COMMISSION STAFF WORKING DOCUMENT Accompanying the document REPORT FROM THE COMMISSION TO THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT, THE COUNCIL, THE EUROPEAN ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COMMITTEE AND THE COMMITTEE OF THE REGIONS on the 8th Environment Action Programme Mid-Term Review
Date: 2024-03-13
Institutions: Directorate-General for Environment, European Commission
Subjects: EU environmental policy, EU programme, biodiversity, carbon neutrality, circular economy, environmental impact, environmental protection, green economy, greenhouse gas, pollution control measures, sustainable development

EN 

  EN 

   EUROPEAN COMMISSION  Brussels, 13.3.2024  SWD(2024) 60 final  COMMISSION STAFF WORKING DOCUMENT Accompanying the document REPORT FROM THE COMMISSION TO THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT, THE COUNCIL, THE EUROPEAN ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COMMITTEE AND THE COMMITTEE OF THE REGIONS on the 8th Environment Action Programme Mid-Term Review  {COM(2024) 123 final}  
 
 
1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................ 2 

2. KEY DELIVERABLES OF THIS MANDATE AND IMPACT ON THE GROUND ... 2 

2.1 CLIMATE MITIGATION ............................................................................................................................ 2 
2.2 CLIMATE ADAPTATION .......................................................................................................................... 7 
2.3 CIRCULAR ECONOMY ........................................................................................................................... 11 
2.4 ZERO POLLUTION .................................................................................................................................. 16 
2.5 BIODIVERSITY ........................................................................................................................................ 21 
2.6 REDUCING ENVIRONMENTAL PRESSURES ....................................................................................... 30 
2.6.1 Energy system ............................................................................................................................... 30 
2.6.2 Industry ........................................................................................................................................... 32 
2.6.3 Buildings and infrastructure .................................................................................................... 33 
2.6.4 Mobility .......................................................................................................................................... 34 
2.6.5 Food system ................................................................................................................................... 35 
2.6.6 Trade ............................................................................................................................................... 37 
2.6.7 Tourism ........................................................................................................................................... 38 

3. PROGRESS ON ENABLERS ........................................................................................................ 38 

3.1 IMPROVING THE KNOWLEDGE BASE, RESEARCH & INNOVATION (R&I) ................................ 39 
3.2 ENVIRONMENTAL ACCOUNTING ........................................................................................................ 40 
3.3 NATURE-BASED SOLUTIONS .............................................................................................................. 41 
3.4 MONITORING OF PROGRESS ................................................................................................................ 41 

4. PROGRESS TO THE 2050 OF LIVING WELL WITHIN THE PLANETARY 

BOUNDARIES .................................................................................................................................... 42 

4.1 PLANETARY BOUNDARIES .................................................................................................................. 43 
4.2 CONSUMPTION FOOTPRINT ................................................................................................................. 43 
4.3 WELLBEING AND FAIRNESS ................................................................................................................ 44 

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1.  INTRODUCTION 

On 2 May 2022, the 8th environment action programme entered into force. It sets out the 
EU’s programme for environment and climate policy until 20301. Building on the European 
Green Deal, the 8th action programme echoes the EU’s long-term vision for 2050 of living 
well,  within  planetary  boundaries.  The  programme  sets  six  priority  objectives  for  2030  (on 
climate mitigation and adaptation, circular economy, zero pollution, biodiversity and reducing 
environmental pressures) and identifies the conditions needed to achieve these objectives. Its 
aim is to accelerate the transition to a climate-neutral, resource-efficient economy, recognising 
that human well-being and prosperity depend on healthy ecosystems. 

On  18 December  2023,  the  European  Environment  Agency  (EEA)  presented  the  first 
monitoring  report  on  progress  towards  the  8th  environment  action  programme 
objectives. The report takes stock of progress on Europe’s key environment and climate goals 
based on 28 indicators and monitoring targets included in the dedicated monitoring framework 
presented by the Commission2. 

Under Article 5 of the 8th environment action programme, ‘the Commission shall carry out a 
mid-term review  of  the progress achieved in  attaining  the thematic priority objectives  […], 
taking into consideration the status of the enabling conditions  […],  and the progress made 
towards monitoring and assessing systemic change’. 

This  staff  working  document  accompanies  and  complements  the  Report  on  the  mid-term 
review of the 8th action programme with more insights and analysis. Chapter 2 provides an 
analysis of the key deliverables on each specific priority objective, focusing on impacts on the 
ground. Chapter 3 gives an overview of progress on enablers not covered by the Report on the 
8th environment action programme mid-term review. Chapter 4 presents progress towards the 
vision for 2050 of living well, within planetary boundaries. 

Increasing  resource  use  is  the  main  driver  of  the  triple  planetary  crisis:  climate  change, 
biodiversity  loss  and  pollution.  At  global  level  the  total  amounts  of  materials  consumption 
continue to rise, to reach over a half trillion tonnes of materials in the last six years, i.e. nearly 
as much as the entirety of the 20th century3. Extraction and processing of material resources 
(fossil fuels, minerals, non-metallic minerals and biomass) account for over 60% of greenhouse 
gas  emissions  (GHG),  for  40%  of  particulate  matter  health  related  impacts  and  90%  of 
biodiversity  loss  and  water  stress4.  While  the  mid-term  review  presents  progress  on  each 
objective, meeting all 8EAP objectives requires a holistic vision to boost synergies.  

2.  KEY DELIVERABLES OF THIS MANDATE AND IMPACT ON THE 

GROUND 

2.1 Climate mitigation 

The  EU  has  made  substantial  progress  under  the  European  Green  Deal.  The  European 
Climate Law5, in force since July 2021, writes into law the EU’s objective to become climate-
neutral by 2050 and the target of reducing net domestic greenhouse gas emissions by at least 

1 Decision (EU) 2022/591. 
2 EEA Report 11/23: Monitoring report on progress towards the 8th EAP objectives. 
3 Circularity Gap report 2024 
4 Global Resources Outlook 2024 
5 Regulation (EU) 2021/1119 (‘European Climate Law’), OJ L 243, 9.7.2021, p. 1. 

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55%  by  2030  compared  to  1990  levels6. This  puts  the  EU  on  the  path  to  meet  Sustainable 
Development Goal (SDG) 13 on climate action. 

In 2021, the Commission proposed a package of climate and energy legislation (the ‘Fit for 
55’ package) to ensure that the EU policy framework is fit to achieve the higher climate target 
set for 2030 in a fair, cost-effective and competitive way. Parliament and Council have now 
adopted most of the key proposals in the package7 and EU policies are now aligned with the 
updated 2030 target set in the European Climate Law. Implementing the new legislation 
under the ‘Fit for 55’ package will enable the EU and its Member States to reduce net GHG 
emissions by at least 55% compared to 1990 levels by 20308. 

The revised EU Emissions Trading Directive increases the level of ambition in the system 
from 43% to 62% emissions reductions by 2030 compared to 2005 levels. It also extends the 
system to cover international maritime transport. A separate carbon pricing system will apply 
to fuel combustion in road transport, buildings and small-emitting sectors9 (ETS2) with a 42% 
emission reduction in 2030 compared to 2005 across the sectors covered.  

The amended Effort Sharing Regulation (ESR) increased, for the sectors that it covers, the EU-
level target to reduce GHG emissions from 29% to 40% by 2030 compared to 2005, which 
translates into updated 2030 targets for each Member State. The new Regulation on land use, 
land-use change  and forestry (LULUCF) sets  an overall EU-level  objective of 310 Mt  CO2 
equivalent of net removals in the LULUCF sector in 2030.  It simplifies the accounting and 
improves the monitoring of net emissions data from the sector to improve land management. It 
also  emphasises  the  need  to  increase  nature-based  carbon  removals  through  resilient 
ecosystems, to restore degraded land and ecosystems, and to rewet peatlands. 

To ensure the transition to climate neutrality is socially just, the EU created the new Social 
Climate  Fund10  to  accompany  the  new  ETS2.  The  Fund  will  tackle  the  impacts  of  carbon 
pricing in new sectors and provide support for vulnerable households, micro-enterprises and 
transport users. Together with the Just Transition Fund to support the territories most affected 
by  the transition,  and  other  EU  financial  instruments  (European  Structural  and  Investment 
Fund, Recovery and Resilience Facility, etc.), they will ensure that no one is left behind. The 
latest legislative initiatives on the electricity market aim to empower energy consumers more. 
Under the Net Zero Industry Act, the Commission will also support the setting up of specialised 
academies for up-skilling and re-skilling workers for the sustainability transition. 

In 2022 and 2023, the Commission made additional proposals to speed up the transition 
to  climate  neutrality.  For  example,  the  legislators  reached  a  provisional  agreement  on  the 
revised  Fluorinated  greenhouse  gases  (F-gases)  Regulation,  which  will  further  reduce 
emissions  from  those  highly  potent  greenhouse  gases.  The  Commission  proposed  more 
ambitious emission reduction targets for heavy-duty vehicles. Other legislative proposals, such 

6 Commitment made by the EU and its Member States under the Paris Agreement under its nationally determined 
contribution (NDC). 
7 This  includes  the  revised  EU  ETS  Directive,  a  new  ETS  for  buildings,  road  transport  and  fuels,  the  Market 
Stability Reserve, the Effort Sharing Regulation, CO2 standards for cars and vans, the Land Use, Land Use Change 
and  Forestry  Regulation,  the  Carbon  Border  Adjustment  Mechanism,  the  establishment  of  the  Social  Climate 
Fund, FuelEU Maritime, the Alternative Fuel Infrastructure Regulation (AFIR), ReFuel EU Aviation, the Energy 
Efficiency Directive and the Renewable Energy Directive. Only the proposed revised energy taxation directive is 
still pending agreement. 
8 The adopted legislation is estimated to reduce net domestic GHG emissions by 57% by 2030 (compared to 1990). 
9 CO2 emissions from fuel combustion in industry are not covered by the current EU ETS. 
10 Social Climate Fund - European Commission (europa.eu) 

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as revised Industrial Emissions Directive, the Carbon Removals Certification Framework, the 
Urban Wastewater Treatment Directive or the Nature Restoration Law, are also designed to 
either  reduce  greenhouse  emissions  (notably  methane),  increase  carbon  removals  and/or  to 
ensure that the EU will meet its LULUCF targets.  

The Commission also put forward the REPowerEU plan with specific measures to reduce the 
EU’s  energy  dependence  on  Russian  fossil  fuels,  and  to  speed  up  implementation  of  the 
European  Green  Deal  with  new  actions,  building  on  the  ‘Fit  for  55’  package.  To  boost  the 
competitiveness of Europe’s net-zero industry and to boost innovation, in particular in green 
technologies, the Commission put forward a Green Deal industrial plan. The Technical Support 
Instrument provided tailor-made expertise to support Member States in the implementation of 
legislative frameworks, by example those put in place to underpin the green transition. 

While good progress has been made to adopt the EU policies needed to put the EU on a path 
to a net-zero economy, recent emissions trends in the transport sector, the very slow pace of 
emission reductions in agriculture, and the decline of the carbon sink all raise concerns. Despite 
progress on green finance from private sources, significant additional investment is needed 
to finance the green transition11. Specifically, action is needed to redirect finance to enable 
the  transition  of  ‘brown’  sectors,  and  to  finance  nature  restoration  work,  both  to  boost 
biodiversity and to increase carbon removals. 

As  required  by  the  European  Climate  Law,  in  February  2024,  the  Commission  published  a 
Communication12 and a detailed impact assessment on the EU’s climate target for 2040. This 
provides greater certainty on the EU's path from the intermediate target for 2030 to the 2050 
goal of net-zero emissions. The Communication recommends a 2040 target to reduce EU net 
greenhouse  gas  emissions  by  90%  relative  to  1990  levels.  The  legal  proposal  to  amend  the 
European Climate Law to include this target and the post-2030 policy framework will be in the 
hands of the next Commission.  

Once agreed, the 2040 target will form the basis for aligning the measures and investments 
needed to achieve the EU’s 2030 targets on the path to climate neutrality by 2050. The 2040 
target will provide a predictable direction and help keep progress on track. It will also send a 
strong signal to the EU’s partners around the world on the need to step up global climate action. 
The agreed target will be the basis for the EU’s new nationally determined contribution under 
the Paris Agreement to be submitted in 2025. 

Greenhouse gas emissions 

After the strong rebound in GHG gas emissions in 2021 that followed the unprecedented fall 
in  2020  due  to  the  COVID-19  pandemic,  EU  emissions  in  2022  are  estimated  to  have 
returned to the downward trend seen over the past 30 years. According to provisional data, 
total EU domestic GHG emissions (excluding LULUCF and international aviation) decreased 
by 2.4% in 2022 compared to 2021, while GDP grew by 3.5%. This translates into a reduction 
of 30.4% compared to the 1990 base year (or 29% when international aviation is included)13. 
Over  the  same  period,  greenhouse  gas  net  removals  from  LULUCF  are  estimated  to  have 

11 The Union will need to invest EUR 477 billion more per year in 2021–2030 than it did in 2011–2020 to meet 
its emissions-reduction targets in the energy and transport sectors. It will need to invest an additional EUR 110 
billion per year to achieve its environmental objectives. Source: Commission Recommendation (EU) 
2023/1425. 
12 COM(2024) 63 final. 
13 COM(2023) 653 final, Annual Climate Action Progress Report (2023)  

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increased by 14 million tonnes of CO2 equivalent compared to 202114. As a result, net GHG 
emissions for 2022 (including LULUCF) are expected to be 32.5% below 1990 levels (or 
31.1% including international aviation). 

Although  the  EU’s  domestic  GHG  net  emissions  (i.e.  including  LULUCF  and  excluding 
international  transport)  are  falling  steadily,  the  pace  of  reduction  needs to  be  three  times 
faster than the average annual rate achieved over the last decade. Although sizeable, this is 
not unprecedented. In the two years before the pandemic, emissions fell by an annual average 
of  120  million  tonnes  of  CO2  equivalent,  due  to  progress  in  energy  efficiency  and  the  fast 
deployment of renewables. In 2022, key sectors in the EU, including energy-intensive industry, 
reduced their demand for energy compared to pre-pandemic levels, saving over 18% of gas 
compared to the five years before15.  

According to EEA estimates, the EU is likely to meet its 2030 target if the ‘Fit for 55’ legislation 
is fully implemented, if Member States’ updated national energy and climate plans bridge the 
remaining gaps (for instance to tap the potential of the circular economy), and if substantial 
additional action is taken in the buildings, transport and agricultural sectors. Relative to past 
mitigation  efforts,  the  most  significant  cuts  in  emissions  are  needed  in  buildings  and 
transport,  where  the  pace  of  decarbonisation  is  sluggish  or  even  moving  in  the  opposite 
direction. At the same time, action in the LULUCF sector is essential to achieve a significant 
boost in carbon removals. Although it looks possible to reach the emissions cuts required from 
agriculture when looking at progress over the past three decades, the recent lack of significant 
progress shows that more needs to be done. This is why the Commission has set up a Strategic 
Dialogue on the future of EU agriculture to jointly shape the transition.   

The EU Emission Trading System 

The EU Emissions Trading System (EU ETS) is a cornerstone of the EU’s climate action. 
It  covers  around  36%  of  the  EU’s  total  greenhouse  emissions  from  electricity  and  heat 
generation, manufacturing industry and aviation within Europe16. By setting a cap on the total 
GHG emissions, the system ensures that these emissions decrease over time. Within the cap, 
allowances  are distributed primarily via auctioning,  which raises revenue for Member State 
budgets to fund climate action and energy transformation. The price of allowances is set by the 
market, so the ETS incentivises cost-effective emission reductions. 

By  2022,  the  EU  ETS  had  helped  drive  down  emissions  from  power  and  industry 
installations by 37.3% compared to 2005 levels. These emission reductions have been largely 
driven by the energy sector switching from coal to gas and increasing the roll-out of renewable 
energy sources. However, the latest emission trends in the EU ETS also reflect the impacts of 
the COVID-19 pandemic and the energy crisis. 

The EU ETS has raised over EUR 152 billion in auction revenues that Member States have 
mainly  used  to  fund  projects  in  renewable  energy,  energy  efficiency  and  low-emission 
transport. In the wake of the energy crisis, Member States have also used their ETS revenues 
to tackle the negative impacts on consumers and industries. 

