Natural disasters : anticipatory governance and disaster risk management from a local and regional perspective.
Date: 2024-08-23
Institutions: Commission for Natural Resources
Subjects: civil defence, climate change, cooperation policy, crisis management, environmental risk prevention, natural disaster, regional cooperation, risk management

Commission for
 Natural Resources

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Natural disasters:
anticipatory governance and 
disaster risk management 
from a local and regional 
perspective

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© European Union, 2024 
Partial reproduction is permitted, provided that the source is explicitly mentioned. 

More information on the European Union and the Committee of the Regions is available online at 
http://www.europa.eu and http://www.cor.europa.eu respectively. 

QG-02-24-814-EN-N; ISBN 978-92-895-3597-7; DOI 10.2863/889868

This report has been written by Agnieszka Maj, Anna Wiktorow-
Bojska, Karolina Zubel (CASE Research) 

It does not represent the official views of the 
European Committee of the Regions

Contents  

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ............................................................................. 1

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ................................................................................. 2

INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................... 4

Objectives of the study ........................................................................................ 6

PART 1: VULNERABILITY TO NATURAL DISASTERS: TRENDS AND 
PERSPECTIVES OF REGIONAL EXPOSURE ACROSS EUROPE ......... 8

1.1 Current climate change-induced hazards ................................................. 9

1.2 Future trends and perspectives ................................................................ 11

PART 2: PROACTIVE VERSUS REACTIVE CRISIS MANAGEMENT: 
ANALYSIS OF THE BENEFITS OF ANTICIPATORY GOVERNANCE 
IN DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT ......................................................... 16

2.1 Proactive versus reactive crisis management – introduction to 
anticipatory governance ................................................................................... 18

2.2 Benefits of anticipatory governance in disaster risk management ....... 22

2.3 Possible challenges and ways to develop anticipatory governance ...... 25

PART 3: THE ROLE OF CLIMATE ADAPTATION IN PREVENTING 
DISASTERS AND ENHANCING THE RESILIENCE OF EU REGIONS29

3.1 The role of LRAs in fostering climate change adaptation ..................... 30

3.2 Challenges related to climate change adaptation ................................... 32

3.3 Different types of adaptation actions....................................................... 33

3.4 Potential risks related to maladaptation ................................................. 34

PART 4: OVERVIEW OF THE LEGISLATIVE AND FINANCIAL 
FRAMEWORK FOR DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT AND 
ADAPTATION IN EU MEMBER STATES .................................................. 36

PART 5: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ......................... 72

Recommendations ............................................................................................. 73

REFERENCES .................................................................................................. 77

List of abbreviations

ANEPC
AWAC
CCA
CoR 
DRM 
DRMKC
DRR
EC
EEA
ESPON 

EU 
EUCRA
GHG 
IMF
IPCC
LRAs 
NAP
NAS
NECP
NGOs
OECD
RAP 
RCM
SAP
SWOT
UN

Portuguese National Authority for Emergency and Civil Protection
Walloon Air and Climate Agency
Climate Change Adaptation
Committee of the Regions
Disaster Risk Management 
Disaster Risk Management Knowledge Centre
Disaster Risk Reduction
European Commission
European Environment Agency
European  Observation Network  for  Territorial  Development  and 
Cohesion
European Union 
European Climate Risk Assessment
Greenhouse Gas 
International Monetary Fund
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
Local and Regional Authorities
National Adaptation Plan
National Adaptation Strategy
National Energy and Climate Action Plan
Non-governmental Organisations
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
Regional Adaptation Plan
Region of Central Macedonia
Sectoral Adaptation Plan
Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats
United Nations

1 

Executive summary 

Climate  change  is  a  key  dominant  trend  across  the  territories  of  the  European 
Union (EU) given the expected growing frequency of multiple climate change-
induced hazards. Serious impacts on ecosystems, the economy, and human health 
and  well-being  will  be  observed  as  a  result.  Minimising  the  risks  and  impacts 
stemming from these extremes is therefore a priority for the EU, and for national 
and Local and Regional Authorities (LRAs). 

At the same time, such shocks do not follow administrative borders, and therefore 
require  a  multilevel  cross-border  approach  involving  all  levels  of  governance. 
Resilience can only be achieved at the EU level if key tasks are pursued by LRAs, 
given their  responsibilities  and proximity to their  citizens. After  all,  mitigation 
and Climate Change Adaptation (CCA) actions must be tailored to the specific 
conditions and capabilities of cities and regions across the EU. Despite numerous 
benefits  related  to  the  introduction  of  adaptation  strategies  at  the  local  and 
regional  levels,  numerous  obstacles  and  challenges  remain.  Hence,  in  some 
regions, 
the  progress  of  decentralisation  of  climate  adaptation-related 
responsibilities can still be far from satisfactory as a result of inefficient technical 
knowledge and capacity or a shortage of data and resources. At the same time, 
potential  risks  of  maladaptation  can  be  minimised  precisely  through  the 
involvement of local communities and experts with specific know-how. Planning 
of  CCA  actions  should  be  multi-sectoral  and  inclusive  to  make  sure  that  the 
benefits from a given action cover multiple sectors and systems.   

The traditional approach to crisis management (reactive) starts after an emergency 
occurs, reducing the effectiveness of the response. Proactive crisis management 
aims  to  prevent  crises  by  addressing  existing  and  future  risks,  as  well  as 
strengthening community resilience. This approach integrates crisis management 
with Disaster Risk Management (DRM), focusing on identifying, assessing and 
mitigating risks  before  they  escalate.  Strategic  foresight  tools  (such  as horizon 
scanning, scenario thinking, megatrends analysis, visioning and back-casting, and 
risk  matrices)  aid  in  this  proactive  approach  by  exploring  possible  futures, 
informing policy formation, and steering outcomes in the desired direction.  

Anticipatory governance effectively integrates strategic foresight into governance 
structures,  facilitating  proactive  decision-making  in  crisis  management.  When 
applied on a key- sub-national level, such an approach to crisis management can 
bring  a  multitude  of  benefits  to  the  local  decision-making  system  –  including 
better  preparedness  for  future  challenges, allowing LRAs to adapt and  allocate 
resources more effectively based on regular risk monitoring and assessment, while 
incorporating  diverse 
also  enhancing  crisis  management  strategies  by 

2 

perspectives. On the other hand, LRAs might also face certain challenges when 
developing and implementating the anticipatory governance approach, related to 
risk  ownership  and  trust,  limited  organisational  and  financial  capacity,  proper 
effectiveness  of  mechanisms  and  actions,  as  well  as  proper  recognition  of 
disparities  in  exposure  and  vulnerability  to  crises,  and  ensuring  equitable 
outcomes for marginalised groups. 

To address these challenges, enhance resilience and effectively anticipate crises, 
LRAs  should  implement  inclusive  governance  structures,  citizen  engagement 
initiatives, evidence-based planning and risk assessments, and integrate climate 
change adaptation measures with DRM strategies.  

Addressing  climate-related  risks  through  DRM  initiatives  is  crucial,  although 
financing remains a challenge. Member States address civil protection and DRM 
in diverse ways, with some enacting statutory acts and others utilising regulations 
across  multiple  laws  and  resolutions,  leveraging  risk  assessments  to  inform 
policies  and  civil  protection  plans  at  various  administrative  levels,  alongside 
training and  exercises for preparedness and  ensuring public awareness through 
diverse  channels  and  early  warning  systems.  Where  climate  adaptation  is 
concerned,  most  Member  States  rely  on  soft  policies  without  legally  binding 
commitments.  However,  some  are  developing  national  climate  legislation  to 
enforce adaptation objectives and strategies. 

As climate-related hazards intensify and their impacts become more pronounced, 
it  is  imperative  that  regions  and  cities  across  Europe  actively  engage  in 
implementing DRM that includes CCA – with a proactive, anticipatory approach 
integrating vulnerability criteria and resilience considerations into all aspects of 
policy, regulation, and investment. Initiatives emphasising collaboration, capacity 
building,  policy  integration,  multi-sectoral  approaches,  data-driven  decision-
making, and participatory processes can help in better equipping communities to 
withstand and recover from the impacts of climate change and disasters caused by 
natural hazards. 

3 

Introduction

The  European  Union  (EU)  has  already  witnessed  numerous  extreme  weather 
events  directly  linked  to  the  changing  climate,  from  floods  to  wildfires  and 
heatwaves, that will become more intense and more frequent.1 Climate change is 
in  fact  a  key  dominant  trend  across  the  territories  of  the  EU,  considering  the 
anticipated  increase  in  incidence  of  multiple  climate  change-induced  hazards.2
They will bring about serious impacts on ecosystems, the economy, and human 
health  and  well-being.  Minimising  the  risks  stemming  from  these  extremes  is 
therefore  a  priority  for  the  EU,  and  for  national  and  Local  and  Regional 
Authorities  (LRAs),  including  the  Committee  of  the  Regions  (CoR),  whose 
political priorities include building more resilient communities.  

At the same time, such shocks do not follow administrative borders, and therefore 
require  a  multilevel  cross-border  approach  involving  all  levels  of  governance. 
Resilience can only be achieved at the EU level if key tasks are pursued by LRAs, 
given their responsibilities (see Part 4) and proximity to their citizens. After all, 
mitigation and adaptation actions must be tailored to the specific conditions and 
capabilities of cities and regions across the EU. 

Apart from adaptation measures, understood as adjustments in ecological, social 
or economic practices to respond to current and future climate change impacts, 
natural  disasters  and  other  environmental externalities  triggered  by  the  climate 
crisis require a more proactive, anticipatory approach. Resilience, if understood 
as society’s ability to resist and recover easily and quickly from a major shock, 
needs a toolbox for risk prevention, coupled with the dissemination of a shared 
culture of crisis preparedness so that potential damage and losses can be limited, 
and an efficient, predictable and timely recovery can be ensured in the aftermath 
of a natural disaster. 

With this  in mind, the  EU and the Member  States have identified five disaster 
resilience goals which address the areas where the need to strengthen Europe’s 
resilience to disasters and crises is the greatest. Each of the five disaster resilience 
goals is accompanied by a flagship initiative that helps to translate the broader 
goals and objectives into concrete steps and mobilises the relevant stakeholders 
to cooperate on issues of common interest.3

1 EEA (2023). Extreme weather: floods, droughts and heatwaves.  
2 Forzieri G. Cescatti A. E., Silva F. B., Feyen L. (2017) Increasing risk over time of weather-related hazards to 
the European population: a data-driven prognostic study.
3 EC  (2023).  Communication  from  the  Commission  to  the  European  Parliament,  the  Council,  the  European 
Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions: European Union Disaster Resilience Goals: 
Acting together to deal with future emergencies.

4 

Box. 1. Five disaster resilience goals and their corresponding flagship initiatives 
Goal 1. Anticipate – Improving risk assessment, anticipation and disaster risk management planning 
 Flagship  initiative:  Develop  Europe-wide  disaster  scenarios  to  support  planning  and 

preparedness for disasters that transcend geographical and sectoral borders. 
Goal 2. Prepare – Increasing the risk awareness and preparedness of the population 

 Flagship  initiative:  Launch  a  preparEU  pan-European  awareness-raising  programme  for 

disaster resilience targeting a wider population. 

Goal 3. Alert – Enhancing early warning 

 Flagship initiative: Link global early warning to local action in Europe. 

Goal 4. Respond – Enhancing the Union Civil Protection Mechanism response capacity 

 Flagship initiative: Scale up the rescEU strategic reserve of response capacities by doubling 

the aerial firefighting fleet. 

Goal 5. Secure – Ensuring a robust civil protection system 

 Flagship initiative: Stress-test the emergency operation centres across Europe to ensure that 

they themselves remain resilient in complex emergency situations.

Source: own elaboration, CASE based on EC (2023). Communication From the Commission to the European 
Parliament, The Council, The European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions: 
European Union Disaster Resilience Goals: Acting together to deal with future emergencies. 

5 

Objectives of the study

The overall objective of the study is to map and analyse tools to develop and 
improve  the  anticipatory  governance  approach  to  disasters,  disaster  risk 
management  and  climate  adaptation  by  LRAs  across  the  EU.  Hence,  the 
research focuses around questions such as the following (Box. 2): 

Box. 2. Research questions 
 What is the geographical distribution of regional vulnerabilities to natural disasters? 
 What is anticipatory governance in disaster risk management and why is it relevant for local 

and regional authorities? 

 Are there differences between EU regions in terms of their governance approach to disaster 

risk management and implementation from a local and regional perspective? 

 What are the main adaptation measures that can be implemented to face the main natural 

hazards and climate risks and enhance the resilience of EU regions? 

 What are the main benefits of adopting an anticipatory governance approach for local and 

regional authorities? What are the risks of maladaptation? 

 What does the legislative and financial framework for disaster risk management and climate 

adaptation look like in the EU Member States?

Source: own elaboration, CASE 

Keeping in mind the study’s context and specific research questions, the study is 
structured as follows: 

1. Part 1 presents a brief overview of vulnerabilities to natural disasters across 
EU regions, pointing to trends and perspectives linked to climate change. 
Extreme weather events and climate-related disasters, given their growing 
frequency, intensity and impact, are of key interest. 

2. Part 2 of the study analyses the benefits of an anticipatory approach, such 
as  preparedness  for  disasters  in  risk  and  crisis  management  and  climate 
adaptation,  as  well  as 
involved  in  adopting  and 
implementing such an approach. 

the  challenges 

3. Part 3 focuses on the role of adaptation actions in enhancing the resilience 
of EU cities and regions and the risks related to potential maladaptation. 

4. Part 4 provides an overview of the legislative and financial framework for 
disaster risk management and climate adaptation in EU Member States, and 
gives examples of best practices implemented by LRAs that have created 
tools and actions to strengthen local resilience. 

5. Part 5 of the study synthesises the research findings and provides concrete 
future-oriented suggestions for improving the involvement of regions and 
cities  in  the  implementation  of  the  EU’s  disaster  resilience  goals  and 

6 

“resilience-by-design”  approach,  so 
resilience  considerations  are  fully  integrated 
regulations and action plans, specifically at the local and regional level.  

that  vulnerability  criteria  and 
into  public  policies, 

7 

Part 1: Vulnerability to natural disasters: 
trends and perspectives of regional 
exposure across Europe

Vulnerability  to  natural  disasters  can  be  understood  as  a  condition  contingent 
upon  numerous  processes  or  factors,  such  as  socio-economic,  political  or 
environmental ones, that contribute to a specific location’s susceptibility to the 
effects  of  hazards.4 The  concept  of  vulnerability  explains  why  similar  shocks, 
such  as  natural  disasters,  can  affect  different  cities  or  regions  unevenly,  even 
within the same country.  

The likelihood of such impacts occurring is known as risk, and it is divided into 
three  components:  hazard,  exposure  and  vulnerability. 5  While  hazard  is 
physically determined and can be observed and somehow measured, exposure, or 
in other words distribution of population, assets or infrastructure, and especially 
vulnerability,  are  more  subjective,  socially  constructed  and  related  to  different 
capacities at stake.6 What is more, climate change-induced hazards further impact 
existing  vulnerabilities  and  make  inequalities  across  the  EU  even  more 
significant. 7 Yet,  while  it  is  almost  impossible  to  reduce  the  occurrence  and 
severity of  climate  change-induced hazards, reducing the  vulnerability of  local 
communities is something that should, must, or needs to be put on the political 
agenda when Disaster Risk Management (DRM) is discussed.8

Hence,  vulnerability  is  a  particularly  multiform  concept  consisting  of  various 
dimensions that require the introduction of a holistic synthesis to rightly assess 
what exactly is vulnerable, where and how, and under what circumstances. That 
is  precisely  why  there  is  a  wide  range  of  tools  and  methodologies  assessing 
vulnerability to natural hazards.9 While some of these approaches focus entirely 
on the  quantitative  physical  vulnerability of  assets,  such as buildings or public 
infrastructure, others include mixed methods, such as analysis of socio-economic 

4 UN (2016). Report of the open-ended intergovernmental expert working group on indicators and terminology 
relating to disaster risk reduction, United Nations General Assembly. 
5 UNDRR (2019). GAR. Global assessment report on disaster risk reduction, United Nations office for disaster 
risk reduction (UNDRR). 
6 Brooks N., Neil Adger W., Mick Kelly P. (2005). The determinants of vulnerability and adaptive capacity at the 
national level and the implications for adaptation.. 
7 ESPON (2013). Territorial Dynamics in Europe Natural Hazards and Climate Change in European Regions, 
Territorial Observation No. 7.
8 EC (2023). Towards a European wide vulnerability framework – A flexible approach for vulnerability assessment 
using composite indicators.  
9 Birkmann J. (2013). Measuring vulnerability to natural Hazards.

8 

or  political  vulnerability,  where  qualitative  methodology  also  needs  to  be 
introduced.10

Based  on  desk  research  methods,  predominately  literature  review,  the  chapter 
below aims to briefly highlight vulnerability to natural disasters across the EU. It 
does so by presenting the nexus between the hazards already observed and their 
exposure, as well as the impacts within specific geographical locations stemming 
from  such  hazards.11 It  also  provides  trends  and  perspectives  linked  to  climate 
change. 

1.1 Current climate change-induced hazards 

Vulnerability  cannot  be  assessed without  understanding  the  nature,  magnitude, 
extent  and  reoccurrence  of  natural  climate  change-induced  hazards. 12  As  all 
available data show, these are becoming increasingly severe throughout Europe, 
given the steadily growing number of days with extreme temperatures, as well as 
the more extreme precipitation events that have particularly significant effects and 
impacts:13

 Global mean near-surface temperature between 2013 and 2022 was 1.13 
to 1.17°C warmer than the pre-industrial level, which makes it the warmest 
decade on record. European land temperatures have increased even faster 
over the same period, by 2.04 to 2.10°C.14 Such extreme weather has health 
impacts, particularly on vulnerable groups. The elderly, children, women, 
people in poverty and people in poor health are more likely to be affected 
by  heatwaves,  for  example.  Additionally,  diseases  are  moving  north. 
Mosquitos and ticks carrying infectious diseases are gaining a foothold in 
many parts of Europe.15

 Between  1980  and  2022,  weather-  and  climate-related  extremes  caused 
economic  losses  estimated  at  EUR  560  billion  in  EU  Member  States,  of 
which  EUR  59.4  billion  in  2021  and  EUR  52.3  billion  in  2022.  It  is 
estimated that the associated economic losses will further increase by 2030 
(see subchapter 2.2 for more statistics on economic losses).16

 Arctic sea ice has declined by an average of 76,000 km2 in summer and 
32,000 km2 in winter since 1979. Reduced Arctic and Baltic sea ice further 
accelerates global temperature rising.17

10 Conlon  K.  C.  et.al  (2020). Mapping  Human  Vulnerability  to  Eextreme  Heat:  A  Critical  Assessment  of  Heat 
Vulnerability Indices Created Using Principal Components Analysis. Environmental Health Perspectives. 
11 Forzieri G, Cescatti A, E Silva FB, Feyen L. (2017). op. cit. 
12 Klein J., Valkama M., Staudt M. et al. (2024). ESPON-TITAN: territorial patterns of natural hazards in Europe. 
Nat Hazards.  
13 EEA (2021). Europe's changing climate hazards — an index-based interactive EEA report. 
14 EEA (2023). Global and European temperatures.
15 Climate Adapt (n.d.).  Vector-borne diseases.
16 EEA (2023). Economic losses from weather- and climate-related extremes in Europe..  
17 EEA (2023). Arctic and Baltic sea ice.  

9 

 Severe  droughts  caused  a  3%  annual  vegetation  productivity  loss  in 
affected  areas  from  2000-2019. 18  Each  year  losses  from  drought  are 
around “EUR 9 billion for  the EU+UK with  the highest losses  in  Spain 
(EUR 1.5 billion/year), Italy (EUR 1.4 billion/year) and France (EUR 1.2 
billion/year)”.19

 Soil moisture in the growing season was far below the long-term average 
in  European  Environment  Agency  (EEA)  member  countries  from  2000-
2019.20,  21 Forest fires coinciding with record droughts and heatwaves have 
affected central and northern European regions that are not typically prone 
to fires, and have had devastating effects in southern Europe.22

To understand which countries are impacted by such trends or climate change-
induced hazards, every two years the EEA (and European Commission – EC) ask 
its member states for reports on their specific situation and adaptation measures 
put into effect,23 focusing on both “acute” (extreme weather events) and “chronic” 
(slow onset events) hazards. 

