Most people who come to the EU come to visit and to 
work or study. Some come to Europe seeking safety and fleeing from harm. 

The reality is that many people either die at sea or go missing while trying 
to reach Europe. There are many developments related to migration that are 
potentially concerning from the perspective of fundamental rights. Given 
FRA’s work in this area, this section focuses on deaths at sea, ill treatment 
and other rights violations at borders, which remain a serious concern.

In 2024, 3 642 people died or went missing while attempting to cross by 
sea to Europe, the International Organization for Migration estimated. 
This is a slight decrease from 2023 (4 088), due to fewer departures from 
Tunisia and Libya (56). 

11

Figure 1 shows these numbers over the last five years. There has been 
a slight overall upward trend, though the number for 2023 is unusually 
high. This illustrates the risks associated with perilous sea crossings 
and that loss of life at sea remains high. This indicates that preventative 
measures are still needed to prevent future tragedies. 

Similarly, in 2024, 82 people died or went missing in the English Channel, 
an increase of 66 % over 2023 (57).

FIGURE 1  – ESTIMATED NUMBERS OF DEATHS AT SEA, MEDITERRANEAN 

AND ATLANTIC ROUTES, 2020–2024

Total

Children

Source:  FRA, 2025, created using data from the International Organization for 

Migration.

Part of the problem stems from a lack of adequate search and rescue 
capabilities to help people in distress at sea. Attempting to get to 
Europe by crossing the Mediterranean Sea by boat is dangerous. Civil-
society organisations play a key role in saving lives and mitigating the 
hardships that migrants and asylum seekers experience. Yet civil-society 
organisations are penalised for their work, as FRA’s 2024 report on search 
and rescue operations highlighted (58). This limits the capacity of these 
organisations and leaves a deficit in the available search and rescue 
functions operating in the Mediterranean Sea.

EU countries have several responsibilities to prevent people from dying at 
sea, and to investigate reports of violations at borders. People crossing the 
EU’s external borders can face challenging circumstances, with migrants 
being mistreated by border guards or other officials. Practices involving 
stopping asylum seekers at the border and forcibly returning them to the 
country they entered from without carrying out an individual assessment 
violate fundamental rights (59). 

Under the Charter, EU countries are legally obliged to respect human 
dignity, protect the right to life and prevent ill treatment. An important 
aspect of this is their responsibility to investigate when things go wrong. 
When there are indicators of human rights violations, including violations 
of the right to life and personal integrity, investigations must be conducted.

However, many investigations are ineffective, which casts a negative 
light on border management authorities’ operations. Investigations can 
be ineffective partly due to a lack of political will. FRA’s 2024 publication 

12

Guidance on Investigating Alleged Ill-treatment at Borders provides evidence of ineffective 
investigations (60). It sets out 10 steps to promote prompt and effective national investigations 
into incidents of ill treatment at borders. Unfortunately, fundamental rights violations often 
go unreported, and therefore cannot be investigated.

Developments in asylum and migration in 2024

In 2024, several legislative instruments were adopted as part of a new pact on migration 
and asylum. It sets out new rules harmonising asylum procedures and cooperation between 
Member States, which come into force in mid 2026. The legal acts comprising the pact are 
published in the EU’s Official Journal (61). 

The pact revises procedures for those who apply for asylum at border crossing points, 
those rescued at sea and those who are apprehended after having crossed the border in a 
way that is deemed irregular. National authorities must screen new arrivals to verify their 
identities and carry out security checks as well as health and vulnerability checks. A faster 
border procedure will examine asylum applications at the EU’s external borders. Rejected 
asylum applicants will be channelled into fast-track return border procedures. The border 
procedures for asylum and return must respect strict timelines (62).

The new rules also raise some fundamental rights risks, largely associated with the speed 
of the border procedure.

Monitoring compliance with fundamental rights is one of the promising aspects of the 
new pact. Accurate monitoring is considered to be an effective way to uphold and protect 
rights. The new rules require Member States to have an independent mechanism to monitor 
compliance with fundamental rights during the screening of new arrivals and when assessing 
asylum claims at external borders. The screening regulation (63) and the asylum procedure 
regulation (64) set out these rules. Both of those are pieces of legislation that constitute the 
pact. Member States must ensure that monitoring bodies are independent and provided 
with adequate resources. 

To make these monitoring activities effective, FRA published practical guidance for Member 
States to assist them in setting up national independent monitoring mechanisms for the 
screening and asylum border procedures (65). FRA published the guidance as part of its role 
in the pact, outlined in the regulations (66).

In 2024, the EU and Member States increased their efforts to make returns more effective. 
This concerns third-country nationals (i.e. people from non-EU countries) with no legal right 
to remain in the EU. The EU and Member States suggested amending the rules on returns 
to speed up and simplify the return process (67). 

Related to this, some Member States proposed creating ‘return hubs’ in non-EU countries. 
These are places in countries outside the EU, which would temporarily host people who 
have been ordered to leave, until either the Member State or the European Border and Coast 
Guard Agency (Frontex) organises their return to where they were originally. FRA analysed 
the fundamental rights risks this entails (68).

