Being black in the EU : experiences of people of African descent.
Date: 2024-11-28
Institutions: European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights
Subjects: EU Member State, anti-discriminatory measure, ethnic discrimination, fundamental rights, racial discrimination, racism, rights of minorities, social integration, social survey, violence, xenophobia

BEING BLACK IN 
THE EU
―
EXPERIENCES OF 
PEOPLE OF AFRICAN 
DESCENT

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FRA

Being Black in the EU
–
Experiences of people of African descent

Vienna, 2023

Manuscript completed in October 2024

Revised edition

© European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights, 2024

Reproduction is authorised provided the source is acknowledged.

For any use or reproduction of photos or other material that is not under the European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights 
copyright, permission must be sought directly from the copyright holders.

Neither the European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights nor any person acting on behalf of the Agency is responsible for the use 
that might be made of the following information.

Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2024

Print 

ISBN 978-92-9489-507-3 

doi:10.2811/2874773 

TK-01-24-005-EN-C

PDF 

ISBN 978-92-9489-506-6 

doi:10.2811/4285140 

TK-01-24-005-EN-N

Photo credits:

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Foreword

Imagine you apply for jobs but never hear back. Imagine you search for a home for your 
family but are never successful. Imagine you experience harassment or violence that leaves 
you deeply traumatised. 

This is the reality for many people in the EU today, just because of the colour of their skin. 
People of African descent are routinely met with unfair treatment and bias when seeking 
jobs or homes. Racial discrimination, harassment and violence continues to haunt their 
daily lives. 

These are not isolated incidents, but recurring experiences across all aspects of life. 

In 2018, FRA reported on the widespread racism across Europe in its report, ‘Being Black 
in the EU’. Five years later, it is a shameful acknowledgement to say that racism remains 
pervasive and relentless. Almost half of people of African descent in the EU face racism 
and discrimination in their daily lives, a rise since 2018.

But much of this remains invisible. Incidents of racial discrimination, racist harassment 
and violence often go unreported, denying victims the support they are legally entitled to 
receive from the institutions meant to protect them.

Without this much needed data, racial discrimination remains invisible. People’s voices go 
unheard. FRA collects data to understand the experiences people face in their daily lives 
to help ensure everybody is treated equally and with dignity.

This report comes at a time when many are calling for swift action to combat the systemic 
racism so deeply ingrained in our societies. As we approach the end of the UN International 
Decade for People of African Descent 2015-2024, these findings prompt reflection on the 
alarming lack of progress despite binding anti-discrimination law in the EU since 2000. 

Yet, amidst this, we should acknowledge a major milestone. As an immediate response to 
the killing of George Floyd and the mass protests it ignited, the EU adopted the first ever 
EU Anti-Racism Action Plan (2020-2025). Addressing racism head on, it serves to tackle 
individual attitudes and behaviours. It is a positive step forward, but its lasting effect will 
depend on its extension and the renewed commitment of the EU and its Member States 
past 2025.

Let us say this yet again: racism has no place in Europe. Being confronted with the true 
scale of racism is both shocking and shameful. These findings should be a wakeup call for 
action on equality and inclusion for people of African descent.

Michael O’Flaherty 
Director

1

Abbreviations
EEA 

European Economic Area

EFTA 

European Free Trade Association

EU-MIDIS II 

Second European Union Minorities and Discrimination Survey

FRA 

ISCED 

NEET 

OECD 

European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights

International Standard Classification of Education

neither in employment nor in education or training

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development

Country codes
Austria
AT 

BE 

DE 

DK 

ES 

FI 

FR 

IE 

IT 

LU 

MT 

PL 

PT 

SE 

UK 

Belgium

Germany

Denmark

Spain

Finland

France

Ireland

Italy

Luxembourg

Malta

Poland

Portugal

Sweden

United Kingdom

2

Contents

Foreword  � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �

 1

Why this report?  � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �

 7

 11
Survey in a nutshell  � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 

 14
Key findings and FRA opinions  � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �

1. 

DISCRIMINATION AND AWARENESS OF RIGHTS  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   24

KEY FINDINGS  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   24

1.1. 

EXPERIENCES OF DISCRIMINATION  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  26

1.2.  REPORTING DISCRIMINATION   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  46

1.3.  AWARENESS OF SUPPORT ORGANISATIONS, EQUALITY BODIES AND ANTI-

DISCRIMINATION LAWS   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   50

1.4.   RACIAL DISCRIMINATION AND TRUST IN PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

2. 

HATE CRIME: HARASSMENT AND VIOLENCE   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   55

KEY FINDINGS  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   55

2.1.  SCALE AND TYPES OF RACIST HARASSMENT  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   57

2.2.  EXPERIENCES OF RACIST VIOLENCE  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   65

3. 

POLICE STOPS   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

KEY FINDINGS  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

3.1. 

ENCOUNTERS WITH LAW ENFORCEMENT  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   73

3.2.  CIRCUMSTANCES AND NATURE OF THE MOST RECENT POLICE STOP  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   75

3.3.  TREATMENT BY THE POLICE DURING STOPS   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   76

4. 

SOCIOECONOMIC SITUATION AND LIVING CONDITIONS  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

KEY FINDINGS  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

4.1.  EDUCATION   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  82

4.2.  ACCESS TO EMPLOYMENT AND QUALITY OF WORK  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  84

4.3.  ACCESS TO AFFORDABLE HOUSING AND POVERTY  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  90

4.4.  HEALTH  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   97

 105
Annexes   � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �

ANNEX I:  METHODOLOGY OF THE EU SURVEY ON IMMIGRANTS AND DESCENDANTS 

OF IMMIGRANTS  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   105

ANNEX II:  RESPONDENTS OF AFRICAN DESCENT IN THE EU SURVEY ON IMMIGRANTS 

AND DESCENDANTS OF IMMIGRANTS   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   108

ANNEX III: TERMINOLOGY  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

ANNEX IV: SURVEY RESPONDENTS’ AWARENESS OF EQUALITY BODIES  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  117

Bibliography  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  119

3

FIGURES AND TABLES

Figure 1:  Overall prevalence of discrimination on any ground in the 12 months and the 5 years before the survey, 

by country (%)  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

Figure 2:  Overall prevalence of discrimination on any ground in the 12 months before the survey for respondents of 

African descent and the general population, by country (%)  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Figure 3:  Prevalence of discrimination on any ground in the 12 months before the survey, by selected 

sociodemographic characteristics (%)  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  31
Figure 4:  Grounds of discrimination experienced in the 12 months and the 5 years before the survey (%)  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  32
Figure 5:  Grounds of discrimination experienced in the 5 years before the survey, by country (%)  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  33
Figure 6:  Number of grounds of discrimination experienced in the 12 months before the survey (%)  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Figure 7:  Frequency of discrimination in the 12 months before the survey (%)  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  35
Figure 8:  Prevalence of racial discrimination in the 12 months before the survey, by country and survey year (%)  . . . . . . . . . . 36
Figure 9:  Prevalence of racial discrimination in the 5 years before the survey, by country and survey year (%)   . . . . . . . . . . . .  37
Figure 10:  Prevalence of racial discrimination in the 12 months before the survey, by selected sociodemographic 

characteristics (%)  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Figure 11:  Prevalence of racial discrimination in key areas of life in the 12 months and the 5 years before the survey (%)  . . . . 39
Figure 12:  Number of areas in which respondents felt racially discriminated against in the 12 months and the 5 years 

before the survey (%)  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   40
Figure 13:  Prevalence of racial discrimination in different areas of life in the 5 years before the survey, by country (%)   . . . . . . 42
Figure 14:  Respondents’ experiences of specific discriminatory practices when looking for housing in the 5 years before 

the survey, by survey year (%)   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

Figure 15:  Prevalence of perceived racial discrimination when in contact with school authorities (as a parent/guardian or 

as a student) in the 12 months before the survey, by selected sociodemographic characteristics (%)  . . . . . . . . . . . .   44
Figure 16:  Racist harassment experienced by respondents’ children at school in the 12 months before the survey (%)  . . . . . . . 45
Figure 17:  Reporting any incident of discrimination in the 12 months before the survey (%)   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Figure 18:  Reporting of incidents of discrimination in the 12 months before the survey (%)  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   48
Figure 19:  Reasons for not reporting incidents of discrimination in the 12 months preceding the survey (%)  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Figure 20:  Awareness of at least one equality body, by country and survey year (2016 and 2022) (%)  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  51
Figure 21:  Trust in institutions (average value on a scale of 0 to 10)  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  52
Figure 22:  Respondents’ experiences of racial discrimination in the 5 years before the survey and average level of trust 

in the police (average values on a scale of 0 to 10), by country  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  53
Figure 23:  Prevalence of racist harassment in the 12 months and the 5 years before the survey, by country (%)   . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Figure 24:  Prevalence of racist harassment in the 5 years before the survey, by country and survey year (2016 and 2022) (%)   59
Figure 25:  Prevalence of racist harassment in the 12 months before the survey, by selected sociodemographic 

characteristics (%)  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  61

Figure 26:  Prevalence of racist harassment against women and men in the 12 months before the survey, by age, wearing 

of traditional or religious clothing, immigrant generation and education (%)    . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

Figure 27:  Reasons for not reporting the most recent incident of racist harassment to authorities or services in the 

5 years before the survey, by gender (%)  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Figure 28:  Prevalence of racist violence experienced in the 5 years before the survey, by country (%)  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   66
Figure 29:  Consequences of the most recent incident of racist violence, by gender (%)   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   68
Figure 30:  Respondents worrying sometimes, often or all the time about becoming a victim of verbal insults or offensive 

comments, inappropriate staring or offensive gestures, and physical attacks because of their ethnic or 
immigrant background, by country (%)  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   69
Figure 31:  Prevalence of police stops in the 5 years before the survey, by country and gender (%)   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Figure 32:  Prevalence of police stops in the 12 months before the survey for respondents of African descent and the 

general population, by country (%)  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  75
Figure 33:  Treatment by the police during the most recent police stop in the 5 years before the survey, by country (%)  . . . . . . 77
Figure 34:  Most recent police stop perceived to be due to discriminatory ethnic profiling among those stopped in the 

5 years before the survey, by country and survey year (2016 and 2022) (%)  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

Figure 35:  Levels of trust in the police, by country and experiences with police stops in the 5 years before the survey 

(average values on a scale of 0 to 10)  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

Figure 36:  Highest completed level of education among respondents aged 16 to 64 years, compared with the general 

population, by country (%)  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

Figure 37:  Paid work rate among respondents of African descent aged 20 to 64 years who were engaged in any paid 

work in the 4 weeks before the survey (including self-employment and occasional work or work in the 4 
weeks before the survey), compared with the employment rate in the general population, by country (%)  . . . . . .   86

Figure 38:  Respondents of African descent aged 16 to 24 years who are neither in work nor in education or training, 

compared with the general population, by country (%)  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

Figure 39:  Share of respondents of African descent in elementary occupations, compared with the general population, 

by gender and country (%)  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   88

Figure 40:  EU overqualification rate for respondents of African descent, compared with the general population, by 

citizenship (%)a  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

Figure 41:  Share of respondents of African descent employed and with temporary contracts, compared with the general 

population, by country (%)  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   90

Figure 42:  Respondents of African descent who live in accommodation they own, compared with the general 

population, by country (%)  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  91

4

Figure 43:  Proportion of people of African descent living in overcrowded housing compared with the general population, 

by country (%)  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

Figure 44:  Respondents of African descent who live in accommodation with a leaking roof, mould or damp walls/floors/

foundations, or rot in window frames or floors, compared with the general population, by country (%)   . . . . . . . . . . 94

Figure 45:  Respondents’ households making ends meet with (great) difficulty, compared with the general population, by 

country (%)  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

Figure 46:  Respondents of African descent who cannot afford to keep their home warm, compared with the general 

population, by country (%)  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   96

Figure 47:  Respondents of African descent who were in arrears in utility bills in the 12 months before the survey, 

compared with the general population, by country (%)  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

Figure 48:  Subjective assessment of own health condition as ‘very good’ or ‘good’ among respondents of African 

descent aged 16 to 64 years, compared with the general population, by country (%)  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   99

Figure 49:  Self-reported long-standing illness or health problem among respondents of African descent aged 16 to 

64 years, compared with the general population, by country (%)  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

Figure 50:  Self-perceived long-standing limitations in usual activities due to health problems among respondents of 

African descent aged 16 to 64 years, compared with the general population, by country (%)  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  101

Figure 51:  Self-reported unmet needs for medical examination and care among respondents of African descent, 

compared with the general population, by country (%)  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  102
Table 1: 
Overview of selected sample characteristics, by EU Member Statea  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   111
Table 2:  Most common countries of origin of foreign-born immigrants of African descent, by EU Member Statea  . . . . . . . . .   111
Respondents’ awareness of equality bodies in their countries (%)  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  117
Table 3: 

5

Why this report?

This report presents the latest comparative evidence about experiences of 
people of African descent in 13 EU Member States. A year away from the 
end of the International Decade for People of African Descent (2015–2024), it 
shows that they continue to face racism, discrimination and hate crime despite 
the EU having binding anti-discrimination law since 2000 and significant EU 
policy developments having occurred since then.

EU law prohibits discrimination on the grounds of racial or ethnic origin (1) 
based on provisions of the treaties (2) and the principles of non-discrimination 
and equality, set out in the EU Charter of Fundamental Rights (Articles 20 and 
21). The racial equality directive (3) forbids direct and indirect discrimination 
with regard to social protection, including social security and healthcare; 
social advantages; education; and public access to and supply of goods and 
services, including housing.

The framework decision on racism and xenophobia (Council Framework 
Decision 2008/913/JHA) sets out a common criminal law approach to combating 
racist and xenophobic hate crime and hate speech. The victims’ rights 
directive (4) complements the decision. The directive requires Member States 
to ensure the fair and non-discriminatory treatment of victims of crime, with 
particular attention to victims of crime committed with a bias or discriminatory 
motive.

The racial equality directive does not define the term ‘racial or ethnic origin’. However, in the CHEZ judgment, 
the Court of Justice of the European Union recognised that ‘the concept of ethnicity … has its origin in the idea 
of societal groups marked in particular by common nationality, religious faith, language, cultural and traditional 
origins and backgrounds’ (*). European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights (FRA) data show that a person’s 
skin colour and/or religion can trigger ethnic or racial discrimination (**). For the purpose of this report, racial 
discrimination refers to discrimination occurring on at least one of three grounds: skin colour, ethnic or immigrant 
background, and religion or religious belief.

(*) Judgment of 16 July 2015, CHEZ Razpredelenie Bulgaria, C-83/14, EU:C:2015:480, paragraph 46; see also 
European Commission (2021), Commission communication on the application of Council Directive 2000/43/
EC implementing the principle of equal treatment between persons irrespective of racial or ethnic origin 
(‘the racial equality directive’) and of Council Directive 2000/78/EC establishing a general framework for 
equal treatment in employment and occupation (‘the employment equality directive’), COM(2021) 139 final, 
footnote 141.

(**) European Commission (2021), Commission communication on the application of Council Directive 2000/43/
EC implementing the principle of equal treatment between persons irrespective of racial or ethnic origin (‘the 
racial equality directive’) and of Council Directive 2000/78/EC establishing a general framework for equal 
treatment in employment and occupation (‘the employment equality directive’), COM(2021) 139 final, p. 17.

7

Equality data – any piece of information that can be used to describe and 
analyse the state of equality – demonstrate the nature and extent of racism, 
discrimination  and  inequality,  which  in  turn  supports  evidence-based 
policymaking in the area of equality rights.

Several FRA surveys have compensated for the absence of official equality 
data: they point to persistent high levels of discrimination, bias-motivated 
harassment and crime across the EU. In 2008, FRA implemented the first 
European Union Minorities and Discrimination Survey. This was followed in 
2016 by the second European Union Minorities and Discrimination Survey 
(EU-MIDIS II).

EU-MIDIS II was the basis for the comparative report Being Black in the EU, 
published in 2018. The report confirmed that racism based on the colour of a 
person’s skin remains pervasive throughout the EU. Racial discrimination was 
experienced in all areas of life, with many respondents facing discrimination 
when seeking work and housing. Racist harassment and violence were 
common occurrences, as was discriminatory profiling by the police.

The findings of EU-MIDIS II on labour market participation showed that people 
of African descent were often engaged in low-quality employment that 
did not correspond to their level of education. The rate of undertaking paid 
work among those with a tertiary degree was generally lower than that of 
the general population.

In 2022, FRA conducted its third survey on immigrants and descendants of 
immigrants, collecting comparable data in 15 EU Member States from 16 124 
respondents. A sub-sample of these respondents provided data for this 
second edition of FRA’s Being Black in the EU report. In 13 EU Member States, 
the survey collected data on people of African descent. These provide the 
basis for the analysis in this report.

The 5 years since the first edition of FRA’s Being Black in the EU report were 
marked by the Black Lives Matter movement and global mobilisation to 
address racism and promote racial justice. During this time, the European 
Commission adopted the first EU anti-racism action plan and appointed a 
commissioner for equality and a coordinator on combating racism.

Informing 
EU policies: 
findings  
of EU-MIDIS II

8

The findings of EU-MIDIS II 
contributed to the following 
policies, among others: the EU 
anti-racism action plan 2020–2025; 
the EU strategy on victims’ rights 
2020–2025; the European Parliament 
resolution of 26 March 2019 on 
fundamental rights of people of 
African descent in Europe; the 
EU action plan on integration 
and inclusion 2021–2027; and the 
European Commission’s report on 
the application of the racial equality 
directive (Council Directive 2000/43/
EC) and the employment equality 
directive (Council Directive 2000/78/
EC) (published in 2021).

The EU anti-racism action plan 2020–2025 calls for the more effective 
enforcement of EU law, in particular the racial equality directive. It asks 
Member States to adopt national action plans to combat racism and racial 
discrimination by the end of 2022 and to address individual and structural 
forms of racism. The findings of this report will inform the Commission’s first 
report on the implementation of its action plan and any future assessments 
of the state of equality in the EU.

On 4 March 2022, the Council adopted conclusions on combating racism and 
antisemitism in which it welcomed the publication of FRA’s Being Black in the 
EU report. In its conclusions, it invited Member States to develop a common 
methodology for quantifying and characterising racial and antisemitic incidents 
within the Commission’s high-level groups and in cooperation with FRA.

The European Parliament continues to exhort Member States to combat 
racism (5): its resolution of 6 July 2022, Intersectional discrimination in the 
EU: socio-economic situation of women of African, Middle-Eastern, Latin 
American and Asian descent, calls for the collection of reliable and comparable 
equality data, including data disaggregated by gender, racial and ethnic origin, 
sexual orientation and gender identity.

This report responds to these requests by:

 ― presenting the most recent data on racial discrimination, racist harassment 

and crime victimisation;

 ― looking at developments since 2016, when EU-MIDIS II was conducted; 

 ― considering multiple and intersecting grounds of discrimination.

Member States could also draw on evidence presented in the report to help 
assess their progress on commitments made in national action plans and 
policies against racism and racial discrimination (6) and at the United Nations 
(UN) World Conference against Racism, Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia 
and Related Intolerance in 2001 (7), and under the International Decade for 
People of African Descent (8).

The report analyses the responses of over 6 700 people 
of African descent living in 13 EU Member States: Austria, 
Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Ireland, 
Italy, Luxembourg, Poland, Portugal, Spain and Sweden. 
Respondents were required to have been born in countries of 
sub-Saharan Africa or be descendants of immigrants, that is, 
have at least one parent who was born in countries of sub-
Saharan Africa. 

The report outlines selected findings on respondents’ personal 
experiences of feeling discriminated against on different 
grounds in various areas of everyday life. It also highlights 
their experiences of specific forms of racist harassment or 
racially motivated physical violence. In addition, the report 
considers the reporting of incidents to the competent 
authorities and reasons for non-reporting, people’s awareness 
of their rights and the socioeconomic situations of people of 
African descent.

9

10

Survey in a nutshell

COVERAGE

The EU Survey on Immigrants and Descendants of Immigrants, referred to in 
this report as ‘the 2022 survey’ (9), collected comparable data in 15 EU Member 
States: Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, 
Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Spain and Sweden.

Data were collected from 16 124 respondents who originated from or had at 
least one parent from North Africa, sub-Saharan Africa, Syria and Türkiye. 
One, two or three target groups were surveyed in each survey country. The 
selection of groups to survey in each country was based on multiple criteria, 
which are detailed in Annex I to this report.

This report focuses on one survey group, analysing the responses of 6 752 
immigrants and descendants of immigrants of African descent resident in 
13 Member States: Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, 
Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Poland, Portugal, Spain and Sweden. The main 
eligibility criterion for people of African descent for both this survey and 
EU-MIDIS II, conducted in 2016, was the respondents’ country of birth or 
the country of birth of the respondents’ parents. That is, respondents were 
either born in a sub-Saharan African country (immigrants) or born in the EU 
to at least one parent born in a sub-Saharan African country (descendants 
of immigrants). A list of the countries, departments and overseas territories 
of origin selected for the 2022 survey with respect to immigrants of African 
descent is available in Annex II to this report.

The report therefore focuses on immigrants of African descent from sub-
Saharan Africa and direct descendants of immigrants of African descent from 
sub-Saharan Africa.

SAMPLE

The 2022 survey is representative of immigrants who were born in a sub-
Saharan African country and of descendants of immigrants – people with at 
least one parent born in sub-Saharan Africa – living in the 13 countries surveyed. 
In France, the sample includes respondents from overseas departments and 
overseas territories, and the Caribbean. Respondents were at least 16 years 
old, had resided in the country for at least 12 months and lived in private 
households.

Throughout the report, respondents are referred to as people of African 
descent. In addition, the survey asked respondents if they defined themselves 
as a person of African descent or a Black person (10). This variable is used to 
disaggregate selected findings, along with other background variables (see 
Annex II to this report). 

To enable comparisons with the findings of EU-MIDIS II, analyses presented 
in this report are based on all respondents who either were born in a sub-
Saharan African country or have at least one parent who was born in a 
sub-Saharan African country.

11

LIMITATIONS RELATED TO THE DEFINITION OF THE 
TARGET GROUP

The  main  objective  of  the  survey’s  sampling  strategy  was  to  achieve 
representativeness through random probability sampling. Given the lack of 
official data on racial or ethnic origin in administrative data, demographic 
characteristics such as ‘country of birth’ and ‘country of birth of parents’ 
were used as proxies for sampling. The survey therefore does not claim to 
capture the scale and complexity of the experiences of all people of African 
descent in Europe.

RESPONDENTS’ CHARACTERISTICS

The median age of the respondents is 36 years. 47 % of respondents were 
women, while men make up 53 % of the sample. There were some differences 
in these proportions across countries. Thirteen respondents defined their 
gender in another way and are included in the analysis but excluded from 
the presentation of results by gender. Results are disaggregated by women 
and men only, not by a third category, due to anonymisation reasons.

On average, 46 % of respondents had citizenship of their country of residence 
and 84 % were born outside the survey country. When asked about their 
religion, 54 % identified themselves as Christian and 34 % as Muslim. 8 % of 
respondents indicated that they had no religion. Sociodemographic profiles 
vary considerably across countries of residence and countries of origin (for 
more details, see Annex II).

COMPARISON WITH PREVIOUS SURVEYS

The 2022 survey builds on the first European Union Minorities and Discrimination 
Survey, conducted in 2008, and EU-MIDIS II, conducted in 2016. Nevertheless, 
the following factors affect the direct comparability of results between the 
different surveys: countries and target groups selected for surveying in each 
wave, changes and improvements in the sampling methodology, and changes 
in the mode of data collection. Considering these limitations, results are 
compared with respect to selected indicators only. Comparisons with results 
of general population surveys are included, where relevant data are available.

People of African descent were surveyed in 12 Member States in EU-MIDIS II. 
In 10 Member States – Austria, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Ireland, 
Italy, Luxembourg, Portugal and Sweden – people of African descent were 
surveyed in both EU-MIDIS II and the 2022 survey. This allowed for comparisons 
over time. The recent survey includes Belgium, Poland and Spain, in addition 
to the countries surveyed in EU-MIDIS II. However, the survey does not cover 
Malta and the United Kingdom, which were surveyed in EU-MIDIS II.

Measures implemented to reduce the spread of COVID-19 may have affected 
some responses to the 2022 survey, such as questions about everyday 
activities or accessing services. Significant differences are observed when 
comparing the 2022 survey results with the findings of EU-MIDIS II in the 
countries where the same sampling and data collection approach was applied. 
For example, in Sweden the data for both surveys were collected through 
face-to-face interviews applying location sampling (see Annex I to this report).

Given the possible impact of COVID-19-related measures on how people 
congregate in public spaces or various locations, results for Sweden based 
on the 2022 survey should be interpreted with caution. This is especially 
important when comparing the results of this survey with the findings of 
EU-MIDIS II in 2016.

12

INTERSECTIONAL APPROACH

The report takes an intersectional approach. To do so, it disaggregates relevant 
indicators by age, gender, disability, religion, sexual orientation and gender 
identity, in the light of the complex interactions between multiple social 
identities and recognising the potential for different grounds of discrimination 
to intersect. In addition, the analyses look at the intersection of different 
grounds of discrimination with the socioeconomic situations or living conditions 
of the respondents (11).

13

Key findings and FRA opinions

Drawing on the survey findings, FRA formulated the following opinions 
to help EU and national policymakers combat racial discrimination, racism 
and xenophobia. The opinions presented here complement, reinforce and, 
sometimes, reiterate previous FRA opinions.

Almost half of people of African descent surveyed experience racial 
discrimination, an increase from 39 % in 2016 to 45 % in 2022.

Racial discrimination increased in key areas of life

The racial equality directive enshrines the principle of 
equal treatment. It establishes a framework for combating 
discrimination based on racial or ethnic origin. It prohibits 
direct discrimination, indirect discrimination, harassment 
and instructions to discriminate. The directive covers 
discrimination in the areas of employment, vocational 
training, working conditions, membership of workers’ 
organisations, social protection, education and access 
to goods and services.

Almost 20 years after the implementation of the racial 
equality directive, the European Parliament called on 
Member States to recognise that people of African descent 
are ‘entitled to protection from these inequities both as 
individuals and as a group, including positive measures 
for the promotion and the full and equal enjoyment of 
their rights’. It also called on the Commission to develop 
an EU framework for national strategies for the social 
inclusion and integration of people of African descent.

In 2020, the European Commission gave a new impetus 
to the EU equality agenda with the adoption of the 
EU anti-racism action plan 2020–2025, the EU action 
plan on integration and inclusion 2021–2027 and the 
EU gender equality strategy 2020–2025. In 2022, the 
Commission also proposed two directives on common 
standards for equality bodies. Each of these directives 
emphasises the importance of mainstreaming equality 
in all policy areas, preventing discrimination, improving 
data collection and supporting vulnerable groups and 
victims of discrimination with targeted measures.

FRA OPINION 1

EU Member States should improve 
the  effectiveness  of  regulatory 
i n s t i t u t i o n a l 
m e a s u re s   a n d  
arrangements established to enforce 
anti-discrimination  legislation� 
They  should  adopt  and  enforce 
‘effective,  proportionate  and 
dissuasive’ sanctions applicable to 
infringements of national provisions 
adopted pursuant to the racial equality 
directive�

At  the  operational  level,  Member 
States  should  promote  the  use  of 
practical tools that help implement 
anti-discrimination law provisions, 
such as public sector equality duties 
and equality impact assessments�

In  line  with  Article  5  of  the  racial 
equality  directive,  EU  Member 
States are encouraged to introduce 
measures ‘to prevent or compensate 
for disadvantages linked to racial or 
ethnic origin’ and areas of life listed 
in the directive, including measures 
stimulating the promotion and the full 
and equal enjoyment of the rights of 
people of African descent�

Despite  the  legal  protection  in  place,  respondents 
continue to experience discrimination, this report finds. 
Almost half of respondents of African descent (47 %) 
felt discriminated against on any ground in the 5 years preceding the survey. 
The survey asked about grounds of discrimination including characteristics 
protected in EU law, such as skin colour, age, sex, sexual orientation, gender 
identity, disability, ethnic origin and religion or religious beliefs.

14

While the average 12-month prevalence of discrimination on any ground was 
17 % for the general population in the EU-27 based on a 2019 Eurobarometer 
survey on discrimination in the EU, it was 36 % for people of African descent 
in the 2022 survey. The term ‘prevalence’ refers to the share (expressed as 
a percentage) of survey respondents who experienced discrimination (e.g. 
discrimination based on different grounds, harassment) in a defined period 
(12 months or 5 years preceding the survey).

More than half of respondents who felt discriminated against in at least one 
area of life say that they experienced it on more than one ground. Skin colour 
and ethnic or immigrant background were the two grounds most cited. This 
result is consistent with the findings of the 2018 Being Black in the EU report.

Overall, the 12-month prevalence of racial discrimination – discrimination on 
at least one of the three grounds (skin colour, ethnic or immigrant background 
and religion or religious beliefs) among people of African descent increased by 
10 percentage points from 2016 (34 % in 2022 compared with 24 % in 2016). 
The 5-year prevalence of discrimination across all areas of life increased by 
6 percentage points (45 % in 2022 compared with 39 % in 2016).

The analysis also finds evidence of discrimination on multiple and intersecting 
grounds. For example, the prevalence of discrimination on any ground is high 
among young people, people with a higher level of education, people with 
disabilities and people who wear traditional or religious clothing in public. 
The prevalence is also high among those who self-identify as belonging to 
a minority in terms of disability, gender identity or gender expression and 
sexual orientation and those who describe themselves as a person of African 
descent or a Black person.

On average, the prevalence of discrimination on any ground does not vary 
substantially between women and men. However, there are some variations 
between the experiences of women and men across countries, areas of life 
and grounds of discrimination.

The results show an intersection between the grounds ‘skin colour’ and 
‘ethnic or immigrant background’. A considerable proportion of respondents 
of African descent (63 %) who felt discriminated against because of their 
skin colour in the 5 years preceding the survey also felt discriminated against 
because of their ethnic or immigrant background during this time. Moreover, 
12 % of respondents who felt discriminated against because of their skin 
colour in the 5 years preceding the survey also felt discriminated against 
based on their religion or religious beliefs during this time.

Trust and confidence in public authorities, including the police, are key to 
social inclusion. Like the results of EU-MIDIS II, those of the 2022 survey 
show that experiences of racial discrimination can undermine trust in public 
institutions, including the police, the legal system and local authorities. For 
example, the average level of trust in the police is 1.2 percentage points lower 
for respondents who felt racially discriminated against than for respondents 
who had not experienced racial discrimination.

15

A lack of national data makes it difficult for Member States to 
monitor progress on tackling racial discrimination.

Equality data for monitoring the implementation of 
provisions of anti-racism and anti-discrimination 
law

Equality  data  enable  Member  States  to  assess  the 
application of anti-discrimination legislation and monitor 
their compliance with human rights obligations relating 
to equality and non-discrimination. They also allow 
Member  States  to  track  their  progress  in  achieving 
social and economic policy goals, such as those of the 
European semester and those of the UN’s 2030 agenda 
for sustainable development. In addition, equality-related 
statistics help disaggregate data so Member States can 
better  understand  the  situations  of  vulnerable  and 
marginalised groups.

Nevertheless, there is still a lack of comparable and 
regular data on equality and non-discrimination. This 
limits the effective monitoring of the application of EU 
legal frameworks in this area. FRA has long exemplified 
and promoted the collection and use of equality data that 
(1) can be disaggregated by protected characteristics in 
EU law, including racial or ethnic origin; (2) are based on 
information about respondents’ self-identification; (3) 
are collected on a voluntary basis and in a way that fully 
respects EU and national data protection regulations.

FRA OPINION 2

In line with the EU anti-racism action 
plan, EU Member States are encouraged 
to collect data disaggregated by racial 
or ethnic origin, in order to capture 
experiences  of  discrimination  and 
victimisation  and  intersecting 
forms of discrimination� These data 
should be comprehensive, reliable, 
representative  and  comparable� 
Collecting  these  data  should  be 
mainstreamed into EU and national 
surveys, and to the extent possible in 
administrative data systems�

The  European  Commission  and  EU 
Member  States  are  encouraged 
to  develop  and  implement  a 
monitoring  and  accountability 
mechanism, complementing periodic 
implementation reports, to ensure the 
effective application and enforcement 
of EU anti-discrimination legislation 
and policy� In doing so, they should 
develop  benchmarks,  targets  and 
indicators and build on the work of 
FRA and the EU Subgroup on Equality 
Data�

The  European  Commission 
is 
encouraged  to  renew  the  EU  anti-
racism  action  plan  beyond  2025� 
Member  States  that  have  not  yet 
adopted national anti-racism action 
plans  are  encouraged  to  do  so, 
drawing on the guidelines and tools 
of the EU subgroup on the national 
implementation of the EU anti-racism 
action plan�

16

Discrimination remains invisible: only 9 % of victims report 
incidents, and very few report incidents to an equality body.