14 Provisional 2022 data may indicate a break to the downward trend in the LULUCF sink observed in recent 
years. However, the assessment reflects the uncertainty of the data and will possibly be subject to larger 
revisions. 
15 5-year average compared with gas consumption between August 2022 and June 2023 (State of Energy Union 
Report 2023). 
16 Including departing flights to Switzerland and the United Kingdom. 

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The EU ETS was revised under the ‘Fit for 55’ package to bring down emissions faster and 
across more sectors. The European Parliament and Member States in the Council agreed to 
tighten the cap on GHG emissions and to extend the system to cover emissions from maritime 
transport. Reducing the free allocation will help further reduce emissions from manufacturing 
industry and aviation. At the same time, it leverages more resources to fund decarbonisation in 
ETS sectors. The revision commits Member States to using all ETS revenue (or an equivalent) 
to  fund  climate  action,  energy  transformation  and  to  tackle  the  social  challenges  of  carbon 
pricing. It also increases the size of the Innovation and Modernisation Funds. 

The revised EU ETS entered into force on 5 June 2023, with most changes taking effect from 
1 January 2024. Work on the implementing legislation is ongoing. More details on how the EU 
ETS performed in 2022 are available in the Carbon Market Report 202317. 

Effort sharing emissions  

The EU's effort sharing legislation covers GHG emissions from domestic transport (excluding 
CO2  emissions  from  aviation),  buildings,  agriculture,  small  industry  and  waste.  It  covers 
around  60%  of  the  EU’s  domestic  emissions.  The  effort  sharing  legislation  sets  binding 
national targets to reduce emissions in these sectors compared to 2005 levels, firstly under the 
Effort  Sharing  Decision18  (ESD)  covering  the  period  2013-2020  and  then  under  the  Effort 
Sharing Regulation19 (ESR) covering the period 2021-2030. 

From 2013 to 2020, all Member States met their effort sharing obligations every year. The 
EU  exceeded  its  2020  emission  reductions  target  by  over  six  percentage  points.  EU-27 
emissions covered by the ESD were 16.3% lower in 2020 than they were in 200520. 

Based on approximated data, emissions from the effort sharing sectors in 2022 were 3% lower 
than in 2021. Emissions fell in particular in the buildings sector, by over 9% compared to 2021. 
Small industry achieved the second largest emission reduction with a decrease of almost 6% 
compared to 2021. The transport sector is the largest sector under the ESR, generating over one 
third of all effort sharing emissions, and the only one where emissions increased, by over 2% 
from 2021 to 2022. 

In April 2023, the ESR was amended to reflect the EU's higher target for 2030. This increased 
the ESR EU-wide target to reduce emissions from 29% (for EU-27) to 40% by 2030 compared 
to  2005  levels.  The  EU's  overall  ESR  target  was  translated  into  higher  national  emission 
reduction targets by 2030 and more ambitious greenhouse gas emission limits for 2023-2030. 
The amendment also changed some of the scope for flexibility available to Member States to 
meet their annual GHG emission limits and targets and it strengthened other provisions. 

The land use, land-use change and forestry sector 

The land use, land-use change, and forestry (LULUCF) sector plays a significant role in 
achieving the EU’s climate neutrality goal. In the EU, the sector absorbs more greenhouse 
gases than it emits, removing significant volumes of carbon from the atmosphere and acting 
as a carbon sink. The sector also provides biomaterials that substitute fossil or carbon-intensive 
materials, which is equally important in the transition to a climate-neutral economy. 

17 COM(2023) 654 final 
18 Decision No 406/2009/EC. 
19 Regulation (EU) 2018/842 of 30 May 2018, as amended by Regulation (EU) 2023/857 of 19 April 2023. 
20 EU-27 emissions were 7.2% lower in 2020 than they were in 2013. 

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However, carbon removals have fallen at a worrying speed in recent years. In 2021, the 
EU’s carbon sink achieved a net removal of -230 Mt CO2-eq21. The downward trend in recent 
years persists, and the size of the carbon sink is continuing to decrease, though approximated 
data indicate that the sink is estimated to have increased to -244 Mt CO2-eq in 2022. 

This trend is mostly due to a decrease in forest-related removals, triggered mainly by an 
increase in harvesting. To a lesser extent, it is also caused by ageing forests storing less carbon 
in certain Member States, due to lower growth rates. Climate change is having an increasing 
impact too. The rising frequency and severity of disturbances such as wind throw, insect and 
fungus outbreaks, forest fires and droughts are undermining the role of forests as a carbon sink 
and in some cases turned them temporarily into carbon sources. There are many indications 
that,  due  to  climate  change,  the  future  robustness  of  Europe’s  forest  sinks  is  far  from 
guaranteed. The slowing rate of reforestation has also contributed to the fall in removals, but 
to a smaller extent.  

At EU level, cropland, grassland, wetlands and settlements are mainly sources of emissions 
from the LULUCF sector, with managed organic soils generating particularly high emissions. 
Action is needed in areas such as peatlands preservation and restoration to increase the volume 
of removals in this important ecosystem. Similarly, it is essential to make greater use of nature-
based solutions, not only for adaptation to climate change, but also for mitigation, as underlined 
by the latest IPCC assessment report22. 

The EEA estimates that it is very unlikely that EU will meet its 2030 target for GHG emissions 
from the LULUCF sector. 

2.2 Climate adaptation 

Action  on  adaptation  to  climate  change  has  advanced  significantly  under  the  current 
Commission's term of office. For the first time, there is now a legal obligation in the EU to 
adapt to the impacts of climate change. The 2021 Climate Law requires the EU and its Member 
States to make continuous progress on reducing vulnerability to climate impacts, increasing 
resilience and building adaptive capacity. With the physical impacts of climate change already 
manifesting at the worst end of the spectrum of what scientists anticipated and set to intensify 
even in the best-case scenario, building resilience is an ever more pressing concern. 

The  Commission  also  adopted  a  new  adaptation  strategy  in  2021.  It  outlines  a  long-term 
vision  for  the  EU  to  become  a  climate-resilient  society,  fully  adapted  to  the  unavoidable 
impacts  of  climate  change  by  2050.  It  pursues  three  objectives  alongside  integrating 
international  climate  action  into  its  framework  and  proposes  a  range  of  actions  to  meet  the 
objectives. These are smarter adaptation to improve knowledge and manage uncertainty; more 
systemic adaptation that supports policy development at all levels and all related policy fields; 
and faster adaptation across the board. 

EU-level progress on adaptation to date 

Two  years  after  adoption  of  the  Climate  Law,  the  Commission  assessed  progress  in 
implementing the Law, in line with the requirements. It published its assessment of EU-level 
progress in October 202323. 

21 2023 submission of GHGI reported data on LULUCF, as reported for the entire sector scope. 
22 IPCC, 2022: Summary for Policymakers. 
23 COM(2023) 653 final, Annual Climate Action Progress Report (2023).  

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Implementing the adaptation strategy has involved an exceptionally broad range of policies to 
date. In some areas, such as health policy, adaptation is being mainstreamed at a rapid rate. 
In others, awareness of the impacts of climate change has increased, providing a good basis 
for the progress needed to ensure that all policies exposed to climate risks reflect this properly. 

To improve knowledge and manage uncertainty, the Commission and the EEA have expanded 
the  content  and  partners  of  the  European  Climate  and  Health  Observatory  to  help  build 
resilience  to  the  impacts  of  climate  change  on  human  health.  New  calls  for  projects  under 
Horizon  Europe  have  been  launched  to  close  knowledge  gaps  on  climate  impacts  and 
resilience and the Risk Data Hub is under development. The Commission is working to expand 
the content and impact of the Climate-ADAPT knowledge exchange platform.  

The first ever European Climate Risk Assessment has been published. Climate Resilience 
Dialogues  have  brought  together  policymakers,  insurers,  risk  managers,  consumers,  city 
associations and other stakeholders to discuss and identify possible actions on insurance and 
investing in adaptation to help narrow the climate protection gap. 

The European Drought Observatory promotes the sustainable use of freshwater by sharing 
knowledge. To tackle the issue of water scarcity, six times more water could be reused than 
current levels, facilitated amongst others by the Water Reuse Regulation that entered into force 
in 2023. The European Flood Awareness System aims to increase preparedness, but recent, 
dramatic floodings episodes in the EU show that there is untapped potential to improve uptake 
at national and local level, in better synergy with Member States’ work to prepare their flood 
risk management plans by the set deadline. 

Mindful  of  the  broader  need  to  secure  sustainable  water  management,  the  Commission  has 
stepped up work to integrate adaptation action systematically in sectoral strategies and plans, 
with  updated  guidelines  on  Member  State  adaptation  strategies  and  plans  and 
complementary support from the Technical Support Instrument, including under the 2023 
flagship project on adaptation.  

In 2021, the Commission published technical guidance on climate proofing infrastructure 
projects  and,  in  2023,  on  enhancing  the  climate  resilience  of  buildings.  Climate  proofing 
applies to infrastructure and buildings funded by the EU budget. 

The European Climate Pact, a stakeholder platform launched by the Commission to empower 
people to act and advocate on climate matters, runs adaptation and mitigation initiatives. The 
Policy  Support  Facility  under  the  EU  Covenant  of  Mayors  has  involved  over  a  thousand 
people over the past year and a half, including 350 municipalities, in national workshops. This 
work  has  led  to  eight  cities  developing  peer-to-peer  exchanges  on  climate  action  and  37 
adaptation measures implemented. 

Good progress has been made in implementing the EU Mission on Adaptation to Climate 
Change, designed to speed up innovative adaptation action at local and regional levels. Over 
300 regions and communities covering some 40% of the EU have signed up to the Mission 
Charter and committed to work together to accelerate action to achieve climate resilience. The 
Adaptation Community of Practice is live, and the technical support facility is operational. 

Climate resilience as an issue is now far more visible across EU policies than it was a few 
years ago. Additional work has been carried out to include adaptation objectives in legislative 
proposals where resilience to climate change (or risks interacting with climate impacts) were 
not  the  primary  objectives.  For  example,  the  proposal  to  amend  the  Budgetary  Framework 
Directive,  as  part  of  the  economic  governance  review,  includes  reporting  requirements  for 

8 

 
 
Member States on macro-fiscal risks from climate change and on disaster and climate-related 
contingent  liabilities.  Similarly,  the  proposal  to  revise  the  Urban  Wastewater  Treatment 
Directive included measures to tackle the overflow of sewage systems caused by flash floods, 
likely  to  become  more  intense  and  frequent  across  Europe  due  to  the  changing  climate. 
Implementation  will  need  to  continue,  building  on  measures  initiated  under  the  adaptation 
strategy. 

The  Commission  now  also  requires  impact  assessments  to  carry  out  a  consistency  check 
against  the  climate  adaptation  objectives,  which  should  be  done  systematically,  covering 
both emission reduction and adaptation objectives. 

Member State progress to date on adaptation  

The competence to act for better resilience to climate impacts and the ownership of risk does 
not rest purely at the European level. Action at Member State level greatly determines the 
impact,  both  in  terms  of  vulnerability and resilience, and of our capacity to  adapt.  Member 
States often give responsibility for adaptation action to local government with, for example, 
significant power over spatial and regional planning. However, national governments tend to 
bear most of the cost of recovery and reconstruction that falls on the public sector after climate-
linked  disasters.  Member  States  may  also  call  on  the  EU  Solidarity  and  Emergency  Aid 
Reserve,  which  is  at  risk  of  being  exhausted  earlier  and  earlier  in  the  year  as  the  scale  of 
disasters  increases.  In  just  two  years,  requests  for  assistance  from  the  EU  Civil  Protection 
Mechanism increased by 400%. 

In December 2023, the European Commission issued an assessment of national progress on 
adaptation24 and recommendations to the Member States25. The most common acute climate 
hazards in the EU include heatwaves, droughts, floods, heavy rainfall and wildfires. Changing 
temperature,  rainfall  patterns,  sea-level  rise  and  hydrological  variability  are  frequently 
identified as chronic hazards. Member States report health, agriculture, forestry, biodiversity, 
energy and water management as the sectors most affected by climate threats in the EU. 

Almost  all  Member  States  have  conducted  climate  risk  assessments.  However,  robust 
comprehensive climate risk assessments covering more than five sectors are an exception rather 
than a rule. All Member States have national adaptation strategies and/or plans, many of which 
have recently been updated or are currently under revision. 

The  Member  States  have  also  put  in  place  governance  structures  and  mechanisms  for 
adaptation, varying greatly in terms of their institutional arrangements. Eight Member States 
have embedded elements of their adaptation policy systems in domestic legal frameworks. The 
prime  minister’s  office  or  another  body  with  strong  political  authority  across  all  sectoral 
policies concerned is rarely involved in managing inter-ministerial coordination on adaptation. 
Monitoring, reporting and evaluation mechanisms are lacking in several Member States. 

Member States are making progress in implementing adaptation measures, but significant gaps 
remain in assessing the investment needs for adaptation (at national and EU level), and most 
countries lack dedicated budgets to finance this action. Progress remains unclear on adaptive 
capacity. 

24 SWD (2023) 932. 
25 European Climate Law - Recommendations to Member States 

9 

 
 
 
Nature-based solutions are included only to a limited extent at strategic level and in policy 
documents, especially sectoral strategies and plans. This may hamper their more systemic use 
and deployment for climate adaptation. 

The  private  sector  also  has  an  important  role  to  play.  Improving  climate  resilience  and 
adaptive capacities to climate change requires concerted efforts by all sectors of the economy 
and society, aided by policy coherence and consistency in all related legislation and policies. 

Outlook to 2030 

It is challenging to measure the effectiveness and impact of adaptation policies. There are 
some good examples of innovative indicators being developed, though for the moment their 
geographical and timeframe coverage is narrow. One such example is a shift in heat mortality 
thresholds, i.e. the temperature at which deaths increase rapidly in a given location. In Seville, 
it  has  increased  from  40ºC  in  2000-2009  to  41.5 °C.  This  suggests  a  degree  of  successful 
adaptation, but it is not possible to identify how each type of adaptation measure contributes 
specifically to this outcome. 

The 8th environmental action programme tracks climate adaptation by looking at changes to 
climate-related economic losses and the impacts  of drought on ecosystems. The former is a 
widely used indicator for adaptation. The advantage is good coverage across all Member States 
and an available time-series, and the disadvantage is the imperfections in the data captured. 
Building resilience reduces economic losses relative to no action on adaptation. On the other 
hand, losses may outpace the beneficial effects of adaptation if the climate-related hazards are 
intensifying even faster. There have also been historically high degrees of variability from year 
to year. The data is therefore to be interpreted with these considerations in mind. 

The EEA estimates that the prospect of monetary losses from climate-related events falling 
over the coming years is unlikely but uncertain. Extreme events are projected to become 
even more intense, but full implementation of adaptation strategies can limit the costs. 

Tracking the impact of drought26 on health and ecosystems complements the picture by giving 
a  proxy  for  nature’s  ability  to  provide  a  wide  range  of  environmental,  social  and  economic 
benefits. The health of ecosystems links to a range of values27 and to human well-being, and is 
itself impacted by climate-linked hazards, above all drought. The productivity of vegetation is 
linked to the EU’s ability to achieve its climate change mitigation objective through carbon 
sequestration, to the contribution of vegetated land to disaster risk reduction, to implementation 
of the EU's biodiversity and soil strategies and also to the contribution of natural capital to the 
economy at large, viable food production and other long-term objectives. 

The EEA also estimates that the area affected by drought is unlikely to get smaller in the 
coming years, although this too is uncertain. Similarly to economic losses related to climate-
linked events, the outcome depends to a high degree on the success in implementing adaptation 
strategies and more broadly, the quality and implementation of adaptation policies. 

26 EDO Home - European Drought Observatory - JRC European Commission (europa.eu) 
27 Methodological assessment regarding the diverse conceptualization of multiple values of nature and its 
benefits, including biodiversity and ecosystem functions and services | IPBES secretariat 

10 

 
 
 
 
2.3 A clean circular economy 

The  second  circular  economy  action  plan28,  adopted  in  2020,  responds  to  the  goal  of 
transformative  change  set  by  the  European  Green  Deal  and  to  SDG  12  on  responsible 
consumption  and  production.  It  draws  on  several  policy  instruments  to  reach  the  8th 
environment action programme priority objective of ‘advancing towards an economy that gives 
back  to  the  planet  more  than  it  takes,  where  growth  is  regenerative,  resources  are  used 
efficiently and sustainably, and the waste hierarchy is applied’.  

