The means for cities and regions to support the energy transition in the Mediterranean.
Date: 2024-06-07
Institutions: Commission for Citizenship, Governance, Institutional and External Affairs
Subjects: Mediterranean region (EU), case study, energy cooperation, energy resources, energy supply, energy transition, reduction of gas emissions, regional and local authorities, regional cooperation, sustainable development

Commission for
Citizenship, Governance,
Institutional and External Aﬀairs

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The means for cities and regions
to support the energy transition
in the Mediterranean

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© European Union, 2024 
Partial reproduction is permitted, provided that the source is explicitly mentioned. 

More information on the European Union and the Committee of the Regions is available online at 
http://www.europa.eu and http://www.cor.europa.eu respectively. 

QG-02-24-471-EN-N; ISBN 978-92-895-3484-0; DOI 10.2863/4388  

2 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
This report has been written by Antoine Apprioual, Karolina Zubel  
(CASE Research) 

It does not represent the official views of the European Committee of the 
Regions 

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Contents 

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS ................................................................................ 1 

SUMMARY ............................................................................................................................... 2 

Part 1: Current energy mix in the Southern Neighbourhood countries........................................................... 5 

Part 2: Case studies of LRAs playing an active role in diversifying their national energy mixes ................ 10 

Part 3: The role of cities and regions in the Mediterranean in diversifying the energy supply ................... 13 

Part 4: Obstacles to diversification and broader opportunities for cooperation at local and regional level 
across the region and in support of the UfM’s energy priority areas ............................................................. 16 

Obstacles to diversification................................................................................................................................. 16 

Opportunities for cooperation at local and regional levels across the region ................................................ 18 

Part 5: Conclusions and recommendations....................................................................................................... 21 

Recommendations ............................................................................................................................................... 21 

ANNEX .................................................................................................................................... 24 

REFERENCES ....................................................................................................................... 28 

5 

 
 
  
 
Acronyms and abbreviations 

ACTE – Alliance of Municipalities for Energy Transition 
ADEREE – National Agency for Renewable Energy Development 
EBRD – European Bank for Reconstruction and Development 
EU – European Union 
GAM  – Greater Amman Municipality 
GHG – Greenhouse gas emissions 
IBB – Izmir Metropolitan Municipality 
LRAs – Local and Regional Authorities 
RES – Renewable Energy Sources 
UCLG – United Cities and Local Governments 
UfM – Union for the Mediterranean 

1 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Summary 

The Mediterranean region is believed to be warming 20% faster than the global 
average.  At  the  same  time,  population  and  tourism  growth,  predominantly  in 
coastal  urban  areas,  together  with  intensive  industrialisation,  are  putting 
additional pressure on available energy resources. Yet the overall energy mix is 
still  largely  based  on  fossil  fuels,  while  renewable  energy  sources  (RES)  meet 
only  a  marginal  share  of  the  overall  demand  across  the  Southern  and  Eastern 
Mediterranean,  despite  the  region’s  untapped  potential  for  its  development. 1 
Decarbonisation measures will be crucial not only for countering the climate crisis 
and other environmental externalities  pursuant to the objectives outlined in the 
Paris  Agreement,  but  also  for  ensuring  sustainable,  just  and  inclusive  growth 
across the region. 

The objective of this study is to map and analyse possible opportunities to further 
diversify  energy  supply  in  the  Southern  Neighbourhood  countries, 2 above  all 
concerning  the  role  that  cities  and  regions  can  play  in  accelerating  a  just  and 
inclusive energy transition.  

This memo consists of: 

1.  a brief analysis of the current energy mix in the Southern Neighbourhood 

countries;  

2.  three  case  studies  of  Local  and  Regional  Authorities  (LRAs)  playing  an 

active role in diversifying their national energy mixes; 

3.  an outline of the role that cities and regions in the Mediterranean can play 

in diversifying the energy supply; 

4.  identified  obstacles  to  diversification  and  broader  opportunities  for 
cooperation at local and regional levels across the region and in support of 
the UfM’s energy priority areas.  

As the key recommendations drawn from the three case studies and the challenges 
the  LRAs  face  in  their  energy  transition  that  should  be  integrated  into  overall 
urban  planning  strategies  vary  significantly  from  soft  actions  focused  on 
education and awareness-raising campaigns to technical know-how development, 
LRAs should  monitor  the implementation  of such actions. In this sense,  LRAs 

1 European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF), Paving the way for a renewable energy 
transition in the Mediterranean, https://stories.ecmwf.int/paving-the-way-for-a-renewable-energy-transition-in-
the-mediterranean/index.html   
2 These include: Egypt, Türkiye, Algeria, Morocco, Syria (membership currently suspended), Tunisia, 
Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Mauritania, Palestine, Monaco and 
Montenegro, along with Libya and North Macedonia which are observers. 

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should deploy adequate resources to monitor the impact of their policies aiming 
for the green energy transition.  

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Part 1: Current energy mix in the Southern Neighbourhood 
countries 

The Mediterranean region is believed to be warming 20% faster than the global 
average,3 while population and tourism growth, predominantly in coastal urban 
areas, together with intensive industrialisation, are putting additional pressure on 
available energy resources. At the same time, the overall energy mix is still largely 
based on fossil fuels, and renewable energy sources (RES) meet only a marginal 
share  of  the  overall  demand  across  the  Southern  and  Eastern  Mediterranean 
despite  the  region’s  untapped  potential  for  its  development. 4 Decarbonisation 
measures  will  be  crucial  not  only  for  countering  the  climate  crisis  and  other 
environmental  externalities  pursuant  to  the  objectives  outlined  in  the  Paris 
Agreement, but also for ensuring sustainable, just and inclusive growth across the 
region. 

