A review of the used car market in the European Union.
Date: 2025-03-21
Institutions: Joint Research Centre
Subjects: EU Member State, European Union, electric vehicle, environmental impact, light-duty vehicle, motor car, motor vehicle industry, report, used goods

ISSN 1831-9424 

A review of the used car market in the 
European Union 

Zacharof, N., Nur, J., Kourtesis, D., Krause, J., Fontaras, G. 

2025 

 EUR 40179 

 
This document is a publication by the Joint Research Centre (JRC), the European Commission’s science and knowledge 
service. It aims to provide evidence-based scientific support to the European policymaking process. The contents of this 
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Contact information 
Name: Georgios FONTARAS 
Address: Via E. Fermi 2749 - TP441, 21027 Ispra (VA), Italy 
Email: Georgios.fontaras@ec.europa.eu 
Tel.: +39 033278-6425 

EU Science Hub 
https://joint-research-centre.ec.europa.eu 

JRC140203 

EUR 40179 

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ISBN 978-92-68-23589-8   ISSN 1831-9424   doi:10.2760/3237256  

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Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2025 

© European Union, 2025  

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How to cite this report: European Commission: Joint Research Centre, Zacharof, N., Nur, J., Kourtesis, D., Krause, J. and  
Fontaras, G., A review of the used car market in the European Union, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, 2025, 
https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2760/3237256, JRC140203. 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Contents 

Abstract ...................................................................................................................................................................................................... 3 

Acknowledgements .............................................................................................................................................................................. 4 

Executive summary .............................................................................................................................................................................. 5 

1  Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 7 

1.1  Scope .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 7 

1.2  Previous analyses ............................................................................................................................................................. 10 

1.3  Report structure ................................................................................................................................................................. 10 

2  Methodology and data ............................................................................................................................................................. 11 

3  EU-27 and global trade of used vehicles ...................................................................................................................... 14 

3.1  EU-27 vehicle trade over time .................................................................................................................................. 14 

3.2  Geographical composition of EU-27 vehicle trade ........................................................................................ 17 

3.3  Environmental considerations on vehicle trade flows ................................................................................. 19 

3.4  Key points of the EU-27 used vehicle trade analysis .................................................................................. 21 

4  EU-27 largest car markets: France, Germany, Italy, and Spain ........................................................................ 23 

4.1  Background and research approach ...................................................................................................................... 23 

4.2  Passenger car stock, registrations, decommissioning and turnover.................................................... 24 

4.2.1  Passenger car stock and registrations .................................................................................................... 24 

4.2.2  Decommissioned passenger cars .............................................................................................................. 25 

4.2.3  Passenger car turnover ................................................................................................................................... 29 

4.3  Age composition of passenger car stock and turnover ............................................................................... 32 

4.4  Market for electrified passenger cars: stock, registrations, turnover, users ................................... 38 

4.4.1  Stock .......................................................................................................................................................................... 38 

4.4.2  Registrations .......................................................................................................................................................... 42 

4.4.3  Turnover ................................................................................................................................................................... 44 

4.4.4  Users .......................................................................................................................................................................... 47 

4.5  Focus on Battery Electric Vehicles .......................................................................................................................... 49 

4.6  Key findings of the internal market analysis .................................................................................................... 51 

5  Conclusions ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 52 

References ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 53 

List of abbreviations and definitions ...................................................................................................................................... 55 

1 

 
 
List of figures ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 56 

List of tables ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 58 

Annex A .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 59 

A.1 End-of-life vehicle trends by Member State in the EU-27 ......................................................................... 59 

A.1 Combined Nomenclature codes .................................................................................................................................. 61 

A.2 Country groups ..................................................................................................................................................................... 63 

A.3 Intra- and extra-EU used vehicle transactions .................................................................................................. 64 

A.4 Used vehicle trade trends by Member State in the EU-27 ......................................................................... 65 

2 

 
 
Abstract 

The European fleet of passenger cars is increasing in size and rapidly ageing. A larger stock of older 
vehicles  introduces  a  legacy  effect  limiting  the  adoption  of  newer  cars,  thus  slowing  down  the 
transition  towards  more  fuel-efficient  and  less  polluting  ones.  Yet,  little  is  known  about  the 
characteristics of the used vehicle market in the European Union. This report contributes to filling this 
gap  by  providing  an  integrated  analysis  of  the  EU-27  used  light-duty  vehicle  market.  First,  it 
summarizes the major  challenges  observed  in  the analysis  of  macro-scale  sale  statistics  of  used 
vehicles – trade flows between Member States and from and to third countries. Second, it sources 
new data on used vehicle characteristics from Member State vehicle agencies, providing an additional 
focus on the emerging second-hand market for electric vehicles. Analysis of the four largest EU-27 
passenger car markets – France, Germany, Italy and Spain – revealed that the vehicle fleet has aged 
substantially  between  2007  and  2023  and  that  different  countries  are  characterised  by  different 
trends in the used market. A growing market of used electrified vehicles was equally identified, with 
substantial variation across Member States. 

3 

 
 
Acknowledgements 

The  authors  of  this  report  acknowledge  colleagues  Filip  FRANÇOIS,  Yacine  KHELLAF,  Matteo 
ORDINANOVICH, Gerben PASSIER and Cliodhna TUOHY in the Directorate-General for Climate Action 
for their contribution during the revision process. The authors would like to acknowledge Giacomo 
FACHERIS (JRC) for editorial work. 

Authors 

Nikiforos ZACHAROF, Jamil NUR, Dimitrios KOURTESIS, Jette KRAUSE, Georgios FONTARAS 

4 

 
 
Executive summary 

The  EU’s  efforts  to  mitigate  climate  change  mandate  the  reduction  of  carbon  emissions  from  all 
sectors of the economy as reflected in the climate neutrality objective for 2050, set by the European 
Climate Law (Regulation (EU) 2021/1119). Within the transport sector, and in particular for light-duty 
vehicles,  efforts  in  this  direction  have  been  implemented  within  the  framework  of  Regulation 
2019/631, legislating new registered passenger cars and vans. 

New registrations, however, represent only a fraction of total car sales. Over the last 15 years, in the 
four  largest  EU-27  vehicle  markets,  new  cars  corresponded  on  average  to  around  a third  of  total 
annual sales – 26% in France, 34% in Germany, 37% in Italy and 31% in Spain. In the EU-27, on 
average, new annual registrations represent less than 5% of the yearly stock of in-use passenger 
cars. 

Vehicles remain on the road for long periods of time, thus continuing to contribute to greenhouse gas 
emissions.  A  clear  understanding  of  the  functioning  of  the  market  of  used  vehicles  in  Europe 
constitutes a key condition for designing effective policy in this area. Such an understanding requires 
the analysis of vehicle trade flows within and beyond EU borders, and of the dynamics of used-vehicle 
markets internal to Member States (MS). 

Overall, the EU-27 stock of passenger cars has significantly increased over the last ten years, reaching 
more than 256 million vehicles in 2023, a 14% increase from 2014. Part of this increase is due to 
the ageing of the fleet: between 2018 and 2023, the average age of the car stock has increased by 
1.5 years, passing from 10.8 to 12.3 years. In 2022, 55% of in-use cars were older than 10 years, 
compared to less than half of the car stock (48%) in 2012. 

The  analysis  of  Eurostat  data  of  EU-27  trade  flows  of  light-duty  vehicles  (LDV)  reveals  strong 
fluctuations.  Intra-EU  trade  increased  overall,  with  a  significant  rise  in  exports  of  passenger  cars 
outside of the EU. Further contributions in the literature suggest that much of these flows concern 
lower-environmental performing vehicles exported from higher to lower-income countries, both within 
and beyond EU boundaries. Data incompleteness represents a limitation of the analysis and calls for 
a more comprehensive reporting of information.  

To  gain  a  better  understanding  of  the  internal  market  for  second-hand  passenger  cars,  the  four 
largest vehicle markets of the EU-27 were analysed, namely France, Germany, Italy and Spain. Data 
obtained from national authorities shows that over the last 15 years, the average age of the fleet 
has increased significantly in all four MS, albeit at different rates. The minimum age increase, 2 years, 
was registered in Germany, where the average car age rose from 8 to 10 years; the maximum age, 
6  years,  increase  was  observed  in  Spain,  with  cars’  average  age  passing  from  8  to  14  years.  In 
addition, used-vehicle markets in Germany and France were found to be more active than in Italy and 
Spain,  meaning  that  transfers  of  ownership  in  these  markets  were  more  frequent.  The  share  of 
transactions concerning used electric vehicles is in line with the global turnover in the used market, 
suggesting that a second-hand market for electric vehicles is already emerging. It should be noted 
that, while informative, a focus on the largest vehicle markets does not offer a complete view of the 
entire  EU  market.  Thus,  this  report  represents  a  preliminary  inquiry  to  be  expanded  to  more  MS. 
Furthermore, while the analysis on MS used-vehicle markets focused on passenger cars, future work 
will aim to include data on light commercial vehicles, as well as heavy-duty vehicles.  

The  report  has  highlighted  a  few  criticalities  related  to  the  availability,  completeness  and 
harmonisation of in-use vehicle data. Currently, there exists no clear mandate on the collection of 
multiple  vehicle  characteristics  on  individual  second-hand  vehicles.  The  type  and  quality  of  data 

5 

 
collection are the prerogative of national vehicle agencies or other institutional bodies in each MS. 
The creation of a harmonised data repository would help measure the evolution of the existing vehicle 
stock, determining its environmental performance and take-up of zero and low-emission vehicles, as 
well as providing additional inputs for projections on future fleet composition. 

6 

 
1 

Introduction 

This  report  aims  to  provide  an  integrated  analysis  of  the  EU-27  used  light-duty  vehicle  market, 
summarizing the major challenges observed in the analysis of macro-scale sale statistics of used 
vehicles – trade flows within the Member States (MS) and with third countries – as well as sourcing 
new within-MS data from national vehicle agencies on vehicle characteristics, providing an additional 
focus on the emerging second-hand market for electric vehicles. 

The issue at hand is the legacy effect of an ageing vehicle fleet that can delay the adoption of newer, 
more  fuel-efficient  and  environmentally-sustainable  cars.  A  larger  stock  of  older  vehicles  can 
potentially slow down the progress towards the EU's decarbonisation targets. To effectively address 
this issue, there is a need for an in-depth understanding of the used vehicle market in Europe, which 
is less studied compared to the market for new vehicles.  

1.1  Scope 

The stock of passenger cars in the EU-27 has increased by 14% since 2014, surpassing 256 million 
cars in 2023 as shown in Figure 1. Such growth is driven by longer vehicle lives: during the last ten 
years, the number of cars aged 10 years and older has risen by almost 30%, accounting for more 
than half of the car stock in 2022 (Figure 2)1. In just five years, between 2018 and 2022, the average 
car age in the EU-27 has risen by 1.5 years, passing from 10.8 to 12.3 years (Figure 3). The age of 
in-use vehicles varies across Europe: five MS have fleets with an average age inferior to 10 years, 
nine MS oscillate around mean European vehicle age, while ten MS display an average car age greater 
than 14 years, reaching peaks of 17 years in Greece and Estonia. Although the average age of in-use 
cars structurally differs across countries, almost all MS experienced fleet ageing between 2018 and 
2022  (Figure  4). Only  three  MS  (Estonia, Lithuania  and  Romania),  characterised  by  older  vehicles, 
managed to bring down their average fleet age. A brief analysis of the share of end-of-life vehicles 
declared every year as a fraction of the existing vehicle's stock was not conclusive in explaining the 
source of these trends. Changes in end-of-life vehicle shares and volumes are provided in Annex A.1 
and future work will further explore this dimension.  

1 Passenger cars fleet age disaggregation is not available for Bulgaria, Greece and Slovakia. Excluding these three 
countries, the total stock of cars in 2022 is 241 million vehicles. Eurostat provides the following age classes 
disaggregation: 0-2, 2-5, 5-10, 10-20. Residual vehicles are interpreted as older than 20 years. 

7 

 
                                                 
 
Figure 1. Stock of passenger cars in the EU-27 

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Figure 2. Stock of passenger cars in the EU-27 by age class 

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Source: (Eurostat 2024b), JRC analysis  

8 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 3. Average age of passenger cars by EU-27 Member State 

Source: (ACEA 2023), JRC analysis Data are not available for Bulgaria, Cyprus and Malta 

Figure 4. Average age change of passenger cars by EU-27 Member State: 2018 to 2022 

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Source: (ACEA 2023), JRC analysis. Data are not available for Bulgaria, Cyprus and Malta 

The overall rise in cars’ survival rates may be ascribed to several factors. While vehicle safety, quality 
and durability may  have increased, also reflecting the success of EU policies (e.g.  Roadworthiness 
Package,  Type-Approval  Framework  Regulations)  it  has  also  been  argued  that  supply-chain 
disruptions and a rapid increase in prices of new vehicles may have caused consumers to keep their 
cars for longer (ECB 2022). 

