The net-zero manufacturing industry landscape across the Member States : executive summary.
Date: 2025-01-13
Institutions: Directorate-General for Energy
Subjects: EU Member State, EU industrial policy, EU study report, carbon neutrality, clean technology, industrial development, industrial manufacturing, modernisation of industry, sustainable development

The Net-Zero manufacturing industry 
landscape across the Member States 

Executive Summary 

Directorate-General for Energy 

Rotterdam and Brussels, 05 December 2024 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
The Net-Zero manufacturing 
industry landscape across 
the Member States 

Executive Summary 

DG ENER Unit TF2 - Relations with the Member States and the Energy 
Community 

Rotterdam and Brussels, 05 December 2024 

The information and views set out in this report are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect 
the official opinion of the Commission. The Commission does not guarantee the accuracy of the data 
included in this study. Neither the Commission nor any person acting on the Commission’s behalf may 
be held responsible for the use which may be made of the information contained therein.   

In consortium with:   

Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2025 

© European Union, 2025 

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the reuse of this document is authorised under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) 
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            MJ-01-25-010-EN-N                            ISBN  978-92-68-23684-0   

DOI 10.2833/2181110 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Executive Summary 

The  study  provides  an  overview  of  the  state  of  play  and  recent  developments  in  selected  Net-Zero 
technology1 manufacturing industries in the EU Member States. Besides manufacturing, industry and trade 
data, the study summarises the regulatory framework and supporting policies in the Member States, gives 
an  assessment  of  opportunities  and  bottlenecks  for  Net-Zero  manufacturing,  and  provides  cross-cutting 
policy recommendations. 

The EU manufacturing landscape 

The visual below provides an overview of the cumulative manufacturing capacity of the main components of 
five of the selected Net-Zero technologies. 

The assessment of the EU’s position in the manufacturing of Net-Zero technologies revealed the following: 

1  

Solar photovoltaic and solar thermal, Onshore wind and offshore renewables, Batteries and storage technologies, Heat Pumps and 
geothermal energy technologies, Sustainable biogas/biomethane technologies, Carbon Capture and Storage technologies, Grid 
technologies. 

Error! Reference source not found. 

3 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Solar photovoltaic and solar thermal technologies 
The  EU  has  a  decreasing  share  of  global  solar  PV  manufacturing,  with  limited  production  of 
modules and almost no domestic manufacturing of essential components like  polysilicon, ingots, 
wafers, and cells. Germany  is the leading country in the EU in solar PV production, followed by 
Italy,  France,  Austria,  and  Spain.  Germany  accounts  for  between  48%  and  50%  of  the  EU’s 
cumulative  manufacturing  capacity  of  PV  components.  The  EU  faces  intense  competition  from 
China, which dominates global PV manufacturing due to economies of scale, lower material and 
energy  costs,  and  greater  government  subsidies.  According  to  a  recent  IEA  estimate, 
manufacturing costs are 35-65% lower in China than they are in the EU2. While the EU aims to 
double its production capacity by 2030, reliance on Chinese imports remains a significant issue 
due to the lack of a full supply chain within the EU. In contrast, the industrial production of solar 
thermal components remains relatively robust in the EU, with Germany leading in manufacturing 
solar  thermal  water  heaters  and  significant  industrial  production  occurring  in  Italy,  France,  and 
Poland, among other EU Member States.  

Assessment:  The  EU’s  solar  manufacturing  is  at  a  critical  juncture,  while  deployment  has  been 
fuelled by incentives, the EU’s support for domestic manufacturing has lagged and many EU solar 
PV  manufacturers  have  gone  out  of  business  or  relocated.  Lower-cost  Chinese  over-capacities 
entering the EU market, a reliance on imported critical raw materials, often sourced from China, 
and price disparities caused by higher production costs put EU manufacturers in a difficult position. 