Equality bodies promoting equal treatment

The effective implementation of existing legislation 
requires robust national structures and mechanisms. 
Article  13  of  the  racial  equality  directive  requires 
Member States to designate bodies to promote equal 
treatment (equality bodies). These bodies assist victims 
of discrimination, conduct independent surveys, publish 
independent reports and make recommendations on 
matters relating to discrimination. They enable rights 
holders to claim their rights under EU law, and they play 
a vital role in protecting EU citizens from discrimination.

On  7  December  2022,  the  Commission  submitted  a 
proposal for directives on standards for equality bodies 
in the field of equal treatment. They aim to strengthen the 
role and independence of equality bodies, set minimum 
standards for their functioning and extend their mandate 
to matters covered by Council Directive 79/7/EEC and 
Council Directive 2000/78/EC, which do not currently 
confer powers on equality bodies.

Moreover, the directives on standards for equality bodies 
in the field of equal treatment aim to establish equality 
bodies as public entities and to foster the knowledge 
and build the capacities of public and private entities on 
matters related to equal treatment. The goal is to prevent 
the reoccurrence of discrimination. Member States should 
tackle low levels of awareness of equality rights and of 
the services that equality bodies provide.

FRA OPINION 3

Member States should work to raise 
awareness  of  anti-discrimination 
legislation  and  relevant  redress 
mechanisms by all appropriate means, 
including among people of African 
descent, in line with Article 10 of the 
racial equality directive�

Member  States  should  accelerate 
their efforts to adopt the proposal 
for directives on binding standards 
for equality bodies and ensure that 
equality bodies have the necessary 
mandates  and  resources  to  tackle 
discrimination and fulfil their roles 
effectively  and  independently, 
including  in  supporting  victims, 
conducting  surveys,  and  issuing 
reports  and  recommendations  on 
matters related to discrimination and 
equal treatment�

The  European  Commission  and 
EU  Member  States  could  consider 
developing  guiding  principles 
on  encouraging  the  reporting  of 
discrimination to equality bodies�

The  survey  findings  show  that  most  incidents  of 
discrimination are not reported to any organisation or 
body. They therefore remain largely invisible to institutions 
with a legal obligation to help victims. Only 9 % of respondents who felt 
discriminated against in the 12 months preceding the survey reported any 
of the incidents. In total, and as in EU-MIDIS II, very few respondents filed 
a complaint with an equality body (4 %).

Overall, women of African descent tend to report incidents of discrimination 
more often than men (12 % compared with 6 %). Slightly higher rates of 
reporting are seen for older people than for younger people: 3 % of 16- to 
24-year-olds reported experiencing discrimination, while 10 % of 25- to 
44-year-olds, 9 % of 45- to 59-year-olds and 14 % of those aged 60 years 
or over did so.

Respondents with higher levels of education are also more likely to report 
incidents of discrimination than those with lower levels: 6 % of those with 
International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) levels 0–2 reported 
that they experienced discrimination, while 11 % of those with ISCED levels 
3–4 and 8 % of those with ISCED levels 5–8 did so. Furthermore, people who 
identify as a member of a minority in terms of gender identity or gender 
expression are more likely to report experiencing discrimination than those 

17

who do not (15 % compared with 9 %). The same is true of those who 
identify as belonging to a minority in terms of sexual orientation (13 % 
compared with 9 %).

Respondents who identify as Christian are almost twice as likely as Muslim 
respondents to file a complaint regarding or report incidents of discrimination 
(11 % compared with 6 %).

On average, fewer than a third of respondents of African descent (29 %) 
know of any organisation that supports or advises victims of discrimination. 
No progress has been made since EU-MIDIS II was conducted, when the 
average level of awareness among people of African descent was 30 %. 
44 % of respondents of African descent know of at least one equality body, 
with considerable variations between countries. The overall awareness level 
based on EU-MIDIS II was 46 %.

Nevertheless, the evidence supporting a correlation between awareness of 
equality bodies and rates of reporting discrimination is not straightforward. 
It shows that factors other than victims’ level of awareness may influence 
their readiness to seek help from the relevant authorities, such as ‘effective, 
proportionate and dissuasive’ sanctions, as outlined in the racial equality 
directive.

For example, while two thirds of respondents of African descent in Denmark 
(67 %) are aware of an equality body, only 1 in 10 respondents (10 %) who 
had felt discriminated against reported the incident to any authority. Similar 
trends are observed in Austria, France and Poland. By contrast, in Sweden, 
higher levels of awareness of equality bodies (52 %) are related to higher 
rates of reporting (27 %).

18

Racist harassment remains widespread. A third of people of 
African descent experience it. Most victims of racist violence 
suffer from psychological problems and worry about being 
attacked again.

Racist  harassment  and  crime  remain  largely 
unreported

The framework decision on racism and xenophobia 
(Council Framework Decision 2008/913/JHA) establishes 
a common criminal law approach to tackling racist and 
xenophobic  hate  crime  and  hate  speech.  The  2012 
victims’ rights directive sets out minimum standards 
of justice, protection and support for victims of crime. 
The EU strategy on victims’ rights 2020–2025 aims to 
ensure that all victims of crime can fully rely on their 
rights, empowering them to report crime and claim 
compensation.

The full and effective implementation of EU law relies 
on victims reporting racist offences to the police, as 
well as ensuring that the police properly record racist 
motivations at the time offences are reported. The EU 
High Level Group on combating hate speech and hate 
crime has adopted a set of key guiding principles, aimed 
at, for example, improving cooperation between law 
enforcement authorities and civil society organisations, 
encouraging hate crime reporting, and improving hate 
crime recording and data collection.

The survey findings show that a significant proportion of 
people of African descent experience racist harassment 
and racist violence in the 13 countries surveyed. Very 
few respondents report such incidents to any authority 
or body. One third of respondents (30 %) say that they 
experienced one or more incidents of racist harassment 
in the 5 years before the survey; one quarter (24 %) say 
that they did so in the 12 months preceding the survey. 
Yet only 12 % of victims of racist harassment reported 
the most recent such incident to any authority.

The results of the 2022 survey show the same trends as 
EU-MIDIS II in relation to the prevalence and circumstances 
of harassment and racially motivated violence that people 
of African descent experience.

Experiences  of  racist  harassment  most  commonly 
involve offensive non-verbal cues (19 %) or offensive 
or threatening comments (15 %), followed by threats 
of violence (4 %). Concerning racist violence, 4 % of 
respondents say that they experienced a racist attack 
in the 5 years before the survey, and 2 % say that they 
did so in the 12 months before the survey.

FRA OPINION 4

Member  States  should  fully  and 
correctly transpose and enforce the 
provisions of the 2008 framework 
decision on racism and xenophobia� 
This  includes  taking  measures  to 
ensure that a racist or xenophobic 
motive is considered an aggravating 
circumstance  and  is  taken  into 
consideration in determining penalties� 
Such efforts should be coupled with 
measures  to  further  improve  the 
national law enforcement systems 
to  identify  and  record  hate  crime 
effectively�

Member  States  should  collect 
appropriately disaggregated data on 
racist hate crime and harassment, use 
them in national policymaking and 
impact assessment, and publish them 
regularly�

Member States should ensure that 
victims  of  racist  crime  can  seek 
redress�  With  victims  reluctant  to 
come forward, structures that facilitate 
reporting  should  be  established� 
Member States should draw on the 
key guiding principles developed by 
the EU High Level Group on combating 
hate speech and hate crime� Member 
States should sustain their efforts in 
raising victims’ awareness of their 
rights and available support services, 
including enabling referrals to victim 
support services, consistent with their 
obligations under the victims’ rights 
directive�

Member States should ensure that the 
police and other services, including 
public prosecutors and judges, are 
trained  to  recognise  and  respond 
appropriately to the impact of racist 
abuse on victims�

However, two thirds (64 %) of victims of racist violence 
did not report the most recent incident of racist violence 
they experienced to any organisation. Some respondents 
did not report the incident because they felt that reporting it would not 

19

change anything (36 %) or because they considered reporting to be too 
bureaucratic or time-consuming (19 %). Others did not report it because they 
were concerned that no one would believe them or take them seriously or 
because they lacked trust in the police or were afraid of the police (both 
16 %). 15 % of victims of racist violence did not know where to go or whom 
to contact to report it.

Respondents worry for their own safety and that of their family members 
because they are at risk of becoming targets of racist harassment or violence. 
Most victims of racist violence (61 %) suffer psychological problems (e.g. 
depression or anxiety) because of their experiences. A further 22 % of 
respondents are afraid to leave the house or visit places after experiencing 
physical abuse. Nearly one third of victims of racist violence (31 %) have 
suffered injuries but did not seek medical aid, and 12 % of respondents say 
that they needed medical help or were hospitalised as a result of a racially 
motivated physical attack.

Victims of racist crimes worry more about repetitive racially motivated physical 
aggression than those who have no such experiences. Ongoing encounters 
with racism severely limit people’s enjoyment of their fundamental rights. 
These include their right to the protection of their human dignity, their right 
to respect for their private and family life, and their right to freedom of 
thought, conscience and religion.

Over half of people of African descent feel that their most 
recent police stop was a result of racial profiling.

Police stops involving racial profiling

Profiling involves categorising individuals according 
to personal characteristics, which may include racial 
or ethnic origin, skin colour, religion or nationality. The 
police commonly use profiling to prevent, investigate 
and  prosecute  criminal  offences.  However,  racial 
profiling is unlawful and inconsistent with international 
and European human rights law. Still, the results of 
this survey show that unlawful racial profiling by law 
enforcement persists.

One quarter (26 %) of respondents were stopped by the 
police in the 5 years before the survey. Among those, 
about half (48 %) characterised the most recent stop 
as racial profiling. 12 % were stopped by the police in 
the 12 months before the survey, and 58 % of those 
considered the most recent stop to be a result of racial 
profiling.

Comparing the findings of EU-MIDIS II and the 2022 
survey regarding perceived discriminatory ethnic profiling 
among respondents of African descent whom the police 
stopped in the 5 years before the survey, the average 
rate increased across the countries surveyed from 41 % in 
2016 to 48 % in 2022. Men are more likely to be stopped 
than women.

FRA OPINION 5

Member States should adopt measures 
necessary to prevent and eradicate 
discriminatory institutional practices 
and culture that enables discriminatory 
attitudes among police officers and 
unlawful profiling� These measures 
may include guidance on how to de-
escalate situations that are potentially 
racially charged� Drawing on FRA’s 
2018 guide on preventing unlawful 
profiling and FRA’s forthcoming report 
on  addressing  racism  in  policing, 
such guidance should be issued by 
law  enforcement  authorities  and 
be  included  in  standard  operating 
procedures,  training  and  codes  of 
conduct�

Member States should improve the 
collection  and  publication  of  data 
on racism in policing, including on 
unlawful ethnic profiling� Systematic 
collection of reliable data can help 
identify discriminatory practices and 
assess and improve the effectiveness 
of responses taken�

20

The majority (58 %) of respondents whom the police stopped in the 5 years 
before the survey say that they were treated respectfully.

Many people of African descent work in elementary occupations 
and are over-qualified for their jobs. Every third has a 
temporary contract and lacks job security.

Education and labour market participation

Article 14 of the  EU Charter of Fundamental Rights 
provides that everyone has the right to education and 
to have access to vocational and continuing training. This 
right includes the opportunity to receive free compulsory 
education. The right to education without discrimination 
is protected under Article 28 of the UN Convention on 
the Rights of the Child, which all 27 EU Member States 
have ratified. Article 3 of the racial equality directive 
covers public and private sectors, including public bodies, 
in relation to education.

The European Pillar of Social Rights action plan states 
that everyone has the right to good-quality and inclusive 
education, training and lifelong learning to maintain and 
acquire skills that enable them to participate fully in 
society and successfully manage transitions in the labour 
market.

FRA’s  survey  findings  show  that  on  average  the 
employment rate among people of African descent aged 
20 to 64 years (71 %) is similar to that of the general 
population (73 %) of the same age range. However, 
almost  a  third  (32  %)  of  respondents  who  are  in 
employment work in elementary occupations, compared 
with an average of 8 % for the general population across 
all 27 EU Member States.

FRA OPINION 6

EU Member States should develop 
specific  policies  to  address  racism 
and racial discrimination experienced 
by people of African descent in their 
enjoyment  of  key  economic  and 
social  rights,  such  as  in  the  realm 
of  employment�  Such  measures 
should also facilitate the recognition 
of foreign educational and training 
qualifications  from  EU  and  non-
EU  countries  and  support  the  full 
socioeconomic inclusion of people 
of African descent so that they can 
get  decent  work  (appropriate  to 
their educational qualifications and 
professional experience), remain in 
employment and improve their job 
security�

The overqualification rate – the proportion of people with tertiary education 
(ISCED 5–8) employed in low- or medium-skilled occupations – is higher for 
respondents of African descent than for the general population in the EU-
27 regardless of whether they are nationals of the survey country (35 % 
compared with 21 %) or third-country nationals (57 % compared with 40 %). 

Almost every third (30 %) employed respondent of African descent has 
a temporary contract. This proportion is three times that for the general 
population across the 27 EU Member States (11 %). A large proportion of 
respondents of African descent say that they faced racial discrimination, 
both when looking for work (28 %) and when at work (23 %) in the year 
preceding the survey.

21

Rising inflation and cost of living have put people of African 
descent at higher risk of poverty than the general population. 
A third face difficulties in making ends meet.

FRA OPINION 7

In  line  with  Article  34  of  the  EU 
Charter of Fundamental Rights and 
the European Parliament resolution 
on  fundamental  rights  of  people 
of  African  descent  in  Europe 
(2018/2899(RSP)),  Member  States 
should take all measures necessary 
to  address  discrimination  against 
people  of  African  descent  in  the 
housing market, including addressing 
inequalities  in  accessing  housing 
and ensuring adequate housing and 
housing assistance�

Within the remit of their respective 
areas  of  competence,  the  EU 
institutions and Member States should 
monitor the specific disadvantages 
of people of African descent when 
adopting measures to mitigate the 
burden of rising costs of living, housing 
and energy�

Impact of inflation and access to housing

In 2022, inflation at the EU level increased the cost of 
living for median households by around 10 %, material 
and social deprivation by around 2 % and the rate of 
energy poverty and absolute monetary poverty by around 
5 %. Against this backdrop, the European Parliament 
called on the Commission and the Member States to 
reduce income inequalities and to fight poverty, reminding 
them of their commitment to achieving the EU poverty 
target.

Article  34  of  the  EU  Charter  of  Fundamental  Rights 
recognises the right to social and housing assistance to 
ensure a decent existence for all those who lack sufficient 
resources. Combating poverty and social exclusion is a 
target of the European Pillar of Social Rights action plan, 
to be reached by 2030, and of goal 1 of the UN sustainable 
development goals.

The  COVID-19  pandemic  worsened  existing  social 
vulnerabilities and inequalities. Rising energy prices and 
the increasing cost of living have hit the most vulnerable 
hardest. In 2022, the number of Europeans who could 
not afford to keep their homes adequately warm rose to 
more than 40 million (9.3 % of the population).

The  survey  shows  that  people  of  African  descent 
experience racial discrimination when trying to buy or 
rent a house. In some countries, social housing mitigates 
this. One in four (23 %) respondents of African descent say that a private 
property owner prevented them from renting an apartment or a house 
because of their racial or ethnic origin. Respondents were over four times 
more likely to experience discrimination when trying to rent a property from 
a private owner than when trying to rent housing from a public or municipal 
authority (5 %).

Respondents are also at a higher risk of poverty, social exclusion and energy 
poverty than the general population. A third (32 %) of them face difficulties 
in making ends meet compared with 18 % of the general population in the 
EU-27. 14 % cannot afford to keep their house warm compared with 7 % for 
the general population. 18 % have been in arrears on their utility bills, more 
than double the proportion of the general population (6 %). Nearly one in 
two (45 %) respondents of African descent in the 13 countries surveyed 
live in overcrowded housing, a much higher proportion than in the general 
population (17 % in the EU-27).

22

Most people of African descent perceive their health as good. 
But almost 1 in 10 feel racially discriminated against when using 
healthcare services.

Unmet medical needs: guaranteeing the right to 
healthcare

Article 35 of the EU Charter of Fundamental Rights 
provides that everyone has the right to access preventive 
healthcare and the right to benefit from medical treatment 
under the conditions that national laws and practices 
establish. In providing healthcare, Member States must 
apply the provisions of the racial equality directive. The 
European Pillar of Social Rights action plan states that 
everyone has the right to timely access to affordable, 
preventive and curative healthcare of good quality.

FRA OPINION 8

EU Member States should ensure equal 
rights to healthcare and develop new 
monitoring tools, for example making 
use  of  human  rights  indicators  to 
map health inequalities or highlight 
patients’  rights  and  perspectives 
within the scope of EU law�

The survey results show that 9 % of respondents felt 
racially discriminated against when using healthcare 
services in the 12 months before the survey. On average, respondents of 
African descent aged 16 to 64 years in 13 EU Member States have similar 
perceptions of their health status to those of the general population in the EU-
27 of the same age range (81 % of respondents of African descent compared 
with 79 % of the general population perceive their general health as good).

Respondents of African descent also have similar perceptions of whether 
they experience long-standing limitations in usual activities due to health 
problems to the general population (20 % compared with 17 %). They also 
report lower levels of long-standing illness or health problems than the general 
population (18 % compared with 28 %). However, more respondents of African 
descent mention having unmet medical needs in the 12 months preceding 
the survey than people in the general population (9 % compared with 5 %).

23

1
DISCRIMINATION AND AWARENESS OF 
RIGHTS

Legal corner

Article 20 of the Charter of 
Fundamental Rights of the European 
Union (the Charter) provides that 
everyone is equal before the law. 
Article 21 of the Charter prohibits ‘any 
discrimination based on any ground 
such as sex, race, colour, ethnic or 
social origin, genetic features, language, 
religion or belief, political or any other 
opinion, membership of a national 
minority, property, birth, disability, 
age or sexual orientation’. Article 21 
also prohibits any discrimination on 
the grounds of nationality ‘within the 
scope of application of the Treaty 
Establishing the European Community 
and of the Treaty on European Union … 
and without prejudice to the special 
provisions of those Treaties’.

The racial equality directive prohibits 
direct and indirect discrimination on 
the grounds of racial or ethnic origin. 
Article 3 specifies that it applies 
to employment and occupation, 
vocational training, working conditions 
and membership of workers’ or 
employers’ organisations; social 
protection, including social security 
and healthcare; social advantages; 
education; and access to and supply of 
goods and services that are available 
to the public, including housing.

Under EU equality legislation, all 
Member States are required to 
designate ‘equality bodies’ to 
combat discrimination based on racial 
or ethnic origin, to provide assistance 
to victims of discrimination, and to 
conduct independent surveys, publish 
reports and make recommendations 
on matters relating to discrimination.

KEY FINDINGS

Prevalence and grounds of discrimination

 ― Overall, almost half of the respondents (47 %) felt discriminated against 
in at least one area of life on any ground in the 5 years preceding the 
survey and more than a third (36 %) did so in the year before the survey.

 ― Skin colour and ethnic or immigrant background were the two grounds 
of discrimination respondents of African descent most often mentioned 
experiencing in the 12 months before the survey (28 % and 22 %, 
respectively) and in the 5 years before the survey (38 % and 30 %, 
respectively).

 ― Overall, the 12-month prevalence of racial discrimination – discrimination 
on at least one of the three grounds (skin colour, ethnic or immigrant 
background and religion or religious beliefs) – has increased for people 
of African descent by 10 percentage points compared with 2016 (34 % 
in 2022 compared with 24 % in 2016).

 ― Across areas of life, the highest rates of racial discrimination occur in the 
area of employment, that is, when looking for a job (5-year prevalence of 
34 %) or at work (5-year prevalence of 31 %); accessing housing (5-year 

24

prevalence of 31 %); and in public spaces, or when using public transport 
or entering bars, shops or restaurants (5-year prevalence of 24 %).

 ― Discrimination remains a recurring experience: some 29 % of respondents 
say that it happened to them three to five times in the year before the 
survey, and 26 % experienced it six or more times.

Multiple and intersecting grounds of discrimination

 ― More than half of respondents who felt discriminated against in at least 
one area of life say that they experienced it on more than one ground. 
40 % of respondents felt discriminated against in the year before the 
survey on two different grounds. One in 10 respondents (11 %) say that 
they felt discriminated against on three grounds, and another 5 % on 
four or more grounds.

 ― The findings suggest intersecting forms of discrimination: for example, 
discrimination on any ground most often concerns young people, people 
with higher levels of education and people with disabilities. It also 
commonly affects people who wear traditional or religious clothing in 
public; self-identify as belonging to a minority in terms of disability, gender 
identity or gender expression, or sexual orientation; or who describe 
themselves as a person of African descent or as a Black person. The 
prevalence of discrimination on any ground does not vary substantially 
between women and men. The experiences of women and men vary 
somewhat between countries, areas of life and specific grounds of 
discrimination.

 ― The results point to a substantial intersection of the grounds ‘skin colour’ 
and ‘ethnic or immigrant background’ among respondents of African 
descent. A considerable proportion of respondents (63 %) who say that 
they felt discriminated against because of their skin colour in the 5 years 
preceding the survey also say that they felt discriminated against because 
of their ethnic or immigrant background. Moreover, 12 % of respondents 
who felt discriminated against because of their skin colour in the 5 years 
preceding the survey also felt discriminated against based on their religion 
or religious beliefs.

Reporting of discrimination and awareness of rights

 ― Overall, only 9 % of respondents who felt discriminated against reported 
or made a complaint about any of the incidents they experienced in the 
12 months preceding the survey. In total, and like in the previous FRA 
survey, very few filed a complaint with an equality body (4 %).

 ― On average, fewer than a third (29 %) were aware of any organisation 
that offered support or advice to victims of discrimination in their country 
of residence. No progress has been made since 2016, when the survey 
showed the average level of awareness among people of African descent 
to be 30 %. Moreover, 44 % of respondents of African descent know of at 
least one equality body, with considerable variations between countries. 
The overall results for knowledge of equality bodies are similar to 2016. 
The relatively low levels of awareness of equality bodies can only partly 
explain the low rates of reporting discrimination.

Racial discrimination and trust in public institutions

 ― Like in 2016, respondents have the highest level of trust in local (municipal) 
authorities, with an average score of 6.7 (on a scale of 0 to 10, where 0 

25

stands for ‘no trust at all’ and 10 signifies ‘complete trust’). The next most 
trusted organisations are the legal system and the police, both with an 
average trust score of 6.2. Among the seven institutions asked about in 
the survey, respondents’ trust in national political parties and politicians 
is the lowest, with average scores of 4.8 and 5.0, respectively.

 ― As in 2016, the results show that experiences of racial discrimination 
undermine trust in public institutions. The greatest negative effect was 
on trust in the police, the legal system and local (municipal) authorities. 
For example, the average level of trust in the police is 1.2 points lower for 
respondents who felt racially discriminated against than for respondents 
who have not experienced racial discrimination.

1.1.  EXPERIENCES OF DISCRIMINATION

What did the 
survey ask?

The survey asked respondents if they felt discriminated 
against on one or more grounds (skin colour, ethnic origin 
or immigrant background, religion or religious beliefs, 
sex, age, disability, sexual orientation, gender identity or 
gender expression and ‘other’) in key areas of life. These 
areas are employment; health; housing; education, or 
contact with staff at a children’s school/university; contact 
with administrative offices or public services; entering a 
night club, bar, shop, restaurant or hotel, and using public 
transport. Respondents could also indicate if they felt 
discriminated against on more than one ground. In this way, 
the survey captures instances of discrimination on multiple 
and/or intersecting grounds.

Respondents who felt discriminated against on any ground 
in the 12 months preceding the survey were asked for 
further details about the frequency of discrimination 
incidents and about the reporting of such incidents. The 
survey collected information about the person or institution 
to whom the incidents were reported and the reasons for 
not reporting.

The overall prevalence of discrimination shows the percentage of respondents 
who felt discriminated against on any ground (out of eight listed grounds) 
in one or more areas of life asked about in the survey. The discrimination 
rates are calculated for the 12 months and the 5 years preceding the survey, 
as well as for specific grounds of discrimination and different areas of life.

This section presents the disaggregated findings for the 2022 survey. In 
addition, where possible, it compares selected survey results on discrimination 
with findings for EU-MIDIS II, as published in FRA’s Being Black in the EU 
report (12), and with results of Special Eurobarometer 493, published in 2019, 
for the general population.

26

Special 
Eurobarometer 
493: 
discrimination 
in the 
European 
Union (2019)

The Directorate-General for Justice 
and Consumers commissioned 
Special Eurobarometer 493, 
and the Directorate-General for 
Communication coordinated it. It is 
part of a series of Eurobarometer 
surveys examining discrimination 
conducted in 2006, 2009, 2012 and 
2015. The survey covers residents 
of the EU Member States who live 
in the EU-27 and aged 15 years 
and over and includes questions 
about personal experiences of 
discrimination and to whom 
respondents would prefer to report 
discrimination.

Experiences of discrimination 
are measured with the 
following question: ‘In the past 
12 months have you personally 
felt discriminated against or 
experienced harassment on one 
or more of the following grounds?’ 
This is followed by the question 
‘Thinking about the most recent 
time when you felt discriminated 
against, under what circumstances 
did it take place?’ The latter 
question allows the respondents to 
choose from nine areas of life.

The Special Eurobarometer 493 
survey asks about experiences 
of discrimination in one general 
question, but the FRA survey asks 
about them for each area of life.

Source: Directorate-General for 
Communication (2019) ‘Special 
Eurobarometer 493: discrimination 
in the European Union’, May 2019. 

Overall prevalence of discrimination

1.1.1. 
Overall, almost half of respondents of African descent (47 %) felt discriminated 
against on one or more grounds in the 5 years preceding the survey, and 
more than a third (36 %) did so in the year before the survey (Figure 1). 
There were substantial variations in the overall prevalence of discrimination 
across countries.

The highest levels of discrimination on any ground in both periods were in 
Austria (67 % in the 12 months before the survey and 76 % in the 5 years 
before  the  survey)  and  Germany  (65  %  and  77  %).  The  next  highest 
levels were in Finland (57 % and 66 %) and Denmark (47 % and 61 %). 
Respondents in Portugal, Poland and Sweden (13) experienced the lowest 
levels of discrimination on any ground in both periods.

27

FIGURE 1:  OVERALL PREVALENCE OF DISCRIMINATION ON ANY GROUND IN THE 12 MONTHS AND THE 5 YEARS BEFORE THE 

SURVEY, BY COUNTRY (%)a,b,c

AT

DE

FI

DK

IE

BE

LU

IT

FR

ES

SE

PL

PT

76

77

67

65

66

61

57

56

58

56

47

44

44

44

44

40

38

33

29

24

21

19

21

17

27

27

EU-13

36

0

10

20

30

40

47

50

60

70

80

90

100

In the 12 months before the survey

In the 5 years before the survey

Source:  FRA’s EU Survey on Immigrants and Descendants of Immigrants, 2022.

 Notes:
a  Out of all respondents of African descent who had engaged in activities in the areas of life asked about in the survey in the 12 months 

before the survey (n = 6 366) and in the 5 years before the survey (n = 6 547); weighted results, sorted by the 12-month rate.

b  Question: ‘In the past 5 years[/12 months] in the country (or since you have been in [country]), have you ever felt discriminated against 
for any of the following reasons? Skin colour; ethnic or immigrant background; religion or religious beliefs; age; sex/gender; disability; 
sexual orientation; gender identity or gender expression; other (please specify).’

c  Areas of life asked about in the survey are looking for work, at work, in education (as a student or as a parent), health, housing, and 

accessing administrative offices or public services, or other services, such as restaurants and bars, public transport or shops.

28

Notes:

For the FRA survey, the percentage 
is that of all respondents of African 
descent who had engaged in activities 
in the areas of life asked about in 
the survey in the 12 months before 
the survey (n = 6 366). For the 2019 
Eurobarometer, n = 13 181; weighted 
results.

FRA survey question: ‘In the past 
12 months in the country, have you 
ever felt discriminated against for any 
of the following reasons? Skin colour; 
ethnic or immigrant background; 
religion or religious beliefs; age; 
sex/gender; disability; sexual 
orientation; gender identity or gender 
expression; other (please specify).’ 
Eurobarometer question: ‘In the past 
12 months have you personally felt 
discriminated against or experienced 
harassment on one or more of the 
following grounds? Ethnic origin; skin 
colour; gender; sexual orientation; 
being Roma; being transgender; being 
intersex; age; religion or beliefs; 
disability; political opinions; social 
class; general physical appearance; 
for another reason.’

The areas of life asked about in 
the FRA survey are looking for 
work, being at work, education (as 
a student or as a parent), health, 
housing, and accessing administrative 
offices or public services, or other 
services, such as restaurants and bars, 
public transport and shops.

a 

b 

c 



While the average 12-month prevalence of discrimination on any ground is 
17 % for the general population in the EU-27 based on the 2019 Eurobarometer 
survey, it is 36 % for people of African descent in the 13 Member States 
in the 2022 FRA survey (Figure 2). The biggest gaps between the general 
population and people of African descent are in Germany (49 percentage 
points), Finland (41 percentage points) and Austria (40 percentage points).

FIGURE 2:  OVERALL PREVALENCE OF DISCRIMINATION ON ANY GROUND IN THE 12 MONTHS BEFORE THE SURVEY FOR 

RESPONDENTS OF AFRICAN DESCENT AND THE GENERAL POPULATION, BY COUNTRY (%)a,b,c

100

90

80

70

67

65

44

47

57

27

24

16

15

24

11

44

44

33

29

21

16

16

15

26

21

22

19

13

17

6

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

AT

BE

DE

DK

ES

FI

FR

IE

IT

LU

PL

PT

SE

Respondents of African descent

General population (2019)

Sources: Special Eurobarometer 493, 2019; FRA’s EU Survey on Immigrants and Descendants of Immigrants, 2022.

29

Looking at the 12-month prevalence of discrimination on any ground, 
disaggregated by selected sociodemographic characteristics, there are no 
notable differences in the average rates of discrimination that women and 
men of African descent experienced in the year before the survey (36 % for 
women and 36 % for men). In terms of age, the 12-month rate of discrimination 
on any ground is highest among young people aged 16–24 years, at 43 %. 
The rates decrease by age, down to 20 % among respondents aged 60 years 
and over. Similarly, the rates of discrimination are higher for descendants of 
immigrants than for immigrants (43 % and 35 %, respectively).

Those with higher levels of education more often experience discrimination: 
more  than  half  of  respondents  with  a  tertiary  education  (52  %)  felt 
discriminated against in the year before the survey compared with one in 
four respondents (26 %) with lower secondary or lower levels of education.

There are differences in experiences of discrimination between those 
who wear traditional or religious clothing in public and those who do not 
(40 % compared with 33 %). There is a substantially higher prevalence of 
discrimination on any ground among respondents who define themselves 
as a member of a minority in terms of religion, disability, gender identity or 
gender expression and sexual orientation, or as a person of African descent 
or a Black person, than among respondents who do not identify as such 
(Figure 3). For more details on self-identification as ‘a person of African 
descent or a Black person’, see section ‘Survey in a nutshell’ and Annex II 
to this report.

30

FIGURE 3:  PREVALENCE OF DISCRIMINATION ON ANY GROUND IN THE 12 MONTHS BEFORE THE SURVEY, BY SELECTED 

SOCIODEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS (%)a,b,c,d,e

Women
Men

16–24
25–44
45–59
60+

Lower secondary or lower (ISCED 0–2)
Upper secondary, or post-secondary but not tertiary (ISCED 3–4)
Tertiary (ISCED 5–8)

Severely limited or limited but not severely
Not limited at all or INR

Immigrants
Descendants of immigrants

Yes
No

No religion
Christian
Muslim
Other

Yes
No

A minority in terms of religion
Not a minority in terms of religion

A minority in terms of disability
Not a minority in terms of disability

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o
g

i

i
l

e
r

r
o

n

i

i

g
n
h
t
o
l
c

c
i
l

b
u
p

y
t
i
r
o
n
m
a

i

f
o
t
r
a
p
s
a
g
n
y
f
i
t
n
e
d
i
-
f
l
e
S

i

A minority in terms of gender identity or gender expression
Not a minority in terms of gender identity or gender expression

A minority in terms of sexual orientation
Not a minority in terms of sexual orientation

Self-identiﬁes as a person of African descent / Black person
Does not self-identify as a person of African descent / Black person

26

36
36

43

39

31

20

26

36

52

40

35

35

43

34
37

35
37

32

44

40

33

41

35

46

50

47

36

36

36

37

0

20

40

60

80

100

Source:  FRA’s EU Survey on Immigrants and Descendants of Immigrants, 2022.
 Notes:
a  Out of all respondents of African descent who had engaged in activities in the areas of life asked about in the survey in the 12 months 

before the survey (n = 6 366); weighted results.

b 

c 

ISCED 0–2 includes those who have never been in formal education or who did not complete primary education, those in primary education and 
those in lower secondary education. ISCED 3–4 includes those in upper secondary education, vocational training, post-secondary non-tertiary 
education, and all types of vocational training completed abroad corresponding to ISCED 35, 45 and 55 (hence, the proportion of respondents in 
ISCED 3–4 among respondents of African descent may be slightly overestimated compared with the general population). ISCED 5–8 includes short-
cycle tertiary education, bachelor’s level or equivalent education, master’s level or equivalent education and doctorate or equivalent education. 

