Work-based learning : a leaflet of the interagency group on technical and vocational education and training.
Date: 2024-10-16
Institutions: Cedefop, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
Subjects: apprenticeship, continuing education, in-service training, learning, professional career, professional qualifications, traineeship, vocational education, working environment

A Leaflet of the Interagency Group on Technical and 
Vocational Education and Training

Apprenticeships 
Apprenticeships are a key type of work-based learning, designed to develop 
occupational skills and lead to recognised qualifications. They combine school-
based learning with workplace learning, with the latter typically accounting for 
a significant proportion (e.g. 50%) of the programme duration. This combination 
can vary in format, such as weekly rotations or extended block phases. 

Apprentices often have an employment agreement, receive renumeration, and 
hold the status of employees.

EXAMPLE: The Swiss apprenticeship model is a classic example. The 
learner has an employment contract and is considered an employee. 
This upper secondary level programme lasts about three and a half 
years, with around 75% of the time spent learning at the workplace and 
25% at a vocational school. Swiss companies advertise apprenticeship 
vacancies, and interested students apply directly. There is a training 
market where the supply of apprenticeship opportunities can meet the 
demand from students.

A signed training contract is required to start the apprenticeship 
programme, and this contract is valid throughout the training period. 
Apprentices are paid even during their time at vocational school. 
Typically, apprentices remain with one company for the entire duration of 
their training, which leads to a close connection between them and the 
company.

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Work-based learning (WBL) refers to all forms of 
learning that occur in a real work environment. 
It equips individuals with the skills necessary to 
obtain, maintain and advance in their jobs and 
professional development. Common types of 
work-based learning include apprenticeships, 
internships, traineeships and on-the-job training. 
These often, but not always, combine workplace 
learning with classroom-based education.

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doi:10.2816/6809556
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However, there are some apprenticeship programmes in which learners have 
student status, at least at the beginning of the programme and during the 
school phases. In these cases, the vocational education and training (VET) 
provider plays a leading role in organising and implementing the programme, 
mediating the relationship between the learner and the company. Initial 
enrolment takes place at the vocational school, which then provides support 
in finding suitable training companies. A contract between the company 
and the learner may not be required for admission; instead, a contract or an 
agreement between the school and the employer may govern the work-based 
learning component.

EXAMPLE: In Thailand, since 2008, secondary and post-secondary VET 
programmes can be delivered via a school-based pathway or one that 
includes in-company placements under the ‘dual education mode’. In 
this model, the work-based learning component accounts for more than 
half of the programme duration, with learners spending 3-4 days at the 
workplace and 1-2 days at a VET institution, maintaining their student 
status. The training alternation arrangements depend on the agreements 
between industry, training institutions, students and parents.

In many countries, apprenticeship programmes are also referred to as dual 
programmes, because they take place at two different learning venues: the 
company and the school. Training is divided between school-based learning 
in vocational schools or centres, and work-based learning at a workplace. The 
term apprenticeship typically refers to the entire programme, but sometimes it 
specifically denotes the work-based learning component, which may also be 
called practical training. 

However, practical training might also occur in school workshops, centres or 
laboratories. In some countries, practical training is supplemented by training 
centres run by chambers, business associations or guilds, especially when 
small companies lack access to the latest technologies or cannot cover the full 
curriculum. 

Dual programmes should not be confused with dual systems. This term refers to 
the overall governance structures (including financing) of vocational education 
and training, including the roles and responsibilities of various actors. In a dual 
system, key functions and tasks – such as developing training and examination 
standards, accrediting training companies, and conducting final examinations 
and certifications – are partly or wholly managed by employer and employee 
organisations (e.g. business associations, guilds, chambers, trade unions etc.).

Informal / traditional apprenticeships

Informal or traditional apprenticeships are common in developing countries. 
Their aim is similar to that of formal apprenticeships: to acquire the skills 
needed for a trade or craft through learning and working in a company. 
However, these apprenticeships often lack a connection to the formal 
education system, although they may include a classroom-based component. 
In some developing countries, formalising work-based learning practices 
remains a major challenge, as certification or formal qualifications are rarely 
awarded to apprentices. 

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Informal/traditional apprenticeships are typically offered to young people by 
micro or small enterprises. Learning takes place on-the-job, side by side with 
an experienced craftsperson, traditionally referred to as a master craftsperson. 
The costs of training are shared between the employer and the apprentice, 
and they sometimes sign a training agreement that aligns with local norms and 
traditions. 