Key 
challenges:  

Onshore wind and offshore renewable technologies 
The EU remains a leader in wind turbine production, meeting 85% of its domestic demand through 
domestic production and acting as a net exporter. However, its global market share has significantly 
declined in recent years, mostly due to competition from China. Major wind turbine manufacturers 
are  concentrated  in  Germany  and  Denmark,  with  Spain  also  contributing,  especially  in  tower 
manufacturing. France, Portugal, Italy, and Poland also play a key role in the EU value chain, albeit 
to  a  lesser  extent.  All  four  host  manufacturing  plants  producing  both  towers  (and  other  steel 
components)  and  blades  as  well  as  nacelles  in  France.  In  terms  of  manufacturing  capacity  for 
nacelles—a  key  turbine  component—Germany  is  the  largest  producer,  accounting  for  between 
45% and 54% of the EU’s nacelle manufacturing capacity. Denmark and Spain follow, accounting 
for approximately 20%; and between 16 and 20% of EU capacity in this segment. The EU's modest 
growth in wind energy manufacturing (projected at 10% for the period leading up to 2030) contrasts 
sharply with China’s rapid expansion, which threatens the EU’s competitive advantage. China now 
dominates global manufacturing for key wind turbine components, making it difficult for the EU to 
maintain its market position. 

Assessment:  While  maintaining  a  leading  position  in  its  internal  market,  the  EU’s  position  is 
weakening in onshore wind and offshore renewable technologies. The EU risks losing its leadership 
due to strong competition in the international market, where China has been gaining market shares 
and  is  leading  in  capacity  installation  worldwide  with  cheaper but  also  high-quality  turbines.  EU 
manufacturers struggle in particular with unclear project pipelines due to lengthy permitting, lack of 

2  

This estimate takes into account regional differences in the cost of capital, and energy, and labour. See: IEA (2024), Advancing Clean 
Technology Manufacturing, IEA, Paris https://www.iea.org/reports/advancing-clean-technology-manufacturing, Licence: CC BY 4.0. 

Error! Reference source not found. 

4 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
skilled  workers  and  the  growing  trend  towards  larger  turbines,  which  requires  upgrading 
manufacturing facilities. 

Key 
challenges:  

Batteries and storage technologies 
The European battery market is expanding rapidly. The EU currently holds a small share in global 
battery manufacturing (5% in 2023, according to IEA estimates). However, ongoing investments 
are  expected  to  increase  the  EU’s  capacity  to  close  to  15%  by  2030.3  Poland,  Germany,  and 
Hungary  dominate  the  EU's  battery  manufacturing,  with  large-scale  production  present  also  in 
France and Sweden. Poland hosts facilities that account for over 37% of EU battery manufacturing 
capacity, whereas Germany accounts for approximately 18% of EU capacity.  Strong competition 
from Chinese producers remains a significant hurdle.  The undersupply of essential components 
and materials further complicates the EU's path toward self-reliance in battery production. Should 
it continue, the recent slowdown in electric vehicle sales on the continent may negatively affect the 
outlook for EU battery manufacturing.  

Assessment: Although the momentum and rapid expansion offer the potential for reducing current 
dependencies on external sources for both finished battery products and components, significant 
challenges  remain.  These  include  a  strong  dependency  on  critical  raw  material  imports, 
uncertainties  due  to  alternative  emerging  battery  chemistries,  strong  price  competition  mainly 
driven  by  volatile  material  prices  and  lengthy  permitting  delaying  the  rollout  of  manufacturing, 
processing and mining operations. Beyond these challenges, there is also an increased uncertainty 
about the pipeline of expansion projects following Northvolt’s recently announced bankruptcy. 