The implementation of EU return policies is a very sensitive area from a fundamental rights 
perspective. Several fundamental rights guaranteed in the Charter are at stake and must 
be respected in any initiatives to increase the effectiveness of returns. Without sufficient 
safeguards, returning third-country nationals could lead to violations of rights such as 
protection from torture and inhuman or degrading treatment, the right to asylum, non-
refoulement and the prohibition of collective expulsions. It may also interfere with rights 
to liberty, the rights of the child, human dignity and access to effective judicial remedies. 
One example is that the European Committee of Social Rights of the Council of Europe found 
that the expulsion of children in an irregular migration situation violates the European Social 
Charter when it is carried out without providing them with any assistance (69).

13

Nonetheless, there are positive developments in 2024 from a fundamental 
rights perspective. The appointment of a new Commissioner for the 
Mediterranean in the EU offers a new opportunity to reinforce action 
and prevent future tragedies at sea. 

Evaluations of how the Schengen area works have repeatedly highlighted 
the importance of fundamental rights protection at borders (70). They also 
highlight the need to uphold the principle of non-refoulement, which is 
also part of the Charter: the principle under international law that people 
like refugees and asylum seekers cannot be forced to return to a place 
where they may be at risk of severe harm. These evaluations show 
promise as a tool to address gaps in the implementation of safeguards 
embedded in the Schengen rules. 

The new pact on asylum and migration notably includes a requirement 
for Member States to establish independent mechanisms to monitor 
fundamental rights during the screening and the asylum border procedure. 
This is promising from a fundamental rights perspective, as it provides 
an opportunity for external evaluation of how well people’s rights are 
being respected throughout the process.

In conclusion, many developments related to migration are potentially 
concerning from the perspective of fundamental rights. Given FRA’s work 
in this area, this section focuses on deaths at sea, ill treatment and other 
rights violations at borders, which remain a serious concern. As some 
rules in the pact on migration and asylum raise new risks for fundamental 
rights, fundamental rights monitoring will be essential. Efforts to make 
returns more effective and efficient are likely to continue in 2025, so 
this remains an area for vigilance, depending on their application and 
implementation. Capacity for search and rescue remains critical, while 
civil society’s activity has been reduced as a result of restrictions imposed 
by some Member States on its work.

To address these issues, FRA reiterates the calls its publications have 
made to the EU and its Member States. These include practical steps 
that the EU and Member States can take.

 ― First, to ensure sufficient search and rescue capacity, Member States 
and Frontex should collectively ensure that enough appropriately 
equipped naval assets are deployed where shipwrecks are most likely 
to occur. For more detail, see FRA opinion 3.1 in the Fundamental 
Rights Report 2024 (71).

 ― Second,  to  stop  non-governmental  organisations  from  being 
criminalised when they help migrants in rescues at sea, any rules on 
facilitation should exclude punishing those who provide humanitarian 
assistance. This should apply to rescuing refugees and assisting them 
in seeking safety, as well as providing food, shelter, medical care and 
legal advice to migrants. For more detail, see the final FRA opinion in 
‘Criminalisation of migrants in an irregular situation and of persons 
engaging with them’ (72).

 ― Third, to improve investigations into alleged violations, Member States 
should investigate all allegations of fundamental rights violations at 
borders promptly and effectively. For more detail, see FRA opinion 3.2 
in the Fundamental Rights Report 2024 (73).

14

LOOKING AHEAD TO 2025 
AND BEYOND

During 2024, there was significant pressure on fundamental rights. 
Economic and social rights were already strained by rising inflation, 
further disadvantaging people already affected by inequality and those 
who are at risk of poverty. Continuing geopolitical uncertainties and 
international conflict have had a spillover effect on fundamental rights 
in the EU. Global events have a felt impact in Member States, surfacing 
discrimination and racism. 

Intolerance of groups who are different from the majority population 
remains critically high. Targets of hate are most frequently women, 
LGBTIQ people, people from minority backgrounds and ethnicities, and 
religious groups. Cumulatively, these challenges signal a worrying trend 
in consistent violations of individual fundamental rights. Racism and 
discrimination have profound and far-reaching impacts on society. The 
reality of gender-based violence also indicates an extreme manifestation 
of gender inequality.

To counter these trends, in 2024, the EU and Member States have sustained 
their attention on policy areas critical to fundamental rights. Prior to the 
European elections, the EU sought to finalise its legislative and policy 
agenda, much of which was geared towards enhancing protection for 
fundamental rights. New legislation merits close observation to ensure 
it does not negatively affect rights. For instance, new laws in the areas 
of migration include safeguards that will need to be implemented and 
monitored to ensure they are respected.

Legislative changes in digitalisation and AI are significant markers of 
progress. The new DSA presents a meaningful opportunity to regulate 
online spaces, counter disinformation and online hate, and prevent 
discrimination. It includes a responsibility to assess potential negative 
effects on fundamental rights, such as freedom of expression, privacy 
and non-discrimination. The AI Act is a landmark legislative development 
that should support innovation in this emerging technology in a way that 
is transparent and conscious of the risks to fundamental rights associated 
with using AI.

These developments build on the existing protections that the EU and 
Member States have set up for fundamental rights, in many mechanisms 
and pieces of legislation. How countries respond, and how quickly the 
EU and its Member States make progress on their shared objectives, will 
together determine how well individual rights continue to be respected 
and nurtured.