Question: ‘In the past 12 months in the country, have you ever felt discriminated against for any of the following reasons? Skin colour; 
ethnic or immigrant background; religion or religious beliefs; age; sex/gender; disability; sexual orientation; gender identity or gender 
expression; other (please specify).’

d  Areas of life asked about in the survey are looking for work, being at work, education (as a student or as a parent), health, housing, and 

accessing administrative offices or public services, or other services, such as restaurants and bars, public transport and shops.

e 

INR, item non-response.

31

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Grounds of discrimination

1.1.2. 
Skin colour and ethnic or immigrant background are the two grounds of 
discrimination that people of African descent most often cite in all 13 EU 
Member States surveyed. For the 12 months before the survey, the rates 
were 28 % and 22 %, respectively. For the 5 years before the survey, they 
were 38 % and 30 %, respectively (Figure 4). This result echoes the findings 
of FRA’s first Being Black in the EU report, based on data from 2016.

FIGURE 4:  GROUNDS OF DISCRIMINATION EXPERIENCED IN THE 12 MONTHS AND THE 5 YEARS BEFORE THE SURVEY (%)a,b,c

28

38

22

30

Skin colour

Ethnic or immigrant background

Age

Religion or religious belief

Sex/gender

Disability

1

2

Sexual orientation

4

3

6

6

3

5

Gender identity or gender expression

Other grounds

1

2

3

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

In the 12 months before the survey

In the 5 years before the survey

Source:  FRA’s EU Survey on Immigrants and Descendants of Immigrants, 2022.

 Notes:
a  Out of all respondents of African descent who had engaged in activities in the areas of life asked about in the survey in the 12 months 

before the survey (n = 6 366) and in the 5 years before the survey (n = 6 547); weighted results, sorted by the 12-month rate.

b  Question: ‘In the past 5 years[/12 months] in the country (or since you have been in [country]), have you ever felt discriminated against 
for any of the following reasons? Skin colour; ethnic or immigrant background; religion or religious beliefs; age; sex/gender; disability; 
sexual orientation; gender identity or gender expression; other (please specify).’

c  Areas of life asked about in the survey are looking for work, being at work, education (as a student or as a parent), health, housing, and 

accessing administrative offices or public services, or other services, such as restaurants and bars, public transport and shops.

32

Notes:

a  Out of all respondents of African 

descent who had engaged in activities 
in the areas of life asked about in 
the survey in the 5 years before the 
survey (n = 6 547); weighted results.

b  Question: ‘In the past 5 years in the 
country (or since you have been 
in [country]), have you ever felt 
discriminated against for any of the 
following reasons? Skin colour; ethnic 
or immigrant background; religion or 
religious beliefs; age; sex/gender; 
disability; sexual orientation; gender 
identity or gender expression; other 
(please specify).’

c  Areas of life asked about in the 

survey are looking for work, being 
at work, education (as a student or 
as a parent), health, housing, and 
accessing administrative offices or 
public services, or other services, 
such as restaurants and bars, public 
transport and shops.



While respondents also mentioned age, religion or religious belief and 
sex/gender, the findings vary substantially between countries (Figure 5). 
For example, the proportion of respondents of African descent who felt 
discriminated against because of their religion in the 5 years preceding the 
survey is highest in Denmark and Austria (16 % and 14 %, respectively), 
followed by Finland (11 %), Germany and Sweden (14) (both 10 %). Some 15 % 
of respondents in both Austria and Luxembourg felt discriminated against 
because of their age, followed by 13 % of respondents in Germany. Some 
12 % of respondents in Austria, 11 % in Germany and 10 % in Denmark felt 
discriminated against because of their sex/gender.

Respondents’ religious profile varies across the 13 countries. Respondents of 
African descent are predominantly Christian in some countries (e.g. 82 % in 
Ireland, 78 % in Portugal, 65 % in Germany and 62 % in Luxembourg) and 
predominantly Muslim in others (e.g. 79 % in Sweden, 67 % in Spain and 
47 % in Italy) (see Annex II to this report).

FIGURE 5:  GROUNDS OF DISCRIMINATION EXPERIENCED IN THE 5 YEARS BEFORE THE SURVEY, BY COUNTRY (%)a,b,c

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

65

56

68

57

52

32

45

44

53

48

50

38

29

23

31

24

15

14

12

13

10

11

16

11

10

8

5

4

11

11

4

10
6

8

5

5

4

2

1

1

35

34

34

33

26

20

12

4

1

1

1

15

5

6

5

2

38

30

18

16

10

3

3

6

6

5

AT

BE

DE

DK

ES

FI

FR

IE

IT

LU

PL

PT

SE

EU-13

Skin colour

Ethnic or immigrant background

Religion or belief

Age

Sex/gender

Source:  FRA’s EU Survey on Immigrants and Descendants of Immigrants, 2022.

Overall, there are no differences between women and men in relation to 
discrimination based on skin colour (38 % of women experience it and 
so do 38 % of men). Small differences are observed in the prevalence of 
discrimination based on sex/gender (8 % of women and 2 % of men), age 
and religion (for both grounds, the prevalence was 8 % among women and 
4 % among men), and ethnic or immigrant background (28 % of women 
and 32 % of men).

Differences in the prevalence of discrimination based on sex/gender between 
women and men of African descent are most pronounced in Germany (20 % 
for women and 4 % for men), Austria (21 % for women and 6 % for men) 

33

and Denmark (16 % for women and 5 % for men). Women of African descent 
in Finland, Denmark and France are more likely than men to experience 
discrimination based on religion: in Finland, the prevalence is 16 % for women 
and 7 % for men; in Denmark, 19 % for women and 13 % for men; in France, 
8 % for women and 2 % for men.

1.1.3.  Multiple and intersecting grounds of discrimination
More than half of respondents of African descent who felt discriminated 
against in at least one area of life in the 12 months or in the 5 years preceding 
the survey say that they experienced it on more than one ground (Figure 6). 
While 40 % of respondents who felt discriminated against in the year before 
the survey mention two different grounds, every 10th respondent (11 %) says 
that they felt discriminated against on three grounds. Another 5 % suffered 
discrimination based on four or more grounds.

FIGURE 6:  NUMBER OF GROUNDS OF DISCRIMINATION EXPERIENCED IN THE 12 MONTHS BEFORE THE SURVEY (%)a,b,c

5

11

40

44

1 ground

2 grounds

3 grounds

4 or more grounds

Source:  FRA’s EU Survey on Immigrants and Descendants of Immigrants, 2022.

The results point to a substantial intersection of the grounds skin colour and 
ethnic or immigrant background among respondents of African descent. A 
considerable proportion (63 %) of those who felt discriminated against because 
of their skin colour in the 5 years preceding the survey also felt discriminated 
against because of their ethnic or immigrant background. Moreover, 12 % 
of respondents who felt discriminated against because of their skin colour 
in the 5 years preceding the survey also felt discriminated against based on 
their religion or religious beliefs.

The survey asked respondents how often, in the 12 months before the survey, 
they felt discriminated against on any ground across all areas of life. One 
out of five respondents (19 %) reported experiencing discrimination only 
once in the year preceding the survey (Figure 7). 11 % say it happened ‘all 
the time’, with the highest percentage among respondents in Spain (26 %).

 Notes:
a  Out of all respondents of African 

descent who had felt discriminated 
against on any ground in at least one 
of the areas of life asked about in the 
survey in the 12 months before the 
survey (n = 2 517); weighted results.

b  Question: ‘In the past 12 months 
in the country, have you ever felt 
discriminated against for any of the 
following reasons? Skin colour; ethnic 
or immigrant background; religion or 
religious beliefs; age; sex/gender; 
disability; sexual orientation; gender 
identity or gender expression; other 
(please specify).’

c  Areas of life asked about in the 

survey are looking for work, being 
at work, education (as a student or 
as a parent), health, housing, and 
accessing administrative offices or 
public services, or other services, 
such as restaurants and bars, public 
transport and shops.

34

FIGURE 7:  FREQUENCY OF DISCRIMINATION IN THE 12 MONTHS BEFORE THE SURVEY (%)a,b,c

2

11

19

16

29

23

Once

Twice

3–5 times

6 or more times

All the time

Don't know

Source:  FRA’s EU Survey on Immigrants and Descendants of Immigrants, 2022.

 Notes:
a  Out of all respondents of African 

descent who had felt discriminated 
against on any ground in at least one 
of the areas of life asked about in the 
survey in the 12 months before the 
survey (n = 2 377); weighted results.

b  Questions: ‘In the past 12 months 
in the country, have you ever felt 
discriminated against for any of the 
following reasons? Skin colour; ethnic 
or immigrant background; religion or 
religious beliefs; age; sex/gender; 
disability; sexual orientation; gender 
identity or gender expression; other 
(please specify)’ and ‘You mentioned 
that in the past 12 months you felt 
discriminated against. How many 
times, overall, has this happened to 
you in the past 12 months?’

c  Areas of life asked about in the 

survey are looking for work, being 
at work, education (as a student or 
as a parent), health, housing, and 
accessing administrative offices or 
public services, or other services, 
such as restaurants and bars, public 
transport and shops.

1.1.4.  Overall prevalence of racial discrimination
This section analyses the overall prevalence of discrimination on at least one 
of the three grounds – skin colour, ethnic or immigrant background and religion 
or religious beliefs – that were subsumed in the category ‘ethnic or immigrant 
background’ in the 2018 Being Black in the EU report. Acknowledging that 
there are some slight differences in the countries selected for the survey 
used in this report, the average percentage of people of African descent 
experiencing racial discrimination has increased since 2016.

Figures 8 and 9 show the comparative findings from both FRA surveys on 
the 12-month and 5-year prevalence, respectively, of racial discrimination.

On average, around a third of respondents of African descent (34 %) surveyed 
in 2022 felt racially discriminated against in the year preceding the survey, 
compared with around one quarter of respondents (24 %) in 2016 (Figure 8). 
The 5-year discrimination rates in Figure 9 show the same trend (45 % in 2022 
compared with 39 % in 2016). There are considerable differences between 
Member States. In Austria, Germany and Ireland, both the 12-month and 
5-year prevalence of racial discrimination substantially increased over time.

By contrast, no significant changes between 2016 and 2022 were noticed in 
Denmark (for both periods).

The results for Luxembourg and Sweden must be interpreted with caution, as 
a change in the sampling approach between the two surveys (in Luxembourg) 
and/or the potential impact of COVID-19 measures during fieldwork (in 
Sweden) could affect a direct comparison of results over time (15).

35

FIGURE 8:  PREVALENCE OF RACIAL DISCRIMINATION IN THE 12 MONTHS BEFORE THE SURVEY, BY COUNTRY AND SURVEY YEAR 

(%)a,b,c,d

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

64

64

42

42

43

41

33

54

45

50

43

29

27

30

33

23

23

37

38

38

19

17

16

18

15

n.a.

n.a.

n.a.

n.a.

n.a.

AT

BE

DE

DK

ES

FI

FR

IE

IT

LU

MT

PL

PT

SE

UK

34

24

EU-12/
EU-13

2016

2022

Sources: FRA’s EU-MIDIS II, 2016; FRA’s EU Survey on Immigrants and Descendants of Immigrants, 2022.

 Notes:
a  Out of all respondents of African descent who had engaged in activities in the areas of life asked about in the survey in the 12 months 

before the survey (n2022 = 6 366; n2016 = 5 793); weighted results.

b  2022 FRA survey question: ‘In the past 12 months in the country, have you ever felt discriminated against for any of the following 
reasons? Skin colour; ethnic or immigrant background; religion or religious beliefs.’ 2016 FRA survey question: ‘[H]ave you ever felt 
discriminated against for any of the following reasons? Tell me all that apply. Skin colour; ethnic origin; religion or religious beliefs.’

c  Areas of life asked about in the survey are looking for work, being at work, education (as a student or as a parent), health, housing, and 

accessing administrative offices or public services, or other services, such as restaurants and bars, public transport and shops.

d 

n.a., not available. 

36

FIGURE 9:  PREVALENCE OF RACIAL DISCRIMINATION IN THE 5 YEARS BEFORE THE SURVEY, BY COUNTRY AND SURVEY YEAR 

(%)a,b,c,d

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

72

51

76

56

52

57

55

63

60

69

55

48

48

49

44

47

47

37

37

51

45

39

33

26

20

25

23

n.a.

n.a.

n.a.

n.a.

n.a.

AT

BE

DE

DK

ES

FI

FR

IE

IT

LU

MT

PL

PT

SE

UK

EU-12/
EU-13

2016

2022

Sources: FRA’s EU-MIDIS II, 2016; FRA’s EU Survey on Immigrants and Descendants of Immigrants, 2022.

 Notes:
a  Out of all respondents of African descent who had engaged in activities in the areas of life asked about in the survey in the 5 years before 

the survey (n2022 = 6 547, n2016 = 5 788); weighted results.

b  2022 FRA survey question: ‘In the past 5 years in the country (or since you have been in [country]), have you ever felt discriminated 
against for any of the following reasons? Skin colour; ethnic or immigrant background; religion or religious beliefs.’ 2016 FRA survey 
question: ‘[H]ave you ever felt discriminated against for any of the following reasons? Tell me all that apply. Skin colour; ethnic origin; 
religion or religious beliefs.’

c  Areas of life asked about in the survey are looking for work, at work, education (as a student or as a parent), health, housing, and 

accessing administrative offices and other public or public services, or other services, such as restaurants and bars, public transport and 
shops.

d 

n.a., not available.

Breaking down the overall 12-month prevalence of racial discrimination shows 
a similar pattern to the overall prevalence of discrimination on any ground 
(Figure 10). High rates of racial discrimination are observed among young 
people and people with a high level of education. High rates are also seen 
among people who wear traditional or religious clothing in public, who identify 
as belonging to a minority in terms of gender identity or gender expression, 
who identify as belonging to a minority in terms of sexual orientation or who 
describe themselves as a person of African descent or as a Black person (16).

41 % of 16- to 24-year-olds in the 13 EU Member States surveyed experienced 
racial discrimination in the year before the survey, compared with 16 % of 
respondents aged 60 years or over. Among people with tertiary education 
and those who consider themselves to be part of a minority in terms of 
gender identity, almost half (49 % and 48 %, respectively) felt discriminated 
against on at least one of the three grounds concerned (skin colour, ethnic 
or immigrant background and religion). By contrast, 25 % of people with 
no more than lower secondary education and 33 % of people who do not 
consider themselves to be part of a minority in terms of gender identity or 
expression felt racially discriminated against.

37

FIGURE 10:  PREVALENCE OF RACIAL DISCRIMINATION IN THE 12 MONTHS BEFORE THE SURVEY, BY SELECTED 

SOCIODEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS (%)a,b,c,d,e

Women
Men

16–24

25–44

45–59

60+

34
33

41

37

28

16

Lower secondary or lower (ISCED 0–2)

Upper secondary, or post-secondary but not tertiary (ISCED 3–4)
Tertiary (ISCED 5–8)

25

34

49

r
e
d
n
e
G

e
g
A

n
o
i
t
a
c
u
d
e
f
o

l

d
e
t
e
p
m
o
c

l

e
v
e

l

t
s
e
h
g
H

i

s
n
o
i
t
a
t
i

m
i
L

n

i

s
e
i
t
i
v
i
t
c
a

l

e
p
o
e
p

o
d
y

l
l

a
u
s
u

t
s
a
p
e
h
t
n

i

i

p
h
s
n
e
z
i
t
i
C

y
e
v
r
u
s

f
o

s
h
t
n
o
m
6

n
o
i
t
a
r
e
n
e
G

y
r
t
n
u
o
c

n
o
g

i

i
l

e
R

s
r
a
e
W

l

a
n
o
i
t
i
d
a
r
t

s
u
o
g

i

i
l

e
r

r
o

n

i

i

g
n
h
t
o
l
c

c
i
l

b
u
p

y
t
i
r
o
n
m
a

i

f
o
t
r
a
p
s
a
g
n
y
f
i
t
n
e
d
i
-
f
l
e
S

i

Severely limited or limited but not severely

Not limited at all or INR

Immigrants
Descendants of immigrants

Yes
No

No religion
Christian
Muslim
Other

Yes
No

A minority in terms of religion

Not a minority in terms of religion

A minority in terms of disability
Not a minority in terms of disability

A minority in terms of gender identity or gender expression
Not a minority in terms of gender identity or gender expression

A minority in terms of sexual orientation
Not a minority in terms of sexual orientation

Self-identiﬁes as a person of African descent / Black person
Does not self-identify as a person of African descent / Black person

22

35
33

33

39

31

36

31

35

30

40

38

31

40

32

35
34

34

34

35

48

44

0

20

40

60

80

100

Source:  FRA’s EU Survey on Immigrants and Descendants of Immigrants, 2022.
 Notes:
a  Out of all respondents of African descent who had engaged in activities in the areas of life asked about in the survey in the 12 months 

before the survey (n = 6 366); weighted results.

b 

ISCED 0–2 includes those who have never been in formal education or who did not complete primary education, those in primary education and 
those in lower secondary education. ISCED 3–4 includes those in upper secondary education, vocational training, post-secondary non-tertiary 
education, and all types of vocational training completed abroad corresponding to ISCED 35, 45 and 55 (hence, the proportion of respondents in 
ISCED 3–4 among respondents of African descent may be slightly overestimated compared with the general population). ISCED 5–8 includes short-
cycle tertiary education, bachelor’s level or equivalent education, master’s level or equivalent education and doctorate or equivalent education.

c  Question: ‘In the past 12 months in the country, have you ever felt discriminated against for any of the following reasons? Skin colour; 

ethnic or immigrant background; religion or religious beliefs.’

d  Areas of life asked about in the survey are looking for work, being at work, education (as a student or as a parent), health, housing, and 

accessing administrative offices or public services, or other services, such as restaurants and bars, public transport and shops.

e 

INR, item non-response.

38

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Notes:

a  Out of all respondents of African 

descent who had engaged in activities 
in the areas of life asked about in the 
survey in the 12 months before the 
survey (n = 6 366) and in the 5 years 
before the survey (n = 6 547); 
weighted results, sorted by 12-month 
rate.

b  Question: ‘In the past 

12 months[/5 years] in the country 
(or since you have been in [country]), 
have you ever felt discriminated 
against for any of the following 
reasons? Skin colour; ethnic or 
immigrant background; religion or 
religious beliefs.’

c  Areas of life asked about in the 

survey are looking for work, being 
at work, education (as a student or 
as a parent), health, housing, and 
accessing administrative offices or 
public services, or other services, 
such as restaurants and bars, public 
transport and shops.

Prevalence of racial discrimination in different areas of life

1.1.5. 
This section considers the prevalence of racial discrimination (including that 
based on skin colour, ethnic or immigrant background and religion or religious 
beliefs) in the areas of life the survey covers.

As EU-MIDIS II also found, people of African descent experience racial 
discrimination in all areas of life (Figure 11). The highest rates were in the 
areas of employment (including when looking for a job and on the job) and 
housing, and when in public spaces, using public transport or entering bars, 
shops or restaurants. For example, out of all respondents who looked for 
work in the year preceding the survey, every fourth respondent felt racially 
discriminated against when looking for work (28 %) or at work (23 %).

Overall, the level of racial discrimination has substantially increased across 
all areas of life compared with the findings of the 2018 Being Black in the EU 
report. For example, the 12-month prevalence increased by 22 percentage 
points in accessing housing, by 18 percentage points in looking for work, 
by 14 percentage points at work and by 9 percentage points in education.


FIGURE 11:  PREVALENCE OF RACIAL DISCRIMINATION IN KEY AREAS OF LIFE IN THE 12 MONTHS AND THE 5 YEARS BEFORE THE 

SURVEY (%)a,b,c

Housing

Looking for work

At work

In accessing public transport, shops, bars, etc.

Administrative ofﬁces and public services

Education

Health

All areas

28

31

28

34

31

23

24

18

15

18

13

18

9

11

34

45

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

In the 12 months before the survey

In the 5 years before the survey

Source:  FRA’s EU Survey on Immigrants and Descendants of Immigrants, 2022.

39

The survey results show that racial discrimination may be amplified in certain 
institutional settings, such as education, the labour market and housing. 
This becomes particularly visible from studying the connections between 
respondents’ experiences of racial discrimination in different areas of life.

Out of all respondents of African descent who had felt discriminated against in 
the 5 years preceding the survey, around two thirds (67 %) experienced racial 
discrimination in more than one area of life, with no significant differences 
between women and men (Figure 12). One in four respondents (26 %) who 
perceived that they were victims of discrimination say that it occurred in two 
areas of life, and another 17 % say that it took place in three areas of life for 
the same period. The results for the year preceding the survey show a similar 
trend: more than half of respondents (58 %) who felt racially discriminated 
against experienced this in more than one area of public life.

FIGURE 12:  NUMBER OF AREAS IN WHICH RESPONDENTS FELT RACIALLY DISCRIMINATED AGAINST IN THE 12 MONTHS AND THE 

5 YEARS BEFORE THE SURVEY (%)a,b,c

In the past 5 years

33

26

17

11

7

6

In the past 12 months

42

28

14

8

4

4

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

1 area

2 areas

3 areas

4 areas

5 areas

6–7 areas

Source:  FRA’s EU Survey on Immigrants and Descendants of Immigrants, 2022.

The survey findings indicate that respondents of African descent often 
experience  racial  discrimination  in  multiple  areas  of  public  life.  Racial 
discrimination is neither a once-in-a-lifetime experience (see Section 1.1.2) 
nor limited to a single area of life. The results indicate the cumulative and 
intergenerational  nature  of  racial  discrimination.  Experiences  of  racial 
discrimination overlap in different areas of life, and across generations, in 
multiple institutional settings.

Experiences of racial discrimination in separate areas of life covered by the 
survey are discussed in more detail below.

40

 Notes:
a  Out of all respondents of African 
descent who felt discriminated 
against in the 12 months before the 
survey (n = 2 377) and in the 5 years 
before the survey (n = 3 081); 
weighted results.

b  Question: ‘In the past 12 months 

[/5 years] in the country (or since you 
have been in [country]), have you 
ever felt discriminated against for any 
of the following reasons? Skin colour; 
ethnic or immigrant background; 
religion or religious beliefs.’

c  Areas of life asked about in the 

survey are looking for work, being 
at work, education (as a student or 
as a parent), health, housing, and 
accessing administrative offices or 
public services, or other services, 
such as restaurants and bars, public 
transport and shops.

Employment
Overall, about every third respondent (34 %) felt racially discriminated against 
when looking for work in the 5 years before the survey in 13 EU Member 
States, with the highest prevalence in Austria (59 %), Germany (56 %) and 
Finland (53 %). In these countries, more than half of respondents of African 
descent experienced racial discrimination (Figure 13).

The overall 12-month prevalence of racial discrimination is 28 %, with the highest 
rates in Italy (49 %), Germany (48 %), Austria (48 %) and Finland (46 %).

On average, there are no substantial differences in experiences between 
women (28 %) and men (27 %).

Overall, almost every third respondent (31 %) felt racially discriminated 
against at work in the 5 years before the survey, and 23 % did so in the year 
preceding the survey. The highest proportions of respondents with experience 
of racial discrimination in the previous 12 months were in Germany (46 %), 
Finland (40 %) and Austria (39 %).

On average, the prevalence of racial discrimination at work does not substantially 
differ between women and men, although such differences appear at the 
country level. More women than men felt racially discriminated against at work 
in Denmark (34 % compared with 20 %) and France (22 % compared with 
14 %). The opposite is observed in Italy (20 % for men and 8 % for women), 
Portugal (17 % compared with 11 %) and Spain (18 % compared with 9 %).

Respondents who have completed higher levels of education experience 
racial discrimination at work more often than those with a lower level of 
education: 16 % of those with no education or with at most lower secondary 
education (ISCED 0–2) experience it and 31 % of those with tertiary education 
(ISCED 5–8) do so. Age, citizenship and language proficiency do not appear 
to influence respondents’ perceptions of racial discrimination when at work.

Considered over time, the findings of the 2022 survey show increased rates of 
racial discrimination in employment, both when looking for work and when 
at work. The overall 5-year prevalence of racial discrimination when looking 
for work based on data from the 12 EU Member States surveyed in 2016 was 
25 % and had increased by 9 percentage points by 2022 (34 %), based on 
the 13 countries surveyed. Similarly, the overall 5-year prevalence of racial 
discrimination at work was 24 % in the 12 EU Member States surveyed in 
2016 and reached 31 % in 2022.

41

FIGURE 13:  PREVALENCE OF RACIAL DISCRIMINATION IN DIFFERENT AREAS OF LIFE IN THE 5 YEARS BEFORE THE SURVEY, BY 

COUNTRY (%)a,b,c

100

90

80

70

60

59

62

58

56

49

45

42

45

44

46

36

37

33

25

43

38

31

31

23

25

20

21

17

53

47

36

28

16

12

14

50

40

30

20

10

0

26

24

18

43

40

29

42

41

36

24

38

32

28

25

28

34

31

31

13

9

10

12

10

9

14

11

10

20

19

10

7

6

15

14

6

5

7

3

18

11

AT

BE

DE

DK

ES

FI

FR

IE

IT

LU

PL

PT

SE

EU-13

Looking for work

At work

Housing

Education

Health

Source:  FRA’s EU Survey on Immigrants and Descendants of Immigrants, 2022.

 Notes:
a  Out of all respondents of African 

descent who had engaged in activities 
in the areas of life asked about in 
the survey in the 5 years before 
the survey (n = 6 547); looking for 
work, n = 4 103; at work, n = 4 734; 
trying to rent or buy an apartment or 
a house, n = 3 137; in contact with 
educational facilities as a parent/
guardian or as a student, n = 3 979; 
using healthcare services, n = 5 674. 

b  Question: ‘In the past 5 years in the 
country (or since you have been 
in [country]), have you ever felt 
discriminated against for any of the 
following reasons? Skin colour; ethnic 
or immigrant background; religion or 
religious beliefs.’

c  Areas of life asked about in the 

survey are looking for work, being 
at work, education (as a student or 
as a parent), health, housing, and 
accessing administrative offices or 
public services, or other services, 
such as restaurants and bars, public 
transport and shops.

Housing
31 % of respondents of African descent indicate that they experienced racial 
discrimination when trying to rent or buy an apartment or a house in the 
5 years preceding the survey (Figure 13). This is higher than in 2016 (21 %). 
The highest prevalence of racial discrimination was in Germany (62 %), 
Austria (49 %), Belgium (44 %) and Italy (43 %).

More men (36 %) than women (26 %) felt discriminated against in accessing 
housing in the 5 years preceding the survey. Discrimination is highest among 
young people aged 16–24 years, at 43 %. It decreases by age, reducing to 
22 % among respondents aged 60 years or over. Discrimination rates are 
higher for descendants of immigrants than for immigrants (43 % and 35 %, 
respectively).

Differences emerge between those who wear traditional or religious clothing 
in public and those who do not (37 % compared with 26 %), and between 
respondents who see themselves as a member of a minority and those who 
do not. Overall, no differences in the 5-year prevalence of racial discrimination 
in housing are observed based on the household’s ability to make ends meet. 
The rate is the same for both those who faced difficulties or great difficulties in 
making ends meet (33 %) and those who do not face such difficulties (31 %).

The findings vary across the countries. The biggest differences in the 5-year 
prevalence of racial discrimination in access to housing between those who 
faced (great) difficulties in making ends meet and those who did so (fairly or 
very) easily are in Italy (57 % compared with 30 %), Finland (57 % compared 
with 34 %), Spain (43 % compared with 20 %), Austria (63 % compared with 
46 %) and Germany (74 % compared with 60 %).

42

Respondents experience discriminatory practices more often when dealing 
with private landlords than when dealing with public housing authorities 
(Figure 14). One in 10 respondents (10 %) came across adverts for housing that 
excluded or discouraged those with an ethnic or immigrant background from 
applying. This is a slight increase from 2016. Moreover, 1 in 10 respondents 
(10 %) say that they were asked to pay more for housing due to their racial 
or ethnic background, which is twice the proportion in 2016.

FIGURE 14:  RESPONDENTS’ EXPERIENCES OF SPECIFIC DISCRIMINATORY PRACTICES WHEN LOOKING FOR HOUSING IN THE 

5 YEARS BEFORE THE SURVEY, BY SURVEY YEAR (%)a,b

Prevented from renting an apartment/house by a
private landlord

14

23

Asked to pay a higher rent/price/deposit

Came across adverts for housing that excluded or
discouraged applicants with an ethnic or immigrant
background

Prevented from buying an apartment/house by the
owner or an estate agency

Prevented from renting municipal/social housing by
ofﬁcials working for public housing

10

10

9

5

4

6

6

5

Sources: FRA’s EU-MIDIS II, 2016; FRA’s EU Survey on Immigrants and Descendants of Immigrants, 2022.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

2016

2022

 Notes:
a  Out of all respondents of African 
descent who said that they tried 
to rent or buy an apartment or 
house in the 5 years before the 
survey (n2016 = 2 534, n2022 = 3 129); 
weighted results; sorted by category 
‘2022’.

b  Question: ‘While you tried to rent or 
buy an apartment or house in the 
past 5 years in [country] (or since you 
have been in [country]), did any of 
the following situations occur?’

Education
Overall, about one in five respondents (18 %) who were in contact with 
educational facilities felt racially discriminated against in such settings in 
the 5 years before the survey. About one in eight respondents (13 %) felt 
the same in the year preceding the survey. For the more recent experiences 
(12 months before the survey), the largest proportions are in Germany (37 %) 
and Austria (32 %), and the lowest are in Poland and Portugal (2 % in both).

Considered  over  time,  the  2022  survey  shows  higher  rates  of  racial 
discrimination in education. For example, the overall 5-year prevalence of 
racial discrimination in education based on data from 12 EU Member States 
surveyed in 2016 was 9 %, compared with an overall rate based on data from 
the 13 countries surveyed in 2022 of 18 %. In Austria and Denmark, women 
are twice as likely as men to experience racial discrimination in education 
(42 % of women compared with 22 % of men in Austria, and 28 % of women 
compared with 15 % of men in Denmark).

Younger respondents (aged 16–24) face racial discrimination slightly more 
often (19 %) than those above 25 years of age (12 %). Respondents of African 
descent who self-identify as a member of a minority in terms of religion, 
disability, gender identity or sexual orientation face discrimination in education 
more often than those not self-identifying so (Figure 15).

43

FIGURE 15:  PREVALENCE OF PERCEIVED RACIAL DISCRIMINATION WHEN IN CONTACT WITH SCHOOL AUTHORITIES (AS A 

PARENT/GUARDIAN OR AS A STUDENT) IN THE 12 MONTHS BEFORE THE SURVEY, BY SELECTED SOCIODEMOGRAPHIC 
CHARACTERISTICS (%)a,b,c,d,e

r
e
d
n
e
G

e
g
A

Women
Men

16–24
25–44
45–59

60+

t
s
e
h
g
H

i

f
o

l

e
v
e

l

n
o
i
t
a
c
u
d
e

l

d
e
t
e
p
m
o
c

s
n
o
i
t
a
t
i

m
L

i

n

i

s
e
i
t
i
v
i
t
c
a

l

e
p
o
e
p

y
l
l

a
u
s
u

o
d

n
o
i
t
a
r
e
n
e
G

i

p
h
s
n
e
z
i
t
i
C

n
o
g

i

i
l

e
R

i

y
t
i
r
o
n
m
a
f
o
t
r
a
p
s
a
g
n
y
f
i
t
n
e
d
i
-
f
l
e
S

i

Lower secondary or lower (ISCED 0–2)

Upper secondary, or post-secondary but not tertiary (ISCED 3–4)
Tertiary (ISCED 5–8)

Limited and severely limited
Not limited at all and INR

Immigrants

Descendants of immigrants

Survey country

Other EU country
Non-EU country

I have no religion
Christian
Muslim
Other

A minority in terms of religion
Not a minority in terms of religion

A minority in terms of disability
Not a minority in terms of disability

A minority in terms of gender identity or gender expression
Not a minority in terms of gender identity or gender expression

A minority in terms of sexual orientation
Not a minority in terms of sexual orientation

Self-identifies as a person of African descent / Black person
Does not self-identify as a person of African descent / Black person

19

19

1
1

1
1

1

1

1
1

1

1

1
1

1

1

20

(23)

2

20

20

25

1

10

1

1

1

1

1

16

20

0

40

60

Source:  FRA’s EU Survey on Immigrants and Descendants of Immigrants, 2022.
 Notes:
a  Out of all respondents of African descent who were in contact with educational facilities as a parent/guardian or as a student in the 

12 months before the survey (n = 3 481); weighted results.

b 

ISCED 0–2 includes those who have never been in formal education or who did not complete primary education, those in primary education and 
those in lower secondary education. ISCED 3–4 includes those in upper secondary education, vocational training, post-secondary non-tertiary 
education, and all types of vocational training completed abroad corresponding to ISCED 35, 45 and 55 (hence, the proportion of respondents in 
ISCED 3–4 among respondents of African descent may be slightly overestimated compared with the general population). ISCED 5–8 includes short-
cycle tertiary education, bachelor’s level or equivalent education, master’s level or equivalent education and doctorate or equivalent education. 

c  Question: ‘When in contact with anyone from school/college/university(s) either as a parent/guardian or as a student in the past 

12 months, have you ever felt discriminated against for any of the following reasons?’ ‘Skin colour’, ‘ethnic or immigrant background’ and 
‘religion or religious beliefs’.

d  Results based on a small number of responses are statistically less reliable. Therefore, results based on 20 to 49 unweighted observations 

in a group total are noted in parentheses.

e 

INR, item non-response.