In  2023  reports,  similarly  to  previous  ones  from  two  years  earlier,24 droughts, 
floods, heavy precipitation  and  heat waves were  pinpointed  by  25 countries as 
observed  acute  hazards  in  2023.  In  particular,  wildfires  were  reported  in  fifth 
place by 25 countries, while in 2021 they placed only tenth in the most reported 
acute hazard list. This may be due to the 2022 summer wildfires which impacted 
numerous EU regions, particularly in the South. The 2023 wildfire season was 
equally devastating; it included the largest single fire to occur in Europe since the 
1980s (Alexandroupoli, Greece) measured by total burnt surface area.25

When it comes to the most commonly reported chronic hazards in 2023, then as 
in  the  case  of  2021,  changing  temperature  was  prioritised.  On  a  similar  note, 
temperature  variability  was  often  reported,  ranking  third  for  chronic  hazards, 
while  it  was  the  seventh  most  reported  in  the  previous  edition.  Other  chronic 
hazards reported by most countries were precipitation or hydrological variability 
(second) and changing precipitation patterns (fourth). Twenty out of 23 countries 
with coastlines reported sea level rise as a water-related chronic hazard.26

18 EEA (2023). Drought impact on ecosystems in Europe.  
19 JRC (2020). Impacts of climate change on droughts. 
20 EEA (2020). Soil moisture deficit during vegetation growing season.  
21 EEA (2024). Climate change impacts, risks and adaptation.
22 EEA (2021). Forest fires in Europe. 
23 EEA (2023). Is Europe on track towards climate resilience? Status of reported national adaptation actions in 
2023. 
24 EEA (2021). National and transnational climate atlases in Europe
25 EC (2024). EU Science Hub - Wildfires: 2023 among the worst in the EU in this century.
26 EEA (2023). Is Europe on track towards climate resilience? Status of reported national adaptation actions in 
2023.

10 

Figure 1. Key future hazards reported in 2023 

Source: EEA (2023). Key future hazards reported in 2023.

1.2 Future trends and perspectives 

In  March  2024,  the  EEA  published  the  European  Climate  Risk  Assessment 
(EUCRA) report27 that builds on and complements the existing knowledge base 
on climate impacts and risks for the EU. The report suggests that there will be a 
strong increase in the frequency and intensity of climate hazards across all EU 
regions, with the following hazards being predominant: 

 “Changes  in  rainfall  will  differ  considerably  throughout  Europe,  with 
heavy rain expected in the north. Combined with more frequent heatwaves, 
lower rainfall will present a greater risk of drought and forest fires in the 
south.

 Storm  intensity  is  projected  to  increase  across  Europe,  but  changes  in 
frequency are projected to differ across regions. People may be injured or 
killed  and  strong  winds  and  heavy  rainfall  can  destroy  properties  and 
structures, downed power lines cause power outages, water supplies can 
be cut off, and sewage can overflow due to flooding.

 Snowfall is projected to decrease in central and southern Europe, whereas 
mixed  changes  are anticipated for northern  Europe.  Heavy  snow  can 
immobilise  this  region  and  paralyse  its  cities,  stranding  commuters  and 
closing airports, stopping the flow of supplies and disrupting emergency 
and medical services. The weight of snow can cause roofs to collapse, and 
bring down trees and power lines.

27 EEA (2024). European Climate Risk Assessment.

11 

 Sea levels will rise in all areas except the North Baltic Sea. This may lead 
to the erosion of beaches, the inundation of deltas, and flooding and the 
loss of many marshes and wetlands. Increased salinity will likely become a 
problem in coastal aquifers and estuarine systems as a result of saltwater 
intrusion.

 Sea  surface  temperature  is  projected  to  increase  in  all  European  seas. 
Europe’s seas are also expected to become more acidic, which could have 
devastating 
land 
temperatures”.

life,  weather  patterns,  and 

impacts  on  marine 

If  climate  change  progresses  at  its  current  pace  and  no  significant  adaptation 
measures are in place, around 350 million European citizens will be impacted by 
its  extremes  every year  by  the end  of this century,  with  a 50-times increase in 
fatalities compared to current estimates, particularly among the most vulnerable 
groups – the elderly and the sick.28

With these trends in mind, the table below showcases the nexus between climate 
change-induced  hazards,  the  most  vulnerable  EU  territories,  and  future 
projections concerning these specific hazards. 

Hazard 
types29

Table 1. Climate hazards and territorial vulnerability 

Most vulnerable countries and regions 

Projections for the future 

Heat and cold 
(e.g. extreme 
heat) 

Wet and dry 
(e.g. excessive 
precipitation 
and droughts) 

in 

changes 

increase 

(warming, 

All EU regions, particularly in the south (for 
extreme  heat  hazards  and  higher  mean  air 
temperatures).   
Specifically in the Mediterranean region:  
“projected  combination  of  climatic  impact-
driver 
temperature 
extremes,  increase  in  droughts  and  aridity, 
fire 
precipitation  decrease, 
weather, mean and extreme sea levels, snow 
cover decrease, and wind speed decrease) by 
mid-century and at global warming of at least 
2°C and above (high confidence)”.30
All EU cities and regions. 
In  Northern  Europe, 
in 
Scandinavian countries: observed increase in 
to  human 
pluvial 
influence and projected to further increase at 
global  warming 
(medium 
of 
confidence). 
In  Western  &  Central  Europe:  projected 
increase in pluvial flooding at global warming 

particularly 

attributed 

flooding 

1.5°C 

to 

extremes 

Air  temperature  will  rise  steadily 
across  Europe.  As  a  result,  the 
number of growing degree days and 
cooling  degree  days  will  increase, 
whereas  the  number  of  heating 
degree days and days with frost will 
decrease.  Hot 
are 
increase.  Humid 
expected 
heatwaves,  which  pose  a  serious 
risk to human health, are projected 
to  increase  rapidly  across  all  EU 
territories.
Projected 
annual 
changes 
precipitation are expected to differ 
considerably  across  regions  and 
seasons. In northern Europe, annual 
precipitation and heavy rainfall are 
likely 
less 
frequent  droughts.  Mixed  changes 
are  expected  for  summer  rainfall, 
flooding  events,  aridity  and  fire 

increase,  with 

to 

in 

28 Forzieri G. Cescatti A. E., Silva F. B., Feyen L. (2017) Increasing risk over time of weather-related hazards to 
the European population: a data-driven prognostic study
29 EEA (2021). Europe’s changing climate hazards — an index-based interactive EEA report.
30 IPCC (n.d.).  Regional fact sheet – Europe.  

12 

of  1.5°C  (medium  confidence)  and  2°C  or 
above (high confidence); observed increasing 
trend in river flooding and  projected  further 
increase at 2°C. 
In  Eastern  Europe:  projected  increase  in 
pluvial flooding at global warming of 1.5°C 
(medium  confidence)  and  2°C  and  above 
(high  confidence);  projected  increase  in  fire 
weather at global warming of 2°C and above 
(medium confidence). 
In 
the  Mediterranean  region:  Observed 
increase in hydrological and agricultural and 
ecological  droughts  (medium  confidence), 
projected increase in aridity and fire weather 
conditions  at  global  warming  of  2°C  and 
above (high confidence).31
Northern Europe: projected increase in severe 
windstorms  at  global  warming  of  2°C  and 
above  (medium  confidence);  Mediterranean 
region: wind speed decrease by mid-century 
and  at  global  warming  of  at  least  2°C  and 
above (high confidence).33

regions 

Lack  of  snow  and  ice  sheet  might  be 
particularly troublesome for regions in central 
and southern Europe, whereas mixed changes 
are anticipated for northern Europe.
Most  coastal 
in  Europe  will 
experience  further  increases  in  mean  and 
extreme  sea  levels,  except  for  the  northern 
Baltic  Sea,  where  land  levels  are  still  rising 
following the last ice age. 
The  coasts  of  Belgium,  Netherlands  and 
north-west  Germany;  most  of  the  coastal 
regions in Denmark and southern Sweden; the 
coasts  in  southern  and  western  France  and 
north-east  Italy,  including  the  region  of 
Venice, are particularly vulnerable.35

Wind (both 
extreme and 
mean wind 
speed) 

Snow and ice 

Coastal: 
- Relative 
sea level 
- Coastal 

flood

Open ocean 
(e.g. marine 
heatwave or 
ocean 
chemistry) 

Marine  heatwaves  projected  everywhere. 
Europe’s  seas  are  also  expected  to  become 
more  acidic,  which  could  have  devastating 
impacts on marine life, weather patterns, and 
land temperatures. Coastal communities will 
be affected all over Europe. 

in 

changes 

hazards. Central Europe is likely to 
experience  lower  summer  rainfall, 
but  also  harsher  weather  extremes 
(heavy  precipitation,  river  floods, 
droughts  and  fire  hazards),  with 
mixed 
annual 
precipitation  and  aridity.  In  the 
South,  annual  precipitation  and 
summer  rainfall  are  projected  to 
decrease, whereas aridity, droughts 
and  fire  hazards  are  all  likely  to 
increase.  Mixed 
are 
projected  for  heavy  precipitation 
and river floods.32

changes 

to 

in 

increase 

declines 

anticipate 
models 
Climate 
relatively  minor  changes  in  mean 
wind  speed.  Storm  intensity  is 
projected 
across 
Europe,  but  changes  in  frequency 
are  projected 
to  differ  across 
regions.
Strong 
glaciers, 
permafrost, snow cover extent, and 
seasonal  snow  duration  at  high 
altitudes are and will be observed.34
Regardless  of  the  level  of  global 
warming, the relative sea level will 
rise in all European areas except the 
Baltic  Sea,  at  a  rate  close  to  or 
exceeding  the  global  mean  sea 
level.  Changes  are  projected  to 
continue beyond 2100. Extreme sea 
level  events  will  become  more 
frequent and more intense, leading 
flooding. 
coastal 
to  more 
Shorelines along sandy coasts will 
retreat throughout the 21st century 
(high confidence).36
The frequency and intensity of hot 
extremes, 
marine 
heatwaves, have increased in recent 
decades  and  are  projected  to  keep 
increasing 
the 
regardless 
Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions 
thresholds 
Critical
scenario. 

including 

of 

31 Ibidem. 
32 EEA (2021). Europe’s changing climate hazards — an index-based interactive EEA report. 
33 Ibidem. 
34 Ibidem. 
35 EEA (n.d.). Climate change impacts in Europe.  
36 IPCC (n.d.).  Regional fact sheet – Europe.

13 

ecosystems 

and 
for 
relevant 
humans  are  projected 
to  be 
exceeded  for  global  warming  of 
2°C and higher (high confidence).

Source: CASE own elaboration based on desk research. 

While the table above presents territories vulnerable to specific hazard types of 
interest for this particular study, there are numerous interesting publications and 
tools showcasing the multi-hazard, overall vulnerability of EU Member States and 
their  regions.  One  of  the  measurements  is  included  in  the  Disaster  Risk 
Management Knowledge Centre’s (DRMKC) Risk Data Hub37 as Vulnerability 
Dashboard. The vulnerability indicator is composed of five dimensions (social, 
economic,  political,  environmental  and  physical)  and  is  meant  to  capture  the 
systemic vulnerability to disasters across different administrative levels (country, 
NUTS-2 and NUTS-3). The index is scored using values ranging from 0 to 10.38
The measurement provides an interesting methodology for assessing the overall 
vulnerability  at  the  EU  Member  State  level  and  could  be  highly  beneficial  for  
Member  States and LRAs currently re-working  their  adaptation strategies. The 
figure  below  presents  a  vulnerability  to  disasters  across  the  EU-27  regions 
according to the DRMKC vulnerability index for 2022.  

37 A multi-hazard Geo-portal developed based on needs identified in a 2016 assessment, aimed to make research 
results more accessible and usable for decision-makers.
38 Eklund G. et.al.  (2023). Towards a European-wide vulnerability framework. 

14 

Figure 2. DRMKC Risk Data Hub, Vulnerability Dashboard - vulnerability to disasters 
across EU-27 (NUTS-2, 2022) 

Source: DRMKC - Risk Data Hub, Dashboard – Vulnerability;  Eklund G et.al.  (2023). Towards a European-
wide vulnerability framework. 

15 

Part 2: Proactive versus reactive crisis 
management: analysis of the benefits of 
anticipatory governance in disaster risk 
management 

The  terms  emergency,  crisis, and  disaster are  frequently used interchangeably. 
The figure below presents the definitions adopted by the EC.39

Figure 3. Emergency, crisis and disaster – definitions 

Source: SAPEA (2022). Strategic Crisis Management in the European Union 

Both emergency and crisis (if neglected or mismanaged) can lead to a disaster that 
requires urgent response and, typically, external assistance, as the local capacities 
to respond can become overwhelmed. 

To  understand  crises,  it  is  also  important  to  recognise  how  they  arise.  The 
combination  of  the  consequences  of  an  event  or  hazard  and  the  associated 
likelihood of its occurrence (the vulnerability and coping capacity) is defined as 
risk.40 Conventionally, vulnerabilities create risks that – when unaddressed – can 
develop into crises, often initiated by a triggering event or series of events.  

Whether a hazard escalates into a disaster depends largely on society’s capacity 
to address the underlying risk factors, reduce the vulnerability of the community 
and  be  ready  to  respond  in  the  case  of  an  emergency.41 As  a  general  rule,  if 
individuals,  households,  municipalities  and  countries  have  lower  levels  of 
coping and adaptive capacities, their vulnerability is higher.  

39 EC (2022). Strategic crisis management in the EU Improving EU crisis prevention, preparedness, response and 
resilience.
40 Ibidem. 
41 EEA (2011). Mapping the impacts of natural hazards and technological accidents in Europe — An overview of 
the last decade. 

16 

Figure 4. From vulnerability and risk to emergency, crisis and disaster 

Source: SAPEA (2022). Strategic Crisis Management in the European Union. 

Prompt  crisis  management  may  prevent  a  situation  from  escalating  into  a 
disaster.  However,  any  crisis  management  system  has  several  levels.  On  the 
strategic level, decision-makers facilitate and arrange crisis management across 
all phases of the crisis management cycle, including preparedness, response, and 
recovery.42 At the operational level, emergency responders and volunteers set up 
emergency  shelters,  dispatch  ambulances,  organise  call  centres,  and  transport 
goods to where they are needed, along with other measures. 

In discussions about crisis management, resilience that refers to “the capacity of 
systems to recover at a certain pace and includes the possibility of reaching better 
conditions with respect to the pre-crisis”43 appears as a core concept, highlighting 
the  need  for  a  resilience-oriented  approach  that  acknowledges  the  challenges 
associated with transboundary, and complex systemic interdependencies.    

With  this  perspective,  the  boundaries  between  the  different  phases  of  crisis 
management and risk management often overlap and become blurred. In a crisis, 
society  is  either  facing  a  disaster  or  close  to  one.  While  crisis  management 
conventionally  deals  with  measures  to  reduce  impacts  and  restore  stable 
conditions in due time, risk management either involves preventing a crisis from 
happening, preparing for crisis situations in advance, or having measures in place 
that can mitigate or reduce the magnitude of harm associated with the risk.44

42 EC - DG RTD (2022). Strategic crisis management in the EU Improving EU crisis prevention, preparedness, 
response and resilience
43 SAPEA (2022). Strategic Crisis Management In The European Union.
44 Ibidem.

17 

In the EU, crisis management encompasses a large range of capacities that are 
distributed vertically across EU institutions and Member States (national, regional 
and local levels).45 Effective crisis management should be based on a proactive 
and  comprehensive  approach.  Recognising  that  disasters  are  a  consequence  of 
vulnerability also shapes approaches to resilience that should lead to more local 
and  community-based  measures.46 By  shifting  from  reactive  to  more  proactive 
strategies, sub-national governments can anticipate, prepare for, and effectively 
respond to crises whenever they occur. 

2.1 Proactive  versus  reactive  crisis  management  – 

introduction to anticipatory governance 

The reactive crisis response phase starts only when an emergency, a crisis or a 
disaster occurs – after the initial shock has already had an impact on people’s lives 
and safety. This leads to a significant drop in the effectiveness of crisis response 
efforts.47 Data from past events are used to inform present-day action in order to 
avoid repeating the same mistakes in the future, and to break past patterns and 
cycles. However, this assumes a degree of predictability and repetition. 

Conversely,  proactive  crisis  management  is  forward-looking  and  favours 
anticipatory action. This includes the effective alignment of comprehensive and 
integrated disaster risk reduction (DRR) that prevents new and reduces existing 
disaster  risks  (exposures,  hazards  or  vulnerabilities),  while  managing  residual 
risk, thereby contributing to stronger community resilience.  

This interplay of crisis management and disaster risk management or in other 
words the application of DRR policies and strategies,48 is illustrated in Figure 5 
below  as  a  proactive  approach  to  crisis  management.  While  risk  management 
involves identifying, assessing, and then monitoring and ideally preventing risks, 
the  crisis  management  cycle  incorporates  preparedness,  which  should  be 
complemented  by  DRM  control  and  monitoring  measures.  Similarly,  as  crises 
become protracted and their longer-term implications become visible, new risks 
may  arise  during  the  response  and  recovery  phases;  continuous  assessment, 
control and monitoring of the DRM cycle is of importance in crisis management.49

45  Initially,  the  EU  was  not  intended  to  handle  crises,  but  it  has  gradually  developed  capabilities  in  crisis 
management  across  sectors  like  finance,  health,  climate  change,  and  data  governance.  With  the  emergence  of 
interconnected and cross-border crises, there is now greater demand for the EU to step up. It is tasked with fostering 
coordination and solidarity among Member States, and delivering swift, adaptable, and multi-sectoral solutions. 
46 Burnside-Lawry J. et al. (2015). Building local level engagement in disaster risk reduction: A Portugese case 
study. 
47 Council of the European Union (2022). Council conclusions on Disaster Risk Reduction in EU external action.
48 UNISDR (2017). Terminology.
49 SAPEA (2022). Strategic Crisis Management in the European Union.

18 

Figure 5. Integrated crisis and risk management cycles: a proactive approach to crisis 
management 

Source: SAPEA (2022). Strategic Crisis Management in the European Union. 

DRM is a complex process that requires a range of methods and tools aligned with 
all  possible  components  of  the  cycle,  providing  a  range  of  complementary 
approaches  for  managing  the  risks  of  extreme  weather-  and  climate-related 
hazards and disasters.50

Reactive DRM uses past data to inform present actions, preventing the repetition 
of errors, assuming predictability and overlooking the systemic risks and current 
states  shaped  by  past  developments.  However,  present  actions  influence  future 
resilience, so emerging trends should also be integrated into decision-making.51
An important tool for forecasting and decision support for proactive DRM that 
allows the gathering, sharing and analysing of information is strategic foresight. 

Strategic  foresight  is  not  about  predicting  the  future  but  exploring  different 
possible  futures that could arise,  in order to better prepare  for change.52 When 
integrated  into  policy  formation,  it  enables  policymakers  to  take  actions 
today that influence future outcomes and ultimately help steer the future in 
the desired direction.53 There is  a  variety of  methodologies and  tools that  are 
used to support the development of strategic foresight at different stages, from 
setting  the  scope  to  taking  action.  They  include  cost-benefit  analyses; 
brainstorming;  strengths,  weaknesses,  opportunities  and  threats  (SWOT) 
analyses; megatrends analyses; and relevance trees. The table below presents five 
of the most common approaches to strategic foresight used in crisis management. 

50 EEA (2017). Climate  change adaptation and disaster  risk  reduction in Europe. Enhancing coherence of the 
knowledge base, policies and practices. 
51 UNPD (2023). Choosing Your Tomorrows: Using Foresight and Anticipatory Governance to Explore Multiple 
Futures in Support of Risk-Informed Development. 
52 CoR (n.d.) Embracing Uncertainty: Harnessing Strategic Foresight for Regional and Local Progress.
53 EC (n.d.d). Strategic foresight. 