EXAMPLE: In Tanzania, a young person, usually with a primary education 
level, agrees with a local master craftsperson in a skilled trade like 
carpentry, hairdressing, or car mechanics to be trained for several years 
under their supervision. Apprentices sometimes pay fees to be admitted, 
but usually receive in-kind or other allowances. Training is entirely work-
based. 

Internships and Traineeships 
Internships are workplace training periods that complement formal or non-
formal education and training programmes. Internships can be a compulsory 
and integrated, or optional and supplementary component of a vocational 
training programme. They may last from a few days or weeks to several 
months, but are generally shorter than apprenticeships. They may or may not 
include a work contract and payment. Other terms used for such workplace 
training periods include traineeship, attachment, work placement, and cooper-
ative education (the latter term mainly used in Canada and the US). Generally, 
the terms internship and traineeship are used interchangeably.

EXAMPLE: In Rwanda, a one-month internship is included in all three 
years of upper secondary TVET programmes (TVET Certificate III-V) 
implemented at Technical Secondary Schools.

Internships/traineeships are also organised by public employment services in 
cooperation with employers to help unemployed or inactive young people 
gain employment. They consist of a period of work practice, whether paid 
or not, that includes a training component. The EU has established a Quality 
Framework for Traineeships as part of active labour market policies (ALMPs) in 
2014. This framework recommends written agreements.

EXAMPLE: A university graduate who cannot find a job in their field of 
study registers for an active labour market programme, consisting of four 
months spent in a company and two months at a training provider.

There are also internships/traineeships offered in the open labour market. 
These are non-mandatory, bilateral agreements between an intern/trainee 
and a provider, without involvement from a third party or connection to the 
education and training system.

EXAMPLE: A young person after graduating from a school-based VET 
programme in the field of tourism, applies for a six-month internship/
traineeship at a hotel to gain additional work experience with the aim of 
securing a first-entry job. 

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Other types of work-based learning 
The most common type of work-based learning throughout an individual’s 
working life is on-the-job training. This involves structured training – not just 
informal learning – that takes place at work.

EXAMPLE: A travel agency introduces new booking software, and its 
employees are trained on this software during working hours.

Other types of work-based learning include training firms, teaching factories, 
production schools or business units in vocational schools or centres.

EXAMPLE: A TVET provider offers hospitality sector programmes that 
alternate between classroom-based training with practical training in a 
restaurant operated by the school, which is open to the public.

All forms of WBL, including apprenticeships, may be offered as active labour 
market programmes, if they are organised and funded by public employment 
services.

Work-based learning immerses learners, including 
adults, in real work settings. This helps the acquisition 
of practical and employability skills, enhancing their 
job readiness and facilitating a smoother transition 
from school to work. Additionally, work-based 
learning supports continuous skills development, 
ensuring learners have the competencies and 
mindsets necessary for lifelong learning.

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Work-based offers numerous benefits to various 
stakeholders...

Learners
o  Improved employability
o  Faster school-to-work transitions
o  Personal and professional development
o  Attractive alternative to purely classroom-

based learning

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Society
o Better access to jobs
o Better human and social capital 
o Economic development 
o Employment of less advantaged groups

...because it
can lead to:

Employers
o Higher productivity 
o Technical and job-specific skills 
o Growth 
o Efficient recruitment 
o Social engagement and workplace diversity

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By aligning education and training with industry needs, work-based learning 
contributes to poverty reduction and the alleviation of economic inequality. 
It offers opportunities for individuals from underrepresented groups to enter 
and succeed in various industries. This fosters a more diverse and inclusive 
workforce and helps combat discrimination and bias in hiring practices. 

Work-based learning guarantees access to a pool of skilled and motivated 
individuals, reducing recruitment costs. Employers can tailor work-based 
learning programmes to meet specific occupational and industry requirements, 
ensuring that participants develop skills and competences closely aligned with 
an organisation’s objectives. This customisation leads to increased efficiency 
and effectiveness. Furthermore, employers benefit from higher productivity, as 
employees trained through work-based learning tend to have better technical 
and job specific skills. Work-based learning also enhances social engagement 
and workplace diversity, promoting a more inclusive and cohesive workplace 
environment.

Moreover, work-based learning significantly benefits the education and training 
sector, particularly TVET providers, by bridging the gap between TVET providers 
and employers. This gap may be cultural, institutional, technical, or physical. By 
closing this gap, TVET providers can:

 |   Continuously update their curricula with the latest industry trends, 

technologies, and practices, enhancing the relevance and quality of 
education.

 |   Reduce capital expenditure by making use of the employer’s workshops, 

machinery, software, and other resources.

 |   Establish mutually beneficial relationships that extend beyond the work-

based learning programme.

 |   Enhance reputation and credibility, attracting prospective students and 
contributing to financial sustainability and graduate employment.

 |   Upskill and reskill their teaching staff on an ongoing basis, allowing them 
to apply theoretical knowledge in real-world scenarios and improving 
teaching effectiveness.