While  the  first  circular  economy  action  plan,  adopted  in  2015,  focused  on  increasing  the 
ambition  of  waste  legislation  and  a  comprehensive  plastics  strategy,  the  second  action  plan 
focuses  on  earlier  stages  in  the  product  life-cycle,  in  particular  the  design  stage.  It  also 
focuses  on  reducing  waste  generation,  strengthening  producer  responsibility  and  improving 
waste management, with measures to support businesses, cities and regions and citizens in this 
transition. 

Other  EU-level  actions  complement  the  measures  set  out  in  the  second  action  plan.  For 
example, the Sustainable Finance Taxonomy sets technical screening  criteria to determine a 
‘substantial contribution to circular economy’ in several areas of economic activity. Funding 
programmes, including the Recovery and Resilience Facility and the New European Bauhaus, 
have supported circular initiatives, in addition to long-standing financing programmes. 

A sustainable product policy framework 

The second circular economy action plan announces a series of initiatives to make sustainable 
products the norm in the EU, to empower consumers to make sustainable choices and to foster 
resource efficiency in production processes. 

The  cornerstone  of  the  policy  framework  is  the  new  Ecodesign  for  Sustainable  Products 
Regulation29.  The  Regulation  establishes  a  process  for  setting  design  requirements  for 
products placed on the EU single market, whether produced inside or outside the EU, and in 
compliance with international trade rules. 

The  Regulation  extends  the  scope  of  the  current  Ecodesign  Directive,  which  covers  only 
energy-related products, to a wider range of products. It will bring in design requirements for 
specific  product  categories  to  make  them  last  longer,  be  reusable,  reparable  and 
recyclable, as well as sustainable, energy and resource efficient. It enables restrictions on 
substances of concern that inhibit circularity, and requirements for carbon and environmental 
footprinting  and  recycled  content.  In  addition  to  physical  design  requirements,  a  Digital 
Product Passport will ensure relevant data is made available to consumers, businesses along 
the  value  chain  (such  as  repairers  and  recyclers)  and  to  market  surveillance  and  customs 
authorities. 

The Regulation also brings in a ban on the destruction of unsold textiles and footwear. It 
empowers the Commission to bring in similar bans for other categories of unsold products in 
future if evidence demonstrates the need for action. 

Lastly, the Commission will be able to lay down mandatory green public procurement rules 
for  contracting  authorities  in  the  EU  to  steer  public  purchasing  towards  more  sustainable 
products. 

28 COM(2020) 98. 
29 COM(2022)142 final. Provisional political agreement reached on 5.12.2023, publication in the Official Journal 
expected in the course of 2024. The agreed text is public and can be found here. 

11 

 
 
 
The  Commission  tabled  three  pieces  of  legislation  enabling  consumers  to  make  more 
sustainable choices. The aim of the proposal for a Directive to Empower Consumers for the 
Green Transition30 is to enhance consumer rights by amending the Unfair Commercial Practices 
Directive and the Consumer Rights Directive. The amendments inform consumers of how long 
a product is designed to  last, and how (if at all) it can be repaired. It strengthens consumer 
protection  against  untrustworthy  or  false  environmental  claims,  effectively  banning 
‘greenwashing’.  

The proposal for a Green Claims Directive31 complements this work by setting common criteria 
to  guard against greenwashing and misleading  environmental  claims. The Commission  also 
adopted  a  legislative  proposal32  to  ensure  that  more  products  are  repaired  within  the  legal 
guarantee,  and  that  consumers  have  easier  and  cheaper  options  to  repair  products  that  are 
technically repairable  (when the legal  guarantee  has expired or when the good is  no longer 
functional as a result of wear and tear). 

The  second  circular  economy  action  plan  also  proposed  actions  to  improve  the  resource 
efficiency  of  production  processes.  The  revised  Industrial  Emissions  Directive  will 
contribute  to  this  objective  by  including  resource  use  performance  levels,  as  well  as  lower 
chemical pollution through requirements to reduce the use of toxic chemicals during industrial 
processes. Industrial symbiosis, where the waste of a company is used by another company as 
a  resource,  was  also  supported  thanks  to  the  EU-funded  programme,  CircLean33  aimed  at 
creating a European network of businesses and SMEs for industrial symbiosis. 

Key value chains 

Under the second circular economy action plan, the Commission has proposed comprehensive 
value chain strategies and targeted action for high-impact activities. 

Key value chains   Actions 

Electronics  and 
ICT  

Batteries and 
vehicles 

Ecodesign requirements and an energy label will apply to smartphones 
and tablets as of 2025, promoting the use of fewer natural resources and 
greater  energy  efficiency.  Legislation  on  a  common  charger  will 
contribute as of 2024 to reducing electronic waste in the EU. Finally, the 
Commission has issued recommendations to the Member States on the 
return of used and waste mobile phones, tablets and laptops 34. 

A new regulation on sustainable batteries35 will ensure that batteries have 
a low carbon footprint, use minimal harmful substances, need less raw 
materials from non-EU countries, and are collected, reused and recycled 
to a high degree in Europe. The Commission recently tabled a proposal 
for  a  regulation  to  improve  the  circularity  of  the  automotive  sector, 
covering the design, production and end-of-life processing of vehicles. 

Packaging 

New EU-wide rules36 on packaging aim to tackle this source of waste by 
preventing the generation of packaging waste, by making all packaging 

30 COM/2022/143 final, 30.3.2022. Publication in the Official Journal in the course of 2024. 
31 COM(2023) 166 final in negotiation with co-legislators. 
32 COM(2023) 155 final 
33 https://circlean-symbiosis.eu/ 
34 Commission Regulation (EU) 2023/1670, Directive 2014/53/EU and COM Recommandation (EU) 2023/2585. 
35 Regulation (EU) 2023/1542 and COM(2023) 451 final. 
36 COM(2022) 677 final. 

12 

 
 
 
Plastics 

Textiles 

Construction 
and buildings 

Food, water and 
nutrients, for a 
circular 
bioeconomy 

on the EU market recyclable in an economically viable way by 2030, and 
by  increasing  the  use  of  recycled  plastics  in  packaging  through 
mandatory targets. 

The  policy  framework  on  the  sourcing,  labelling  and  use  of  biobased 
plastics and the use of biodegradable and compostable plastics aims to 
clarify where these plastics can bring genuine environmental benefits. In 
2023,  the  European  Commission  adopted  a  REACH  restriction  on 
microplastics  intentionally  added  to  products  and  a  proposal  for  a 
regulation37 on preventing plastic pellet losses to the environment. These 
actions will directly contribute to reaching the 30% reduction target for 
microplastic releases set out in the zero pollution action plan. 

The EU strategy for sustainable and circular textiles38 sets a vision for 
this sector by 2030, building upon the application of the ESPR to textiles, 
including  Digital  Products  Passports,  upon  the  establishment  of 
harmonised  EPR  requirements  in  the  recent  targeted  revision  of  the 
Waste  Framework  Directive,  and  the  review  of  the  Textile  Labelling 
Regulation. The strategy also calls on businesses and consumers to make 
fast fashion go out of fashion.  

The transformative change of this sector started with the launch of the 
Renovation  Wave.  It  continued  with  the  proposal  to  revise  the 
Construction  Products  Regulation  and  the  transition  pathway  of  this 
ecosystem39.  

The second circular economy action plan also targeted the circular use of 
renewable  resources,  in  line  with  the  bioeconomy  strategy.  Efforts 
focused on setting an EU-wide food waste prevention target, which was 
integrated in the proposed revision of the Waste Framework Directive in 
202340.  Work  will  continue  to  reduce  nutrient  losses  and  to  increase 
nutrient recovery (nitrogen & phosphorus). An ongoing evaluation of the 
Nitrates Directive will also look at whether it sufficiently promotes the 
recycling of nutrients from various sources. 

Less waste, more value 

Waste policies were pivotal to the transformation proposed by the second action plan, as they 
have been driving improvements in the EU since 1970. The agenda sketched out in 2020 was 
built  on  reaping  the  contribution  of  the  Ecodesign  for  Sustainable  Products  Regulation  and 
other  circular  economy  instruments  to  help  prevent  waste.  The  Extended  Produced 
Responsibility schemes are key to achieving this, and they have been applied to other areas 
such as textiles41. 

The Commission has also revised key pieces of  legislation to make them fit to the circular 
economy in the digital age in critical areas such as batteries, end-of-life vehicles or packaging. 

37 COM(2022) 682 final, COM Regulation (EU) 2023/2055  and COM(2023) 645 final. 
38 COM(2022) 141. 
39 COM(2020) 662 final and COM(2022) 144 final.  
40 COM(2023) 420 final. 
41 COM(2023) 420 final. 

13 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
On packaging, the Commission has also brought in measures such as clear labels to facilitate 
the disposal for consumers and to improve collection and recycling. 

The second action plan sought to make ‘recycled in the EU’ a sign of quality recycling and 
recycled  materials.  In  line  with  the  goal  of  zero  pollution,  the  Commission  has  worked  to 
achieve clean recycling cycles, for instance, minimising the presence in recycled materials of 
substances that pose problems to health or the environment. The Commission has prioritised 
work on end-of-waste criteria for certain materials42, starting with plastics and textiles.  

These actions aim to reduce waste generation and improve waste recycling, which should equip 
the EU to recycle waste and limit exports of waste to other countries. To reach these goals, 
the  revised  Waste  Shipment  Regulation43  brought  in  measures  to  reduce  shipments  of 
problematic waste to outside the EU, update shipment procedures to reflect the objectives of 
the circular economy and improve enforcement within EU borders. 

Managing  critical  raw  materials  is  a  good  example  of  the  importance  of  effective  waste 
policies  in  boosting  the  EU's  supply  autonomy.  In  March  2023,  the  European  Commission 
proposed  the  Critical  Raw  Material Act44  to  ensure  the  secure  and  sustainable  supply  and 
sustainable recovery of critical raw materials. It proposes a capacity target of at least 15% of 
the EU’s annual consumption of critical raw materials from recycling. 

Helping Member States and businesses unlock the benefits of the circular economy 

The  Commission  has  encouraged  Member  States  to  develop  their  own  strategies  for 
promoting  the  circular  economy  and  23  have  already  done  so.  The  Environmental 
Implementation Reports and the European Semester process of macroeconomic coordination 
are guiding national approaches, funded by the Recovery and Resilience Facility, the Technical 
Support  Instrument and other EU funding programmes. It is  estimated that  of the  EUR 282 
billion in total environmental expenditure under the current EU multiannual budget and the 
Recovery  and  Resilience  Facility  combined,  almost  EUR 17  billion  (5.9%)  is  allocated  to 
action on the circular economy. 

The European Circular Economy Stakeholder Platform45, a joint initiative by the Commission 
and the European Economic and Social Committee, continued to bring together the circular 
economy community to exchange good practices and discuss how best to support the transition. 

Leading action at global level 

EU action has also promoted the circular economy at global level. Launched and supported 
by  the  EU,  the  Global  Alliance  on  Circular  Economy  and  Resource  Efficiency  aims  to 
accelerate the global transition, in particular through more coordinated action on priority areas 
such as textiles. The EU is paving the way for a new global agreement on plastics, to prevent 
plastic pollution throughout the entire plastics lifecycle. The circular economy is one of the 
pillars of bilateral and regional outreach/dialogues with third countries.  

The European Commission also joined the Latin America and Caribbean Circular Economy 
Coalition and African Circular Economy Alliance. In multilateral fora, the EU has put forward 
resolutions adopted at the 4th, 5th and 6th session of the UN Environment Assembly. 

42 https://publications.jrc.ec.europa.eu/repository/handle/JRC128647 
43 COM(2021) 709 final. 
44 COM(2023) 160 final. 
45 https://circulareconomy.europa.eu/platform/en 

14 

 
 
 
Progress and outlook to the 2030 targets 

The indicators assessed in the EEA 8th environment action programme monitoring report show 
that it is still too early to see progress on the ground. According to the EEA, it is unlikely that 
the EU will achieve a significant reduction of its consumption and material footprint and double 
circular  material  use  rate  by  2030.  Similarly,  it  is  unlikely  that  the  EU  will  reach  its  waste 
legislative targets46. The EU is still largely dependent on imported materials, especially critical 
raw materials. Faster progress on circularity will boost EU competitiveness and open strategic 
autonomy.  The  latest  trends  in  the  revised  Circular  Economy  Monitoring  Framework47, 
including indicators on material footprint and consumption footprint, also confirm that the EU 
is far off the targets set in the second circular economy action plan.  

EU  production  has  become  more  resource-efficient,  with  resource  productivity  having 
increased by around 35% since 2000. However, the EU's material footprint has also increased 
in the last decade, reaching 14.8 tonnes in 202248. 

Overall, the volume of waste generated (by households and economic activities) has fallen by 
3%  since  2010  and  amounted  to  2.15  billion  tonnes  in  2020,  while  the  amount  of  residual 
municipal waste generated each year has stabilised at about 113 million tonnes over the last 
five years49, showing limited progress on the waste reduction objectives set out in the second 
action  plan  and  the  zero  pollution  action  plan50.  Some  specific  waste  streams  increased: 
municipal waste increased by 2% between 2010 and 2022 and reached 513 kg per capita.  

Food waste is stable but very high, amounting to 131 kg per capita (59 million tonnes of food 
waste) in 2021. EU packaging waste increased by 20% in the last decade, to reach 189 kg per 
person in 2021 (84 million tonnes). In particular, plastic packaging waste, which represents 
19% of EU packaging waste, increased by almost 27%. In 2021, each person living in the EU 
generated  an  average  of  around  36  kg  of  plastic  packaging  waste.  The  biggest  increase 
happened  between  2020  and  2021,  as  an  effect  of  the  COVID-19  pandemic:  in  2021  each 
European generated on average almost 11 kg more packaging waste than they did in 2020. 

Generally speaking, the EU is managing waste better in terms of the waste hierarchy, but wide 
differences  persist  between  Member  States  and  major  efforts  are  needed  to  improve  the 
management of some waste streams, such as plastics, biowaste, textile and food waste. Over 
the  last  decade,  the  EU's  recycling  rate  for  municipal  waste  increased  by  around  10 
percentage points  to  reach 49% in  2021, and  for plastic packaging waste by 4 percentage 
points to 40% in 2021. The recycling rate for overall packaging waste was stable at 64%. 
The latest figures show that in 2021, some 81% of collected waste electrical and electronic 
equipment is either reused or recycled in the EU, stable since 2012. 

Recycled  materials  only  met  11.5%  of  EU  demand  for  materials  in  2022,  only  half  a 
percentage point more than in 2012. This is higher than the global circularity rate of 7.2%51. 
The ratio of secondary critical raw materials is still low or negligible. The end-of-life recycling 
input rates reach 16% for nickel and 22% for cobalt, both raw materials used in batteries. For 

46 See also COM(2023) 304 final. 
47 COM(2023) 306 final and SWD(2023) 306 final. The indicators presented in this section are included in the 
EU circular economy monitoring framework and data are available on: Monitoring framework - Eurostat 
(europa.eu) 
48 Data quoted in this section are available in the EU circular economy monitoring framework, hosted by 
Eurostat: Monitoring framework - Eurostat (europa.eu) 
49 EEA, https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/reaching-2030s-residual-municipal-waste  
50 Target 6 of the zero pollution action plan. 
51 Circularity gap report 2024: https://www.circularity-gap.world/2024 CGR 2024 (circularity-gap.world) 

15 

 
 
 
many specialty metals and rare-earth elements such as lithium, gallium and neodymium, the 
end-of-life recycling input rate is around 1%. 

In 2021, the EU was overall a net importer of recyclable raw materials. Trade in waste in 
the  EU  increased  by  around  40%  between  2004  and  202152,  enabling  business  to  reap  the 
benefits of the EU’s internal market for secondary raw materials. 

Optimised material use significantly reduces the EU’s dependency on imported materials, 
which was around 22% in 2022, up slightly since 2000. The highest levels of dependency are 
on  fossil-energy  materials,  including  plastics  (71%  dependency)  and  metal  ore  (52%).  For 
critical raw materials (like cobalt for batteries used in electric vehicles and silicon for solar 
panels), the EU relies on imports to a large extent53. For refined rare-earth elements and refined 
magnesium, the EU is fully dependent on imports from China54. 