As  the  current  energy  mix  of  ARLEM  countries  varies  significantly,  and  their 
clustering  based  either  on  similar  starting  points  or  current  energy  transition 
roadmaps  would  be  highly  inaccurate,  the  objective  of  this  part  is  to  briefly 
present  where  each  of  them  stands,  emphasising  each  country’s  strengths  and 
existing  foresight  on  what  diversification  is  possible.  Respective  visual 
presentations of each country’s current energy mix can be found in the Annex.5 
Although oil can still be considered an important energy source accounting  for 
40% of the total energy supply,  Albania has one of the highest shares of RES 
deployment in the Mediterranean Basin, at 52%. However, hydropower represents 
around 74% of Albania’s renewable energy supply, making the country highly 
dependent on annual rainfall, especially for electricity generation. Hence, there is 
a need for other RES deployment, especially in end-use sectors.6 

Algeria’s  total  energy  supply  is  almost  entirely  based  on  fossil  fuels,  with  oil 
representing  32%  and  gas  68%. 7  At  the  same  time,  minor  progress  in  RES 
deployment between 2020 and 2022 can be noticed, particularly in regard to solar 
energy, with an additional 12 MW installed over this period. Much of its potential, 
however, is still untapped, since the country’s solar potential is one of the highest 
in the world, estimated at 13.9 TWh per year.8 

3 UNEP, Climate change in the Mediterranean, https://www.unep.org/unepmap/resources/factsheets/climate-
change  
4 ECMWF, op. cit.   
5 The list does not include Monaco which relies almost entirely on imports of electricity, gas and fuels from 
France. 
6 IRENA, Energy profile: Albania, https://www.irena.org/-
/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Statistics/Statistical_Profiles/Europe/Albania_Europe_RE_SP.pdf  
7 IRENA, Energy profile: Algeria, https://www.irena.org/-
/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Statistics/Statistical_Profiles/Africa/Algeria_Africa_RE_SP.pdf  
8 EcoMENA, Renewable Energy in Algeria, https://www.ecomena.org/renewables-algeria/  

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Bosnia and Herzegovina’s (BIH) energy mix is still coal and oil-dependent (51 
and 21% respectively), yet the country has significant RES potential, particularly 
in hydropower and wind power capacity. Hydropower already provides ca. 30% 
of the country’s total RES supply, and there is room for additional growth. Solar 
and wind power plants have recently been gaining ground, but still account for 
only a small percentage of the overall energy mix.9 

Similarly  to  Algeria,  Egypt’s  total  energy  supply  relies  largely  on  gas  and  oil 
resources (58 and 34% respectively).10 The country’s total installed capacity of 
RES  amounts  to  3.7  gigawatts  (GW),  including  2.8  GW  of  hydropower  and 
around 0.9 GW of solar and wind power. According to the national  Integrated 
Sustainable Energy Strategy (ISES) to 2035, the RES deployment target has been 
set  to  42%  of  the  electricity  mix  by  2035;  some  3%  is  envisaged  for  nuclear 
energy, currently being developed.11 

Israel’s  energy  mix  consists  of  37%  oil,  38%  gas,  19%  coal  and  5%  RES, 
predominately solar (where further scalability is envisaged), with the remainder 
deriving from individual PV units, wind energy, and biomass generation.12 

Jordan’s energy mix is quite similar, with 49% accounted for by oil, 28% gas, 
3%  coal  and  10%  RES,  with  solar  power  clearly  dominating  (68%  of  total 
renewable  energy  supply  in  2022),  followed  by  wind.13 The  country  plans  to 
produce 50% of its electricity from RES by 2030 through a focus on smart grid 
development and energy storage projects, which seems feasible given an average 
of  316  sunny  days  per  year,  favourable  wind  speeds,  and  areas  with  low 
population density, typically in far-off desert terrain.14   

The energy mix of Lebanon is by far the most oil-dependent (95% of its total 
energy supply). While coal accounts for ca. 2% and renewables for only 3%, there 

9 IRENA, Energy profile: BiH, https://www.irena.org/-
/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Statistics/Statistical_Profiles/Europe/Bosnia-and-
Herzegovina_Europe_RE_SP.pdf?rev=e41f1d9f46244df39399f782e1376ce2  
10 IRENA, Energy profile: Egypt, https://www.irena.org/-
/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Statistics/Statistical_Profiles/Africa/Egypt_Africa_RE_SP.pdf  
11  Ministry of Electricity and Renewable Energy, Renewable Energy Targets, 
http://nrea.gov.eg/test/en/About/Strategy  
12 IRENA, Energy profile: Israel, https://www.irena.org/-
/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Statistics/Statistical_Profiles/Middle%20East/Israel_Middle%20East_RE_SP.pdf  
13 IRENA, Energy profile: Jordan, https://www.irena.org/-
/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Statistics/Statistical_Profiles/Middle%20East/Jordan_Middle%20East_RE_SP.pdf  
14 IRENA, Renewables readiness assessment: the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, https://www.irena.org/-
/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Publication/2021/Feb/IRENA_RRA_Jordan_Summary_2021_EN.pdf?la=en&hash
=DE5015E14770A43E9BFF2DFF8FAE684CED6E8EEB  
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is  significant  potential  for  diversification,  particularly  when  it  comes  to  solar 
power.15 

Libya’s energy supply comes largely from hydrocarbons (53% from oil and 43% 
from gas). Although RES account for only 4%, due to the country’s location in 
the heart of the sun belt,16 “one year of solar radiation on each square kilometre 
of land produces energy equivalent to 1.5 million barrels of crude oil”; thus solar 
energy provides great potential for diversification.17 

The  energy  mix  of  Mauritania  is  significantly  different,  with  73%  stemming 
from oil, and as much as 27% from RES (though almost entirely bioenergy). At 
the  same  time,  the  country  has  enormous  potential  for  wind  and  solar-driven 
energy development, which could have catalytic effects for the diversification of 
its energy mix.18 

Montenegro’s energy sector can be considered diversified, with 35% of its supply 
coming from coal, 30% from oil and 35% from RES – mostly hydropower and 
bioenergy.  In  order  to  be  able  to  replace  its  existing  coal  plant,  the  country  is 
planning  to  launch  some  additional  electricity  capacity  in  the  coming  years, 
mostly based on solar PV and wind turbines.19 

The total energy supply in Morocco consists of 54% from oil, 32% coal, 3% gas 
and 11% RES (mostly bioenergy; wind, solar and hydropower sources combined 
account for only 38% of total RES supply). However, the government has already 
prioritised diversification of energy sources through the reduction of dependence 
on  energy  imports  and  increased  use  of  RES,  particularly  for  electricity 
production.20 

North  Macedonia’s  energy  supply  differs  significantly  in  share  of  particular 
sources, but it also relies predominately on fossil fuels: 36% oil, 36% coal, and 
9% gas, hence RES (mostly bioenergy and hydropower) account for ca. 19% of 