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Efforts to develop and strengthen apprenticeship 
systems and programmes at national, regional 
and local level are guided by international 
and supranational quality standards. Two key 
recommendations have been established in recent 
years to set criteria and standards for quality 
apprenticeships:

 | The European Framework for Quality and Effective 

Apprenticeships (EFQEA) – Adopted by the 
European Union (EU) in 2018.

 | The Quality Apprenticeship Recommendation, 
2023 (#208) – Adopted by the International 
Labour Organization (ILO) in 2023.

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Both of these recommendations share a common understanding of 
apprenticeships, as outlined in earlier sections: apprenticeships should be 
structured and provide learners with occupational skills and lead to recognised 
qualifications. They should combine workplace learning with vocational school 
education. Additionally, apprenticeships require a formal contract or training 
agreement, involve financial compensation for the apprentice and ensure that 
apprentices are protected.

The European Framework for Quality and Effective Apprenticeships
The Council Recommendation on a European Framework for Quality and 
Effective Apprenticeships aims to ensure that apprenticeship schemes are 
responsive to labour-market needs, while also providing tangible benefits 
to learners and employers alike (Council of the European Union, 2018). 
Developed with the support of the European social partners, 
this framework includes 14 criteria for high-quality and effective 
apprenticeships that lead to the development of job-related skills as well 
as the personal development of apprentices. These criteria are divided 
into two categories: learning and working conditions and framework 
conditions. The EU Member States are encouraged to use these criteria 
as guidelines for national regulations and the implementation of 
apprenticeships.

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The European Framework for Quality and Effective Apprenticeships 

The ILO Quality Apprenticeships Recommendation

Learning and working conditions
1.   The rights and obligations of the apprentice, the employer and, where 

appropriate, the training institution should be set out in a written agreement.

2.   Vocational institutions and the social partners should establish a 

comprehensive set of learning outcomes for each apprenticeship programme.

3.   Pedagogical support should be available and provided by adequately 

qualified in-company trainers and vocational teachers.

4.   There should be a substantial workplace component covering at least half of 

the apprenticeship duration.

5.   Apprentices should be paid or otherwise compensated for their work.

6.   Apprentices should be entitled to social protection, including necessary 

insurance.

7.   Workplaces should comply with the relevant rules and regulations on work, 

health and safety conditions.

Framework conditions

8.   A clear and consistent regulatory framework should be in place.

9.   The social partners should be involved in the design, governance and 

implementation of apprenticeship programme.

10.  Financial and/or non-financial support should be available, particularly 
for micro, small and medium-sized enterprises to enable cost-effective 
apprenticeships.

11.  Flexible learning pathways and mobility of learners should be supported 

through recognition of prior non-formal and informal learning, opportunities 
for progression from apprenticeship to further learning, and opportunities for 
training abroad.

12.  Career guidance for learners and awareness-raising activities to promote the 

attractiveness of apprenticeships should be in place.

13.  Transparency of and access to apprenticeship opportunities in and between 
Member States should be facilitated by the national labour market agencies.

14.  Quality assurance measures and procedures for tracking the employment and 

career development of apprenticeship graduates should be in place.

Recommendation No. 208 provides comprehensive guidance to ILO Member 
states, as well as employer and worker organisations, on developing, 
implementing and evaluating quality apprenticeship systems and programmes. 
The recommendation offers a clear definition of what apprenticeships are and 
emphasises the need for a robust regulatory framework for them. 

Key aspects of this Recommendation include:
 |  Social Dialogue: Organisations of workers and organisations of 

employers play a crucial role in shaping apprenticeship systems and 
programmes through social dialogue and should be involved in the design, 
implementation, monitoring and evaluation.

 |  Protection of apprentices: Apprentices should be protected from forced 
labour and child labour, discrimination and occupational safety and 
health hazards, and have the right to organize and benefit from collective 
bargaining. In addition, apprentices should benefit from adequate 
remuneration and fixed working hours, paid holidays as well as social security 
protection.

 |  Written agreement: Apprenticeships should be governed by a written 

agreement, clearly outlining the terms of the apprenticeship.

 |  Promotion of equality and inclusion: Member States should promote equality, 
diversity, and social inclusion within apprenticeship programmes, with a 
specific focus on gender equality.

 |  Collaboration and cooperation: The recommendation calls for measures 

to enhance international, regional, and national cooperation on 
apprenticeships, developed in consultation with representative employer and 
worker organisations.