44

 
 
 
 
 
 
The survey also asked parents or guardians of children of the national 
compulsory schooling age range if their children experienced any racist 
treatment at school in the 12 months preceding the survey. The acts it asked 
about included offensive or threatening comments made to the child or 
children in person, for example insulting them or calling them names; physical 
abuse (e.g. hitting, hair-pulling and kicking); and exclusion (isolation) at 
playtime or from social events or circles of friends because of their ethnic 
or immigrant background.

Overall, around every fourth respondent (23 %) indicated that someone made 
offensive or threatening comments to their child(ren) in person because of 
their ethnic or immigrant background (Figure 16). There were substantial 
variations between countries. Almost two out of five parents in Ireland 
(39 %), Germany and Finland (both 38 %) and Austria (37 %) disclosed 
such experiences.

On average, around every 10th parent/guardian (9 %) said that their children 
were isolated at playtime or from social events or circles of friends because 
of their ethnic or immigrant background. This phenomenon is observed most 
often in Austria (19 %), Germany (18 %), Finland (17 %) and Ireland (16 %).

8 % of parents of African descent mentioned physical abuse such as hitting, 
hair-pulling and kicking because of children’s ethnic or immigrant background. 
The highest rates were in Ireland and Finland, where as many as 23 % and 
20 % of parents, respectively, noted that their children had such experiences.

Considering changes over time, more respondents of African descent say 
that their children experienced racism at school in the 12 months preceding 
the survey than in 2016.

Notes:

a  Out of all respondents of African 

descent who are parents or guardians 
of a child or children aged [national 
compulsory school age range] living 
in the survey country (n = 1 773); 
weighted results.

b  Question: ‘To the best of your 

knowledge, has your child / have 
your children experienced any of 
the following situations at school in 
the past 12 months because of their 
ethnic or immigrant background?’ 
‘Someone made offensive or 
threatening comments to your 
child or children in person such as 
insulting them or calling them names 
because of their ethnic or immigrant 
background’; ‘Physical abuse (e.g. 
hitting, hair-pulling and kicking, etc.) 
because of their ethnic or immigrant 
background’; and ‘Being excluded 
(isolated) at playtime or from social 
events or circles of friends because of 
their ethnic or immigrant background’.



FIGURE 16:  RACIST HARASSMENT EXPERIENCED BY RESPONDENTS’ CHILDREN AT SCHOOL IN THE 12 MONTHS BEFORE THE 

SURVEY (%)a,b

60

50

40

37

38

38

39

28

19

11

21

18

13

12

13

22

20

17

23

16

10

6

11

7

3

7

5

9

8

26

19

14

14

14

12

23

19

11

7

9

8

9

4

3

30

20

10

0

AT

BE

DE

DK

ES

FI

FR

IE

IT

LU

PL

PT

SE

EU-13

Offensive or threatening comments

Physical abuse

Being excluded (isolated)

Source:  FRA’s EU Survey on Immigrants and Descendants of Immigrants, 2022.

45

Health
Every 10th respondent of African descent (9 %) felt racially discriminated 
against in the 12 months before the survey when accessing healthcare services, 
for example when seeing a doctor, nurse or dentist, or visiting a hospital, 
an emergency clinic or a medical centre. The overall 5-year prevalence is 
11 %, with considerable differences among Member States (Figure 13). The 
highest 12-month prevalence of racial discrimination in access to healthcare 
is among respondents in Austria (28 %) and Germany (27 %), followed by 
respondents in Finland (18 %). The lowest rates are in France, Poland and 
Portugal (5 % in each).

Overall, the 12-month prevalence of racial discrimination in using healthcare 
services has increased since 2016 (9 % in 2022 compared with 3 % in 2016).

1.2.  REPORTING DISCRIMINATION

The survey asked respondents who felt discriminated against whether they 
reported or filed a complaint about any incident of discrimination in the 
12 months preceding the survey.

As in past survey rounds, most incidents of discrimination are not reported to 
any organisation or body and therefore remain largely invisible to institutions 
that have a legal obligation to provide support to victims.

Overall, only 9 % of those respondents who felt discriminated against in the 
12 months preceding the survey reported the incident or made a complaint 
about it. There were substantial variations across the countries surveyed 
(Figure 17). The highest reporting rates are in Sweden (27 %) and the lowest 
are in Portugal (2 %) and Spain (4 %). In Italy, none of the respondents say 
that they reported an incident of discrimination. The results show no progress 
compared with 2016.

46

FIGURE 17:  REPORTING ANY INCIDENT OF DISCRIMINATION IN THE 12 MONTHS BEFORE THE SURVEY (%)a,b

27

18

SE

IE

BE

FI

DK

DE

LU

FR

PL

AT

ES

PT

IT

13

12

10

9

9

9

5

5

4

EU-13

0

9

10

20

30

40

50

60

Source:  FRA’s EU Survey on Immigrants and Descendants of Immigrants, 2022.

 Notes:
a  Out of all respondents of African 
descent who felt discriminated 
against on any ground in at least one 
of the areas of life asked about in the 
survey in the 12 months before the 
survey (n = 2 458); weighted results.

b  Question: ‘Did you report or make 
a complaint about any of these 
incidents?’

Overall, women of African descent tend to report incidents of discrimination 
more often than men (12 % compared with 6 %). Slightly higher reporting 
rates are also seen for older people than for younger people: 3 % of 16- to 
24-year-olds, 10 % of 25- to 44-year-olds, 9 % of 45- to 59-year-olds and 
14 % of those aged 60 years or over report incidents of discrimination.

In addition, respondents with higher levels of education more often report 
experiencing discrimination than those with lower levels (6 % of those with 
ISCED 0–2, 11 % of those with ISCED 3–4 and 8 % of those with ISCED 5–8). 
People who identify as a member of a minority in terms of gender identity or 
gender expression are also more likely to report experiencing discrimination 
than those who do not (15 % compared with 9 %). Those who identify as 
belonging to a minority in terms of sexual orientation are also more likely 
to report incidents of discrimination than those who do not (13 % compared 
with 9 %).

Furthermore, respondents who identify as Christian are almost twice as likely 
as Muslim respondents to file a complaint or report incidents of discrimination 
(11 % compared with 6 %).

Of the very few respondents who reported an incident of discrimination in 
the year before the survey (n = 239), 45 % reported this to their employer 
(Figure 18) and 11 % to a trade union, labour union or staff committee. 22 % 
turned to the police, and 21 % complained to someone at the place where the 

47

incident happened (such as a university, school or hospital). In total, like in 
the previous FRA survey, very few people filed a complaint with an equality 
body (4 %). In the questionnaire, the names of the countries’ equality bodies 
were shown to respondents. The list of country-specific equality bodies is 
available in Annex IV to this report. Depending on the country, one to four 
bodies were mentioned.

FIGURE 18:  REPORTING OF INCIDENTS OF DISCRIMINATION IN THE 12 MONTHS BEFORE THE SURVEY (%)a,b

Employer

45

Police
Someone in the institution / place where the incident
happened (such as a school, university, hospital,
medical centre, restaurant or night club)
Other (please specify)

22

21

19

Trade union, labour union or staff committee

11

Inspection (e.g. school inspector, labour inspector
or healthcare inspector)
Professional body (e.g. doctors’ association
or medical chamber)

Lawyer / legal service

[Name of country’s equality body 1]

Municipality or municipal / local authority

Non-governmental organisation / charity

Community organisation (e.g. church / faith-based
organisation or minority group)

Media

Patients’ ombudsman

7

5

4

4

2

2

2

1

1

Politician, member of parliament, council, etc.

Source:  FRA’s EU Survey on Immigrants and Descendants of Immigrants, 2022.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

The most frequently cited reason for not reporting an incident of discrimination 
in the 12 months preceding the survey was ‘nothing would happen or change 
by reporting it’. 40 % of respondents who felt discriminated against selected 
this response.

The next most common reason mentioned was that the incident was ‘too 
trivial / not worth reporting’. 36 % of respondents mention this reason 
(Figure 19). Some 22 % say that they had no proof and another 19 % say 
that they did not report the incident because ‘it happens all the time’. The 
results match the findings of FRA’s first Being Black in the EU report and 
other FRA surveys and research that look more closely at the reasons for 
non-reporting (17).

48

 Notes:
a  Out of all respondents of African 
descent who felt discriminated 
against on any ground in at least one 
of the areas of life asked about in 
the survey in the 12 months before 
the survey and reported or made a 
complaint about any incident(s) to 
a person or institution (n = 239); 
weighted results.

b  Question: ‘You mentioned that you 

reported or made a complaint about 
incident(s) of discrimination. Who did 
you report the incident(s) or make the 
complaint(s) to?’

FIGURE 19:  REASONS FOR NOT REPORTING INCIDENTS OF DISCRIMINATION IN THE 12 MONTHS PRECEDING THE SURVEY (%)a,b

40

36

Nothing would happen / change by reporting
discrimination

Too trivial / not worth reporting it

I had no proof

It happens all the time

I didn’t want to create trouble

It is a long process / it takes time / money

I was concerned about negative consequences
(such as not receiving a ‘good service’ in future)
I didn’t know how to make a complaint / where
to report it
I dealt with the problem myself / with help from
family/friends

I didn’t want to go to court

I wasn’t aware of my rights / I don’t know the
laws

Other reasons

I was afraid of not being treated properly / of
retaliation

Because of language difﬁculties / insecurities

22

19

14

13

13

10

9

8

8

7

7

6

I was ashamed / I felt bad

4

Because I don’t have papers / a residence permit

2

Source:  FRA’s EU Survey on Immigrants and Descendants of Immigrants, 2022.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

 Notes:
a  Out of all respondents of African 
descent who felt discriminated 
against on any ground in at least one 
of the areas of life asked about in 
the survey in the 12 months before 
the survey and who did not report 
any incident(s) of discrimination 
(n = 2 458); weighted results.

b  Question: ‘You mentioned that 
you did not report or make a 
complaint about the incident(s) of 
discrimination. Why did you not report 
the incident or make a complaint?’

49

Legal corner

Article 13 of the racial equality 
directive stipulates that Member 
States should designate a body or 
bodies for the promotion of equal 
treatment of all persons without 
discrimination on the grounds 
of racial or ethnic origin. These 
bodies should provide independent 
assistance to victims, conduct 
independent surveys, publish 
independent reports and make 
recommendations.

1.3.  AWARENESS OF SUPPORT ORGANISATIONS, 

EQUALITY BODIES AND ANTI-DISCRIMINATION 
LAWS

The survey asked respondents about their awareness of any organisations 
that offer support or advice to victims of discrimination on any ground. It 
also determines their specific knowledge of national equality bodies (see 
Table 3 in Annex IV) and their awareness of national anti-discrimination law 
using three specific survey questions.

On average, fewer than a third of respondents (29 %) are aware of any 
organisation that offers support or advice to discrimination victims in their 
country of residence. No progress has been made in this area since 2016. In 
only two countries – Poland and Sweden – are more than half of respondents 
of African descent aware of a specialised support organisation (56 % and 
51 %, respectively). In the remaining 11 EU countries awareness levels are 
lower, ranging from 19 % in Spain to 37 % in Austria.

On average, more than half of respondents (56 %) in the 13 EU countries 
surveyed are not aware of any equality body in their country of residence. 
The remaining 44 % know of at least one equality body, with considerable 
variations between countries (see Figure 20 below, and Table 3 in Annex IV, 
which lists the equality bodies presented to respondents in each survey 
country).

Awareness of equality bodies was highest in Denmark (67 %), Poland (64 %), 
France (57 %), Austria (53 %) and Sweden (52 %); the rates were lower in 
Luxembourg (19 %), Spain (20 %), Italy (23 %) and Germany (28 %). There 
is, however, no clear correlation between awareness of equality bodies and 
reporting rates. For example, while two thirds of respondents of African 
descent in Denmark (67 %) are aware of an equality body, only one in 
10 respondents (10 %) who had felt discriminated against reported such 
incidents to any authority.

Furthermore, no major differences in awareness levels are observed between 
women and men (45 % compared with 43 %). However, awareness levels 
increase with age: 35 % of respondents aged 16–24 years, 43 % of respondents 
aged 25–44 years, 50 % of respondents aged 45–59 years and 55 % of 
respondents aged 60 years or over are aware of an equality body. Awareness 
levels also increase with educational level.

50

FIGURE 20:  AWARENESS OF AT LEAST ONE EQUALITY BODY, BY COUNTRY AND SURVEY YEAR (2016 AND 2022) (%)a,b,c

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

67

57

46

42

41

34

67

62

53

32

32

28

20

20

n.a.

n.a.

64

65

52

48

44

39

46

44

23

19

19

12

9

n.a.

n.a.

n.a

AT

BE

DE

DK

ES

FI

FR

IE

IT

LU

MT

PL

PT

SE

UK

EU-12/
EU-13

2016

2022

Sources: FRA’s EU-MIDIS II, 2016; FRA’s EU Survey on Immigrants and Descendants of Immigrants, 2022.

 Notes:
a  Out of all respondents of African 

descent (n2016 = 5 803, n2022 = 6 752); 
weighted results.

b  Question: ‘Have you ever heard of the 

[name of equality body]?’

c 

n.a., not available.

When asked about anti-discrimination legislation, the majority (75 %) of 
respondents know that ‘there is a law that forbids discrimination based on 
skin colour, ethnic origin or religion’ in the country where they live. However, 
results differ considerably across Member States, ranging from over 80 % 
in Denmark, France, Germany, Poland and Sweden to 34 % in Portugal and 
Spain and 25 % in Italy. There are no major differences in awareness levels 
with regard to respondents’ gender or age, but level of education and length 
of stay in the survey country improve respondents’ awareness of anti-
discrimination legislation.

1.4.   RACIAL DISCRIMINATION AND TRUST IN PUBLIC 

INSTITUTIONS

Trust in public institutions

1.4.1. 
According to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development 
(OECD), public trust, defined as a person’s belief that another person or 
institution will act consistently with their expectations of positive behaviour, 
correlates with greater compliance with a range of public policies (18). Such 
policies include public health responses. Public trust strengthens social 
cohesion by building institutional legitimacy (19).

The survey asked respondents about their level of trust in public institutions 
using a scale of 0 to 10, where 0 stands for ‘no trust at all’ and 10 signifies 
‘complete trust’. Public institutions included the national parliament, the 
country’s legal system, the police, national politicians, the country’s political 
parties, the European Parliament and local (municipal) authorities.

Overall, respondents of African descent have higher levels of trust in the listed 
public institutions than the general population. An exception is trust in the 
police, which is at a similar level among respondents of African descent to 
that of the general population (Figure 21). Like the EU-MIDIS II survey findings, 

51

the highest level of trust is in local (municipal) authorities, with an average 
score of 6.7 out of 10. Trust in the legal system and the police is slightly lower, 
both with an average trust score of 6.2. Trust in national political parties and 
politicians is lowest, with average scores of 4.8 and 5.0, respectively.

FIGURE 21:  TRUST IN INSTITUTIONS (AVERAGE VALUE ON A SCALE OF 0 TO 10)a,b,c

Local (municipal)
authorities

6.7

United Nations

5.9

Parliament
10.0
9.0
8.0
7.0
6.0
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0

Legal system

6.2

Police

6.2

5.0

5.5

European
Parliament

4.8

Politicians

Political parties

Respondents of African descent

General population

Sources: FRA’s EU Survey on Immigrants and Descendants of Immigrants, 2022; European Social Survey European Research 

Infrastructure (ESS10).

1.4.2.  Racial discrimination reduces trust in public institutions
Like in EU-MIDIS II, the results of the 2022 survey show that experiences of 
racial discrimination substantially undermine trust in all public institutions, 
with the biggest negative effect on trust in the police, the legal system and 
local (municipal) authorities. Figure 22 presents the average levels of trust in 
the police both among respondents who felt racially discriminated against and 
among those who had not experienced racial discrimination. Respondents of 
African descent who experienced racial discrimination in the 5 years before 
the survey have a significantly lower level of trust in the police (with a score 
of 5.5 in terms of mean values on a scale of 0 to 10) than respondents who 
had not had such an experience (6.7). The average level of trust in the police 
is 1.2 points lower for respondents who felt racially discriminated against than 
for respondents who have not experienced racial discrimination.

 Notes:
a  Out of all respondents of African 

descent (n = 6 752); weighted results.

b 

c 

The general population data 
were taken from the European 
Social Survey European Research 
Infrastructure for 12 countries: 
Austria, Belgium, Finland, France, 
Germany, Ireland, Italy, Poland, 
Portugal, Spain and Sweden 
(collected in 2021/2022; ESS10); 
data for Denmark were collected 
in 2018/2019 (ESS9) (n = 30 078); 
weighted results.

FRA survey question: ‘On a scale of 
0–10, how much do you personally 
trust each of the following institutions 
[0 = no trust at all; 10 = complete 
trust]?’ European Social Survey 
question: ‘On a scale of 0–10 how 
much do you personally trust each of 
the following institutions [0 = no trust 
at all; 10 = complete trust]?’

52

FIGURE 22:  RESPONDENTS’ EXPERIENCES OF RACIAL DISCRIMINATION IN THE 5 YEARS BEFORE THE SURVEY AND AVERAGE LEVEL 

OF TRUST IN THE POLICE (AVERAGE VALUES ON A SCALE OF 0 TO 10), BY COUNTRYa,b,c

8.1

7.4

7.6

8.0

7.5

8.2

7.1

6.0

6.0

6.3

6.0

5.4

6.4

4.9

8.0

6.8

5.9

6.0

7.5

6.9

7.17.0

6.7

6.1

6.4

5.9

6.7

5.5

10

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

0

o
N

s
e
Y

AT

o
N

s
e
Y

BE

o
N

s
e
Y

DE

o
N

s
e
Y

DK

o
N

s
e
Y

ES

o
N

s
e
Y

FI

o
N

s
e
Y

FR

o
N

s
e
Y

IE

o
N

s
e
Y

IT

o
N

s
e
Y

LU

o
N

s
e
Y

PL

o
N

s
e
Y

PT

o
N

s
e
Y

SE

o
N

s
e
Y
EU-13

Source:  FRA’s EU Survey on Immigrants and Descendants of Immigrants, 2022.

 Notes:
a  Out of all respondents of African 

descent (n = 6 752); weighted results.

b  Question: ‘On a scale of 0–10, how 

much do you personally trust each of 
the following institutions [0 = no trust 
at all; 10 = complete trust]?’

c  On the horizontal axis, ‘no’ means no 
experiences of racial discrimination 
and ‘yes’ means experiences of racial 
discrimination.

53

Endnotes

(1)  The EU rejects theories that suggest the existence of separate human races. The use of the term ‘racial origin’ does not imply the 
acceptance of such theories. See Council Directive 2000/43/EC of 29 June 2000 implementing the principle of equal treatment 
between persons irrespective of racial or ethnic origin (OJ L 180, 19.7.2000, p. 22). See also European Commission (2020), Commission 
communication – A Union of equality: EU anti-racism action plan 2020–2025, COM(2020) 565 final, p. 1.

(2)  Articles 2 and 10 of the Treaty on European Union and Articles 19 and 67(3) of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union.
(3)  Council Directive 2000/43/EC of 29 June 2000 implementing the principle of equal treatment between persons irrespective of racial or 

ethnic origin (OJ L 180, 19.7.2000, p. 22).

(4)  Directive 2012/29/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 25 October 2012 establishing minimum standards on the rights, 

support and protection of victims of crime, and replacing Council Framework Decision 2001/220/JHA (OJ L 315, 14.11.2012, p. 57).
(5)  European Parliament resolution of 26 March 2019 on fundamental rights of people of African descent in Europe (2018/2899(RSP)); 
European Parliament resolution of 19 June 2020 on the anti-racism protests following the death of George Floyd (2020/2685(RSP)); 
European Parliament resolution of 6 July on intersectional discrimination in the European Union: the socio-economic situation of women 
of African, Middle-Eastern, Latin-American and Asian descent (2021/2243(INI)); European Parliament resolution of 10 November 2022 on 
racial justice, non-discrimination and anti-racism in the EU (2022/2005(INI)).

(6)  FRA (2023), Fundamental Rights Report – 2023, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, Chapter 4.
(7)  UN (n.d.), ‘World Conference against Racism, Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia and Related Intolerance, 31 August–7 September 2001, 

Durban’.

(8)  UN (n.d.), ‘International Decade for People of African Descent – 2015–2024’.
(9)  FRA (2022), ‘EU survey on immigrants and descendants of immigrants’.
(10)  See Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) (2018), A Human Rights-based Approach to Data, Geneva; 
European Commission (2021), Guidance note on the collection and use of equality data based on racial or ethnic origin, Publications Office 
of the European Union, Luxembourg.

(11)  See UN Women (2021), Intersectionality Resource Guide and Toolkit – An intersectional approach to leave no one behind.
(12)  FRA (2018), Second European Union Minorities and Discrimination Survey – Being Black in the EU, Publications Office of the European 

Union, Luxembourg.

(13)  Results for Sweden should be interpreted with caution; see the section ‘Survey in a nutshell’ and Annex I of this report for information on 

the potential impact of measures implemented to prevent the spread of COVID-19 on data collection and people’s everyday experiences.

(14)  Results for Sweden should be interpreted with caution; see the section ‘Survey in a nutshell’ for information on the potential impact of 

measures implemented to prevent the spread of COVID-19 on data collection and people’s everyday experiences.

(15)  See the section ‘Survey in a nutshell’ and Annex I of this report for information on the potential impact of measures implemented to 

prevent the spread of COVID-19 on data collection and people’s everyday experiences.

(16)  For more details on self-identification as ‘a person of African descent or a Black person’, see the section ‘Survey in a nutshell’ and Annex II 

of this report.

(17)  FRA (2017), Second European Union Minorities and Discrimination Survey – Main results, Publications Office of the European Union, 

Luxembourg; FRA (2018), Experiences and Perceptions of Antisemitism – Second survey on discrimination and hate crime against Jews in 
the EU, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg; FRA (2020), A Long Way to Go for LGBTI Equality, Publications Office of the 
European Union, Luxembourg.

(18)  OECD (2017), OECD Guidelines on Measuring Trust, OECD Publishing, Paris.
(19)  OECD (n.d.), ‘Trust in government’.

54

2
HATE CRIME: HARASSMENT AND 
VIOLENCE

Legal corner

Article 2 of the racial equality 
directive (Council Directive 2000/43/
EC) stipulates that harassment should 
be deemed discrimination when 
unwanted conduct related to racial 
or ethnic origin takes place with the 
purpose or effect of violating the 
dignity of a person and of creating 
an intimidating, hostile, degrading, 
humiliating or offensive environment.

The 2008 council framework 
decision on racism and 
xenophobia (Council Framework 
Decision 2008/913/JHA) requires 
Member States to ensure that 
racist and xenophobic motivation 
is considered an aggravating 
circumstance. The decision also 
requires them to ensure that 
manifestations of racism and 
xenophobia, such as hate crime 
and hate speech, are punishable 
by effective, proportionate and 
dissuasive criminal penalties.

The victims’ rights directive 
(Directive 2012/29/EU) provides a 
range of protections to victims of 
hate crime, including against repeat 
victimisation, intimidation and 
retaliation.

KEY FINDINGS

Racist harassment

 ― Nearly one in three respondents of African descent (30 %) say that they 
experienced racist harassment in the 5 years before the survey. There are 
considerable variations between EU Member States, ranging from 54 % 
of respondents in Germany and 52 % of respondents in Finland to 10 % 
of respondents in Portugal.

 ― One in four respondents (24 %) experienced racist harassment in the 

12 months before the survey (27 % of women and 22 % of men).

 ― The results are similar to those of the 2016 survey.

 ― Racist harassment most commonly involves offensive non-verbal cues 
(19 %), offensive or threatening comments (15 %) and more rarely threats 
of violence (4 %).

55

 ― Overall, young respondents are more likely to experience racist harassment. 
For example, 31 % of 16- to 24-year-olds experienced it compared with 
11 % of those aged 60 years and over.

 ― Women and men wearing traditional or religious clothing in public are 
more likely to experience racist harassment than those who do not wear 
such clothing in public (30 % compared with 21 %).

 ― 11 % of women of African descent who experienced racist harassment 

consider the most recent incident to be of a sexual nature.

 ― Only 12 % of the most recent incidents of racist harassment were reported 
to the police or other services (14 % of incidents against women and 
10 % of incidents against men). The reporting rates for racist harassment 
remain at the same low level as in 2016.

 ― One in four respondents (23 %) who are parents or guardians say that their 
children experienced racist harassment/bullying at school. The highest 
rates are in Austria, Finland, Germany and Ireland, at almost 40 %. 8 % 
of parents/guardians say that their children experienced racist violence 
at school, with the highest levels in Ireland (23 %) and Finland (20 %).

Racist violence

 ― In the 5 years before the survey, some 4 % of respondents experienced 
racist violence. The highest rates are in Finland (11 %), Germany (9 %) 
and Denmark (8 %). Some 2 % of respondents experienced a physical 
attack that they perceive as racially motivated in the 12 months before 
the survey.

 ― The prevalence of racist violence experienced in the past 5 years is similar 

in the 2016 and 2022 surveys, at 5 %.

 ― There are no substantial differences in the overall prevalence of racist 
violence between women and men. However, respondents who wear 
traditional or religious clothing in public mention racist violence more 
frequently than those who do not (6 % compared with 3 %).

 ― Overall, over a third (36 %) of those who say that they experienced racist 
violence reported the most recent incident to an organisation or service, 
most commonly the police. The rates of reporting racist violence have 
not changed since 2016.

Impact of racist violence

 ― Most of those who say they experienced racist violence (61 %) suffered 
negative psychological consequences (e.g. depression or anxiety). A 
further 22 % were afraid to leave the house or visit places.

56

2.1.  SCALE AND TYPES OF RACIST HARASSMENT

What did the 
survey ask?

The survey asked respondents about their 
experiences of five acts of harassment:

 ― offensive  or  threatening  comments  in 

person,

 ― threats of violence in person,

 ― offensive gestures or inappropriate staring,

 ― offensive  or  threatening  emails  or  text 
messages (Short Messaging Service),

 ― offensive  comments  made  about  them 

online.

Harassment may involve various acts 
intended to intimidate or threaten the victim, 
or acts that lead the victim to feel intimidated 
or threatened even when this was not the 
conscious aim of the person responsible. The 
acts of harassment asked about in the survey 
may involve a single incident or repeated 
incidents experienced over a longer time, 
with the same or different perpetrators.

To qualify as harassment, the incident had to 
involve an action that the respondent found 
offensive or threatening. Harassment that 
respondents perceive as because of their skin 
colour, religion or ethnic origin is classed as 
racist harassment.

Prevalence of racist harassment

2.1.1. 
On average, nearly every second respondent of African descent (41 %) in 
the 5 years before the survey and every third (33 %) in the 12 months before 
the survey say that they experienced harassment on any ground.

Overall, almost one in three respondents of African descent (30 %) indicate 
that they experienced racist harassment in the 5 years before the survey, with 
substantial variations across Member States (Figure 23). The highest 5-year 
prevalence of racist harassment is in Germany (54 %) and Finland (52 %), 
where more than half of respondents experienced at least one act of racist 
harassment. Over 40 % of respondents in Austria (46 %) and Ireland (44 %) 
experienced racist harassment. The lowest rates are in Portugal (10 %) (1).

About one in four (24 %) respondents experienced at least one form of racist 
harassment in the year preceding the survey (Figure 23). Differences between 
countries in terms of the prevalence of racist harassment in the 12 months 
before the survey show similar patterns to the results for the 5 years before 
the survey, with the highest rates in Finland and Germany (43 % and 42 %, 
respectively), and the lowest in Portugal (6 %).

57

FIGURE 23:  PREVALENCE OF RACIST HARASSMENT IN THE 12 MONTHS AND THE 5 YEARS BEFORE THE SURVEY, BY COUNTRY (%) a,b

52

54

43

42

46

44

35

35

33

32

40

40

FI

DE

AT

IE

BE

DK

FR

IT

PL

ES

LU

SE

PT

27

25

21

22

21

21

18

18

16

15

13

10

10

6

EU-13

24

30

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

In the 12 months before the survey

In the 5 years before the survey

Source:  FRA’s EU Survey on Immigrants and Descendants of Immigrants, 2022.

The results of the 2022 survey are consistent with those of EU-MIDIS II 
in  terms  of  the  overall  prevalence,  scope  and  circumstances  of  racist 
harassment. However, there were some differences across the countries 
surveyed (Figure 24).

 Notes:
a  Out of all respondents of African 

descent (n = 6 752); weighted results, 
sorted by the 12-month rate.

b  Questions: ‘In the past 5 years[/12 
months] (or since you have been in 
[country]), has somebody done the 
following things [that is, each of the 
five types of harassment asked about 
in the survey] to you?’ and ‘Did this 
ever happen to you because of your 
ethnic or immigrant background?’

58

FIGURE 24:  PREVALENCE OF RACIST HARASSMENT IN THE 5 YEARS BEFORE THE SURVEY, BY COUNTRY AND SURVEY YEAR (2016 

AND 2022) (%)a,b,c

100

90

80

70

60

50

54

48

46

40

37

40

41

40

30

20

10

0

63

52

32

27

21

51

44

48

52

41

25

21

20

22

23

21

13

10

30

30

EU-12/
EU-13

n.a.

n.a.

n.a.

n.a.

n.a.

AT

BE

DE

DK

ES

FI

FR

IE

IT

LU

MT

PL

PT

SE

UK

Sources: FRA’s EU-MIDIS II, 2016, and FRA’s EU Survey on Immigrants and Descendants of Immigrants, 2022.

2016

2022

 Notes:
a  Out of all respondents of African 

descent (n2016 = 5 803, n2022 = 6 752); 
weighted results.

b  Questions: ‘In the past 5 years (or 
since you have been in [country]), 
has somebody done the following 
things [that is, each of the five types 
of harassment asked about in the 
survey] to you?’ and ‘Did this ever 
happen to you because of your ethnic 
or immigrant background?’

c 

n.a., not available.

Types and frequency of racist harassment

2.1.2. 
People of African descent can experience different types of racist harassment. 
Like the EU-MIDIS II findings, in-person incidents of racist harassment were the 
most common form mentioned in the 12 months before the 2022 survey (23 %). 
These included offensive gestures or inappropriate staring (19 %), offensive 
or threatening comments (15 %) and being threatened with violence (4 %). 
The respondents rarely say that they experienced online harassment (2 %), 
although the overwhelming majority had internet access and a smartphone 
(95 %).

Of those who experienced any racist harassment in the 12 months before 
the survey, the majority say that they experienced multiple incidents: 29 % 
say that they experienced a single incident, 46 % between two and five, 
and another 25 % six or more.

2.1.3. 

 Prevalence of racist harassment by selected 
sociodemographic characteristics

Overall, 27 % of women and 22 % of men of African descent say that 
they experienced racist harassment in the 12 months before the survey 
(Figure 25). The prevalence was higher for younger respondents than for older 
respondents: almost a third (31 %) of 16- to 24-year-olds and 27 % of those 
between 25 and 44 years of age reported experiencing racist harassment, 
compared with 18 % of 45- to 59-year-olds and 11 % of those aged 60 years 
or over.

59

Differences in the 12-month prevalence of racist harassment are observed 
between respondents who wear traditional or religious clothing in public 
(including women who wear headscarves, hijabs or niqabs) and those 
who do not (30 % compared with 21 %) (Figure 25). The prevalence of 
racist harassment is higher for women who wear traditional or religious 
clothing in public than for men who do so (33 % compared with 26 %) 
(Figure 26).