Key 
challenges: 

Heat pumps and geothermal energy technologies 
The EU produces and assembles a significant portion of the heat pumps required to meet domestic 
demand (60-70%). Germany, Sweden, and Denmark are key manufacturing hubs, supported by 
robust domestic markets. Germany and Sweden account, respectively, for 22 and 23% of the EU’s 
industrial production of heat pumps. The sector faces challenges related to reduced demand and 
slower  deployment,  driven  by  economic  factors  such  as  rising  interest  rates,  inflation,  high 
electricity  prices  compared  to  gas  prices,  and  installation  bottlenecks.  While  scaling  up 
manufacturing capacity is not a major obstacle, the EU's role as an assembler highlights its reliance 
on imported components, which must be addressed to increase the resilience of supply chains. In 
the geothermal sector, Italy is a frontrunner in both deployment and industrial production, followed 
by Germany and France.  

Assessment: The EU’s heat pump industry has strong manufacturing capacities and is in an overall 
good position. While a reliance on imported components remains an issue, the main challenge for 

3  

The IEA’s estimates are available: IEA (2024), Advancing Clean Technology Manufacturing, IEA, Paris 
https://www.iea.org/reports/advancing-clean-technology-manufacturing, License: CC BY 4.0 

Error! Reference source not found. 

5 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  
 
 
 
 
 
the industry has been a recent slowdown in demand increasing investment uncertainties as well 
as a lack of skilled workers in manufacturing and installation.  

Key 
challenges: 

Electrolysers and fuel cells 
The EU is set for significant growth of its electrolyser manufacturing base, with capacity expected 
to double by 2030, driven by strong investment in hydrogen technologies. More than half of the 
current EU electrolyser manufacturing is concentrated in Germany, which accounts for over 60% 
of  the  EU’s  capacity in  this Net-Zero technology,  with  additional capacity  in  Denmark,  Portugal, 
Italy, Spain, and to a smaller extent Belgium and France. Although the EU holds a technological 
advantage in electrolyser production, specifically for PEM and Solid Oxide electrolysers, fewer than 
10% of the planned projects for 2030 have reached a final investment decision. This uncertainty in 
future manufacturing capacity deployment could be significantly influenced by the strength of each 
country's supportive policy framework. 

Assessment:  The  EU  is  well-placed  in  the  field  of  electrolysers,  with  EU  companies  leading  in 
manufacturing and innovation. However, investments are slow to materialise as they depend on 
the rollout of the hydrogen economy and there is strong international competition and interest in 
this field driven by financial support specifically in China and the USA. The high reliance on critical 
raw materials raises the need to improve designs to reduce material use and support recycling and 
recovery. 

Key 
challenges:  

Sustainable biogas/biomethane technologies 

The  EU  plays  a  leading  role  in  the  global  biogas  and  biomethane  production  landscape,  with 
significant capabilities in manufacturing biogas production equipment such as anaerobic digesters 
and  biogas  upgrading  systems.  Germany  and  Italy  are  key  hubs  for  biogas  technology 
manufacturing  with  industrial  production  values  of  approximately  EUR  5.8  billion  and  EUR  2.5 
billion, respectively.  Czechia, Poland, and Spain also contribute significantly to the production of 
industrial components, however, data on this sector remains limited.  

Assessment:  The  EU  has  a  solid  manufacturing  base  for  biogas  production  equipment.  The 
evidence collected and input gathered from stakeholders suggest that challenges for biogas lie on 
the deployment side due to lengthy permitting processes and a lack of availability of feedstock next 
to a lack of standardisation, rather than the supply and manufacturing of the equipment.  

Key 
challenges:  

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6 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  
 
 
  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  
 
 
 
Carbon Capture and Storage technologies 
The Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) value chain in the EU is still in development, with large-
scale industrial production facilities yet to be fully established. Future major production sites are 
expected to emerge near existing oil and gas industries, particularly in Member States with robust 
industrial bases, such as Germany and the Netherlands, which host CO2 storage sites. While the 
EU leads in global investment in carbon capture technologies, it faces challenges in scaling and 
deploying these technologies. 