In other areas, changes in legislation may have the opposite effect. 
Legislative developments in areas such as corporate sustainability due 
diligence are, at the time of writing, affected by the European Commission’s 
deregulation and simplification proposals introduced in early 2025. 
Although these changes aim to simplify the regulatory framework for 
businesses, they may also weaken human rights and environmental 
protections. 

15

This reflects a broader trend whereby the simplification of regulatory 
frameworks, intended to enhance competitiveness, can come at the 
expense of fundamental rights safeguards. As these reforms unfold 
throughout 2025, balancing efficiency with strong rights protections will 
remain a key challenge.

In 2025, the geopolitical situation is likely to be so volatile that it will be 
difficult to predict which issues may be challenging for fundamental rights. 
It will be crucial for those working in fundamental rights to monitor the 
situation, although the following are likely to continue to be important 
from the perspective of fundamental rights. 

First, the new EU priorities give greater significance to internal security. 
The implications of this for fundamental rights deserve close attention. 
For example, to protect rights, fundamental rights must be built into the 
development of a new internal security strategy. 

Second,  the  new  DSA  has  the  potential  to  ensure  a  safer  online 
environment and protect people against unlawful hate speech. How 
the EU and Member States use new laws to regulate online platforms 
and social media companies and assess their compliance with the rules 
in the new act should have a big impact. 

Third, inequality remains an issue of key importance, as is evident from 
the levels of gender inequality, racism and discrimination recorded in 
2024. Action to prevent discrimination against different groups should 
be taken. Notably, several EU equality strategies and plans are coming 
to an end in 2025. They include major strategies on anti-racism, gender 
equality, LGBTIQ equality and Roma equality. Although these strategies 
may be ending, the protection they provide, and the initiatives to combat 
discrimination under them, should continue. Greater enforcement of 
existing laws would be warranted against this backdrop of discrimination 
and racism, to protect people in society.

Beyond this, 2025 marks the 25th anniversary of the proclamation of 
the EU Charter of Fundamental Rights, and the European Convention on 
Human Rights celebrates its 75th anniversary. These milestones call for 
reflection and renewing commitment and resolve.

In conclusion, as the EU manages the challenges ahead, upholding 
fundamental rights will be crucial. Amid new EU priorities, challenging 
economic  and  social  strains  persist.  Compounded  by  geopolitical 
uncertainties in 2025, safeguarding both economic and social rights and 
democratic values should be prioritised. 

Tensions in society have surfaced over the last few years, and people 
of all walks of life continue to face discrimination in their daily lives. 
Discrimination particularly against religious communities, ethnic minorities, 
women, LGBTIQ individuals and other groups highlights the urgent need 
for ongoing commitments to counter intolerance. 

Developments in 2024 are a record of progress despite the odds. At the 
EU level, numerous legislative developments were rolled out, many of 
which enhance or include safeguards for fundamental rights. This is 
most obvious in relation to digitalisation, and in ensuring fundamental 
rights are protected online as well as offline. Although technological 
advancement moves at a pace that is difficult to keep up with, new 
legislation on digital technology and AI is a signal of readiness to respond 
quickly to the digital world.

16

Actions by the EU outlined in this overview are markers of progress to 
protect fundamental rights. The main report discusses these milestones 
and  actions  by  Member  States,  providing  greater  detail  on  major 
developments in 2024. Despite the challenges, these developments are 
steps in the journey towards fostering a just and equal society based on 
respect for fundamental rights.

The following sections are excerpts from the main report, the Fundamental 
Rights Report 2025, providing the FRA opinions on each of the areas 
covered in the chapters. These opinions set out FRA’s position and call 
for the European Commission, Member States and others to take practical 
action to address the issues raised in each chapter.

This excerpt is intended to provide policymakers, governments, lawmakers 
and civil-society organisations with a concise summary. FRA is an 
authoritative source of trusted, reliable information and research on 
fundamental rights in the EU. Therefore, the main Fundamental Rights 
Report 2025 and this accompanying overview and FRA opinions provide 
a useful evidence base for practitioners in the field and all those involved 
in protecting and upholding fundamental rights. 

17

FRA OPINIONS 

This section provides the FRA opinions as excerpts from the chapters of 
the Fundamental Rights Report 2025. For the full research and evidence 
behind the opinions, please see the main report. 

RESPECT FOR FUNDAMENTAL 
RIGHTS IN THE 
ELECTORAL PROCESS

2024 was a year of many elections. Alongside the European Parliament 
elections, elections at the municipal, regional and national levels took 
place in 19 Member States and the three EU candidate countries that are 
also FRA observer states.

Democracy is a founding value of the EU (Article 2 of the Treaty on 
European Union). Free and fair elections are a crucial part of democracy, 
but also a way for citizens to exercise their fundamental rights. 

The Fundamental Rights Report 2025 chapter discusses the fair and safe 
conduct of elections, including election campaigns, from a fundamental 
rights point of view, focusing on the online sphere. It also discusses the 
inclusiveness of elections in 2024.

It proposes a range of actions to deal with these challenges to ensure 
the security of fundamental rights throughout the electoral cycle.