15 IRENA, Energy profile: Lebanon, https://www.irena.org/-
/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Statistics/Statistical_Profiles/Middle%20East/Lebanon_Middle%20East_RE_SP.p
df 
16 IRENA, Energy profile: Libya, https://www.irena.org/-
/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Statistics/Statistical_Profiles/Africa/Libya_Africa_RE_SP.pdf  
17 UNDP, Renewables in Libya: Right for the planet and good for business, 
https://www.undp.org/libya/blog/renewables-libya-right-planet-and-good-business  
18 IRENA, Energy profile: Mauritania, https://www.irena.org/-
/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Statistics/Statistical_Profiles/Africa/Mauritania_Africa_RE_SP.pdf  
19 IRENA, Energy profile: Montenegro, https://www.irena.org/-
/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Statistics/Statistical_Profiles/Europe/Montenegro_Europe_RE_SP.pdf  
20 IRENA, Energy profile: Morocco, https://www.irena.org/-
/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Statistics/Statistical_Profiles/Africa/Morocco_Africa_RE_SP.pdf  

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the total  energy mix,  leaving enormous potential for both wind and solar farm 
development, given the favourable conditions across the country.21 

When it comes to Palestine’s energy supply, as in numerous previous cases it 
relies  predominantly  on  hydrocarbons,  specifically  oil  (65%)  and  coal  (24%). 
Although RES account for 11% of the total share, bioenergy is dominant (77% of 
total RES supply), leaving only 23% for clean solar sources which prove to have 
great  potential  in  the  country’s  energy  system  diversification,  particularly  in 
electricity production.22 

Despite having huge RES potential – with solar and wind energy in first place – 
there is a country in which the share of RES in the final energy mix is decreasing. 
The fact is that some of the energy infrastructure has been damaged in Syria’s 
civil war. Energy is therefore based mostly on oil (70%) and gas (28%). The RES 
make up only around 1% of the total energy mix; 84% comes from hydropower, 
9% from bioenergy, and ca. 6% from solar.23  

Tunisia’s energy mix largely relies on its growing dependence on gas (50%) and 
oil (40%) imports. RES, technically responsible for ca. 11% of the current share 
of the total energy supply (and 90% of this consisting of bioenergy), still have 
great  potential  for  deployment  across  the  country.  Wind  and  solar  power  in 
particular are of interest given the country’s favourable conditions.24 

As for Türkiye, although its energy mix is still fossil fuels-dependent (29% oil, 
29% coal, 28% gas), and nuclear power plants are currently under construction, 
RES  account  for  only  15%  of  the  total  energy  supply  (mostly  geothermal  and 
hydropower).25 It is estimated that currently the country is tapping only 3% of its 

21 IRENA, Energy profile: North Macedonia, https://www.irena.org/-
/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Statistics/Statistical_Profiles/Europe/North-
Macedonia_Europe_RE_SP.pdf?rev=af786ac719ac4e70af03a867dddfedd6  
 This designation shall not be construed as recognition of a State of Palestine and is without prejudice to the 
individual positions of the Member States on this issue' 
22 IRENA, Energy profile: State of Palestine, https://www.irena.org/-
/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Statistics/Statistical_Profiles/Middle-East/State-of-Palestine_Middle-
East_RE_SP.pdf?rev=334a6c864c714af8a8e9b5effeac3e30  
23 IRENA, Energy profile: Syrian Arab Republic, https://www.irena.org/-
/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Statistics/Statistical_Profiles/Middle-East/Syrian-Arab-Republic_Middle-
East_RE_SP.pdf?rev=ac9deb39b58246de9863967f260d5daa.  
24 IRENA, Energy profile: Tunisia, https://www.irena.org/-
/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Statistics/Statistical_Profiles/Africa/Tunisia_Africa_RE_SP.pdf  
25 IRENA, Energy profile: Türkiye, https://www.irena.org/-
/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Statistics/Statistical_Profiles/Eurasia/Turkiye_Eurasia_RE_SP.pdf  

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solar and 15% of its onshore wind potential, leaving room for improvement in this 
respect.26 

26 IEA, Turkey’s success in renewables is helping diversify its energy mix and increase its energy security, 
https://www.iea.org/news/turkey-s-success-in-renewables-is-helping-diversify-its-energy-mix-and-increase-its-
energy-security  

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Part  2:  Case  studies  of  LRAs  playing  an  active  role  in 
diversifying their national energy mixes 

This subsection provides three case studies where cities and regions have played 
an active role in the diversification of their energy mixes. Each case presents how 
different  types  of  RES  (solar,  bioenergy  and  wind  power)  impacted  the  path 
towards improving energy self-sufficiency at the local level. 

Case  study  1:  The  Greater  Amman  Municipality  (GAM)  of  Jordan,  with  a 
population of 4.2 million, has been actively investing in becoming greener and 
more self-sufficient over the last few years. One of the GAM’s key objectives, as 
stated  in  its  Green  City  Action  Plan  (2021),27 is  to  achieve  a  25%  increase  in 
renewable energy supply by 2035 and thereby enhance the energy self-reliance of 
the city. As Jordan enjoys around 310 sunny days per year with abundant solar 
radiation, it is no surprise that most of the efforts of the GAM target a substantial 
increase in solar energy production. As outlined in the city’s Green Action Plan, 
the GAM’s solar strategy has three dimensions: large grid-scale projects; small-
scale projects; awareness-raising and promotion.  

Building on the 2018 regulation allowing public institutions to build solar power 
plants up to 10 MW, the Municipality aimed at establishing substantial grid-scale 
solar  farms  for  a  capacity  of  80  megawatts.  The  Shams  Al-Asimah  project  is 
expected to be  carried out  through a  Public-Private  Partnership (PPP) with the 
company KBW Investments, owner of the land, in the framework of a 10-year 
leasing agreement. The project cost was estimated to be approximately EUR 110 
million.  It  is  anticipated  that  the  Amman  municipality  will  already  be  making 
savings in its electricity bill in  the inaugural year of implementing the project. 
With these investments yet to be executed, the GAM aims to enhance its energy 
security and generate revenues for the municipality in the long term by connecting 
to  the  national  grid.  In  parallel,  the  GAM  directed  its  efforts  toward  the 
enhancement  of  the  Ghabawi  Landfill  Site  with  financing  from  the  European 
Bank  for  Reconstruction  and  Development  (EBRD).  The  facility  generates 
electricity from biogas extraction, and has a total capacity of 6.4 MW.28 