Assessment:  Relatively  few  CCS  facilities  have  been  built  and  operationalised  and  the  main 
challenge  for  scaling  up  the  manufacturing  of  CCS  (and  CCUS)  components  lies  in  the  more 
widespread uptake of CCS technology. Barriers include low investments, high technology costs, 
shortage of workers and lack of public acceptance. The EU Emissions Trading System constitutes 
an opportunity as the cap and emission prices incentivise companies to invest and deploy CCS 
technology to reduce their emissions, which will enable scaling up. 

Key 
challenges: 

Grid technologies 
The EU holds technological and manufacturing global leadership in grid infrastructure, particularly 
in  the  production  of  high-voltage  AC and  DC (HVAC/HVDC)  cables.  Italy  leads  the EU in  cable 
production, followed by Sweden and Germany, with significant contributions from France, Poland, 
and Denmark. The top EU producers we identified are Prysmian Group (Italy), Nexans (France), 
and NKT (Denmark). Prysmian and Nexans’ sales amounted to EUR 15 and 7 billion respectively 
in 2023.  Global grid modernisation efforts are driving demand and are well-supported by the EU’s 
robust industrial ecosystem. However, the EU also faces challenges due to its reliance on imported 
raw  materials  such  as  copper  and  aluminium  for  cable  manufacturing  as  well  as  a  reliance  on 
imported power semiconductors, along with price competition from emerging producers including 
from China.  

Assessment: While in a leading position, particularly for cable manufacturing, long lead times for 
projects  due  to  permitting  issues,  a  lack  of  skilled  workers,  bottlenecks  in  the  supply  for  some 
components  (e.g.  transformers),  and  reliance  on  material  imports  (e.g.  aluminium  and  copper) 
create uncertainties for manufacturers and pose constraints on their ability to expand. 

Key 
challenges:  

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7 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
The policy landscape in the Member States 

The study identifies policies and incentive instruments that aim to increase the manufacturing capacity of 
Net-Zero technologies in 22 of the 27 EU Member States.4 In addition to EU policies, Member States have a 
number of tools to enhance Net-Zero technology production capacity. These include regulatory instruments, 
economic  incentives,  and skill  policies,  as  well  as  simplified  and  digitalised  administrative  and  permitting 
procedures.  Jointly,  these  tools  can  provide  an  enabling  framework  that  steers  investments,  ensures  the 
availability of necessary skills, and establishes the appropriate regulatory environment to support increased 
manufacturing  capacities.  The  research  found  relevant  policies  or legislative  frameworks  that  support  the 
production capacity of Net-Zero technologies in 18 Member States.  Specific economic incentive schemes 
are present  in  19  Member States,  while  15  Member States  have  targeted  skills  and education  programs. 
Country  research  yielded  no  specific  measures  regarding  Net-Zero  technologies  in  four  Member  States, 
whereas a combination of several tools was found in 12 Member States. 

Despite  several  measures  and  progress,  there  are  relatively  few  dedicated  policy  measures  that  directly 
address the manufacturing capacity for Net-Zero technologies. Relevant policies in support of manufacturing 
capacity have been identified in more than half of the EU Member States.5 Of the 44 policies identified, 25 
address one or several Net-Zero technologies. This includes 21 sector-specific policies, and 4 recent policies 
solely dedicated to Net-Zero technologies. The remaining  19 policies feature a broader scope which may 
also capture Net-Zero technologies. Among the technologies addressed in this study, the majority of identified 
policies  focus  on  electrolysers  and  fuel  cells  (15  Member  States),  followed  by  batteries  and  storage 
technologies (13 Member States), wind (12 Member States), and photovoltaics (11 Member States). Often, 
these technologies are included in national strategies dedicated to green transition, clean energy production, 
climate action plans, or industrial strategies.  