FRA opinions

EU law, such as the DSA, has started to be enforced in relation to elections 
already, and other legislation such as the AI Act and political advertising 
regulation, if properly enforced at both the national and the EU level, will 
play a growing role in contributing to the integrity of future elections. 

Although Member States took significant measures, and the Commission 
took a proactive approach to dealing with the potential misuse of online 
platforms to manipulate elections in 2024, there is evidence of the use 
of disinformation, the growing use of AI and the use of other techniques 
to attempt to exert undue influence on the conduct and outcome of 
elections in the EU. Indeed, one such case even resulted in the annulment 
of the first round of a national presidential election.

FRA OPINION 1
The European Commission and the Member States 
should ensure sufficient resources are available 
to implement and enforce the provisions of the 
DSA, AI Act and political advertising regulation. 
Applying and enforcing EU legislation, among 
other measures, can ensure the integrity of  future 
elections in the EU. It can ensure elections are 
 protected from manipulation by domestic or 
 foreign actors and ensure respect for fundamental 
rights such as freedom of expression. 

EU Member States should cooperate with the 
European Commission to ensure mutual learning. 
They should share promising practices and guar-
antee that new challenges, such as the use of AI, 
are addressed. This cooperation will help them 
respond effectively to the challenges associated 
with these transnational phenomena such as 
manipulation and undue influence. 

18

The recent DSA requires large online platforms operating in the EU to put 
in place reasonable, proportionate and effective mitigation measures, 
such as changing algorithmic systems or the design of their services, or 
modifying their content moderation processes, in particular in respect of 
illegal hate speech or cyberviolence. Enforcement of such provisions is 
limited so far and may be hampered by lack of capacity, lack of political 
will and lack of compliance by online platforms. 

EU law requires the criminalisation of some forms and expressions 
of racism and xenophobia. The 2024 European Parliament elections 
witnessed cases of harmful rhetoric, including elements of racism, 
misogyny, xenophobia, and discrimination against Muslims. Incidents of 
intimidation persisted throughout the campaign and increasingly took 
place online, backed up by acts of political violence that contributed to 
the polarisation of the political climate. 

EU primary law grants EU citizens the right to vote and stand for elections 
in the European Parliament but also at the municipal level in their state of 
residence. In addition, Member States need to respect their obligations 
under international human rights law, including the European Convention 
on Human Rights, which in Article 3 of Protocol No 1 enshrines the right to 
free elections, as well as the United Nations Convention on the Rights of 
Persons with Disabilities, the International Convention on the Elimination 
of All Forms of Racial Discrimination and the Convention on the Elimination 
of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, which require the removal 
of obstacles to electoral participation on the grounds of disability, sex 
and race/ethnicity. In addition, the International Covenant on Civil and 
Political Rights protects the broader right to political participation.

The current composition of the European Parliament suggests that 
membership of the parliament does not reflect overall societies in terms 
of the inclusion of women, people with disabilities, young people and 
other minorities, such as people at the intersections of these or other 
minority categories. This risks negatively affecting its legitimacy and 
reducing the effectiveness of its work by not enabling it to tap into the 
lived experiences of members of all the different groups that make up 
European societies. These concerns are not limited to the EU level but are 
in some contexts also a challenge at the national and subnational levels.

FRA OPINION 2
The  European  Commission  and  EU  Member 
States should deal with threats of violence and 
intimidation during elections using national and 
EU law. The DSA is one option of law that they 
can use to deal with threats. In doing so, they 
should balance any action with the right to free-
dom of expression and other fundamental rights.

FRA OPINION 3
EU Member States should use their legal and 
policy tools at the national level to improve the 
inclusivity of elected bodies in the EU.

Member States should consider introducing 
 legally binding measures such as gender  quotas 
or  making  the  financing  of  political  parties 
and/or campaigns dependent on measures to 
 promote equality and inclusion. They should ad-
dress sexism, racism and discrimination related 
to political activities, including online. Member 
States should seek assistance from the  European 
Commission, exchange promising practices, and 
seek the advice of experts and relevant civil- 
society groups to ensure the measures they 
adopt are both equitable and effective.

19

 
FRA OPINION 4
EU  Member  States  should  lift  restrictions  on 
the rights to vote and stand for elections and 
make voting facilities and election materials ful-
ly  accessible for people with disabilities. They 
should increase rights awareness and offer great-
er opportunity for political participation. Member 
States should improve how the political partici-
pation of people with disabilities is  measured. To 
do so, they should draw on indicators that FRA 
has developed.

The EU itself and all its Member States are bound by the UN Convention 
on the Rights Persons with Disabilities, which guarantees to persons with 
disabilities political rights and the opportunity to enjoy them on an equal 
basis with others. The ability of people with disabilities to participate in 
political life has improved in the last decade. 

Despite this, as FRA found in its 2024 report on the political participation 
of people with disabilities, based on indicators developed by FRA, there 
are still barriers to their participation based on legal capacity. These 
include obstacles to voting for people with visual, hearing and intellectual 
disabilities, a lack of data collection on accessibility of buildings, a lack of 
web accessibility and difficulties in accessing private media coverage of 
elections. Problems with the accessibility of polling stations for people 
with disabilities appear to have persisted in the 2024 elections in a 
number of Member States.