Although the overall prevalence of racist harassment for respondents who 
identify as Christian (25 %) is similar to those who identify as Muslim (23 %), 
the prevalence is slightly higher for men who self-identify as Christian (35 %) 
than for those men who self-identify as Muslim (22 %). By contrast, the 
rate is the same for women who self-identify as Christian and as Muslim 
(33 % for both). 

Results for sociodemographic characteristics show that the prevalence of 
racist harassment is higher for descendants of immigrants than for immigrants 
(31 % and 23 %, respectively) (Figure 25). However, the rate is higher among 
women who are descendants of immigrants than among men who are 
descendants of immigrants (38 % compared with 21 %) (Figure 26).

With respect to education, rates of racist harassment are higher among 
respondents who have completed more than upper secondary education: 
37 % among respondents with tertiary education, compared with 25 % for 
those with upper secondary or post-secondary but not tertiary education 
and 16 % for those with no formal education or only primary education 
(Figure 25).

60

FIGURE 25:  PREVALENCE OF RACIST HARASSMENT IN THE 12 MONTHS BEFORE THE SURVEY, BY SELECTED SOCIODEMOGRAPHIC 

CHARACTERISTICS (%)a,b,c,d

r
e
d
n
e
G

e
g
A

n
o
i
t
a
c
u
d
e
f
o

l

d
e
t
e
p
m
o
c

l

e
v
e

l

t
s
e
h
g
H

i

s
n
o
i
t
a
t
i

m
i
L

n

i

s
e
i
t
i
v
i
t
c
a

l

e
p
o
e
p

o
d
y

l
l

a
u
s
u

t
s
a
p
e
h
t
n

i

i

p
h
s
n
e
z
i
t
i
C

y
e
v
r
u
s

f
o

s
h
t
n
o
m
6

n
o
i
t
a
r
e
n
e
G

y
r
t
n
u
o
c

n
o
g

i

i
l

e
R

s
r
a
e
W

l

a
n
o
i
t
i
d
a
r
t

s
u
o
g

i

i
l

e
r

r
o

n

i

i

g
n
h
t
o
l
c

c
i
l

b
u
p

y
t
i
r
o
n
m
a

i

f
o
t
r
a
p
s
a
g
n
y
f
i
t
n
e
d
i
-
f
l
e
S

i

Women
Men

16–24

25–44

45–59

60+

Lower secondary or lower (ISCED 0–2)

Upper secondary, or post-secondary but not tertiary (ISCED 3–4)
Tertiary (ISCED 5–8)

Severely limited or limited but not severely

Not limited at all or INR

Immigrants
Descendants of immigrants

Yes
No

No religion
Christian
Muslim
Other

Yes
No

A minority in terms of religion

Not a minority in terms of religion

A minority in terms of disability
Not a minority in terms of disability

A minority in terms of gender identity or gender expression
Not a minority in terms of gender identity or gender expression

A minority in terms of sexual orientation
Not a minority in terms of sexual orientation

Self-identiﬁes as a person of African descent / Black person
Does not self-identify as a person of African descent / Black person

27

22

31

27

18

11

16

25

37

25
24

23

31

24
24

25
25
23

32

30

21

31

22

27

24

24

24

26

38

36

13

20

0

40

60

80

100

Source:  FRA’s EU Survey on Immigrants and Descendants of Immigrants, 2022.

 Notes:
a  Out of all respondents of African descent (n = 6 752); weighted results.

b 

ISCED 0–2 includes those who have never been in formal education or who did not complete primary education, those in primary 
education and those in lower secondary education. ISCED 3–4 includes those in upper secondary education, vocational training, post-
secondary non-tertiary education, and all types of vocational training completed abroad corresponding to ISCED 35, 45 and 55 (hence, the 
proportion of respondents in ISCED 3–4 among respondents of African descent may be slightly overestimated compared with the general 
population). ISCED 5–8 includes short-cycle tertiary education, bachelor’s level or equivalent education, master’s level or equivalent 
education and doctorate or equivalent education.

c  Questions: ‘In the past 12 months or since you have been in [survey country], has somebody done the following things [that is, each of the five 
types of harassment asked about in the survey] to you?’ and ‘Did this ever happen to you because of your ethnic or immigrant background?’

d 

INR, item non-response.

61

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
FIGURE 26:  PREVALENCE OF RACIST HARASSMENT AGAINST WOMEN AND MEN IN THE 12 MONTHS BEFORE THE SURVEY, BY AGE, 
WEARING OF TRADITIONAL OR RELIGIOUS CLOTHING, IMMIGRANT GENERATION AND EDUCATION (%) a,b,c

60

50

40

37

28

29

23

18

17

13

10

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

33

23

26

20

16–24

25–44

45–59

60+

Women

Men

Women

Men

Wears traditional or religious clothing at least 
sometimes (including women’s headscarf, hijab 
or niqab)
Does not wear traditional or religious clothing at 
least sometimes (including women’s headscarf, 
hijab or niqab)

38

24

22

21

47

29

26

23

17

15

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

30

20

10

0

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Immigrants

Descendants of immigrants

ISCED 0–2

ISCED 3–4

ISCED 5–8

Women

Men

Women

Men

Source:  FRA’s EU Survey on Immigrants and Descendants of Immigrants, 2022.

 Notes:
a  Out of all respondents of African descent (women, n = 2 998; men, n = 3 741); weighted results.

b 

ISCED 0–2 includes those who have never been in formal education or who did not complete primary education, those in primary 
education and those in lower secondary education. ISCED 3–4 includes those in upper secondary education, vocational training, post-
secondary non-tertiary education, and all types of vocational training completed abroad corresponding to ISCED 35, 45 and 55 (hence, the 
proportion of respondents in ISCED 3–4 among respondents of African descent may be slightly overestimated compared with the general 
population). ISCED 5–8 includes short-cycle tertiary education, bachelor’s level or equivalent education, master’s level or equivalent 
education and doctorate or equivalent education.

c  Questions: ‘In the past 12 months or since you have been in [survey country], has somebody done the following things [that is, each of 
the five types of harassment asked about in the survey] to you?’ and ‘Did this ever happen to you because of your ethnic or immigrant 
background?’

62

Perpetrators of racist harassment

2.1.4. 
Most of those who say that they experienced racist harassment (68 %) do not 
know the perpetrator, especially the younger age groups. Respondents could 
give details of the perpetrator, such as their perceived ethnic background. 
Respondents most often identified people from work or in their educational 
setting as perpetrators (i.e. someone at work/college or at university / in 
training) (16 %). Women more often than men (15 % compared with 7 %) 
identified neighbours as perpetrators. Some 5 % of respondents identified 
members of right-wing extremist / racist groups as perpetrators, while 4 % 
identified public officials and 3 % mentioned police officers or border guards.

In most instances (65 %), perpetrators of the most recent incident of racist 
harassment were described as not having an ethnic minority background. 
More than one in four victims (29 %) say that the perpetrators of the most 
recent incident had an ethnic minority background other than their own. 
Some 6 % of victims identified the perpetrators as having the same ethnic 
or immigrant background as theirs.

In most instances (59 %), a man or men were identified as the perpetrator or 
perpetrators of the most recent incident of racist harassment. In the remaining 
incidents, either a woman (or women) (19 %) or both a man and a woman 
(20 %) were involved. 49 % of women and 69 % of men identified a man 
(or men) as the perpetrator or perpetrators of the most recent racist incident. 
26 % of women and 12 % of men identified a woman (or women) as the 
perpetrator or perpetrators of the most recent incident of racist harassment.

The survey also asked respondents whether the most recent incident of racist 
harassment was of a sexual nature. Every 10th woman who experienced 
racist harassment (11 %) characterised the most recent incident as sexual, 
in contrast to men, of whom only 1 % did.

Respondents say that more than half (53 %) of the most recent incidents 
of racist harassment took place in the street, on a square, or in a park, 
car park or another public place. Some 15 % of the incidents happened at 
respondents’ work; 9 % in a shop, cafe, restaurant, pub or club; and 13 % 
at some other place.

Reporting racist harassment and reasons for not reporting

2.1.5. 
Competent  authorities  can  only  provide  adequate  support  to  victims, 
investigate incidents or refer victims to appropriate organisations when 
incidents are reported. Respondents who experienced racist harassment 
were asked if they had reported the incident, either to the police or to some 
other organisation. If not, respondents could indicate why not.

The majority of those who say that they experienced racist harassment (87 %) 
did not report the most recent incident to any authority or service. Nearly 
half of those who reported the most recent incident of racist harassment 
did so to the police (44 %), and 34 % mentioned reporting the incident to 
somebody at the place where it happened.

Among those who reported a racist harassment incident to the police, more 
were rather dissatisfied (76 %) than satisfied (24 %) with how the police 
handled the complaint.

Differences in the reporting rates between women (14 %) and men (10 %) 
are small, and the reasons for not reporting tend not to vary between women 
and men. There are differences in the levels of reporting racist harassment 
depending on the respondent’s age: older respondents were more likely to 
report incidents than younger respondents. For example, 3 % of respondents 

63

who were 16–24 years old, 15 % of respondents who were 25–44 years old 
and 22 % of respondents who were 60 years old or older reported the most 
recent incident of racist harassment to any institution.

Respondents who self-identify as Muslims tend to refrain from reporting 
more often than those of other religions or those without a religion (8 % 
compared with 14 %).

Figure 27 shows the differences in the reasons for not reporting racist 
harassment between women and men. Nearly half (47 %) of respondents 
who did not report racist harassment most often felt that nothing would 
change if they reported the incident. Slightly more men (50 %) than women 
(45 %) and more younger people (16–24 years old) (56 %) than older people 
were of this opinion. Close to one third (32 %) of respondents say that they 
did not report the incident because it was too minor to report or because it 
was something that happened all the time. Again, more men (36 %) than 
women (28 %) were of these opinions. One fifth (20 %) of respondents 
found reporting too bureaucratic or time-consuming.

Notes:

a  Out of all respondents of African 
descent who experienced racist 
harassment in the 5 years before the 
survey and did not report it anywhere 
(women, n = 882; men, n = 953); 
weighted results, sorted by the 
category ‘women’.

b  Question: ‘Why did you not report the 
incident [that is, racist harassment 
experienced in the 5 years before 
the survey (or since you have been in 
[country])] or make a complaint to the 
police or any other organisation?’



FIGURE 27:  REASONS FOR NOT REPORTING THE MOST RECENT INCIDENT OF RACIST HARASSMENT TO AUTHORITIES OR SERVICES 

IN THE 5 YEARS BEFORE THE SURVEY, BY GENDER (%)a,b

45

50

28

36

Nothing would happen / change if reported

Not worth reporting / minor incident / happens all the time

Too bureaucratic / time-consuming

Concerned that would not be believed / taken seriously

Other reasons

Dealt with the problem oneself or with help from 
family / friends

Did not know where to go / who to contact

Lack of trust in the police / afraid of the police

Afraid of intimidation / retaliation

Language difﬁculties

Somebody stopped or discouraged against reporting

Somebody else reported the incident

Residence permit problems

Police found out about the incident on their own

3

3
2

2
2

1
0

0

0
0

2

18

17

22

14

11

12

12

12

8

7

6
7

6

Source:  FRA’s EU Survey on Immigrants and Descendants of Immigrants, 2022.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Women

Men

64

Like previous surveys, the 2022 survey findings confirm that rates of reporting 
racist harassment remain low.

2.2.  EXPERIENCES OF RACIST VIOLENCE

What did the 
survey ask?

The survey asked respondents 
about their experiences of physical 
violence that they perceived as 
having been racially motivated. 
This includes incidents where the 
perpetrator hit, pushed, kicked 
or grabbed the respondent. The 
survey also gave respondents an 
opportunity to provide information 
to place the hate-motivated 
incidents into context. It asked 
about the characteristics of 
perpetrators, whether the incidents 
were reported and reasons for not 
reporting to the police or any other 
organisation.

The survey also asked victims 
of hate crime about the impact 
on them of the latest racist 
physical attack, including 
emotional reactions, psychological 
consequences and socioeconomic 
effects.

2.2.1. 
Prevalence and frequency of racist violence incidents
Like the results of EU-MIDIS II from 2016, the findings of the 2022 survey 
show that on average 4 % of all respondents indicate that they experienced 
racist violence – that is, one or more physical attacks – in the 5 years before 
the survey. The results vary greatly across Member States, with the highest 
5-year rate of racist physical violence recorded for respondents in Finland 
(11 %), Germany (9 %) and Denmark (8 %). The victimisation rates are lowest 
in Portugal and Italy (Figure 28).

65

FIGURE 28:  PREVALENCE OF RACIST VIOLENCE EXPERIENCED IN THE 5 YEARS BEFORE THE SURVEY, BY COUNTRY (%)a,b

11

9

8

FI

DE

DK

IE

AT

PL

BE

SE

FR

ES

LU

6

6

5

5

3

3

2

2

IT

1

PT

0

EU-13

4

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Source:  FRA’s EU Survey on Immigrants and Descendants of Immigrants, 2022.

 Notes:
a  Out of all respondents of African 

descent (n = 6 752); weighted results.

b  Question: ‘In the past 5 years in 

[country] (or since you have been in 
[country]), [has somebody physically 
attacked you] because of your ethnic 
or immigrant background?’

2 % of all respondents indicate that they experienced racist violence in the 
12 months preceding the survey, with the highest rate for respondents in 
Finland (6 %), followed by Germany and Austria (both 5 %).

The results show that racist violence is a recurring experience for almost a third 
of victims, with the share twice as high for men as for women (38 % compared 
with 19 %). Among those respondents who say that they experienced racist 
violence in the 12 months before the survey, most (70 %) mention one such 
incident. More women (81 %) than men (62 %) experienced one incident. 
More than a quarter of respondents (26 %) say that they experienced two 
to five violent incidents (14 % of women compared with 34 % of men) and 
4 % say that they were physically attacked six or more times in the year 
before the survey.

More respondents who wear traditional or religious clothing in public say 
that they experienced racist violence in the 5 years before the survey than 
those who do not (6 % compared with 3 %). The rate for the 5 years before 
the survey is also twice as high for younger as for older respondents (5 % 
for 16- to 44-year-olds and 2 % for those over 45 years old).

66

2.2.2.  Reporting racist violence and reasons for not reporting
Overall, 36 % of those who say that they experienced racist violence reported 
the most recent incident to an organisation or service, most commonly to 
the police. Almost none of these respondents said that they contacted a 
victims’ support organisation (1 %).

Among those who reported the incident to the police, the majority were 
satisfied (58 %) with how the police handled the complaint.

As in earlier FRA surveys, the most cited reason for non-reporting is the lack 
of belief in its effectiveness: over a third (36 %) said that nothing would 
happen or change if they reported the incident. In EU-MIDIS II, in 2016, 41 % 
of respondents selected this reason. 19 % say that ‘reporting would have 
been too bureaucratic or time-consuming’ (in 2016, the figure was 13 %). 
16 % of victims noted the reason ‘lack of trust in the police or being afraid 
of the police’ (in 2016, this figure was 5 %). Some 15 % of victims of racist 
violence did not know where to go or whom to contact to report an incident 
(in 2016, this figure was 7 %).

Impact of racist harassment and violence

2.2.3. 
A violent incident can have a profound and long-term negative impact on 
the victim. Experiences of violence and harassment can affect people’s sense 
of safety and their physical and mental health, as well as their behaviour, 
prompting them to take steps to reduce the risk of repeated victimisation.

The  survey  asked  respondents  who  say  that  they  experienced  racist 
violence about the consequences of the most recent incident, ranging from 
psychological problems and injuries to being unable to work and facing 
financial problems. The majority (61 %) mention experiencing negative 
psychological consequences (e.g. depression or anxiety). More than one in 
five (22 %) were afraid to leave the house or visit places (see Figure 29).

Nearly one third of those who experienced racist violence (31 %) say that 
they were injured but did not need medical assistance or hospitalisation. 
12 % say that they did need medical assistance or hospitalisation.

67

FIGURE 29:  CONSEQUENCES OF THE MOST RECENT INCIDENT OF RACIST VIOLENCE, BY GENDER (%)a,b

I had psychological problems (e.g. depression or anxiety)

71

51

I had an injury / injuries but did not need medical assistance 
or hospitalisation

28

35

I was afraid to leave the house or visit places

19

25

I had an injury / injuries and needed medical assistance or
hospitalisation

Other impact

I became unable to work or stopped working (temporarily 
or permanently)

16

15

9

9

5

4

I faced ﬁnancial problems

2

11

It didn’t affect me

18

37

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

 Notes:
a  Out of all respondents of African 
descent who experienced racist 
physical violence in the 5 years 
before the survey (women, n = 126; 
men, n = 205); weighted results.

b  Question: ‘How did this last incident 

[where somebody physically attacked 
you because of your ethnic or 
immigrant background] affect you?’

Source:  FRA’s EU Survey on Immigrants and Descendants of Immigrants, 2022.

Women

Men

More women (71 %) than men (51 %) who say that they experienced racist 
violence report having psychological problems (e.g. depression or anxiety) 
as a result.

The survey also asked respondents how often they were worried about 
getting harassed, offended or physically attacked because of their ethnic or 
immigrant background when out in public. Over one third (35 %) say that 
they were worried at least sometimes about both being confronted with 
racist verbal insults or harassment and being physically attacked. Close to 
half of respondents (42 %) shared their worry about becoming a victim of 
inappropriate staring or offensive gestures in public.

The highest shares of people worried at least sometimes about potentially 
experiencing racist harassment in public are in Germany, Finland and Austria 
(over 70 % for respective categories) (Figure 30). These are also the countries 
in which the prevalence of racist harassment is highest, as Section 2.1.1 of 
this report shows. The highest shares of people worried, at least sometimes, 
about potentially experiencing racist violence in public are in Germany, Ireland, 
Finland and Poland (over one third of respondents) (Figure 30).

68

FIGURE 30:  RESPONDENTS WORRYING SOMETIMES, OFTEN OR ALL THE TIME ABOUT BECOMING A VICTIM OF VERBAL INSULTS 
OR OFFENSIVE COMMENTS, INAPPROPRIATE STARING OR OFFENSIVE GESTURES, AND PHYSICAL ATTACKS BECAUSE 
OF THEIR ETHNIC OR IMMIGRANT BACKGROUND, BY COUNTRY (%)a,b,c

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

82

79

75

74

79

75

62

60

64

62

46

40

37

26

18

33

34

24

16

5

31

24

17

48

49

42

34

29

54

52

38

15

10

20

14

7

42

35

29

28

18

13

AT

BE

DE

DK

ES

FI

FR

IE

IT

LU

PL

PT

SE

EU-13

Worries about becoming a victim of verbal insults or offensive comments

Worries about becoming a victim of inappropriate staring or offensive gestures

Worries about becoming a victim of a physical attack

Source:  FRA’s EU Survey on Immigrants and Descendants of Immigrants, 2022.

14 % of respondents avoid certain places, such as shops or cafes, or taking 
public transport. The highest proportions were in Germany (30 %), Finland 
(29 %), Ireland (29 %) and Austria (27 %), and the lowest proportions in 
Spain (7 %), France (10 %) and Italy (12 %).

 Notes:
a  Out of all respondents of African 

descent (n = 6 752); weighted results.

b  Question: ‘When in public, how often 
are you worried that the following 
things might occur because of your 
ethnic or immigrant background 
[verbal insults or offensive comments; 
inappropriate staring, offensive 
gestures; a physical attack]?’ 
Response categories: ‘never’, 
‘sometimes’, ‘often’ and ‘all the time’.

c 

Figures represented by the bars 
include the response categories 
‘sometimes’, ‘often’ and ‘all the time’.

69

Endnote

(1)  Results for Sweden should be interpreted with caution. See the section ‘Survey in a nutshell’ for information on the potential impact of 

measures to reduce the spread of COVID-19 on data collection and people’s everyday experiences.

70

3
POLICE STOPS

KEY FINDINGS

 ― One in four (26 %) respondents of African descent were stopped by the 
police in the 5 years before the survey and 12 % were stopped in the 
year preceding the survey.

 ― Men were more likely to be stopped by the police than women.

 ― Fewer respondents of African descent say that the police stopped them 

in 2022 in the 12 months preceding the survey than in 2016.

 ― Among those stopped in the 12 months before the survey, more than 
half (58 %) perceived the most recent stop as racially motivated. The 
highest rates were in Germany (69 %), Spain (66 %) and Sweden 
(58 %), with the lowest rates in Luxembourg (22 %), Poland (32 %) 
and Finland (34 %).

 ― Overall, more women than men perceived the most recent stop as a 

result of ethnic profiling (65 % compared with 56 %).

 ― Overall, more younger respondents than older respondents perceived 

the most recent stop to be a result of ethnic profiling.

 ― More than half (58 %) of the respondents whom the police stopped in 
the 5 years before the survey say that they were treated respectfully 
and 19 % say that they were treated disrespectfully.

 ― Respondents who perceived the most recent police stop as a result of 
racial profiling have a much lower average level of trust in the police 
(with a score of 3.9 on a scale of 0 to 10, where 0 stands for ‘no trust at 
all’ and 10 signifies ‘complete trust’) than those who were stopped but 
did not perceive the stop as resulting from discriminatory racial profiling 
(with a score of 6.1).

71

According to Article 11 of Directive (EU) 2016/680, profiling that is based solely or mainly on one or more 
protected characteristics and results in discrimination is prohibited under EU law.

The police commonly and legitimately use profiling in the context of law enforcement based on credible 
intelligence. It involves categorising individuals according to their inferred ‘changeable’ or ‘unchangeable’ 
characteristics, such as gender, race, skin colour, ethnic or social origin, language, religion or belief. While police 
officers can lawfully resort to profiling for stops or search operations, they cannot single out individuals solely 
or mainly based on personal characteristics (*). Doing so without any other objective or reasonable justification 
amounts to discriminatory ethnic profiling, which is illegal and undermines trust in the police.

The evidence shows persistent and widespread discriminatory ethnic profiling in the EU. Despite this, official data 
on the prevalence and outcome of this practice are almost non-existent, as outlined in FRA’s forthcoming report 
on addressing racism in policing. FRA’s survey data can provide relevant information needed to develop targeted 
policies and measures.

(*) FRA (2018), Preventing Unlawful Profiling Today and in the Future: A guide, Publications Office of the 
European Union, Luxembourg. 

Racism and 
policing

What did the 
survey ask?

72

The EU anti-racism action plan 2020–2025 invited FRA to ‘collect and disseminate good 
practices promoting fair policing, building on their existing training manual and guide 
on preventing unlawful profiling’.

FRA’s forthcoming report on addressing racism in policing provides data relating to 
racism in policing. The research for the report documented racist misconduct by the 
police, including disrespectful and hostile behaviour, the use of racist language, the 
use of excessive force and physical attacks. Misconduct also includes institutionalised 
practices such as racial profiling and the overpolicing of certain communities. Based 
on a comprehensive mapping of EU-27 legislation, policies, data and accountability 
mechanisms, the report recommends:

 ― the effective enforcement of the existing legal framework to ensure that all rights 

and obligations are respected in practice;

 ― the improvement of national collection of reliable data on racism and racial discrimination 
in policing, effective whistleblowing protection and the enhancement of accountability 
mechanisms, including a strong independent oversight mechanism;

 ― embedding measures to address racism in policing in a broader national strategy or 
action plan against racism, with monitored implementation and measured outcomes.

The 2022 survey asked respondents about police stops. Respondents could provide 
additional context about whether they felt that they were stopped, searched or 
questioned based on their ethnic or immigrant background.

3.1.  ENCOUNTERS WITH LAW ENFORCEMENT

The results show substantial variation between EU Member States regarding 
rates of police stops. A quarter (26 %) of respondents were stopped at least 
once by the police in the 5 years before the survey (see Figure 31), and 12 % 
in the 12 months before the survey.

Respondents in Austria were stopped at the highest rates (40 % in the 5 years 
before the survey and 21 % in the 12 months before the survey). Germany 
(33 %) had the highest rate of stops in the 5 years before the survey and 
Ireland (15 %) had the highest rate for the 12 months before the survey.

Over the 5 years before the survey, men of African descent were almost 
three times as likely to be stopped as women (38 % compared with 13 %). 
When looking at the 12 months before the survey, the difference is almost 
fivefold (19 % compared with 4 %). The prevalence of police stops was 
considerably higher for men than for women in all countries the survey 
covers during both periods.

The  police  were  more  likely  to  stop  younger  respondents  than  older 
respondents. This holds true for the 5 years before the survey: the police 
stopped 34 % of those aged 16–24 years, 29 % of those aged 25–44 years, 
22 % of those aged 45–59 years and 11 % of those aged 60 years and over. 
It also applies to the 12 months before the survey: the police stopped 22 % 
of those aged 16–24 years, 11 % of those aged 25–44 years, 9 % of those 
aged 45–59 years and 5 % of those aged 60 years and over.

Respondents who identify as lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender or intersex 
were stopped by police at higher rates than respondents who do not identify 
as such (35 % for the 5 years before the survey and 23 % for the 12 months 
before the survey compared with 26 % for the 5 years before the survey 
and 12 % for the 12 months before the survey).

The  prevalence  of  police  stops  does  not  substantially  differ  between 
respondents who at least sometimes wear traditional or religious clothing 
in public (25 % for the 5 years before the survey and 11 % for the 12 months 
before the survey) and those who never do so (27 % for the 5 years before 
the survey and 12 % for the 12 months before the survey). This is the case 
for both women and men.

73

FIGURE 31:  PREVALENCE OF POLICE STOPS IN THE 5 YEARS BEFORE THE SURVEY, BY COUNTRY AND GENDER (%)a,b,c

T
A

E
B

E
D

K
D

S
E

I
F

R
F

E

I

T

I

U
L

L
P

T
P

E
S

3
1
-
U
E

Women
Men
Women
Men
Women
Men
Women
Men
Women
Men
Women
Men
Women
Men
Women
Men
Women
Men
Women
Men
Women
Men
Women
Men
Women
Men

24

12

19

12

6

13

14

19

53

36

45

40

34

36

39

38

36

7

7

5

7

12

29

17

29

32

Women
Men

13

0

38

20

76

47

88

88

94

64

81

55

60

87

86

81

93

88

83

93

95

93

66

64

61

62

64

71

71

68

87

62

40

60

80

100

Source:  FRA’s EU Survey on Immigrants and Descendants of Immigrants, 2022.

Stopped in the 5 years before the survey

Not stopped

Figure 32 compares rates of police stops in the 12 months before the survey 
between the general population, based on data collected in 2019 for the 
Fundamental Rights Survey (1), and people of African descent, based on 
EU-MIDIS II data from 2016 and data from the 2022 survey.

In most EU countries for which data are available, respondents of African 
descent experienced fewer police stops in 2022 than the general population 
in 2019. Exceptions were Denmark and Spain. The rates of police stops among 
people of African descent were also lower in 2022 than in 2016 in all countries 
for which data were available, except Denmark, Ireland and Sweden. The 
implementation of measures to reduce the spread of COVID-19, including 
stay-at-home orders, may have influenced rates of police stops for the 
survey conducted in 2022.

 Notes:
a  Out of all respondents of African 

descent (women, n = 2 998; men, 
n = 3 741); weighted results.

b  Question: ‘In the past 5 years in 

[country] (or since you have been 
in [country]), have you ever been 
stopped, searched or questioned by 
the police?’

c 

Some bars do not add up to 100 %; 
this is due to rounding.

74

FIGURE 32:  PREVALENCE OF POLICE STOPS IN THE 12 MONTHS BEFORE THE SURVEY FOR RESPONDENTS OF AFRICAN DESCENT 

AND THE GENERAL POPULATION, BY COUNTRY (%)a,b

60

50

49

40

30

20

10

0

25

21

22

19

15

13

21

17

13

15

12

17

15

13

12

10

9

18

16

17

13

12

12

14

14

11

n.a.

4

n.a.

12

12

7

16

14

13

7

5

7

5

n.a.

n.a.

AT

BE

DE

DK

ES

FI

FR

IE

IT

LU MT

PL

PT

SE

2016

2022

General population (2019)

12

11

5

3
n.a.

UK EU-12/
EU-13

Sources: FRA’s EU-MIDIS II, 2016; Fundamental Rights Survey, 2019; FRA’s EU Survey on Immigrants and Descendants of Immigrants, 

2022. 

 Notes:
a 

b 

For the Fundamental Rights 
Survey, the percentage is out of 
all respondents (n = 17 603). For 
EU-MIDIS II and the EU Survey on 
Immigrants and Descendants of 
Immigrants, the percentage is out of 
all respondents of African descent 
(n2016 = 5 803; n2022 = 6 752). 
EU Survey on Immigrants and 
Descendants of Immigrants questions: 
‘In the past 5 years in [country] (or 
since you have been in [country]), 
have you ever been stopped, 
searched or questioned by the 
police?’ and ‘And has this happened 
to you in the past 12 months?’ 
The results for EU-MIDIS II and the 
Fundamental Rights Survey are based 
on similar questions.

3.2.  CIRCUMSTANCES AND NATURE OF THE MOST 

RECENT POLICE STOP

A total of 4 in 10 respondents of African descent who say that they were 
stopped in the 5 years before the survey were in a car (41 %) or on the 
street (38 %). Much fewer (8 %) were stopped on public transport (bus, 
tram, train, underground, etc.).

There are noticeable country variations. The share of respondents of African 
descent stopped in a car is highest in Finland (66 %) and Portugal (61 %). 
Spain (58 %) and Belgium (41 %) have the highest rates of respondents 
who were stopped on the street. Germany (17 %) and Austria (11 %) had 
the highest shares of respondents stopped on public transport.

Young respondents are more likely than older respondents to be stopped by 
police on the street (56 % of those aged 16–24 years, 38 % of those aged 
25–44 years, 20 % of those aged 45–59 years and 4 % of those aged 60 years 
or over) or on public transport (10 % of those aged 16–24 years, 8 % of those 
aged 25–44 years, 7 % of those aged 45–59 years and 4 % of those aged 
60 years or over). The opposite applies to stops where respondents were 
in a car (23 % for those aged 16–24 years, 41 % of those aged 25–44 years, 
57 % of those aged 45–59 years and 84 % of those aged 60 years and over).

Most respondents of African descent were asked for their identity papers 
(72 %) or were asked various questions (59 %) when the police stopped 
them. 37 % of all respondents stopped were asked for their driving licence 
or vehicle documents, 21 % were searched or had their car/vehicle searched 
and 11 % were given advice or warned about their behaviour. 11 % were 
fined, 10 % did an alcohol or drug test and 7 % were arrested or taken to a 
police station. Fewer than 1 % of respondents mentioned that police took 
money or something from them in the form of a bribe.

75

Men were more likely than women to be asked for their identity papers 
(77 % compared with 58 %), to have their car/vehicle searched (23 % 
compared with 13 %) and to be arrested or taken to a police station (9 % 
compared with 4 %). Women were more likely than men to be asked questions 
(64 % compared with 58 %), to be asked for their driving licence or vehicle 
documents (41 % compared with 35 %) and to be given advice or warned 
about their behaviour (17 % compared with 10 %).

3.3.  TREATMENT BY THE POLICE DURING STOPS

Respondents who say that the police stopped them in the 5 years preceding 
the survey were asked how the police treated them. 58 % say that they were 
treated either very or fairly respectfully during the stop. One in four (23 %) 
considered that the police were neither respectful nor disrespectful. One in 
five (19 %) say that the police treated them very or fairly disrespectfully 
(Figure 33).

Respondents in Belgium tend to evaluate the conduct of the police during 
the most recent stop less favourably, with almost a third (31 %) saying that 
the police treated them very or fairly disrespectfully during the most recent 
stop. By contrast, over three quarters of respondents from Poland (81 %) and 
Portugal (76 %) say that the police treated them very or fairly respectfully.

There was little difference between the proportions of women (21 %) and men 
(18 %) who perceived the police treatment to be fairly or very disrespectful 
during the most recent stop.

Young respondents aged 16–24 years who the police stopped in the 5 years 
before the survey (30 %) were more likely to perceive their treatment by 
the police as fairly or very disrespectful than older respondents (15 % for 
those aged 25–44 years, 16 % for those aged 45–59 years and 14 % for those 
aged 60 years or over).

A higher share of respondents who are (severely) limited in their daily activities 
(27 %) mentioned that the police treated them very or fairly disrespectfully 
during the most recent stop than respondents who are not limited in their 
daily activities (17 %).