Small-scale  long-term  measures  focus  on  installing solar  PVs on GAM-owned 
municipal  buildings  (headquarters  and  Basman  district),  as  well  as  for  street 
lighting (Badr District). The objectives are to reduce the municipality’s energy 

27 AECOM (2021). Amman Green City Action Plan. Prepared for the Greater Amman Municipality and 
European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD), AECOM Limited, London, 
https://faolex.fao.org/docs/pdf/jor207655E.pdf   
28 Zgheib, N. (2021). EBRD and EU upgrade largest landfill in Jordan. European Bank for Reconstruction and 
Development (EBRD), https://www.ebrd.com/news/2021/ebrd-and-eu-upgrade-largest-landfill-in-jordan.html   
10 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
bill and turn away from fossil-fuel energy supply. The installation of solar PVs on 
the  roof  of  the  municipality  headquarters  has  allowed  it  to  cover  16%  of  the 
building’s electricity needs. 

The GAM is also encouraging citizens to take part in the energy transition through 
the creation of a dedicated section in its administration, the design of guidelines 
for  rooftop  solar  PV  systems  to  protect  the  city’s  skyline,  the  introduction  of 
permit  fee  exemption  for  their  installation,  and  active  communication  raising 
awareness  of  the  national  subsidy  for  the  installation  of  residential  PVs. 
Consequently, the municipality received 2,112 applications for permits to install 
solar PV systems in 2023, underscoring the success of this initiative. 

Case  study  2:  Under  its  Sustainable  Energy  Climate  Action  Plan,29 the  Izmir 
Metropolitan Municipality (IBB) in Türkiye, home to 4.5 million people, has 
planned a massive deployment of RES on municipality-owned assets. The focus 
has been put on both solar energy and bioenergy, to minimise the environmental 
impact  of  the  deployment  of  renewable  energy  facilities.  In  2020,  the  IBB 
committed investments for 15 MW of solar energy on its assets by 2030. In the 
last four years, 13 solar energy facilities have been installed providing a total of 
2.032 MW.  

Apart  from  the  deployment  of  solar  energy,  the  Municipality  has  undertaken 
significant initiatives in harnessing electricity from methane derived from waste 
sites, with three regular waste storage and biogas facilities. Such a strategy has 
allowed  the  IBB  to  improve  its  sustainable  waste  management,  and  reduce 
Greenhouse  Gas  (GHG)  emissions  (preventing  the  release  of  methane  into  the 
atmosphere), while producing renewable energy and generating income for the 
municipal budget. Inaugurated in 2019, the Harmandalı Biogas Plant’s installed 
capacity amounts to 39.69 MW, with a current production capacity of 32.34 MWh 
and a daily processing capacity of 2,000 tons of waste. This amount corresponds 
to the annual energy use of 190,000 households, while the biogas production is 
making a significant contribution to the municipal budget (approximately EUR 
25  million).  The  Harmandalı landfill  facility is  operated by  a private company 
under  the  control  of  the  Municipality  under  the  Public  Procurement  Law.  The 
facility also works as an “Education Centre” engaging with schools, universities, 
and NGOs to raise awareness on waste management and bioenergy.  

The  Ödemiş  Integrated  Solid  Waste  Management  Facility,  which  includes  a 
biomethanization installation, generates methane during storage that is used for 

29 AECOM (2020), Izmir Sustainable Energy Climate Action Plan. Prepared for the City of Izmir, 
https://mycovenant.eumayors.eu/storage/web/mc_covenant/documents/31/98KaWT7wBZ-
ITIW1A7bpSrgh9rZmmGJ6.pdf  

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energy  production.  The  installed  capacity is 20.28  MW,  with  an  active  energy 
production of 7.8 MWh. In addition, the facility’s roof hosts a 1 MW installed 
solar  power  plant,  meeting  its  internal  consumption  needs  to  enhance  the  net 
contribution of the facility to the energy transition. 

Furthermore,  in  anticipation  of  the  increasing  volume  of  waste  in  the  coming 
years, a similar integrated waste management facility with a capacity of 20 MW 
is planned for the northern region of the IMM. 

Case study 3: Wind power plays a significant role in the global effort to transition 
to  sustainable  and  clean  energy,  offering  a  reliable  and  scalable  solution  for 
electricity  generation.  Morocco  is  endowed  with  substantial  potential  for 
harnessing wind power, especially in the Souss-Massa region, with a population 
of  some  2.7  million.  However,  investments  in  wind  power  are  considered 
extremely  capital-intensive,  and  also  have  substantial  land  and  infrastructure 
requirements.  Nevertheless,  given  its  significant  existing  potential,  the  Souss-
Massa  Regional  Council  has  embarked  on  prospecting  for  potential  wind 
resources within its territories, playing the role of facilitator30 – responsible for 
providing  feasibility  studies,  identifying  suitable  zones,  streamlining  licensing 
processes and providing financial incentives. As such, in 2018 it partnered with 
the National Agency for Renewable Energy Development (ADEREE) financing 
the installation of two units to measure wind speed in two rural municipalities, 
Ait  Wafka  (Tiznit  province)  and  Tamri  (Agadir  Ida  Outanane),  to  present  a 
feasibility study to potential investors.31  

In Agadir, the regional capital, the port facilities are ready to become a hub for 
turbine  transport,  lowering  production  costs  and  making  this  energy  more 
competitive and the region itself more attractive for wind power investments.32 
Some new projects in this respect are already worth mentioning: the Agadir-Souss 
cement  facilities  in the  city gained an  up-and-running  wind farm in 2023  – its 
development creating at least 1400 temporary jobs in the construction phase and 
200 direct jobs since its opening, and facilitating not only energy transition but 
also further socio-economic growth for neighbouring rural areas.33  

30 Climate-chance.org, Souss-Massa: Satisfying new renewable energy demands: https://www.climate-
chance.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/synthesis-report-2019-local-action-book-case-soussmassa_morocco-
p84.pdf p. 84. 
31 AMEE, Souss Massa Draa https://www.amee.ma/fr/cooperation/souss-massa-daraa.    
32 The North Africa Post, Renewable Energies: Morocco among top 5 countries poised to become a global 
floating offshore wind power giant, https://northafricapost.com/56356-renewable-energies-morocco-among-top-
5-countries-poised-to-become-a-global-floating-offshore-wind-power-giant.html.  
33 CemNet (2022), Holcim Maroc inaugurates Agadir plant, 
https://www.cemnet.com/News/story/172936/holcim-maroc-inaugurates-agadir-plant.html.  