19 

Table 2. Examples of strategic foresight tools used in crisis management 

Strategic foresight 
approach 

Horizon scanning 

Scenario thinking 

Megatrends analysis 

Visioning and back-
casting 

Risk  assessment 
matrices 

Description 

A systematic scan and collection of events and trends, the output being a 
future scape or visual mapping of new signals of change. Horizon scanning 
is particularly well suited for identifying systemic risks and multiple crises, 
as it supports their identification through information on emerging trends 
in political, economic, social, technological, environmental and legal areas, 
and  secondly,  it  can  take  a  long-term  perspective,  which  increases  the 
chances of identifying emerging or creeping risks.
An interactive and iterative process that incorporates interviews, analysis 
and  modelling  to  generate  a  collection  of  plausible  future  narratives, 
regardless  of  preference,  depicting  how  these  futures  might  unfold.  Its 
purpose is to aid decision-makers in navigating future uncertainties.
Exploring and reviewing large-scale changes building in the present at the 
intersection  of  multiple  policy  domains,  with 
and 
multidimensional impacts in the future.
Developing an image of an ideal (or undesirable) future state and working 
backwards to identify what steps to take (or avoid).
Risk assessment models that use risk matrices are the scientific tools that 
provide an opportunity to better understand disaster risk drivers and inform 
DRM measures. They are based on two dimensions: the probability of the 
hazard, and the (expected) impact of the hazard when it does occur.

complex 

Source: EC (n.d.). Strategic foresight, EC (2019). Recommendations for National Risk Assessment for Disaster 
Risk Management in EU Approaches for identifying, analysing and evaluating risks, OECD (2019). Strategic 
Foresight for Better Policies.  & SAPEA (2022). Strategic Crisis Management in the European Union. 

Given  the  resource  constraints,  the  authorities  should  leverage  and  build  on 
already developed tools and scientific background to integrate strategic foresight 
tools  with  decision  support  activities  to  improve  preparedness  and  optimise 
resource allocation in the proactive crisis management cycle.  There is a variety 
of hazard-based indexes, and indicators available for national, regional and local 
levels. 

For example, the results of the Risk Analysis Module included in the DRMKC 
Risk Data Hub provide national and local authorities with open-source software 
and  data  that  allows  for  easy  adoption  and  replication  of  the  presented 
methodologies, which  can  be  expanded or  substituted  with supporting  data  for 
more  precise assessments. A key  feature  of the  model  is its  ability to compare 
potential impacts across different hazards. 

The module provides risk values normalised between 0 and 10 for administrative 
units,  according  to  selected  hazards  (earthquake,  landslide,  coastal  flood,  river 
flood) and assets (buildings, environment, critical services and population). The 
methodology  identifies  the  most  affected  locations  by  using  average  relative 
values over the last 25 years. It also computes the expected exposures for various 
temporal intervals, (including annual, 2 years, 5 years, 10 years, 15 years, and 25 

20 

years). The figure below presents visualised data (on the NUTS-2 level)  based on 
the module, where the population at risk is evaluated in 25 years timeframe. The 
risk  is  determined  probabilistically  as  a  function  of  hazard,  exposure  and 
vulnerability. 

Figure 6. DRMKC Risk Data Hub, Risk Analysis Module – river flood, coastal flood, 
landslide and earthquake risks according to population asset in 25 years timeframe 
(EU-27, NUTS-2)  

Source: DRMKC - Risk Data Hub, Risk Module. 

Such  strategic  foresight  exercises  can  effectively  address  the  need  for 
standardised data formats to facilitate efficient information exchange and can be 
translated  into  effective  preparedness  actions,  including  conducting  training 
sessions and emergency drills.54 As European cities and regions possess unique 
vulnerabilities that distinguish them from the national level (and from each 
other), conducting strategic foresight at the local level is vital in identifying 
the specific needs, challenges, and drivers of change that affect each territory 

54 SAPEA (2022). Strategic Crisis Management In The European Union.

21 

differently  –  allowing  LRAs  to  tailor  evidence-based,  anticipatory  policies 
and approaches.55

2.2 Benefits of anticipatory governance in disaster risk 

management 

Anticipatory  governance  is  defined  by  the  Organisation  for  Economic  Co-
operation  and  Development  (OECD)  as  the  “systematic  embedding  and 
application of strategic foresight throughout the entire governance architecture, 
including  policy  analysis,  engagement,  and  decision-making”. 56  In  crisis 
management, it is referred to as the use of DRM tools through a set of planned 
and pre-financed measures taken when a disaster is imminent before a shock, 
or  acute  impacts  are  felt. 57  It  translates  into  a  sustainable  decision-making 
process  based  on  consensus  on  a  desirable  future  or  vision  through  the 
participation of a variety of stakeholders (including authorities, civil society, and 
academia) as well as a feedback system to measure the consequences. Such an 
approach  to  crisis  management  and  DRM  when  applied  on  a  key  sub-national 
level can bring a multitude of benefits to the local decision-making system. 

1. Better anticipation and future-proofing 

In times of escalation of potential risks and hazards, especially given the climate 
change  impacts,  policy-making  requires  the  consideration  of  various  potential 
future  scenarios  along  with  robust  preparation  mechanisms.  With  anticipatory 
governance that aims to prepare sooner for new opportunities and challenges that 
could emerge, it is possible to equip LRAs with the capacity to prepare, navigate, 
adapt, and shape the future through better policies.58

A critical component in this regard is the systematic assessment and identification 
of risks to gain insights into potential vulnerabilities. This allows LRAs to take 
preventative  measures  to  mitigate  risks  before  they  escalate  into  crises.  After 
conducting a risk analysis, it becomes feasible to create risk maps to provide a 
transparent overview that facilitates the involvement of various stakeholders. The 
combination of risk assessments and mapping helps to prioritise policy decisions 
to  address  the  most critical  risks through  suitable  prevention  and  preparedness 
measures.59 Risk  analysis  can  also  have  a  significant  effect  on  the  continuous 
improvement of the crisis management system – for example through the use 

55 CoR (n.d.) Embracing Uncertainty: Harnessing Strategic Foresight for Regional and Local Progress.
56 OECD (2019). Strategic Foresight for Better Policies.  
57 E. Wilkinson (2020). Integrating ‘anticipatory action’ in disaster risk management. 
58  OECD  (2021).  Foresight  and  Anticipatory  Governance  in  Practice  Lessons  in  effective  foresight 
institutionalisation.
59 EC (2010). Commission staff working paper 'Risk assessment and mapping guidelines for disaster management'.
22 

of scenario thinking tools that are based on experiences from the past, although 
events and impacts that have not yet occurred should also be considered. 

2.

 Flexibility  of  actions  and  responses  (including  better  allocation  of 
financing) 

Some  aspects  of  the  future  are  unknowable,  and  any  prediction  or  forecast 
represents  only  one  of  many  possible  futures.  By  breaking  down  actions  into 
components and spreading the costs over time, potential losses can be minimised 
should investments need to be abandoned.60

Given the impact of climate change, regular monitoring through particular risk 
indicators should be done regularly, feeding the decisions. In fact, the cost of non-
action  in  the  EU  stemming  from  losses  resulting  from  extreme  weather  events 
already averages over EUR 12 billion per year, and the frequency and severity of 
climate hazards is only going to intensify.61 The annual investment requirements 
for adapting the EU for climate hazards are estimated at between EUR 35 and 500 
billion;  the  substantial  variation  here  stems  from  the  different  underlying 
assumptions, tools and methodologies used.62

 It is estimated that exposing the EU economy to global warming of 3°C 
above pre-industrial levels could, with the current adaptation and mitigation 
strategies – or rather lack thereof in many cases – result in an annual loss 
of at least EUR 170 billion.63

 Losses  would  be  distributed  unevenly,  hitting  predominately  vulnerable 
groups,  coastal  areas  and  regions  that  may  already  be performing  worse 
than others in terms of economic growth or innovation generation.64 River 
flood  losses  alone  could  exceed  EUR  50  billion  per  year,  while  coastal 
flood losses each year could be as high as EUR 250 billion in 2100.65

The figure  below presents the  total economic  loss (EUR  per  capita)  caused  by 
weather - and climate-related extreme events for the period 1980-2020 in EU-27 
countries.66

60 Quay E. (2015). Anticipatory Governance - A Tool for Climate Change Adaptation.
61 Feyen  L.,  Ciscar  J.C.,  Gosling  S.,  Ibarreta  D.,  Soria  A.    (2020).  Climate  change  impacts  and  adaptation  in 
Europe. JRC PESETA IV final report.  
62 EC (2017). Climate mainstreaming in the EU budget - Preparing for the next MFF.
63 EC (2021). Building a Climate-Resilient Future - A new EU Strategy on Adaptation to Climate Change.
64 EC (n.d.). PESETA - Projection of Economic impacts of climate change in Sectors of the European Union based 
on bottom-up Analysis.
65 Ibidem. 
66 Based on the damage records from CATDAT of RiskLayer and the EUROSTAT structural indicators.

23 

Figure 7. Total economic loss caused by weather - and climate-related extreme 
events across EU- 27 (1980-2020, EUR per capita) 

Source. EEA (2021). Economic losses and fatalities from weather- and climate-related events in Europe 
(Briefing no. 21/2021); based on the damage records from NatCatSERVICE of Munich Re and the EUROSTAT 
structural indicators 

However,  crises  and  ineffective  means  of  reaction  can  have  devastating 
consequences not only for the economy but also for the environment and overall 
stability.  For  example,  wildfires  both  trigger  and  increase  the  probability  of 
extreme  temperatures  and  can  spark  off  further  wildfire  events.  Causing 
immediate damage as they burn (including charred vegetation and burnt soil), in 
the long term they increase the risk of floods in the future. The cascading effects 
of such events may include food unaffordability, climate-related displacement and 
financial  instability.  Through  foresight  tools  and  effective  risk  assessments, 
anticipatory governance allows the consideration of multiple (co-occurring) 
hazards  and  the  potential  cascading  effects,  in  which  one  hazard  triggers 
another67 – minimising the potential negative effects in the long term.68

67 EC (2010). Commission staff working paper 'Risk assessment and mapping guidelines for disaster management'.
68 Pescaroli G., Alexander D. (2016). Critical infrastructure, panarchies and the vulnerability paths of cascading 
disasters.

24 

3. Policy innovation and increased citizen engagement 

Lastly, a significant benefit of anticipatory governance that is based on inclusive 
participation  and  resourcing  is  the  enhancement  of  the  effectiveness  of  the 
whole  system.  Incorporating  diverse  perspectives  and  disciplines,  including 
various backgrounds and age groups, allows exploration of the interplay between 
different  areas  of  expertise.  This  diverse  participation  not  only  enhances  the 
legitimacy of foresight processes but also ensures that a broader range of potential 
scenarios  and  solutions  are  considered,  thus  leading  to  more  robust  and 
comprehensive crisis management strategies.69 However, adequate resourcing is 
crucial for facilitating the involvement of large, diverse groups of stakeholders in 
foresight processes  that go beyond surface-level analysis. To address  this,  it  is 
essential to challenge common arguments against citizen participation and clearly 
define how civil and expert input will be utilised in decision-making processes.70

2.3 Possible challenges and ways to develop anticipatory 

governance 

With the benefits outlined in the previous sub-chapter, the process of developing 
anticipatory  governance  in  crisis  management  may  pose  some  challenges  for 
LRAs. 

1. Risk ownership and trust 

The  challenge  of  risk  ownership  arises  when  new  cross-level  issues  emerge, 
leading  to  the  ad-hoc  assignment  of  responsibilities  without  clear  processes. 
Issues  connected  to  climate  change  often  lack  clear  leadership,  resulting  in  a 
reluctance  to  intervene  on  both  national  and  sub-national  levels. 71  To  tackle 
emerging problems systematically, governments need a flexible, long-term and 
unified approach to analyse and assign responsibility.  
Decision-makers  also  confront  a  challenging  societal  landscape  when  making 
risk-related decisions. Alongside uncertainties about the accuracy of truth claims, 
there  is  a  growing  erosion  of  trust  in  government  problem-solving 
capabilities, with doubts regarding regulatory agencies’ reliability, and scrutiny 
of  the  moral  integrity  of  key  figures  involved  in  risk  assessment  and 
management.72 These issues can place the responsibility for addressing systemic 
risks squarely on the shoulders of LRAs. 

69  OECD  (2021).  Foresight  and  Anticipatory  Governance  in  Practice:  Lessons  in  effective  foresight 
institutionalisation.
70 Ibidem.
71 Ibidem.  
72 Siegrist  M.  (2021).  Trust  and  Risk  Perception:  A  Critical  Review  of  the  Literature;  Mewes  J.  et  al  (2021). 
Experiences matter: A longitudinal study of individual level sources of declining social trust in the United States. 
25 

2. Organisational and financial capacities 

The  main  organisational  and  financial  challenges  revolve  around  a  lack  of 
individual  and  collective  capabilities  in  anticipation,  innovation,  and  futures 
literacy within public administration, and a shortage of the effective allocation of 
resources  to  support  capacity-building  efforts. 73  This  deficit  leads  to  the 
prioritisation of short-term tasks (reactive approach) over long-term, anticipatory 
strategic thinking. Strategic development responsibilities are often concentrated 
among  a  few  individuals  with  heavy  workloads,  while  public  servants  need  to 
receive training and support to develop foresight capacity not met.  

3. Ensuring effectiveness 

A  significant  challenge  is  to  ensure  the  effectiveness  of  overseeing  and 
coordinating  activities  across  the  different  phases  of  risk  and  crisis 
management cycles, given the interconnected nature of various crises and risks. 
These responsibilities are often divided among different organisations.74

4. Navigating uncertainties 

Despite  good  intentions,  interventions  can  fail,  or  they  can  even  exacerbate 
situations due to unforeseen side effects (see subchapter 3.4 on maladaptation). 
This uncertainty can lead to either paralysis in decision-making and inaction or 
blind  activism  and  impulsive  action  without  clear  effectiveness. 75  In  such 
uncertainty,  conflicting  ideas  and  models  emerge,  making  it  challenging  for 
decision-makers to determine the best course of action.  

5. Addressing inequalities 

Various areas and regions exhibit distinct levels of exposure and vulnerability to 
crises,  while  also  differing  in  the  resources  and  capabilities  that  they  have  to 
address them. Similarly, crises tend to exacerbate existing social inequalities, 
leading to the most severe consequences affecting marginalised groups the most, 
whereas those who are economically advantaged often remain unaffected or may 
even experience economic gains.76

Given  the  main  challenges,  there  are  several  critical  areas  for  action  in  the 
development of anticipatory governance to crisis management on a sub-national 
level. The table below outlines the main mechanisms and action points for LRAs. 

73 OECD (2022). Anticipatory Innovation Governance Model in Finland: Towards a New Way of Governing. 
74 SAPEA (2022). Strategic Crisis Management In The European Union. 
75 Ibidem. 
76 SAPEA (2022). Strategic Crisis Management In The European Union.

26 

Table 3. The main mechanisms for anticipatory governance in crisis management at 
the sub-national level 

MECHANISM 

Inclusion in all 
levels of 
governance 

Civic engagement

Evidence-based 
planning 

Evidence-based 
risk assessments 

ACTION POINTS 
The traditional approach to crisis response follows a hierarchical, quasi-military 
structure, where information is centralised and decisions are made at the top, 
orders  and  instructions  are  then  disseminated  for  execution  in  a  top-down 
manner.  Input  from  a  diversity  of  affected  and  interested  parties  –  scientists, 
experts,  and  Non-governmental  Organisations  (NGOs),  can  increase  social 
accountability  and  impact  trust  in  decision-making.  Such  measures  can  take 
many forms, such as making sure that project beneficiaries are fully informed, 
organising community consultations on project plans (regulatory feedback), or 
giving  affected  communities  control  over  investment  decisions  and  project 
implementation.77
 Going beyond inclusive consulting and strengthening the resilience of local 
communities.  Bottom-up  approaches  that  empower  communities  to 
drive  a  risk  reduction  agenda  in  support  of  their  development  goals 
constitute the best manner to build resilience based on local knowledge and 
address local priorities, especially those related to climate risks. Moreover, 
in times of crisis, community response alleviates the pressure on the LRA-
based disaster response and increases the collective response capability.78
 Prompt  information  and  communication  during  crises.  Digitalisation 
offers  new  possibilities  as  the  widespread  use  of  smartphones  and  other 
technologies  supplements  conventional  methods,  enhancing  response 
capacity and empowering citizens to aid themselves and others.

Planning concrete contingencies and scenarios, as well as ensuring that the 
capacities and resources to respond are in place. The use of strategic foresight 
tools enables the steering of strategic decision-making by identifying potential 
crises, and improving preparedness and resource allocation processes.79
 Further advancement in integrating hazard mapping and risk assessments as 
a critical priority area.80 While some progress has been made, there is room 
for improving the alignment between assessing climate change impacts, 
and  vulnerability  and  disaster  risk  evaluation.  Establishing 
comprehensive, cohesive, and interoperable databases on disaster losses is 
crucial for enhancing existing damage models. DRMKC  Risk Data Hub,81
a  multi-hazard  geo-portal  that  includes  dashboards  on  disaster  risk, 
vulnerability to disasters and disaster loss, available on the NUTS-1, 2 and 
3 levels, is an example of an EU-level initiative in this regard. However, 
the active involvement of LRAs, civil protection authorities, statistical 
offices, and meteorological and hydrological services in standardising 
data, ensuring its quality and enhancing accessibility is vital.82

 Alongside  recorded  losses,  it  is  imperative  to  incorporate hazard 
simulations and model-based loss assessments, enhance exposure data 
resolution,  and  gain  deeper  insights  into  various  vulnerabilities  and 
hazards. By employing such measures through strategic foresight tools, the 

77 GFDRR (2015). Building social resilience protecting and empowering those most at risk.
78 This is particularly critical during the first 72 hours after a disaster strikes, which is the time it often takes until 
government response is fully operational; SAPEA (2022). Strategic Crisis Management in the European Union.
79 Ibidem. 
80 EEA (2017). Climate change adaptation and disaster risk  reduction in Europe: Enhancing coherence of the 
knowledge base, policies and practices.
81 DRMKC – Risk Data Hub.
82 SAPEA (2022). Strategic Crisis Management in the European Union.

27 

Addressing 
inequalities 

Integration of 
CCA measures 

existing gaps can be bridged, allowing a more nuanced understanding of the 
distribution of losses.83

Consideration of how marginalised groups are represented in crisis management 
and how inequalities apply to the situation.
Taking into account the importance of climate change as a driver of risk 
through  increased  coherence  between  DRM  and  CCA  measures.  While 
CCA focuses on the future and addresses uncertainty and new risks, and DRM 
addresses already existing risks, both offer various complementary strategies for 
mitigating  the  risks  associated  with  extreme  weather  and  climate-related 
hazards.84

Source: own elaboration, CASE based on desk research. 

83 Ibidem.  
84 EEA (2017). Climate change adaptation and disaster risk  reduction in Europe: Enhancing coherence of the 
knowledge base, policies and practices.

28 

Part 3: The role of climate adaptation in 
preventing disasters and enhancing the 
resilience of EU regions

Adaptation to climate change is one of the strategies we undertake to reduce the 
effects of climate change on the economy, society and the environment. It is the 
process of adapting to changing conditions now and in the future, in a situation 
where we know that regardless of the efforts made to mitigate climate change, the 
climate crisis will pose an increasing threat to the planet. Therefore, CCA: 

 is  a  response  to  current  climate  change-induced  risks  and  hazards  and 

those predicted in the future 

 applies to both natural and human systems 
 reduces the effects of threats while taking advantage of possible benefits 
 can be implemented through policy, practice and projects 
 applies to all decision-making levels 
 can be undertaken by communities or citizens as long as it is transparent.85

The EC adopted its strategy on adaptation to climate change in February 2021 so 
that the EU can “adapt to the unavoidable impacts of climate change and become 
climate  resilient  by  2050”.86 The strategy  has  four  specific  objectives: to make 
adaptation  smarter,  swifter  and  more  systemic,  and  to  boost  international  and 
Member State-level action on CCA. At the local level, examples of CCA actions 
include  building  and  adapting  large-scale  infrastructure,  such  as  developing 
various  facilities  to  protect  against  sea  level  rise  (for  example  green  and  blue 
urban infrastructure) and bringing about behavioural changes, such as choosing 
climate-friendly products and services.87 There are also multiple platforms (such 
as the CoR’s Green Deal Going Local databse or the EU Mission on Adaptation 
to Climate Change) and organisations, such as the Covenant of Mayors and its 
Policy Support Facility, working with cities and regions to support them in driving 
the  change 
in  disaster  resilient  and  climate  adaptation-oriented  urban 
development. 
The specific objective of this chapter is to describe the role of adaptation actions 
in enhancing the overall resilience of EU regions, and to present potential risks 
related to maladaptation.  