20

EFFECTIVELY PROTECTING 
WOMEN VICTIMS 
OF VIOLENCE

Violence against women remains a widespread reality in Europe, and victims 
continue to face obstacles in obtaining protection and accessing justice.

The Fundamental Rights Report 2025 chapter provides an overview and 
analysis of the most recent EU data on the prevalence and nature of 
gender-based violence, based on survey data from Eurostat, FRA and 
the European Institute for Gender Equality published in 2024.

Alongside the empirical data, the chapter describes relevant legislative 
and policy developments at the international and national levels. A major 
milestone was the adoption of the EU directive on combating violence 
against women and domestic violence in May 2024.

Cyberviolence against women is highlighted in several parts of the chapter 
as a concrete example of violence against women.

FRA opinions

The Istanbul Convention, the victims’ rights directive (VRD) and the newly 
adopted directive on combating violence against women (VAW) and 
domestic violence all contain requirements that oblige states to adopt 
targeted measures aiming to facilitate reporting by women victims of 
violence (Articles 27 and 28 of the Istanbul Convention; Articles 4–5 of 
the VRD; Article 14 of the VAW directive), alongside requirements to 
protect and support women victims of violence (Articles 18–25 of the 
Istanbul Convention; Articles 8–9 of the VRD; Articles 15–21 and 25–33 of 
the VAW directive).

The latest EU-wide survey conducted by Eurostat, FRA and the European 
Institute for Gender Equality shows that violence against women remains 
widespread. At the same time, it indicates that only 13.9 % of women who 
have experienced physical violence or threats, and/or sexual violence, 
reported their experiences of violence to the police. More broadly, 26.7 % 
of women contacted healthcare services, social or other support services, 
or the police following an incident of violence.

Under-reporting has a range of reasons, including a lack of confidence 
that the police will investigate the matter. It means that women victims 
of violence are often not in a position to access support and protection. 
Continued low rates of reporting violence to the police and other authorities 
lead to questions around the effectiveness of national authorities in 
investigating and punishing this type of crime, as women do not feel 
able to come forward to report abuse and seek redress.

FRA OPINION 1
EU Member States should enhance structures 
that facilitate crime reporting and offer sup-
port to women victims of violence in line with 
their legal obligations. For example, they should 
set up alternative reporting options, such as 
third-party reporting, and proactively dissem-
inate information on support and services. The 
police and other public services should be trained 
in victim-appropriate responses to encourage 
women to report crimes, use support services 
and get access to justice. Training should also 
cover handling of cyberviolence cases.

21

FRA OPINION 2
EU Member States that have ratified the Istanbul 
Convention should criminalise sexual violence 
using consent-based definitions of rape and other 
forms of sexual violence. FRA reiterates this call 
previously presented in the Fundamental Rights 
Report 2023.

FRA OPINION 3
EU Member States should review their laws and 
policies to ensure they meet the requirements 
of the directive on combating violence against 
 women  and  domestic  violence.  They  should 
 transpose it without delay and pay particular 
attention to requirements on online reporting 
 options, securing electronic evidence and meas-
ures to remove certain online material. 

Article 36 of the Istanbul Convention requires states parties to criminalise 
any acts of a sexual nature that take place without the consent of one of 
the people involved. Consent must hereby be given voluntarily and be 
assessed in the context of the surrounding circumstances. The adoption 
of consent-based definitions of sexual violence in the Member States is 
progressing. In the Fundamental Rights Report 2023, FRA noted that a 
few Member States had adopted new legislation and legislative proposals 
in this respect. In 2024, three Member States introduced consent-based 
definitions of sexual violence in their national laws.

This is in line with contemporary understandings of sexual violence, which 
do not rely on force or similar features. The Pelicot trial in France, involving 
the repeated rape and sexual abuse of an unconscious woman, sparked 
a global debate, underlining the need for consent-based definitions of 
sexual violence.

The newly adopted directive on combating violence against women and 
domestic violence contains specific provisions dedicated to criminalising 
forms of cyberviolence (Articles 5–8). It also contains requirements in 
relation to online reporting of cybercrimes (Article 14), securing electronic 
evidence (Article 15) and measures to remove certain online material 
(Article 23). The DSA, which entered into force in 2024, can support the 
fight against cyberviolence, for example through orders to act against 
illegal content (Article 9) and notice and action mechanisms that can be 
used to report potentially illegal content (Article 16).

High rates of misogyny were demonstrated by a 2023 FRA report on online 
content moderation. FRA’s 2014 survey on violence against women found 
that one in five young women (aged between 18 and 29) had experienced 
sexual cyber harassment. These findings are supported by more recent 
Eurostat data, which show that young women have a higher chance of 
encountering hostile messages targeting people because of their sex. 

In some Member States, research has been conducted or is under way to 
better understand the challenges of addressing forms of cyberviolence 
within their legal systems, paving the way to incorporate the directive 
on combating violence against women and domestic violence. In others, 
steps have already been taken to adopt or amend legislation criminalising 
forms of cyberviolence.