9 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Replacing the stock of older vehicles with newer ones is essential for accelerating the decarbonisation 
of the EU road transport sector. Newer vehicles, produced after 2020, are characterised by lower type 
approval as well as road emission values (ECA 2024). Indeed, higher registration shares of hybrid 
(HEVs), plug-in hybrid (PHEVs) and battery electric vehicles (BEVs) allowed to achieve fleet-wide 2020 
emission targets (Komnos et al. 2025). The potential benefits of these vehicles have been equally 
observed in life-cycle assessment studies (Hill et al. 2020). 

Access to reliable and complete data on the used-vehicle market is fundamental to understanding 
the potential consequences  of  fleet  ageing, as well as  anticipating the impact of the transition to 
ZLEVs. Yet, little is known about the characteristics of vehicles on the European second-hand market. 
This report provides  an overview  of the  available  sources  of  information on  used vehicles,  on  the 
challenges to analysing them, and provides a first attempt at harmonising market information that, 
currently, is separately collected and published by individual MS. 

1.2  Previous analyses 

A review of the literature revealed few contributions on the problem, with limited existing information 
and data availability gaps related to the European used-vehicle market. 

Traditional  sources  of  data  to  map  second-hand  cars  include  customs  records  on  traded  vehicles 
between MS and third countries, as well as aggregate statistics on individual vehicle characteristics. 
Documenting trends in the used-vehicle market is challenging. Trade flow data may suffer from a 
lack of homogeneity and possible under-reporting (ILT 2020), while aggregate vehicle statistics (e.g. 
Eurostat) do not provide information on multiple vehicle characteristics at a time. Moreover, records 
on second-hand vehicle market transactions within MS have yet to be harmonised at the European 
level. 

The current literature on used-vehicle markets in Europe has focused on intra- and extra-EU trade 
flows, either to improve models on vehicle survival probabilities (Held et al. 2021), or to measure the 
transfer of the environmental burden posed by older  and near-end-of-life vehicles when they are 
exported within EU borders (Velten, Brauer, and Thie 2020) or outside of them (UNEP 2020; Ayetor et 
al. 2021). 

1.3  Report structure 

The report is structured as follows: 

Section 2 summarizes  the  methodology and data sources on second-hand  vehicle markets  at the 
European level and within MS. 

Section  3  provides  an  aggregate  view  of  intra-  and  extra-EU  trade  flows,  with  additional 
considerations on the environmental impact of an ageing used-vehicle fleet. 

Section 4 analyses the second-hand markets of the four largest EU-27 vehicle fleets with a focus on 
stocks, registrations, transactions and user types. The analysis relied on data from national sources 
and focused on passenger vehicles. 

Section 5 provides a summary of the main results of the report and concludes. 

10 

 
2  Methodology and data 

Only a few data sources are available to measure the stock, characteristics and trade flows of used 
vehicles. National vehicle agencies, customs and Eurostat represent the official providers for these 
records. These databases, however, often do not provide combinations of information such as vehicle 
age and engine type, or engine type and environmental performance. Therefore, research in this area 
must rely on a set of logic assumptions and interpolation for missing data. 

Trade flows are recorded within customs data, as established by Council Regulation (EEC) No 2658/87 
of  23  July  1987  on the tariff  and  statistical  nomenclature  and  the  Common  Customs  Tariff.  This 
sensitive  data  source  provides  detailed  product  disaggregation  based  on  the  Harmonised  System 
(HS2-4-6) and Combined Nomenclature (CN8) structure. The CN is a tool for classifying goods that 
are declared to EU customs and helps analyse both EU external trade statistics and intra-EU trade 
statistics. It builds on the Harmonized System nomenclature of the World Customs Organization and 
applies  an  8-digit  coding  system,  where  each  set  of  digits  progressively  provides  additional 
information  about  the  product  (European  Commission  2023).  CN  codes  are  updated  annually  and 
published  in  the  Official  Journal  of  the  European  Union  (European  Union  2019).  An  example  is 
provided in Table 1. 

Table 1. Example of CN coding system 

Chapter 
in 
Harmonized 
System (HS) 

the 

2 digits  e.g. “Chapter 87 vehicles specially constructed to travel 

on both road and rail are classified” 

HS heading 

4 digits 

e.g.  “8703  –  Motor  cars  and  other  motor  vehicles  principally 
designed for the transport of persons” 

HS subheading 

6 digits 

e.g. “8703 22 – Other vehicles, with only spark-ignition internal 
combustion  piston  engine,  –  Of  a  cylinder  capacity  exceeding 
1,000 cm3 but not exceeding 1,500 cm3” 

CN subheading 

8 digits 

e.g. “8703 22 90 – Used” 

Source: European Commission (2023) 

Eurostat (2023) publishes a consolidated and open version of these records (known as “Comext”2), 
which is used for this report. While the focus of the present work is on light-duty vehicles for the 
transport  of  persons  (passenger  cars),  a  subset  of  information  is  equally  provided  for  light-duty 
vehicles for the transport of goods (vans). The broad subheading codes used in this report are shown 
in Table 2. 

2 See table ds-045409. https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/DS-

045409__custom_6462115/default/table?lang=en 

11 

 
                                                 
 
Table 2. Eurostat HS heading codes used in the current study 

HS Heading Code 

Description 

8703 

Motor  cars  and  other  motor vehicles principally designed for  the  transport  of 
persons (other than those of heading 8702), including station wagons and racing 
cars.  This  heading  includes  “multipurpose  vehicles”,  such  as  motor  vehicles 
which can transport both persons and goods 

8704 

Motor vehicles for the transport of goods 

Source: European Commission (2023) 

Annex A.1 provides a detailed list of the CN codes of interest. For example, the six-digit code “8703 
22” refers to petrol vehicles with an engine capacity ranging from 1000 to 1500 cm3. To distinguish 
between new and used vehicles under this category, the “8703 22” code is appended with a “10” sub-
code (i.e. “8703 22 10” for new vehicles) or a “90” sub-code (i.e. “8703 21 90” for used vehicles). The 
respective codes for used commercial vehicles were 39 and 99.  

Category  8704  contains  motor  vehicles  for  the  transport  of  goods  irrespective  of  their  weight  (N 
category). Within this category, only  light-commercial vehicles are kept (codes 8704 41 and 8704 
21),  which  represent  “Motor  vehicles  for  the  transport  of  goods  –  Of  a  gross  vehicle  weight  not 
exceeding 5 tonnes”. According to approval and market surveillance Regulation 2018/858 of motor 
vehicles, light-commercial vehicles (N1 category) have a gross vehicle weight of up to  3.5 tonnes. 
Thus, CN code 8704 equally includes vehicles in the range of 3.5 to 5 tonnes, which would fall within 
the N2 category. However, because the share of vehicles in this range is quite low, reaching only up 
to 5% of the overall N2 vehicle shares (Zacharof et al. 2016), the  analysis of the 8704  category 
mostly refers to LCV up to 3.5 tonnes. Indeed,  the N2 category has  the highest share  of vehicles 
closer to its upper category limit, 7.5 tonnes. 

The Comext dataset categorises the reporting MS as “Reporter” and their trade partners as “Partner”. 
The Partner category can represent another MS, a third country, or an aggregation of countries. For 
example,  Intra  EU  represents  trade  between  the  reporting  MS  and  all  other  MS,  while  Extra  EU 
indicates trade with third countries. The “Flow” column indicates whether the trade flow is an import 
or export, using the indices 1 and 2, respectively. Two other columns are “Product”, which represents 
the traded goods within the CN code, and “Indicators”, which defines the nature of the reported value 
(e.g., number of goods, mass, value). Table 3 provides a sample of the first rows of the dataset: in 
this example, the Reporter Austria (AT) trades with aggregated Extra-EU Partners the Product with CN 
code 87032110 with 1 denoting import flows and 2 exports. 

Table 3. Sample of the Eurostat database columns 

Reporter 

Partner 

Product  Flow 

Indicators 

2010 

[…] 

AT 

AT 

AT 

AT 

EU27_2020_EXTRA  87032110  1 

SUPPLEMENTARY_QUANTITY 

3339   

EU27_2020_EXTRA  87032110  2 

SUPPLEMENTARY_QUANTITY 

558   

EU27_2020_INTRA  87032110  1 

SUPPLEMENTARY_QUANTITY 

EU27_2020_INTRA  87032110  2 

SUPPLEMENTARY_QUANTITY 

[…]   

[…]   

12 

 
Eurostat  refers  to  each  column  of  the  database  as  an  “index”.  All  MS  were  identified  within  the 
Reporter index, while “EU27_2020_INTRA” and “EU27_2020_EXTRA” were selected from the Partner 
index,  corresponding  respectively  to  Intra-EU  and  Extra-EU  trading  partners.  Indicators include  the 
VALUE_IN_EUROS  index,  which  is  used  to  quantify  the  monetary  value  associated  with  the 
transactions,  and  the  SUPPLEMENTARY_QUANTITY  index,  employed  to  assess  the  volume  of  the 
vehicles  being  traded.  Due  to  observed  inconsistencies  within  the  data,  monetary  values  are  not 
included in this analysis, which only focuses on the quantity of goods. 

A clarification should be provided concerning the structure of the data. When aggregating the Report 
index (e.g. Austria – AT) across all MS and summing the relative Indicator values (i.e. supplementary 
quantity), an additional column is obtained at the EU level containing two rows summing up trade 
flows between the EU and Extra-EU Partners (a row for imports, Flow 1, and a row for exports, Flow 
2) as well as two rows of total flows between the EU and Intra-EU Partners (imports and exports). 
When  considering  trade  flows  between  the  EU  and  Intra-EU  Partners,  if  all  MS  reported  data 
consistently, the imports row and the exports row should provide identical values. However, deviations 
are observed between the two sums, so that the highest value between the sum of imports and the 
sum of exports is chosen. This approach is motivated by the fact that MS may not always report their 
data, resulting in missing values (a current shortcoming of the database). This data correction is 
only applied for values aggregated at the EU level and not in the analysis of a single MS. 

Limitations  of  this  data  collection  have  been  equally  acknowledged  in  the  literature;  see  (Velten, 
Brauer, and Thie 2020) for an in-depth analysis of the issue. In particular, the Comext database does 
not  include  CNG,  LPG  and  LNG  engine  types,  and  does  not  provide  information  about  the  age  or 
environmental  characteristics  of  traded  vehicles.  Additionally,  small  and  medium  exporting 
enterprises may be granted exemptions from reporting. 

Motoring  agencies  of  MS are  a preferred  source  of information  for  a  better  understanding  of  the 
evolution of vehicle stock by powertrain, average fleet age, as well as frequency and composition of 
used-vehicle sales. In this area, the analysis in this report focused on the stock of passenger cars in 
France, Germany, Italy and Spain, representing the four largest EU-27 vehicle markets.  

13 

 
3  EU-27 and global trade of used vehicles 

3.1  EU-27 vehicle trade over time 

The Eurostat Comext time series data on trade flows of used passenger vehicles reveal remarkable 
trends. As Figure 5 shows, between 2010 and 2022, the volume of used passenger cars traded among 
EU member states nearly doubled, increasing from approximately 550,000 vehicles in 2010 to around 
1.09 million vehicles in 2022. This trend should be read in conjunction with those of exports to and 
imports from non-EU countries. The former shows a significantly declining trend from around 800,000 
units in 2011, reaching their lowest values at 450,000 units in 2016, followed by a complete trend 
reversion, characterised by a steep growth until 1 million units in 2022. Imports, on the other hand, 
started  from  a  low  value of  125,000  units,  reaching  their peak  in 2016  at  0.5  million  units,  then 
slowly decreasing and plateauing around 250,000 units. Overall, intra-EU trade shows a trend similar 
to that of exports, while exports and imports display specular evolutions. 

Figure 5. Used passenger car trade trends in the EU-27 

Source: Eurostat (2023), JRC analysis. The Export and Import lines refer to extra-EU flows (to and from) 

14 

 
 
A closer examination of the data (Figure 6) reveals that a small number of member states constitute 
the majority of the used-vehicle market3. The aggregate increase in exports post-2017, however, is 
driven by flows from Poland, Slovenia and Slovakia, which together accelerate the substantial, but 
stagnating levels of German exports. Finally, the hump-shaped curve displayed by aggregate imports 
is entirely driven by Ireland. Because of the nature of these data, it is not straightforward to establish 
if these trends are due solely to economic cycles, strategies by manufacturers, sudden changes in 
fiscal regimes,  or data inputting  procedures. All MS trends with non-homogenised  y-scales can be 
found in Figure 56 in Annex A.4. 