The main sectors in the circular economy have grown in recent years, boosting jobs and EU 
competitiveness. In 2021 there were 4.3 million jobs in these sectors, up 11% since 2015, with 
an added value of around EUR 299 billion, up 27% since 2015. 

The second action plan proposed a forward-looking and ambitious legislative agenda, which 
goes  beyond  waste  management.  It  contains  action  on  waste  generation  and  unsustainable 
consumption trends, also in key value chains. It prioritises the circular economy for innovation 
funding  and  private  investment.  To  address  the  findings  of  the  EEA  monitoring  report  on 
progress towards the 8th environment action programme objectives, it will be critical for the 
public authorities and businesses to take joint implementation action and to keep the issue high 
on the EU policy agenda for the next Commission's term of office. 

2.4 Zero pollution 

Clean air, clean water and clean soils are preconditions for life. Pollution threatens well-being 
and is one of the main drivers of biodiversity loss. It generates significant economic costs for 
society, causes premature deaths, many other physical and mental health effects and reduces 
ecosystem services such as carbon sequestration and decontamination. 

The European Green Deal took action on pollution to the next level by setting the goal of zero 
pollution for a toxic-free environment. This became the priority objective on zero pollution 
in  the  8th  environment  action  programme,  further  developed  in  the  zero  pollution  action 
plan55. The plan outlines the long-term vision that ‘by 2050 air, water and soil pollution [are] 
to be reduced to levels no longer considered harmful to health and natural ecosystems, that 
respect  the  boundaries  with  which  our  planet  can  cope,  thereby  creating  a  toxic-free 
environment.’56 It helps the EU meeting several SDGs, in particular SDG 3 on good health and 
well-being,  SDG  6  on  clean  water  and  sanitation  and  SDG  11  on  sustainable  cities  and 
communities,  

In addition, the action plan57 sets six key targets, that by 2030 the EU should reduce: 

1.  by more than 55% the health impacts (premature deaths) of air pollution; 
2.  by 30% the share of people chronically disturbed by transport noise; 
3.  by 25% the EU ecosystems where air pollution threatens biodiversity; 

52 In particular for plastics, paper, cardboard, copper, aluminium, nickel and precious metals. 
53 Eurostat [cei_gsr020]. 
54 https://rmis.jrc.ec.europa.eu/eu-critical-raw-materials  
55 Zero pollution action plan - European Commission (europa.eu) 
56 This is in line with priority objective in Article 2.1 of the 8th environment action programme. 
57 COM(2021) 400. 

16 

 
 
 
4.  by 50% nutrient  losses, the use and risk of  chemical pesticides, the use of  the more 
hazardous ones, and the sale of antimicrobials for farmed animals and in aquaculture; 

5.  by 50% plastic litter at sea and by 30% microplastics released into the environment; 
6.  total waste generation significantly and residual municipal waste by 50%.’ 

The  ‘chemicals  strategy  for  sustainability’58  has  corresponding  objectives  focused  on 
chemical pollution. Both the zero pollution action plan and the chemicals strategy establish a 
clear  hierarchy  whereby  the  priority  should  always  be  to  prevent  pollution  (alongside  the 
precautionary principle and the polluter pays principle). 

The  action  plan  entitled  ‘Towards  Zero  Pollution  for Air,  Water  and  Soil’59  sets  out  9 
flagship  initiatives  and  33  actions  to  progress  on  these  2030  and  2050  objectives.  The 
chemicals  strategy  for  sustainability  outlines  over  80  actions.  Most  of  these  flagship 
initiatives and actions have been completed or are at an advance stage of implementation60. 

In  addition,  there  were  also  many  specific  actions  on  preventing  and  reducing  pollution 
taken under other strategies61 under the European Green Deal. Once adopted and implemented, 
they will make a significant contribution to progress on the goal of zero pollution for a toxic-
free environment. 

The actions are based on an integrated approach to pollution in air, water and the soil. They 
mostly tackle the impacts of pollution on health and/or biodiversity or seek to reduce pollution 
and waste as a driver for the circular economy. 

Under  the  heading  on  ‘zero  pollution  &  health’,  the  Commission  has  set  out  a  number  of 
initiatives. The revised Ambient Air Quality Directives62 aims to further improve air quality 
and align EU air quality standards more closely with the recommendations of the World Health 
Organization (WHO). The goal is to align standards with the WHO air quality guidelines by 
2050  at  the  latest  to  better  protect  people’s  health  and  well-being  (e.g.  to  further  reduce 
premature deaths).  

Other  important  legislative  work  includes  the  revision  of  the  Regulation  on  classification, 
labelling and packaging of chemicals63, the proposals on ‘one substance, one assessment’64, the 
revision of the Mercury Regulation65  and a new Regulation on EURO7 for vehicle emissions66; 
there was preparatory work for the revision of EU rules on food contact materials67. This work 
goes hand in hand with the agreements to reach climate neutrality by 2050 and legislation to 
reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 2030 as set out in the ‘Fit for 55’ package, such as the 
proposal for a new Energy Efficiency Directive, the revised Renewable Energy Directive and 
standards for certain polluting products under the energy efficient products legislation. 

58 COM(2020) 667. 
59 COM(2021) 400. 
60 See the zero pollution action tracker and the chemicals strategy action tracker. 
61 E.g. the farm to fork strategy, the circular economy action plan, the biodiversity strategy and the beating 
cancer action plan (see details in COM(2022) 674). 
62 COM(2022) 542 final/2. 
63 COM(2022) 748 final. 
64 See: https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_23_6413. COM(2023) 779 final, COM(2023) 
783 final and COM (2023) 781 final. 
65 COM(2023)395. 
66 COM(2022) 586. 
67 https://food.ec.europa.eu/safety/chemical-safety/food-contact-materials/revision-eu-rules_en  

17 

 
 
 
Under the heading ‘zero pollution & biodiversity’, the zero pollution policy package included 
two water initiatives, the revised Urban Wastewater Treatment Directive68 and an update of the 
lists  of  surface  and  groundwater  pollutants69.  Marine  pollution  from  underwater  noise  and 
marine litter is tackled by setting EU-wide threshold values, which were set recently under the 
Marine Strategy Framework Directive70. In addition, the Commission has proposed a number 
of measures to better protect biodiversity from pollution, mainly as part of its biodiversity and 
‘farm to fork’ strategies (e.g. related to nutrients and antimicrobials) and a bespoke soil strategy 
with the centrepiece being a new proposal on soil monitoring and resilience71. Other important 
contributions will come through the strategic plans under the common agricultural policy72 or 
the pharmaceuticals strategy73. The Commission continues to encourage the use of integrated 
pest management and improved data collection on pesticide use74. 

Under the heading ‘zero pollution & circular economy’, the Commission highlights the need 
to have a clean and circular economy in Europe. The second circular economy action plan aims 
to make production and consumption systems safer and more sustainable (see the section on 
the  circular  economy).  The  revised  Industrial  Emissions  Directive75  and  the  associated 
Industrial Emissions Portal76 will substantively contribute to reducing pollutant emissions from 
the EU’s largest and most polluting industrial installations, while supporting EU industry in the 
shift to a decarbonised, zero-pollution and circular economy. 

In addition, non-legislative action will be important to implement this priority objective on 
pollution. The recommendations on safe and sustainable by design or the fitness check for the 
polluter pays principle are some examples of the work that can have systemic effects on the 
goal of zero pollution. An evaluation of the Marine Strategy Framework Directive is ongoing 
and should be completed in the second quarter of 2024, in preparation of a possible review of 
the Directive.  

At  the  same  time,  the  Commission  has  stepped  up  its  implementation  and  enforcement 
action,  as  laid  down  in  its  communications77,  in  particular  via  infringement  procedures  on 
Member States’ obligations under zero pollution legislation. End 2023, infringements related 
to  zero  pollution  legislation  made  up  48%  of  all  environmental  infringements78,  mainly 
breaches of the clean air legislation (Ambient Air Quality Directives and National Emission 
Reduction Commitments Directive) and the Urban Wastewater Treatment Directive79. 

Particular efforts were made to assist Member States in the implementation process and to 
integrate zero pollution into other policy areas, e.g. policies to reduce noise or marine pollution 

68 COM(2022) 541 final 
69 COM(2022) 540 final 
70 See action 12 under https://environment.ec.europa.eu/strategy/zero-pollution-stakeholder-platform/actions_en. 
71 COM(2023) 416 final 
72 CAP Strategic Plans - European Commission (europa.eu) 
73 Reform of the EU pharmaceutical legislation - European Commission (europa.eu) 
74 Including through the IPM toolbox, SMARTPROTECT, IPM Works, AdvisoryNetPest, EU-FarmBook, further Horizon 
Europe projects and other instruments (EU CAP Network and EIP-AGRI operational groups). 
75 COM(2022) 156 final 
76 COM(2022) 157 final 
77 COM(2022) 518 
78 For the other environmental sectors, infringements of biodiversity and circular economy legislation each make 
up 21% of infringements, and 10% concern environmental governance. 
79 DG Environment has also made available an interactive map which provides information and statistics on all 
open and closed environmental infringement cases: https://environment.ec.europa.eu/law-and-
governance/environmental-implementation-review_en#environmental-infringements-map-and-dashboard. 

18 

 
 
 
and  to  improve  drinking  water  quality80.  For  instance,  the  Technical  Support  Instrument 
provided support in the design of air quality policies and to improve environmental monitoring 
systems. 

The Commission took action on financing to prevent and reduce pollution in a number of 
ways. Most importantly, it set technical screening criteria to determine ‘substantial contribution 
to pollution reduction and water management’ under the Sustainable Finance Taxonomy in 
several  areas  of  economic  activity,  decisions  on  data  for  company  disclosures  under  the 
Corporate  Sustainability  Reporting  Directive  and  on  financing  under  long-standing  EU 
funding programmes, including the Recovery and Resilience Facility. 

There  has  also  been  significant  progress  in  fostering  global  action  on  zero  pollution. The 
Global  Biodiversity  Framework  includes  a  specific  target  on  pollution  (target  7),  which 
embraces the goal of zero pollution to protect biodiversity and ecosystems. The revised Waste 
Shipment  Regulation  regulates  EU  exports  of  waste,  in  line  with  international  rules. 
Negotiations  have  been  launched  on  a  Global  Plastics Agreement  and  to  establish  a  global 
Science-Policy Panel for Chemicals, Waste and Pollution. The improved and ambitious global 
framework for the sound management of chemicals and waste will be a major contribution to 
reaching the EU's goal of zero pollution. The EU commitments for the UN Water Conference 
2023 also included the goal of zero pollution. The link between pollution and the One Health 
agenda was highlighted at the seventh Ministerial Conference on Environment and Health. And 
negotiations have started on a legally binding agreement to strengthen pandemic prevention, 
preparedness and response. 

Important  decisions,  such  as  a  compliance  mechanism  or  the  listing  of  some  hazardous 
‘forever’ chemicals (some per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) and pesticides), have 
also  been  adopted  at  the  triple  Conferences  of  the  Parties  to  the  Basel,  Rotterdam  and 
Stockholm  Conventions  held  in  June  2022  and  May  2023.  To  tackle  the  impacts  of  air 
pollution from international shipping on health, the Mediterranean Sea has been designated as 
an Emission Control Area as of 1 May 2025 by the International Maritime Organization, which 
also contributes to the EU's goal of zero pollution and sustainable mobility under the Green 
Deal. 

The  EU  contributed  to  work  on  closing  the  gaps  in  global  science-policy  approach  to  zero 
pollution and on improving compliance with recognised environmental principles. 

As regards the knowledge base, several activities under Horizon Europe contribute to the goals 
of the zero pollution action plan, including the five Horizon Missions (focusing on cities, soil, 
ocean  &  waters,  climate  change  adaptation  and  cancer),  European  Partnerships,  clusters  of 
projects or individual projects. In October 2022, the Commission published a report presenting 
selected Horizon 2020 projects that contribute to implementing the nine flagship initiatives in 
the  zero  pollution  action  plan81.  In  addition,  EU  knowledge  providers  published  several 
publications and online tools, such as the EEA’s Health and Environment Atlas or JRC’s Atlas 
of Demography with thematic stories on demography and water, air and soil pollution82. 

In  December  2022,  the  Commission  adopted  a  comprehensive  Zero  Pollution  Monitoring 
and Outlook Report83, one of the headline actions in the zero pollution action plan. The report 

80 See actions on implementation in the zero pollution action tracker such as number 4, 5 and 6 on noise, 8 on 
drinking water or 11 and 12 on marine protection as well as horizontal actions under flagship 5 and actions 20 
and 21. 
81 Horizon projects supporting the Zero Pollution Action Plan | Research and innovation (europa.eu) 
82 European environment and health atlas goes live — check your place (europa.eu) 
83 COM(2022) 674 final. 

19 

 
 
 
assesses progress on the 2030 targets and looks at other indicators to give a comprehensive 
picture on progress. It uses modelling, where possible, to predict developments under a number 
of assumptions. It also identifies emerging pollution issues and describes the action taken. It is 
underpinned  by  the  Zero  Pollution  Monitoring  Assessment  published  by  the  European 
Environment Agency and a Zero Pollution Outlook for 2030 presented by the Joint Research 
Centre84. 

Progress and outlook to 2030 

Overall,  progress  on zero pollution is mixed. Despite the progress  made, every year, over 
10% of premature deaths in the EU are still related to environmental pollution. This is 
mainly due to high levels of air pollution, noise pollution and exposure to chemicals, which is 
likely to be underestimated85. Although the levels of certain chemicals are falling, the use of 
some substitute chemicals that present similar risks is steadily increasing.  

Pollution is not distributed equally across the EU. Vulnerable people, including children, the 
elderly  and  people  with  asthma or  other  respiratory  or cardiovascular diseases  are  more 
sensitive to pollution exposure. People in lower socio-economic groups also tend to be exposed 
to higher levels of pollution86. However, if the legislative proposals in the zero pollution action 
plan  (over  75%)  and  the  chemicals  strategy  for  sustainability  will  be  quickly  implemented, 
significant progress on reducing pollution is expected by 2030. 

Reducing by over 55% the health impacts (premature deaths) of air pollution by 2030 is 
one of the headline targets on zero pollution and in the 8th environment action programme. 
Compared to 2005 levels, tangible progress has been made, with a 41% reduction in pollution 
achieved by 202187. The EU is well on track to reach the 55% reduction target for the health 
impacts (premature deaths) of air pollution by 2030 in all scenarios analysed in the Third Clean 
Air Outlook88. As a result of the revision to the Ambient Air Quality Directive proposed by the 
Commission,  including  assumptions  on  the  outcome  of  implementing  the  ‘Fit  for  55’ 
legislation, reductions by over 70% compared to 2005 levels are likely to be achieved by 2030. 

The other headline indicator is on nutrient pollution of groundwater, which tracks progress 
on the objective of reducing nutrient losses by 50% by 2030. The EEA assessed that the EU is 
unlikely to meet this objective. In the first assessment of this target in 2022, a range of proxy 
indicators  seemed  to  indicate  that  nutrient  losses  have  remained  relatively  stable,  with  no 
indication of a significant reduction over the last decade89. Member States will need to take 
further action, including beyond what is  already required at EU level, to  meet the target on 
nutrient losses to the environment by 2030.  

Overall, water pollution levels remain high. The Commission is in the process of assessing 
the 3rd river basin management plans drawn up under the Water Framework Directive and will 
publish its 7th Implementation Report by the end of 2024. Indications are that the overall EU 
share of water bodies failing to achieve ‘good chemical status’ has not changed significantly, 

84 COM(2022) 674, the first Zero Pollution Monitoring and Outlook Report ; JRC Zero Pollution Outlook 2022 
- European Commission (europa.eu); EEA report on Zero pollution monitoring assessment — European 
Environment Agency (europa.eu), ‘Monitoring report on progress towards the 8th EAP objectives: 2023 edition 
85 An underestimation as it includes only a limited number of risk factors and does not, for example address the 
real health risks related to exposure to chemicals. Work is ongoing in the Horizon Europe partnership for the 
assessment of risk from chemicals (PARC). 
86 EEA Report No 22/2018 and new signal here. 
87 Harm to human health from air pollution in Europe: burden of disease 2023 
88 COM(2022) 673. 
89 COM(2022) 674. 