22

IMPLEMENTATION AND 
USE OF THE CHARTER AT 
THE NATIONAL LEVEL

The European Commission is monitoring the fundamental rights implications 
of EU expenditure. Its 2024 annual report on the application of the Charter 
of Fundamental Rights of the European Union shed light on the funding 
of activities related to fundamental rights and the need to respect the 
Charter when using EU funds. At the national level, it is still to be seen 
how monitoring and complaint mechanisms will be used to ensure that 
all EU-funded activities are fully Charter compliant. There is also room 
for more emphasis on the application of the Charter in other contexts.

FRA opinions

Member States are approaching the implementation of the common 
provisions regulation, including its provisions on the Charter, in different 
ways. Evidence suggests that there is a need for further capacity building 
for the fundamental rights actors involved in the process, to ensure 
that the available procedures are fully used and that all use of EU funds 
covered by the regulation is fully in line with the Charter.

In the context of considering fundamental rights during the legislative 
procedure  in  the  Member  States,  issues  were  reported  as  to  the 
involvement of national human rights institutions, equality bodies and 
ombuds institutions. These appear to be due to insufficient time reserved 
for consulting fundamental rights bodies, resources and meaningful ways 
of considering their opinions in the consultations. 

FRA OPINION 1
The European Commission should encourage 
EU Member States to share best practices in 
the implementation of the Charter horizontal 
enabling condition. These are set out under the 
common provisions regulation. This should be 
done with the participation of national bodies 
competent for fundamental rights.

FRA OPINION 2
EU Member States should continue providing 
training on the Charter to public administrations 
involved in the management of EU funds.

Member States should increase the awareness 
of the complaint mechanisms available in their 
national systems to ensure respect of the Char-
ter in the implementation of EU funds.

FRA OPINION 3
EU Member States should ensure, when con-
sidering fundamental rights in the legislative 
process, that national human rights institutions, 
equality bodies and ombuds institutions partic-
ipate effectively and are consulted in a mean-
ingful way. This includes, for example, providing 
timely information about legislative proposals, 
giving enough time to provide comments to 
the proposals and providing feedback when 
comments are not considered.

23

 
Awareness raising and training on the Charter is flourishing, thanks to 
EU-funded opportunities, but differences among the Member States in 
knowledge on the Charter continue to exist. There appear to have been 
only a few initiatives promoting the Charter among public administrations, 
in particular at the subnational level. 

FRA OPINION 4
EU Member States should enhance their efforts 
to promote the application of the Charter among 
all levels of public administration, including the 
subnational level. They should deliver aware-
ness-raising and training activities, using the 25th 
anniversary of the proclamation of the Charter 
as an opportunity.

FRA OPINION 5
The European Committee of the Regions could 
consult its members and explore avenues to 
increase the application of the Charter at the 
regional and local levels.

FRA OPINION 6
The European Commission should continue to 
fund training and capacity building on the Charter 
for local, regional and municipal authorities. It 
should keep encouraging the integration of the 
Charter into human rights training by national 
human rights institutions, civil society and legal 
professional networks as important intermedi-
aries. The Charter focal points could play a role 
in these awareness-raising efforts.

24

Endnotes

(1) 

Eurostat, ‘Beneficiaries of temporary protection at the end of the month by citizenship, age and sex – monthly 
data’, Eurostat website, 2024.

(2)  European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights (FRA), Jewish People’s Experiences and Perceptions of 

Antisemitism, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, 2024.

(3)  European Commission, ‘Press release – Coordination meeting on combating Anti-Muslim hatred’, European 

Commission website, 2024.

(4)  European Union, ‘Democracy’, EU website, 2023.
(5)  European Council, Council meeting (19 December 2024) – Conclusions, Council website, 19 December 2024; UNHCR, 
‘UNHCR position on returns to the Syrian Arab Republic’, UNHCR Operational Data Portal, 16 December 2024. 

(6)  Eurobarometer, ‘Standard Eurobarometer 102 – Autumn 2024’, EU website, 2024. 
(7)  FRA, Online Content Moderation – Current challenges in detecting hate speech, Publications Office of the European 

Union, Luxembourg, 2023.

(8)  Eurobarometer, ‘EU challenges and priorities’, EU website, 2024.
(9)  Eurostat, ‘Children at risk of poverty or social exclusion in 2023’, Eurostat website, 2023.
(10)  See the FRA opinions in Chapter 1 ‘Impact of the cost-of-living crisis and rising poverty in the EU’ of FRA, 

Fundamental Rights Report 2024, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, 2024, pp. 42–43.

(11)  European Council, ‘Strategic agenda 2024–2029’, European Council website, 2024.
(12)  European Commission, ‘Europe’s choice – Political guidelines for the next European Commission – 2024–2029’, 

Strasbourg, 2024.

(13)  European Commission, ‘Commissioners-designate (2024–2029)’, EU website, 2024. 
(14)  European Commission: Directorate-General for Communication, ‘European Union priorities 2024–2029’, EU website, 2024.
(15)  Council of Europe, ‘European Union accession to the European Convention on Human Rights – Questions and 

answers’, Council of Europe website, n.d. 

(16)  FRA, Towards a Fundamental-rights-compliant European Green Deal, Publications Office of the European Union, 

Luxembourg, 2025.