Figure 6. Used passenger car trade trends by Member State in the EU-27 

Source: Eurostat (2023), JRC analysis. The Export and Import lines refer to extra-EU flows (to and from) 

3 It should be noted that data from Belgium, Spain and Greece were excluded from this analysis due to irregularities in the 
reported data, which displayed abrupt spikes that could not be readily explained, thus potentially distorting the results. 

15 

 
 
                                                 
 
The trade of used light-commercial vehicles is characterised by similarities as well as differences 
with  passenger  vehicles  (Figure  7)4.  In  terms  of  intra-EU  trade,  the  flow  of  commercial  vehicles 
followed the same increasing trend of cars. Exports of commercial vehicles, however, do not mimic 
cars:  after  the  strong  decreasing  trend  experienced  after  2012,  from  a  peak  of  150,000  units  to 
around 50,000 vehicles in 2016, there has not been a reversal of this trend, so exports have barely 
surpassed 80,000 units in the subsequent 5 years until 2022.  

Figure 7. Used light-commercial vehicle trade trends in the EU-27 

Source: Eurostat (2023), JRC analysis. The Export and Import lines refer to extra-EU flows (to and from) 

Figure 8 provides the disaggregated market development  of  light-commercial vehicles across MS. 
Similar to the pattern observed in the passenger car market, the light-commercial vehicle sector is 
dominated by a few countries, namely Germany, France, Denmark, the Netherlands, Poland, Slovenia 
and Italy. It should also be observed that contrary to the case of passenger cars, Germany displayed 
a stagnating trend for intra-EU trade, which was mostly driven by growth in France, Denmark and the 
Netherlands. For a more comprehensive overview of the data of all MS, see Figure 57 in Annex A.4. 

4 As for passenger cars, the analysis excluded some Member States (Belgium, Greece, Spain and Czech Republic) that 

presented significant jumps in reported values. 

16 

 
 
                                                 
 
Figure 8. Used light-commercial vehicle trade trends by Member States in the EU-27 

Source: Eurostat (2023), JRC analysis. The Export and Import lines refer to extra-EU flows (to and from) 

3.2  Geographical composition of EU-27 vehicle trade 

The trade flows of passenger cars from all MS to intra- and extra-EU markets are presented in Figure 
9. For further details, please refer to Annex A in the A.3 light-commercial vehicles transactions section. 

In terms of vehicle volume, Germany maintains its position as the top exporter, with 336,000 vehicles 
exported within the EU and an additional 200,000 vehicles to third countries. France follows closely 
with  334,000 vehicles  exported  within  the  EU  but  with  relatively  lower  exports  of  around  36,000 
vehicles  to  third  countries.  Notably,  Slovakia  takes  the  lead  in  exporting  to  third  countries  with 
222,000  vehicles,  followed  by  Belgium  with  212,000  vehicles.  Within  the  EU  market,  Slovakia 
exported 20,000 vehicles, while Belgium exported 160,000 vehicles. 

17 

 
 
Figure 9. Used passenger car exports from Member States in the EU-27 

Source: Eurostat (2023), JRC analysis 

The trade flow of light-commercial vehicles from all MS to intra and extra-EU markets is depicted in 
Figure 10. For more comprehensive information, please refer to the Annex in the light-commercial 
vehicles section. 

The findings from analysing Eurostat data revealed that France exports around 38,700 vehicles within 
the  EU,  although  with  relatively  lower  exports  of  approximately  1,400  vehicles  to  third  countries. 
Interestingly, Slovenia takes the lead in exporting to third countries, with a volume of around 27,700 
vehicles – a trend similar to that observed for Slovakia in passenger vehicles. Within the EU market, 
Slovenia exported approximately 600 vehicles. 

Figure 10. Used light-commercial vehicle exports from Member States in the EU-27 

Source: Eurostat (2023), JRC analysis 

18 

 
 
 
3.3  Environmental considerations on vehicle trade flows 

Figure 9 and Figure 10 reveal that a subset of MS (e.g. Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia, Lithuania) exports 
almost entirely to extra-EU partners. These exporting MS tend to be characterised by ageing vehicle 
fleets, suggesting a possible transfer of the environmental burden posed by older vehicles outside of 
EU borders.  

Measuring whether such  a  phenomenon also exists between MS inside the EU  constitutes  a more 
challenging task.  A recent study on the trade flows of used vehicles within Europe shed light on this 
aspect by constructing an index of the environmental performance of exported light-duty vehicles 
(Velten, Brauer, and Thie 2020). The study categorised selected European and neighbouring countries 
into different groups, which are detailed in Annex A, in the A.2. Country groups section. The findings 
revealed that less environmentally friendly vehicles are predominantly directed towards lower-income 
countries,  particularly  those  in  the  South  and  South-East  groups,  as  illustrated  in  Figure  11.  In 
contrast, wealthier countries tend to import vehicles with higher environmental performance. 

Figure 11. Used light-duty vehicle trade flows in Europe 

Source: Velten, Brauer, and Thie (2020) 

Concerning extra-EU trade flows of second-hand vehicles, UNEP (2020) documents that 7.6 million 
light-duty vehicles (LDVs) were exported  from the  EU  to third  countries between 2015  and  2018, 
representing  40%  of  all  vehicles  traded  between  MS.  This  figure  suggests  that,  during  the  same 
period, a total of 19 million vehicles crossed the internal and external EU block’s borders. 

Principal destinations for exports of used vehicles from the EU were West Africa and the EECCA block 
(Eastern Europe, Caucasus, and Central Asia). In 2018 alone, 1 million used LDVs were exported to 
the  African  continent,  representing  two-thirds  of  its  1.5  million  total  imports.  UNEP  warns  about 
potential  under-reporting  in  official  data,  as  vehicles  could  be  illegally  exported.  This  concern  is 
supported  by  inspection  findings  from  Dutch  public  authorities  (ILT  2020),  who  found  significant 
inconsistencies  in  Dutch  vehicle  export  data  indicating  illicit  activities  since  the  exported  vehicles 
should have instead been dismantled and recycled. Figure 12 from the 2020 UNEP report illustrates 

19 

 
 
global used LDV  flows  from main exporters,  clearly depicting the magnitude of EU exports to the 
African continent, estimated between 45% and 66% of total extra-block outflows (Ayetor et al. 2021; 
UNEP 2020). 

Figure 12. Light-duty used vehicle trade flows in 2017 from Europe, USA, and Japan to main destination 
markets 

Source: UNEP (2020) 

Africa is a significant importer of vehicles, with approximately 85% of the flows being second-hand, 
many of which are equipped with outdated automotive technology. These figures may raise concern 
about  the  possible  transfer  of  the  environmental  burden  if  a  large  share  of  these  second-hand 
vehicles  is  particularly  aged.  Accessing  the  environmental  characteristics  of  vehicle  exports  is 
particularly challenging when it is not possible to  retrieve  the  Vehicle Identification Number (VIN), 
which allows to derive precise information about the vehicle model (ILT 2020). 

Many countries around the world implemented legislation regulating the import of used vehicles, with 
a particular focus on ensuring compliance with specific environmental standards as shown in Figure 
13  (UNEP  2020).  The  level  of  strictness  of  these  regulations  varies  globally,  with  some  countries 
imposing complete bans on the importing of used vehicles (e.g. Egypt and South Africa). 

20 

 
 
Figure 13. Regulation strictness on the environmental performance of used vehicles 

Source: UNEP (2020) 

3.4  Key points of the EU-27 used vehicle trade analysis 

The analysis of Eurostat data provides valuable insights into the used vehicle market, as summarised 
in Table 4 below. The data reveals that a significant number of passenger cars were traded among 
MS  in  2022.  More  specifically,  approximately  1,086,000  passenger  cars  were  traded  internally 
between EU-27 Member States, highlighting the demand in the region. In comparison, exports of used 
passenger  cars  from  the  EU  to  external  markets  reached  a  slightly  higher  volume,  with  about 
1,142,000 vehicles exported. Imports from external markets into the EU were relatively modest and 
stood at around 282,000 vehicles. 

Within the European Union, the market for used light-commercial  vehicles  witnessed a significant 
volume of trade. Approximately 79,000 vehicles were traded internally between EU Member States. 
Additionally, EU Member States exported around 98,600 vehicles to external markets, while imports 
accounted for 8,750 vehicles. 

It is important to note that data from MS exhibiting sudden and unusually high volumes of traded 
vehicles  were  not  considered  in  the  analysis.  Such  spikes  may  reflect  administrative  changes  or 
irregularities in data reporting rather than actual market trends. It should be highlighted that the 
reported Intra-EU trade volume in Table 4 corresponds to the flows between MS and it 
does not include trade that takes place within each MS. A few selected MS are investigated in 
Section 4 with data originated national vehicle agencies. 

21 

 
 
Table 4. Traded imports and exports by volume and value in 2022 

Vehicle type 

Partner 

Passenger cars 

Light-commercial 
vehicles 

Extra EU 
Intra EU 
Extra EU 
Intra EU 

Volume (thousands) 
Import 
Export 
282.2 
1142.3 

1085.8 

98.6 

8.7 

79.0 

Source: Eurostat (2023), JRC analysis. Passenger car data excluded BE, ES, and GR and light-commercial vehicle data 

excluded BE, CZ, ES, and GR 

The analysis of the Eurostat data provides insights into the EU-27 trade of used vehicles. However, it 
is important to acknowledge the current limitations of the data: 

—  Incomplete  data:  The data  provided by  Eurostat may  not  always  be  comprehensive,  as  also 
acknowledged by other researchers (Velten, Brauer, and Thie 2020). A further limitation pertains 
to potential underreporting. 

—  Focus on exports: The available data focuses on vehicles exported to other Member States or 

third countries, with no information about vehicles traded within the same MS. 

—  Illicit exports: The investigation conducted by the Dutch public authorities (ILT 2020) uncovered 
instances where vehicles were being exported in violation of EU regulations. This included cases 
where  vehicles  were  fraudulently  registered  as  dismantled,  despite  being  intended  for  export. 
Additionally, the authorities discovered instances of stolen vehicles being involved in the export 
trade. These findings highlight serious concerns regarding compliance with EU regulations and 
the need for enhanced measures to prevent illicit activities in the used-vehicle export industry. 

—  Reporting bias: The data primarily includes reports from major traders of used vehicles, while 
smaller ones may be exempted from reporting their transactions. This can lead to a potential bias 
in the data, as it may not capture the full scope of the market. 

—  Unreported customer-to-customer transactions: Many vehicles may change hands between 
customers without being reported to Eurostat as it occurs with business-to-customer transactions. 
However, these transactions are important as they often involve vehicles that remain within the 
same MS and overall could comprise a high share of the used vehicle market. 

To overcome these limitations and gain a better understanding of the used vehicle market, there is a 
need  for  data  improvements.  Considering  existing  reporting  practices,  it  would  be  beneficial  to 
establish  a  scheme  where  MS  report  changes  in  vehicle  registrations  to  a  central  authority.  For 
example, the European Environment Agency (EEA), within the context of monitoring CO2 emissions, 
already  collects  data  on  new  vehicle  registrations  from  all  MS,  which  is  made  publicly  available 
annually (Regulation (EU) 2019/631 2019; Regulation (EU) 2018/956 2018).  

Several MS already collect such data, suggesting the feasibility of setting up a similar scheme for 
used vehicle registrations, enabling better monitoring of fleet evolution and trade flows.  

By implementing such a reporting scheme, policymakers and industry stakeholders would have access 
to more comprehensive and reliable data, facilitating informed decision-making and promoting the 
adoption of environmentally friendly practices in the used vehicle market. 

22 

 
4  EU-27 largest car markets: France, Germany, Italy, and Spain 

4.1  Background and research approach 

Section 2 of the report focused on the trade flows of second-hand vehicles, using Eurostat data to 
analyse the interaction between MS and third countries, as well as between MS within the EU. When 
considering the internal structure of used-vehicles markets within each MS, however, there seems to 
be a lack of data harmonised at the European level. 

This  section  aims  to  partially  fill  this  gap  by  presenting  harmonized  statistics,  where  comparable 
information  is  available,  sourcing  national  vehicle  agencies’  data  from  the  four  largest  national 
passenger  car  (M1)  markets  in  Europe.  It  focuses  on  stock  composition,  registrations,  turnover, 
decommissioning, user types, and the take-up of electrified vehicles, with a final focus on battery 
electric vehicles (BEVs).  

The four largest passenger car markets in the EU-27 in 2022 were France, Germany, Italy and Spain, 
covering 61% of vehicles in use. The extension of the analysis to all MS, which would require the 
collection and processing of a large number of datasets in different national languages, may be the 
object of future work. It is to be noted that, among these selected four case studies, some data series 
could be absent for one MS while being present for the others. In this case, the data will be presented 
only for the MS with available information. 