12 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Part 3: The role of cities and regions in the Mediterranean 
in diversifying the energy supply 

Cities are critical to the global energy transition as they consume the majority of 
global primary energy used for the construction and operation of urban buildings, 
in logistics and urban mobility, and in industry and other activities.  In fact, all 
over the world, cities account for ca. 70% of all GHG emissions, and the numbers 
are believed to be growing as a result of continuing urbanisation.34 Meanwhile, 
by  around  2050 the  urban  coastal population in the  countries on the  European 
shore of the Mediterranean is set to stabilise at almost 170 million (140 million in 
2005), whereas in the countries on the Eastern and Southern shores, it is expected 
to double to over 300 million (151 million in 2005).35 This further indicates the 
importance of RES deployment and undertaking energy efficiency measures to 
answer rising energy demands. 

Following  the  example  of  national  pledges  stemming  from  Paris  Agreement 
objectives and other strategies on climate adaptation and mitigation, LRAs can 
also  contribute  towards  a  green  and  just  energy  transition.  In  the  end,  their 
engagement is vital to achieving commitments, also given their relevance within 
national energy systems. However, despite cities’ and regions’ ambitions, there is 
a need for coordinating the efforts on both a national and local scale so as to ensure 
the effective fulfilment of energy and climate goals at both levels. 

Once coordination is ensured, cities, towns and villages are uniquely positioned 
to promote the diversification of energy sources, and to push for RES deployment 
across the entire urban energy landscape, from buildings to transport, to industry 
and  power.  That  is  because  municipal  authorities  are  energy  planners  and 
regulators, for example bearing responsibility for urban zoning, building permits 
and solar ordinances, as well as feasibility studies (as in the Moroccan case study).  

As depicted in the case studies from Amman and Izmir, their role in raising the 
awareness and education of citizens regarding the green transition is of the utmost 
importance. They also have a financial role to play in their ability to levy local 
fees,  provide  low-interest  loans,  or  issue  municipal  green  bonds.  Additionally, 
municipalities  are  often  important  owners  or  operators  of  energy-generating 
facilities and related urban infrastructure. The figure below presents the roles that 
LRAs can have towards ensuring energy transition: 

34 UN statistics, https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/report/2022/goal-11/.  
35 UfM (2011), Towards a Euro-Mediterranean sustainable urban strategy (EMSUS) within the framework of the 
Union for the Mediterranean, https://ufmsecretariat.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/EMSUS-Diagnosis-of-the-
Mediterranean-cities-situation.pdf, p. 4. 

13 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 1 Roles of municipal governments in the energy transition 

Regulators

Trarget 
setters and 
planners

Operators

LRAs in 
energy 
transition

Financiers

Demand 
aggregators

Awareness 
builders

Conveners 
and 
facilitators

Source: own elaboration based on IRENA (2016) 

LRAs can become pioneers of change and hence accelerate economic, societal 
and  environmental  resilience.  The  physical  and  economic  density  of  cities  in 
particular  can  provide  the  impetus  for  technological  change  and  infrastructure 
investments that support diversification towards low- and zero-carbon economic 
development and social resilience across numerous sectors and processes: 

1.  Supply:  as  producers  of  renewable  energy  and  promoters  of  energy 
infrastructure (public tenders of LRA-owned assets for renewable energy 
production), LRAs can participate in national efforts to diversify the energy 
mix. Wherever the legislation allows, LRAs can invest in RES deployment 
for their own production (solar, wind, bioenergy as in Izmir, among others) 
and connect to the national grid, considering the medium to long-term gains 
for public finances and lower bills for citizens, while increasing resilience 
and fighting energy poverty (especially in rural areas).  

2.  Demand: LRAs, as consumers, are in the best position to lead by example, 
especially by implementing energy efficiency measures in the most energy-
intensive sectors, namely transport and building (for example by retrofitting 
public  buildings,  in  urban  lighting,  or  the  electrifying  of  regional  and 
municipal  vehicle  fleets).  The  journey  towards  low-carbon  LRAs  starts 

14 

 
 
 
 
 
with the analysing, measuring, and monitoring of their energy consumption 
to detect improvement opportunities (i.e. the case of GAM). 

3.  Supporting  climate-neutral  urban  development  and  planning  (LRAs  as 

target setters and planners): 

•  Climate-neutral urban strategies including the installation of RES in 
public offices, guidelines for circular economy, and zero- and low-
carbon transit; 

•  Helping  with  technical  tasks,  and  assisting  in  feasibility  study 

preparations for potential investors; 

•  Spatial planning following climate adaptation measures, with a focus 
on liveability, green spaces reducing urban heat island effects, and 
the  use  of  data  and  digital  technology  to  minimise  energy 
consumption; 

•  Resilient and energy-efficient infrastructure; 
•  Measures to reduce air pollution via technologies and new indicators 

that are useful for protecting health.36 

4.  Society: LRAs can promote behavioural changes and raise awareness on 
RES,  waste  management  and  energy  efficiency  by  providing  free 
information  (energy 
information  centres),  running  communication 
campaigns,  and  through  education  programmes  on  the  benefits  of  the 
energy transition. 

5.  Governance:  Advocating  for  favourable  Public  Procurement  Law 
amendments so that LRAs’ active role in the transition can be ensured (as 
in the case of Izmir).  As key facilitators,  LRAs are  also  in  a  position to 
drive  the  energy  transition  through  regulatory  tools  and  incentives. 
Enacting and enforcing building codes that promote energy efficiency is an 
important policy to consider. LRAs can also drive the demand towards RES 
by offering incentives (such as fee exemptions, subsidies, tax relief, or the 
simplification  of  administrative  procedures).  Another  way  to  further  a 
decentralised  and  citizen-led  energy 
the 
establishment  of  renewable  energy  communities,  partnering  with  energy 
cooperatives and involving citizens.  

to  support 

transition 

is 

36 World Bank (2022), Driving transformational climate action and green recovery in MENA, 
https://thedocs.worldbank.org/en/doc/6f868d4a875db3ef23ef1dc747fcf2ca-0280012022/original/MENA-
Roadmap-Final-01-20.pdf, p. 17. 