(17)  EEAS, ‘Business and human rights’, EEAS website, 2024.
(18)  European Parliament and Council of the European Union, Directive (EU) 2024/1760 of 13 June 2024 on corporate 
sustainability due diligence and amending Directive (EU) 2019/1937 and Regulation (EU) 2023/2859 (OJ L, 
2024/1760, 5.7.2024).

(19)  European Parliament and Council of the European Union, Directive (EU) 2022/2464 of the European Parliament 

and of the Council of 14 December 2022 amending Regulation (EU) No 537/2014, Directive 2004/109/EC, Directive 
2006/43/EC and Directive 2013/34/EU, as regards corporate sustainability reporting (OJ L 322, 16.12.2022).
(20)  European Parliament and Council of the European Union, Regulation (EU) 2020/852 of the European Parliament 

and of the Council of 18 June 2020 on the establishment of a framework to facilitate sustainable investment, and 
amending Regulation (EU) 2019/2088 (OJ L 198, 22.6.2020).

(21)  European Council, ‘Budapest Declaration on the new European competitiveness deal’, European Council website, 

2024.

(22)  UN: Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR), ‘Guiding principles on business and 

human rights’, June 2011.

(23)  FRA, Jewish People’s Experiences and Perceptions of Antisemitism, Publications Office of the European Union, 

Luxembourg, 2024.

(24)  FRA, Being Muslim in the EU – Experiences of Muslims, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, 

2024. 

(25)  European Commission against Racism and Intolerance (ECRI), Annual Report on ECRI´s Activities, Council of Europe, 

Strasbourg, 2024. 

(26)  FRA, Addressing Racism in Policing, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, 2024.
(27)  FRA, LGBTIQ Equality at a Crossroads – Progress and challenges, Publications Office of the European Union, 

Luxembourg, 2024.

(28)  FRA, Being Muslim in the EU – Experiences of Muslims, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, 

2024.

(29)  Council Framework Decision 2008/913/JHA of 28 November 2008 on combating certain forms and expressions of 

racism and xenophobia by means of criminal law (OJ L 328, 6.12.2008, p. 55).

(30)  European Commission, Report from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European 

Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions – Report on the implementation of EU anti-
racism action plan 2020–2025 and on national action plans against racism and discrimination, COM(2024) 419 final 
of 25 September 2024; European Commission, FRA consultation on ‘Fundamental Rights Report 2025’ (draft report), 
March 2025.

(31)  European Commission, ‘Tackling hatred in society – European citizens’ panel’, European Commission website, 2024.
(32)  Council of Europe, Recommendation CM/Rec(2024)4 of the Committee of Ministers to member States on combating 

hate crime, 2024.

(33)  European Commission, Report from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council – First progress 

report of the EU strategy on combating antisemitism and fostering Jewish life, COM(2024) 476 final of 14 October 
2024. 

(34)  European Commission, Report from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European 

Economic and Social Comittee [sic] and the Comittee of the Regions – Implementation of the 2020–2025 LGBTIQ 
equality strategy, 2024.

(35)  European Commission, Report from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European 

Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions – Report on the implementation of EU anti-
racism action plan 2020–2025 and on national action plans against racism and discrimination, COM(2024) 419 final 
of 25 September 2024.

25

(36)  European Commission, ‘Europe’s choice – Political guidelines for the next European Commission – 2024–2029’, 

Strasbourg, 2024. 

(37)  Council of the EU, ‘Strengthening the role of equality bodies across the EU: Council adopts two directives’, press 

release 375/24, Council of the EU website, 7 May 2024. 

(38)  FRA, ‘Roma Survey 2024’, FRA website, 2024.
(39)  European Commission, ‘Commission launches new 10-year plan to support Roma in the EU’, European Commission 

website, 7 October 2020. 

(40)  FRA, Being Muslim in the EU – Experiences of Muslims, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, 

2024, p. 15.

(41)  FRA, Jewish People’s Experiences and Perceptions of Antisemitism, Publications Office of the European Union, 

Luxembourg, 2024, p. 16.

(42)  FRA, Being Muslim in the EU – Experiences of Muslims, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, 

2024, p. 14.

(43)  FRA, Getting the Future Right – Artificial intelligence and fundamental rights, Publications Office of the European 

Union, Luxembourg, 2020.

(44)  FRA, Bias in Algorithms – Artificial intelligence and discrimination, Publications Office of the European Union, 

Luxembourg, 2022.

(45)  FRA, Online Content Moderation – Current challenges in detecting hate speech, Publications Office of the European 

Union, Luxembourg, 2023.

(46)  Regulation (EU) 2022/2065 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 19 October 2022 on a single market for 

digital services and amending Directive 2000/31/EC (Digital Services Act) (OJ L 277, 27.10.2022, p. 1).

(47)  FRA, Jewish People’s Experiences and Perceptions of Antisemitism, Publications Office of the European Union, 

Luxembourg, 2024, p. 18.

(48)  Regulation (EU) 2024/1689 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 13 June 2024 laying down harmonised 

rules on artificial intelligence and amending Regulations (EC) No 300/2008, (EU) No 167/2013, (EU) No 168/2013, 
(EU) 2018/858, (EU) 2018/1139 and (EU) 2019/2144 and Directives 2014/90/EU, (EU) 2016/797 and (EU) 2020/1828 
(Artificial Intelligence Act) (OJ L, 2024/1689, 12.7.2024).