For  the  four  analysed  MS,  vehicle  data  is  drawn  from  different  national  sources.  For  France,  the 
Statistical Data  and  Studies  Department  (SDES)  of  the  Ministry  of  Ecological  Transition5,  and  the 
Comité des Constructeurs Français d'Automobiles (CCFA)6. For Germany, the Federal Motor Transport 
Autority  (KBA)7.  For  Italy,  Automobile  Club  d’Italia  (ACI)8  and  Unione  Nazionale  Rappresentanti 
Autoveicoli  Esteri  (UNRAE)9.  For  Spain,  Dirección  General  de  Tráfico  (DGT)10  and  the  Spanish 
Association of Automobile and Truck Manufacturers (ANFAC)11. 

The current section is structured as below: 

•  Passenger car stock, registrations, decommissioning and turnover investigates fleet 
evolution  of  each  Member  State  in  terms  of  size,  new  registrations  and  turnover,  to  be 
intended as the transfer of ownership of used vehicles. 

•  Age composition of passenger car stock and turnover examines the fleet composition 

of each Member State and transfers of ownership by age class. 

•  Market for electrified passenger cars: stock, registrations, turnover, users analyses 
the Member State stock of electrified powertrains, i.e. hybrid electric, plug-in hybrid electric 

5 http://statistiques.developpement-durable.gouv.fr/transports  
6 https://ccfa.fr/analyse-statistiques/  
7 https://www.kba.de/EN/Statistik_en/Fahrzeuge_Vehicles/vehicles_node.html  
8 https://aci.gov.it/attivita-e-progetti/studi-e-ricerche/  
9 https://unrae.it/chi-siamo/who-we-are  
10 https://www.dgt.es/menusecundario/dgt-en-cifras/dgt-en-cifras-resultados/?categorias=/Tema/Vehiculos/  
11 https://anfac.com/  

23 

 
                                                 
 
and battery electric vehicles along with market dynamics and user type (private individuals 
or companies). 

•  Focus on Battery Electric Vehicles provides an insight into the evolution of the second-

hand market of battery electric passenger cars. 

•  Key  findings  of  the  internal  market  analysis  highlights  the  most  important  aspects 

identified and draws conclusions for the section. 

4.2  Passenger car stock, registrations, decommissioning and turnover 

4.2.1  Passenger car stock and registrations 

The stock of passenger cars has been steadily increasing across the four countries, with Germany 
leading with 49.1 million vehicles in 2023, followed by Italy at 40.9 million and France at 39.3 million. 
Spain, with 25.3 million vehicles in 2022, represents respectively around half of German vehicles and 
two-thirds of vehicles in France and Italy, as illustrated in Figure 14. Over the past 15 years, Germany 
grew its stock by almost 18%, followed by Spain (14%), France (11%) and Italy (10%). 

Figure 14. Passenger car stock  

)
s
n
o

i
l
l
i

m

(

s
e
l
c
i
h
e
V

 50

 45

 40

 35

 30

 25

 20

France

Germany

Italy

Spain

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

2019

2020

2021

2022

2023

Source: SDES (France), KBA (Germany), ACI (Italy), DGT (Spain), JRC analysis 

The volume of new car registrations across countries mimics their relative stock proportions, except 
for  lower  new  sales  in  Italy  compared  to  France.  Registrations  mirror  economic  downturns,  with 
decreasing trends following the 2008 and 2020 crises (Figure 15) and recovery signs in 2015 and 
2023. A significant exception is represented by the 2009 spike of 0.7 million newly registered vehicles 
observed in Germany, corresponding to the adoption of the “cash-for-clunkers” scrappage program, 

24 

 
 
 
evidencing  the  temporary  effect  of  national  incentives  aimed  at  revitalizing  the  car  sector  during 
recessions12. 

Figure 15. Newly registered passenger cars 

)
s
n
o

i
l
l
i

m

(

s
e
l
c
i
h
e
V

 4.0

 3.5

 3.0

 2.5

 2.0

 1.5

 1.0

 0.5

 -

France

Germany

2007

2016

2008

2017

2009

2018

2010

2019

2011

2020

Italy

2012

2021

Spain

2013

2022

2014

2023

2015

Source: SDES (France), KBA (Germany), ACI (Italy), DGT (Spain), JRC analysis 

4.2.2  Decommissioned passenger cars 

The trends observed in vehicle decommissioning complement the dynamics depicted by registrations 
as shown in Figure 16. The share of decommissioned stock (including scrapped vehicles and exports) 
is very significant in Germany, hovering around 18%13, while in Italy and Spain it oscillates between 
2% and 4%. The effect of incentive programs could be seen in decommissioning spikes in Germany 
in 2009, but also, to a lower degree, in Spain14 in 2009, 2013 and 2023. A decline in the share of 
decommissioned stock after 2019, particularly in Germany, partly coincides with the fall in exports 
that occurred during the Covid crisis, as appearing in Figure 17. Italy (see Figure 18) introduced a 
series of “eco-bonus” measures to incentivise fleet renewal in 201415 and especially in the period 
between 2019 and 202116, which seem to correspond to spikes in decommissioned vehicles around 
said years. Similarly to Germany, however, scrappage and exports have substantially declined in the 
aftermath of the pandemic. Spain, on the other hand, while characterized by a parallel decrease in 
in  vehicle 
exports  and  voluntary  scrappage,  also  experienced  a  sudden  2023 

increase 

12 The program consisted in subsidies of 2,500€ for each individual scrapping an old car aged at least 9 years and owned 

for at least 12 months, and buying a vehicle with Euro 4 emission standard or above (Kaul, Pfeifer, and Witte 2016). 

13 Aggregate KBA statistics have been including temporary deregistration into decommissioning since March 2007. 
14  Spain  introduced  the  scrappage  program  Plan2000E  in  2009  (Jiménez,  Perdiguero,  and  García  2016),  together  with 
additional  measures  in  2013,  2020  (Programme  RENOVE,  https://industria.gob.es/RENOVE/Paginas/guia-RENOVE-
2020.aspx)  and  in  2023,  the  latter  funded  by  the  Next-Generation-EU-funded  program  Moves  III  (see 
https://www.idae.es/ayudas-y-financiacion/para-movilidad-y-vehiculos/programa-moves-iii).  

15 https://www.fiscoetasse.com/approfondimenti/11313-incentivi-auto-ecologiche-ecco-come-

usufruirne.html#:~:text=Per%20i%20veicoli%20acquistati%20nel%202015%20il%20contributo%20%C3%A8%20pa
ri,superiori%20a%2050%20g%2Fkm  

16 https://ecobonus.mise.gov.it/domande-frequenti/faq-

2021#:~:text=Quali%20sono%20i%20contributi%20previsti%20per%20l'acquisto%20di%20un%20veicolo%3F&text
=La%20Legge%20di%20Bilancio%202021,l'acquisto%20%C3%A8%20senza%20rottamazione.  

25 

 
 
                                                 
 
 
decommissioning for “other” non-specified reasons. This spike may be due to the introduction of low 
emission zones – mandated by the 2021 Spanish Climate Law17 - combined with existing incentives 
for the trade-in of vehicles aged 20 years and older (Programme RENOVE). Indeed, analysis of DGT 
data on decommissioned vehicles showed that the share of scrapped cars aged at least 20 years 
rose from 37% in 2020 to 51% in 2022 and to 69% in 2023. 

Figure 16. Decommissioned passenger cars as stock share in Germany, Italy and Spain 

20%
18%
16%
14%
12%
10%
8%
6%
4%
2%
0%

Germany

Italy

Spain

Source: KBA (Germany), ACI (Italy), DGT (Spain), JRC analysis. Decommissions include scrapped vehicles and exports 

Figure 17. Domestic passenger car production exported by Germany 

s
e
l
c
i
h
e
V

450,000

400,000

350,000

300,000

250,000

200,000

150,000

100,000

50,000

0

n
a
j
-
4
1
0
2

n
u
j
-
4
1
0
2

v
o
n
-
4
1
0
2

r
p
a
-
5
1
0
2

p
e
s
-
5
1
0
2

b
e
f
-
6
1
0
2

l

u
j
-
6
1
0
2

c
e
d
-
6
1
0
2

y
a
m
-
7
1
0
2

t
c
o
-
7
1
0
2

r
a
m
-
8
1
0
2

g
u
a
-
8
1
0
2

n
a
j
-
9
1
0
2

n
u
j
-
9
1
0
2

v
o
n
-
9
1
0
2

r
p
a
-
0
2
0
2

p
e
s
-
0
2
0
2

b
e
f
-
1
2
0
2

l

u
j
-
1
2
0
2

c
e
d
-
1
2
0
2

y
a
m
-
2
2
0
2

t
c
o
-
2
2
0
2

r
a
m
-
3
2
0
2

g
u
a
-
3
2
0
2

n
a
j
-
4
2
0
2

n
u
j
-
4
2
0
2

Source: German Association of the Automotive Industry (VDA), JRC analysis 

17 https://www.miteco.gob.es/es/calidad-y-evaluacion-

ambiental/temas/movilidad/zonas_de_bajas_emisiones_en_espana.html 

26 

 
 
 
                                                 
 
Figure 18. Number of decommissioned passenger cars in Italy and Spain 

Source: ACI (Italy), DGT (Spain), JRC analysis  

When  jointly  analysing  registrations  and  decommissioning,  different  patterns  emerge  across 
countries: their ratio (Figure 19), interpretable as a stock replacement rate, oscillates between 1 (lower 
bound for a yearly increase in stock) and 2, that is, newly registered vehicles may be twice as much 
of decommissioned vehicles in a given year18.  As expected, this ratio fluctuates with the business 
cycle, decreasing during busts and increasing during booms. When decomposing the ratio, it is possible 
to  observe  two  groups  of  countries:  on  one  hand,  in  France  and  Germany,  registrations  and 
decommissioning tend to co-move; on the other hand, in Italy and Spain, their movements can also 
be counter-cyclical (Figure 20). 

18 In Germany, the number of decommissioned vehicles is double that of registrations. This is probably due to the fact that, 
since  March  2007,  the  KBA  aggregate  statistics  have  pooled  ‘decommissioning’  together  with  ‘deregistrations’,  the 
latter being a temporary and reversible process. To provide an example, in 2006, registrations and decommissioned 
vehicles were respectively 3,467,961 and 3,202,093, giving a ratio of 1.08. 

27 

 
 
                                                 
 
Figure 19. Ratio of newly registered and decommissioned passenger cars 

2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0

France

Germany

Italy

Spain

Source: SDES (France), KBA (Germany), ACI (Italy), DGT (Spain), JRC analysis. Decommissioning includes scrapped vehicles 
and exports. France only includes scrapped vehicles. Germany also includes deregistrations. Italy, for 2023, includes 
records up to March 2024 

Figure 20. Newly registered and decommissioned passenger cars 

Source: SDES (France), KBA (Germany), ACI (Italy), DGT (Spain), JRC analysis. Decommissioning only refers to scrapped 
vehicles 

28 

 
 
 
4.2.3  Passenger car turnover 

The  four  largest  EU-27  vehicle markets  also  differ  in  the  volume  of  ownership  transfers  on  their 
second-hand markets (Figure 21), where France and Germany behave markedly differently from Italy 
and Spain: the first two display either a constant or reverting trend in the volume of used cars sold, 
while the last two account for less than half of sales, which, although fluctuating, tended to increase 
over the last 15 years. 

Figure 21. Passenger car turnover (ownership transfers) 

)
s
n
o

i
l
l
i

m

(

s
e
l
c
i
h
e
V

 8

 7

 6

 5

 4

 3

 2

 1

 -

France

Germany

Italy

Spain

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

2019

2020

2021

2022

2023

Source: SDES (France), KBA (Germany), ACI (Italy), DGT (Spain), JRC analysis 

This  distinction is clearly visible  when  considering  the  turnover  share  among used  vehicles  stocks 
(Figure 22): while France and Germany hovered around a 15% rate of exchange, with a decreasing 
trend in later years, Italy and Spain show lower dynamicity, with respective turnovers at 7% and 11%. 

Figure 22. Passenger car turnover share 

16%

14%

12%

10%

8%

6%

4%

2%

0%

France

Germany

Italy

2008
2014
2020

2009
2015
2021

2010
2016
2022

2011
2017
2023

2012
2018
CountryMean

Spain

2013
2019

Source: SDES (France), KBA (Germany), ACI (Italy), DGT (Spain), JRC analysis 

29 

 
 
 
 
The relation between economic downturns and transactions on the used market appears to be the 
result of counteracting forces: indeed, a  drop  in turnover may be due to a  decrease  in disposable 
income, but also to a more burgeoning market of new vehicles19. The ratio of registrations of used 
and new vehicles (Figure 23) only shows the net effect of these forces. 