15 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Part  4:  Obstacles 
to  diversification  and  broader 
opportunities  for  cooperation  at  local  and  regional  level 
across  the  region  and  in  support  of  the  UfM’s  energy 
priority areas  

Obstacles to diversification  

Political  and  institutional  framework.  A  top-down  approach  to  energy 
transition  is  prevalent  in  the  region.  Governments  and  national  state  bodies 
(including national agencies and state enterprises) determine the value chain of 
the  energy  transition,  especially  decision-making,  production  and  distribution 
processes. To achieve societal acceptance and understanding of energy transition, 
national energy authorities and agencies should improve the inclusion of LRAs in 
the  national  vision  of  their  energy  transition.  There  is  currently  a  lack  of 
integration  of  LRAs  in  the  defining  of  national  policies,  their  role  and 
responsibilities, and finally in ways to better coordinate the different institutional 
levels and stakeholders. Clear distinction of the roles and responsibilities would 
contribute to improving planning and decision-making at all levels, including in 
the LRAs. 

Legal  environment  and  regulatory  barriers.  The  regulatory  frameworks 
governing the production and distribution of RES differ greatly from one country 
to  another.  While  in  Morocco,  Algeria,  Tunisia,  Jordan  and  recently  Lebanon, 
laws have been enacted for LRAs themselves to produce energy and obtain access 
to the national electricity grid, other countries lack such a framework that would 
allow them to develop RES projects. In Libya, there is no single energy regulatory 
body at all.37 In some countries, the regulatory frameworks constitute a barrier to 
the development of innovative solutions such as local micro-networks or smart 
grids, which could be deployed by LRAs, especially municipalities in rural and 
remote areas. Inadequate and inconsistent national incentive systems, which do 
not  encourage  investment  in  RES,  are  reported  in  several  countries.  Constant 
changes in legislation are also a driver of uncertainty, while complex permitting 
processes  do  not  favour  LRAs’  involvement  in  renewable  energy  production. 
More collaboration between stakeholders is needed.  

Land  availability.  One  of  the  major  challenges  faced  by  LRAs  in  promoting 
renewable energy production within their territories is the need for land for new 
facilities  and  projects  in  sometimes  very  dense  urban  areas.  Environmental 

37 https://www.medreg-regulators.org/Portals/_default/Skede/Allegati/Skeda4506-736-2023.3.27/INS-
Mediterranean-Energy-Regulatory-Outlook-2022.pdf?IDUNI=1tjs23y4doadoibjzbyvpvbb6995 p. 6.  

16 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
constraints can also limit the availability of land for the deployment of renewable 
energy  facilities  in  rural  areas  (the  Moroccan  case  study  can  serve  as  a  best 
practice).  

Insufficient social capital and lack of collective action. There are barely any 
effective  and  highly  organised  civil  society  groups  actively  advocating  for 
prioritising  challenges  related  to  energy  transition  and  raising  awareness  in 
society, especially at the local and regional levels. For example, the results of the 
seventh  Arab  Barometer 38  survey,  which  presents  opinions  on  regional 
perspectives  on  climate  change  and  the  water  and  environmental  challenges, 
highlight that citizens in the Southern and Eastern Mediterranean are concerned 
about what affects them most directly (waste management, insufficient freshwater 
resources), and not about macro-challenges (that is, the need for energy transition 
and increased water resilience), which demonstrates a lack of understanding on 
how the climate crisis is affecting them now and how it will affect them in the 
future if  certain  bold endeavours are  not  undertaken.  Additionally,  the  cultural 
and social norms of local citizens, such as prevailing lifestyles and traditions (such 
as using fossil fuels to generate electricity, or for heating or cooling), can prove a 
major barrier to pursuing ambitious steps towards energy transition.  

Lack  of  financial  resources.  The  energy  transition  is  a  resource-intensive 
process,  requiring  significant  capital  to  develop  RES  sources  and  storage,  or 
simply to increase energy efficiency measures. For example, the high initial costs 
of  construction  and  the  maintenance  of  wind  farms  are  frequently  an  obstacle. 
Access to finance is particularly challenging for small-scale projects usually led 
by  LRAs  in  Southern  and  Eastern  Mediterranean  countries,  which  are  not 
considered sufficiently profitable by local banks. However, a growing spectrum 
of  innovative  financing  instruments  and  partnerships  is  becoming  available  to 
finance  the  energy  transition  (including  the  emission  of  green  bonds,  credit 
guarantees, secondary markets, crowdfunding, property tax, international climate 
finance, and PPPs). Nevertheless, the general lack of awareness and preparedness 
in LRAs regarding these dedicated instruments needs stressing. 

Lack of technical capacity and know-how. Projects tackling RES deployment 
or energy efficiency measures (both in industrial and residential sectors) tend to 
require a high level of technical skills for planning, regulatory compliance, data 
analysis  and  modelling,  project  engineering,  finance,  and  funding.  LRAs, 
especially  small  municipalities,  suffer  from  a  lack  of  internal  expertise  in 
managing  and  implementing  energy  transition  projects.  In  this  context,  it  is 

38 The survey, fielded between October 2021 and July 2022, included respondents from 12 countries across the 
Middle East and North Africa: Algeria, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, 
Palestine, Sudan, and Tunisia, see more at: https://www.arabbarometer.org/topics/?topic=environment.  

17 

 
 
 
 
 
 
particularly important to train dedicated teams of energy advisors, led by qualified 
energy  managers,  or  to  join  forces  with  the  private  sector.  Similarly,  the 
enforcement  of  regulations  regarding  thermal  norms  and  rules  through  the 
issuance of building permits is sometimes insufficient due to a lack of support 
mechanisms for LRAs.  

Energy tariffs. Highly subsidised energy prices in several Southern and Eastern 
Mediterranean countries are resulting in investments in RES or energy efficiency 
being insufficiently attractive.39 There is a consensus that reform of energy tariffs 
should be gradually achieved in these countries to reflect the actual cost of energy, 
taking into account social considerations.  