76

FIGURE 33:  TREATMENT BY THE POLICE DURING THE MOST RECENT POLICE STOP IN THE 5 YEARS BEFORE THE SURVEY, BY 

COUNTRY (%)a,b,c

58

40

45

20

17

PL

PT

ES

IT

SE

FI

IE

FR

LU

DE

AT

BE

DK

23

36

27

18

49

44

44

24

33

32

16

23

20

16

23

27

35

24

34

24

26

EU-13

23

0

10

20

30

35

40

18

0

1

18

6

12

25

7

8

5

4

20

4

11

23

23

20

13

29

33

34

7

9

8

12

12

22

41

12

19

12

11

23

8

7

9

6

5

6

7

8

50

60

70

80

90

100

Very respectful

Fairly respectful

Neither respectful nor disrespectful

Fairly disrespectful

Very disrespectful

Source:  FRA’s EU Survey on Immigrants and Descendants of Immigrants, 2022.

 Notes:
a  Out of all respondents of African 

descent who were stopped by the 
police in the 5 years before the 
survey (n = 1 689); weighted results, 
sorted by the rate of respondents 
who answered ‘very respectful’ or 
‘fairly respectful’.

b  Question: ‘THE LAST TIME you were 
stopped, how respectful [were] the 
police when dealing with you?’

c 

Some bars do not add up to 100 %; 
this is due to rounding and because 
item non-response categories 
(answers ‘don’t know’, ‘don’t 
understand the question’ and ‘prefer 
not to say’) are not displayed in the 
figure. The total share of item non-
responses did not exceed 1 % in any 
of the surveyed countries.

Of respondents who indicated that a police officer was (very) disrespectful 
during the most recent stop, 6 % say that they reported the incident.

Perceived discriminatory ethnic profiling

3.3.1. 
Consistently with the results of the EU-MIDIS II in 2016, nearly half (48 %) 
of respondents whom the police stopped in the 5 years before the survey 
believe that this was because of their immigrant or ethnic minority background, 
including their skin colour or their religion. The rate is even higher (58 %) 
among those stopped in the 12 months before the survey. The highest rates 
are found among respondents in Germany (57 % for the 5 years before the 
survey and 69 % for the 12 months before the survey). These rates are about 
two to three times higher than in Luxembourg.

Luxembourg is the survey country with the lowest percentage of respondents 
who perceived their police stop to be motivated by their ethnic or immigrant 
background (23 % for the 5 years before the survey and 22 % for the 12 months 
before the survey).

77

Women were more likely than men to perceive the most recent stop as 
discriminatory (65 % compared with 56 %). Younger people were more 
likely than older people to perceive the most recent stop as discriminatory 
(69 % of those aged 16–24 years, 59 % of those aged 25–44 years, 39 % of 
those aged 45–59 years and 34 % of those aged 60 years or over), including 
in the 5 years before the survey (63 % of those aged 16–24 years, 49 % of 
those aged 25–44 years, 33 % of those aged 45–59 years and 24 % of those 
aged 60 years or over).

Between 2016 and 2022, the rate of perceived discriminatory ethnic profiling 
among respondents whom the police stopped in the 5 years before the survey 
increased in five countries (Denmark, Finland, France, Germany and Ireland). 
The rate remained about the same in Austria and Sweden (see Figure 34). 
Italy and Luxembourg saw the largest decreases (of up to 20 percentage 
points), while Germany and Finland saw the largest increases (of up to 
15 percentage points).

FIGURE 34:  MOST RECENT POLICE STOP PERCEIVED TO BE DUE TO DISCRIMINATORY ETHNIC PROFILING AMONG THOSE STOPPED 

IN THE 5 YEARS BEFORE THE SURVEY, BY COUNTRY AND SURVEY YEAR (2016 AND 2022) (%)a,b,c,d

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

56

53

57

48

42

54

47

52

(66)

60

48

40

42

39

40

40

27

28

23

51

51

48

41

38

35

30

27

n.a.

n.a.

n.a.

n.a.

n.a.

AT

BE

DE

DK

ES

FI

FR

IE

IT

LU

MT

PL

PT

SE

UK

EU-12/
EU-13

2016

2022

Sources: FRA’s EU-MIDIS II, 2016; FRA’s EU Survey on Immigrants and Descendants of Immigrants, 2022.

3.3.2.  Police stops and trust in the police
Overall, respondents of African descent have higher levels of trust in the 
police and the legal system than the general population (see Section 1.4.1 of 
this report). However, discrimination, harassment or violence can undermine 
that trust (see Section 1.4.2).

78

 Notes:
a  Out of all respondents of African 

descent whom the police stopped 
in the 5 years before the survey 
(n2016 = 1 620, n2022 = 1 689); 
weighted results.

b  Question: ‘Do you think that the 
last time you were stopped was 
because of your ethnic or immigrant 
background?’

c 

Results based on a small number 
of responses are statistically less 
reliable. Therefore, results based on 
20 to 49 unweighted observations 
in a group total are noted in 
parentheses.

d 

n.a., not available.

When victims report hate crime and harassment, they do so mainly to the police, a recent FRA report (*) shows. 
However, victims across different minority groups consistently state that lack of trust in the police is a prominent 
reason for not reporting.

(*) FRA (2021), Encouraging Hate Crime Reporting – The role of law enforcement and other authorities, 
Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg.

Like EU-MIDIS II in 2016, this survey suggests that perceiving police stops 
as discriminatory reduces respondents’ level of trust in the police. Across 
all countries surveyed, respondents who perceive the most recent police 
stop as involving discriminatory racial profiling have a much lower average 
level of trust in the police (with a score of 3.9 on a scale of 0 to 10, where 0 
stands for ‘no trust at all’ and 10 signifies ‘complete trust’) than those who 
were not stopped (with a score of 6.6). They also have a lower level of trust 
than those who were stopped but did not perceive the stop as involving 
discriminatory racial profiling (with a score of 6.1) (Figure 35).

A similar effect on trust in the police is observed in relation to experiences 
of racial discrimination, as Section 1.4.2 of this report shows.

FIGURE 35:  LEVELS OF TRUST IN THE POLICE, BY COUNTRY AND EXPERIENCES WITH POLICE STOPS IN THE 5 YEARS BEFORE THE 

SURVEY (AVERAGE VALUES ON A SCALE OF 0 TO 10)a,b,c

10

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

0

6.7
6.7

5.0

7.5

6.4

5.3

7.2
7.1

(4.8)

7.8

6.9

(5.8)

7.1
6.7

5.0

6.7

5.9

3.8

7.3

6.7

4.2

6.3

5.7

3.0

6.5
6.5

(5.6)

7.5

6.2

(4.9)

(7.2)
7.1

7.2

6.5

(4.8)

6.6
6.1

3.9

6.9

4.2

2.5

AT

BE

DE

DK

ES

FI

FR

IE

IT

LU

PL

PT

SE

EU-13

Not stopped

Stopped but no racial proﬁling

Stopped, with perceived racial proﬁling

Source:  FRA’s EU Survey on Immigrants and Descendants of Immigrants, 2022.

 Notes:
a  Out of all respondents of African descent who provided a valid answer to the question on trust in police (n = 6 440); weighted results.

b  Questions: ‘Please tell me on a scale of 0–10 how much you personally trust each of the [country’s] institutions I read out. 0 means you 

do not trust an institution at all, and 10 means you have complete trust.’ Sub-question: [country]’s police. ‘In the past 5 years in [country] 
(or since you have been in [country]), have you ever been stopped, searched or questioned by the police?’ and ‘Do you think that the last 
time you were stopped was because of your ethnic or immigrant background?’

c 

Results based on a small number of responses are statistically less reliable. Therefore, results based on 20 to 49 unweighted observations 
in a group total or based on cells with fewer than 20 unweighted observations are noted in parentheses. Results based on fewer than 20 
unweighted observations in a group total are not published.

79

Endnote

(1)  FRA (2021), Your Rights Matter: Police stops, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, pp. 8–9.

80

4
SOCIOECONOMIC SITUATION AND 
LIVING CONDITIONS

KEY FINDINGS

Education

 ― More than a third (36 %) of respondents aged 16 to 64 have completed at 
most lower secondary education or have not completed any educational 
level (ISCED 0–2). The corresponding rate among the general population 
in the same age group is 25 %. Some 42 % of respondents, close to the 
percentage in the general population (46 %), have completed upper 
secondary or post-secondary education (ISCED 3–4). About one in five 
respondents of African descent (22 %) have completed tertiary education 
(ISCED 5–8), compared with 30 % of the general population in the EU-27.

 ― On average, young people (18- to 24-year-olds) of African descent in the 
13 EU Member States are three times more likely to be early school-leavers 
(not continuing education or training after obtaining lower secondary 
education) than young people of the general population in the same age 
group (36 % in the EU-13 compared with 10 % in the EU-27).

Employment

 ― About a third (32 %) of the respondents work in elementary occupations, 
compared with 8 % of the general population across all 27 EU Member 
States.

81

 ― Every third (30 %) employed respondent has a temporary contract, which 
is about three times the percentage in the general population (11 %).

 ― Respondents are more often overqualified for the job they do than the 
general population regardless of their citizenship. Around every third EU 
citizen of African descent with tertiary education works in an occupation 
below their level of education (35 % compared with 21 % in the general 
population) and more than half of non-EU citizens of African descent do 
so (57 % compared with 40 % in the general population).

Housing and poverty

 ― Every third respondent (32 %) faces difficulties or great difficulties in 
making ends meet, while on average 18 % of the general population in 
the EU indicate that they have faced financial difficulties.

 ― Every third respondent (31 %) faced a loss of income during the COVID-19 

pandemic.

 ― Energy poverty affects people of African descent disproportionally. 14 % 
say that they cannot afford to keep their home warm, compared with 
7 % of the general population.

 ― Nearly one in two (45 %) respondents live in overcrowded housing, a 
percentage that is 2.5 times higher than in the general population in the 
EU-27 (17 % in 2021).

Health

 ― Overall, 81 % of respondents aged 16 to 64 years assess their general 
health condition as very good or good. This is a similar percentage to that 
in the general population of the same age group in the EU-27 (79 %). The 
percentage of respondents stating that they have long-standing limitations 
(some or severe) in their usual activities due to health problems is similar 
between people of African descent and the general population aged 16 
to 64 years (20 % and 17 %, respectively).

 ― Compared with the general population, people of African descent are 
nearly twice as likely to have had unmet medical needs in the 12 months 
before the survey (9 % compared with 5 %).

4.1.  EDUCATION

Respondents were asked about the highest level of education they had 
achieved either in the survey country or elsewhere and about their participation 
in education or training at the time of the interview.

42 % of respondents aged 16–64 had completed upper secondary or post-
secondary education (ISCED 3–4) (Figure 36). 36 % had completed secondary 
education at most or had not completed any educational level (ISCED 0–2). 
About one in five respondents of African descent (22 %) had completed 
tertiary education (ISCED 5–8). In 2016, the rates for ISCED 0–2, ISCED 3–4 
and ISCED 5–8 were 33 %, 36 % and 30 %, respectively, for respondents of 
African descent.

The results are comparable to findings presented in the third edition of the 
joint OECD and European Commission publication, Indicators of Immigrant 
Integration 2023: Settling in (1).

82

Legal corner

Article 14 of the EU Charter of 
Fundamental Rights provides that 
everyone has the right to education 
and to have access to vocational and 
continuing training. This right includes 
the opportunity to receive free 
compulsory education. The European 
Pillar of Social Rights action plan 
states that everyone has the right to 
high-quality and inclusive education, 
training and lifelong learning.

The right to education is also 
protected under international human 
rights law, including Article 28 of 
the UN Convention on the Rights 
of the Child and Article 13 of the 
International Covenant on Economic, 
Social and Cultural Rights.

No major differences exist in educational attainment between women and 
men of African descent. Most younger respondents (16–24 years old) had 
completed at most an educational level of ISCED 3 or 4 (52 %). Almost every 
second respondent aged 45–59 years had not completed any educational 
level or had completed lower secondary education at most (48 %).

Respondents who are citizens of the survey country or EU / European Free 
Trade Association (EFTA) countries tend to have completed higher educational 
levels (55 % and 54 % have completed ISCED 3 and 4, respectively) than 
respondents who are citizens of other countries (outside EU/EFTA countries) 
(31 % and 30 %, respectively).

FIGURE 36:  HIGHEST COMPLETED LEVEL OF EDUCATION AMONG RESPONDENTS AGED 16 TO 64 YEARS, COMPARED WITH THE 

GENERAL POPULATION, BY COUNTRY (%)a,b,c,d,e

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

69

70

48

46

38

37

39

37

28

25

25

24

29

33

19

52

39

49

47

34

29

24

18

2

9

2

61

58

41

36

28

22

23

16

52

41

31

11

7

42

36

22

AT

BE

DE

DK

ES

FI

FR

IE

IT

LU

PL

PT

SE

EU-13

ISCED 0–2

ISCED 3–4

ISCED 5–8

General population (2021)

Sources: FRA’s EU Survey on Immigrants and Descendants of Immigrants, 2022; results for the general population (2021) are from 

Eurostat (edat_lfse_03) (downloaded 15 February 2023).

 Notes:
a  Out of all respondents of African descent aged 16-64 years (n = 6 462); weighted results.

b 

c 

d 

The overall average for the general population is the EU-27 value, while the average for the survey respondents includes only the 
countries presented in the graph.

Results have limited comparability with the Eurostat statistics for the general population. Eurostat data refer to the population aged 
15–64 years; FRA survey data refer to respondents of African descent aged 16–64 years.

ISCED 0–2 includes those who have never been in formal education or who did not complete primary education, those in primary 
education and those in lower secondary education. ISCED 3–4 includes those in upper secondary education, vocational training, post-
secondary non-tertiary education, and all types of vocational training completed abroad corresponding to ISCED 35, 45 and 55 (hence, the 
proportion of respondents in ISCED 3–4 among respondents of African descent may be slightly overestimated compared with the general 
population). ISCED 5–8 includes short-cycle tertiary education, bachelor’s level or equivalent education, master’s level or equivalent 
education and doctorate or equivalent education.

e  Questions: ‘What is the highest level of education you have completed?’, ‘What is the highest level of education you have completed in 

[country]?’ and ‘And what is the highest level of education you completed in another country?’

Young people aged 18 to 24 years who are not in education or training after 
completing only lower secondary education are defined as early school-
leavers. Overall, more than a third of 18- to 24-year-olds (36 %) are early 
school-leavers. This rate is more than three times higher than the average 
for the general population in the EU-27 (10 %).

83

A higher proportion of men of African descent (45 %) than women of African 
descent (23 %) are early school-leavers. Moreover, those who are proficient 
in the national language are less likely to be early school-leavers (30 %) than 
those with poor language proficiency (82 %).

Age is a key factor: while 86 % of respondents aged 16–24 years have a good 
level of proficiency in the national language, the proportion is 60 % among 
those aged 45–59 years. This is consistent with differences observed between 
immigrants and descendants of immigrants (born in EU Member States, EFTA 
countries or the United Kingdom with at least one parent born in a country 
of sub-Saharan Africa). 97 % of descendants of immigrants have a high level 
of proficiency in the national language, compared with 63 % of immigrants.

The longer respondents reside in the survey country, the higher their 
proficiency in the national language. While 59 % of respondents of African 
descent who have stayed in the country for less than 5 years have a good 
level of proficiency in the national language, the proportion increases to 72 % 
for those who have resided in the survey country for more than 20 years. 
Settled immigrants are almost twice as likely as recent arrivals to report being 
proficient in the language of their host country (40 % for recent (fewer than 
5 years) compared with 70 % for settled (10 years or more) migrants) (2).

Respondents living with children aged 15 years or younger in 
their household provided information on children’s education. 
Nearly all children (99 %) between three years of age and 
the starting age for compulsory primary education attend 
early childhood education, with no differences between girls 
and boys. Similarly, almost all children aged 6–15 years attend 
education (97 %), with no difference between girls and boys 
and only a small difference between those aged 6–9 years 
(94 %) and those aged 10–15 years (99 %).

4.2.  ACCESS TO EMPLOYMENT AND QUALITY OF WORK

Measuring 
main activity 
status in the 
EU Survey on 
Immigrants 
and 
Descendants 
of Immigrants

Respondents were asked to indicate 
their main activity status based 
on a predefined list of categories 
that included ‘in paid work’, ‘self-
employed’ and ‘unemployed’. The 
respondent’s main activity status 
reflects their own assessment, 
which may differ from the definition 
and method of measurement used 
to produce official statistics such 
as the employment, activity and 
unemployment rates.

84

Legal corner

Article 15 of the EU Charter of 
Fundamental Rights provides that 
everyone has the right to engage in 
work and to pursue a freely chosen 
or accepted occupation. It also states 
that every citizen of the EU has 
the freedom to seek employment, 
to work, to exercise the right of 
establishment and to provide services 
in any Member State. Nationals 
of non-EU countries who are 
authorised to work in the territories 
of the Member States are entitled 
to working conditions equivalent to 
those of citizens of the EU.

The European Pillar of Social 
Rights action plan aims to ensure 
equal opportunities and access to 
the labour market, fair working 
conditions, and social protection 
and inclusion, including through 
implementing non-discrimination 
measures.

Employment status

4.2.1. 
The paid work rate indicates the proportion of respondents aged 20 to 
64 years who were engaged in any paid work in the 4 weeks before the 
survey. This includes those who indicated ‘in paid work’ as their main activity 
status. This indicator is a good approximation of the Eurostat employment 
rate for the general population.

Overall, most respondents of African descent are in paid work (71 %). This is 
similar to the employment rate for the general population (73 %) (Figure 37) 
and there was almost no change from the rate (69 %) in 2016. The highest 
paid work rates are seen in Poland (83 %), Portugal (81 %) and Italy (79 %). 
These are also the countries where the paid work rate for respondents of 
African descent exceeds the employment rate for the general population.

On average, the lowest in-paid-work rates are in Sweden (65 %), Spain (66 %) 
and Belgium (66 %). The biggest gap in the paid work rate between people 
of African descent and the general population is in Sweden (16 percentage 
points).

Like the findings of EU-MIDIS II, the paid work rate is substantially higher 
among men of African descent (76 %, compared with 79 % in the general 
population in the EU-27) than among women of African descent (65 %, 
compared with 68 % in the general population in the EU-27). In several 
countries, the gap in the paid work rate between women and men exceeds 
20 percentage points: in Sweden, it is 39 percentage points (3), and in Austria, 
Italy and Spain it is 25 percentage points.

The paid work rate increases with age: 56 % of respondents of African 
descent aged 16–24 are in paid work, compared with 80 % of those aged 
45–59. Differences also exist between the respondents who face limitations in 
their daily activities due to health conditions (58 %) and those without such 
limitations (75 %). The paid work rate also increases with the educational 
level of respondents. Proficiency in the national language is associated with 
an increase in the paid work rate in Germany (9 percentage points), Sweden 
(8 percentage points) and Austria (7 percentage points).

Respondents who are citizens of the survey country are more often in paid 
work than those who are not, most notably in Sweden (74 % of citizens 
and 40 % of non-nationals) and Poland (94 % of citizens and 73 % of non-
nationals). Considerable differences between citizens and non-nationals are 
also found in Austria (14 percentage points), Belgium (13 percentage points) 
and Germany (13 percentage points).

85

FIGURE 37:  PAID WORK RATE AMONG RESPONDENTS OF AFRICAN DESCENT AGED 20 TO 64 YEARS WHO WERE ENGAGED IN 
ANY PAID WORK IN THE 4 WEEKS BEFORE THE SURVEY (INCLUDING SELF-EMPLOYMENT AND OCCASIONAL WORK 
OR WORK IN THE 4 WEEKS BEFORE THE SURVEY), COMPARED WITH THE EMPLOYMENT RATE IN THE GENERAL 
POPULATION, BY COUNTRY (%)a,b,c

76

73

71

80

79

73

77

77

66

68

66

73

71

75

69

71

79

74

75

73

83

76

81

81

73

71

65

80

82

72

73

78

61

71

68

75

68

48

90

84

79

83

76

69

71

76

65

44

63

87

62

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

84

30

59

71

61

65

20

10

0

AT

BE

DE

DK

ES

FI

FR

IE

IT

LU

PL

PT

SE

EU-13

Women

Men

Respondents of African descent

General population (2021)

Sources: FRA’s EU Survey on Immigrants and Descendants of Immigrants, 2022; results for the general population (2021) are from 

Eurostat (lfsa_ergaed) (downloaded 5 April 2023).

 Notes:
a  Out of all respondents of African 
descent aged between 20 and 
64 years (women, n = 1 604; men, 
n = 2 599); weighted results.

b 

c 

The overall average for the general 
population is the EU-27 value, 
while the average for the survey 
respondents includes only the 
countries presented in the graph.

Questions: ‘Which of these categories 
describes your current situation 
best?’, ‘Did you do any work in the 
last 4 weeks to earn some money?’ 
and ‘You said before that you are 
currently [insert answer to the 
question related to the respondent’s 
current employment situation]. In 
what year was the last time you were 
in work?’

A large proportion of young respondents who are neither in employment 
nor in education is commonly seen to reflect potential structural problems in 
the education system and employment opportunities. Figure 38 shows the 
rate of young respondents (aged 16 to 24) who are neither in employment 
nor in education or training (NEET). Overall, 14 % of young respondents 
of African descent are NEET. On average, the rate is similar to that for the 
general population (11 % in EU-27) and to that found in EU-MIDIS II (18 %).

Spain and Sweden (4) are exceptions. In these countries, about twice as 
many young respondents (aged 16 to 24) of African descent are NEET as 
in the general population. In France, the rate is 1.7 times as high as that for 
the general population in the same age group. In Italy, one in five 16- to 
24-year-olds are NEET, and no differences are observed between young 
respondents of African descent (21 %) and young respondents in the general 
population (20 %).

On average, slightly more young men of African descent are NEET (16 %) 
than young women of African descent (10 %). Moreover, proficiency in the 
language of the survey country substantially decreases the risk of young 
people being NEET. More young respondents with poor skills in reading, 
writing or speaking the national language are NEET (28 %) than those who 
are proficient in all three areas (11 %). While citizenship of the residence 
country does not influence the NEET rate, the rate is over two times higher 
among immigrants of African descent than among descendants of immigrants 
of African descent (17 % compared with 8 %).

86

FIGURE 38:  RESPONDENTS OF AFRICAN DESCENT AGED 16 TO 24 YEARS WHO ARE NEITHER IN WORK NOR IN EDUCATION OR 

TRAINING, COMPARED WITH THE GENERAL POPULATION, BY COUNTRY (%)a,b,c

60

50

40

30

20

10

10

9

0

7

7

8

7

7

5

22

11

8

6

18

11

8

5

21

20

9

2

AT

BE

DE

DK

ES

FI

FR

IE

IT

LU

11

0

PL

14

11

11

5

8

5

PT

SE

EU-13/
EU-27

Respondents of African descent

General population (2021)

Sources: FRA’s EU Survey on Immigrants and Descendants of Immigrants, 2022; results for the general population (2021) are from 

Eurostat (edat_lfse_20) (downloaded 5 April 2023).

 Notes:
a  Out of all respondents of African 
descent aged 16–24 years 
(n = 1 520); weighted results.

b 

c 

The overall average for the general 
population is the EU-27 value, 
while the average for the survey 
respondents includes only the 
countries presented in the graph.

The results have limited comparability 
with the Eurostat statistics for the 
general population. Eurostat data are 
for the population aged 15–24 years 
who are not employed and not 
involved in further education or 
training, based on the International 
Labour Organization’s definition. 
EU Survey on Immigrants and 
Descendants of Immigrants data are 
for respondents of African descent 
aged 16–24 years.

Types and quality of jobs

4.2.2. 
Looking only at the labour market situation of people of African descent 
through self-declared activity status and paid work rates does not account 
for the quality of work people are engaged in. The quality of respondents’ 
work may significantly affect their well-being and risk of living in poverty.

Almost a third of respondents of African descent who are in employment 
(32 %) work in elementary occupations, compared with 8 % of the general 
population. In 2016, 26 % of respondents worked in elementary occupations. 
Elementary occupations usually consist of work involving physical work and 
menial tasks (5). The proportions are highest in Spain (68 %) and Italy (46 %) 
and lowest in Poland (9 %) (Figure 39).

87

FIGURE 39:  SHARE OF RESPONDENTS OF AFRICAN DESCENT IN ELEMENTARY OCCUPATIONS, COMPARED WITH THE GENERAL 

POPULATION, BY GENDER AND COUNTRY (%)a,b,c

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

68

33

31

69

66

29

21

35

31

8

35

28

9

33

12

26

7

19

25

10

46

67

27

28

36

22

38

20

42

29

23

6

21
8

22

11

23
7

21

18
8

19

8

9
11

5
3

31

30

32

35

28

8

31

28

4

AT

BE

DE

DK

ES

FI

FR

IE

IT

LU

PL

PT

SE

EU-13

Women

Men

Respondents of African descent

General population (Q3 2022)

Sources: FRA’s EU Survey on Immigrants and Descendants of Immigrants, 2022; results for the general population (Q3 2022) are 

author’s calculations based on Eurostat (LFSQ_EISN2) (downloaded on 5 April 2023).

 Notes:
a  Out of all respondents of African 

descent aged 20–64 who indicated 
that they were employed (n = 3 960; 
women, n = 1 522; men, n = 2 432); 
weighted results.

b 

The overall average for the general 
population is the EU-27 value, 
while the average for the survey 
respondents includes only the 
countries presented in the graph.

c  Question: ‘What is your current job or 

occupation?’

On average, a smaller proportion of women (28 %) than men (35 %) work 
in elementary occupations, with the opposite in Italy (67 % of women and 
38 % of men) and Germany (26 % of women and 19 % of men). Work in 
elementary occupations increases with age (24 % of 16- to 24-year-olds and 
37 % of 45- to 59-year-olds are in such occupations). While 22 % of employed 
survey country citizens of African descent work in elementary occupations, 
the value is almost double (42 %) for non-EU nationals. Respondents who 
have stayed in the country for less than 5 years are more likely to work in 
elementary occupations (39 %) than those who were born in the survey 
country (12 %).

Most respondents with a poor level of proficiency in reading, writing and 
speaking in the national language work in elementary occupations (54 %), 
compared with 22 % of respondents who are proficient in all three aspects.

The rate of employment in elementary occupations decreases at higher 
education levels. More than half (52 %) of employed respondents with a low 
level of education (ISCED 0–2) work in elementary occupations, but 1 in 10 
(10 %) respondents who have completed tertiary education do so. This points 
to overqualification among people of African descent and possible difficulties 
with qualifications obtained abroad being recognised in respondents’ countries 
of residence.

The EU overqualification rate is calculated for employed people with tertiary 
education (ISCED 5–8). The overqualification rate is the proportion of people 
with tertiary education who are employed in a low- or medium-skilled 
occupation (International Standard Classification of Occupations major 
groups 4–9). The data suggest that a higher proportion of people of African 
descent than the general population work in jobs requiring qualifications 
below their educational level. The over qualification rate, regardless of 
citizenship, is 46 % for people of African descent and 22 % for the general 
population in the EU-27.

88

Figure 40 shows that the risk of overqualification is lower for respondents who 
are citizens of the country in which they currently reside, among both people 
of African descent (35 %) and the general population (21 %), than for those 
who are not citizens of any EU country (57 % for people of African descent 
and 40 % for the general population in the EU-27). If the respondent is a citizen 
of an EU country other than that where they reside, the overqualification 
rate is similar for respondents of African descent (28 %) and for the general 
population (32 %). Respondents of African descent are at higher risk of 
overqualification than the general population across the EU-27, regardless 
of whether or not they are citizens of the survey country. Owing to small 
sample sizes, the results cannot be broken down by country.

FIGURE 40:  EU OVERQUALIFICATION RATE FOR RESPONDENTS OF AFRICAN DESCENT, COMPARED WITH THE GENERAL 

POPULATION, BY CITIZENSHIP (%)a

100

80

60

40

20

0

35

21

32

28

57

40

Survey country citizenship

Other EU country citizenship

Non-EU country citizenship

Respondents of African descent

General population (2021)

Sources: FRA’s EU Survey on Immigrants and Descendants of Immigrants, 2022; results for the general population (2021) are from 

Eurostat (2023), ‘Non-nationals more likely over-qualified than nationals’ (downloaded 5 April 2023).

 Notes:
a  Out of all respondents of African 
descent aged 20–64 who are 
employed and have attained a 
tertiary level of education (n = 1 269); 
weighted results.

Job security is an important factor influencing well-being and risk of being in 
poverty. Almost a third of employed respondents of African descent (30 %) 
have only a temporary contract (Figure 41). This includes those working 
with contracts of limited duration (shorter than 1 year or longer than 1 year) 
and those in ad hoc (daily or weekly) work. This percentage is almost three 
times that for the general population across the 27 EU Member States (11 %).

The highest proportion of employed respondents of African descent with 
temporary contracts is in Spain (45 %), which also displays the biggest 
differences between the general population and people of African descent 
(27 percentage points). Large differences are also observed in Belgium 
(26 percentage points) and Germany (22 percentage points). The smallest 
differences are in Poland (4 percentage points), Sweden (5 percentage points) 
and Austria (6 percentage points).

A higher proportion of women than men have temporary contracts in Finland 
(38 % compared with 27 %), Italy (37 % compared with 28 %) and Germany 
(36 % compared with 29 %). The opposite is observed in Portugal (40 % for 
men and 25 % for women), Belgium (38 % compared with 28 %), France 
(35 % compared with 25 %) and Spain (47 % compared with 40 %).

89

The higher the age of the respondents, the lower the proportion of those 
with temporary contracts. No differences due to health, education level 
or language proficiency, or country of birth are discernible. Respondents 
being citizens of their country of residence has a substantial effect: 20 % of 
country nationals have temporary contracts, and the rate is almost double 
for non-nationals (39 %).

FIGURE 41:  SHARE OF RESPONDENTS OF AFRICAN DESCENT EMPLOYED AND WITH TEMPORARY CONTRACTS, COMPARED WITH 

THE GENERAL POPULATION, BY COUNTRY (%)a,b,c

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

45

33

32

31

29

30

12

7

6

10

9

20
18

13

13

24

13

6

6

30

32

12

17

11

18

12

16
14

11

13

28

38

36

29

22

18

40

47

38

27

25

35

26

22

37

28

18

17

13

17

25

40

17

17

27

32

AT

BE

DE

DK

ES

FI

FR

IE

IT

LU

PL

PT

SE

EU-13

Women

Men

Respondents of African descent

General population (2022)

Sources: FRA’s EU Survey on Immigrants and Descendants of Immigrants, 2022; results for the general population (2022) are from 

Eurostat (TPS00073) (downloaded 5 April 2023).

 Notes:
a  Out of all respondents of African 

descent aged 20–64 who indicated 
that they were working (n = 3 736; 
women, n = 1 457; men, n = 2 274); 
weighted results.

b 

The overall average for the general 
population is the EU-27 value, 
while the average for the survey 
respondents includes only the 
countries presented in the graph.

c  Question: ‘What kind of employment 
contract do you have in your current 
main job?’

4.3.  ACCESS TO AFFORDABLE HOUSING AND POVERTY

Legal corner

Article 34 of the EU Charter of Fundamental Rights recognises and 
respects the right to social and housing assistance so as to ensure a decent 
existence for all those who lack sufficient resources.

While the provision of affordable and adequate housing and housing policy 
in general are the responsibility of the Member States, the European Pillar 
of Social Rights highlights the importance of access to social housing 
and housing assistance of good quality for those in need and the right 
to access essential services of good quality, including water, sanitation, 
energy, transport, financial services and digital communications.

Combating poverty and social exclusion is a headline target of the 
European Pillar of Social Rights action plan to be reached by 2030. This 
target is embodied in goal 1 of the UN sustainable development goals. The 
goal calls for an end to poverty in all its manifestations by 2030 and aims 
to ensure social protection for the poor and vulnerable and increase access 
to basic services.

90

Notes:

a  Out of all respondents of African 

descent (n = 6 682); weighted results.

The overall average for the general 
population is the EU-27 value, 
while the average for the survey 
respondents includes only the 
countries presented in the graph.

Question: ‘Do you own or rent your 
accommodation?’

b 

c 



4.3.1.  Access to adequate housing
Access to affordable and decent housing is a key aspect of social inclusion. 
In 2021, 70 % of the EU population lived in owner-occupied dwellings, 20 % 
were renting accommodation at market rates and 10 % were tenants in 
reduced-rent or free accommodation. Only 11 % of respondents of African 
descent lived in owner-occupied dwellings and 36 % lived in accommodation 
rented from private landlords. Some 45 % lived in municipal or social housing. 
These numbers indicate that the monthly housing cost burden for people of 
African descent is much higher than for the general population (Figure 42).

The rate of ownership among people of African descent between countries varies 
from 2 % in Italy to 37 % in Luxembourg and is mostly higher in countries with 
a higher rate of ownership among the general population. However, the gap 
between people of African descent and the general population living in owner-
occupied dwellings is largest in Italy and smallest in Denmark and Luxembourg.