20 

 
 
 
with 23% of the EU’s almost 10 000 groundwater bodies and 59% of the EU’s nearly 100 000 
surface water reported to fail in the 2nd river basin management plan (data from 2015)90. On 
the positive side, the EU has clean drinking water and bathing waters with overall high rates 
of compliance with existing legislation (>99% and 96% respectively)91. 

On  the  other  targets  listed  in  the  zero  pollution  action  plan,  there  has  been  a  reduction  in 
pollution over the past years, namely in:  

-  EU ecosystems where air pollution threatens biodiversity [by -12%];  
- 
- 
- 
- 

the use and risk of chemical pesticides92 [by -33%];  
the use of the more hazardous pesticides [by -21%];  
the sale of antimicrobials for farmed animals and in aquaculture [by -18%]; and  
total volume of waste generated [by -3%].  

At the same time, the share of people chronically disturbed by transport noise93 and residual 
municipal  waste94  has  not  changed  much.  Marine  pollution  from  plastic  litter  and 
microplastics may have decreased (although the data are not yet available to confirm this). 

The Zero Pollution Outlook for 2022 assessed that only the target on antimicrobials is likely to 
be  met  by  2030.  In  addition,  indications  are  that  current  observed  reductions  will  not  be 
sufficient to eliminate pollution of water, soil or species such as pollinators. The EU is not on 
track  to  meet  the  remaining  targets  (on  transport  noise,  EU  ecosystems  where  air  pollution 
threatens  biodiversity,  total  waste  generation  and  residual  municipal  waste,  and  marine 
pollution from plastic litter and microplastics) by 2030 without significant additional action. 

The Zero Pollution Stakeholder Platform, which the Commission co-chairs in cooperation with 
the Committee of the Regions, was set up to mainstream action on zero  pollution. It brings 
together  stakeholders  and  experts  from  different  policy  areas  such  as  health,  agriculture, 
research  and  innovation,  transport,  digitalisation  and  the  environment.  It  will  create  co-
ownership,  promote  collaboration  and  foster  integrated  solutions  to  maximise  synergies.  In 
conclusion, the 2022 integrated ‘zero pollution’ monitoring and outlook report underlines that 
the three concurrent environmental crises - pollution, climate change and biodiversity loss 
- are deeply intertwined. It is becoming increasingly pressing to move to a clean, circular and 
nature-positive economic model – both for the EU and for the rest of the world. It is clear that 
global cooperation to tackle the planetary crisis is intensifying. The EU must be part of the 
global solution, as its pollution footprint is too high95. Inequalities in exposure to pollution 
are also high, with pollution affecting the most vulnerable members of society more. 

2.5 Biodiversity 

Biodiversity  is  crucial for food security, a stable  climate, well-being  for  all, social fairness, 
resilience and sustainable economic development. Biodiversity loss and ecosystem collapse are 

90 New EEA figures will be available in 2024. 
91 Eionet, https://rod.eionet.europa.eu/obligations/171/deliveries  
 and EEA, European bathing water quality in 2022 — European Environment Agency (europa.eu).  
92 It is to be noted that the indicator used for this assessment has been intensively discussed. The Commission is 
committed to assess options for improving the existing harmonised risk indicators, or developing new ones, to 
better estimate the trends in the risk and use of plant protection products. 
93 EEA, https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/zero-pollution/health/noise-pollution  
94 EEA, https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/reaching-2030s-residual-municipal-waste  
95 See EEA Report No 1/2020 ‘Is Europe living within the limits of our planet?’. 

21 

 
 
 
one of the biggest threats facing humanity as confirmed in the World Economic Forum’s Global 
Risks Report 202496. 

The EU biodiversity strategy for 203097 is the EU’s response to this urgency and the nature 
pillar of the European Green Deal. It aims to put EU biodiversity on the path to recovery by 
2030 for the benefit of nature, people and the climate, thereby meeting SDG 14, life below 
water,  and  SDG  15,  life  on  land.  The  strategy  implements  the  8th  environment  action 
programme priority objective on biodiversity. It is dependent on and contributes to achieving 
the  programme’s  other  priority  objectives  on  climate  neutrality,  adaptation  and  resilience, 
regenerative growth and zero pollution. The strategy supports implementation of EU legislation 
on birds, habitats, invasive alien species, marine strategy and water. The strategy has also paved 
the way for legislative proposals on nature restoration, soils and forests. The strategy’s targets 
have been reflected in EU policies and funding instruments on the environment, agriculture, 
forestry,  rural  development,  marine  and  fisheries,  regional  development,  and  research  and 
innovation. Together with other Green Deal initiatives, the biodiversity strategy and EU laws 
are key to delivering on the EU’s international obligations under the 98. They also contribute to 
meeting the EU’s commitments under the Paris Agreement and the 2030 agenda for sustainable 
development. 

The  following  sections  summarise  the  progress  in  implementing  the  biodiversity  strategy. 
Further information on the state of implementation and deliverables of the strategy’s more than 
100 actions is available in the online biodiversity action tracker99. The Commission published 
a biodiversity dashboard100 in 2022 with indicators that track progress towards the strategy’s 
targets. Work is now under way to complete the dashboard with indicators for all targets. 

The biodiversity strategy aims to: (i) protect at least 30% of EU land and 30% of EU sea areas; 
(ii) strictly protect a third of those areas (meaning 10% of all land and sea areas), including 
all  remaining  primary  and  old-growth  forests;  (iii)  integrate  ecological  corridors;  and  (iv) 
ensure all areas are effectively managed with clear conservation objectives and measures and 
appropriate monitoring. These targets build on the EU Natura 2000 network of protected areas, 
which is the backbone of EU protected land and sea areas. 

To support national efforts in meeting these targets, the Commission has drawn up guidance 
and criteria for designating protected areas and for defining, mapping and strictly protecting 
primary and old-growth forests101. The Commission is also facilitating technical discussions on 
these  targets  with  Member  States  and  stakeholders  at  regional  biogeographical  seminars. 
Member States are in the process of submitting their protected area pledges. At the time of this 
report’s publication, only five Member States have submitted pledges, which is insufficient for 
assessing progress in reaching the overall EU target. A review of the pledges is ongoing and 
will continue at additional regional EU biogeographical seminars in 2024. The Commission is 
also  continuously  working  to  ensure  the  completion  of  the  Natura  2000  network  through 
bilateral nature dialogues. It is also taking enforcement action when necessary to ensure the 
full implementation of the Birds and Habitats Directives. 

The  biodiversity  strategy  aims  to  support  further  investment  in  nature,  including  green 
infrastructure  and  ecological  corridors. An  EU  assessment  has  estimated  the  investment 

96 Global Risks Report 2024 | World Economic Forum | World Economic Forum (weforum.org) 
97 COM(2020) 380 final 
98 https://www.cbd.int/gbf 
99 https://dopa.jrc.ec.europa.eu/kcbd/actions-tracker/ 
100 https://dopa.jrc.ec.europa.eu/kcbd/dashboard/ 
101 SWD(2022) 23 final and SWD(2023)62. 

22 

 
 
 
needs and priorities for Natura 2000 and green infrastructure to be EUR 10.2 billion a year102. 
Several funding instruments under the EU’s 2021-2027 multiannual financial framework give 
Member  States  opportunities  to  support  Natura  2000,  green  infrastructure  and  nature-based 
solutions103. 

Given the exceptional biodiversity in the EU’s outermost regions and its overseas countries 
and  territories,  the  Commission  highlighted  support  opportunities  under  EU  funding 
instruments  in  its  renewed  strategy  for  the  EU’s  Outermost  Regions104.  The  Commission 
organised 10 workshops in 2022-23 to promote the exchange of good practices and solutions 
to  common  adaptation  challenges  between  the  Outermost  Regions  and  their  neighbouring 
countries and territories, and presented a compendium of innovative and effective good practice 
projects on adaptation to climate change to inspire and facilitate cooperation. 

In line with the biodiversity strategy’s commitments, the upcoming Nature Restoration Law 
sets restoration targets for specific terrestrial and marine ecosystems.  

The  biodiversity  strategy  sets  a  target  for  at  least  30%  of  habitats  and  species  that  do  not 
currently have favourable conservation status to achieve this status by 2030 or at least show 
an improvement. The Commission has provided technical guidance to Member States on how 
to select and prioritise species and habitats for status improvement measures. At the time of 
publication  of  this  report,  six  Member  States  have  submitted  national  pledges. A  review  of 
these pledges is ongoing as part of regional biogeographical seminars. 

Healthy and biologically diverse agroecosystems are essential for a sustainable farming sector 
and food security. The upcoming Nature Restoration Law supports the setting up of restoration 
measures  to  strengthen  biodiversity  in  agroecosystems  and  to  improve  key  indicators.  The 
biodiversity  strategy  sets  a  target  to  have  high-diversity  landscape  features  on  10%  of 
agricultural  areas  by  2030.  One  of  the  ten  key  policy  objectives  of  the  EU’s  common 
agricultural policy (CAP) for 2023-2027 is to preserve landscapes and biodiversity, and CAP 
strategic plans contribute to the biodiversity strategy’s targets through for instance support to 
organic  farming,  agroecological  practices  and  development  and  maintenance  of  landscape 
feature.  Furthermore,  to  achieve  the  25%  organic  farming  target  set  in  the  biodiversity 
strategy and the farm to fork strategy105, the Commission adopted, in 2021, an action plan for the 
development of organic production106. Current estimates indicate that 10% of EU agricultural 
areas would receive CAP support for organic farming by 2027, up from 5.6% in 2020. The 
Commission has also proposed new legislation to facilitate registering and marketing vegetable 
varieties suitable for organic farming and marketing forest reproductive material. 

To help reverse the decline of pollinators, the Commission adopted a revised EU pollinators 
initiative in 2023107. It includes measures to improve knowledge, tackle the causes of pollinator 
decline, and support citizen engagement,  strategic planning and cooperation. The upcoming 
Nature  Restoration  Law  also  contributes  to  halting  the  decline  of  pollinators  by  2030  and 
ensure an upward trend after that. 

102 SWD(2023) 99. 
103 See Vademecum on EU Funding Programmes for the environment (2022) and the report on Financing Natura 
2000 (May 2022). 
104 COM(2022) 198 final. 
105 COM(2020) 381 final. 
106 COM(2021) 141 final/2. 
107 COM(2023) 35 final. 

23 

 
 
 
The biodiversity strategy aims to reduce pollution affecting biodiversity. This includes excess 
nutrients, pesticides, pharmaceuticals, hazardous chemicals, urban and industrial wastewater, 
and plastics. The measures and progress towards these goals are described in the zero pollution 
section. The EU chemicals strategy for sustainability and the zero pollution action plan are key 
instruments to reduce pollution pressures on biodiversity. The zero pollution action plan and 
the  farm  to  fork  strategy  reflect  the  biodiversity  strategy’s  targets  to  reduce  pesticides  and 
nutrient losses and set a target to reduce antimicrobials. The global biodiversity framework 
target  to  reduce  excess  nutrient  losses  to  the  environment  has  further  strengthened  the 
promotion of an integrated approach to nutrients management. In this context, the Commission 
launched an evaluation of the Nitrates Directive in 2023108 to support the EU’s environmental 
and  climate  objectives  and  global  biodiversity  commitments  and  the  need  for  a  resilient 
agriculture sector and food security. 

In  2022,  the  Commission  proposed  a  Regulation  on  the  sustainable  use  of  plant  protection 
products109. Following the rejection of the proposal by the European Parliament, in February 
2024  the  Commission  announced  to  withdraw  the  proposal.  Directive  2009/128/EC 
establishing  a  framework  to  achieve  the  sustainable  use  of  pesticides  remains  in  force. The 
European Food Safety Authority published revised guidance on the risk assessment of plant 
protection  products  on  honeybees,  bumblebees  and  solitary  bees  (which  is  pending 
endorsement)110. 

Forest ecosystems play an essential role in biodiversity, the climate, social benefits and the 
economy. As a result, the EU forest strategy for 2030111 aims to increase the quantity, health 
and resilience of EU forests and contribute to the EU’s biodiversity and climate objectives. The 
strategy  was  accompanied  by  a  roadmap112  to  meet  the  biodiversity  strategy  EU  target  of 
planting 3 additional billion trees, fully respecting ecological principles, and was followed 
by the launch of a tree counter113.  

The upcoming Nature Restoration Law also contributes to improve forest biodiversity and key 
indicators  for  forest  ecosystems.  In  2023,  the  Commission  published  guidelines  on 
biodiversity-friendly  afforestation,  reforestation  and  tree-planting114  and  on  closer-to-nature 
forestry115. Work continues with Member States to develop the Forest Information System for 
Europe116 as the main tool for monitoring Europe’s forests and track progress on forest-related 
Green Deal objectives. In 2023, the Commission published a proposal for a Regulation on a 
monitoring framework for resilient European forests117. This aims to fill knowledge gaps on 
the condition of EU forests, enable Member States, forest owners and managers to improve 
their  preventive  and  management  responses  to  pressure,  and  strengthen  forest  resilience  to 
climate change.  

The Commission and Member States are working on increasing the EU’s capacity to prevent 
and respond to forest fires118. Moreover, to protect forests outside the EU, the new Regulation 

108 https://ec.europa.eu/info/law/better-regulation/have-your-say/initiatives/14051/public-consultation_en 
109 COM(2022) 305 final. 
110 https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/7989 
111 COM(2021) 572 final 
112 Roadmap: Three billion additional trees by 2030 
113 3 Billion Trees (europa.eu) 
114 Guidelines on biodiversity-friendly afforestation, reforestation and tree planting 
115 Guidelines on closer-to-nature forest management 
116 Forest Information System for Europe (FISE) (europa.eu) 
117 COM(2023) 728 final 
118 Forest fires - European Commission (europa.eu) 

24 

 
 
 
(EU) 2023/1115 on deforestation-free products119 entered into force on 29 June 2023. Under 
the Regulation, any operator or trader placing commodities such as cattle, wood, cocoa, soy, 
palm oil, coffee, rubber and some of their derived products on the EU market, or exports from 
it, must be able to prove that the products do not come from recently deforested land or have 
contributed to forest degradation. 

In line with the biodiversity strategy, the EU soil strategy for 2030120 sets targets and measures 
to protect and restore soils, ensure their sustainable use, avoid land sealing, limit the drainage 
of peatlands, prevent pollution, restore contaminated sites and tighten monitoring and reporting 
obligations. In 2023, the Commission adopted a proposal for a Directive on soil monitoring 
and  resilience121  and  guidance  on  funding  opportunities122.  The  proposal  aims  to  achieve 
healthy soils in the EU by 2050, set up a comprehensive soil health monitoring framework, 
draw  up  sustainable  soil  management  principles  and  tackle  soil  pollution.  It  also  calls  for 
continuous EU funding to support its implementation. This includes current support under the 
CAP and the Soil Mission123 under Horizon Europe, which aims to fill knowledge gaps and 
develop practical solutions for soil restoration. 

To step up the restoration of freshwater ecosystems, the upcoming Nature Restoration Law 
foresees the identification and removal of artificial barriers to the connectivity of surface waters 
and the setting up of measures to improve the natural functions of floodplains. The Commission 
has also published a technical note on barrier removal for river restoration124 to support efforts 
towards  achieving  the  biodiversity  strategy  target  of  restoring  25 000 km  of  free-flowing 
rivers. 