Opportunities  for  cooperation  at  local  and  regional  levels 
across the region 

City-level  regional  and  international  cooperation.  Cooperation  between 
neighbouring countries, their cities and regions is crucial to help LRAs play their 
part  in  the  acceleration  of  the  energy  transition  in  the  Southern  and  Eastern 
Mediterranean region. Many opportunities for LRAs exist in the region, which 
could  contribute 
to 
diversification. 40  The  energy  transition  features  among  the  priorities  of  the 
Official  Development  Assistance  (ODA)  of  EU  countries,  as  well  as  the  EU 
through  the  Neighbourhood,  Development  and  International  Cooperation 
Instrument  (NDICI-Global  Europe).  LRAs  in  the  region  are  considered  key 
players in this transition, and can benefit from cooperation in several areas.  

the  above-mentioned  obstacles 

to  overcoming 

Capacity-building and technical assistance. Considering the needs of LRAs in 
terms  of  capacity  to  design  and  implement  their  energy  transition  strategy, 
planning  and  projects,  a  significant  number  of  actors  have  been  focusing  their 
intervention  in  these  fields.  The  Covenant  of  Mayors  for  the  Mediterranean 
(COM-Med), set up in 2012 with the backing of the EU-funded CES-Med project 
and currently with the Clima-Med project, is a community where local authorities 
can  receive  support  and  technical  assistance  to  design  and  implement  their 
Sustainable Energy Access and Climate Action Plans (SEACAPs).41 Clima-Med 
is one of the few fully EU-funded projects (EUR 9.4 million for the 2018-2025 

39 Policy Center for the New South (2023), Securing Energy, Reshaping Decarbonisation: Reconciling 
Mediterranean Energy Transitions with Energy Security and Regional Stability, 
https://www.policycenter.ma/publications/securing-energy-reshaping-decarbonisation-reconciling-
mediterranean-energy-transitions.  
40 Ripoll, S. (2022), Cities and Mediterranean Integration: In Search of a “New” Political Project, 
https://www.iemed.org/publication/cities-and-mediterranean-integration-in-search-of-a-new-political-project/.  
41 CoM Med, https://www.com-med.org/en/.  

18 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
budgetary period), with continuity dedicated to supporting LRAs in the field of 
the energy transition. The MeetMED II (Mitigation Enabling Energy Transition 
in the Mediterranean region, 2021-2024) project is one of them, mainly dedicated 
to enhancing energy efficiency with professional training, knowledge exchange 
missions, and courses delivered to professionals from LRAs. In that regard, the 
Interreg NEXT MED programme (EUR 253 million, 2021-2029) offers more than 
EUR  10  million  to  projects  with  the  specific  objective  of  promoting  energy 
efficiency and reducing GHG emissions by supporting transnational cooperation 
to increase awareness and cooperation, technology transfer, utilisation of research 
outcomes and adaptation to local needs and capacities to prepare the ground for 
the energy transition. LRAs are listed among the main target groups.  

Access to finance. The Union for the Mediterranean (UfM) Secretariat acts as a 
“meta-intermediator”  through the creation of a one-stop shop on its website to 
share  information  about  climate  finance  for  decision-makers.  Through  its 
organisation of several rounds of the UfM Energy and Climate Business Forum, 
the UfM has created a platform to support and showcase LRAs’ efforts towards a 
sustainable  energy  transition,  providing  a  networking  space  for  financing 
solutions. COM-Med, together with Clima-Med, is also providing a funding guide 
for  LRAs  to  implement  their  SEACAPs.  IFIs,  together  with  the  EU  Member 
States’  national  development  cooperation  agencies,  are  traditional  providers  of 
climate  finance  targeting  LRAs  to  support  their  efforts  to  advance  the  energy 
transition.  

Networking  and  exchange  of  best  practices.  Networking  among  LRAs  is 
crucial  for  accelerating  the  energy  transition  by  facilitating  the  exchange  of 
successful  strategies  and  lessons  learned.  City2city  cooperation  enhances 
collaborative  problem-solving,  policy  harmonisation,  and  capacity  building. 
Additionally,  networking  increases  visibility,  attracts  investments,  fosters 
innovation, and holds LRAs accountable for their commitments.  
Some  ARLEM  members  could  be  of  great  help.  Bringing  together  73  local 
authorities from all shores of the Mediterranean basin, MedCities is an example 
of a network with the mission to promote urban sustainable development in the 
region.42 The  United  Cities  and  Local  Governments  (UCLG),  despite  being  a 
global  organisation  with  multiple  branches  around  the  world  representing  and 
advocating for local and regional governments worldwide, aims within ARLEM 
specifically to promote their role in sustainable development and governance.43  
ICLEI – Local Governments for Sustainability is another global network of more 
than  2,500  local  and  regional  governments  committed  to  sustainable  urban 

42 MedCities, https://medcities.org/.  
43 UCLG, https://uclg.org/. 

19 

 
 
 
 
 
development.44 Finally,  national networks  of  LRAs  can  also play  a key  role in 
promoting the exchange of best practices. For instance, the Turkish Healthy Cities 
Association  connects  cities  with  similar  goals  to  improve  and  implement  the 
Healthy  Cities  movement  across  the  country. 45  In  Tunisia,  the  Alliance  of 
Municipalities  for  Energy  Transition  (ACTE)  programme  aims  to  support 
Tunisian  municipalities  that  wish  to  actively  engage  in  a  sustainable  energy 
management approach.46 It seeks to foster a dynamic in which municipalities play 
a leading role in energy transition through sustainable energy planning. 

44 ICLEI, https://iclei.org/.  
45 Turkish Healthy Cities Association, https://www.skb.gov.tr/en/.  
46 Alliance of Local Councils for Energy Transition (Programme ACTE), 
https://www.anme.tn/en/projets/construction/alliance-local-councils-energy-transition-programme-acte.  

20 

 
 
 
 
 
Part 5: Conclusions and recommendations 

Although  energy  mixes  across  the  Southern  and  Eastern  Mediterranean  differ, 
fossil fuels still largely dominate, while RES meet only a marginal share of the 
total demand. The green energy transition in the region represents a significant 
opportunity towards making it more self-sufficient, but also more inclusive given 
how shocks in  energy prices  typically  hit  the  most  sensitive groups in  energy-
importing countries. The region’s external vulnerability has deepened further as a 
result of the Russian war in Ukraine. 

Despite potential benefits, such a transition faces various challenges. The major 
obstacles for LRAs include: 

•  Political and top-down institutional framework; 
•  Legal environment and regulatory barriers; 
•  Lack of financial resources and high entry barriers; 
•  Social capital and (lack of) collective action (i.e. lack  of knowledge and 

understanding, cultural and social norms that act as inhibitors); 

•  Lack of technical capacity and know-how; 
•  Energy tariffs. 