Figure 23. Ratio of turnover and newly registered passenger cars 

Source: SDES (France), KBA (Germany), ACI (Italy), DGT (Spain), JRC analysis 

In fact, when jointly comparing registrations and transfers (Figure 24), it is possible to distinguish two 
sets of trends. In France and Germany, the markets for new and used vehicles seem to follow rather 
diverging  trends,  while,  in  Italy  and  Spain,  there  is  co-movement  between  the  two,  where,  during 
downturns, sales of new vehicles decrease further than sales of used vehicles. 

19 During positive economic conjunctures, it could be possible to observe a contemporaneous increase in new registrations 
as well as in transactions of used vehicles. This effect would be reinforced in case new vehicles are resold in the same 
year in which they are registered.  

30 

 
 
                                                 
 
Figure 24. Newly registered passenger cars and turnover (ownership transfers) 

Source: SDES (France), KBA (Germany), ACI (Italy), DGT (Spain), JRC analysis. Registrations refer to new vehicles in each 
Member State; transfers are transactions on the used market, net of dealer reselling (“minivoltura” in Italy) 

31 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
4.3  Age composition of passenger car stock and turnover 

The European fleet has been rapidly ageing. In 2007, the average age of passenger vehicles in the 
four countries analysed was around 8 years. Figure 25 shows that, between 2007 and 2023, this 
average grew by 3 years (36%) in France, 2.3 years (29%) in Germany, 5 years (67%) in Italy and 6.2 
years (77%) in Spain, respectively reaching an average age of 11.2, 10.3, 12.5 and 14.2 years.  

Figure 26 depicts changes in the fleet distribution by age classes, highlighting a sharp increase in the 
share of in-use vehicles older than 16 years over the last 10 years (11% in France, 8% in Germany, 
19% in Italy and 20% in Spain)20.  

While in France and Germany, this change corresponded to a homogenous decrease in the share of 
newer vehicles, in Italy and Spain an initial rise in the share of vehicles aged 10 to 15 years was 
accompanied by their subsequent drop, together with a fall and rise in vehicle vehicles younger than 
5 years. Mechanically, these wavy patterns reflect those of new registrations, which are a function of 
economic cycles. Nevertheless, the growth of the older segment is smooth, thus suggesting a steady 
underlying trend initiated well before the emergence of the electrified fleet. 

Figure 25. Average passenger car fleet age evolution from 2007 to 2023 

11.2

+3

8.2

10.3

+2.3

8

14.2

12.5

+5

7.5

+6.2

8

)
s
r
a
e
y
(

e
g
a

t
e
e
l
f

e
g
a
r
e
v
A

15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0

France

Germany

Italy

Spain

2007

2023

Source: SDES and CCFA (France), KBA (Germany), ACI and UNRAE (Italy), ANFAC (Spain), JRC analysis   

20 Observations for Germany are available until 2021; observations for Spain begin in 2013 and end in 2022. 

32 

 
 
                                                 
 
 
 
 
Figure 26. Passenger car stock by age class 

France

Germany

45%
40%
35%
30%
25%
20%
15%
10%
5%
0%

[15+]

[14-10]

[9-5]

[4-0]

[16+] [15-10] [9-8]

[7-6]

[5-4]

[3-2]

[1-0]

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2018

2019

2020

2021

2022

2023

2017

2018

2019

2020

2021

Italy

Spain

45%
40%
35%
30%
25%
20%
15%
10%
5%
0%

45%
40%
35%
30%
25%
20%
15%
10%
5%
0%

45%
40%
35%
30%
25%
20%
15%
10%
5%
0%

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

2019

2020

2021

2022

2023

2018

2019

2020

2021

2022

Source: SDES (France), KBA (Germany), ACI (Italy), DGT (Spain), JRC analysis  

Turnovers equally reflect vehicle ageing (Figure 27): in France, in just four years, the share of vehicles 
older than 15 years sold on the second-hand market increased from 21% to 28%, while the share of 
vehicles younger than 2 years decreased from 37% to 31%. In Germany, vehicles older than 16 years 
went  from  14% to  25%  of  total  used vehicles  sold between  2011  and  2020. The most dramatic 
shifts, however, occurred in Italy, where the proportion of +16-year vehicles reached 27% in 2022 
from only 9% in 201221, and the share of vehicles younger than 1 year dropped from 17% in 2018 
to just 7% in 2022.  

21 In Italy, between 2012 and 2014, the category [15-10] also contains vehicles aged 16 years, while the category [16+] 

refers to vehicles aged 17 years and older.  

33 

 
 
                                                 
 
Figure 27. Passenger car turnover by age class 

France

35%

30%

25%

20%

15%

10%

5%

0%

[15+]

[15-10]

[9-5]

[4-2]

[2-0]

2020

2021

2022

2023

Germany

Italy

35%
30%
25%
20%
15%
10%
5%
0%

35%
30%
25%
20%
15%
10%
5%
0%

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2016

2017

2018

2019

2020

2018

2019

2020

2021

2022

Source: SDES (France), KBA (Germany), ACI (Italy), JRC analysis. In Italy, between 2012 and 2014, the category [15-10] 
also contains vehicles aged 16 years, while the category [16+] refers to vehicles aged 17 years and older 

To understand whether the change in age composition of the turnover was influenced by the change 
in age composition of the stock, it is sufficient to compute the ratio between the two shares (e.g. 
share of +16-year vehicles sold over the share of +16-vehicles in the stock). 

𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 =

𝑆𝑆ℎ𝑅𝑅𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝑒𝑒𝑥𝑥 𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎𝐴𝐴 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑒𝑒𝑢𝑢 𝑢𝑢𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑒𝑢𝑢
𝑆𝑆ℎ𝑅𝑅𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝑒𝑒𝑥𝑥 𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎𝐴𝐴 𝑢𝑢𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠

For each vehicle age segment, a ratio above 100% indicates an over-representation of sales with 
respect to its stock; a share that is increasing over time indicates that sales of that segment have 
increased  more  than  proportionally  than  its  stock.  Figure  28  provides  these  shares:  in  France, 
transactions of +15-year vehicles are under-represented with respect to their stock, but their share 
has increased by 7% in just three years, while the over-represented share of newer (4-0) vehicles has 
decreased by 12% in just one year, between 2021 and 2022. In Germany, sales of older vehicles 
have significantly and firmly been over-represented for ten years, with a gradual increase for vehicles 
older than 1 year and younger than 5. In Italy, although the sales of old vehicles have always been 
under-represented with respect to the size of their stock, their importance has grown by 30% in 10 

34 

 
 
 
years, while that of new vehicles has gone from the strongest over-representation to slight under-
representation, with a drop of 65% between 2018 and 2022. 

Figure 28. Ratio of used passenger car turnover to stock by age class 

France

150%

100%

50%

0%

[15+]

[15-10]

[9-5]

[4-0]

2020

2021

2022

Germany

Italy

160%
140%
120%
100%
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%

160%
140%
120%
100%
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2017

2018

2019

2020

2018

2019

2020

2021

2022

Source: SDES (France), KBA (Germany), ACI (Italy), JRC analysis 

The substantial rise in the price of new and used vehicles may be one of the causes of the observed 
ageing  of  the  fleet  and  of  its  turnover.  The  price  of  vehicles  has  clear  first-order  effects  on  the 
evolution  of  new  registrations  and  transfers  of  used  vehicles.  Eurostat’s  Harmonized  Index  of 
Consumer Prices (HICP)22 in Figure 29 shows a marked increase in the price of motor cars (combining 

22 The Harmonized Index of Consumer Prices category "Motor Cars (07.1.1)" is a classification of durable goods that includes 
new motor cars, passenger vans, station wagons, estate cars, and the like with either two-wheel drive or four-wheel 
drive; second-hand motor cars, passenger vans, station wagons, estate cars, and the like with either two-wheel drive 
or four-wheel drive. This category excludes invalid carriages (06.1.3), camper vans (09.2.1), golf carts (09.2.1). This 
category  is  a  subcategory  of  the  Transport  (07)  and  of  Purchases  of  Vehicles  (07.1)  category.  More  information 
source 
can 
pertaining 

classifications 

found 

from 

HICP 

the 

be 

to 

35 

 
 
 
                                                 
 
new and used vehicles, including passenger vans), with Italy displaying the longer rise and Germany 
the sharpest one after 2021. 

Figure 29. HICP of passenger cars, index 2015=100, monthly frequency 

0
0
1
=

5
1
0
2
x
e
d
n
I

140

130

120

110

100

90

80

70

France

Spain

Germany

Italy

Inflation_all

Inflation_core

Source:(Eurostat 2024a), JRC analysis. Series not seasonally adjusted. Inflation “core” excludes food and energy prices; 
inflation “all” includes them.  

Overall,  vehicle  prices  increased  at  a  faster  pace  than  inflation,  especially  when  considering  core 
inflation (excluding food and energy prices). While vehicle prices have overall increased, the impact 
of prices on new and second-hand markets may be differentiated. Figure 30 depicts the relative price 
index evolution of new and used vehicles in France (2015 = 100): both indices have risen over the 
past 25 years, with new cars displaying a steady rise with an overshoot starting from 2021, while 
used cars experienced an initial increase followed by a stabilisation and a stepwise jump in 2022. 
Several shocks may have contributed to the price increase of new vehicles, including demand, supply 
chain disruption, and energy (De Santis et al. 2022). Less clear is what led to the price increase in the 
second-hand market. A sudden supply bottleneck may have caused a consumer shift from the market 
of new vehicles to the used market, with a consequent increase in demand and thus in price, possibly 
magnified by a consumer composition effect. Indeed, assuming that consumers aspiring to purchase 
new vehicles have higher purchasing power, either through their own income or through access to 
credit lines, their entrance into the used market will further increase competition among buyers as 
well as the negotiating power of sellers, thus resulting in a more than proportional increase in price. 

at: http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/cache/metadata/en/prc_hicp_esms.html 
2016, http://ec.europa.eu/geninfo/legal_notices_en.htm#copyright 

Copyright, 

European 

Union, 

1995-

36 

 
 
                                                 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 30. Passenger cars price index in France 

5
1
0
2
n

i

0
0
1
=
x
e
d
n
I

120

115

110

105

100

95

90

85

80

1
0
-
8
9
9
1

1
0
-
9
9
9
1

1
0
-
0
0
0
2

1
0
-
1
0
0
2

1
0
-
2
0
0
2

1
0
-
3
0
0
2

1
0
-
4
0
0
2

1
0
-
5
0
0
2

1
0
-
6
0
0
2

1
0
-
7
0
0
2

1
0
-
8
0
0
2

1
0
-
9
0
0
2

1
0
-
0
1
0
2

1
0
-
1
1
0
2

1
0
-
2
1
0
2

1
0
-
3
1
0
2

1
0
-
4
1
0
2

1
0
-
5
1
0
2

1
0
-
6
1
0
2

1
0
-
7
1
0
2

1
0
-
8
1
0
2

1
0
-
9
1
0
2

1
0
-
0
2
0
2

1
0
-
1
2
0
2

1
0
-
2
2
0
2

1
0
-
3
2
0
2

1
0
-
4
2
0
2

New

Used

Source: INSEE (2024a, 2024b), Coicop for new vehicles (series 001763644) and used vehicles (series 001763645), JRC 
analysis 

Figure 31 provides a chronological correlation (from left to right) of the price index evolution of new 
and used vehicles. As it can be observed in the middle section of the graph (around 2015), the price 
of second-hand cars (y-axis) remained rather stable during the long rise in the price of new vehicles 
(x-axis), until the latter overshot by  15%,  contemporaneously leading to a 7%  overshoot for  used 
cars. 

Figure 31. Passenger cars price index correlation in France 

5
1
0
2
n

i

0
0
1
=

x
e
d
n
I

,

s
e
l
c
i
h
e
v

d
e
s
U

108

106

104

102

100

98

96

94

92

90

New vehicles, Index = 100 in 2015

Source: INSEE (2024a; 2024b), Coicop for new vehicles (series 001763644) and used vehicles (series 001763645), JRC 
analysis 

37 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
The  hypothesis  of  a  more-than-proportional  increase  in  prices  for  older  vehicles  seems  to  be 
confirmed  by  the  evolution  of  the  price  index  per  vehicle  age  segment  in  Germany  (Figure  32)23. 
Further validation of this hypothesis, however, requires the availability of price levels for new and 
used vehicles, to confirm that new vehicles remain more expensive than older ones. 

Figure 32. Passenger cars price index in Germany 

Source: Autovista24 (2022)  

4.4  Market for electrified passenger cars: stock, registrations, turnover, 

users 

A yearly average of 10.9 million new passenger cars was registered in the EU-27 between 2011 and 
2023. If this trend were to continue until 2035, 131 million additional vehicles would enter the future 
stock. The partial or full electrification of the fleet would contribute to the reduction of tank-to-wheel 
emissions over the future fleet’s life. 