To help marine ecosystems achieve good environmental status, the biodiversity strategy sets 
targets  to  substantially  reduce  the  negative  impact  of  fishing  on  sensitive  species  and 
habitats, including on the seabed, and to eliminate bycatch or reduce it to levels that allow for 
species’  recovery  and  conservation.  The  EU  action  plan  to  protect  and  restore  marine 
ecosystems for sustainable and resilient fisheries125, adopted in 2023, calls on Member States 
to step up efforts to decrease bycatch and minimise the adverse effects of mobile bottom fishing 
(or  bottom  trawling)  on  marine  protected  areas.  Member  States  were  invited  to  submit 
roadmaps by March 2024 describing the measures they intend to put in place by 2030. The 
Commission committed to assess progress on: (i) the measures announced in the roadmaps; 
and (ii) national measures taken or joint recommendations submitted by March 2024. So far, 
very  few  Member  States  have  delivered  their  roadmaps,  and  none  of  those  roadmaps  are 
comprehensive enough. Three Member States have presented partial contributions. Progress is 
also slow on several measures that are due to reduce bycatch of priority species and phase out 
bottom  fishing  in  Natura  2000  sites.  This  slow  progress  highlights  the  need  to  step  up 
implementation  efforts.  The  Commission  has  drawn  up  Guidelines  on  implementing  an 
ecosystem-based  approach  in  maritime  spatial  planning126  and  a  report  on  progress  in 
implementing the Marine Spatial Planning Directive127. The EU common fisheries policy (CFP) 

119 Regulation (EU) 2023/1115 
120 COM(2021) 699 final 
121 COM(2023) 416 final 
122 SWD(2023) 423 final 
123 EU Missions Soil Deal for Europe | Mission Soil Platform (europa.eu) 
124 Biodiversity strategy for 2030 – Barrier removal for river restoration 
125 COM(2023) 102 final 
126 Guidelines for implementing an ecosystem-based approach in maritime spatial planning – Including a 
method for the evaluation, monitoring and review of EBA in MSP 
127 COM(2022) 185 final 

25 

 
 
 
provides  a  toolbox  for  implementing  fisheries  management  measures  as  well  as  funding 
under the European Maritime, Fisheries and Aquaculture Fund. 

To  support  reaching  biodiversity  strategy’s  targets  in  urban  areas,  the  Commission  has 
published  guidance  for  cities  on  how  to  develop  urban  greening  plans  and  integrate 
biodiversity  measures  in  urban  planning  processes.  It  has  also  set  up  the  Urban  Greening 
Platform128. The  upcoming  Nature  Restoration  Law  supports  maintaining  and  progressively 
increasing national areas of urban green space and urban tree canopy cover.  

The Commission is assessing the latest data on biofuels that pose a high risk of causing indirect 
changes in land use. The objective is to draw up a plan to gradually phase them out by 2030. 
The revised Regulation on land use, land-use change and forestry (LULUCF) aims to create 
stronger policy incentives to lower greenhouse gas emissions from land activities and improve 
land-based carbon sinks. 

The biodiversity strategy sets the target to reduce the number of Red List species129 threatened 
by invasive alien species by 50% by 2030. The Commission is working with Member States 
to step up implementing the Invasive Alien Species Regulation130 and other instruments. The 
aim is to minimise and, where possible, eradicate the introduction and spread of invasive alien 
species in  the EU and to manage those species that  have  already spread. There are now 88 
species on the list of invasive alien species of EU concern. 

Global biodiversity action 

The Kunming-Montreal global biodiversity framework was adopted at the Conference of the 
Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity (COP 15) in December 2022. It sets out a 
comprehensive agenda with targets131 to protect and restore nature, reduce pollution and tackle 
the direct and indirect drivers of biodiversity loss. This includes targets to eliminate, phase out 
or reform incentives that are harmful for biodiversity and to increase financing for biodiversity. 
COP 15 also adopted a monitoring framework132 to measure progress on the global biodiversity 
framework’s  objectives  and  targets,  including  an  initial  set  of  27  headline  indicators, 
accompanied by binary, component, complementary and national indicators. 

The  biodiversity  strategy’s  ambition  and  the  EU’s  consistent  implementation  efforts  have 
helped the EU to advocate for an ambitious global biodiversity framework. The Commission 
is  preparing  the  submission  of  EU  targets  to  implement  the  global  biodiversity  framework, 
which will cover the commitments laid down in existing and proposed legislation and policies. 
In  addition,  the  submission  will  present  the  degree  of  alignment  between  EU  and  global 
biodiversity targets. 

Through its external action, the EU is stepping up its engagement to protect and restore global 
biodiversity  and  promote  its  sustainable  use. The  EU  has  pledged  to  double  international 
biodiversity  financing133  to  reach  EUR 7  billion  in  2021-2027. This  will  happen  through 
initiatives such as NaturAfrica134, which draws inspiration from the Natura 2000 network. The 
Commission has also pledged to invest up to EUR 1 billion in ocean and coastal biodiversity 
and the climate in 2021-2027. Biodiversity protection and following up the global biodiversity 
framework feature prominently in the Commission’s outreach to non-EU countries and regional 

128 Urban Greening Platform - European Commission (europa.eu) 
129 European Red Lists of species (europa.eu) 
130 Invasive alien species - European Commission (europa.eu) 
131 15/4. Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (cbd.int) 
132 Monitoring framework for the Kunming-Montreal global biodiversity framework. 
133 IP_22_7767_EN.pdf (europa.eu) 
134 NaturAfrica - European Commission (europa.eu) 

26 

 
 
 
associations. This outreach aims to mobilise resources and efforts to attain domestic and global 
biodiversity targets. 

As part of its international ocean agenda, the EU has committed to an ambitious set of marine 
biodiversity  targets  and  to  strengthened  synergies  between  marine,  water  and  food  security 
policies.  These  EU  commitments  were  instrumental  in  concluding  the  global  biodiversity 
framework and the ambitious Agreement on the protection of marine biodiversity in areas beyond 
national jurisdiction135 under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea in 2023. The 
role of the Regional Sea Conventions136 in implementing the agreement could be considerable; 
for  example,  in  2023,  the  Convention  for  the  Protection  of  the  Marine  Environment  of  the 
North-East  Atlantic  (OSPAR  Convention137)  in  the  Northeast  Atlantic  designated  its  largest 
marine  protected  area  in  international  waters,  which  has  around  the  same  surface  area  as 
France. It would also be within OSPAR’s mandate to consider designating a marine protected 
area  in  the  Arctic. The  biodiversity  strategy and  the  international  ocean  agenda  call  for 
prohibiting  deep-sea  mining  until  the  scientific  knowledge  gaps  are  filled,  it  can  be 
demonstrated that it has no harmful effect, and effective environmental protection rules are in 
place. To support filling these scientific gaps, the EU has invested more than EUR 80 million 
in research on the potential impact of deep-sea mining. 

To  counter  the  impact  of  EU  production  and  consumption  on  global  biodiversity,  the  EU 
adopted  a  Regulation  on  deforestation  and  forest  degradation-free  supply  chains138.  This  aims  to 
ensure certain products are legal and deforestation-free by setting out mandatory due diligence 
rules  for  companies  that  want  to  place  such  products  on  the  EU  market  or  export  them. 
Sustainable and deforestation-free agricultural production is also promoted through dialogues 
at  bilateral,  regional  and  international  level  (such  as  the  Cocoa  Talks139  with  West African 
countries) and, where needed, development cooperation funds (for example, a dedicated Team 
Europe  Initiative  on  deforestation). The  EU  has  also  adopted  a  wildlife  action  plan140  and 
several guidance documents on trade in wild species. 

The EU and the UN Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre have 
also  launched  an  initiative  to  set  up  a  global  knowledge  support  service  for  biodiversity141 
inspired by the EU Knowledge Centre for Biodiversity.  

Frameworks to improve biodiversity 

To help  meet  biodiversity  commitments agreed at  national,  EU and international  levels,  the 
Commission  has  strengthened  the  EU  Biodiversity  Platform  as  the  main  forum  for 
coordinated  biodiversity  strategy  implementation  with  Member  States  and  stakeholders. 
The  Platform’s  subgroups  deal  with  implementing  the  Nature  Directives,  pollinators, 
monitoring and assessment, urban biodiversity, invasive alien species and other topics. 

The Commission has continued to work with national authorities to improve implementation 
of  and  compliance  with  EU  legislation  related  to  biodiversity.  The  Commission  has  also 
engaged in dialogues with national and regional authorities on the key structural challenges 
they face in implementing the Nature Directives. 

135 Intergovernmental Conference on Marine Biodiversity of Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction | (un.org) 
136 https://water.europa.eu/marine/countries-and-regional-seas/regional-conventions 
137 OSPAR Commission | Protecting and conserving the North-East Atlantic and its resources 
138 Regulation (EU) 2023/1115 
139 The Sustainable Cocoa Initiative - European Commission (europa.eu) 
140 COM(2022) 581 final 
141 COP15: EU joins capacity-building initiatives (europa.eu) 

27 

 
 
 
On  biodiversity  financing,  the  Interinstitutional Agreement  for  the  2021-2027  multiannual 
financial  framework  (MFF)  set  the  targets  of  investing  7.5%  of  annual  EU  spending  in 
biodiversity in 2024 and 10% in 2026-2027. Biodiversity objectives and measures have been 
mainstreamed142 in most legislation underpinning EU programmes. A new methodology143 was 
agreed in 2023 to track biodiversity expenditure in each programme under the MFF.  

Estimates of national commitments suggest that the EU is on track to reach the  biodiversity 
financing target in 2024 but risks falling significantly short of the target for 2026 and 2027. 
Between 2021 and 2030, Member States are estimated to allocate around EUR 14 billion per 
year from their national budgets to biodiversity. Financing is also expected from the private 
sector, including businesses, banks, financial institutions, philanthropy, and NGOs. The Green 
Advisory  Service  for  Sustainable  Investments  Support  (Green  Assist)144  aims  to  develop 
financial and advisory products for natural capital and the circular economy. It also seeks to 
build  a  pipeline  for  high-impact  green  investment  projects,  green  investments  under 
InvestEU145, cohesion policy funds and other EU instruments.  

The EU has taken further steps to implement the ‘do no significant harm’ principle (DNSH) 
under  the  MFF  and  NextGeneration  EU. The  protection  and  restoration  of  biodiversity  and 
ecosystems  is  one  of  the  six  environmental  objectives  against  which  Member  States  must 
evaluate  whether  any  measure  proposed  in  their  national  recovery  and  resilience  plans  are 
DNSH compliant146. The DNSH principle has also been applied for cohesion policy instruments 
and  sustainability  proofing  guidelines147  for  InvestEU.  It  will  also  be  integrated  into  other  EU 
funds and programmes. 

The  amendment  to  the  EU  Regulation  on  environmental  economic  accounts148  added  new 
modules  on  forest  and  ecosystem  accounts. Work  continues  to  better  integrate  biodiversity 
into  the  Product  Environmental  Footprint149  methodology. Natural  capital  accounting  for 
business  is  being  supported  by  EU  projects.  These  include  the  LIFE  transparent  project150, 
which has developed a set of generally accepted environmental accounting principles, and the 
Align project151, which has drawn up recommendations to companies on how to measure their 
impact on biodiversity. 

The  Commission  has  continued  to  support  business  networks  working  to  integrate 
biodiversity and natural capital considerations into their decision-making, especially as part of 
the EU Business and Biodiversity Platform (B@B)152. The annual Business and Nature Summit153 
has also helped strengthen the business-for-biodiversity movement. 

142 https://commission.europa.eu/strategy-and-policy/eu-budget/performance-and-reporting/horizontal-
priorities/green-budgeting/biodiversity-mainstreaming_en 
143 Biodiversity_tracking_methodology_for_each_programme_2023.pdf (europa.eu) 
144 Green Advisory Service for Sustainable Investments Support: GREEN ASSIST v(europa.eu) 
145 InvestEU - European Union (europa.eu) 
146  RRF technical guidance. 
147 Technical guidance on sustainability proofing for the InvestEU Fund 
148 Regulation (EU) No 691/2011. Provisional agreement on a final text: https://aeur.eu/f/aue”. 
149 European Platform on LCA | EPLCA (europa.eu) 
150 Transparent - Capitals Coalition 
151 Align - European Commission (europa.eu) 
152 Business and Biodiversity - European Commission (europa.eu) 
153 European Business and Nature Summit - European Commission (europa.eu) 

28 

 
 
 
Knowledge management has been boosted by a Knowledge Centre for Biodiversity154, a one-
stop shop on biodiversity, supported by a dedicated science service155. Under Horizon Europe, 
the Commission has set out a long-term research agenda for biodiversity156 and a mechanism 
for  scientific  input  on  biodiversity  policy.  Understanding  ecosystem  conditions,  trends, 
pressures and their impact on ecosystem services is essential for effective decision-making and 
policy  design.  The  first  EU-wide  ecosystem  assessment157  published  in  2020  revealed  that 
Europe’s  ecosystems,  within  and  outside  protected  areas,  suffer  from  pressures  caused  by 
intensive  land  and  sea  use,  climate  change,  pollution,  overexploitation  and  invasive  alien 
species. Bringing natural, semi-natural and human-dominated ecosystems to good condition is 
key for a more sustainable planet. The assessment brings together for the first time commonly 
agreed EU-wide datasets to assess the state and trends of ecosystems, their services, and the 
pressures they are exposed to. This can help set priorities and feed into cost-effective restoration 
measures. 

Learning  and  skills  for  nature  and  biodiversity  are  being  promoted  as  part  of  the  Council 
Recommendation on learning for the green transition158, and follow-up measures159. 

Progress and outlook for meeting 2030 targets 

The Knowledge Centre for Biodiversity manages two online progress tracking tools that aim 
to  provide  up-to-date  information  on  the  biodiversity  strategy’s  implementation:  an  action 
tracker160 (fully operational) and a dashboard161 with indicators to track progress on the targets 
(under  development).  There  is  limited  evidence  at  EU  level  of  progress  on  the  ground  in 
protecting and restoring ecosystems and their services since the strategy was adopted. When 
new  data  and  indicators  become  available,  the  biodiversity  dashboard  will  be  gradually 
improved and updated. 

The following figures provide insights into the status and trends of key indicators up to the 
adoption of the biodiversity strategy for 2030. 

In 2021, 26% of the EU’s land area had been designated as Natura 2000 or nationally protected 
areas, an increase of 1.7 percentage points over the last decade. In the same period, there was 
a significant increase in EU marine protected areas; the coverage of these areas doubled to 
12.1%.  Natura  2000  areas  cover  18.6%  and  9%  of  EU  land  and  marine  areas,  respectively. 
Despite some progress, the EEA monitoring report on the 8th action programme concludes that, 
at the current rate, the EU is unlikely to reach the target of protecting 30% of land and 30% of 
marine areas by 2030. 

Common bird populations have continued to decline in the EU, falling by 12% between 1990 
and 2021. Populations of common forest birds declined by 5%, and common farmland birds 
declined by 36% in the same period162. The EEA assessment indicates that, based on the latest 
trends, it is unlikely that the EU will reverse the decline of its common bird populations by 
2030. 

154 Biodiversity (europa.eu) 
155 Science at the service of biodiversity 
156 Biodiversity research policy - European Commission (europa.eu) 
157 JRC Publications Repository - EU Ecosystem Assessment (europa.eu) 
158 EUR-Lex - 32022H0627(01) - EN - EUR-Lex (europa.eu) 
159 Learning for the green transition and sustainable development | European Education Area (europa.eu) 
160 EU Biodiversity Strategy Actions Tracker (europa.eu) 
161 EU Biodiversity Strategy Dashboard (europa.eu) 
162 Eurostat dataset (env_bio3). 

29 

 
 
 
EU average forest connectivity was 79% in 2018, stable compared to 2000, with no signs of 
improvement.  The  EEA  assessment  indicates  that  the  degree  of  connectivity  in  forest 
ecosystems is unlikely to increase by 2030. 

Grassland  butterfly  populations,  which  are  indicators  of  pollinator  health,  decreased  by 
around 30% in the last 30 years (1991-2020), and the trend has not reversed in recent years. 

Air, water and soil pollution levels affecting biodiversity are still high, and limited progress 
has been made in reducing them (see zero pollution section). 

EU soils are not in good health, undermining EU resilience and the sustainability of agriculture. 
Organic carbon content is limited in some European regions, affecting land fertility. More 
than 5% of the non-artificial erodible land area in the EU suffers from severe soil erosion by 
water. 

There is some progress on the target of planting 3 billion additional trees in EU; 13 million 
trees had been planted by January 2024. 

2.6 Reducing environmental pressures 

The  sixth  priority  objective  of  the  8th  environment  action  programme  aims  to  significantly 
reduce key environmental and climate pressures from the EU’s production and consumption. 
This concerns, in particular, energy, industry, buildings and infrastructure, mobility, tourism, 
international  trade  and  food.  This  is  also  relevant  for  meeting:  SDG  2  Zero  hunger  and 
sustainable agriculture; SDG 7 Affordable and clean energy; SDG 8 Decent work and economic 
growth; SDG 9 Industry, innovation and infrastructure; SDG 12 Responsible consumption and 
production; SDG 17 Partnerships for the goals. 