85 UNFCC (n.d.). Adaptation and resilience.   
86 EC (n.d.). EU Adaptation Strategy.
87 EEA (2023). What is the difference between adaptation and mitigation?

29 

3.1 The  role  of  LRAs  in  fostering  climate  change 

adaptation 

Each city and region has distinct features that characterise it, such as geographical 
and  hydrological  conditions,  as  well  as  interregional,  spatial,  socio-economic, 
ecosystemic  and  industrial  dependencies.  Each  city  and  region  can  also 
distinguish sectors in which some of its activities and impacts on the environment 
are  concentrated,  for  example,  public  transport,  water  management,  spatial 
management,  energy  and biodiversity. Each  of these sectors,  depending on  the 
area being analysed, has a different vulnerability to the effects of climate change. 

Cities in particular are critical in regard to the green transition since they consume 
the majority of global primary energy used for the construction and operation of 
urban  buildings,  in  logistics  and  urban  mobility,  and  in  industry  and  other 
activities. In fact, worldwide, cities account for ca. 70% of all GHG emissions, 
and the numbers are believed to be growing as a result of continuing urbanisation, 
including across the EU.88 This further indicates the importance of undertaking 
climate adaptation measures to prepare for severe hazards while reducing GHG 
emissions  and  other  impacts  associated  with  fossil  fuel  use,  such  as  health 
repercussions. 

Following the example of national pledges stemming from the Paris Agreement 
and  EU-specific  objectives  and  other  strategies  on  climate  adaptation  and 
mitigation, LRAs can also contribute towards a green and just energy transition 
while preventing disasters and enhancing the resilience of the EU. In the end, their 
engagement  is  vital  to  planning  and  achieving  commitments,  also  given  their 
relevance within national governing setups. However, despite cities’ and regions’ 
ambitions,  there  is  a  need  for  coordinating  the  efforts  at  the  EU  level,  and 
nationally,  regionally  and  locally,  so  as  to  ensure  the  effective achievement of 
resilience by design methodology at all levels. 

Once  coordination  is  ensured,  regions,  cities,  towns  and  villages  are  uniquely 
positioned to plan, promote, introduce, implement and monitor the effectiveness 
of  adaptation  actions.  That  is  because  LRAs  are  planners  and  regulators,  for 
example  holding  responsibility  for  urban  zoning,  building  permits  and  various 
ordinances.  Sub-national governments are often important owners or operators 
of energy-generating facilities and related urban infrastructure. In addition, they 
also have an educational role to play, and they are awareness builders for the local 
community.  Figure  8  below  presents  the  roles  that  LRAs  can  have  towards 
developing climate adaptation strategies: 

88 UN (n.d.). Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Statistics Division: Goal 11.  

30 

Figure 8. The role of LRAs in fostering climate change adaptation 

Local 
communities 
often document 
historical 
extreme weather 
event impacts

LRAs in 
climate 
adaptation

LRAs apply 
and enforce 
national 
laws and 
regulations

Demand 
aggregators

Knowledge of 
their 
territory's 
ability to 
address 
climate risks 

Creation of local 
spatial 
development
(land use zoning 
and permitting 
decisions)

Awareness 
builders

Creation of 
economic or 
sectoral 
development 
plans 

Source: own elaboration, CASE. 

Local  leadership  and  knowledge  are  essential  to  building  resilience  to  climate 
impacts,  as  there  is  no  one-size-fits-all  quick  fix.  The  benefits  of  adaptation 
measures at the local and regional levels are essentially: 

1. The ability to introduce context-specific initiatives 

Effective  CCA  tackles  the  uncertainties  of  climate  hazards,  risks  and 
vulnerabilities in a context of a specific locations. There is no universal solution 
for all EU Member States, its cities and regions. When CCA is introduced at the 
local level, LRAs can adopt flexible initiatives considering future projections on 
climate hazards and risks. 

2. Higher social, environmental and economic returns 

The  benefits  of  local  CCA  outweigh  the  estimated  costs  (see  chapter  2). 
Preventing  loss  and  damage  from  climate  change-driven  risks  and  hazards 
unlocks economic and social potential for the area.89

89 EC (2023). Climate Action - Building a climate-resilient future. 

31 

3. More equitable results 

Initiatives that consider societal inequalities can avoid further exclusion of the 
most vulnerable individuals and groups. Inviting them to participate in decision-
making can make local CCA actions more effective, while putting the needs of 
those most vulnerable on top of the political agenda. 

4. More comprehensive approaches 

Territorial  CCA  is  more  likely  to  be  effective  because  LRAs  apply  adaptation 
comprehensively. They understand the links between CCA and other development 
measures,  such  as  disaster  impact  reduction,  and  translate  these  links  to  their 
local plans and strategies. 

5. Reinforced local knowledge 

Local know-how is an underutilised capital that is more accessible and tailored 
to programmes designed for a particular location. Using local know-how in CCA 
actions  not  only  eases  their  uptake  but  also  makes  them  more  inclusive  and 
sustainable as a result of boosting communities’ sense of ownership.90

3.2 Challenges related to climate change adaptation 

Despite numerous benefits related to the introduction of adaptation strategies at 
the local and regional levels, numerous obstacles and challenges remain. Hence, 
in  some  regions,  the  progress  of  decentralisation  of  climate  adaptation-related 
responsibilities can still be far from satisfactory as a result of inefficient technical 
knowledge and capacity or a shortage of data and resources. The most common 
challenges to LRAs’ introduction of ambitious CCA strategies include: 

 Insufficient financial resources 

LRAs derive a significant portion of their financial resources from local taxes, 
fees, and charges to cover at least part of the costs of the services they provide. 
Large-scale infrastructure needs larger investments, thereby becoming something 
that  only  the  most  prosperous  cities  and  regions  can  afford.  Even  they  often 
struggle with access to EU funds and limited national adaptation funding. 

 Information barriers 

This group embraces all situations where a lack of data, its sharing, or simply the 
absence of appropriate policy on data sharing can limit the success of adaptation 
policies. 91  Relevant  data  are  required  for  the  implementation  of  all  three 
adaptation process steps (problem, planning, practice), but the data should also be 
“usable” for the decision-making bodies. 

90 Word Resources Institute (2020). 5 Benefits to Local Action on Climate Resilience. 
91 Palutikof J.P., et.al. (2018). Overcoming knowledge barriers to adaptation using a decision support framework. 
Climatic Change.

32 

 Institutional and organisational skills barrier

LRAs often lack skills and therefore need support and continuous feedback from 
national authorities to develop new adaptation measures. However, the support 
system for this particular area is rather scarce. 

 Governance and regulatory barriers 

An unknown regulatory environment or risk of legal liability can become serious 
concerns for LRAs planning adaptation measures.  

 Social barriers 

This group of barriers consists of various prejudices in how people think and what 
they might be afraid of, stemming from different perspectives on climate change 
and difficulties in understanding and accepting respective risks and hazards.92 If 
social  barriers  are  not  appropriately  understood  and  addressed,  additional 
challenges  can  occur  as  the  local  community  can  turn  out  to  be  disengaged, 
resistant and unwilling to participate in the transition. Therefore, although such 
challenges are not always visible or easy to assess and measure, they can give rise 
to other obstacles and can limit the successful application of adaptation actions.  

3.3 Different types of adaptation actions 

Different climate risks and hazards require different approaches and strategies that 
communities  and  LRAs  can  use  to  adapt  to  climate  change.  The  table  below 
presents  how  different types of  adaptation actions can address climate change-
induced risks and hazards. 

Table 4. Climate hazard types and relevant local disaster prevention and adaptation 
strategies 

Hazard type 

Examples of appropriate local disaster 
prevention and adaptation strategies 

Heat and cold 

1. Foster  community  networks  that  find  and 

help at-risk populations. 

2. Make  changes  in  built  infrastructure:  build 
structures  to  attenuate  waves  and  storm 
surges. 

3. Make land use changes and build differently.

Snow and ice 

Increase tree maintenance. 

1.
2. Bury power and distribution lines. 
3. Formalise the checking of vulnerable groups.

school  and 

Successful adaptation 
action from the EU city / 
region 
An analysis of white roofs on 
a 
laboratory 
building in Greece showed an 
average  decrease  of  indoor 
1.5-2 
temperatures 
degrees,  and  a  substantial 
decrease 
surface 
in 
temperatures.
RESIN  –  Climate  Resilient 
Infrastructures  and  Cities 
project

by 

92 Hupe P.L. and Hill M. J. (2016). And the rest is implementation. Comparing approaches to what happens in 
policy processes beyond Great Expectations. 

33 

for 

Plans 
against 
communities 
(Spain)

floods 

self-protection 
local 
/  Navarra 

in 

Baltic  Sea  Region  Climate 
Change  Adaptation  Strategy 
(BALTADAPT)

Coastal floods 

1. Relocate  and  retreat:  relocate  homes  and 

Open ocean 

infrastructure to higher elevations. 

2. Make  changes  in  built  infrastructure:  build 
structures  to  attenuate  waves  and  storm 
surges. 

3. Renew  and  conserve  natural  systems: 
renourish  beaches,  plant  coastal  vegetation, 
and restore wetlands. 

4. Make  land  use  changes  (especially  in  low-

lying cities).

1. Undertake  scenario  analysis  based  on 
modelling  to  inform  regional  management 
responses. 
Integration of terrestrial and coastal issues to 
understand  and  manage  co-stressors  on  a 
regional scale. 

2.

3. General  measures  to  strengthen  ecosystem 
resilience  including  identifying  particularly 
vulnerable  areas  and  protecting  these  by 
identifying  co-stressors  and  compensating 
for negative impacts.

Source: own elaboration, CASE. 

3.4 Potential risks related to maladaptation 

According  to  the  Intergovernmental  Panel  on  Climate  Change  (IPCC), 
“maladaptation refers to actions that may lead to increased risk of adverse climate-
related outcomes, including via increased GHG emissions, increased or shifted 
vulnerability  to  climate  change,  more  inequitable  outcomes,  or  diminished 
welfare, now or in the future”.93 It is essentially a situation when adaptation goes 
wrong,  actions  have  direct  or  indirect  negative  outcomes  and  are  usually 
unintended  and  its  consequences  can  shift  one  region’s  climate  problems  to 
another location if one does not have resources to deal with the “new” risks. While 
there  are  multiple  guidelines  for  LRAs  to  support  them  in  preparation  for 
ambitious CCA, most of them neglect the risk of maladaptation. Thankfully, some 
checklists  have  been  created  within  the  Horizon-funded  projects,  such  as  the 
Regional  Pathways  to  Climate  Resilience  (REGILIENCE), 94  to  help  LRAs 
“identify potential risk factors for maladaptation when drafting and adopting an 
adaptation strategy or plan”, thereby limiting the risk of maladaptive outcomes as 
Figure 9. below showcases. 

93 IPCC. (2022). Summary for Policymakers.
94 REGILIENCE (n.d.). Resources.

34 

Figure 9. Differences between adaptation (A) and maladaptation (M) actions 
Outcomes on ecosystems and ecosystems services

A: Reduces climate-related impacts on...

M: Increases climate-related impacts on 

A: Does not increase GHG emissions or has 
mitigation co-benefits

M: Causes substantial additional GHG 
emissions

GHG emissions

A: Contributes to a broad

M: Does not facilitate or unintendedly
inhibits 

Systemic change

Marginalised groups

A: Decreases social vulnerability

M: Increases social vulnerability

Source: based on Reckien D., Magnan A.K., Singh C. et al., 'Navigating the continuum between adaptation and 
maladaptation', Nature, Climate Change, Vol. 13, 2023, pp. 907-918. 

According to the checklist, the risk of maladaptation can be minimised through 
the  involvement  of  local  experts  with  specific  know-how,  among  others  (as 
depicted by the above subchapter). Also, CCA planning should be transparent, 
multi-sectoral, and inclusive, so as to reduce the chances of maladaptation, while 
at the same time making sure that the benefits from a given action cover multiple 
groups  and  sectors. 95 Furthermore,  LRAs  should  be  reminded  that  there  will 
always be some uncertainty regarding climate change-induced hazards and risks, 
as  well  as  a  diverse  range  of  potential  adverse  consequences  of  the  chosen 
adaptation actions, but these are still better than the costs of climate inaction (see 
Chapter 2). 

All  in  all,  there  are  four  main  dimensions  to  assess  the  risk  of  maladaptation: 
process,  drivers,  temporal  and  spatial  scales.  There  are  also  three  examples  of 
frameworks—the Pathways, the Precautionary, and the Assessment frameworks 
stemming from proactive crisis management (see subchapter 2.1) that can help 
capture  the  risk  of  maladaptation  already  in  the  conceptualisation  phase.  Put 
together, these dimensions and frameworks can therefore significantly limit the 
risk of maladaptation. 

95 Schipper L. (2020). Maladaptation: When Adaptation to Climate Change Goes Very Wrong, One Earth.

35 

Part 4: Overview of the legislative and 
financial framework for disaster risk 
management and adaptation in EU Member 
States

Considering  the  effects  of  climate  change,  the  reduction  of  vulnerabilities  to 
climate-related risks should leverage and enhance current DRM initiatives. Strong 
DRM  that  includes  adaptation  strategies  and  plans  is  essential  to  ensure 
continuous  progress  in  societal,  political  and  economic  readiness  in  alignment 
with the European Climate Law, and should be aimed at proactively addressing 
the  climate  crisis. 96 According  to  the  EC,  the  successful  implementation  of 
strategies  and  plans  is  determined  by  stakeholders’  commitment  and  the 
resources available to them, and should be supported by a legal framework.97

In 2021, the EC adopted its new EU strategy on adaptation to climate change to 
make adaptation smarter, swifter and systemic, and to step up international action 
in this regard. It gave grounds for further discussion on EU preparedness for the 
unavoidable consequences of climate change. The strategy also provided certain 
EU Member States with a good starting point for their actions in the area. 98

All  EU  Member  States  are  progressing  with  commitments,  adopting  various 
policy  instruments  that  address  civil  protection,  disaster  risk  prevention  and 
preparedness, as well as CCA. An increasing role is being played by climate laws, 
as  well  as  the  embedding  of  national  adaptation  strategies  (NASs),  national 
adaptation  plans  (NAPs),  sectoral  adaptation  plans  (SAPs)  and  regional 
adaptation  plans  (RAPs)  in  binding  regulatory  frameworks. 99 However,  these 
instruments  vary  from  country  to  country,  reflecting  each  country’s  specific 
national  circumstances  in  terms  of  governance  structure  and  institutional 
frameworks. 

LRAs are often responsible for developing local strategies, risk assessments and 
disaster risk prevention and preparedness measures. The local approach is more 

96 EEA (2022) Advancing towards climate resilience in Europe: status of reported national adaptation actions in 
2021.
97 EC (2023) Commission Notice Guidelines on Member States’ adaptation strategies and plans.
98 EC (2021). Communication from The Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European 
Economic And Social Committee And the Committee of the Regions Forging a Climate-Resilient Europe - the 
New EU Strategy on Adaptation To Climate Change.
99 EEA (2022) Advancing towards climate resilience in Europe: status of reported national adaptation actions in 
2021.

36 

personalised and reflects the actual risks in the area as well as the available local 
resources and capabilities, which often cannot be accurately estimated at higher 
levels  of  governance.  As  climate  change  and  natural  disasters  do  not  stick  to 
administrative boundaries, the LRAs work together within the EU Covenant of 
Mayors  for  Climate  and  Energy  as  well  as  the  EU  Mission  on  Adaptation  to 
Climate Change. 

All EU Member States have in some way officially addressed civil protection and 
DRM, and the majority have a statutory act on civil protection in place. Among 
those that do not, Ireland has a legally binding Government Policy (Framework 
for Major Emergency Management), Finland has appropriate rules spread within 
several  acts,  strategies  and  programmes,  the  Netherlands’  basic  statutory  act 
focuses  on  division into  safety  regions  rather  than  strictly civil protection, and 
Austria  has  emergency  response  regulated  at  the  provincial  level.  Risk 
assessments  constitute  the  grounds  for  risk  management  policies  and  civil 
protection plans on different administrative levels. 

As a measure of preparedness, all EU Member States conduct appropriate training 
and exercises. The public is informed about the risks at all levels of governance 
through various channels, in particular social media, TV and radio. Early warning 
systems have been introduced in most EU Member States, and generally include 
sirens, mobile apps and text messages. Some countries, such as Estonia, do not 
have  a  nationwide  warning  system.  In  many  countries  (for  example  Sweden, 
Latvia and Malta), children already receive education at school on natural hazards 
and how to behave in emergencies.  

In general, in terms of climate adaptation, most Member States have introduced 
rather soft policies without legally binding commitments, relying on voluntary, 
informal,  and  non-hierarchical  cooperation.  At  the  same  time,  an  increasing 
number of Member States have started drawing up national climate legislation to 
have stronger legal tools at their disposal for enforcing adaptation objectives and 
strategies. 100  The  figure  below  presents  an  overview  of  adaptation  policy 
instruments across the EU Member States. 

100 EEA (2022) Advancing towards climate resilience in Europe: status of reported national adaptation actions 
in 2021.

37 

Figure 10. Overview of adaptation policy instruments in EU Member States (2022) 

Source: EEA (2022). Advancing towards climate resilience in Europe: status of reported national adaptation 
actions in 2021. 

interventions  depend  on 

It is important to highlight that local and regional engagement is a key driver 
for the successful implementation of DRM and CCA efforts in the EU. After 
the  context-specific  conditions  and 
all,  many 
vulnerabilities of a given area, and it is the local authorities who can determine 
what measures are the most feasible. They are also the driving force in fostering 
public engagement and local actions by educating the residents about the benefits 
of climate adaptation for their region.101

As  described  in  the  previous  sections,  the  costs  associated  with  DRM  and 
CCA are rising and are anticipated to escalate in the coming decades, driven 
by  the  growing  urgency  for  adaptation  measures.  Although  the  EU  finances 
adaptation to climate change through a wide range of instruments (including the 
LIFE programme, Horizon Europe, the European Regional Development Fund – 
particularly through INTERREG projects, the Cohesion Fund, the Just Transition 
Fund,  and  many  more),  national  and  private  funding  is  vital.  This  poses  a 

101 EC (2023) Commission Notice Guidelines on Member States’ adaptation strategies and plans.

38 

challenge  for  local,  regional,  and  national  authorities  because  of  uncertainty 
regarding  the  necessary  funding,  given  the  frequently  unpredictable  nature  of 
climate risks and impacts. The budget for prevention and preparedness is easier 
to plan than the budget for emergency response. Some EU Member States have 
dedicated funds for natural disaster prevention, and initiatives mitigating the risks 
of  natural  hazards  or  CCA,  such  as  France’s  “Barnier  Funds”  (fr.  “Fonds 
Barnier”), or the Polish National Fund for Environmental Protection and Water 
Management.  The  EC  recommends  that  Member  States  have  a  dedicated 
adaptation  budget  as  part  of  a  national  comprehensive  budget.  However,  most 
existing  NASs  and  NAPs  do  not  have  dedicated  budgets  or  financing  for 
implementation.  The  adaptation  finance  gap  is  especially  apparent  for  LRAs 
responsible  for  implementing  most  adaptation  measures.  The  EC  recommends 
that  innovative  funding  instruments,  meaning  collaboration  with  the  private 
sector, should be explored (while traditional sources of funding remain in use).  

The  following  sections  of  the  study  present  an  overview  of  the  legislative  and 
financial framework for DRM and CCA in EU Member States according to the 
level  of  decentralisation  of  governance  (centralised,  partially  decentralised,  or 
decentralised), while  also  introducing  good  practice  examples  from  LRAs 
(especially those that have recovered from past disasters and strengthened their 
resilience, or those that have used innovative funding instruments) to foster the 
shift from response to preparedness in Member States’ efforts. 