4.4.1  Stock 

The  stock  of  electrified  vehicles  (EFVs)  –  including  hybrid  electric  vehicles  (HEVs),  plug-in  hybrid 
electric vehicles (PHEVs) and battery electric vehicles (BEVs) – has grown in the four largest vehicle 
markets  in  the  EU-27  over  the  last  decade,  but  with  marked  differences.  Figure  33  shows  how 
Germany is leading the EFVs take-up with almost 4.5 million vehicles in 2023, with France, Italy and 
Spain following at 3.1 million, 2.4 million and 1.6 million vehicles respectively24. 

23 Indexed average movement of the absolute price of all vehicles on offer. The index controls for vehicle-specific factors 
(e.g.  make,  model,  age,  mileage,  optional  equipment),  as  well  as  for  changes  in  the  basket  composition  over  time. 
Suggested graph reading: a 1% decrease in the index in one week signifies a 1% drop in price with respect to the week 
before. 

24 The Spanish motorisation agency does not publish separate stock data for electrified vehicles. ACEA was used as data 

source. 

38 

 
 
                                                 
 
Figure 33. Electrified vehicle (EFV) stock 

 4.5

 4.0

 3.5

 3.0

 2.5

 2.0

 1.5

 1.0

 0.5

 -

)
s
n
o

i
l
l
i

m

(

s
e
l
c
i
h
e
V

France

Germany

Italy

Spain

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

2019

2020

2021

2022

2023

Source: SDES (France), KBA (Germany), ACI (Italy), ACEA (Spain), JRC analysis. EFVs include HEVs, PHEVs and BEVs 

The bulk of the EFV stock is made by HEVs (Figure 34), reaching peaks in volume and shares (90%) 
in Italy25, but with a declining share after 2019, especially in Germany. Conversely, the stock of PHEVs 
increased until 2022 (Figure 35), with an inflection observed from 2023 in Germany. The trend of 
BEVs (Figure 36), instead, remained positive, reaching around 30% of the stock of electrified vehicles 
in France and Germany in 2023, but with a limited and stable take-up in Italy at around 10%. 

25 Italian stock statistics do not distinguish between HEVs and PHEVs. To provide a reference figure, the share of all PHEVs 
registrations  over  electrified  registrations  between  2013  and  2022  is  10%,  increasing  to  15%  when  only  2022 
registrations are considered. 

39 

 
 
                                                 
 
 
Figure 34. Hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) stock and share of electrified vehicles (EFVs) 

)
s
n
o

i
l
l
i

m

(

s
e
l
c
i
h
e
V

 2.4
 2.2
 2.0
 1.8
 1.6
 1.4
 1.2
 1.0
 0.8
 0.6
 0.4
 0.2
 -

100%

90%

80%

70%

60%

50%

40%

30%

20%

10%

0%

k
c
o
t
s
V
F
E

l

a
t
o
t

f
o
%

2017

2018

2019

2020

2021

2022

2023

FR_num

DE_num

IT_num

FR_%

DE_%

IT_%

Source: SDES (France), KBA (Germany), ACI (Italy), JRC analysis. In Italy, HEVs contain PHEVs. EFVs include HEVs, PHEVs 
and BEVs  

Figure 35. Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) stock and share of electrified vehicles (EFVs) 

)
s
n
o

i
l
l
i

m

(

s
e
l
c
i
h
e
V

 2.4
 2.2
 2.0
 1.8
 1.6
 1.4
 1.2
 1.0
 0.8
 0.6
 0.4
 0.2
 -

100%

90%

80%

70%

60%

50%

40%

30%

20%

10%

0%

k
c
o
t
s
V
F
E

l

a
t
o
t

f
o
%

2017

2018

2019

2020

2021

2022

2023

FR_num

DE_num

FR_%

DE_%

Source: SDES (France), KBA (Germany), ACI (Italy), JRC analysis. EFVs include HEVs, PHEVs and BEVs  

40 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 36. Battery electric vehicle (BEV) stock and share of electrified vehicles (EFVs) 

)
s
n
o

i
l
l
i

m

(

s
e
l
c
i
h
e
V

 2.4
 2.2
 2.0
 1.8
 1.6
 1.4
 1.2
 1.0
 0.8
 0.6
 0.4
 0.2
 -

100%

90%

80%

70%

60%

50%

40%

30%

20%

10%

0%

k
c
o
t
s
V
F
E

l

a
t
o
t

f
o
%

2016

2017

2018

2019

2020

2021

2022

2023

FR_num

DE_num

IT_num

FR_%

DE_%

IT_%

Source: SDES (France), KBA (Germany), ACI (Italy), JRC analysis. In Italy, BEVs contain fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs). 
EFVs include HEVs, PHEVs and BEVs  

41 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
4.4.2  Registrations 

Registrations of new electrified vehicles show a stepwise increase from 2020, with Germany leading 
in terms of volumes, followed by France, Italy and Spain (Figure 37, Panel A). In terms of share over 
new total registrations, between 2019 and 2023, electrified vehicles jumped from around 10% in the 
four Member States, to 39% in Spain, 43% in Italy, 48% in Germany and 50% in France (Figure 37, 
Panel B). 

Figure 37. Electrified vehicle (EFV) registrations (A) and share (B) of total vehicle registrations 

A

)
s
n
o

i
l
l
i

m

(

s
e
l
c
i
h
e
V

 1.4

 1.2

 1.0

 0.8

 0.6

 0.4

 0.2

 -

FR

DE

IT

ES

2016

2017

2018

2019

2020

2021

2022

2023

B

55%
50%
45%
40%
35%
30%
25%
20%
15%
10%
5%
0%

s
n
o
i
t
a
r
t
s
i
g
e
r
e
l
c
i
h
e
v
l

a
t
o
t

f
o
%

2016

2017

2018

2019

2020

2021

2022

2023

FR

DE

IT

ES

Source: SDES (France), KBA (Germany), UNRAE (Italy), JRC analysis. EFVs include HEVs, PHEVs and BEVs  

The share of EFVs has strongly risen across the four MS since 2019, leading to declining shares of 
pure internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles. Within EFVs, HEVs display the strongest growth26: in 
France and Germany, HEVs accounted for 50% of all newly registered electrified vehicles. In Italy and 
Spain, this share reached 81% and 72% of EFVs respectively. In general, HEVs display the overall 

26 Only in Germany, in 2020, BEVs displayed the same share of HEVs, reaching 18% of total vehicle registrations. 

42 

 
 
 
                                                 
 
 
 
 
 
 
fastest growth across powertrains, especially in Italy (Figure 38). A rapid increase in HEV registrations 
may be caused by the introduction of economic incentives for the acquisition of vehicles with lower 
CO2 emissions, together with a general “mild-hybridisation” trend of new vehicle models produced by 
OEMs.  This  phenomenon  is  particularly  relevant  in  Italy,  where  the  introduction  of  mild  hybrids 
strongly surpassed that of full hybrids (Figure 39). 

Figure 38. Hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) registrations 

 700,000

 600,000

 500,000

s
e
l
c
i
h
e
V

 400,000

 300,000

 200,000

 100,000

 -

40%

35%

30%

25%

20%

15%

10%

5%

0%

s
n
o
i
t
a
r
t
s
i
g
e
r

e
l
c
i
h
e
v

l

a
t
o
t

f
o
%

2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023

FR_num

DE_num

IT_num

ES_num

FR_%

DE_%

IT_%

ES_%

Source: SDES (France), KBA (Germany), UNRAE (Italy), JRC analysis  

Figure 39. Mild and full hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) registrations in Italy 

s
e
l
c
i
h
e
V

 450,000

 400,000

 350,000

 300,000

 250,000

 200,000

 150,000

 100,000

 50,000

 -

30%

25%

20%

15%

10%

5%

0%

s
n
o
i
t
a
r
t
s
i
g
e
r

e
l
c
i
h
e
v

l

a
t
o
t

f
o
%

2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023

Mild_num

Full_num

Mild_%

Full_%

Source: UNRAE, ACI. JRC analysis 

In  contrast,  PHEVs  show  stable  or  decreasing  trends  from  2021  (Figure  40),  with  an  almost  10 
percentage points fall for Germany. Finally, BEVs (Figure 41) display a smooth positive growth path, 

43 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
reaching 18% of registrations in France and Germany in 2023, but with more limited values for Italy 
(4%) and Spain (5%). 

Figure 40. Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) registrations 

 700,000

 600,000

 500,000

s
e
l
c
i
h
e
V

 400,000

 300,000

 200,000

 100,000

 -

2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023

FR_num

DE_num

IT_num

ES_num

FR_%

DE_%

IT_%

ES_%

Source: SDES (France), KBA (Germany), UNRAE (Italy), JRC analysis 

Figure 41. Battery electric vehicle registrations 

 700,000

 600,000

 500,000

s
e
l
c
i
h
e
V

 400,000

 300,000

 200,000

 100,000

 -

40%

35%

30%

25%

20%

15%

10%

5%

0%

s
n
o
i
t
a
r
t
s
i
g
e
r

e
l
c
i
h
e
v

l

a
t
o
t

f
o
%

40%

35%

30%

25%

20%

15%

10%

5%

0%

s
n
o
i
t
a
r
t
s
i
g
e
r

e
l
c
i
h
e
v

l

a
t
o
t

f
o
%

2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023

FR_num

DE_num

IT_num

ES_num

FR_%

DE_%

IT_%

ES_%

Source: SDES (France), KBA (Germany), UNRAE (Italy), JRC analysis 

4.4.3  Turnover 

In each MS, the turnover of second-hand electrified passenger cars is similar to the average turnover 
observed across all powertrains, that is 15% in France and Germany, and 7% in Italy (Figure 42). The 
turnover of HEVs (Figure 43) is rather constant over time, with the exception of 2021 spikes in France 
and  Germany,  possibly  linked  to  incentives  or  demand  rebounds  following  the  Covid  crisis.  PHEV 
turnovers in France and Germany show a diverging trend, with transactions of plug-ins close or above 

44 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
the  global  vehicles  mean  in  France,  as  opposed  to  a  below-average  turnover  in  Germany,  which 
displays a progressive decrease prior to the pandemics period, followed by a rebound in 2023 (Figure 
44). Finally, the BEV turnover (Figure 45) displays alternate trends in different countries: in France a 
progressive rise peaking in 2021, followed by a slowdown; in Germany, a progressive decline followed 
by a stabilisation around a 7% turnover share; in Italy a u-shaped trend with an initial drop and a 
subsequent rebound. These patterns may be due to the introduction and removal of incentives, or to 
variations in the type of vehicle users. 

Figure 42. Turnover of electrified vehicles (EFVs) 

s
V
F
E
f
o
k
c
o
t
s

f
o
%

20%

18%

16%

14%

12%

10%

8%

6%

4%

2%

0%

France

Germany

Italy

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

2019

2020

2021

2022

2023 All_Vehicles

Source: SDES (France), KBA (Germany), ACI (Italy), JRC analysis 

Figure 43. Turnover of hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) 

s
V
E
H

f
o
k
c
o
t
s

f
o
%

20%

18%

16%

14%

12%

10%

8%

6%

4%

2%

0%

France

Germany

Italy

2018

2019

2020

2021

2022

2023

Source: SDES (France), KBA (Germany), ACI (Italy), JRC analysis 

45 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 44. Turnover of plug-in hybrid vehicles (PHEVs) in France and Germany 

s
V
E
H
P
f
o
k
c
o
t
s

f
o
%

20%

18%

16%

14%

12%

10%

8%

6%

4%

2%

0%

s
V
E
B
f
o
k
c
o
t
s

f
o
%

20%

18%

16%

14%

12%

10%

8%

6%

4%

2%

0%

2018

2019

2020

2021

2022

2023

France

Germany

Source: SDES (France), KBA (Germany), ACI (Italy), JRC analysis 

Figure 45. Turnover of battery electric vehicles (BEVs) 

France

Germany

Italy

2016

2017

2018

2019

2020

2021

2022

2023

Source: SDES (France), KBA (Germany), ACI (Italy), JRC analysis 

46 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
4.4.4  Users 

An interesting trend has developed concerning vehicle ownership across all powertrains: over the past 
10 years, an increasing share of new car registrations in the four analysed countries pertains to non-
private  users27.  If,  in  2022,  total  vehicle  stocks  were  almost  completely  privately  owned  (95%  in 
France, 89% in Germany and 96% in Italy), from 2011 to 2023, private ownership of newly registered 
vehicles decreased by 13% in France, 6% in Germany and 11% in Italy (Figure 46). It should be noted 
that Germany has a structurally low rate of private ownership of new vehicles (33% in 2023)28, while 
Italy displays a structurally high rate (71% in 2023). 