2.6.1 Energy system 

The transition to a sustainable energy system requires decarbonisation measures and tackling 
environmental  problems  associated  with  energy  production  and  consumption,  including  air, 
water and soil pollution, climate change, water use and solid waste disposal. 

The  European  Green  Deal’s  systemic  approach  extends  to  the  energy  system  through 
interrelated strategies and policies that address different climate and environmental impacts, 
focusing on improving energy sustainability and reducing energy use. 

The ‘Fit for 55’  package revised  and strengthened EU energy  and climate legislation to  set 
ambitious goals. Legislative targets were agreed for a minimum share of 42.5% of renewable 
energy, with the ambition to reach 45% by 2030. Energy efficiency targets were also increased, 
to reduce final energy consumption by 11.7% by 2030.  

This also has co-benefits, for example, significantly reducing pollution’s impact on health. All 
of the ‘Fit for 55’ legal proposals have been agreed by Parliament and Council. The reform of 
electricity market design and the revision of the Renewable Energy Directive and the Land 
Use,  Land-Use  Change  and  Forestry  (LULUCF)  Regulation  illustrate  how  the  synergies 
between  environmental  policies  have  been  improved.  The  revised  Renewable  Energy 
Directive sets an overall renewable energy target of at least 42.5% binding at EU level by 2030 
- but aiming for 45% and reflects on the need to speed up the EU’s clean energy transition and 
reduce  greenhouse  gas  emissions  originating  from  the  energy  sector.  It  also  boosts  the 
sustainability criteria of bioenergy, which represents around 60% of renewables in the EU. It 
includes, in particular, no-go areas for forest biomass and a requirement for Member States to 

30 

 
 
take  into  account  the  cascading  principle163.  This  revision  strengthens  the  links  between 
bioenergy, biodiversity and carbon sinks. The revised Gas Directive and Gas Regulation 
will help advance the decarbonisation of the natural gas sector, by establishing a new regulatory 
framework for hydrogen markets and by creating incentives for the uptake of renewable and 
low-carbon gases, including renewable hydrogen. The revised Energy Efficiency Directive 
will also bring co-benefits to the environment as the most sustainable energy source is the one 
not  consumed.   The  provisionally  agreed  Regulation  to  reduce  methane  emissions  in  the 
energy sector, represents the most comprehensive framework of its kind world-wide to regulate 
energy sector methane emissions. The regulation is currently being finalised in view of final 
approval and adoption is expected in the first half of 2024. Its scope extends to crude oil, natural 
gas  and  coal.  The  regulation  contains  a  number  of  measures  which  taken  together  will 
contribute to improving measurement and reporting of methane emissions in the EU; reducing 
methane emissions in the EU via prescriptive abatement measures that can be applied from day 
one; incentivising the EU’s international partners to measure, report and reduce their methane 
the 
emissions  and 
REPowerEU plan – the EU response to the energy crisis – supports energy-saving measures, 
diversifying energy supply and accelerating the deployment of renewables. 

transparency  on  methane  emissions  globally.  Lastly, 

increasing 

Between  2005  and  2022,  EU  primary  energy  consumption  and  final  energy  consumption 
decreased by 16% (to 1 259 million tonnes of oil equivalent in 2022) and 8% (to 954 million 
tonnes of oil equivalent in 2022) respectively. In 2002, the share of renewable energy sources 
more than doubled to 23% (in gross final energy consumption). That year also saw a record 
high of around 60 GW of wind and solar installed in the EU164, and the heat pump market broke 
a new record, with around 3 million units sold (up by 37%)165. 

However, the pace of this progress is likely to be not enough to meet the 2030 target, which 
requires a deeper and faster transformation of the energy sector. Further efforts are also needed 
to prioritise renewable energy solutions that allow for biodiversity co-benefits and minimise 
environmental  risks  related  to  certain  sources  of  bioenergy  as  set  out  in  the  biodiversity 
strategy.  However,  several  measures  the  EU  has  adopted  measures  to  help  accelerating 
permitting in Member States (including the revised Renewable Energy Directive166, a dedicated 
Regulation  aimed  at  speedy  roll-out  of  such  projects167  as  well  as  a  recommendation168  and 
guidance  document169  were  adopted).  These  measures  aim  at  accelerating  permitting 
procedures taking advantages of flexibilities offered by the EU legal framework. As a novelty, 

163 ‘Cascade use’ denominates the efficient utilisation of resources by using by-products and recycled materials 
for material use to extend total biomass availability within a given system (see: jrc-forest-bioenergy-study-2021-
final_online.pdf ). 
164 Annual EU solar power growth increased by 47% from 28.1 GW in 2021. The new added capacity of 41.4 
GW of solar power in 2022 is equivalent to the power needs of 12.4 million European homes (New report 
reveals EU solar power soars by almost 50% in 2022 – Solar Power Europe). New wind energy capacity in 2022 
amounted to around 16 GW, up 40% from 2021 (The EU built only 16 GW new wind in 2022: must restore 
investor confidence and ramp up supply chain | Wind Europe). 
165 European Heat Pump Association, based on 21 markets, the number of heat pumps sold in 2022 replaced 
roughly 4 bcm of natural gas, avoiding about 8 million tonnes of CO2 emissions. Market data – European Heat 
Pump Association (ehpa.org). 
166 Directive (EU) 2023/2413 
167 Regulation (EU) 2022/2577 
168 C(2022)3219 final 
169 Speeding up permit-granting and PPAs SWD(2022)149,151 - European Commission (europa.eu) 

31 

 
 
 
the revised Renewable Energy Directive introduces the concept of renewable acceleration areas 
for one or more renewable technologies in which permitting will be further facilitated.  

The sustainable transformation of the energy system faces several challenges. As regards EU’s 
energy  infrastructure,  the  revised  trans-European  energy  networks  regulation  (TEN-E 
Regulation) ensures that we plan and build the necessary infrastructure that will underpin a 
climate-neutral energy mix by mid-century. Interconnected infrastructure is the best guarantee 
of security of supply, essential for integrating renewable energy sources and therefore key for 
keeping  prices  at  check. The  Union’s  energy  infrastructure  policy  has  been  instrumental  in 
achieving  further  market  integration,  alleviating  infrastructure  bottlenecks,  relieving  or 
reducing  the  energy  isolation  in  specific  areas  and  facilitating  integration  of  electricity 
produced by renewables into the European network. However, the recent energy and cost of 
living crises raised energy, environmental and social concerns. This led to an increase in fossil 
fuel  subsidies  and  potential  divestments  from  necessary  investments  in  renewable-
enabling  infrastructure,  which  risk  to  slow  the  energy  transition,  if  the  subsidies  are  not 
phased  out  after  the  crisis.  Moreover,  in  summer  2022,  heat  waves  and  droughts  severely 
challenged hydro and nuclear electricity production, underlining the importance of the water-
energy nexus. The deployment of large-scale wind and solar farms supported by REPowerEU 
requires  better  planning  of  land  use.  The  obligation  on  Member  States  under  the  revised 
Renewable  Energy  Directive  to  designate  renewables  acceleration  areas  helps  to  direct 
renewable  energy  generation  capacities  to  areas  that  are  particularly  suitable  for  renewable 
energy projects and where the projects are not expected to have a significant environmental 
impact.  Spatial  planning  and  the  link  to  the  Marine  Strategy  Framework  Directive  is  also 
discussed in the context of deploying offshore wind power. The measures put in place to speed 
up  the  permitting  of  renewable  projects  include  certain  checks  and  balances  to  ensure 
sustainability  and  future  proofing  of  investments  in  renewables.  For  example,  a  strategic 
environmental assessment in accordance with the Directive on the assessment of the effects of 
certain  plans  and  programmes  on  the  environment  (SEA  Directive)  and  if  applicable  an 
appropriate assessment under the Directive on the conservation of natural habitats and of wild 
fauna and flora (Habitats Directive) have to be carried out for all plans that identify renewables 
acceleration areas most suitable for deployment of renewable projects. Moreover, all projects 
within those areas will be screened from the environmental viewpoint: individual projects with 
highly likely significant adverse effects will be subject to a full environmental assessment. 

With a strong EU legislative framework largely in place, Member States now need to meet 
their shared commitments. Combined with the new Net-Zero Industry Act and the Critical 
Raw  Materials  Act,  this  is  the  opportunity  to  boost  EU  competitiveness  and  industrial 
leadership and accelerate environmental and climate action. 

2.6.2 Industry 

Resilience in industry is crucial for the green transition, and in light of geopolitical tensions, 
there is greater need for ensuring supply of energy and materials. 

As  a  result,  the  speed  and  scale  of  the  green  transition  has  intensified.  The  EU  is 
modernising its industrial ecosystems through an updated industrial strategy for Europe and a 
new approach to industrial transformation. These are based on co-created transition pathways 
bringing  together  industries,  policymakers  and  stakeholders  across  entire  value  chains  to 
address identified gaps and foster partnerships, with a strong focus on SMEs. The Green Deal 
industrial plan and the Net-Zero Industry Act support the competitiveness of Europe’s net-zero 
industry and boost innovation in clean and green technologies. 

32 

 
 
This systemic approach for industry’s transition to environmental sustainability is reflected 
into  the  European  Semester.  This  covers  also  decarbonisation  and  re-industrialisation, 
tracking progress in several areas, among which: (i) efficiency and productivity; (ii) uptake of 
environmental  sustainability  approaches;  (iii)  waste  generation  and  management;  and  (iv) 
industrial pollution and hazards. While the Semester focuses on textile, retail, energy-intensive 
industries  and  electronics,  the  Commission  is  also  working  on  other  industrial  ecosystems 
(agri-food, construction, energy and mobility). Dedicated chapters on the green transition were 
also included into the European Monitor of Industrial Ecosystems and the single market 
and competitiveness scoreboard. 

Progress  in  moving  towards  green  industry  has  been  mixed.  In  2022,  only  11.5%  of 
secondary  materials  were  reused  in  the  economy,  which  builds  mostly  on  extracting  and 
processing primary raw materials. The EU is not on track to meet its target of doubling this 
percentage by 2030. 

On a positive note, greenhouse gas emissions and fine particulate matter intensity from 
industry  are  decreasing.  Moreover,  air  and  water  pollution  from  industrial  production  has 
decreased significantly in recent years. Depending on the pollutant, reductions have been as 
high as 72% (for SOx emissions to air) or at least 20% (for total nitrogen emissions to water) 
since 2010170. The number of EU ecolabel products has also more than doubled in the last 
decade, reaching almost 89 000 in 2023171. 

Preventing and reducing the environmental pressures of the industrial sector presents several 
opportunities. These range from sustainable economic growth and job creation to promoting 
innovation in clean technologies. It can also lead to improved air quality and public health, 
better energy security and energy efficiency and lower greenhouse gas emissions. In addition, 
reduced  air,  water  and  soil  pollution  can  help  restore  ecosystem  services.  To  accelerate 
progress, it is crucial to improve access to finance for EU start-ups and scale-ups, promote 
research and innovation, boost skills and ensure the availability of critical raw materials. 

Security of critical raw materials must go hand in hand with the highest environmental 
standards. This prevents pressure on, for instance, biodiversity, natural resources and health. 
Pressures  include  air,  water  and  soil  pollution,  which  might  offset  the  benefits  of  reduced 
emissions. 

2.6.3 Buildings and infrastructure 

Construction  and  buildings  are  the  most  material-intensive,  polluting  and  energy-
consuming sectors in the EU, often leading to land take and soil sealing. This comes at the 
expense  of  croplands  and  pastures,  which  are  essential  for  wildlife  habitats,  carbon 
sequestration and flood protection. Between 2000 and 2018, net land take in the EU amounted 
to 11 845 km2, equivalent to an average annual land take of 658 km2. 

European Green Deal initiatives brought greater focus on material use and its greenhouse gas 
impact. The Green Deal extended the approach of the  Waste Framework Directive, which 
already  included  binding  targets  for  non-hazardous  construction  and  demolition  waste 
(recycling  at  least  70%  by  2020)  and  waste  prevention  obligations  (reuse,  recycling  and 
selective demolition). 

The new EU voluntary assessment and reporting framework to  calculate the sustainability 
performance of buildings in an integrated ‘whole life-cycle’ approach, known as ‘Level(s)’, 

170 https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/zero-pollution/production-consumption/production 
171 EU Ecolabel use and recognition on the rise, new Commission data shows - European Commission 
(europa.eu) 

33 

 
 
 
is  fully  aligned  with  or  integrated  in  several  recent  initiatives:  (i)  the  revised  Construction 
Products  Regulation,  which  also  applies  to  construction  products  imported  from  non-EU 
countries; (ii) the Sustainable Finance Taxonomy, which promotes circularity through specific 
thresholds  for  primary  raw  materials  content;  and  (iii)  the  revised  Energy  Performance  of 
Buildings  Directive  will  introduce  the  assessment  of  the  whole-life-cycle  as  part  of  the 
requirements for new buildings, sets zero-emission targets for existing buildings and promote 
the renovation of the worst-performing buildings172. It also strengthens access to information 
and finance and links with schemes like the EU Green Taxonomy. 

Moreover, the supply side approach of emission trading systems tackles the sector’s demand 
for material and energy. 

Broader initiatives and strategies, such as the Renovation Wave, the Transition Pathway for 
Construction  and  the  New  European  Bauhaus  confirm  this  integrated  approach.  The 
Renovation Wave aims to at least double the annual energy renovation rate by 2030. It also 
highlights  the  importance  of  combining  improved  energy  efficiency  with  circularity  and 
resource  efficiency  to  reduce  overall  emissions.  As  part  of  the  Renovation  Wave,  the 
Commission  is  developing  a  2050  roadmap  to  support  a  whole  life-cycle  approach  for 
reducing emissions in the building sector. 

Work is ongoing to improve the quality of data needed to benchmark individual buildings’ 
whole life-cycle emissions and the sector’s emissions at national and EU levels. 

The urban nature plans and the urban targets under the upcoming Nature Restoration Law 
will give a strong push to greening urban developments and renovations and integrating green 
and grey infrastructure, including via the implementation at scale of nature-based solutions. 

There is a clear opportunity for construction and buildings to be more resource-efficient, clean 
and circular and to make greater use of secondary materials. Material use for buildings could 
potentially decrease by 30% if used more efficiently. The most effective action to reduce the 
sector’s  use  of  materials  would  be  to  extend  the  lifespan  of  existing  assets  and  reduce  the 
demand for new buildings. Housing renovations provide win-win opportunities for the EU’s 
climate, social and energy objectives and are aligned with the Commission recommendation 
on energy poverty173 and the Social Climate Fund. 

2.6.4 Mobility 

Under the European Green Deal, the EU strengthened efforts to address pollution and emissions 
at source and promote the shift towards more sustainable mobility systems. 

The  smart  and  sustainable  mobility  strategy174  includes  ambitious  2030  targets  and 
initiatives to reduce pollution and emissions in the transport sector and promote climate-neutral 
cities. 

The  ‘Fit  for  55’  package  aims  to  reduce  the  entire  sector’s  pollution  and  greenhouse  gas 
emissions  through:  (i)  zero-emission  cars  and  vans;  (ii)  more  stringent  CO2  emission 
performance standards for lorries and buses; (iii) the new EURO 7 standard for road vehicles 
for  air  pollution,  including  for  brakes  and  tyres;  (iv)  zero-emission  heavy-duty  vehicles  for 
transporting freight and passengers; (v) the uptake of sustainable aviation and maritime fuels; 
(vi)  reduced  air  pollution  in  ports;  (vii)  a  gradual  shift  to  zero-emission  inland  waterways 
transport; and (viii) promoting rail transport. EU emission trading initiatives will cover road 

172 Provisional agreement: https://data.consilium.europa.eu/doc/document/ST-16655-2023-INIT/en/pdf . 
173 COM Recommendation 2023/2407 on energy poverty. 
174 COM (2020) 789 final. 

34 

 
 
 
transport  and  implement  the  global  market-based  scheme  for  CO2  emissions  from 
international aviation (CORSIA), which will become mandatory for all major emitters from 
2027.  The revised Eurovignette Directive will require that existing tolls and user charges for 
heavy-duty vehicles are either based on the vehicles’ CO2 emissions or include the CO2 price 
as of 2024. Including air pollution external costs in tolls will be mandatory from 2026. 