The analysis shows that the countries most affected by major natural disasters, 
such as Italy, Greece, Austria and France, have well-developed systems for DRM 
and CCA. These systems were in place long before the EU Strategy on adaptation 
to  climate  change  was  adopted.  Austria’s  approach  is  almost  purely  local,  and 
there is no national framework for civil protection. In Italy, Greece and France the 
national  laws  emphasise  prevention  and  local  preparedness.  The  latter  is  not 
necessarily consistent with the administrative division of the country, and might 
concern more municipalities or provinces that are affected by the risk in the given 
area, for example with plans concerning a Vesuvio eruption or cross-border plans 
for the Alps. In countries with experience in emergency response, additional focus 
is also put on ensuring effective decision-making and response in the event of an 
emergency.  

On  the  other  hand,  the  approach  to  the  financing  of  preventative  and  reactive 
measures  differs  even  among  these  countries.  Even  though  the  budget  is  put 
together in various ways, the more-experienced countries usually have some funds 
dedicated to adaptation and preparedness. Most EU Member States also benefit 
from EU funds in this respect. 

39 

4.1.  Legislative and financial framework for disaster risk management and climate change 
adaptation in EU Member States

Table 5. The legislative and financial framework for DRM and CCA in EU-27: countries with centralised governance structures 
CENTRALISED GOVERNANCE

CYPRUS 
A unitary presidential 
republic consisting of 6 
administrative districts, with 
no deliberative representative 
bodies at the regional level. 

There is no national strategy, nor any legislation beyond the Civil Defence Law of 1996. Risk management planning is conducted 
through the risk management plans in which the complete disaster cycle is taken into account. A risk reduction strategy is also in being 
developed.  A  National  Risk  Assessment  for  climate  change  impacts  was  carried  out  in  2015-2016,  with  the  cooperation  of  the 
Department of Environment and Civil Defence. 

 The primary objective of Cyprus Civil Defence is to undertake diverse humanitarian duties aimed at safeguarding the civil 
population, helping in recovery from the immediate effects of hostilities or disasters, and providing the conditions necessary 
for survival. 

 The Minister of the Interior is responsible for the implementation of the Civil Defence Law and the relevant regulations and 

has the overall supervision of the civil defence system.102

The combined climate adaptation plan and strategy103  (updated and formally adopted in 2017) includes many vertical mechanisms. 
For scenarios and projections, the Strategy considers the future period 2021-2050.  

 There are no strategic documents for the sub-national level. 
 Local adaptation actions are not part of a programmed and planned process. Some municipalities have their own initiatives. 

M
R
D

A
C
C

S The adaptation policy process has been aided by the CYPADAPT project (2011-2014)104, which was co-financed by the EU through 
D
the  LIFE+  instrument  and  was  coordinated  by  the  Ministry  of  Agriculture,  Rural  Development  and  Environment.  The  adaptation 
N
measures identified have been included in the funding priorities foreseen in the Partnership Agreement of the Republic of Cyprus, a 
U
F
comprehensive strategic document for the utilisation of European Structural and Investment Funds (ESIF).105

CZECHIA 
A parliamentary 
representative democracy, 
divided into 14 regions 

M
R
D

Based on risk assessment, and mostly implemented at the national level. 

 The key legislation in terms of disaster risk management is the Crisis Act of 2000.106
 Checklists were introduced for the most significant risks to ensure effective response. 
 The basic aim of risk management is to mitigate the impact of a disaster, i.e. to ensure appropriate emergency response.107

102 Civil Defence Cyprus (n.d.) Laws – website; EC (n.d.), European Civil Protection and Humanitarian Aid Operations (n.d.)  Cyprus. 
103 CYPADAPT - National Adaptation Plan of Cyprus to Climate Change; Climate-adapt (n.d.). Country profiles – Cyprus..
104 CYPADAPT – website. https://cypadapt.uest.gr 
105 EC (2017). Adaptation preparedness scoreboard: Country fiche - Cyprus. 
106 Crisis Management Act N. 240/2000 Coll.  
107 European Civil Protection and Humanitarian Aid Operations (n.d.) The national disaster management system – Czech Republic.

40 

CCA has already been incorporated into the Czech legal system108 and is guided by the NAS and NAP. The main goals and objectives 
of both documents are set according to climate vulnerability, risk assessments and NAP evaluation. CCA has also been mainstreamed 
in sectoral strategies and plans, including the national disaster risk management plans, and spatial and urban plans.  

 NAS:  the  Strategy  on  Adaptation  to  Climate  Change 109 with  specific  adaptation  and  legislative  measures  and  partial 

economic analysis. The last update of the NAS and the National Action Plan on Adaptation from 2021. 

 No legal requirements on adaptation actions and strategies at the regional and local levels – all adaptation measures on the 

A
C
C

sub-national level are voluntary initiatives.110

S The NAS offers a structured assessment of the financial requirements for proposed adaptation measures.  Adaptation measures are 
D
funded  by  EU  funds  and  national  programmes  tailored  to  specific  sectors  such  as  agriculture,  water  management,  forestry,  and 
N
biodiversity.  Nevertheless,  there  is  no  designated  budget  for  cross-cutting  adaptation  initiatives  or    dedicated  fund  for  adaptation 
U
F
measures outlined in the NAS and NAP. 

HUNGARY 
A parliamentary republic 
divided into 19 counties, 
Budapest and 23 cities with 
county. Local governments 
with the right to adopt local 
decrees within their 
competencies to regulate 
social relations not regulated 
by a higher act. 

M
R
D

A
C
C

S
D
N
U
F

The National Directorate General for Disaster Management of the Ministry of Interior is responsible for DRM, including prevention.
The Disaster Management Act is the principal statutory law in this respect.  



The  national  risk  assessment  is  reviewed  annually.  Mayors  of  the  settlements  conduct  relevant  risk  assessments  by  30 
September each year.

 The  Directorate  contributes  to  the  national  planning  of  disaster  response  and  supervises  the  preparation  of  regional  and 

settlement emergency plans.111

The Deputy Secretariat of State for Climate Policy is responsible for the planning, implementation, monitoring, evaluation and revision 
of climate adaptation policy and strategy, assisted by the National Adaptation Division.

 The NAS was adopted in 2018 and NAP in 2020. 
 There are no legal requirements for sub-national adaptation strategies. 132 municipalities have developed their own local 
strategies  financed  by  Energy  Efficiency  and  Environment  Operational  Programme  resources.  Considered  unlikely  to  be 
implemented without legal obligation and proper financial resources.

 DRM is funded at the government level. Obligatory regular allocation of funds for this purpose.112
 Funding of CCA is mostly from sales of EU-ETS allowances, from European Funds and Hungarian co-funding.113

108 Government of Czech Republic (2001). Act no. 100/2001 Coll., on the Environmental Impact Assessment and amending some related laws (the EIA Act). 
109 Government of Czech Republic (2015). Strategy on Adaptation to Climate Change in the Czech Republic – executive summary.  
110 Climate Adapt (n.d.). Country profile – Czechia.  
111 European Civil Protection and Humanitarian Aid Operations (n.d.). The national disaster management system – Hungary.
112 International Federation of Red Cross (n.d.). Hungary.
113 Climate Adapt (n.d.). Country profile – Hungary.

41 

LUXEMBOURG 
A unitary state with a 
municipal level of 
decentralisation. The central 
government has exclusive 
legislative power in all fields 
related to the national 
interest..

MALTA 
A parliamentary republic 
divided into 5 regions. Each 
region has its own regional 
committee – an intermediary 
between local and national 
governments 

M
R
D

A
C
C

S
D
N
U
F

M
R
D

A
C
C

DRM activities are conducted at the national level on the basis of emergency response plans and are part of the crisis anticipation and 
management measures developed by the High Commission for National Protection (a public body under the prime minister) together 
with relevant public and private entities.114

 Crisis management activities are carried out under the responsibility of a crisis unit, which is chaired by a member of the 

government. 

 The Minister of Home Affairs is in charge of the organisation, coordination, and implementation of civil security.115

The National Climate Law from 2020116 constitutes the legal basis of the NAS and NAP.  

 The NAS and NAP117 are part of the EU’s Climate Change Adaptation Strategy. Both were adopted in 2018. 
 There  is  no  self-governing  sub-national  level  in  Luxembourg,  given  the  small  size  and  nature  of  the  administrative 

organisation of the country. 

The  NAS  is  not  backed  by  a  specific  funding  allocation  or  commitment118.  However,  the  Climate  Law  mentions  a  special  fund 
established under the name “Climate and Energy Fund”.119

DRM is regulated by the Civil Protection Act. 120

 Prevention plans are prepared by the competent ministries. The Civil Protection Department is responsible for emergency 
response  with  the  Civil  Protection  Council,  which  constitutes  the  coordinating  body.  A  national  risk  assessment  was 
conducted in 2015.

Based on the Climate Action Act of 2015 and implemented only at the national level and by central administration.

 The NAS was adopted in 2021 as part of the National Low Carbon Development Strategy. The Climate Action Act requires 

the strategy to be reviewed and updated at least once every five years.

 There is a sector-specific approach to climate adaptation/
 The  Minister  for  the  Environment,  Energy  and  Enterprise  is  responsible  for  climate  action  policy.  An  Inter-Ministerial 

Committee on Climate Change has been set up. 121

114 European Civil Protection and Humanitarian Aid Operations (n.d.) The national disaster management system – Luxembourg.
115 Ibidem. 
116 Loi du 15 décembre 2020 relative au climat et modifiant la loi modifiée du 31 mai 1999 portant institution d’un fonds pour la protection de l’environnement.
117 The  Government  of  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Luxembourg,Ministry  of  the  Environment,  Climate  and  Sustainable  Development  (2018).  Stratégie  Et  Plan  D’action  Pour 
L’adaptation Aux Effets Du Changement Climatique Au Luxembourg 2018-2023.
118 EC (2017).  Adaptation preparedness scoreboard – Luxembourg.
119 Loi du 15 décembre 2020 relative au climat et modifiant la loi modifiée du 31 mai 1999 portant institution d’un fonds pour la protection de l’environnement.
120 European Civil Protection and Humanitarian Aid Operations (n.d.). The national disaster management system – Malta.
121 Climate Adapt (n.d.). Country profiles – Malta.    

42 

S
D
N
U
F

 The Climate Action Fund was established by the Climate Action Act to support the implementation of climate adaptation 

measures, in particular on GHG emissions.122

 In 2017, two climate adaptation projects were funded by the Ministry of Environment, Energy and Enterprise.123
 Some projects were funded or co-funded by the EU funds, e.g. under LIFE, ERDF or ESF.124

Source: own elaboration, CASE based on desk research. The general information about Member States is based on CoR – Division of Powers – website. 

122 The Directorate General for Environment and Climate Change (n.d.). Climate Action Act.
123 The Malta Resources Authority (2022).  The 8th National Communication of Malta under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. 
124 EC (2018). Adaptation preparedness scoreboard: Country fiche – Malta.

43 

Table 6. The legislative and financial framework for DRM and CCA in EU-27: countries with partially decentralised governance 
structures 
PARTIALLY DECENTRALISED GOVERNANCE 
DRM is regulated in the Disaster Protection Act and carried out at all levels. 

BULGARIA 
A unitary republican State 
with 6 planning regions, 28 
districts and 265 
municipalities 

 The  National  Disaster  Risk  Reduction  Strategy  was  adopted  for  the  years  2018-2030.  Key  legislation  includes  the 
Environment Protection Act, the Spatial Planning Act, the Water Act, the Forest Act, the Regional Development Act and The 
Bulgarian Climate Change Mitigation Act. The Third National Action Plan on Climate Change125 outlines a framework for 
action focused on mitigation measures. 

 Appropriate protection plans have been drawn up. Risk assessment is an obligatory part and risk-specific plans have also 

been adopted.126

 At the national level, the Disaster Risk Reduction Council assists in measures aimed at DRR. Regional and municipal DRR 

assist at the local level. 127

Measures are conducted mostly at the national level and integrated into various national sector policies. 

 The National Climate Change Adaptation Strategy and Action Plan was approved in 2019. A sectoral rather than a regional 

approach was adopted. 

 Regionally, the Strategy on Adaptation to Climate Change for Sofia Municipality was developed under the EU-funded project 

“Transitioning towards Urban Resilience and Sustainability”.128

M
R
D

A
C
C

S According to the NAS, adaptation measures receive funding from EU funds, state finances, and possibly contributions from energy 
D
corporations. Insufficient financial resources are highlighted in the NAS, along with an excessive reliance on EU support. Including 
N
U
estimated investment costs is proposed in order to aid in funding allocation. 129
F

125 Republic of Bulgaria (2019). National Climate Change Adaptation Strategy and Action Plan 2019-2030. 
126 They include flood risk management plans, plans for forest fire protection activities and a national program for prevention, and reduction of landslides on the territory of the 
Republic of Bulgaria, erosion and abrasion on the Danube and the Black Sea Coast. 
127 Bulgarian Ministry of Energy (n.d.). News and highlights; European Civil Protection and Humanitarian Aid Operations (n.d.), Summary of the national disaster management 
system – Bulgaria. 
128 Republic of Bulgaria (2019). National Climate Change Adaptation Strategy and Action Plan 2019-2030; EC (2018). Adaptation preparedness scoreboard – Country fiche 
for Bulgaria. 
129 Republic of Bulgaria (2019). National Climate Change Adaptation Strategy and Action Plan 2019-2030.

44 

CROATIA 
A parliamentary republic 
divided into 21 counties  - 
including the capital Zagreb - 
128 towns and 428 
municipalities 

The national level is considered critical:

M
R
D

A
C
C

 The national risk assessment (last review in 2019) was prepared by the Croatian Disaster Risk Reduction Platform. Measures 
for risk reduction are included in the Act on Civil Protection System and Act on Mitigating and Eliminating Consequences 
of Natural Disasters (the “Mitigating Act”), as well as sectoral laws such as the Water Act and the Act on Protecting Forests 
against Fires. 

 Disaster risk assessment plan has been established for the particular level of governance. Under the Mitigating Act, the local 

and county self-government have to prepare action plans consisting of specifically indicated types of measures.130
Mainly regulated in the Climate Change and Ozone Layer Protection Act. The Ministry of Economy and Sustainable Development is 
responsible  for  climate  change  policy,  supported  by  the  Government  Commission  for  Intersectoral  Coordination  for  Policy  and 
Measures for Mitigation and Adaptation to Climate Change. 

 The NAS, NAP and Programmes for Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation and the Protection of the Ozone Layer at 
the local and regional level are the most important implementing documents. The current NAS was adopted in 2020. The 
Environmental Protection Act and the Climate Change and Ozone Layer Protection Act require local and regional authorities 
to  adopt  adaptation  measures.  However,  only  4  out  of  21  counties  and  3  out  of  16  large  cities  have  developed  such 
programmes.131

S Mostly through EU funds, in particular EUSF. The Fund for Environmental Protection and Energy Efficiency in cooperation with the 
D
Ministry responsible for climate policy has had two public calls for co-financing of the preparation of subnational adaptation plans 
N
U
and their implementation. 132
F

DENMARK 
A constitutional monarchy 
with five administrative 
regions, 2 special status 
regions (Faroe Islands and 
Greenland) and 98 
municipalities, each 
governing through its own 

M
R
D

Mainly regulated by the Danish Emergency Management Act. 133

 The Danish Emergency Management Agency carries out the national risk assessment every 4-5 years (the last version in 
2022).  Risk  management  planning  is  also  described  in  the  National  Emergency  Plan,  the  Comprehensive  Preparedness 
Planning Guidelines, Guidelines for Crisis Management and Guidelines for On-scene Incident Command, as well as other 
documents.  Sector-specific plans are also prepared, but mostly relate to hazards in general and are not risk-centered.

 Ministries  are  obliged  to  adopt  emergency  and  continuity  plans  in  the  event  of  disasters.  An  appropriate  emergency 
management plan also has to be drawn up by each municipal and regional council. Municipalities are obliged to draw up risk 
management plans for mitigating the direct effects of natural weather and climate hazards.

130 Z. Sigmund et. al. (2022). The Role of Disaster Risk Governance for Effective Post-Disaster Risk Management – Case of Croatian, Buildings’ European Civil Protection and 
Humanitarian Aid Operations (n.d.). Croatia; Climate-adapt (n.d.). Country profiles – Croatia
131 Climate Adapt (n.d.). Country profiles – Croatia
132 D. Trut, J. Kovačević (2022). Climate Change, Disaster Risk Reduction and Resilience; International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, The World Bank (2021). 
Economics for Disaster Prevention and Preparedness. Financial Risk and Opportunities in Build Resilience in Europe; Climate-adapt (n.d.). Country profiles – Croatia.
133 European Civil Protection and Humanitarian Aid Operations (n.d.) The national disaster management system – Denmark; Danish Emergency Management Agency (2022). 
National Risk Profile 2022; Gram-Hanssen I., et al. (2023). Comparison and analysis of national adaptation policies in the Nordic region.

45 

elected councils and a very 
high degree of autonomy

ESTONIA 
A unitary republican State 
with 79 local government 
units (15 towns and 64 rural 
municipalities), with a multi-

The Danish government is principally responsible for policy objectives and approving the overarching framework for adaptation.134

 The NAS135 was established in 2008. As a direct result of the NAS, the national adaptation portal, www.klimatilpasning.dk, 
was launched under the Danish Environmental Protection Agency. In 2012, the NAS was supplemented by a NAP136 for a 
“climate-proof Denmark”. 

 The  revised  Planning  Act  of 2018  is  one  of  the  most  important  acts  on  adaptation  and  introduces  legal responsibility  to 
consider climate risks in planning cycles, and to prepare adaptation plans and facilitate their implementation, which includes 
flood protection, land use planning, and infrastructure management.

 The  Danish  government  allocates  funding  primarily  for  adaptation  purposes,  focusing  mainly  on  coastal  protection  and 

research and development initiatives.  

 In 2023, nearly DKK 190 million (approx. EUR 25.5 million) was earmarked for the Danish Meteorological Institute and 

other national authorities to develop an innovative early flood warning system.  

 Municipalities are not typically tasked with financing adaptation efforts unless they directly safeguard public assets. Instead, 

the responsibility falls upon wastewater utilities and private landowners.

The  DRM  system  is  decentralised.  On  a  national  level,  competent  authorities  are  appointed  for  each  risk  and  the  ministries  are 
responsible for crisis management within their area of governance: 

 The Ministry of the Interior coordinates risk and crisis management. 
 A national risk assessment is conducted and constitutes the basis for further actions. Contingency plans are risk-based. 
 Crisis committees are appointed at national, regional and local levels 137

A
C
C

S
D
N
U
F

M
R
D

134 Gram-Hanssen I., et al. (2023). op.cit. 
135 Danish Government (2008). Danish strategy for adaptation to a changing climate.
136 Danish Government (2012). How to manage cloudburst and rain water - Action plan for a climate-proof Denmark.
137 European Civil Protection and Humanitarian Aid Operations (n.d.). The national disaster management system – Estonia. 

46 

level approach to the 
environment and the climate.

FINLAND 
A parliamentary republic with 
19 regions, 70 sub-regions 
and 309 municipalities. 

Mostly  conducted  at  the  national  level.  The  NAS  and  NAP  were  adopted  in  2017.  The  Development  Plan  for  Climate  Change 
Adaptation until 2030138 presents a framework for action for reducing vulnerability to climate change. In 2021, the NAS action plan 
for the period of 2021–2025 was completed ensuring that adaptation activities are consistent, meet the goals set in the development 
plan, and contribute to both the local and national levels. 

 The Ministry of Environment has the overall responsibility for the development of the NAS. 
 In 2017, the Estonian Parliament approved the General Principles of Climate Policy until 2050139 followed by a more detailed 
policy  approach  set  out  in  Estonia’s  2030  National  Energy  and  Climate  Plan140,  supported  by  specific  plans  (including 
climate  adaptation).  The  strategic  development  documents  include  direct  and  indirect  measures,  concerned  with  climate 
change mitigation and the regulation of emergencies (under the Emergency Act and Water Act141). 
 Some adaptation measures have been included in sectoral development plans, action plans and laws. 
 There is a shortage of information or evidence regarding any adaptation strategies at lower administrative levels. County and 

local municipal risk assessments and crisis management plans include climate adaptation.142

 The NAS provides the estimation for the implementation in the amount of EUR 43,745,000.143
 Measures financed from the state budget are ensured within the cost limits of the implementing agencies in the financial 

strategy.  