(49)  FRA, ‘Assessing high-risk artificial intelligence’, FRA website, 2024.
(50)  Council of Europe, Council of Europe Framework Convention on Artificial Intelligence and Human Rights, Democracy 

and the Rule of Law, CETS 225, 2024.

(51)  Council of Europe, ‘HUDERIA – Risk and impact assessment of AI systems’, Council of Europe website, 2024.
(52)  Council of Europe, ‘Committee of Experts on Artificial Intelligence, Equality and Discrimination (GEC/ADI-AI)’, Council 

of Europe website, 2024.

(53)  FRA, Online Content Moderation – Current challenges in detecting hate speech, Publications Office of the European 

Union, Luxembourg, 2023, p. 10.

(54)  FRA, Getting the Future Right – Artificial intelligence and fundamental rights, Publications Office of the European 

Union, Luxembourg, 2020, p. 9.

(55)  FRA, Bias in Algorithms – Artificial intelligence and discrimination, Publications Office of the European Union, 

Luxembourg, 2022, p. 15. 

(56)  Frontex, ‘Irregular border crossings into EU drop sharply in 2024’, news release, Frontex website, 14 January 2025.
(57)  International Organization for Migration, ‘Missing migrants project’, International Organization for Migration 

website, 2024.

(58)  FRA, Search and Rescue Operations and Fundamental Rights – June 2024 update, Publications Office of the 

European Union, Luxembourg, 2024. 

(59)  FRA, Search and Rescue Operations and Fundamental Rights – June 2024 update, Publications Office of the 

European Union, Luxembourg, 2024. 

(60)  ECtHR, A.R.E. v Greece, No 15783/21, 7 January 2025.
(61)  Official Journal, L series, 22 May 2024.
(62)  Regulation (EU) 2024/1349 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 14 May 2024 establishing a return 

border procedure, and amending Regulation (EU) 2021/1148 (OJ L, 2024/1349, 22.5.2024).

(63)  Regulation (EU) 2024/1356 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 14 May 2024 introducing the screening 
of third-country nationals at the external borders and amending Regulations (EC) No 767/2008, (EU) 2017/2226, 
(EU) 2018/1240 and (EU) 2019/817 (OJ L, 2024/1356, 22.5.2024), Article 10. 

(64)  Regulation (EU) 2024/1348 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 14 May 2024 establishing a common 

procedure for international protection in the Union and repealing Directive 2013/32/EU (OJ L, 2024/1348, 22.5.2024), 
Article 43(4). 

(65)  FRA, Monitoring fundamental rights during screening and the asylum border procedure – A guide on national 

independent mechanisms, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, 2024.

(66)  Regulation (EU) 2024/1356, Article 10; Regulation (EU) 2024/1348, Article 43(4).
(67)  Ministers of 15 Member States, ‘Joint letter from the undersigned ministers on new solutions to address irregular 
migration to Europe’, 15 May 2024, letter to the Commission; European Council, ‘European Council conclusions, 
17 October 2024’, No 37. 

(68)  FRA, Planned Return Hubs in Third Countries: EU fundamental rights law issues, Publications Office of the European 

Union, Luxembourg, 2025. 

(69)  European Committee of Social Rights, Conclusions 2023, Article 17§1 of the Revised Charter and Article 17 of the 

1961 Charter. 

(70)  See European Commission, ‘Schengen Evaluation and Monitoring Mechanism’, European Commission website, 

21 November 2024, and in particular recommendations 19, 20 and 23 in the evaluation of Croatia; priority No 1 and 
recommendations 6, 10 and 63 in the evaluation of Latvia; priority No 2 and recommendations 3, 4, 15 and 16 in the 
evaluation of Lithuania; and the priority areas and recommendations 10 and 13–15 in the evaluation of Poland.

(71)  FRA, Fundamental Rights Report 2024, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, 2024, p. 107.
(72)  FRA, ‘Criminalisation of migrants in an irregular situation and of persons engaging with them’, 2014, p. 16.
(73)  FRA, Fundamental Rights Report 2024, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, 2024, p. 107.

26

PROMOTING AND PROTECTING 
YOUR FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS 
ACROSS THE EU —

For the full FRA Fundamental Rights Report 2025, see
https://fra.europa.eu/en/publication/2025/fundamental-
rights-report-2025

See also related FRA publications: 

—  FRA (2025), Fundamental Rights Report 2025 – 

Overview and FRA opinions, Luxembourg, Publications 
Office,  
https://fra.europa.eu/en/publication/2025/
fundamental-rights-report-2025-fra-opinions  
(available in all 24 official EU languages and in 
Albanian, Macedonian and Serbian)  

Previous FRA annual reports on the fundamental rights 
challenges and achievements in the European Union 
remain available on FRA’s website (available in English 
and partly in French).

N
O

I
T
A
M
R
O
F
N

I

R
E
H
T
R
U
F

FRA – EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS
Schwarzenbergplatz 11 – 1040 Vienna – Austria
T +43 158030-0 – F +43 158030-699
fra.europa.eu

facebook.com/fundamentalrights
linkedin.com/company/eu-fundamental-rights-agency
x.com/EURightsAgency