FIGURE 42:  RESPONDENTS OF AFRICAN DESCENT WHO LIVE IN ACCOMMODATION THEY OWN, COMPARED WITH THE GENERAL 

POPULATION, BY COUNTRY (%)a,b,c

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

71

54

59

49

25

76

70

70

65

74

71

87

78

70

65

37

36

25

21

20

16

10

0

6

7

11

11

10

2

11

6

AT

BE

DE

DK

ES

FI

FR

IE

IT

LU

PL

PT

SE

EU-13/
EU-27

Respondents of African descent

General population (2021)

Sources: FRA’s EU Survey on Immigrants and Descendants of Immigrants, 2022; results for the general population (2021) are from 

Eurostat (l ILC_LVHO02__custom_5614546) (downloaded 31 March 2023).

91

Living in low-quality housing can have long-term negative impacts on the 
well-being and physical and mental health of adults and children. Overcrowded 
households and unhealthy housing conditions such as mould or damp walls 
can increase the risk of illness. For example, the risk of COVID-19 infections 
was disproportionately high among ethnic minorities and immigrants, as the 
regular FRA reports on the fundamental rights implications of the pandemic 
show (6). Growing up in low-quality and overcrowded housing puts children 
at higher risk of experiencing physical and mental problems and affects their 
overall development (7).

According to Eurostat:

A person is considered as living in an overcrowded 
household if the household does not have at its disposal a 
minimum number of rooms equal to:

one room for the household;

one room per couple in the household;

one room for each single person aged 18 or more;

one room per pair of single people of the same gender 
between 12 and 17 years of age;

one room for each single person between 12 and 17 years 
of age and not included in the previous category;

one room per pair of children under 12 years of age.

Source: Eurostat (n.d.), ‘Glossary: overcrowding rate’.

Nearly one in two (45 %) respondents of African descent in the 13 countries 
surveyed live in overcrowded housing – a share that is over 2.5 times as high 
as that for the general population in the EU-27 (17 % in 2022) (Figure 43). 
Overcrowding rates vary, ranging from 60 % in Sweden (8) and 58 % in Finland 
to 21 % in Poland and 30 % in Luxembourg. In all countries surveyed, except 
Poland, respondents of African descent are more likely to live in overcrowded 
housing than the general population.

The  biggest  gaps  in  rates  are  seen  in  Finland  (50  percentage  points), 
Sweden  (43  percentage  points),  Germany  (42  percentage  points)  and 
Portugal (41 percentage points). By contrast, in Poland the share for the 
general population is higher than that for respondents of African descent 
by 15 percentage points.

The overall proportion of people of African descent living in overcrowded 
housing based on EU-MIDIS II was the same as the rate based on the 2022 
survey, at 45 %.

92

FIGURE 43:  PROPORTION OF PEOPLE OF AFRICAN DESCENT LIVING IN OVERCROWDED HOUSING COMPARED WITH THE GENERAL 

POPULATION, BY COUNTRY (%)a,b,c

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

52

53

39

38

34

58

52

47

41

30

25

36

21

16

11

10

6

7

8

9

4

6

60

50

45

17

17

9

AT

BE

DE

DK

ES

FI

FR

IE

IT

LU

PL

PT

SE

EU-13/
EU-27

Respondents of African descent

General population (2022)

Sources: FRA’s EU Survey on Immigrants and Descendants of Immigrants, 2022; results for the general population (2022) are from 

Eurostat (TESSI170) (downloaded 15 June 2023).

 Notes:
a  Out of all respondents of African 

descent (n = 6 752); weighted results.

b 

c 

The overall average for the general 
population is the EU-27 value, 
while the average for the survey 
respondents includes only the 
countries presented in the graph.

A person is considered as living in 
an overcrowded household if the 
household does not have at its 
disposal a minimum number of rooms 
equal to one room per household, 
plus one room per couple in the 
household, one room for each single 
person aged 18 or above, one room 
per pair of single people of the same 
gender between 12 and 17 years of 
age, one room for each single person 
between 12 and 17 years of age and 
not included in the previous category, 
and one room per pair of children 
under 12 years of age.

On average, 17 % of respondents of African descent live in dwellings with a 
leaking roof; mould or damp walls, floors or foundations; or rot in window 
frames or floors (Figure 44). This is just above the rate for the general 
population in the EU-27 (15 %). Such bad housing conditions are particularly 
prevalent among people of African descent in Portugal and are less prevalent 
in Sweden (3 %) (9) and Poland (1 %). This can be linked to the very high 
percentage of people of African descent in social or public housing in Sweden 
(64 %) and the high rate of respondents living in a property they own in 
Poland (36 %), mostly without a mortgage.

In Denmark, Italy and Spain, the general population faces worse housing 
conditions than survey respondents of African descent. This could be related 
to the higher proportion of respondents in public housing, which highlights 
the need to provide affordable and decent-quality housing in all sectors and 
to offer sufficient public housing to all in need.

93

FIGURE 44:  RESPONDENTS OF AFRICAN DESCENT WHO LIVE IN ACCOMMODATION WITH A LEAKING ROOF, MOULD OR DAMP 

WALLS/FLOORS/FOUNDATIONS, OR ROT IN WINDOW FRAMES OR FLOORS, COMPARED WITH THE GENERAL 
POPULATION, BY COUNTRY (%)a,b,c

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

15

9

16

14

15

12

17

11

20

15

20

18

20

17

20

12

18

15

5

5

AT

BE

DE

DK

ES

FI

FR

IE

IT

LU

33

25

17

15

7

3

PT

SE

EU-13/
EU-27

6

1

PL

Respondents of African descent

General population (2020)

Sources: FRA’s EU Survey on Immigrants and Descendants of Immigrants, 2022; results for the general population (2020) are from 

Eurostat (ILC_ MDHO01__custom_6337220) (downloaded 25 May 2023).

 Notes:
a  Out of all respondents of African 

descent (n = 6 752); weighted results.

b 

c 

The overall average for the general 
population is the EU-27 value, 
while the average for the survey 
respondents includes only the 
countries presented in the graph.

Question: ‘Does your accommodation 
have any of the following problems? 
Leaking roof, mould or damp walls/
floors/foundation or rot in window 
frames or floor.’

Living in accommodation with a leaking roof, mould or damp walls/floors/
foundations, or rot in window frames or floors can be associated with higher 
health risks, such as respiratory conditions (10). It also has an impact on the 
energy efficiency of the housing and the ability of residents to keep the 
accommodation warm and the affordability of heating.

Financial situation and access to affordable housing and 

4.3.2. 
energy
The COVID-19 pandemic exacerbated existing social vulnerabilities and 
inequalities. It hit the most vulnerable hardest (11) and affected people of 
African descent disproportionally.

Every third respondent of African descent (31 %) faced a loss of income during 
the pandemic. Only a few (6 %) say that their income increased during this 
time, with substantial variations across Member States. Whereas in Poland 1 in 
10 respondents (10 %) experienced a decrease in income during the pandemic, 
in Italy every second respondent (49 %) saw their income decrease during 
the pandemic. The survey findings show that, whereas on average 18 % of 
the general population in the EU faced difficulty or great difficulty in making 
ends meet in 2021, every third respondent of African descent (32 %) in the 
13 Member States surveyed encountered the same level of difficulty, with 
substantial variations among Member States (Figure 45).

In Spain and Portugal, almost every second respondent of African descent had 
(great) difficulty in making ends meet (48 % and 45 %, respectively). Around 
a third or more of respondents indicated that they struggled financially in Italy 
(42 %), Belgium and France (both 33 %), and Sweden (32 %). The lowest 
proportions among people of African descent having (great) difficulty making 
ends meet are seen in Poland and Denmark (both 9 %), and in Finland (13 %).

94

FIGURE 45:  RESPONDENTS’ HOUSEHOLDS MAKING ENDS MEET WITH (GREAT) DIFFICULTY, COMPARED WITH THE GENERAL 

POPULATION, BY COUNTRY (%)a,b,c

60

50

40

30

48

42

45

33

33

20

17

20

15

10

10

0

22

13

6

9

8

7

25

24

17

16

16

14

10

9

32

32

21

18

7

AT

BE

DE

DK

ES

FI

FR

IE

IT

LU

PL

PT

SE

EU-13/
EU-27

Respondents of African descent

General population (2021)

Sources: FRA’s EU Survey on Immigrants and Descendants of Immigrants, 2022; results for the general population (2021) are from 

Eurostat (ILC_MDES09__custom_5615252) (downloaded 31 March 2023).

 Notes:
a  Out of all respondents of African 

descent (n = 6 752); weighted results.

b 

c 

The overall average for the general 
population is the EU-27 value, 
while the average for the survey 
respondents includes only the 
countries presented in the graph.

Question: ‘Thinking of your 
household’s total income, is your 
household able to make ends meet? 
With great difficulty, with difficulty, 
with some difficulty, fairly easily, 
easily, very easily.’

Rising energy prices and the increasing cost of living have increased the 
levels of energy poverty in Europe. In 2022, the number of Europeans who 
could not afford to keep their homes adequately warm rose to more than 
40 million (9.3 % of the population) (12).

Overall, people of African descent are twice as likely (14 %) as the general 
population (7 %) to say that they cannot afford to keep their homes warm, 
with some variations across the countries surveyed (Figure 46). The highest 
proportions were in Spain (34 %), Portugal (25 %) and Italy (18 %). The 
lowest were in Poland (2 %), Sweden (4 %) and Denmark (5 %). However, 
Austria and Finland had the biggest relative gaps between people of African 
descent and the general population. In Finland, people of African descent 
are ten times more likely not to be able to afford to keep their homes warm 
than with the general population (10 % compared with 1 %; in Austria, they 
are five times more likely (10 % compared with 2 %). 

95

FIGURE 46:  RESPONDENTS OF AFRICAN DESCENT WHO CANNOT AFFORD TO KEEP THEIR HOME WARM, COMPARED WITH THE 

GENERAL POPULATION, BY COUNTRY (%)a,b,c

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

34

14

14

6

10

3

10

1

18

8

25

16

7

3

3

2

4

2

13

10

2

4

8

3

5

3

AT

BE

DE

DK

ES

FI

FR

IE

IT

LU

PL

PT

SE

14

7

EU-13/
EU-27

Respondents of African descent

General population (2021)

Sources: FRA’s EU Survey on Immigrants and Descendants of Immigrants, 2022; results for the general population (2021) are from 

Eurostat (ILC_MDES01__custom_5608083) (downloaded 30 March 2023).

In 2021, 6 % of the general population indicated that they had been in 
arrears with their utility bills at least once in the 12 months before the survey 
(Figure 47). Households with people of African descent are three times more 
likely to be in arrears (18 %). The rates are particularly high in Italy (33 %), 
Belgium (30 %) and Ireland (29 %), where almost every third respondent 
stated that their household had been in arrears with their utility bills in the 
12 months before the survey. In all countries, the proportion of people of 
African descent in arrears was higher than the proportion for the general 
population, reflecting the dependency of people of African descent on the 
private rental market.

 Notes:
a  Out of all respondents of African 

descent (n = 6 752); weighted results.

b 

c 

The overall average for the general 
population is the EU-27 value, 
while the average for the survey 
respondents includes only the 
countries presented in the graph.

Question: ‘Can your household afford 
to keep its home adequately warm?’

96

FIGURE 47:  RESPONDENTS OF AFRICAN DESCENT WHO WERE IN ARREARS IN UTILITY BILLS IN THE 12 MONTHS BEFORE THE 

SURVEY, COMPARED WITH THE GENERAL POPULATION, BY COUNTRY (%)a,b,c

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

30

23

17

14

19

21

10

2

3

4

3

33

29

14

16

6

7

8

7

7

5

4

10

5

18

6

14

2

AT

BE

DE

DK

ES

FI

FR

IE

IT

LU

PL

PT

SE

EU-13/
EU-27

Respondents of African descent

General population (2021)

Sources: FRA’s EU Survey on Immigrants and Descendants of Immigrants, 2022; results for the general population (2021) are from 

Eurostat (ILC_MDES07) (downloaded 16 May 2023).

4.4.  HEALTH

 Notes:
a  Out of all respondents of African 

descent (n = 6 752); weighted results.

b 

c 

The overall average for the general 
population is the EU-27 value, 
while the average for the survey 
respondents includes only the 
countries presented in the graph.

Question: ‘In the last 12 months, 
how often has your household been 
unable to pay the following costs 
on time due to financial difficulties? 
Utility bills, such as heating, electricity, 
water, gas.’

Legal corner

Article 35 of the EU Charter of 
Fundamental Rights provides that 
everyone has the right to access 
preventive healthcare and the right to 
benefit from medical treatment under 
the conditions that national laws and 
practices establish. The European 
Pillar of Social Rights action plan 
states that everyone has the right 
to timely access to affordable, 
preventive and curative healthcare of 
good quality.

97

The survey asked respondents about the following aspects 
of their health or healthcare:

 ― self-perceived health, to obtain a subjective assessment 

of the respondent’s general health;

 ― self-perceived long-standing limitations in usual activities 
due  to  disability  or  health  problems  in  the  6  months 
preceding the survey;

 ― health insurance coverage;

 ― self-reported (unmet) needs for medical examination or 
treatment in the year preceding the survey and the main 
reason for the needs being unmet;

 ― self-reported long-standing illnesses or health problems.

Immigrants and descendants of immigrants of African descent in the EU are 
on average considerably younger than the general population in most of the 
countries surveyed (see Annex II). To allow for more reliable comparisons 
between people of African descent and the general population, the analysis 
of some health indicators presented in this section is limited to respondents 
aged 16–64 years.

Overall, 81 % of respondents of African descent aged 16–64 years perceive 
their general health as ‘good’ or ‘very good’, which is about the same as the 
share among the general population of the same age in the EU-27 (79 %) 
(Figure 48). The survey results vary across Member States. For example, 
in Portugal, Poland and Spain, the proportion of those reporting very good 
or good health is higher among people of African descent than among the 
general population (in Portugal, 83 % compared with 62 %; in Poland, 96 % 
compared with 76 %; in Spain, 93 % compared with 79 %).

Men of African descent tend to assess their general health more positively 
than women of African descent (86 % compared with 77 %), which is in line 
with findings for the general population. The positive subjective assessment 
of general health tends to decrease as the age of respondents increases. 
While 92 % of the youngest respondents (16–24 years old) assess their health 
as ‘good’ or ‘very good’, the proportion is slightly higher than every second 
respondent (55 %) among those aged 60 years or over. The proportion is 
85 % among 25- to 44-year-olds and 67 % among 45- to 59-year-olds. 

Respondents with a level of education higher than upper secondary assess 
their health more positively. The proportion of respondents assessing their 
health as ‘good’ or ‘very good’ is 76 % among respondents without a formal 
education or with only a primary education, 85 % among those with upper 
secondary education and 83 % among respondents with tertiary education.

98

FIGURE 48:  SUBJECTIVE ASSESSMENT OF OWN HEALTH CONDITION AS ‘VERY GOOD’ OR ‘GOOD’ AMONG RESPONDENTS OF 
AFRICAN DESCENT AGED 16 TO 64 YEARS, COMPARED WITH THE GENERAL POPULATION, BY COUNTRY (%)a,b,c

83

81

80

78

77

73

78

74

93

86

79

78

78

76

90

92

85

85

96

83

80

86

83

76

76

81

79

62

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

AT

BE

DE

DK

ES

FI

FR

IE

IT

LU

PL

PT

SE

EU-13/
EU-27

Respondents of African descent

General population (2021)

Sources: FRA’s EU Survey on Immigrants and Descendants of Immigrants, 2022; results for the general population (2021) are from 

Eurostat (HLTH_SILC_01) (downloaded 31 May 2023).

 Notes:
a  Out of all respondents of African 
descent aged 16-64 years 
(n = 6 462); weighted results.

b 

The overall average for the general 
population is the EU-27 value, 
while the average for the survey 
respondents includes only the 
countries presented in the graph.

c  Question: ‘How is your health in 

general? Very good; good; fair; bad; 
very bad.’

The survey asked respondents if they had a long-standing illness or health 
problem. Overall, in 13 survey countries, nearly every fifth (18 %) respondent 
of African descent aged 16 to 64 years says that they have a long-standing 
illness or health problem. Variations among the countries surveyed were 
considerable, with proportions ranging from 24 % in Denmark and 23 % in 
Germany and Luxembourg to 3 % in Italy, 7 % in Poland and 8 % in Spain 
(Figure 49). The overall rate of self-reported long-standing illnesses or health 
problems among the general population of the same age in the EU-27 is 
higher (28 %) and varies considerably across Member States.

Fewer men than women report having a long-standing illness or health 
problem (14 % compared with 21 %).

Age and disability affect the prevalence of long-standing illnesses or health 
problems. 40 % of those aged 60 years or over compared with 14 % of those 
aged 16–24 years face these issues. 57 % of those who experience limitations 
in daily activities, compared with 8 % of those who do not experience 
limitations, have a long-standing illness or health problem. In addition, 44 % 
of those who self-identify as belonging to a minority in terms of disability, 
compared with 16 % of those who do not, are dealing with such an illness 
or health problem.

99

FIGURE 49:  SELF-REPORTED LONG-STANDING ILLNESS OR HEALTH PROBLEM AMONG RESPONDENTS OF AFRICAN DESCENT AGED 

16 TO 64 YEARS, COMPARED WITH THE GENERAL POPULATION, BY COUNTRY (%)a,b,c

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

30

22

42

31

29

30

23

24

21

18

16

8

29

21

25

19

23

23

25

11

3

12

7

34

35

28

18

16

AT

BE

DE

DK

ES

FI

FR

IE

IT

LU

PL

PT

SE

EU-13/
EU-27

Respondents of African descent

General population (2021)

Sources: FRA’s EU Survey on Immigrants and Descendants of Immigrants, 2022; results for the general population (2021) are from 

Eurostat (HLTH_SILC_04) (downloaded 25 May 2023).

 Notes:
a  Out of all respondents of African 
descent aged 16-64 years 
(n = 6 462); weighted results.

b 

The overall average for the general 
population is the EU-27 value, 
while the average for the survey 
respondents includes only the 
countries presented in the graph.

c  Question: ‘Do you have any 

longstanding illness or health 
problem?’

The survey asked respondents about activity limitation. This is a dimension 
of health/disability capturing long-standing limitations in performing usual 
activities (due to health problems) by applying the Global Activity Limitation 
Instrument (13).

Overall, 20 % of respondents of African descent aged 16–64 years indicated 
(some or severe) long-standing limitations in their usual activities due to 
health problems. This is close to the rate among the general population of 
the same age in the EU-27 (17 %) (Figure 50).

However, in some countries the rates are higher among people of African 
descent than among the general population, such as in Germany (24 % 
compared with 16 %), France (23 % compared with 15 %) and Sweden (22 % 
compared with 15 %). In contrast, the shares of people of African descent 
who reported some or severe long-standing limitations are lower than among 
the general population in Italy (6 % compared with 12 %), Portugal (12 % 
compared with 24 %) and Spain (7 % compared with 22 %).

Long-standing limitations are more often observed among women (24 %) than 
men (16 %), and among older respondents than younger respondents (32 % 
of those aged 45–59 years, compared with 13 % of those aged 16–24 years 
and 16 % of those aged 25–44 years). They are also more frequent among 
those who self-identify as belonging to a minority in terms of disability 
(42 %) than among those who do not identify as such (19 %).

100

FIGURE 50:  SELF-PERCEIVED LONG-STANDING LIMITATIONS IN USUAL ACTIVITIES DUE TO HEALTH PROBLEMS AMONG 

RESPONDENTS OF AFRICAN DESCENT AGED 16 TO 64 YEARS, COMPARED WITH THE GENERAL POPULATION, BY 
COUNTRY (%)a,b,c

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

29

27

25

22

22

20

24

16

22

21

19

23

18

15

15

7

12

6

26

20

24

22

20

17

15

18

15

12

AT

BE

DE

DK

ES

FI

FR

IE

IT

LU

PL

PT

SE

EU-13/
EU-27

Respondents of African descent

General population (2021)

Sources: FRA’s EU Survey on Immigrants and Descendants of Immigrants, 2022; results for the general population (2021) are from 

Eurostat (HLTH_SILC_20) (downloaded 31 May 2023).

 Notes:
a  Out of all respondents of African 
descent aged 16-64 years 
(n = 6 462); weighted results.

b 

The overall average for the general 
population is the EU-27 value, 
while the average for the survey 
respondents includes only the 
countries presented in the graph.

c  Question: ‘For at least the past six 
months, to what extent have you 
been limited because of a health 
problem in activities people usually 
do? Would you say you have been 
severely limited; limited but not 
severely; not limited at all?’

People of African descent are more likely to report having unmet medical 
needs in most of the EU Member States the survey covers.

Overall, around every 10th respondent (9 %) reported that they had an 
unmet need for a medical examination or treatment in the year before the 
survey. This is nearly two times the rate in the general population in the EU-27 
(5 %) (Figure 51). The proportion of respondents with an unmet need for a 
medical examination or treatment in the year before the survey ranges from 
4 % in Poland, 5 % in Portugal and 6 % in Sweden to 15 % in Denmark and 
Finland and 14 % in Ireland. In Spain, Poland and Portugal, the share of the 
general population with an unmet need for medical care is higher than that 
of people of African descent (in Spain, 3 % compared with 0 %; in Poland, 
9 % compared with 4 %; in Portugal, 6 % compared with 5 %).

101

FIGURE 51:  SELF-REPORTED UNMET NEEDS FOR MEDICAL EXAMINATION AND CARE AMONG RESPONDENTS OF AFRICAN 

DESCENT, COMPARED WITH THE GENERAL POPULATION, BY COUNTRY (%)a,b,c

60

50

40

30

20

10

9

1

0

9

3

11

1

15

12

15

3

14

13

10

7

5

8

3

2

2

9

4

6

5

6

5

9

5

AT

BE

DE

DK

ES

FI

FR

IE

IT

LU

PL

PT

SE

EU-13/
EU-27

Respondents of African descent

General population (2021)

Sources: FRA’s EU Survey on Immigrants and Descendants of Immigrants, 2022; results for the general population (2021) are from 

Eurostat (2022), ‘Unmet health care needs statistics’.

Most respondents of African descent mentioned affordability as the reason for 
their unmet healthcare need: 41 % said the service was too expensive and/
or that their health insurance did not cover the service. 17 % of respondents 
mentioned long waiting lists. Some 15 % of respondents said that they were 
waiting to see if the problem got better, and another 8 % did not know of 
any good doctor or specialist. 32 % had no health insurance in their country 
of residence.

Most respondents (90 %) had national health insurance or another type. 
There were substantial variations across countries, with proportions ranging 
from 53 % in Finland and 58 % in Ireland to 95 % in Portugal and Spain. 
Around 74 % of people of African descent have health insurance in Sweden, 
compared with 82 % in Austria, 86 % in Poland and Italy, 85 % in Denmark, 
86 % in Germany, 90 % in Luxembourg, 92 % in Belgium and 94 % in France.

Every 10th respondent (10 %) of African descent across the countries surveyed 
had neither national health insurance nor another type. The shares are the 
highest in Finland (46 %), Ireland (41 %) and Sweden (23 %).

 Notes:
a  Out of respondents of African descent 
who needed a medical examination 
or treatment in the 12 months before 
the survey (n = 3 263); weighted 
results.

b 

The overall average for the general 
population is the EU-27 value, 
while the average for the survey 
respondents includes only the 
countries presented in the graph.

c  Questions: ‘Was there any time during 
the past 12 months when you really 
needed a medical examination or 
treatment for yourself?’ and ‘Did 
you have a medical examination 
or treatment each time you really 
needed it during the past 12 months?’

102

Endnotes

(1)  OECD and European Commission (2023), Indicators of Immigrant Integration 2023: Settling in, OECD Publishing, Paris.
(2)  OECD and European Commission (2023), Indicators of Immigrant Integration 2023: Settling in, OECD Publishing, Paris, p. 74.
(3)  Results for Sweden should be interpreted with caution; see the section ‘Survey in a nutshell’ for information on the potential impact of 

measures implemented to prevent the spread of COVID-19 on data collection and people’s everyday experiences.

(4)  Results for Sweden should be interpreted with caution; see the section ‘Survey in a nutshell’ for information on the potential impact of 

measures implemented to prevent the spread of COVID-19 on data collection and people’s everyday experiences.

(5)  For more details on elementary occupations, see International Labour Organization (n.d.), ‘Major group 9: elementary occupations’.
(6)  See, for example, FRA (2020), Coronavirus Pandemic in the EU – Fundamental rights implications: Focus on social rights, Publications 

Office of the European Union, Luxembourg.

(7)  European Commission (2020), Understanding the housing conditions experienced by children in the EU, Publications Office of the 

European Union, Luxembourg.

(8)  Results for Sweden should be interpreted with caution; see the section ‘Survey in a nutshell’ for information on the potential impact of 

measures implemented to prevent the spread of COVID-19 on data collection and people’s everyday experiences.

(9)  Results for Sweden should be interpreted with caution; see the section ‘Survey in a nutshell’ for information on the potential impact of 

measures implemented to prevent the spread of COVID-19 on data collection and people’s everyday experiences.

(10)  European Commission (2020), Understanding the housing conditions experienced by children in the EU, Publications Office of the 

European Union, Luxembourg.

(11)  See, for example, Eurofound (2022), The cost-of-living crisis and energy poverty in the EU: Social impact and policy responses – 

Background paper, Dublin.

(12)  Eurostat (2023), ‘Inability to keep home adequately warm – EU-SILC survey’.
(13)  Eurostat (n.d.), ‘Glossary: activity limitation’.

103

104

Annexes

ANNEX I:  METHODOLOGY OF THE EU SURVEY ON 

IMMIGRANTS AND DESCENDANTS OF 
IMMIGRANTS

FRA’s EU Survey on Immigrants and Descendants of Immigrants (1) collected 
comparable data in 15 EU Member States: Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, 
France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Poland, 
Portugal, Spain and Sweden. It collected data from people originating from 
or with at least one parent from North Africa, sub-Saharan Africa, Syria and 
Türkiye.

Immigrants and descendants of immigrants were identified by asking potential 
respondents about their country of birth or their parents’ country of birth. 
In each Member State selected for the survey, target groups were defined 
to correspond to specific countries and regions of origin (listed below). To 
be considered a member of one of the target groups of immigrants and 
descendants of immigrants, respondents had to be born in one of the selected 
countries of origin or one or both of their parents had to be from one of these 
countries (making the respondents descendants of immigrants).

Groups to be surveyed in each of the countries were selected based on 
multiple criteria. These included the size of the target population, the 
feasibility of carrying out a survey with the target population, the group’s 
risk of experiencing racially, ethnically or religiously motivated discrimination 
or victimisation, its vulnerability to social exclusion and its comparability with 
those from previous FRA surveys and across countries. People originating 
from Syria formed a target group that was not included in FRA’s earlier EU-
MIDIS II survey.

For the purposes of the survey, immigrants and descendants of immigrants 
include people living in private households in the following categories.

 ― ‘Immigrants’ include people who were not born in an EU Member State, 
a European Economic Area (EEA) country or an EFTA country (Iceland, 
Liechtenstein, Norway or Switzerland), or the United Kingdom, whose 
usual place of residence was in the territory of the EU Member State 
where the survey was conducted and who had been living in the survey 
country for at least 12 months before the survey.

 ― ‘Descendants of immigrants’ are people who were born in an EU Member 
State or EEA/EFTA country or the United Kingdom, whose usual place of 
residence was in the territory of the EU Member State where the survey 
was conducted and who had at least one parent not born in an EU or 
EEA/EFTA country or the United Kingdom.

The EU Survey on Immigrants and Descendants of Immigrants collected data 
about immigrants and descendants of immigrants originating from:

 ― North Africa in five EU Member States – Belgium, France, Italy, the 

Netherlands and Spain;

 ― sub-Saharan Africa in 13 EU Member States – Austria, Belgium, Denmark, 
Finland, France, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Poland, Portugal, 
Spain and Sweden;

105

 ― Syria in six EU Member States – Austria, Denmark, Germany, Greece, the 

Netherlands and Sweden;

 ― Türkiye in four EU Member States – Austria, Denmark, Germany and the 

Netherlands.

The detailed list of countries of origin of immigrants and parents of descendants 
of immigrants used for sampling are listed in the technical and quality report 
of the EU Survey on Immigrants and Descendants of Immigrants (not yet 
publicly available). The countries included in the survey cover most immigrants 
in the target groups.

Questionnaire
The questionnaire, which FRA developed, was translated into 17 languages. 
These include Arabic, Kurdish, Somali, Tamazight, Tigrinya and Turkish, along 
with the national languages of the survey countries. The language version 
used depended on the needs of the target group.

Interviewers were specially trained to conduct face-to-face interviews. The 
training included cultural and ethical components.

The survey included questions on experiences of discrimination in different 
areas of life and on experiences of police stops and criminal victimisation, 
including hate crime. It also included questions on awareness of rights and 
redress mechanisms and on participation and integration in society. The 
survey collected information on basic sociodemographic characteristics of 
all household members, including respondents.

Data collection
Ipsos NV, an international survey company based in Belgium, undertook the 
fieldwork for the EU Survey on Immigrants and Descendants of Immigrants 
under the supervision of FRA staff. FRA staff monitored the fieldwork’s 
compliance with strict quality control procedures. FRA’s Scientific Committee 
also oversaw the work.

Data were collected through face-to-face interviews using a computerised 
questionnaire (computer-assisted personal interviewing) in nine survey 
countries (Belgium, France, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Poland, Portugal, Spain and 
Sweden). The interviews took place from October 2021 to late September 2022.

Online data collection was carried out in countries where access to the 
population register, containing information on a person’s country of birth or 
their parents’ country of birth, was available for sampling (Austria, Denmark, 
Finland, Germany and Luxembourg). The sampled respondents were contacted 
through a postal invitation to complete the questionnaire online. In the 
Netherlands, where Statistics Netherlands did not provide access to a direct 
sample for the survey, the data were collected online through social media 
channels.

Sampling
The target groups in the EU Survey on Immigrants and Descendants of 
Immigrants can be considered ‘hard to reach’ for survey research, being 
relatively small and/or dispersed and with no sampling frames for the target 
groups. Where population registers containing information about a person’s 
country of birth and their parents’ country of birth were available for use in 
the survey sampling, the sample was drawn from the register.

106

However, the opportunities to sample the target population differed greatly 
across the EU Member States covered. The survey built significantly on the 
sampling methodologies developed and employed in the EU-MIDIS II survey, 
conducted in 2016, in most countries. The best possible design was chosen 
for each target group in each of the countries.

In some countries, a combination of methods were used to ensure better 
coverage of the target population. Detailed descriptions of the sampling 
methods used are published in the survey’s technical and quality report.

The survey aspired to achieve national coverage of the target groups in each 
country, but in some cases this was not feasible. In multistage sampling, areas 
where the density of the target population was low were excluded because 
the target population could not be screened efficiently.

For the current survey, individual registers for drawing a representative 
probability sample could be accessed in Austria, Denmark, Finland, Germany 
and Luxembourg. This approach significantly improved the quality of the 
sample compared with EU-MIDIS II, in which location sampling (in Austria), 
quota sampling (in Luxembourg) and random route sampling were applied. 
In the Netherlands, the data were collected online through social media 
channels and are therefore not representative.

In  France,  Italy,  Portugal  and  Spain,  a  multistage  probability  sampling 
design was applied, and after being selected through the random route 
method respondents were interviewed face-to-face. In Belgium and Ireland, 
respondents were selected using a quota sampling. Therefore, the survey 
findings are not representative in these two countries.

The sample sizes were determined based on an optimal allocation with respect 
to the estimated total size of the target population covered, in addition to 
practical considerations. In addition, in some countries the sample sizes were 
reduced given the difficulties of collecting data during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Weighting
The survey results presented in this report are based on weighted data to 
reflect the selection probabilities for each household and individual based 
on the sampling design. The weights also account for the differences in the 
(estimated) size of the target population in each country.

Where possible, the sample was stratified after selection, by the regional 
distribution and population characteristics of the target population covered. 
External information and data sources for post-stratification are limited. 
Therefore, in most countries only the region and urbanity were used for post-
stratification, based on the areas where the survey interviews took place.

To produce the statistics that summarise the survey results for all immigrants 
and descendants of immigrants of African descent in the 13 EU Member 
States, the samples were weighted by the groups’ estimated sizes. Therefore, 
country and group comparisons take the estimated total size of the target 
groups in countries into account and do not (directly) reflect the sample sizes. 
Consequently, the results influence the average statistics for groups (namely 
statistics reflecting respondents’ experiences in the 13 survey countries overall) 
to a higher degree in countries where the sizes of the target groups are larger 
(most notably in France) (see also the survey’s technical and quality report).

Sampling error and confidence intervals
All sample surveys involve sampling error, given that surveys involve only a 
fraction of the total population. Therefore, all results based on surveys are point 

107

estimates with underlying statistical variation. Differences between groups of 
respondents have to be interpreted with respect to the statistical variation of 
the estimates. Only more substantial differences between population groups 
should be considered as reflecting actual differences in the whole population.