Sectorial  policies  usually  show  a  stronger  focus  on  the  deployment  of  Net-Zero  technologies  but  contain 
elements  related  to  manufacturing  as  well.  In  many  cases,  these  take  the  form  of  objectives  or  broadly 
defined ambitions (for example in Lithuania and France), while clear measures or targets for manufacturing 
can  be  found  less  frequently.6  Especially  sectorial  policies  on  batteries  and  energy  storage  technologies 
contain more specific actions to strengthen the supply side, aiming at enhancing the competitive positioning 
of manufacturers in the respective countries. The strengthening of cooperation across the value chain in the 
form of clusters or networks are measures that can be found across technologies, for example in the offshore 
wind  strategy  of  Ireland7  and  the  Polish  policy8  on  photovoltaics.  Some  strategies  also  foresee  the 
implementation  of  specific  incentive  instruments9  while  other  address  the  need  to  strengthen  the  re-  and 
upskilling of the workforce.10  
Germany,  Spain,  Italy,  and  France  have  implemented  specific  legislation  to  enhance  their  manufacturing 
capacities of Net-Zero technologies. In France, the Green Industry law11 adopted in October 2023 aims to 
reduce the length of permitting procedures for all industrial sectors, including Net-Zero technologies, among 
other  measures.  In  Germany,  the  revised  industrial  policy  aims  to  diversify  the  value  chains  for  Net-Zero 
technologies  and  to  develop  industrial  production  capacities  in  Germany  and  the  EU.12  The  strategy  lists 
incentive  instruments  for  different  Net-Zero  industrial  sectors  and  discusses  qualitative  criteria  for  public 

4  
5  

The research was performed until June/July 2024.  
Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czechia, Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Lithuania, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, 
Poland, Romania, Spain, and Sweden. 

6   One example of this is the Italian National Recovery and Resilience Plan which foresees several measures relevant for the strengthening of 

manufacturing capacities.  
See here.  
See here. 
For example in Hungary and Finland. 
This is included for example in the battery strategy of Hungary, see above.  
Loi Industrie Verte, see here.  
BMWK (2023). Industriepolitik in der Zeitenwende, available here. 

7  
8  
9  
10 
11 
12 

Error! Reference source not found. 

8 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
procurement that support sustainability and industrial resilience. In Spain13 and Italy14, the respective national 
recovery and resilience plans establish the policy framework that provides financial incentives and investment 
support  to  the  manufacturing  of  Net-Zero  technologies.  A  growing  number  of  Member  States15  receive 
approvals  from  the  European  Commission  for  state  aid programmes  under  the  EU  Temporary  Crisis  and 
Transition Framework (TCTF) that aim at enhancing the manufacturing capacity for Net-Zero technologies.   

Industrial permitting is often described as a significant barrier to establishing new production capacity for Net-
Zero  technologies,  a  view  supported  by  industry  representatives  and  stakeholders  involved  in  this  study. 
However,  data  and  information  on  the  duration  and  complexity  of  industrial  permitting  processes  in 
the Member States  -  especially  about  Net-Zero technologies  -  are  scarce.  Establishing  clear timelines  for 
permitting production sites is challenging, as the number and type of required permits vary based on several 
factors, including project complexity, site scale, activity type, and expected environmental impact. Although 
many  countries  have  partially  or  fully  digitalised  their  permitting  processes,  further  efforts  are  required  to 
ensure that digitalisation consistently improves efficiency across all administrative steps.  

The industrial permitting processes in many Member States exceed the time limits introduced by the Net-
Zero Industry Act for strategic Net-Zero technologies (9 to 12 months) and Net-Zero technologies (12 to 18 
months)16.  Based  on  the information  available,  the  duration  of  industrial  permitting  procedures  varies 
considerably in different Member States, ranging from several months to several years across the EU-27. 
Evidence from desk research and interviews suggests that processes are relatively short in some countries 
including  France  and  Finland.  However,  limited  data  availability  makes  it  difficult  to  provide  a  clear 
comparison  of  durations  across  countries.  The  length  of  industrial  permitting  procedures  is  influenced  by 
factors  like,  for  example,  administrative  capacity,  fragmentation  of  processes  or  competencies  among 
authorities, requirements for public consultations and litigation. Several Member States have already initiated 
processes to streamline and simplify industrial permitting processes, including the establishment of one-stop 
shops and the prioritisation of strategic projects which may include the acceleration through the processing 
of requests for different permits parallelly rather than sequentially.17  