Figure 46. Newly registered passenger cars by private users 

s
n
o
i
t
a
r
t
s
i
g
e
r

e
l
c
i
h
e
v
w
e
n
f
o
%

90%

80%

70%

60%

50%

40%

30%

20%

10%

0%

France

Germany

Italy

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

2019

2020

2021

2022

2023

Source: SDES (France), KBA (Germany), ACI (Italy), JRC analysis 

In France, the private ownership rate of the BEV stock has increased from 33% in 2012 to 72% in 
2022 (Figure 47), while PHEVs fell from a peak of 84% in 2014 to 47% in 2023, and the share for 
HEVs oscillated around 75%. Similarly, private ownership of the BEV stock has increased in Italy by 
9% in just three years (2020-2023) from 66% to 75%, while private ownership of the HEV stock has 
decreased by 16% during the same period, from 97% to 81%. It should be noted that different types 
of vehicle users could behave differently on the second-hand market, i.e. selling more or less vehicles. 

27 The majority of these users are private corporations, with small fleets owned by public entities. 
28 In 2001 in Germany, 49% of new cars were registered by a private user: this trend has steadily declined until 2022, with 
the exception of a one-off spike at 63% in 2009, coinciding with the introduction of the “cash-for-clunkers” scrappage 
program. See also Figure 15 for the corresponding spike in registration of new vehicles. 

47 

 
 
                                                 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 47. Share of the electrified vehicle (EFV) stock owned by private users in France and Italy 

s
V
F
E

f
o

k
c
o
t
s

f
o
%

100%

90%

80%

70%

60%

50%

40%

30%

20%

10%

0%

2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023

FR_BEV

IT_BEV

FR_PHEV

IT_HEV

FR_HEV

Threshold main use

Source: SDES (France), ACI (Italy), JRC analysis 

When looking at registrations, the share of private users varies by powertrain. In Germany (Figure 
48), just 30% of new HEVs were registered by individuals in 2022, a share rising to 44% when only 
considering full hybrids (which account for only 16% of new HEVs). Equally low is the share of PHEVs, 
while BEVs are equally split between private and corporate users. 

Figure 48. Private users electrified vehicle (EFV) registrations by powertrain in Germany and Italy 

Source: KBA (Germany), ACI (Italy), JRC analysis. “All_pwt” stands for all powertrains, including conventional fuels and 
alternative fuels. 

48 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
In Italy, on the contrary, new HEVs are more commonly owned by private users, although their share 
decreased from nearly 100% in 2020 to 70% in 2022, in line with the value for BEVs. Italy, however, 
is characterized by a more distinctive phenomenon (Figure 49): within user types, the share of HEV 
registrations  has  dramatically  increased  between  2020  and  2022,  passing  from  18%  to  38%  for 
individuals and from 1% to 42% for corporate use. This sizeable shift may be due to a combination 
of incentives for the acquisition of full hybrids, and to the wider mild hybridization of the fleet.  

Figure 49. Share of hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) by private users and companies in Italy 

Source: ACI, JRC analysis 

4.5  Focus on Battery Electric Vehicles 

The figures below summarize the information provided so far about BEVs in a MS-by-MS overview29. 
France  (Figure  50)  displays  a  progressive  increase  in  registrations,  transfers  and  stock,  reaching 
nearly 0.9 million in-service BEVs in 2023. There is an active second-hand market for BEVs, yet the 
share of transfers declined from 14% in 2021 to 9% in 2023 (lower than the aggregate 15% rate), 
possibly  related  to  the  increase  in  the  share  of  BEV  registrations  by  individuals  (see  Figure  46); 
decommissioning, instead, remains at a low 2% share. Germany (Figure 51) shows a similar growth 
path for BEV registrations, but at higher magnitudes, achieving a stock of 1.4 million vehicles, with a 
stable turnover between 6% and 8%. Interestingly, the rate of BEV decommissioning is significant 
(14% in 2023), possibly due to the high rate of intra-EU exports, as documented in the first part of 
this report and in Section 4.2.2 of this chapter. Finally, the market for BEVs in Italy (Figure 52) shows 
a low take-up rate and a stock just surpassing 0.2 million vehicles in 2023. Despite these low volumes, 
Italian  turnover  and  decommissioning  shares  are  rather  dynamic  and  co-moving,  although 
characterised by a negative trend inversion in 2023. 

29 Spain was excluded from the analysis because of incomplete data. 

49 

 
 
                                                 
 
)
s
n
o

i
l
l
i

m

(

s
e
l
c
i
h
e
V

 1.4

 1.2

 1.0

 0.8

 0.6

 0.4

 0.2

 -

)
s
n
o

i
l
l
i

m

(

s
e
l
c
i
h
e
V

1.4

1.2

1.0

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0

Figure 50. Battery electric vehicle market in France 

18%

16%

14%

12%

10%

8%

6%

4%

2%

0%

k
c
o
t
s

e
l
c
i
h
e
v

f
o
%

2018

2019

2020

2021

2022

2023

Registrations

Stock

Transfers

%_transfers

%_decomissioned

Source: SDES, JRC analysis 

Figure 51. Battery electric vehicle market in Germany 

18%

16%

14%

12%

10%

8%

6%

4%

2%

0%

k
c
o
t
s

e
l
c
i
h
e
v
%

2018

2019

2020

2021

2022

2023

Registrations

Stock

Transfers

%_transfers

%_decommissioned

Source: KBA, JRC analysis 

50 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1.4

 1.2

 1.0

 0.8

 0.6

 0.4

 0.2

 -

Figure 52. Battery electric vehicle market in Italy 

18%

16%

14%

12%

10%

8%

6%

4%

2%

0%

k
c
o
t
s
e
l
c
i
h
e
v

f
o
%

)
s
n
o

i
l
l
i

m

(

s
e
l
c
i
h
e
V

2018

2019

2020

2021

2022

2023

Registrations

Stock

Transfers

%_transfers

%_decommissioned

Source: ACI, JRC analysis 

4.6  Key findings of the internal market analysis 

The  dynamics  of  internal  vehicle  markets  is  strongly  influenced  by  economic  cycles  and  policy 
interventions. The latter may be i) counter-cyclical, incentives in economic downturns to boost vehicle 
purchase, or ii) environmental, subsidizing the purchase of vehicles with lower CO2 emissions. These 
policies are often joint, tying purchase incentives to vehicle types and to the scrappage of an older 
and more polluting vehicle. Recent policies may reflect both an  effort to  counteract the recession 
generated by the Covid crisis, as well as the progressive unfolding of the energy transition enshrined 
in  environmental  regulations.  Incentives  for  the  acquisition  of  electric  vehicles  started  around  a 
decade ago but only picked up after 2019.  

Policy, however, has not been able to slow the ageing of the European passenger car fleet: its average 
age has increased from a minimum of 2 years in Germany to a maximum of 6 years in Spain between 
2007 and 2023. Similarly, vehicle stock has substantially increased in the four largest markets as in-
use  cars  are  kept  for  longer,  thus  prolonging  the  service  life  of  less  efficient  and  more  polluting 
vehicles. The steady increase in vehicle prices, together with recent logistics and energy crises, seems 
at the root of these trends (ECB 2022).  

While representative, the four MS analysed do not provide a complete picture of the EU-27 market. 
Yet,  this  subsample  allowed  the  identification  of  patterns.  France  and  Germany  display  an  active 
second-hand market, with a turnover of 15%, and a significant BEV uptake. Italy and Spain show a 
less dynamic vehicles’ turnover and a less burgeoning BEV market.  

Concerning the market for used electrified vehicles, the turnover in each MS is in line with that of all 
vehicles, with HEVs displaying higher reselling shares, possibly due to a “mild hybridization” of the 
fleet. These patterns are likely influenced by incentives, which may in turn influence the type of users 
acquiring a vehicle. The last 15 years have been characterized by a significant decline in the share of 
private  ownership  of  new  vehicles,  a  trend  that  started  well  before  the  energy  transition  in  the 
transport sector. 

51 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
5  Conclusions 

The European passenger car fleet is ageing, a trend observed in almost all Member States, although 
at a different pace. Replacing the stock of older vehicles with newer ones is essential for accelerating 
the  decarbonisation  of  the  EU-27  road  transport  sector.  Older  vehicles  continue  to  contribute  to 
greenhouse gas emissions for longer periods, while a renewal of the fleet would allow to exploit the 
emerging potential of zero and low-emission vehicles. A clear understanding of the functioning of the 
market of used vehicles in Europe constitutes a key condition for designing effective policy in this 
area.  

The report highlighted limitations on the availability and completeness of trade flow data on used 
vehicles  within  the  European  market  and  beyond  its  borders.  Exports  of  vehicles  with  lower 
environmental performance are observed between higher and lower-income countries. However, due 
to  data limitations,  recorded  values may  represent a  lower  bound  of  the  phenomenon.  A  detailed 
analysis of trade flow data was beyond the scope of this report. Nevertheless, it can be observed that 
the  data  may  equally  be  affected  by  reporting  bias,  as  smaller  exporting  companies  are  often 
exempted from declaring vehicle flows, as well as by the inability to capture illicit vehicle flows.  

The report equally provided detailed insights into the dynamics of the four largest EU-27 passenger 
car  markets,  France,  Germany,  Italy  and  Spain.  Distinctive  trends  can  be  summarised  from  this 
investigation: 

Ageing of the fleet: over the last 15 years, the average age of the in-use fleet has increased in the 
EU, with increases ranging from a minimum of 2 years in Germany to a maximum of 6 years in Spain. 
This trend is accompanied by an increase in the size of the vehicle stock, as older and more polluting 
vehicles  circulate  for longer.  While vehicle  safety,  quality  and  durability may have increased,  also 
reflecting  the  success  of  EU  policies  (e.g.  Roadworthiness  Package,  Type-Approval  Framework 
Regulations) it has also been argued that supply-chain disruptions and a rapid increase in prices of 
new vehicles may have caused consumers to keep their cars for longer. 

Heterogeneity in second-hand markets: the countries analysed displayed different dynamics in 
their markets for used vehicles, with France and Germany showing more transactions than Italy and 
Spain.  

Emerging second-hand market for BEVs: overall, the share of battery electric vehicles sold on 
the used market mirrors that of all vehicles, except for Germany, where the turnover of used BEVs 
has been decreasing and stands at about half of that of all vehicles. 

As highlighted in the report, the lack of a standardised unique source of data complicates the analysis 
and limits the possibility of extending the results to the wider EU. There are potential benefits in the 
creation of a harmonised EU register for in-use vehicles that should be further investigated.  

Maintaining  a  functional  and  dynamic  second-hand  vehicle  market  is  crucial  for  both  the 
environmental objectives of the EU and the prosperity of the economies revolving around the EU’s 
automotive sector.  

52 

 
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54 

 
 
List of abbreviations and definitions 

BEV 
CN 
CNG 
EU 
EV 
FCEV 
HEV 
JRC 
LDV 
LNG 
LPG 
MS 
PHEV 
UNEP 
VIN 

Battery Electric Vehicle 
Combined Nomenclature 
Concentrated Natural Gas 
European Union 
Electric Vehicle 
Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle 
Hybrid Electric Vehicle 
Joint Research Centre 
Light-duty vehicle 
Liquified Natural Gas 
Liquified Petroleum Gas 
Member State 
Plug-in Hybrid Vehicle 
United Nations Environment Programme 
Vehicle Identification Number 

55 

 
 
List of figures 

Figure 1. Stock of passenger cars in the EU-27................................................................................................................. 8 

Figure 2. Stock of passenger cars in the EU-27 by age class .................................................................................... 8 

Figure 3. Average age of passenger cars by EU-27 Member State ........................................................................ 9 

Figure 4. Average age change of passenger cars by EU-27 Member State: 2018 to 2022 .................... 9 

Figure 5. Used passenger car trade trends in the EU-27 .......................................................................................... 14 

Figure 6. Used passenger car trade trends by Member State in the EU-27 ................................................... 15 

Figure 7. Used light-commercial vehicle trade trends in the EU-27 ................................................................... 16 

Figure 8. Used light-commercial vehicle trade trends by Member States in the EU-27 ......................... 17 

Figure 9. Used passenger car exports from Member States in the EU-27 ...................................................... 18 

Figure 10. Used light-commercial vehicle exports from Member States in the EU-27 ........................... 18 

Figure 11. Used light-duty vehicle trade flows in Europe ......................................................................................... 19 

Figure 12. Light-duty used vehicle trade flows in 2017 from Europe, USA, and Japan to main 
destination markets ........................................................................................................................................................................... 20 

Figure 13. Regulation strictness on the environmental performance of used vehicles ........................... 21 

Figure 14. Passenger car stock ................................................................................................................................................. 24 

Figure 15. Newly registered passenger cars ..................................................................................................................... 25 

Figure 16. Decommissioned passenger cars as stock share in Germany, Italy and Spain .................... 26 