Results based on small sample sizes are statistically less reliable and are 
flagged in figures and tables, for example by placing numbers in brackets. 
These results are not interpreted substantially in the text. They include 
statistics that are based on samples of between 20 and 49 respondents. 
Results based on samples with fewer than 20 respondents are not shown.

Impact of COVID-19 restrictions on the survey
The fieldwork for the EU Survey on Immigrants and Descendants of Immigrants 
was carried out between October 2021 and October 2022. During this time, a 
variety of measures were in place to limit the spread of COVID-19 (depending 
on the country and the phase of the pandemic).

The measures resulted in data collection being stopped, restarted and adapted 
in the countries where face-to-face interviewing was implemented. The 
duration of the fieldwork lengthened, the sample sizes changed and in 
selected EU Member States the sampling strategies were adapted. The details 
can be found in the survey’s technical and quality report (not yet published).

The measures to prevent the spread of COVID-19 impacted the application 
of location sampling or centre-based sampling in selected countries. These 
measures changed the number of visits to the locations and how people 
congregate in the location centres. From the start of the data collection process, 
the survey team knew that access to some centres selected for the survey 
might be denied, and that some might prove less productive than expected.

Some centres were not active during the fieldwork period, or smaller numbers 
of the target population frequented the centres than had been expected. 
In some cases, this resulted in replacing unproductive location centres with 
centres of the same type. If this was not possible and there was another 
centre of the same type in the municipality, the interviews were reallocated 
to that centre. Otherwise, unproductive location centres were replaced by 
centres of a different type.

Consultations with stakeholders
In January and June 2023, FRA discussed the preliminary findings of the 
survey with civil society organisations of people of African descent and 
with experts in anti-racism from national and international organisations 
and EU institutions. Its aim was to present and reflect on the structure and 
content of the report and investigate effective ways of communicating 
and using the data and results in policy and advocacy work following the 
report’s publication. FRA would like to thank all the stakeholders and experts 
consulted for their valuable insights and contributions, which were beneficial 
in finalising the report.

ANNEX II:  RESPONDENTS OF AFRICAN DESCENT IN 

THE EU SURVEY ON IMMIGRANTS AND 
DESCENDANTS OF IMMIGRANTS

The respondents to the EU Survey on Immigrants and Descendants of 
Immigrants are diverse in their demographic and socioeconomic characteristics, 
as well as their migration histories. The size of the population also varies across 
the countries (2). The survey collected information from 6 752 immigrants 
and descendants of immigrants of African descent in 13 Member States. The 

108

number of respondents in the countries ranged from 419 in Italy to 579 in 
Germany, with an average of 519 per country (Table 1).

Based on country of birth with respect to immigrants from sub-Saharan 
Africa, the 13 Member States selected for this survey cover 90 % of the 
population originating from the countries, departments and overseas territories 
considered for surveying and residing in the EU (3). The following countries, 
departments or overseas territories of origin were selected for the survey with 
respect to immigrants of African descent: Angola; Benin; Botswana; Burkina 
Faso; Burundi; Cabo Verde; Cameroon; the Central African Republic; Chad; 
Comoros; Congo; Côte d’Ivoire; the Democratic Republic of the Congo; Djibouti; 
Equatorial Guinea; Eritrea; Ethiopia; Gabon; Ghana; Guinea; Guinea-Bissau; 
Kenya; Lesotho; Liberia; Madagascar; Malawi; Mali; Mauritania; Mauritius; 
Mayotte; Mozambique; Namibia; Niger; Nigeria; Réunion; Rwanda; Saint 
Helena; São Tomé and Príncipe; Senegal; Seychelles; Sierra Leone; Somalia; 
South Sudan; Swaziland; Tanzania; The Gambia; Togo; Uganda; Zambia; and 
Zimbabwe. In particular, this list includes a French overseas department and 
a British overseas territory, as well as countries in the Caribbean, which were 
taken into account as possible places of origin of survey respondents in France.

Overall, 84 % of survey respondents were born outside the EU, EFTA countries 
and the United Kingdom, in a country in sub-Saharan Africa selected for the 
survey. They are referred to as immigrants (Table 1). Some 16 % of respondents 
of African descent were born in the EU, EFTA countries or the United Kingdom, 
to at least one parent who was born in a country in sub-Saharan Africa 
selected for the survey. They are referred to as descendants of immigrants. 
Immigrants in the sample have 54 different countries of origin, and are most 
often from Angola, Ghana, Nigeria, Senegal and Somalia (Table 2). 

On average, 87 % of the respondents self-identify as ‘a person of African 
descent or a Black person’ and 13 % do not, with some differences across 
the 13 countries surveyed. Several factors may have affected this outcome. 
These include respondents being of mixed origin, being born in countries 
in sub-Saharan Africa but to at least one parent who is white or to parents 
originating from other regions of the world / ethnic groups, and self-identifying 
as a member of another ethnic group.

In the analysis of the survey, results were disaggregated for respondents who 
self-identify as ‘a person of African descent or a Black person’ and compared 
with results for those who do not self-identify as such. The overall prevalence 
of racist experiences does not vary substantially between the two groups. 
For example, the overall 5-year prevalence rates of racial discrimination are 
alike when compared among all respondents with a sub-Saharan African 
background (45 %) and those who self-identify as a person of African descent 
or a Black person (47 %).

No substantial differences are observed in most countries surveyed, except 
Denmark and Luxembourg, and to a lesser extent Austria. For example, in 
Luxembourg the average prevalence of racial discrimination in the 5 years 
preceding the survey is 47 % when based on all respondents. It increases 
to 57 % when based solely on those who self-identify as people of African 
descent or as Black people. Similarly, a higher average prevalence of racial 
discrimination is observed for self-identifying respondents than among all 
respondents in Denmark (by 9 percentage points) and Austria (by 6 percentage 
points).

Similarly, the prevalence of racist harassment or police stops perceived as 
involving discriminatory ethnic profiling is 10 percentage points higher among 
those who self-identify as a person of African descent or a Black person than 

109

among those who do not. For example, the prevalence of racist harassment 
among those who self-identify as a person of African descent or a Black 
person is twice as high as among those who do not identify as such (26 % 
and 13 %, respectively). Some 60 % of respondents who self-identify as a 
person of African descent or a Black person perceived the most recent police 
stop to involve discriminatory ethnic profiling, compared with 39 % of those 
who do not self-identify as such.

When comparing the ages of the respondents of African descent with those 
of the general population in the 13 EU Member States the survey covered, the 
respondents of African descent are concentrated in the younger age groups. 
Overall, 19 % of respondents of African descent are 16–24 years old, 49 % 
are 25–44 years old, 22 % are 45–64 years old and 10 % are 65 years old or 
older. Among the general population, the distribution is as follows: 12 % are 
15–24 years old, 29 % are 25–44 years old, 32 % are 45–64 years old and 28 % 
are 65 years old or older. Some 68 % of respondents of African descent are 
aged 16–44 years (e.g. 91 % in Poland and 83 % in Finland), while among 
the entire survey population the share is 40 % (4).

In terms of gender, in four survey countries there are on average slightly 
more women of African descent than men of African descent (Belgium, 
France, Ireland and Portugal). In others, there are considerably more men 
than women, most notably in Italy, Poland and Spain. 

In terms of citizenship, overall, 46 % of respondents are citizens of their 
country of residence, with substantial variations across the 13 Member 
States. For example, in Sweden 75 % of respondents are country nationals, 
compared with 14 % in Italy (Table 1).

Reasons for migration differ across the 13 EU Member States in which 
immigrants of African descent reside (5). Overall, most of the immigrants 
came to their country of residence for employment or work (33 %). The 
second most frequently mentioned explanation was for family reasons (23 %).

Some 18 % came to the country to study and 16 % came to seek protection 
or asylum. In addition, 12 % indicated that they came to the EU as a child 
with their parents, and 7 % mentioned other reasons for coming to the EU.

Employment was the most important reason for respondents of African 
descent migrating to Italy (68 %), Spain (67 %), Portugal (52 %), Luxembourg 
(44 %) and France (28 %). Family reasons were the most commonly mentioned 
motivation for migration among respondents living in Denmark (37 %), 
Austria (34 %), Finland and Belgium (both 30 %), and Germany (28 %). 
Seeking international protection was the most important reason given by 
respondents living in Sweden (47 %) and Ireland (39 %), and it was one of 
the most important reasons mentioned by those living in Austria (30 %), 
Belgium (29 %), Finland (27 %), Germany (25 %) and Denmark (24 %). 
Studies and employment are the main reasons for the migration of people 
of African descent to Poland (mentioned by 36 % and 32 %, respectively).

110

TABLE 1: 

OVERVIEW OF SELECTED SAMPLE CHARACTERISTICS, BY EU MEMBER STATEa

Country

Median age 
(years)

Women (%)

Citizenship 
of country of 
residence (%)

Immigrants 
(foreign born) 
(%)

Average stay 
(years)

Self-
identification 
as a person of 
African descent 
or a Black 
person (%)b

Religion (%)

Christian

Muslim

Number of 
respondents

Austria (AT)

Belgium (BE)

Denmark (DK)

Finland (FI)

France (FR)

Germany (DE)

Ireland (IE)

Italy (IT)

Luxembourg (LU)

Poland (PL)

Portugal (PT)

Spain (ES)

Sweden (SE)

EU-13

37

35

34

33

37

32

36

35

39

30

44

37

34

36

43

52

48

43

51

45

52

33

46

36

54

29

48

47

36

60

65

48

54

36

64

14

32

49

46

19

75

46

98

82

70

91

80

78

87

96

77

95

95

94

97

84

14

15

20

11

19

12

14

12

13

14

22

13

13

16

84

97

77

92

81

91

99

93

66

94

95

91

91

87

56

67

49

58

53

65

82

42

62

55

78

32

14

54

21

21

25

32

35

19

12

47

15

3

7

67

79

34

454

459

505

507

544

579

524

419

565

561

518

562

555

6 752

Source:  FRA’s EU Survey on Immigrants and Descendants of Immigrants, 2022.

 Notes:
a  Out of all respondents of African 
descent; weighted results for all 
except the number of respondents.

b  Question: ‘Would you describe 
yourself as a person of African 
descent / a Black person? Yes/No.’

TABLE 2:  MOST COMMON COUNTRIES OF ORIGIN OF FOREIGN-BORN 
IMMIGRANTS OF AFRICAN DESCENT, BY EU MEMBER STATEa

Member State

Country of birth

Number of 
respondents

% of target 
group

Austria (AT)

Austria (AT)

Austria (AT)

Austria (AT)

Austria (AT)

Austria (AT)

Austria (AT)

Belgium (BE)

Belgium (BE)

Belgium (BE)

Belgium (BE)

Belgium (BE)

Belgium (BE)

Belgium (BE)

Denmark (DK)

Nigeria

Other

Somalia

Kenya

Ethiopia

Ghana

Cameroon

Other

Democratic Republic of the 
Congo

Cameroon

Guinea

Rwanda

Congo

Ghana

Other

144

139

50

31

30

28

23

141

85

51

30

24

20

20

32

31

11

7

7

6

5

38

24

15

7

7

5

5

123

41

111

Member State

Country of birth

Number of 
respondents

% of target 
group

Denmark (DK)

Denmark (DK)

Denmark (DK)

Denmark (DK)

Denmark (DK)

Denmark (DK)

Finland (FI)

Finland (FI)

Finland (FI)

Finland (FI)

Finland (FI)

Finland (FI)

Finland (FI)

France (FR)

France (FR)

France (FR) 

France (FR)

France (FR)

France (FR)

France (FR)

France (FR)

France (FR)

France (FR)

France (FR)

France (FR)

Germany (DE)

Germany (DE)

Germany (DE)

Somalia

Eritrea

Ghana

Ethiopia

Kenya

Nigeria

Other

Nigeria

Somalia

Ghana

Kenya

Ethiopia

Cameroon

Other

Comoros

Senegal

Congo

Mali

Cameroon

Martinique

Guadeloupe

Côte d’Ivoire

Guinea

Democratic Republic of the 
Congo

Mayotte

Other

Nigeria

Ghana

Germany (DE)

Cameroon

Germany (DE)

Germany (DE)

Germany (DE)

Ireland (IE) 

Ireland (IE)

Ireland (IE)

Ireland (IE)

Eritrea

Ethiopia

Togo

Nigeria

Other

Zimbabwe

Democratic Republic of the 
Congo

Italy (IT)

Other

112

64

26

23

21

21

21

101

88

79

45

39

36

22

138

40

38

33

31

28

27

26

25

25

23

20

128

91

68

48

30

25

20

236

132

42

21

145

21

9

8

7

7

7

25

21

19

11

10

9

5

30

9

8

7

7

6

6

6

6

6

5

4

31

22

17

12

7

6

5

55

31

10

5

36

Member State

Country of birth

Number of 
respondents

% of target 
group

Italy (IT)

Italy (IT)

Italy (IT)

Italy (IT)

Luxembourg (LU)

Senegal

Nigeria

Côte d’Ivoire

Ghana

Other

Luxembourg (LU)

Democratic Republic of the 
Congo

Luxembourg (LU)

Senegal

Luxembourg (LU)

Guinea-Bissau

Luxembourg (LU)

Mauritius

Luxembourg (LU)

Mozambique

Luxembourg (LU)

Côte d’Ivoire

Luxembourg (LU)

Luxembourg (LU)

Poland (PL)

Poland (PL)

Poland (PL)

Poland (PL)

Poland (PL)

Poland (PL)

Poland (PL)

Poland (PL)

Poland (PL)

Poland (PL)

Poland (PL)

Portugal (PT)

Nigeria

Togo

Other

Somalia

Angola

Mozambique

Cameroon

Nigeria

Ghana

Zambia

Botswana

Namibia

Ethiopia

Angola

Portugal (PT)

Cabo Verde

Portugal (PT)

Guinea-Bissau

Portugal (PT)

São Tomé and Príncipe

Portugal (PT)

Spain (ES)

Spain (ES)

Spain (ES)

Spain (ES)

Spain (ES)

Spain (ES)

Spain (ES)

Sweden (SE)

Other

Senegal

Mali

Ghana

Nigeria

Other

Gambia

Guinea

Somalia

129

88

21

20

149

53

46

41

33

32

27

27

27

108

81

73

73

45

42

28

28

24

22

20

162

158

84

66

26

197

96

79

58

52

38

23

405

32

22

5

5

34

12

11

9

8

7

6

6

6

20

15

13

13

8

8

5

5

4

4

4

33

32

17

13

5

36

18

15

11

10

7

4

75

113

 Notes:
a  Out of all foreign-born respondents 
of African descent (n = 5 779). 
The category ‘Other’ includes all 
countries of birth with fewer than 20 
respondents. 
Values for some countries do not add 
up to 100 %; this is due to rounding.

Member State

Country of birth

Number of 
respondents

% of target 
group

Sweden (SE)

Sweden (SE)

Sweden (SE)

Eritrea

Other

Ethiopia

60

50

23

11

9

4

Source:  FRA’s EU Survey on Immigrants and Descendants of Immigrants, 

2022.

ANNEX III: TERMINOLOGY

This annex lists the main concepts and terms used, drawing on definitions 
anchored in EU law or adopted by international treaty and expert bodies. 

Bias-motivated harassment
Bias-motivated harassment includes a range of harmful behaviours, some 
of which may not amount to a criminal offence. The racial equality directive 
states:

Harassment shall be deemed to be discrimination … when an unwanted 
conduct related to racial or ethnic origin takes place with the purpose or 
effect of violating the dignity of a person and of creating an intimidating, 
hostile, degrading, humiliating or offensive environment (6).

Descent
‘[D]escent’ should be understood as referring mainly to persons or groups 
of persons who descend from persons who could be identified by certain 
characteristics (such as race or colour), but not necessarily all of these 
characteristics still exist. In spite of that, because of their descent, such 
persons or groups of persons may be subject to hatred or violence (7).

Equal treatment
The racial equality directive states: ‘For the purposes of this Directive, the 
principle of equal treatment shall mean that there shall be no direct or indirect 
discrimination based on racial or ethnic origin’ (8).

Ethnic or immigrant background
Some findings presented in this report use ‘ethnic or immigrant background’ 
as a generic term to describe results for the three grounds of discrimination 
asked about in the survey: skin colour, ethnic origin or immigrant background, 
and religion or religious belief. For more details on the intersection of religion, 
skin colour and ethnic origin as grounds for discrimination, see Section 1.1.2 
‘Grounds of discrimination’.

Hate crime
Crimes such as threats, physical attacks, property damage or even murders 
motivated by intolerance towards certain [people and] groups in society 
are described as hate crimes or bias crimes. Hate crime can therefore be 
any crime that targets a person because of their perceived characteristics. 
The essential element distinguishing hate crimes from other crimes is the 
bias motive (9).

Intersectionality
Intersectionality is a theoretical framework that facilitates the comprehension 
of how social identities overlap and create compounding experiences of 
discrimination based on two or more grounds (10).

114

People of African descent
[P]eople of African descent living in the diaspora are the historical and 
continuing victims of the transatlantic, Mediterranean and Indian Ocean 
slave trades and of slavery … (11).

[T]he term ‘people of African descent’ may also be used with ‘Afro-European’, 
‘African European’, ‘Black European’, ‘Afro-Caribbean’ or ‘Black-Caribbean’, 
and refers to people of African ancestry or descent who are born in, citizens 
of, or living in Europe (12).

Profiling
Profiling involves categorising individuals according to their characteristics.

To collect and process personal data, law enforcement and border management 
authorities must ensure that data collection and processing have a legal basis, 
have a valid, legitimate aim, and are necessary and proportionate.

Protected characteristics such as race, ethnic origin, gender or religion can 
be among the factors that law enforcement authorities and border guards 
take into account for exercising their powers, but they cannot be the sole 
or main reason to single out an individual […]

Profiling that is based solely or mainly on one or more protected characteristics 
amounts to direct discrimination, and therefore violates the individual’s rights 
and freedoms and is unlawful (13).

Racial discrimination
‘[R]acial discrimination’ shall mean any distinction, exclusion, restriction 
or preference based on race, colour, descent, or national or ethnic origin 
which has the purpose or effect of nullifying or impairing the recognition, 
enjoyment or exercise, on an equal footing, of human rights and fundamental 
freedoms in the political, economic, social, [or] cultural [fields] or any other 
field of public life (14).

Racial origin
The European Union rejects theories which attempt to determine the existence 
of separate human races. The use of the term ‘racial origin’ in this Directive 
does not imply an acceptance of such theories (15). 

The notions of race/racial origin and/or ethnic origin are socially constructed: 
individuals may self-identify as white or Black, but how society categorises 
individuals in racial terms often shapes racism and racial or ethnic discrimination. 
In line with the applicable EU legislation (16) and the Guidance note on the 
collection and use of equality data based on racial or ethnic origin, the 
phrase ‘racial or ethnic origin’ refers to a cause of discrimination. Some 
EU Member States use the category ‘racial or ethnic origin’ for statistical 
purposes. This report refers to ‘racial or ethnic origin’ as (1) a generic statistical 
(analytical) category that allows the disaggregation of any data and (2) 
an aspect of a person’s self-identification and ethnic attachment (i.e. as a 
personal characteristic).

Racial profiling
Racial profiling is ‘[t]he use by the police, with no objective and reasonable 
justification, of grounds such as race, colour, language, religion, nationality or 
national or ethnic origin in control, surveillance or investigation activities’ (17).

115

Racialisation
Racialisation is ‘the process of ascribing characteristics and attributes that 
are presented as innate to a group of concern to it and of constructing false 
social hierarchies in racial terms and associated exclusion and hostility’ (18).

Racism
‘[R]acism’ shall mean the belief that a ground such as race, colour, language, 
religion, nationality or national or ethnic origin justifies contempt for a person 
or a group of persons, or the notion of superiority of a person or a group of 
persons (19).

Structural discrimination
Structural discrimination involves ‘rules, norms, routines, patterns of attitudes 
and behaviour in institutions and other societal structures that, consciously 
or unconsciously, present obstacles to groups or individuals in accessing the 
same rights and opportunities as others and that contribute to less favourable 
outcomes for them than for the majority of the population’ (20).

The Council of the European Union refers to systemic or structural discrimination 
‘as being evident in the inequalities that result from legislation, policy and 
practice, not by intent but resulting from a range of institutional factors in the 
elaboration, implementation and review of legislation, policy and practice’ (21).

As a European Parliament resolution of 10 November 2022 states:

[T]he EU Anti-racism Action Plan refers to structural racism as discriminatory 
behaviours which can be embedded in social, financial and political institutions, 
thereby having an impact on different layers of power and policymaking; 
whereas structural discrimination can be seen as obstacles to groups or 
individuals achieving the same rights and opportunities that are available 
to the majority of the population (22).

Systemic discrimination
Systemic  discrimination  occurs  where  the  procedures,  routines  and 
organisational culture of any organisation contribute to unequal outcomes for 
minority groups compared to the general population. Systemic discrimination 
can be rooted in the way organisations go about their day-to-day business 
as policymakers, employers, or service providers, and can also feature in 
automated decision making. It tends not to be a matter of intent or deliberate 
action. It only becomes visible in the unequal outcomes for particular groups 
from the policymaking, programme and service delivery, and employment 
functions of an organisation. Unequal outcomes are thus the markers of 
systemic discrimination at play (23).

[T]he concept of systemic racism against Africans and people of African 
descent, including as it relates to structural and institutional racism, is 
understood to be the operation of a complex, interrelated system of laws, 
policies, practices and attitudes in State institutions, the private sector and 
societal structures that, combined, result in direct or indirect, intentional 
or unintentional, de jure or de facto discrimination, distinction, exclusion, 
restriction or preference on the basis of race, colour, descent or national or 
ethnic origin (24).

116

ANNEX IV: SURVEY RESPONDENTS’ AWARENESS OF EQUALITY BODIES

TABLE 3: 

RESPONDENTS’ AWARENESS OF EQUALITY BODIES IN THEIR COUNTRIES (%)a,b

EU Member State

‘Have you ever heard of the following?’

Yes

1

2

3

4

1

2

1

2

1

2

1

1

2

3

4

1

1

1

1

1

2

3

1

2

1

Gleichbehandlungskommission

Gleichbehandlungsanwaltschaft

Anwalt für Gleichbehandlungsfragen für Menschen mit 
Behinderungen

ZARA – Zivilcourage & Anti-Rassismus Arbeit

Interfederal Centre for Equal Opportunities (UNIA)

Institut pour l’égalité des femmes et des hommes (French) / 
Instituut voor de gelijkheid van vrouwen en mannen (Dutch)

Institut for Menneskerettigheder

Ligebehandlingsnævnet

Yhdenvertaisuusvaltuutettu (Finnish) / 
Diskrimineringsombudsmannen (Swedish)

Tasa-arvovaltuutettu (Finnish) / Jämställdhetsombudsmannen 
(Swedish)

Défenseur des droits

Antidiskriminierungsstelle des Bundes (ADS)

Landesstelle für Gleichbehandlung – gegen Diskriminierung 
(Berlin only)

Amt für multikulturelle Angelegenheiten (AmkA) (Frankfurt am 
Main only)

Antidiskriminierungsstelle für Menschen mit 
Migrationshintergrund (AMIGRA) (Munich only)

Irish Human Rights and Equality Commission (English) / 
Coimisiún na hÉireann um Chearta an Duine agus Comhionannas 
(Irish)

Ufficio Nazionale Antidiscriminazioni Razziali

Centre pour l’égalité de traitement (CET) (French) / Das Zentrum 
für Gleichbehandlung (CET) (German)

Rzecznik Praw Obywatelskich

Alto Comissariado para as Migrações

Comissão para a Cidadania e a Igualdade de Género

Comissão para a Igualdade no Trabalho e no Emprego

Consejo para la Eliminación de la Discriminación Racial o Étnica

Instituto de la Mujer y para la Igualdad de Oportunidades

Diskrimineringsombudsmannen

31

27

31

35

14

29

62

37

28

34

57

17

13

9

8

46

23

19

64

32

32

37

9

18

52

Austria

Belgium

Denmark

Finland

France

Germany

Ireland

Italy

Luxembourg

Poland

Portugal

Spain

Sweden

Source:  FRA’s EU Survey on Immigrants and Descendants of Immigrants, 2022.

 Notes:
a  Out of all respondents of African 

descent (n = 6 752); weighted results.

b 

In Germany, all respondents were 
asked about two equality bodies: 
body 1 and then body 2, 3 or 4 
depending on where they lived.

No

68

72

68

64

85

70

38

62

71

64

42

83

87

90

90

54

74

81

27

68

68

63

90

81

46

Don’t know

1

0

0

0

1

1

0

1

2

2

1

0

1

2

2

1

3

0

9

0

0

0

1

1

2

117

Endnotes

(1)  FRA (2022), ‘EU survey on immigrants and descendants of immigrants’.
(2)  The target population counts by target group and country are outlined in the survey’s technical and quality report (not yet publicly 

available).

(3)  Eurostat (2023), ‘Population on 1 January by age group, sex and country of birth’.
(4)  Eurostat (2023), ‘Population on 1 January by age group and sex’.
(5)  Multiple responses to the relevant survey question were allowed.
(6)  Council Directive 2000/43/EC of 29 June 2000 implementing the principle of equal treatment between persons irrespective of racial and 

ethnic origin (OJ L 180, 19.7.2000, p. 22), Article 2(3).

(7)  Council Framework Decision 2008/913/JHA of 28 November 2008 on combating certain forms and expressions of racism and xenophobia 

by means of criminal law (OJ L 328, 6.12.2008, p. 55).

(8)  Council Directive 2000/43/EC of 29 June 2000 implementing the principle of equal treatment between persons irrespective of racial or 

ethnic origin (OJ L 180, 19.7.2000, p. 22), Article 2(1).

(9)  FRA and European Court of Human Rights (2018), Handbook on European Non-discrimination Law – 2018 edition, Publications Office of 

the European Union, Luxembourg, p. 81.

(10)  UN Women (2021), Intersectionality Resource Guide and Toolkit – An intersectional approach to leave no one behind. See European 

Institute for Gender Equality (EIGE) (n.d.), ‘Intersectionality’. See also United Nations Network on Racial Discrimination and Protection of 
Minorities and OHCHR (2022), Guidance note on intersectionality, racial discrimination & protection of minorities, p. 11; FRA and European 
Court of Human Rights (2018), Handbook on European Non-discrimination Law – 2018 edition, Publications Office of the European Union, 
Luxembourg, p. 59.

(11)  UN, Working Group of Experts on People of African Descent (2003), Report of the Working Group of Experts on People of African Descent 

on its first and second sessions, p. 17.

(12)  European Parliament resolution of 26 March 2019 on fundamental rights of people of African descent in Europe (2018/2899(RSP)).
(13)  FRA (2018), Preventing Unlawful Profiling Today and in the Future: A guide, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg. 

See also European Commission against Racism and Intolerance (ECRI) (2007), ECRI General Policy Recommendation No 11 on combating 
racism and racial discrimination in policing, CRI(2007)39.

(14)  International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, Article 1(1).
(15)  Council Directive 2000/43/EC of 29 June 2000 implementing the principle of equal treatment between persons irrespective of racial 
or ethnic origin (OJ L 180, 19.7.2000, p. 22), recital 6. See also European Commission (2020), Commission communication – A Union of 
equality: EU anti-racism action plan 2020–2025, COM(2020) 565 final, p. 1.

(16)  Council Directive 2000/43/EC of 29 June 2000 implementing the principle of equal treatment between persons irrespective of racial or 

ethnic origin (OJ L 180, 19.7.2000, p. 22) and Articles 10 and 19 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union.

(17)  ECRI (2007), ECRI General Policy Recommendation No 11 on combating racism and racial discrimination in policing, CRI(2007)39, p. 4.
(18)  ECRI (2021), ECRI’s opinion on the concept of ‘racialisation’.
(19)  ECRI (2017), ECRI General Policy Recommendation No 7 on national legislation to combat racism and racial discrimination, CRI(2003)8, 

p. 5.

(20)  ECRI (2018), ECRI General Policy Recommendation No 2 on equality bodies to combat racism and intolerance at national level, 

CRI(2018)06, paragraph 20; see also European Parliament resolution of 10 November 2022 on racial justice, non-discrimination and anti-
racism in the EU (2022/2005(INI)), recital D.

(21)  Council Recommendation of 12 March 2021 on Roma equality, inclusion and participation (OJ C 93, 19.3.2021, p. 1), p. 6.
(22)  European Parliament resolution of 10 November 2022 on racial justice, non-discrimination and anti-racism in the EU (2022/2005(INI)).
(23)  Council of Europe (2020), Identifying and preventing systemic discrimination at the local level– Policy study.
(24)  United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (2021), Promotion and protection of the human rights and fundamental freedoms of 
Africans and of people of African descent against excessive use of force and other human rights violations by law enforcement officers, 
p. 5.

118

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EU-MIDIS Data in Focus Report 1: The Roma (2009)

EU-MIDIS Data in Focus Report 2: Muslims (2009)

EU-MIDIS Data in Focus Report 3: Rights awareness (2010)

EU-MIDIS Data in Focus Report 4: Police stops and minorities (2010)

EU-MIDIS Data in Focus Report 5: Multiple discrimination (2011)

EU-MIDIS Data in Focus Report 6: Minorities as victims of crime (2012)

Second European Union Minorities and Discrimination Survey (EU-MIDIS II) (2016) outputs

Second European Union Minorities and Discrimination Survey – Main results (2017)

Second European Union Minorities and Discrimination Survey – Roma: Selected findings (2016)

Second European Union Minorities and Discrimination Survey – Muslims: Selected findings (2017)

A Persisting Concern: Antigypsyism as a barrier to Roma inclusion (2018)

EU-MIDIS II – Transition from education to employment of young Roma in nine EU Member States 
(2018)

Second European Union Minorities and Discrimination Survey – Being Black in the EU (2018)

Being Black in the EU – Second European Union Minorities and Discrimination Survey – Summary 
(2019) (available in nine EU languages)

Second European Union Minorities and Discrimination Survey – Roma women in nine EU Member 
States (2019)

Second European Union Minorities and Discrimination Survey – Migrant women: Selected findings 
(2019)

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Opinion 1/2021: Summary (2021) (available in 23 EU languages)

Your rights matter: Police stops – Fundamental Rights Survey (2021)

Data visualisation (2017)

Anonymised EU-MIDIS II microdata published through the GESIS archive (2020): Data File ZA6703, 
Version 1.0.0, GESIS Data Archive, Cologne

119

120

Getting in touch with the EU

In person
All over the European Union there are hundreds of Europe Direct 
centres. You can find the address of the centre nearest you online 
(european-union.europa.eu/contact-eu/meet-us_en)

On the phone or in writing
Europe Direct is a service that answers your questions about 
the European Union. You can contact this service: 
—  by freephone: 00 800 6 7 8 9 10 11 (certain operators may charge for these calls),
— at the following standard number: +32 22999696,
— via the following form: european-union.europa.eu/contact-eu/write-us_en

Finding information about the EU

Online
Information about the European Union in all the official languages of the EU is available 
on the Europa website (europa.eu).

EU publications
You can view or order EU publications at op.europa.eu/en/publications. Multiple 
copies of free publications can be obtained by contacting Europe Direct or your local 
documentation centre (european-union.europa.eu/contact-eu/meet-us_en).

EU law and related documents
For access to legal information from the EU, including all EU law since 1951 in all the 
official language versions, go to EUR-Lex (eur-lex.europa.eu).

Open data from the EU
The portal data.europa.eu provides access to open datasets from the EU institutions, 
bodies and agencies. These can be downloaded and reused for free, for both commercial 
and non-commercial purposes. The portal also provides access to a wealth of datasets 
from European countries.

 

PROMOTING AND PROTECTING 
YOUR FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS 
ACROSS THE EU ―

FRA's first Being Black in the EU report exposed widespread and 
entrenched racism against people of African descent in Europe. Now 
updated with new data, this report revisits the situation revealing 
persistent racial discrimination, harassment and violence. Overall, 
experiences of racial discrimination increased in the EU countries 
since 2016, reaching as high as 77%. The lack of progress is alarming 
despite binding anti-discrimination law in the EU since 2000 and 
significant EU policy developments since then.

FRA’s third large-scale survey on immigrants and the descendants of 
immigrants offers crucial insights into experiences of discrimination 
and racism. This report examines the experiences of almost 6,800 
people of African descent in 13 EU Member States. 

Without this much needed data, racial discrimination remains 
invisible. FRA’s findings support developing a better understanding of 
the experiences of people of African descent in the EU and promote 
action on equality and inclusion. 

Equality

Non-discrimination

Racism

FRA – EUROPEAN UNION AGENCY FOR FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS
Schwarzenbergplatz 11 – 1040 Vienna – Austria
T +43 158030-0 – F +43 158030-699 

fra.europa.eu 

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