Member States use various regulatory instruments to enhance the manufacturing of Net-Zero technologies, 
however, they are primarily focused on the demand side. Multiple Member States plan to implement or have 
already implemented sandboxes in the energy sector. For example, sandboxes in Lithuania and Greece aim 
to enhance sustainable innovations and developments. While not specifically focusing on the manufacturing 
of  Net-Zero  technologies,  the  scope  of  these  sandboxes  is  wide,  potentially  covering  related  activities  as 
well. Additionally, public procurement can drive demand for Net-Zero technologies. However, our research 
indicates that only a few Member States already include specific rules regarding the types of technologies to 
be procured or their origin in procurement calls. For example, France announced plans to include binding 
requirements for the source of origin of technology in procurement procedures. Green public procurement 
rules established in several countries (including e.g. Italy, Austria, and Lithuania) increase demand for Net-
Zero technologies, which can induce increased production to meet demand.  

Almost  three  out  of  four Member States  have  incentive programmes  in  place  to  foster  investments  in  the 
manufacturing  capacity  of  Net-Zero  technologies  with  41  related  measures  identified  across  19  Member 
States.  More  than  half  of  the  identified  schemes  target  multiple  Net-Zero  technologies  at  the  same  time. 
Batteries and storage technologies (17 schemes in 13 Member States) and electrolysers and fuel cells (17 

13 
14 
15 
16 

See here.  
See here.  
12 Member States at the time of writing.  
As the research took place before and shortly after the NZIA came into force, it can be expected that many Member States will make 
additional efforts to accelerate their industrial permitting processes in the near future. 

17   This includes Austria, Bulgaria, Czechia, Finland, France, Germany, Italy, Spain, and Slovakia. 

Error! Reference source not found. 

9 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
schemes in 12 Member States) are supported most frequently. While grants are the most common form of 
support, loans, financial instruments, and tax exemptions are  also used. These measures usually  provide 
financial support to cover (parts of)  the investment costs (CAPEX) for the installation or expansion of the 
production  capacities  of  the  technologies  themselves,  as  well  as  their  components.  Just  over  half  of  the 
identified schemes receive backing from EU programmes or funds, particularly the Recovery and Resilience 
Facility.  There  are  also  multiple  schemes  linked  to  the  TCTF  as  part  of  the  state  aid  scheme  for  the 
implementation of investment projects of strategic importance for the transition to an economy with net-zero 
emissions. At the time of writing this report, state aid schemes approved by the European Commission under 
the TCTF to foster the manufacturing capacities of Net-Zero technologies cover 12 Member States and jointly 
provide  a  maximum  ceiling  of  some  EUR  15.6  billion  through  grants,  loans,  tax  measures  and  financial 
instruments.18  

The country research identified 20 skills and education programmes across 15 Member States relevant to 
supporting the manufacturing capacity of Net-Zero technologies. The shortage of skilled workers in key value 
chain  segments  poses  a  significant  challenge  to  EU  competitiveness,  with  over  a  million  skilled  workers 
needed by 2025 to meet ambitions in the battery, solar PV, and hydrogen industries. While formal education 
is essential for bridging this gap, continuing education and dedicated retraining programmes are crucial to 
achieving  the  EU’s  ambitions.  Among  the  programmes,  eight  have  a  general  scope  applicable  to  all 
technologies, while the remaining 12 focus on specific technologies, with the highest number targeting the 
production of electrolysers, fuel cells, and energy storage technologies. 

18  

In a staff working document (SWD(2023) 68 final) assessing the investment needs and funding availabilities to strengthen the EU’s Net-Zero 
technology manufacturing capacity, the European Commission estimates that a combination of public and private investments at national 
and EU level in the range of EUR 52 billion to EUR 119 billion are needed, see here.  

Error! Reference source not found. 

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