The  section  below  provides  some  recommendations  that  could  be  helpful  for 
Southern Mediterranean LRAs willing to develop green transition processes. 

Recommendations 

This  section  outlines  recommendations  for  a  greater  contribution  by  LRAs  in 
supporting the energy transition across the Mediterranean, especially in regard to 
becoming key drivers of the energy supply diversification and working together 
across the region.  

•  Policy framework 

Develop local energy transition action plans to define realistic and adapted 
goals and targets, aligned with broader  national and international energy 
goals,  and  based  on  diagnosis,  monitoring,  and  evaluation  processes, 
including municipal energy accounting. LRAs can benefit from the support 
of the Covenant of Mayors for the Mediterranean, CoM Med, to prepare 
and  implement  coherent  Sustainable  Energy  Access  and  Climate  Action 
Plans (SEACAPs), among other things. 

•  Capacity-building and know-how 

21 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Invest in capacity-building programmes and training to enhance in-house 
skills  and  understanding  of  the  energy  transition,  and  set  up  dedicated 
departments and teams headed by energy managers. Many training schemes 
already exist at national and international levels. 

•  Consider all RES in the diversification process and foster innovation 

LRAs tend to focus their efforts on solar energy as the main RES in their 
own energy production. Wind power is considered more capital-intensive 
than  solar  panels  (even  at  the  domestic  level),  and  requires  specific 
locations, available land and social acceptance. However, small-scale and 
more affordable wind-power solutions do exist, while LRAs can play the 
role of facilitators through feasibility studies, and by identifying suitable 
zones, streamlining licensing processes and providing financial incentives. 
Bioenergy, especially biogas from municipal waste, provides an effective 
means of treating and managing organic municipal waste. Offshore RES 
can  be  considered  in  coastal  regions.  Partner  with  national  agencies, 
incubators  and  universities  to  develop  innovative  solutions  and  new 
technologies, and test and adopt pilot projects. 

•  Collaborative Initiatives 

Establish  or  engage  in  national  networks  and  platforms  to  share 
experiences, resources and expertise, and lobby for a coordinated approach 
that  takes  into  account  LRAs  and  promotes  a  decentralised  energy 
transition.  

•  Community Engagement 

Engage  with  local  communities  to  raise  awareness  about  the  benefits  of 
RES and energy efficiency, including through communication campaigns 
and  “energy  info  centres”47 to  empower  citizens  with  vital  information 
about  sustainable  energy  sources  and  equipment.  Facilitate  participatory 
processes  that  involve  citizens  in  decision-making  related  to  energy 
processes to gain community engagement.  

•  Enabling Environment 

Act  as  a  driver  of  the  energy  transition  by  offering  incentives  in  the 
regulatory,  administrative,  and  financial  aspects  to  promote  behavioural 
change and facilitate private and local investments in RES. This includes 
assisting with feasibility studies for interested investors (especially in wind-
power  deployment)  as  well  as  subsidies,  simplified  bureaucratic 

47 GERES, (2021), Service information énergie-climat (SIEC), https://www.geres.eu/wp-
content/uploads/2019/10/Plaquette_SIEC_FR_web_2021.pdf.  

22 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
procedures, tax exemptions, and enforcement of green legislation (building 
codes). 

•  International Cooperation 

Invest in international cooperation across the Mediterranean: opportunities 
and benefits are multiple and can help overcome important barriers, such 
as insufficient technical capacity or financial resources, while fostering the 
exchange of best practices and innovative ideas among peers. 

23 

 
 
 
 
 
Annex  

The figures below present total energy supply in ARLEM countries in 2020 in 
alphabetical order. The data have been collected from IRENA energy profiles48 
last  updated  in  August  2023.  The  list  does  not  include  Monaco,  which  relies 
almost entirely on imports of electricity, gas and fuels from France. 

Albania: total energy supply in 
2020

Algeria: total energy supply 
in 2020

52

40

2

6

0

0

32

68

Oil

Gas

Coal + others

Renewables

Oil

Gas

Coal + others

Renewables

48 These are based on IRENA statistics, plus data from the following sources: UN SDG Database (original 
sources: WHO; World Bank; IEA; IRENA; and UNSD); UN World Population Prospects; UNSD Energy 
Balances; UN COMTRADE; World Bank World Development Indicators; EDGAR; REN21 Global Status 
Report; IEA-IRENA Joint Policies and Measures Database; IRENA Global Atlas; and World Bank Global Solar 
Atlas and Global Wind Atlas. 

24 

 
 
 
 
 
 
BiH: total energy supply in 
2020

Egypt: total energy supply in 
2020

25

21

2

51

2

7

58

34

Oil

Gas

Coal + others

Renewables

Oil

Gas

Coal + others

Renewables

Israel: total energy supply in 
2020

Jordan: total energy supply in 
2020

5

19

37

38

3

10

38

49

Oil

Gas

Coal + others

Renewables

Oil

Gas

Coal + others

Renewables

Lebanon: total energy supply 
in 2020

02 3

95

Libya: total energy supply in 
2020

1 4

43

53

Oil

Gas

Coal + others

Renewables

Oil

Gas

Coal + others

Renewables

25 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Mauritania: total energy 
supply in 2020

Montenegro: total energy 
supply in 2020

27

1

0

73

35

30

0

35

Oil

Gas

Coal + others

Renewables

Oil

Gas

Coal + others

Renewables

Morocco: total energy supply 
in 2020

North Macedonia: total 
energy supply in 2020

11

32

54

3

19

36

36

9

Oil

Gas

Coal + others

Renewables

Oil

Gas

Coal + others

Renewables

Palestine: total energy supply 
in 2020

Syria: total energy supply in 
2020

11

24

0

65

0

1

28

70

Oil

Gas

Coal + others

Renewables

Oil

Gas

Coal + others

Renewables

26 

 
 
 
 
 
 
Tunisia: total energy supply in 
2020

Türkiye: total energy supply in 
2020

0

11

50

40

15

29

29

28

Oil

Gas

Coal + others

Renewables

Oil

Gas

Coal + others

Renewables

Source: IRENA Energy Profiles data (from 08/2023) 

27 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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32 

 
 
 
(EBRD), 
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33 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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