Both the EFQEA and the ILO's Quality Apprenticeships Recommendation set a high 
standard for the development of apprenticeship systems and programmes, ensuring that 
they are beneficial for learners, employers, and society at large, and that they uphold 
principles of equality and social inclusion.

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  Cedefop (2021), The role of work-based learning in VET and tertiary education. 
Luxembourg: Publications Office. Cedefop research paper, No 80

  Cedefop (2019), Apprenticeship schemes in European countries: a cross-nation overview. 
Luxembourg: Publications Office

  Cedefop (2019), Cedefop’s analytical framework for apprenticeships. Luxembourg: 
Publications Office

ILO:

  Recommendation 208

  ILO Apprenticeships topic page

  ILO Policy Brief (2024), Strengthening apprenticeships for transitions to formality

  Project page with publications - Apprenticeships Development for Universal Lifelong 
Learning and Training (ADULT) 

OECD:

  OECD (2023), Building Future-Ready Vocational Education and Training Systems, OECD 
Reviews of Vocational Education and Training, OECD Publishing, Paris

  Flexible adult learning provision: what it is, why it matters and how to make it work (2023) 

  OECD (2019), Getting Skills Right: Future-Ready Adult Learning Systems, Getting Skills Right, 
OECD Publishing, Paris

  OECD (2018), Seven Questions about Apprenticeships: Answers from Interna-tional 
Experience, OECD Reviews of Vocational Education and Training, OECD Publishing, Paris

UNESCO:

  Transforming technical and vocational education and training for successful and just 
transitions: UNESCO strategy 2022-2029

  Recommendation concerning Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET), 
2015

  Recommendation on Technical and Vocational Education and Training (2015): Results of 
the Second Consultation of Member States on the Implementation of the UNESCO TVET 
Recommendation, 2019–2022

IAG-TVET:

  The World Bank, UNESCO and ILO. (2023), Building better formal TVET systems: Prin-ciples 
and practice in low- and middle-income countries

  Cedefop et al. (2022), Work-based learning and the green transition. Luxembourg: 
Publications Office

  Cedefop and OECD (2024), Apprenticeships and the digital transition: modernising 
apprenticeships to meet digital skill needs. Publications Office of the European Union. 
Cedefop reference series; 125

  Cedefop; OECD (2022), Apprenticeships for greener economies and societies. 
Luxembourg: Publications Office. Cedefop reference series, 122

  Cedefop; OECD (2021), The next steps for apprenticeship. Luxembourg: Publications 
Office. Cedefop reference series; No 118

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EUROPEAN COMMISSION:

  European Alliance for Apprenticeships

  EAfA Communities - Employment, Social Affairs & Inclusion - European 
Commission (europa.eu)

  EAfA activities hub - Employment, Social Affairs & Inclusion - European 
Commission (europa.eu)

ETF:

  Monitoring and evaluating work-based learning in vocational education and 
training 2021

  Financing work-based learning as part of vocational education reform: A 
handbook for policy makers and social partners 2018

  Work-based learning: How ready are we? A tool for ETF partner countries 2018

  Work-based learning: A handbook for policy makers and social partners in ETF 
partner countries

CEDEFOP:

  Cedefop European database on apprenticeship schemes

  Cedefop et al. (2022), Built to last: apprenticeship vision, purpose, and resilience 
in times of crisis: short papers from the Cedefop community of apprenticeship 
experts. Luxembourg: Publications Office. Cedefop working paper, No 12

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The Interagency Group on Technical and Vocational Education and 
Training (IAG-TVET) was convened by UNESCO in 2008 to ensure a 

good coordination of activities by the key international organisations 

involved in the delivery of policy advice, programmes and research on 

TVET. It enhances knowledge-sharing and a common understanding 

of key issues. Ultimately, the group seeks to better leverage the work of 

each member organisation to help countries design and implement 

more effective TVET policies to improve productivity, economic prosperity, 

sustainable development and employment opportunities.

The IAG-TVET comprises the United Nations Educational, Scientific and 

Cultural Organization (UNESCO), the International Labour Organization 

(ILO), the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development 

(OECD), the United Nations Industrial Development Organization 

UNIDO), the World Health Organization (WHO) and the World Bank 

(WB). Regionally-based members include the African Development Bank 

(AfDB), the Asian Development Bank (ADB), the European Commission 

(EC), the European Training Foundation (ETF), the European Centre for 

the Development of Vocational Training (Cedefop), the Inter-American 

Development Bank (IADB) and the Islamic Development Bank (IDB).