 The majority of climate adaptation measures at the subnational level have occurred through EU-funded projects.144

There is no single national framework, but government resolutions, strategies and programmes form the basis for preparedness for 
disasters. Some responsibilities within prevention are included in the Rescue Act and Emergency Powers Act. 
 Risk assessments constitute a basis for preparedness for various administrative bodies and actors.
 Coordinated  by the Ministry of the Interior, the rescue services are responsible for the emergency preparedness planning 
under the  Rescue Act. The Security  Strategy for Society harmonises national  preparedness principles and guides various 
administrative branches.145

A
C
C

S
D
N
U
F

M
R
D

138 Ministry of the Environment of Estonia (2017). Climate Change Adaptation Development Plan until 2030.
139 EC (2023). Resolution of the Riigikogu General Principales of Climate Policy until 2050.  
140 EC (2019). Estonia’s 2030 National Energy and Climate Plan (NECP 2030).   
141 Parliament of Estonia (2017). Emergency.
142 EC (2018). Adaptation preparedness scoreboard – Country fiche for Estonia.
143 Ministry of the Environment of Estonia (2017). Climate Change Adaptation Development Plan until 2030.  
144 EC (2018). Adaptation preparedness scoreboard – Country fiche for Estonia.
145 Climate-adapt  (n.d.). Country profile – Finland; European Civil Protection and Humanitarian Aid Operations (n.d.). The national disaster management system – Finland. 
47 

A
C
C

S
D
N
U
F

M
R
D

The core of CCA is regulated by the Climate Act of 2022.

 The NAP is part of the climate policy planning system under the Climate Act. It is prepared by the National Monitoring 

Group of the National Adaptation Plan and adopted by the government.

 Regional  Councils  form a collaboration network on climate.  Tampere included measures of regional  collaboration in the 
Climate Strategy of the Tampere City Region 2030. In Pohjois-Savo, the Savonia University of Applied Sciences coordinates 
the business network of climate  security which informs on extreme weather events,  and adaptation to climate change. In 
Helsinki, a network of adaptation experts and practitioners in the metropolitan cities was formed in 2022.146

There are no dedicated funds for DRM at any level of governance.147 Climate adaptation is mainly financed from the state budget and 
relevant public finance plans, existing resources and funding (CAP funding, national subsidy schemes), and EU funding.148

Mainly implemented at the national level: 

 No law dedicated to natural disasters, emergency response, or otherwise civil protection has been adopted. A legally binding 
policy was adopted by the government in 2006 - the Framework for Major Emergency Management, introducing five stages 
of continuous activity in emergency management: hazard identification, mitigation, preparedness,  response and recovery. 
This  was  an  approach  designed  to  fit  “all  hazards”.  The  National  Steering  Group  oversees  the  implementation  of  the 
Framework for Major Emergency Management. 

 Eight major emergency management regions were established. They are responsible for annual planning and preparing for 

major emergencies based on identified risks.149

IRELAND 
A parliamentary republic 
consisting of 26 counties.  The 
legal system is based on the 
Constitution of 1937, acts 
adopted by the Parliament, 
delegated legislation, and – as 

146 Climate-adapt  (n.d.). Country profile – Finland.
147 International Federation of the Red Cross (n.d.). Finland.
148 Climate-adapt  (n.d.). Country profile – Finland
149 Irish Government (2021). A framework for major emergency management; Irish Red Cross (n.d.). A Study for Strengthening the Legal and policy Framework for International 
Disaster Response in Ireland.

48 

a common law system – 
courts’ judgments. 

CCA measures have a national focus. The most recent Climate Action Plan was published in December 2022 and includes climate 
adaptation issues, setting out measures for 2023 aimed at building resilience. 

A
C
C

S
D
N
U
F

M
R
D

A
C
C

 The NAP is mainly included in the Climate Action and Low  Carbon Development Act of 2015 (amended in 2021). The 
National  Adaptation  Framework  is  adopted  and  reviewed at  least  every five  years  (the last  review  in  2022).  It  identifies 
priority sectors for which the Government adopts sectoral adaptation plans. 

 Twelve  key  Sectoral  Adaptation  Plans  and  thirty-one  local  authority  climate  adaptation  plans  were  published  in  2019. 
Consistency in adaptation planning is ensured by the National Adaptation Steering Committee and chaired by the Department 
of the Environment, Climate and Communications.

 Since 2021, local adaptation strategies have been replaced by Local Authority Climate Action Plans that local authorities are 
now  required  to  adopt  every  five  years.   Four  Climate  Regional  Offices  were  established  in  2018  to  assist  local 
governments.150

 No dedicated budget for natural disaster prevention.  
 A well-developed system with support for non-governmental humanitarian organisations. In the case of emergency response, 
the Framework anticipates unbudgeted costs; the principal response agency should record costs and have control mechanisms 
in place; the local economic actors may request support from principal support agencies.  

A well-developed system for DRM and civil protection - an integrated system of public and private entities with central and territorial 
structures constantly working to ensure coordination and consistent operativity.151

 The Civil Protection Code152 dedicated to civil protection related to natural disasters was introduced in 2018. The role of citizens 

and non-governmental organisations is recognised, facilitating their involvement in legal and economic terms. 

 The Code stipulates that the authorities should conduct dynamic studies of possible risk scenarios and regulate activities for 

non-structural prevention.153

CCA activities are conducted at the national level by the Central Government, in particular the Ministry of Environment and Energy 
Security.  

 The NAS was adopted in 2015, while NAP is under development; 
 All  regions  and  several  local  authorities  participate  in  the  activities  of  the  Ministry  of  the  Environment  to  strengthen 

administrative capacity in adaptation within the CReIAMO PA Project; 

 Several regions and municipalities have adopted their own adaptation strategies and plans. Some municipalities also adopted 

local adaptation plans. 154

ITALY 
A unitary state (a democratic 
Republic with a bicameral 
parliamentary system) with 
220 regions (15 ordinary 
regions, 5 special-status 
regions), 2 self-governing 
provinces (Bolzano/Bozen and 
Trento), 110 provinces, 15 
metropolitan areas and 7960 
municipalities

150 Climate Adapt (n.d.). Information on national adaptation actions reported under the Governance Regulation – Ireland; Irish Government (2022). Review of the National 
Adaptation Framework. 
151 International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (2022). Disaster recovery and reconstruction in Italy: a legal and policy survey.  
152 Legislative Decree No. 1 of 2 January 2018: Civil Protection Code, (Codice della protezione civile (GU n. 17 del 22-1-2018)).   
153 International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (2022). Disaster recovery and reconstruction in Italy: a legal and policy survey, p. 10. 
154 Climate Adapt (n.d.). (n.d.). Country profile – Italy.

49 

 Italy launched a funding programme in 2021 specifically for urban adaptation, allocating approximately EUR 80 million for 
green, blue, and grey measures. By December 2022, 80 municipalities were eligible for funding and started interventions. 155
 Furthermore, since 2020, deposits other than those from the National Emergency Fund can be authorised through ordinances, 
including contributions from regional and local governments, private donations, other administrations, and the EU Solidarity 
Fund.156

 The  Italian  Council  of  Ministers  has  the  authority  to  authorise  specific  support  to  assist  private  entities  (individuals  and 
companies) affected by an event. This assistance is limited to resources dedicated to this purpose in applicable legislation and 
takes into account compensation from insurance companies.157

The framework for national disaster management158 was set up in the Civil Protection and Disaster Management Law in 2016 (the 
“Civil Protection Law”). The prime minister ensures the functioning of the system and implementation of tasks, whereas the state fire 
and rescue service is responsible for the operation of the system and civil emergency planning. 

 The competent ministers are required to perform risk assessment as a basis for the preventive measures and civil protection 
plans  for  relevant  natural  hazards.  The  state  fire  and  rescue  service  prepares  guidance  on  conducting  the  assessment  for 
natural disasters and the “Potential Hazard Catalogue” which is updated whenever necessary. 

 The Civil Protection Law assigns tasks and rights to local councils that cover the organisation of natural disaster response 
and  preparedness. Municipalities must draw up their  own civil protection plans encompassing identified risks, scenarios, 
matrices, mapping, prevention, preparedness, response, and recovery measures.

The regional  level  has not been  traditionally relevant in climate  adaptation.159 Many measures related to CCA  have recently been 
taken.160

 National legislation on GHG inventory, projections and adaptation to climate change reporting systems was adopted in 2022. 
The Ministry of Climate and Energy released a draft of the Climate Law, which will also include a section on adaptation to 
climate change.161

 The  main policy planning  document  that  includes  climate  change  issues  is  The  Latvian National  Plan  for  Adaptation  to 

S
D
N
U
F

M
R
D

A
C
C

Climate Change until 2030.162

 Municipalities and regions play crucial roles in implementing the NAP and are tasked with elaborating information related 

to adaptation issues as outlined in mid-term development programs.163

LATVIA 
A parliamentary republic with 
9 republic cities and 110 
districts. 

155 Ibidem. 
156 International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (2022). op.cit.  
157 Ibidem. 
158 European Civil Protection and Humanitarian Aid Operations (n.d.). The national disaster management system –Latvia.
159 CASCADE (2019). The role of local governments in adapting to climate. Overview of regulatory requirements and support mechanisms in the Baltic Sea Region.
160 Climate Adapt (n.d.) Country profiles - Latvia. 
161 Valsts kancelaja (2023). Klimata likums (Climate law). 
162 Latvian Ministry of Environmental Protection and Regional Development (2019). Latvian National Plan for Adaptation to Climate Change until 2030; CASCADE (2019). 
The role of local governments in adapting to climate. Overview of regulatory requirements and support mechanisms in the Baltic Sea Region. 
163 European Civil Protection and Humanitarian Aid Operations (n.d.). The national disaster management system –Latvia. 

50 

 Civil Protection Law stipulates that the state budget should dedicate resources for civil protection tasks within their field of 

activity, similarly to the local authorities for their respective tasks. 

 According to the NAP, outlined measures are to be funded primarily through allocated State budget funds, supplemented by 
financial support from the EU and other sources, as well as private capital where applicable. The allocation of additional 
State budget funds to responsible authorities is evaluated as the plan progresses.164 The CCA Plan does not determine the 
specific funding for the priority measures identified therein. They are supposed to be financed by the state, local government 
and external funding.165

Mostly  regulated  in  the  Law  on  Civil  Protection.  The  responsibility  lies  with  the  state  and  municipalities  within  their  sphere  of 
competence. The national emergency system is coordinated by the Minister of Interior. The national risk assessment is coordinated 
by the Fire and Rescue Department; it was last updated in 2021.

 The emergency commission coordinates, among others, the prevention and management of emergencies. 
 The  risk  assessments  and  emergency  management  plans  are  conducted  on  all  levels  of  governance  by  ministries,  state 

institutions and directors of the municipal administration, economic entities and other agencies.166

Mostly governed at the national level. 

 The National Climate Change Management Policy Strategy was adopted in 2012, and its targets were updated in 2021, while 
the  National  Energy  and  Climate  Action Plan  (NECP) was  adopted in 2019. The  principal aim  is to  strengthen adaptive 
capacity, increase resilience and reduce the vulnerability to the effects of climate change.

 The NAP is under development.
 No sectoral adaptation plans.
 The planning and implementation of the adaptation policies is conducted by ministries, municipalities and other institutions 

within their competencies.

 The municipalities of Panevezys district and Klaipeda city developed adaptation action plans for the improvement of local 

adaptive capacity and infrastructure resilience.167

The main sources of funding for climate change adaptation measures planned in the NECP are the European Regional Development 
and Cohesion Funds, electricity and heat tariffs, Climate Change programme, Waste Management Programme as well as State and 
municipal budgets. 168

S
D
N
U
F

M
R
D

A
C
C

S
D
N
U
F

LITHUANIA 
A parliamentary republic 
divided into 60 municipalities 
with directly elected mayors 

164 Latvian Ministry of Environmental Protection and Regional Development (2019) Latvian National Plan for Adaptation to Climate Change until 2030.   
165 CASCADE, The role of local governments in adapting to climate. Overview of regulatory requirements and support mechanisms in the Baltic Sea Region. 
166 Law on Civil protection of 15 December 1998, No VIII-971 (with amendments), Article 6 sec. 1, Articles 10, 2 sec. 7, 11, 13 sec. 4(7), 14 sec. 4, 16 sec. 2.; Climate Adapt 
(n.d.). Country profiles – Lithuania.
167 Climate-adapt (n.d.). Country profiles – Lithuania.
168 Ibidem. 

51 

THE NETHERLANDS 
A parliamentary 
constitutional monarchy 
divided into 12 provinces and 
388 municipalities as well as 
22 water districts. Its 6 
overseas countries and 
territories in the Caribbean 
are not part of the EU

Decentralised, governed by the Safety Regions Act of 2010169 system.



The central government intervenes only when necessary. The National Handbook on Decision-Making in Crisis Situations 
constitutes the policy framework for planning and preparation. The Minister of Justice and Security coordinates the measures 
within the area of DRM, and competent ministries organise the crisis management within their area of competence.

 National Risk Assessment is coordinated by the National Network of Safety and Security Analysts.
 There are 25 decentralised safety regions linking local civil protection organizations and national institutions. Regional risk 

assessments are conducted in each safety region.170

There is a long history of CCA measures. The policy is mainly based on the NAS of 2016171 and the Dutch Delta Programme of 2024 
that is focused on floods, climate-proof housing and freshwater access.172 Additional rules are included in the National Strategy on 
Spatial Planning and the Environment.173

 Implementation of the NAS is accelerated by the National Climate Adaptation Implementation Programme (2023).174


The NAS is governed by a board of directors from the relevant ministries who cooperate with national, regional and local 
governments, NGOs, knowledge institutes and the private sector. 175

 Local adaptation strategies have been developed in some municipalities, such as Rotterdam (the Rotterdam Climate Initiative, 
Resilient Rotterdam Strategy 2022-2027) and Amsterdam (Amsterdam Rainproof). About half of the municipalities have 
published climate adaptation plans.176



Individual ministries are responsible for financing disaster risk management within their area of competence. 177

 The governmental Delta Fund finances measures included in the Delta Programme with an additional contribution of other 
partners. Until 2050, the Fund is expected to have EUR 27.4 billion available, and the estimated needs are EUR 30.8 billion.178

M
R
D

A
C
C

S
D
N
U
F

169 Wet veiligheidsregio's (Dutch Safety Regions Act).
170 European Civil Protection and Humanitarian Aid Operations (n.d.). The national disaster management system – the Netherlands.
171 Kennisportaal Klimaatadaptatie (n.d). Nationale klimaatadaptatiestrategie (NAS).
172 Nationaal Deltaprogramma  2024 – website.
173 Climate-adapt (n.d.). Country profiles – the Netherlands.
174 Rijksoverheid (2023). Nationaal Uitvoeringsprogramma Klimaatadaptatie Slimmer, intensiever, voor en door iedereen.
175 Climate-adapt (n.d.). Country profiles – the Netherlands. 
176 Ibidem. 
177 European Civil Protection and Humanitarian Aid Operations (n.d.) The national disaster management system  – the Netherlands. 
178 Nationaal Deltaprogramma  2024 – website.

52 

POLAND 
A parliamentary republic -
unitary State with local 
government  organised at 
three tiers: 16 voivodships, or 
regions, 314 counties, and 
2478 municipalities 

DRM is based on the Act on Crisis Management.179 The Council of Ministers leads the measures in DRM; in urgent situations the 
Minister of Interior and Administration takes the lead. The leading civil protection authority is the National Headquarters of the State 
Fire Service.  

 Risk assessment and planning activities are led by the Government Centre for Security subordinate to the Prime Minister. 
The National Crisis Management Plan180 contains a civil planning process at the central and regional levels at the stage of 
prevention and preparedness as well as the stage of response and recovery. 

 Crisis  management  centres  are  active  at  each  governance  level.  The  voivodes  (representatives  of  the  government  in  the 
provinces) are responsible for crisis management at the regional level, including monitoring and planning. At the lower levels, 
the county and municipal authorities are respectively responsible.181

CCA activities are coordinated by the Ministry of Climate and Environment, supported by the Institute of Meteorology and Water 
Management, the Institute of Environmental Protection, and the Institute for Ecology of Industrial Areas. 



The NAS  was adopted in 2013 and includes goals for 2020 with a 2030 perspective.182 The NAS constitutes the basis for the 
climate adaptation measures, supported by the National Environmental Policy 2030, National Urban Policy, and Strategy for 
Responsible Development by 2020 (with a 2030 perspective).

 Adaptation plans for 44 major Polish cities have been developed within the project “Development of Urban Adaptation Plans 

for Cities with more than 100,000 inhabitants in Poland”.183

 The Act on Crisis Management stipulates that DRM measures based on the act should be financed by the state, region, county 

and/or municipal budget.

 Adaptation  and  disaster-related  risk  prevention  funding  comes  from  the  European  Funds  for  Infrastructure,  Climate  and 
Environment 2021-2027 programme (EUR 1.4 billion), the European Funds for Eastern Poland 2021-2027 programme (EUR 
255 million) and regional operational programmes (approx. EUR 740 million). 

 At the  state level, the National  Fund  for Environmental Protection and Water Management finances adaptation measures 
through the “adaptation to climate change” priority programme (PLN 1.15 billion, approx. EUR 270 million). The regional 
funds for Environmental Protection and Water Management also provide funding.

 Additional funding comes from the World Bank, International Monetary Fund (IMF), EEA and Norway Grants as well as 

M
R
D

A
C
C

S
D
N
U
F

private entities.

179 Ustawa z 26 kwietnia 2007 r. o zarządzaniu kryzysowym.  
180 Government of the Republic of Poland (n.d.). Krajowy Plan Zarządzania Kryzysowego.
181 European  Civil  Protection  and  Humanitarian  Aid  Operations  (n.d.)  The  national  disaster  management  system  –  Poland;  Ustawa  z  26  kwietnia  2007  r.  o  zarządzaniu 
kryzysowym.
182 Ministerstwo Środowiska (2013). Strategiczny plan adaptacji dla sektorów i obszarów wrażliwych na zmiany klimatu do roku 2020 z perspektywą do roku 2030.
183 Climate-adapt (n.d.). Country profiles – Poland.

53 

PORTUGAL 
A regionalised state with three 
levels of governance: central, 
regional (the Autonomous 
Regions Azores and Madeira) 
and local - 308 municipalities 
and 3,091 civil parishes 

Overseen by the  Ministry of Home  Affairs  and  the  Portuguese National Authority  for Emergency and Civil Protection (ANEPC) 
supported by the National Civil Protection Commission. 

 The Basic Law on Civil Protection184 focuses on creating a more resilient society, in particular preventing and mitigating 

collective risks. 

 National Risk Assessment is conducted by ANEPC, while at the local level municipalities also perform risk assessments 

which provide a basis for appropriate plans and programmes to be developed. 185

The Central Government is responsible for the country's general CCA policy, while the Autonomous Regions have their organic laws. 
 The National Energy and Climate Plan for 2021-2030 186 is the main plan addressing both energy and climate and promotes 

adaptation to climate change in sectoral policies, plans and programmes. 

 The main strategic documents on adaptation at the national level are the National Climate Change Adaptation Strategy187
(NAS), the Action Programme for Climate Change Adaptation188 and Portuguese Climate Law,189 adopted respectively in 
2015, 2019 and 2021. The NAS promotes the integration of adaptation in sectoral policies and territorial programs and plans 
for the Regional governments. The association of Portuguese municipalities participates in the NAS governance structure. 

 The  Autonomous  Region  of  Madeira  approved  the  Madeira  Climate  Change  Adaptation  Strategy 190  in  2015.  The 
Autonomous Region of the  Azores proceeded with the Regional Programme  for Climate Change,191 which encompasses 
mitigation and adaptation.

 There is no dedicated budget or fund for DRM.192
 One of the objectives of the NAP is to mobilise financing instruments and financing exercises to guide the implementation 
of more structural actions that contribute to reducing the vulnerability of the territory and its economy to climate change by 
minimising related impacts.193 The Portuguese Climate Law introduced requirements for the creation of a State Budget for 
Climate Action, that would consolidate allocations for climate policy.194

M
R
D

A
C
C

S
D
N
U
F

184 Lei de Bases da Protecção Civil (2006).  
185 European Civil Protection and Humanitarian Aid Operations (n.d.), The national disaster management system – Portugal.
186 EC (2020). National Energy and Climate Plan 2021-2030. 
187 Decreto do Presidente da República n.º 87/2015. 
188 Resolução do Conselho de Ministros n.º 130/2019.
189 Assembleia Da República Lei n.º 98/2021 de 31 de dezembro .
190 CCIAM, CE3C, FCUL (n.d.) Estrategia CLIMA – Madeira.
191 EC (n.d.) Regional Program for Climate Change in Azores.
192 International Federation of Red Cross (n.d.). 
193 Ambiente (2021). National climate change adaptation planning and strategies.  
194 Climate Adapt (n.d.). Country profiles -Portugal. 