Figure 17. Domestic passenger car production exported by Germany .............................................................. 26 

Figure 18. Number of decommissioned passenger cars in Italy and Spain.................................................... 27 

Figure 19. Ratio of newly registered and decommissioned passenger cars .................................................. 28 

Figure 20. Newly registered and decommissioned passenger cars .................................................................... 28 

Figure 21. Passenger car turnover (ownership transfers) ......................................................................................... 29 

Figure 22. Passenger car turnover share ............................................................................................................................ 29 

Figure 23. Ratio of turnover and newly registered passenger cars ..................................................................... 30 

Figure 24. Newly registered passenger cars and turnover (ownership transfers) ...................................... 31 

Figure 25. Average passenger car fleet age evolution from 2007 to 2023 .................................................. 32 

Figure 26. Passenger car stock by age class .................................................................................................................... 33 

Figure 27. Passenger car turnover by age class............................................................................................................. 34 

Figure 28. Ratio of used passenger car turnover to stock by age class ........................................................... 35 

56 

 
Figure 29. HICP of passenger cars, index 2015=100, monthly frequency ...................................................... 36 

Figure 30. Passenger cars price index in France ............................................................................................................ 37 

Figure 31. Passenger cars price index correlation in France ................................................................................... 37 

Figure 32. Passenger cars price index in Germany ....................................................................................................... 38 

Figure 33. Electrified vehicle (EFV) stock ............................................................................................................................ 39 

Figure 34. Hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) stock and share of electrified vehicles (EFVs) .......................... 40 

Figure 35. Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) stock and share of electrified vehicles (EFVs) ....... 40 

Figure 36. Battery electric vehicle (BEV) stock and share of electrified vehicles (EFVs)......................... 41 

Figure 37. Electrified vehicle (EFV) registrations (A) and share (B) of total vehicle registrations ..... 42 

Figure 38. Hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) registrations .................................................................................................. 43 

Figure 39. Mild and full hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) registrations in Italy ..................................................... 43 

Figure 40. Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) registrations .............................................................................. 44 

Figure 41. Battery electric vehicle registrations ............................................................................................................. 44 

Figure 42. Turnover of electrified vehicles (EFVs) ......................................................................................................... 45 

Figure 43. Turnover of hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) ............................................................................................... 45 

Figure 44. Turnover of plug-in hybrid vehicles (PHEVs) in France and Germany ........................................ 46 

Figure 45. Turnover of battery electric vehicles (BEVs) .............................................................................................. 46 

Figure 46. Newly registered passenger cars by private users ................................................................................ 47 

Figure 47. Share of the electrified vehicle (EFV) stock owned by private users in France and Italy 48 

Figure 48. Private users electrified vehicle (EFV) registrations by powertrain in Germany and Italy
 ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 48 

Figure 49. Share of hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) by private users and companies in Italy .............. 49 

Figure 50. Battery electric vehicle market in France .................................................................................................... 50 

Figure 51. Battery electric vehicle market in Germany .............................................................................................. 50 

Figure 52. Battery electric vehicle market in Italy ......................................................................................................... 51 

Figure 53. Share of end-of-life over passenger car stock by Member State in the EU-27 ................... 59 

Figure 54. Volume of end-of-life passenger cars by Member State in the EU-27 ..................................... 60 

Figure 55. Volume of end-of-life passenger cars by Member State in the EU-27 ..................................... 60 

Figure 56. Used passenger car trade trend by Member State in the EU-27 .................................................. 65 

Figure 57. Used light-commercial vehicle trade trend by Member State in the EU-27. Floating scale
 ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 66 

57 

 
List of tables 

Table 1. Example of CN coding system ................................................................................................................................ 11 

Table 2. Eurostat HS heading codes used in the current study .............................................................................. 12 

Table 3. Sample of the Eurostat database columns ..................................................................................................... 12 

Table 4. Traded imports and exports by volume and value in 2022 ................................................................... 22 

Table 5. CN codes for passenger cars ................................................................................................................................... 61 

Table 6. CN codes for light-commercial vehicles............................................................................................................ 62 

Table 7. Country groups from the Ecologic Institute report...................................................................................... 63 

Table 8. Intra- and extra-EU transactions of used vehicles by Member State .............................................. 64 

58 

 
 
Annex A 

A.1 End-of-life vehicle trends by Member State in the EU-27 

Figure 53. Share of end-of-life over passenger car stock by Member State in the EU-27 

Source: Eurostat (2024), JRC analysis 

59 

 
 
Figure 54. Volume of end-of-life passenger cars by Member State in the EU-27 

Source: Eurostat (2023), JRC analysis 

Figure 55. Volume of end-of-life passenger cars by Member State in the EU-27 

Source: Eurostat (2023), JRC analysis. Floating scale 

60 

 
 
 
A.1 Combined Nomenclature codes 

CN codes used to obtain vehicle codes from the Eurostat database. 

Table 5. CN codes for passenger cars 

CN code 

Dashes  Description 

8703 

8703 21 
8703 21 10 
8703 21 90 
8703 22 
8703 22 10 
8703 22 90 
8703 23 

8703 23 11 
8703 23 19 
8703 23 90 
8703 24 
8703 24 10 
8703 24 90 

8703 31 
8703 31 10 
8703 31 90 
8703 32 

8703 32 11 
8703 32 19 
8703 32 90 
8703 33 

8703 33 11 
8703 33 19 
8703 33 90 
8703 40 

- 
-- 
--- 
--- 
-- 
--- 
--- 
-- 
--- 
---- 
---- 
--- 
-- 
--- 
--- 
- 

-- 
--- 
--- 
-- 
--- 
---- 
---- 
--- 
-- 
--- 
---- 
---- 
--- 
- 

8703 40 10 
8703 40 90 

-- 
-- 

Motor cars and other motor vehicles principally designed for the transport 
of persons (other than those of heading 8702), including station wagons 
and racing cars 
Other vehicles, with only spark-ignition internal combustion piston engine 
Of a cylinder capacity not exceeding 1000 cm³ 
New 
Used 
Of a cylinder capacity exceeding 1000 cm³ but not exceeding 1500 cm³ 
New 
Used 
Of a cylinder capacity exceeding 1500 cm³ but not exceeding 3000 cm³ 
New 
Motor caravans 
Other 
Used 
Of a cylinder capacity exceeding 3000 cm³ 
New 
Used 
Other vehicles, with only compression-ignition internal combustion piston 
engine (diesel or semi-diesel) 
Of a cylinder capacity not exceeding 1500 cm³ 
New 
Used 
Of a cylinder capacity exceeding 1500 cm³ but not exceeding 2500 cm³ 
New 
Motor caravans 
Other 
Used 
Of a cylinder capacity exceeding 2500 cm³ 
New 
Motor caravans 
Other 
Used 
Other vehicles, with both spark-ignition internal combustion piston engine 
and electric motor as motors for propulsion, other than those capable of 
being charged by plugging to external source of electric power 
New 
Used 

61 

 
  
 
  
  
  
  
CN code 

Dashes  Description 

8703 50 00 

- 

8703 60 

- 

8703 60 10 
8703 60 90 
8703 70 00 

8703 80 
8703 80 10 
8703 80 90 
8703 90 00 

-- 
-- 
- 

- 
-- 
-- 
- 

Other vehicles, with both compression-ignition internal combustion piston 
engine (diesel or semi-diesel) and electric motor as motors for propulsion, 
other than those capable of being charged by plugging to external source 
of electric power 
Other vehicles, with both spark-ignition internal combustion piston engine 
and electric motor as motors for propulsion, capable of being charged by 
plugging to external source of electric power 
New 
Used 
Other vehicles, with both compression-ignition internal combustion piston 
engine (diesel or semi-diesel) and electric motor as motors for propulsion, 
capable of being charged by plugging to external source of electric power 
Other vehicles, with only electric motor for propulsion 
New 
Used 
Other 

Table 6. CN codes for light-commercial vehicles 

CN code 

Dashes  Description 

8704 
8704 21 
8704 21 10 

-- 
--- 

--- 
---- 
----- 
----- 
---- 
----- 
----- 
-- 
--- 

--- 
---- 
----- 
----- 
---- 
----- 
----- 

8704 21 31 
8704 21 39 

8704 21 91 
8704 21 99 
8704 41 
8704 41 10 

8704 41 31 
8704 41 39 

8704 41 91 
8704 41 99 

Motor vehicles for the transport of goods 
Of a gross vehicle weight not exceeding 5 tonnes 
Specially  designed  for  the  transport  of  highly  radioactive  materials 
(Euratom) 
Other 
With engines of a cylinder capacity exceeding 2500 cm³ 
New 
Used 
With engines of a cylinder capacity not exceeding 2500 cm³ 
New 
Used 
Of a gross vehicle weight not exceeding 5 tonnes 
Specially  designed  for  the  transport  of  highly  radioactive  materials 
(Euratom) 
Other 
With engines of a cylinder capacity exceeding 2500 cm³ 
New 
Used 
With engines of a cylinder capacity not exceeding 2500 cm³ 
New 
Used 

62 

 
 
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
A.2 Country groups 

Group 

Central 

South 

Table 7. Country groups from the Ecologic Institute report 

Country 

Austria, Switzerland, Germany, Liechtenstein, Luxemburg, Slovenia 

Spain, Croatia, Italy, Malta, Portugal 

Central-East 

Czechia, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Slovakia 

South-East 

North 

West 

Albania,  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina,  Bulgaria,  Cyprus,  Greece, 
Montenegro,  North  Macedonia,  Romania,  Serbia,  Turkey,  Kosovo 
(under UN Security Council Resolutions 1244/99) 

Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway 

Belgium, France, Ireland, Netherlands, United Kingdom 

Source: Velten, Brauer, and Thie (2020) 

63 

 
 
 
 
A.3 Intra- and extra-EU used vehicle transactions 

Intra- and extra-EU exports by reporting Member State in vehicle volume. Data from Eurostat (2023) 
for  passenger  cars  with  CN  heading  8703  and  ending  in  90  indicates  “used”  vehicles.  For  light-
commercial vehicles, the respective CN heading starts with 870441 or 870421 and ends with 99 and 
39, indicating “used” vehicles. Regarding medium and heavy-duty vehicles, the CN heading starts with 
8704  and  excludes  870441  or  870421  that  belong  to  LCVs,  while  the  ending  in  99  and  39 also 
indicates “used” vehicles. The data is for the EU-27 in the year 2022, shown in Table 8. 

Table 8. Intra- and extra-EU transactions of used vehicles by Member State 

Passenger cars 

Light-commercial vehicles 

Reporter 

Intra EU 

Extra EU 

Intra EU 

Extra EU 

DE 

FR 

BE 

DK 

NL 

ES 

IT 

SE 

AT 

PL 

LU 

CZ 

SK 

LT 

SI 

HU 

RO 

GR 

FI 

HR 

LV 

BG 

EE 

PT 

CY 

IE 

MT 

13006 

1381 

22460 

972 

3985 

444 

1017 

157 

248 

7583 

8 

323 

586 

7094 

27692 

754 

158 

17 

77 

289 

56 

3318 

49 

209 

49 

42 

5 

336040 

334115 

160630 

110571 

105881 

78272 

55832 

34143 

31368 

23189 

21864 

21378 

20472 

12398 

10123 

6145 

5032 

4695 

3944 

2834 

2363 

1973 

1817 

868 

0 

0 

0 

200349 

36163 

212980 

4659 

47321 

38425 

11905 

6642 

2499 

173642 

65 

6980 

222262 

65171 

185529 

11296 

939 

219 

1403 

10175 

648 

14796 

1098 

1042 

176 

1820 

83 

8630 

38662 

90163 

23324 

14225 

430 

1031 

380 

2825 

1497 

446 

956 

4485 

1042 

599 

117 

376 

13 

467 

323 

13 

94 

72 

43 

0 

0 

0 

Source: Eurostat (2023), JRC analysis 

64 

 
 
A.4 Used vehicle trade trends by Member State in the EU-27 

Figure 56 and Figure 57 present the evolution of the used passenger car and light-commercial vehicle 
trade by MS. By disaggregating the data, it is possible to observe reporting irregularities that appear 
in the form of spikes. Due to the uncertain origin of these spikes, the respective MS were excluded 
from specific analyses in the main text as they would skew overall results. It is to be noted that the 
scale of the y-axis in these figures differs across MS. 

Figure 56. Used passenger car trade trend by Member State in the EU-27 

Source: Eurostat (2023), JRC analysis. Floating scale. The Export and Import lines refer to extra-EU flows (to and from) 

65 

 
 
Figure 57. Used light-commercial vehicle trade trend by Member State in the EU-27. Floating scale 

Source: Eurostat (2023), JRC analysis. The Export and Import lines refer to extra-EU flows (to and from) 

66 

 
 
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