54 

ROMANIA 
Semi-presidential republic 
divided into 42 departments 
including the capital, 
Bucharest, 103 larger cities, 
217 towns and 2 861 rural 
municipalities

M
R
D

A
C
C

S
D
N
U
F

Legislative ground for DRM are included in the Civil Protection Law  and supporting acts. The inter-ministerial National Committee 
for Special Emergency Situations is led by the Minister of Internal Affairs responsible  for emergency management. National risk 
assessment constitutes the basis for the National Strategy for Disaster Risk Reduction. 

 All institutions are obliged to prepare emergency management plans. Prevention activities are conducted in cooperation with 

the relevant experts from the ministries or agencies.

 County  inspectorates  for  emergency  situations  provide  guidance  and  control  prevention  measures.  The  inspectorates  are 
under the command of the General Inspectorate for Emergency Situations. The National Strategy promotes sectoral and local 
disaster risk reduction strategies and plans that should take into account not only disaster risk management, but also climate 
change adaptation actions. 195

Mainly decided on the national level with the Ministry of Environment, Water and Forests as the central authority. It is supported by 
the inter-ministerial committee on climate change launched in 2022.

 CCA measures are governed by the National Strategy for Sustainable Development 2030 with an action plan adopted in 2022 
as well as NAS in the form of National Climate Change and Low Carbon Green Growth Strategy and its action plan for the 
period 2016-2020. 

 At the county level, the Local Environmental Protection Agencies are based in 41 offices throughout Romania responsible 

for the implementation of the appropriate policies and laws.

 Some  municipalities  such  as  Mediaș  and  Sibiu  have  adopted  strategies  and  plans  for  mitigating  and  adapting  to  climate 

change. 196

 The  World  Bank  supports  the  Romanian  Government  under  the  Strengthening  Disaster  Risk  Management  in  Romania 

initiative (EUR 142 million in 2023-2027).197

 DRM financing is mostly reactive. Considerable international resources such as the EU and World Bank funds (as above) 
are  used  to  improve  risk  management  and  risk  reduction.  State  and  local  budgets  are  also  used  to  cover  the  preventive 
measures. 

 CCA measures are mostly financed from the EU funds. The dedicated budget for the National Climate Adaptation Strategy 

is managed by the Ministry of the Environment. 

Mandatory housing insurance was  introduced for rural and urban houses’ private owners. A  public-private partnership (PPP) was 
used.

195 European Civil Protection and Humanitarian Aid Operations (n.d.). The national disaster management system – Romania; Climate Adapt (n.d.). Country profiles – Romania
196 Climate Adapt (n.d.). Country profiles – Romania.
197 The World Bank (2023). Strengthening Disaster Risk Management in Romania: Building Modern, Inclusive, Near-Zero Energy, and Disaster-Resilient Fire Stations.

55 

SLOVAKIA 
A parliamentary democratic 
republic divided 8 self-
governing regions, 79 
administrative districts and 2 
926 municipalities 

SLOVENIA 
A parliamentary democratic 
republic divided into 212 
municipalities (with no 
administrative regions) 

M
R
D

DRM is divided geographically, with each level of public administration playing its part: 

 Key legislation is the Act on Civil Protection of Population198. Security Strategy199 approved in 2022 aims to strengthen the 

effective management of security risks, leading to greater state resilence. 

 The Ministry of the Interior manages and develops annual plans in the field of civil protection and determines the main aims 
and activities of the state administration authorities and self-government authorities (municipalities – cities/towns, villages). 

 Emergency response is primarily the responsibility of local authorities. 200

A The NAS201 was updated in 2018, and the NAP202 was adopted in 2021. As of 2024, the Ministry of Environment is working on a law 
on climate change  and low-carbon  transformation, that  will oblige municipalities with  more  than 2,000 inhabitants to develop an 
C
C
adaptation strategy.

S
D
N
U
F

M
R
D

The main sources of financing for adaptation activities include integrating them into sectoral policies, pooling funds from multiple 
sources (such as EU budgets and public resources), and leveraging existing subsidy programmes at regional and local levels.203

Organised as an integrated system with a bottom-up approach and subsidiary principle. The responsibilities lie with the government, 
local communities, commercial companies, and citizens: 

 DRM is regulated by the Act on Protection against Natural and Other Disasters204 and other sector-specific acts. In 2023, a 

Flood Risk Management Plan was introduced for the most flood-prone basins in Slovenia;205

 The  national  authority  responsible  for  disaster  management  is  the  Administration  of  the  Republic  of  Slovenia  for  Civil 

Protection and Disaster Relief within the Ministry of Defence.206

198 National Council of the Slovak Republic (1994). The Act No. 42/1994 of January 27, 1994 on Civil Protection of the Population.  
199 Ministry of Foreign and European Affairs (2021). Security Strategy of Slovak Republic.  
200 European Civil Protection and Humanitarian Aid Operations (n.d.). The national disaster management system – Slovakia.
201 Ministry of Environment of the Slovak Republic (2018). Stratégia Adaptácie Slovenskej Republiky Na Zmenu Klímy.
202 Ministry of Environment of the Slovak Republic (2021). Akčný plán pre implementáciu Stratégie adaptácie SR na zmenu klímy.
203 Ministry of Environment of the Slovak Republic (2018). Stratégia Adaptácie Slovenskej Republiky Na Zmenu Klímy.
204 Republic of Slovenia (1994). Zakon o varstvu pred naravnimi in drugimi nesrečami (ZVNDN). 
205 Republic of Slovenia (n.d.) Flood risk reduction plan.  
206 European Civil Protection and Humanitarian Aid Operations (n.d.). The national disaster management system – Slovenia.

56 

The strategic Framework For Climate Change Adaptation (NAS), prepared by the Ministry of Environment and Spatial Planning and 
approved in 2016, includes general objectives and horizontal guidelines for all sectors. 

 Due  to insufficient implementation of the NAS, Slovenia prepared a  strategic  integrated LIFE project  proposal  “SLOVE 

LIFE4ADAPT”. 

 Municipalities are the primary local government bodies, tasked with roles in spatial planning, housing, water management, 
economic development, and environmental protection. While there is no legal obligation for adaptation plans, climate change 
considerations are integrated into municipal spatial plans through Strategic Environmental Assessments.207

 The funding for adaptation measures comes from various sources, including EU funds (structural funds, Horizon 2020, and 
LIFE programmes), national and local community budgets, as well as international financial institutions such as the European 
Investment Bank and the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development.  

 Efforts are made to mobilise private sector investments, such as those from insurance companies, to support CCA measures. 
 Strengthening prevention to increase flood safety (connected to the Flood Risk Management Plan) has been supported in 

loans under the Recovery and Resilience Facility.

A
C
C

S
D
N
U
F

Source: own elaboration, CASE based on desk research. The general information about Member States is based on CoR – Division of Powers – website

207 Republic of Slovenia (2016). Strategic Framework for Climate Change Adaptation; EC (2023). Preliminary assessment of Slovenia's second payment request.

57 

Table 7. The legislative and financial framework for DRM and CCA in EU-27: countries with decentralised governance structures 
DECENTRALISED GOVERNANCE 

AUSTRIA 
A federal parliamentary 
republic with 9 federal states, 
95 districts (including 15 
cities) and 2 098 
municipalities

Conducted at all levels of governance. At the national level coordinated by federal ministries led by the Ministry of the Interior in 
cooperation with provinces and municipalities. 208
 No  national  rules  for  emergency  response,  which  is  regulated  at  province  level  by  disaster  relief  acts.  There  is  a  strategic 

framework for national security and legislation for specific areas susceptible to natural hazards (e.g. water, forestry).

 Risk assessments are conducted on all levels of governance. There is close cooperation between relevant ministers and provinces, 

districts and municipalities when planning and implementing risk management plans. 

 The provinces’ legislation determines the precautionary measures. Appropriate plans are required at all levels. 
 At the local level, citizens are also involved in planning activities and the preparation of hazard maps and risk management plans.
Coordinated by the Federal Ministry for Climate Action with the support of the Environment Agency Austria. Climate policies are 
coordinated  by  the  National  Climate  Committee.  Cooperation  between  the  provinces  is  ensured  by  the  Conference  of  Provincial 
Environmental Ministers as well as Climate Ministers. 
 The NAS was adopted by the Council of Ministers and endorsed by the Provincial Governors’ Conference; its last revision was 

in 2017. The next revision was planned for autumn 2023, but it has not been published yet. 

 The NAP is a part of and revised with the NAS. Each measure is described with relation to existing instruments, possible resource 

M
R
D

A
C
C

needs and the potential of conflict, and a comprehensive system is put together. 

 Provincial adaptation strategies have been adopted in Upper Austria, Styria, Vorarlberg and Salzburg. Other forms of climate 

strategies and adaptation measures have appeared in Tyrol, Lower Austria, Carinthia, Vienna and Burgenland. 209

S Preventative measures against natural hazards are financed from the national funds, to the tune of EUR 400 million per year. The costs 
D
N
U
F

of climate adaptation are covered by available budgets through appropriate prioritisation and shifting. 
The Climate and Energy Fund was established in 2007 to finance the implementation of climate strategy and policies. It has ann annual 
budget of up to EUR 150 million.210

208 European  Civil  Protection  and  Humanitarian  Aid  Operations  (n.d.).  The  national  disaster  management  system  ––  Austria;  Federal  Minister  for  the  Interior (n.d.),  Civil 
Protection in Austria; Austrian Government (2022). Midterm Review of the Implementation of the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030. 
209 Climate-adapt (n.d.). Country profiles – Austria. 
210 European Civil Protection and Humanitarian Aid Operations (n.d.),.The national disaster management system – Austria; Climate Adapt (n.d.). Country profiles – Austria; 
Austrian Government  (2022). Midterm  Review of the Implementation of the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk  Reduction 2015-2030; Federal Ministry: Climate Action, 
Environment, Energy, Mobility, Innovation and Technology, Climate and Energy Fund.

58 

BELGIUM
A complex federal state   
structured around three 
linguistic communities and 
three regions, each with its 
own governing bodies 
responsible for both executive 
and legislative functions, 10 
provinces and 581 
municipalities. Regional 
authorities are responsible for 
legislation and 
implementation of policy on 
the environment, as well as 
environmental planning  

M
R
D

A
C
C

DRM  is  implemented  at  all  levels.  The  Ministry  of  Home  Affairs,  in  particular  the  National  Crisis  Centre  is  responsible  for 
coordinating the emergency planning and crisis management policy211. 

 The Belgian National Risk Assessment for 2018-2023 is the latest. A departmental crisis cell for emergency preparedness at 
Federal  government  services  (transport,  energy)  prepares  measures  to  manage  emergencies  and  actions  for  continuity  of 
service and business. 

 The actions and plans are based, among others, on the risk assessment. Generic and risk-specific emergency plans have been 
drawn up.212 On federal and regional levels, legislative and procedural actions are taken to prevent shortages or the disruption 
of critical infrastructure.  

Mainstreamed at different levels213: 

 Federal  and  regional  (Flanders,  Wallonia  and  Brussels)  governments  prepared  an  adaptation  strategy  upon  the  National 
Climate Committee’s instructions. The Belgian National Adaptation Plan is complementary to the regional and federal plans. 
 Three RAPs: Flemish Plan on Climate Change and Adaptation214, Brussels Regional Air Climate Energy Plan, Towards a 
Climate change resilient society by 2050 and Air-Climate-Energy plan 2016-2022 (Wallonia).215 Vertical mechanisms have 
been adopted between the regions and the provincial and local levels. 

 The  majority  of  responsibilities  are  under  the  jurisdiction  of  regional  governments,  with  most  adaptation  measures 
implemented at the regional and local levels. Adaptation is mainstreamed at the local level with the municipalities that have 
signed the Covenant of Mayors (for example Flemish Local Energy and Climate Pact). Some provincial and local government 
adaptation plans are under development (province of Antwerp216 and the city of Gent217).

S Funding within existing governmental budgets. Sectoral adaptation actions have to be financed by the relevant policy departments. 
D
Regional  governments  allocate  a  part  of  their  budget  to  implementing  adaptation  measures,  including  (for  example)  impact 
N
assessments and the development of adaptation support tools to help local authorities.218
U
F

211 European Civil Protection and Humanitarian Aid Operations (n.d.). The national disaster management system – system – Belgium; National Crisis Centre (n.d.), Belgian Risk 
Assessment. 
212 The national emergency plan was adopted by the Royal Decree of 31 January 2003.  
213 National Climate Commission (2010). Belgian National Climate Change Adaptation Strategy; National Climate Commission  (2016).  Belgian National Adaptation Plan 
2017-2020. 
214 Vlaamse overheid (2023). Vlaams Klimaatadaptatieplan – Vlaanderen wapenen tegen de klimaatverandering.
215 AwAC (n.d.). Agence wallonne de l’Air & du Climat - Website. 
216 Provincie Antwerpen (2016). Provinciaal Klimaatadaptatieplan
217 Stad Gent (n.d.). Groen & milieu – Klimaat.
218 EC (2018). Adaptation preparedness scoreboard – Country fiche for Belgium.   

59 

FRANCE 
A parliamentary democracy – 
unitary State organised in 18 
regions (incl. 5 overseas) with 
their own authorities and 
elected assemblies on a 
decentralised basis. Two 
lower levels of governance – 
departments and 
municipalities 

Focused  on  prevention  of  and  preparedness  for  natural  disasters,  next  to  crisis  management  and  reconstruction.  The  Directorate-
General for Civil Protection and Crisis Management is responsible for anticipating and monitoring crises in cooperation with local 
prefects.  

 On a national level, in terms of prevention, France has adopted regulations and norms within the area of reconstruction codes, 
risk prevention and flood prevention action programmes. France has invested in tools and methodologies for risk assessment; 
 Each level of governance has responsibilities in terms of the adoption of appropriate policies for risk prevention. The natural 

risk prevention plans have to be annexed to the local urban plan. 219

Conducted on all levels of governance: 

 The last NAP was adopted in 2017.220 The NAS has been applicable since 2006. Both are based on broad consultations among 

stakeholders. 

 Steering  and  monitoring  of  the  NAP  is  entrusted  to  the  specialised  commission  of  the  National  Council  for  Ecological 

Transition. 

 The territorial organisation of the Republic law of 2015 requires each metropolitan region, except for Ile-de-France, to adopt 
a regional strategy for planning, sustainable development and territorial equality. Natural risk prevention plans also contribute 
to climate change adaptation.

 Regional research and expertise networks have also been created. They aim to anticipate climate change in their territories 

and give scientific grounds for decisions taken by the authorities. 221

Various funding dedicated to natural disaster prevention and climate adaptation: 

 Dedicated “Barnier Funds” - a prevention fund for major natural hazards to cover emergency housing, temporary rehousing 

and relocations, prevention measures as well as research activities; 

 The NAP predicted EUR 8.7 billion budget for 2018-2023, the majority of which is spent on international action on climate 
change. In the years 2018-2021, EUR 346 million was spent on the prevention and management of natural risks and disasters.
222

M
R
D

A
C
C

S
D
N
U
F

219 European Civil Protection and Humanitarian Aid Operations (n.d.). The national disaster management system– France.  French Government (2023). Examen à mi-parcours 
de la mise en œuvre du Cadre de Sendai pour la réduction des risques de catastrophe 2015 – 2030; Climate Adapt, Country profile – France. 
220 Ministère de la transition écologique et solidaire (2017.) Le plan national d’adaptation au changement climatique (PNACC 2),  
221 Climate Adapt, Country profile – France; French Government (2023). Examen à mi-parcours de la mise en œuvre du Cadre de Sendai pour la réduction des risques de 
catastrophe 2015 – 2030. 
222 Ibidem.

60 

GERMANY 
A federal state - 16  states 
with Berlin, Hamburg, and 
Bremen categorised as city-
states, i.e. cities that 
simultaneously have federal 
state status, 401 counties  and 
11,054 municipalities 

Based on close cooperation between the national and federal  states, with the main responsibility borne by the federal states: 

 The Federal Civil Protection and Disaster Relief Act is a key legislation obliging the Federation to conduct a national risk 
assessment.  A  risk-based  approach  constitutes  the  grounds  for  the  respective  action  plans.  The  Federal  Ministry  of  the 
Interior, Building and Community is the federal authority for civil protection supervising national civil protection agencies: 
the  Federal  Office  of  Civil  Protection  and  Disaster  Assistance  and  the  Federal  Agency  for  Technical  Relief.  Under  the 
German  Constitution,  the  federal  states  are  responsible  for  disaster  management  in  times  of  peace.  Appropriate  disaster 
management laws are adopted at this level.

 The integrated emergency response system signifies that the Federation draws on federal state resources for certain tasks in 
civil protection. On the other hand, the Federation provides disaster assistance upon request as well as additional equipment, 
supplies and training. 223

In 2023, the government adopted the draft climate adaptation law - a framework intended to enable adaptation measures to be taken 
forward in a more coordinated manner on all administrative levels.224

 As of 2024, the NAS provides the basis for climate adaptation policy. The German government adopted the German Strategy 
for Adaptation to Climate Change225 in 2008. The strategy facilitates a cross-sectoral approach by the federal government 
and regular monitoring of the impacts of adaptation measures. The third Adaptation Action Plan was published in 2020.226
 The majority of federal states expanded and consolidated their legal frameworks, either in the form of climate legislation or 
by  including  additional provisions  on  climate  change  adaptation  in  other  specialised  legislation.  Adaptation  strategies  or 
plans have been adopted/updated by almost all of the states. An increasing number of networks exist or are being established, 
e.g. with business or civil society representatives.227

 Municipalities are key players in the development of adaptation measures. The climate adaptation law will foster climate 

adaptation at the local level through comprehensive adaptation concepts and action plans based on risk analyses. 228

 Some  states  use  funding  programs  available  at  both  the  federal  and  EU  levels  (such  as the  Urban  Development  Support 
Programme and the Federal Ministry’s for the Environment, Nature Conservation, Nuclear Safety and Consumer Protection 
programme) to support measures for adapting to climate change. 

 Some  states  complement  these  programs  with  their unique  funding  schemes.  To  better assist  regions  and  municipalities, 

improved coordination among existing funding programs at the EU, federal, and state levels is necessary. 229

M
R
D

A
C
C

S
D
N
U
F

223 European Civil Protection and Humanitarian Aid Operations (n.d.).The national disaster management system – Germany.
224 BMUV (2023). Gesetzentwurf eines Bundes-Klimaanpassungsgesetzes. 
225 BMUV (2023). German Strategy for Adaptation to Climate Change
226 Umwelt Bundesamt (2020). Adaptation Action Plan. 
227 Climate Adapt (n.d.). Information on national adaptation actions reported under the Governance Regulation – Germany. 
228 BMUV (2023). German government adopts first nationwide climate adaptation law.   
229 Government of Germany (2020). Second Progress Report on the German Strategy for Adaptation to Climate Change (DAS).

61 

GREECE 
A parliamentary republic with 
13 regions, 7 decentralised 
administrations and 325 
municipalities 

Measures are conducted at all levels of governance based on Greek Constitution of 1975 which provides for obligatory precautionary 
measures for the protection of the natural environment.230

 The National Civil Protection Plan “Xenokrates” 231 from 2003 is still applicable, although it has been partially replaced by the 
new Law on Civil Protection (2020)232 introducing National Crisis Management and Risk Management Mechanism, a network 
joining structures of civil protection to create a single national system as a vertical organisation that covers the whole disaster 
cycle. The General Secretariat for Civil Protection is now a prominent structure of this mechanism.233

 The planning of is implemented according to the national framework, with regard to hazard-specific plans at the local, regional 
and national levels234with the main focus on prevention and preparedness measures as well as response and recovery actions.235
The country has had a legal framework for CCA since 2016. Adaptation is included in the mandate of the Ministry for Climate Crisis 
and Civil Protection.236

 The  National  Climate  Law  from  2022  requires  mainstreaming  adaptation  across  sectoral  strategies  and  plans,  establishes  a 
National Adaptation Observatory and introduces national annual reporting requirements and defines roles, responsibilities and 
synergies between the mitigation and adaptation governance structures.

 The Greek NAS237 from 2016 is implemented through 13 Regional Adaptation Action Plans and sectoral policies. Regional 

M
R
D

A
C
C

Authorities are responsible for its development and implementation.238

230 C. Zacheilas, N. Papadakis, (2020). An ongoing process? Greek Legislation and Regulatory Framework in Civil Protection: A comparative analysis of pre and post the 
4662/2020 Law.
231 Greek  Government  (2003).  Ministerial  Decision  1299/2003  on  the  adoption  of  the  National  Civil  Protection  Plan  “Xenocrates”;  Greek  Government  (n.d.)  Ministerial 
Decision 3384/2006 on the addition to the National Civil Protection Plan “Xenokrates” of the Special Plan for Human Loss Management.
232 C. Zacheilas, N. Papadakis (2020). op. cit.  
233 The Presidential Decree 151/2004 on the organizational structure of the General Secretariat for Civil Protection (Government Gazette 107/A); European Civil Protection 
and Humanitarian Aid Operations, The national disaster management system – Greece. C. Zacheilas, N. Papadakis (2020). op. cit. . 
234 European Civil Protection and Humanitarian Aid Operations (n.d.).The national disaster management system– system – Greece,  
235 UNDRR (n.d.). Greece National Platform.
236 EC (2018). Adaptation preparedness scoreboard. Country fiche - Greece. 
237 Greek Ministry of Environment & Energy (2016). National Climate Change Adaptation Strategy.
238 National Climate Law 4936/2022 on the transition to climate neutrality and adaptation to climate change.  

62 

S
D
N
U
F

M
R
D

A
C
C

 There  is a  separate state budget for financing the operation of the  General Secretariat and the response  agencies (police, fire 
service, armed forces) and for local and regional governments. The authorities also awarded a special grant for civil protection to 
support  municipalities  in  their  fire  prevention  efforts.  For  the  period  2021-2027,  over  EUR  3  billion  is  allocated  for  DRM 
investments, sourced from various channels including ESIF-funded programs, the NRRP, EIB loans, and special development 
programs. In addition significant investments were made during 2014-2021, largely co-funded by EU programmes such as ESIF, 
LIFE, Horizon, and DG ECHO, alongside state-budget programs. 239

 CCA is funded through a combination of sources - including EIF for 2021-2027, Cap Strategic Plan, and EU programs such as 
LIFE and Horizon Europe. Greece's National Recovery and Resilience Plan ("Greece 2.0") and national funds like the Green 
Fund and the “Antonis Tritsis” programme also contribute adaptation initiatives.240

DRM is regulated at the national, regional and local levels.  

 The National Civil Protection Law241 introduces the National Civil Protection System and provides guidelines for subnational 
frameworks.242 The National Civil Protection Strategy was approved in the 2019243 and includes the analysis of the main 
threats and risks as well as strategies of action for their management.244 In addition to the general legislations and plans, also 
hazard-specific plans were adopted, for instance concerning floods. 

 Regional laws, such as the Valencian Civil Protection Law, have been enacted regulating civil protection related to natural 
disasters. The regional frameworks are usually structured similarly to the national framework, with specific solutions and 
approaches varying depending on the Autonomous Community.245

Mostly decided at the national level, although as part of their jurisdiction, the autonomous communities uphold strategic frameworks, 
plans, and/or programmes addressing CCA through various initiatives and actions.246

 The National Climate Change Adaptation Plan – the NAS is the basic planning instrument for promoting coordinated and 

coherent action to tackle the effects of climate change.  

 The NAS247 is a reference framework for the coordination of the public administrations to address the climate impacts across 
key  sectors and resources in the country, defining two basic  instruments - Work Programmes and sectoral  and territorial 
plans.  The  first  Work  Programme  (Spanish  NAP)248 for  the  period  2021-2025  is part of  the  strategic  energy  and  climate 
framework.

SPAIN 
A parliamentary monarchy 
with a decentralised model of 
governance. 17 Autonomous 
Communities with legislative 
autonomy. Each region has 
Statutes of Autonomy that 
define the Autonomous 
Community’s organisation 
and distribution of powers 2 
autonomous cities (Ceuta and 
Melilla), 50 provinces and 8 
131 municipalities. 

239 The World Bank (2021). Inputs and Recommendations for the Development of a Draft NDRM Plan for Greece.
240 Greek Ministry of Environment & Energy (2016). National Climate Change Adaptation Strategy. 
241 Law 17/2015. 
242 International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (2022). Disaster recovery in Spain: a legal and policy survey. 
243 Order PCI/488/2019. 
244 International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (2022). op.cit. 
245 Ibidem. 
246 Adaptecca (n.d.) Autonomous Communities - website. 
247 MITECO (2020). National Climate Change Adaptation Plan.  
248 MITECO (2021). Programa de trabajo 2021-2025. Plan Nacional de Adaptaction al Cambio Climatico. 

63 

S
D
N
U
F

M
R
D

A
C
C

 Given  the  regionalised  structure  of  Spain,  the  funds  allocated  from  the  State  Budget  are  aimed  to  finance  general  civil 
protection  services  at  the  national  level.  The  regional  budget  covers  civil  protection  and  emergency  management.249 An 
Emergency Prevention Fund was created under the National Civil Protection Law. The funds come from the State’s general 
budget but can only be used to support prevention measures such as risk and vulnerability assessments, risk mappings and 
awareness campaigns. There is no dedicated fund for disaster recovery. 

 Since  2015,  the  NAS  framework  has  provided  a  dedicated  budget  for  adaptation  projects.  The  Plan  to  Support  the 
Environment for Adapting to Climate Change is a tool to support the objectives of the NAP, providing financial resources 
for adaptation projects in biodiversity, water, coasts, adaptive restoration and agricultural soil management.250

 Sectoral ministries or departments have financed one-off assessments of climate impacts and adaptation options, as well as 

other activities on an ad hoc basis.251

The responsibility for DRM resides at national, regional, and local levels. Key legislation includes the Civil Protection Act252, the 
Ordinance on Emergency Preparedness and the Measures to be taken by Designated Authorities in the Event of Heightened Alert, and 
The Act on Municipal and County Council Measures Prior to and During Extraordinary Events in Peacetime and during Periods of 
Heightened Alert.253

 At a national level, the Swedish Civil Contingencies Agency has the operational mandate to organise, aid, and streamline the 
efforts  of  relevant  stakeholders  in  addressing  accidents,  crises,  and  emergencies,  both  within  the  country  and  on  an 
international scale/ 

 Municipalities have a responsibility to maintain services like water distribution, schools and rescue services during crises, 

while the county administrative board primarily has a regional coordinating role. 254

CCA is subject to different forms of regulation. The Ministry of the Environment and Energy is responsible for the Government’s 
overarching policy work concerning climate, including climate adaptation. Each ministry is responsible for climate adaptation within 
its respective area. Work on adaptation is divided among several government agencies.  

 The Swedish Government adopted a NAS in 2018. 
 Instead  of  the  NAP,  the  21  County  Administrative  Boards  have  developed  regional  adaptation  plans  and  (together  with 

national authorities) were assigned the development of action plans within their own areas of responsibility. 

 County  Administrative  Boards  and  municipalities  have  the  right  to  issue  local  regulations  and  are  tasked  to  coordinate 

adaptation regionally and ensure that the national targets are achieved. 255

SWEDEN 
A constitutional monarchy 
and parliamentary 
democracy. A unitary state 
divided into 20 counties and 
290 municipalities 

249 Ibidem. 
250 MITECO (2020). National Climate Change Adaptation Plan. 
251 Ibidem.  
252 MSB (n.d.) Lag (2003:778) om skydd mot olyckor.  
253 The Public Health Agency of Sweden  (n.d.). Emergency preparedness.
254 European Civil Protection and Humanitarian Aid Operations (n.d.). The national disaster management system – Sweden.
255 EC (2017). Adaptation preparedness scoreboard: Country fiche for Sweden; SMHI (2021).  National Strategy for Climate Change Adaptation. 

64 

S
D
N
U
F

 The budgets for risk management are integrated into public sector budgets. Moreover, a supplementary yearly allocation is 
designated  for  prevention  and  preparedness  efforts,  with  distribution  guided  by  national  assessments  of  risk  and 
capabilities.256

 While no specific budget has been earmarked for the NAS, funding is accessible for adaptation initiatives. The government 
has  allocated  a  budget  for  climate  adaptation,  climate  services,  capacity  building,  and  supporting  the  Swedish  National 
Knowledge Centre for Climate Change Adaptation, along with the climate adaptation portal. In addition, government funding 
is allocated to municipalities for disaster risk reduction and prevention measures.257

Source: own elaboration, CASE based on desk research. The general information about Member States is based on CoR – Division of Powers – website. 

256 European Civil Protection and Humanitarian Aid Operations (n.d.). The national disaster management system – Sweden.
257 EC (2017). Adaptation preparedness scoreboard: Country fiche for Sweden.

65 

4.2.  From response to preparedness – selected good practice 
examples from LRAs  

There is an evident need to enhance the resilience of the EU and its regions and 
cities  to  climate  change  and  natural  disasters.  As  climate-related  hazards 
intensify and their impacts become more pronounced, it is imperative for regions 
and cities across Europe to actively engage in implementing DRM that includes 
CCA.  However,  achieving  effective  disaster  resilience  requires  more  than  just 
reactive  measures;  it  demands  a  proactive,  anticipatory  cross-cutting  approach 
that integrates vulnerability criteria and resilience considerations into all aspects 
of public policy, regulation and investment at the local and regional levels.  

This part of the study provides an overview of various good practice initiatives 
from  European  regions,  showcasing  innovative  approaches  to  DRM  and  CCA, 
and  highlighting  the  importance  of  fostering  collaboration,  capacity  building, 
policy  integration,  multi-sectoral  approaches,  data-driven  decision-making  and 
participatory processes. By following a “resilience-by-design” paradigm, Europe 
can  build  more  adaptive  and  resilient  communities  that  are  better  equipped  to 
withstand and recover from the impacts of climate change.  

Fiche 1. Wallonia, Belgium 

Source: CASE own elaboration based on AwAC (2017). La démarche “Adapte ta commune” – Guide de 
l’utilisateu. 

66 

Fiche 2. General good practice on cooperation, Denmark 

Source: CASE own elaboration based on Gram-Hanssen I., et al. (2023). op.cit. 

Fiche 3. Wildfire prevention initiative, France

Source: CASE own elaboration based on UNDRR (2020). When local science shapes national policy.

67 

Fiche 4: The Region of Central Macedonia (RCM), Greece 

Source: CASE own elaboration based on UNDRR (2021). Monitoring coastal changes in Greece. 

Fiche 5: Emilia-Romagna, Italy 

Source: CASE own elaboration based on Allerta Meteo Emilia-Romagna – website. 

68 

Fiche 6: Personalised adaptation strategies, the Netherlands 

Source: CASE own elaboration based on Lund University (n.d.). Translating climate service into personalised 
adaptation strategies to cope with thermal climate stress. 

Fiche 7: Situation awareness in 2D and 3D of the flooding and fire events, Poland 

Source: CASE own elaboration based on Overwatch project – website; CIK (n.d.). Aktualne projekty. 

69 

Fiche 8: Azores and Madeira, Portugal 

Source: CASE own elaboration based on Proyecto PlanCLIMAC – website. 

Fiche 9: From reactive to proactive drought management– DriDanube, Slovenia 

Source: CASE own elaboration based on Slovenian Environmental Agency (2019). Interreg Danube 
Transnational Programme DriDanube. BETTER prepared for drought : Danube drought strategy. 

70 

Fiche 10: Alicante, Spain 

Source: CASE own elaboration based on International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies 
(2022). Disaster recovery in Spain: a legal and policy survey. 

By  promoting  similar  strategies  and  facilitating  the  exchange  of  best  practices 
among regions and cities, the EU can strengthen the resilience of its communities 
to climate-related hazards and contribute to achieving its disaster resilience goals.

71 

Part 5: Conclusions and recommendations

The research shows that all EU regions are vulnerable to climate change, although 
they  vary in  regard  to  impacts,  with  cities  but  also  rural  areas  in  southern  and 
southeastern  Europe  being  the  most  exposed.  These  regions  may  experience 
adverse impacts including increases in heat extremes, decreases in precipitation 
and river flows, droughts, lower crop yields, forest fires, and loss of biodiversity. 
Coastal regions in Western and some parts of Central Europe are exposed to floods 
and  possible  storms.  Marine  ecosystems  are  vulnerable  to  increased  ocean 
temperature,  increased  acidification  levels,  and  the  spread  of  oxygen-depleted 
dead zones. Significant parts of the EU will be affected by the spread of vector 
borne  diseases  and  heat-related  mortality  will  be  on  the  rise.  The  EU  and  its 
Member  States  should  therefore  implement  existing  policies  to  maintain  and 
restore the resilience of ecosystems, particularly by strengthening protection and 
minimising anthropogenic pressures. 

72 

Recommendations

The  list  below  consists  of  future-oriented  suggestions  for  improving  the 
involvement  of  regions  and  cities  in  the  implementation  of  the  EU’s  disaster 
resilience  goals  and  working  towards  a  cross-cutting,  “resilience-by-design” 
approach. These have been grouped accordingly. 

Promotion of regional cooperation at the city and municipal level 

 Cross-border  regional  cooperation  should  be  promoted,  including  the 
creation  of  joint  preparedness  and  response  plans.  Cross-border  regional 
cooperation is crucial to ensure preparedness and effective mitigation of the 
associated  risks.  Lack  of  cooperation  might  even  result  in  mutual 
obstruction in efforts made in the event of countries unknowingly opting 
for  contradictory  actions.  In  particular,  LRAs  governing  the  same 
geographical  regions,  for  example  mountains  (such  as  the  Alps  or  the 
Pyrenees),  should  adopt  a  unified  approach  so  that  their  efforts  are  as 
effective as possible.  

 Ongoing  exchange  of  information  and  experience  among  LRAs,  for 
example through the Covenant of Mayors or Horizon Europe missions, is 
strongly encouraged. Learning from the experience of other LRAs shortens 
the  learning  curve  and  enables  the  more  effective  implementation  of 
appropriate measures.  

More active citizens’ involvement 

 Civic engagement and the empowerment of local communities play pivotal 
roles in fostering bottom-up resilience. By involving citizens and NGOs in 
decision-making  processes  and  empowering  local  communities  to  drive 
risk reduction initiatives, regions and cities can strengthen their resilience 
fabric  while  instilling  a  sense  of  ownership  and  responsibility  within 
communities.  

 Public  consultations  of  risk  assessments  and  planned  CCA  and  DRM 
activities can result in the adoption of better fitted solutions that can actually 
be implemented when needed. The Vega Baja Regeneration Plan in Spain 
(see Fiche 10 above) highlights the importance of broad participation also 
in post-disaster recovery planning to ensure that resilience measures meet 
the needs and priorities of the affected communities.  

 Official  cooperation  between  the  authorities  and  scientists  should  be 
ensured,  including  through  statutory  obligations  imposed  on  the  public 
authorities. Initiatives like the ClimApp project in the Netherlands and the 
Overwatch  in  Poland  are  good  examples  of  international  collaboration 

73 

aimed  at  developing  innovative  ideas  for  DRM.  DRM  and  CCA  actions 
should not be taken based on political decisions, but on current knowledge. 
Some  countries  have  introduced  such official cooperation in the form  of 
councils, committees or public institutes. Such a practice is valuable, and is 
worth replicating across all EU Member States. The development of local 
scientific communities can also help municipalities or regions develop in 
other areas, which would be an additional benefit from investing in science 
focused on local needs. 

Increased multilevel governance 

 Increasing  the  involvement  of  LRAs  in  implementing  the  EU’s  disaster 
resilience  goals  requires  a  shift  towards  a  proactive  approach  to  crisis 
management,  which  would  entail  integrating  vulnerability  criteria  and 
resilience  considerations 
into  various  aspects  of  public  policies, 
regulations, action plans and investment programmes, at both the local and 
regional level. To achieve this, inclusive governance mechanisms must be 
prioritised. 

 LRAs  should  have  real  power  in  terms  of  climate  adaptation  and  the 
mitigation of natural disaster risks. The effects of climate change and the 
risks of natural disasters are often different for different regions even within 
a country, and coordination at the national level is not as effective as that 
provided locally. Giving more power to the local authorities ensures a faster 
emergency response, but also a better fit for the actual needs of the given 
region minimising risks of maladaptation. 

Increased dedicated financing 

 The establishment of dedicated budgets for disaster prevention and climate 
adaptation at national, regional and local levels should be promoted. They 
do  not  need  to  be  constructed  solely  from  local  funds,  which  are  often 
limited. On the contrary, whenever such budgets are planned, the potential 
of existing funding schemes should be considered. In particular, structural 
funds  and  cohesion  policy  should  be  considered  by  LRAs  to  improve 
preparedness and strengthen resilience. Resources from outside of the EU, 
for  example  from  the  World  Bank,  can  also  be  considered.  Some  EU 
Member States still do not have any dedicated budgets for prevention, but 
organise  the  finances  from  available  funds  from  ministries  or  local 
governments  on  a  case-by-case  basis.  This  makes  it  harder  to  organise 
resources for the necessary initiatives.  

Making use of different resources 

 The  provision  of  resources,  training  and  tools  to help  local communities 
(administrations  and  citizens  alike)  to  understand  and  address  climate-

74 

related risks needs to be ensured. For instance, the Adaptate ta commune 
initiative  in  Belgium  equips  municipalities  with  user-friendly  tools  and 
support  to  assess  vulnerability  and  plan  adaptation  measures.  Regular 
training  and  education  of  local  communities  on  CCA  and  DRM  by  the 
LRAs could be beneficial for implementation of their plans and for ensuring 
an  effective  emergency  response.  Regular  townhall  meetings  are  worth 
considering,  so  that  LRAs  are  aware  of  the  problems  local  communities 
face  in  the  implementation  of  CCA  and  DRM  measures,  or  what  areas 
require further training or public awareness measures. 

 Use of data and technology (including foresight tools) to inform decision-
making at the local and regional levels should be ensured. Initiatives like 
the  Weather  Alert  Emilia-Romagna  in  Italy  demonstrate  how  real-time 
monitoring  technologies  and  comprehensive  information  platforms  can 
improve disaster preparedness and response. 

Planning, assessment and evaluation 

 Integration of vulnerability criteria and resilience considerations into local 
and regional policies, regulations, and investment programmes should be 
ensured.  Examples  such  as  Denmark’s  adaptation  financing  model  and 
France’s  wildfire  prevention  amendment  demonstrate  how  legislative 
frameworks can empower local authorities to proactively address climate 
risks. 

 Furthermore, strategic foresight is emerging as a critical tool in anticipating 
and  preparing  for  future  crises.  By  leveraging  foresight  methodologies, 
stakeholders  at  the  sub-national  level  can  identify  emerging  risks  and 
trends, enabling proactive measures to be implemented.  

 Integrating  hazard  mapping  and  risk  assessments  into  strategic  planning 
processes  enhances  preparedness  efforts,  providing  a  comprehensive 
understanding  of  local  vulnerabilities  and  exposure  to  various  hazards. 
Enhancing  the  coherence  between  DRM  and  CCA  measures  is  also 
essential.  By  aligning  DRM  and  CCA  strategies,  regions  and  cities  can 
effectively address both existing and future risks posed by climate-related 
disasters. This integrated approach not only maximises resource utilisation 
but  also  fosters  synergies  in  risk  reduction  efforts,  ultimately  bolstering 
resilience at the local and regional levels. 

 Statutory requirements should be introduced for national or local officials 
to analyse what led to a natural disaster, and whether the damages could 
have been mitigated or the emergency prevented altogether. The legislative 
solution  should  be  as  concrete  as  possible,  and  promote  the  “build  back 
better” approach, such as that adopted in the Vega Baja Regeneration Plan. 
Local laws should make it obligatory for such an analysis to be taken into 
account in rebuilding plans. 

75 

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