These zero-pollution initiatives will help reduce the impact of traffic air and noise pollution 
on people’s health. To apply circularity principles, the Commission recently made a proposal 
on end-of-life vehicles. 

Lastly, to improve monitoring the sector’s environmental impact and keep people informed, 
work  on  better  accounting  and  disclosing  of  emissions  is  ongoing  for  all  transport  modes, 
including noise in aviation.    

Overall, the transport system’s environmental and climate impact is still too high. There 
has been good progress in increasing the share of electric cars sold in Europe, which reached 
21.6% in 2022, while the availability of publicly accessible chargers surged by more than 50% 
compared to 2021. However, the sector still produces almost 25% of the EU’s greenhouse gas 
emissions, 70% of which came from road transport in 2019. Increasing the share of collective 
passenger transport (buses, coaches and trains) by 2030 is crucial, but this share fell sharply 
due to the COVID-19 pandemic, reaching 13.7% in 2021 (in total inland passenger transport). 
According to the EEA, it is unlikely that this will increase. 

Transport is still also the main cause of air pollution and related health effects and noise 
exposure. Around 18 million people are still highly annoyed by noise, and 5 million people 
are  highly  sleep  disturbed  because  of  long-term  exposure  to  noise  from  transport175.  In 
maritime  transport,  the  number  of  accidental  oil  spills  in  EU  waters  has  fallen,  despite  an 
increase  in  the  quantity  of  oil  transported  by  sea.  However,  this  sector  is  responsible  for 
bringing the largest proportion of non-indigenous species into seas around the EU. 

Further progress is needed, for example, to cut emissions and air pollution from inland vessels 
(the  Non-road  Mobile  Machinery  Regulation  only  deals  with  new  vessels).  The  EU’s 
circularity agenda provides opportunities to reduce pollution and the high material footprint 
of the mobility system via reuse, remanufacturing, pooled vehicles and circular production and 
consumption. 

2.6.5 Food system 

Food accounts for around 45% of the environmental impact of consumption in the EU. 
Agriculture  is  responsible  for  10.3%  of  the  EU’s  greenhouse  gas  emissions  (80%  of  which 
comes  from  livestock). This  has  adverse  effects  in  terms  of  water-use  stress,  pollution  (for 
example,  rising  nitrate  or  pesticides  concentrations  in  EU  groundwater  bodies)  and  the 
continued decline of common farmland birds and pollinators. 

The  EU’s  farm  to  fork  strategy  aims  to  accelerate  the  transition  to  a  fair,  healthy  and 
environmentally  friendly  food  system  through  an  integrated  approach  covering  all  stages 
(production, transport, packaging, consumption, waste). The strategy’s targets include a 50% 
reduction in pesticide use and risk, a 50% reduction in nutrient losses, and a 50% reduction in 
sales of antimicrobials used for farmed animals and aquaculture (see the zero pollution section). 
Moreover,  reaching  25%  of  agricultural  land  under  organic  farming  is  another  major  goal. 
Specific regulatory measures are under negotiation to reach these targets.  

175 2017 data (source EEA). 2022 data will be available in May 2024. 

35 

 
 
 
Some  steps  have  been  taken  to  address  pressures  from  agriculture.  For  instance,  the 
commitment to reverse the decline in pollinators is crucial to prevent the worst  effects of 
biodiversity loss on agriculture. The soil strategy for 2030 and the proposed soil monitoring 
law aim to tackle the problem of continuing and aggravating soil degradation in the EU. Lastly, 
a marine action plan sets out measures based on common fisheries policy (CFP) rules and EU 
environmental law to protect marine ecosystems from the adverse effects of fisheries. 

The proposed revised Waste Framework Directive sets out legally binding food waste targets 
for 2030: a 10% reduction in processing and manufacturing waste and a 30% reduction in retail 
waste and consumption per person. 

Moreover, there are efforts to integrate European Green Deal targets into the CAP and CFP. 
Member States must consider the objectives and targets of the farm to fork strategy in their 
national CAP strategic plans. The CFP commitment to step up efforts to bring fish stocks to 
sustainable levels is supported through an action plan to conserve fishery resources and protect 
marine ecosystems. 

There  is  mixed  progress  in  decreasing  food  system  pressures.  EU  organic  farming  (as  a 
percentage of agricultural area used) increased from 6% in 2012 to 10% in 2021 (equivalent to 
15.9 million hectares of agricultural land). However, the EU is unlikely to meet its 2030 target 
of at least 25%. The risk of pesticides has fallen but not enough to meet the 2030 target, and 
the  sales  of  pesticides  in  the  EU,  after  some  decline,  rebounded  in  2021  to  reach  355 175 
tonnes.  EU  sales  of  antimicrobials  used  for  farmed  animals  decreased  from  118.3 mg/PCU 
(population correction unit) in 2018 to 84.8 mg/PCU in 2022. The EU is on track to reach the 
2030  target  of  59.2 mg/PCU  if  Member  States  continue  to  lower  sales  every  year  by 
approximately 5% for the remaining 8 years. There has been no progress in moving towards 
healthy and plant-based diets. Food waste in the EU remained stable in 2021 compared to 2020 
and  accounted  for  around  131 kg  per  person  (58.4 million kg).  54%  of  waste  comes  from 
households, and the remaining 46% was generated further up the food supply chain. It is no 
longer disputed that food systems transformation is needed that will enable us to live and thrive 
within planetary boundaries and ensure food and nutrition security for all and in the long term 
for future generations. This requires a better understanding of the complex interactions between 
the components of our current food systems, and innovative ways to accelerate and develop 
solutions that can contribute to systemic change.  

Food 2030176 is the EU's research and innovation policy framework supporting the transition 
towards sustainable, healthy and inclusive food systems, that respect planetary boundaries. It 
is in line with, and supports the goals of the European Green Deal, farm to fork strategy and 
Bioeconomy strategy.  

Food 2030 and their pathways for  action are being  deployed via  Horizon Europe, the  EU’s 
framework programme for R&I (2021–2027), which provides funding to support a diversity of 
projects and initiatives, in Europe and beyond.  

The  report  “Food  2030  -  Pathways  for  action  2.0”177  provides  an  update  on  the  European 
Commission’s Food 2030 initiative and is meant to guide future research and innovation policy 
reflections related to Horizon Europe, the farm-to-fork strategy, the European Green Deal and 
beyond. 

Fully integrating a systemic approach to food policies in the legislative framework would 
support  accelerating  progress  to  a  truly  sustainable  system.  Carbon  farming  practices  will 

176 Food 2030 – Pathways for action 
177 Food 2030 – Pathways for action 2.0 

36 

 
 
 
bring new business opportunities, rewarding farmers for preserving or increasing soil organic 
carbon and improving soil quality and its fertility178. 

2.6.6 Trade 

As the world aims to achieve the goals of the Paris Agreement, the Kunming-Montreal Global 
Biodiversity Framework, relevant Multilateral Environmental Agreements (MEAs) and the UN 
Sustainable Development Goals, trade policy plays a role in supporting an ecological and green 
transition  not  only  within  the  EU  but  globally.  This  includes,  for  instance,  accelerating 
investment in the promotion of value chains that are circular, responsible, and sustainable. It 
also  means  creating  opportunities  for  sustainable  products  and  services  to  be  traded  more 
extensively. 

As  the  EU  continues  to  be  a  front  runner  with  the  Green  Deal  and  its  associated  policy 
implementation, it places significant importance in supporting partner countries in building the 
necessary mechanisms, capacity and systems via technical exchanges, financial support, and 
diplomatic efforts.  

Trade  policy  can  serve  as  a  platform  to  engage  with  trading  partners  on  climate  and 
environmental action, multilaterally e.g., in the World Trade Organization or bilaterally through 
our  Free  Trade  Agreements.  Commitments  to  sustainability  have  been  continuously 
strengthened  in  EU  trade  agreements,  in  particular  with  regard  to  enhancing  climate  action 
through the recent Communication on Trade and Sustainable Development (TSD) chapters in 
free trade agreements179. The Commission has also stepped-up efforts to implement and enforce 
the  sustainable  development  commitments  of  EU  trade  agreements.  Recent  TSD  chapters 
commit parties to the full respect of their obligations under the Paris Agreement, the Kunming-
Montreal  Global  Biodiversity  Framework  and 
relevant  Multilateral  Environmental 
Agreements.  For  countries  with  which  the  EU  has  or  is  negotiating  free  trade  agreements, 
climate policy dialogues are also pursued within the Trade and Sustainable Development sub-
committees,  complemented  by  institutional  advisory  and  monitoring  mechanisms.  Joint 
Committees under the EU Strategic Partnership Agreements also provide a forum to review the 
respective climate, energy, and environmental policies. In addition to, or in the absence of such 
existing frameworks, bilateral summits and other official visits create opportunities to exchange 
on green deal issues. 

Plurilaterally  as  well  as  multilaterally,  the  EU  is  involved  in  the  trade,  environment  and 
climate nexus. Within the WTO, the EU is working towards making the body a more relevant 
forum  to  tackle  such  global  challenges.  In  the  plurilateral  context  in  the  WTO,  the  EU  is 
involved in discussion on environmental sustainability, ending plastics pollution and fossil fuel 
subsidy reform. Outside the WTO, the EU together with Ecuador, Kenya and New Zealand 
forged the Coalition of Trade Ministers on Climate180. The Coalition will provide political steer 
and guidance to boost inclusive cooperation on climate, trade, and sustainable development.  
The  EU  is  also  an  active  participant  in  the  OECD’s  Joint  Working  Party  on  Trade  and 
Environment that provides analytical work on the trade and environment nexus.  

178 See Commission Communication on Sustainable Carbon Cycles promoting carbon farming and the 
Commission proposal for the certification of carbon removals. 
179 COM(2022) 409 final. 
180 See https://www.tradeministersonclimate.org/ 

37 

 
 
 
2.6.7 Tourism 

The global tourism sector’s consumption of key resources – energy, water, land and materials 
–  is  growing  at  the  same  pace  as  its  generation  of  solid  waste  and  sewage,  the  loss  of 
biodiversity and greenhouse gas emissions. In a ‘business-as-usual’ scenario, in 2050, tourism 
will  have  generated  an  increase  of  154%  in  energy  consumption,  131%  in  greenhouse  gas 
emissions, 152% in water consumption and 251% in solid waste disposal181. 
Based on the Transition Pathway for Tourism182, co-created by the Commission and tourism 
stakeholders,  in  2022  the  Council  adopted  the  EU  tourism  agenda  2030183.  Under  green 
transition priority, this plan sets out measures to: (i) reduce the sector’s environmental footprint 
(food/general waste, water/energy efficiency and pollution); (ii) encourage companies to take 
up greener practices by increasing demand for green services by public bodies through green 
public procurement and promoting schemes that support assessing, tracking and reducing their 
environmental footprints (such as the Eco-Management and Audit Scheme, the EU Ecolabel, 
other EN ISO 14024 type I ecolabels or equivalent third-party verified voluntary labels); and 
(iii)  fund  research  and  innovation  projects  and  pilot  projects  on  circular  and  sustainable 
tourism. 

In 2022, the Commission also launched the EU Tourism Dashboard, a tool to improve access 
to statistics and indicators for tourism. In addition, the dashboard supports tourist destinations 
and public authorities in tracking their progress in the green and digital transitions. It includes 
statistical data on greenhouse-gas intensity from tourism, bathing water quality, the share of 
trips  by  train,  air-travel  emission  intensity,  tourism-energy  intensity  and  the  use  of 
sustainability labels. 
The first 2024 stock-taking report of the Transition pathway184 provides insights on the broad 
stakeholder progress towards greening tourism ecosystem. 

So far, there has been a fragmented policy response across EU legislation to the sustainability 
challenges faced by the tourism industry. This has led to a lack of data availability for the 
sector  as  a  whole,  especially  on  environmental  impact.  However,  work  is  ongoing  and,  in 
cooperation  with  the  European  Commission  (in  particular  Eurostat)  and  supported  by  the 
technical  support  instrument,  Member  States  have  set  up  methodologies  to  develop  new 
indicators,  new  data  sources  and  building  capacities.  In  the  future,  the  revised  EU Tourism 
Dashboard  will  gradually  allow  for  better  monitoring  of  environmental  impacts  at  national, 
regional and local levels. 

The  EEA’s  2023  8th  environment  action  programme  monitoring  report  recalls  that  of  most 
concern  are  the  2030  indicator  outlook  results  for  the  programme’s  priority  objective  on 
‘environmental and climate change pressures related to EU production and consumption’. The 
pace of change for most of the headline indicators that address key aspects of energy, mobility, 
food and material resource use systems will have to speed up significantly in the coming years. 
This underlines the need to finish the work to transform these systems that was started under 
the European Green Deal. 

3.  PROGRESS ON ENABLERS 

The  Report  on  the  mid-term  review  of  the  8th  environment  action  programme  provides  an 
overview  of  selected  key  enablers  laid  down  in  Article 3  of  the  8th  Environment  Action 

181 See https://www.unep.org/explore-topics/resource-efficiency/what-we-do/responsible-industry/tourism. 
182 Transition pathway for tourism - Publications Office of the EU (europa.eu)  
183 New European agenda for tourism - Consilium (europa.eu)   
184 Transition pathway for tourism - Publications Office of the EU (europa.eu) 

38 

 
 
 
Programme  Decision.  It  specifically  looks  at  the  following  enablers:  (i)  implementation, 
enforcement  and  environmental  rule  of  law;  (ii)  financing  the  transition;  (iii)  integrated 
policymaking; (iv) sustainable business models for a resilient economy; (v) a just transition 
and environmental fairness; (vi) the environment-health nexus; (vii) digitalisation; and (viii) 
global uptake. This staff working document gives further details on a few additional enabling 
conditions. 

3.1 Improving the knowledge base and research and innovation (R&I) 

The knowledge-based approach is firmly integrated into EU policymaking, including through 
the Better Regulation framework. A regularly improved scientific evidence base benefiting 
from digitalisation opportunities underpins environmental and climate targets and the pathways 
to reach them. This effort continues, for instance, in the process to set an EU climate target for 
2040.  The  Commission’s  Knowledge  Centre  for  Biodiversity185  was  set  up  to  improve  the 
knowledge base and how it is shared and used for biodiversity policy. It integrates a Science 
Service for Biodiversity that supports policy decision-making. 

R&I is a key-enabler of the green transition through the development of new technologies, 
social innovation and other tools based on social sciences like citizen science. Horizon Europe 
is supporting the green transition not only with technology but also with social innovation and 
partnerships  involving  authorities  and  private  bodies. The  new  EU  missions186  are  tackling 
environmental  challenges  with  an  innovative  approach  encompassing  a  wider  range  of 
instruments  and  partners,  including  the  public.  The  four  ongoing  missions  are  particularly 
relevant (Adaptation to climate change, Restore our oceans and waters, Climate-neutral and 
smart cities and A soil deal for Europe). They will deliver concrete results by 2030. 

Environmental  Observations  are  an  essential  means  to  detect,  understand  and  monitor 
environmental changes, like climate change, pollution or biodiversity decline. They are thus the 
bases for designing related policies and monitor their effectiveness. R&I is necessary to develop 
observing  systems  at  local,  regional  or  global  scales  and  to  enable  their  effective 
implementation and exploitation. Environmental Observations are addressed in many parts of 
Horizon Europe in the context of, for example, disaster risk reduction (cluster 3), space based 
services  (cluster  4)  Climate  Sciences  (cluster  5)  and  most  prominently  throughout  all  the 
thematic domains of cluster 6 including biodiversity, natural resources, oceans, agriculture, and 
urban  development.  Copernicus  and  Galileo  are  key  space  assets  that  play  a  crucial  role  in 
environmental awareness and policy making. 

R&I for the green transition is increasingly being applied to EU products and services. The 
eco-innovation index has increased in the last decade, and it is very likely that it will further 
increase to support meeting the objectives of the European Green Deal. The EU single market 
is going through a green transition: by September 2023, almost 89 000 products (goods and 
services) had been awarded the EU Ecolabel. This is a 17% increase compared to 2020 despite 
the COVID-19 crisis and the geopolitical tensions. 

EU and national pathways supporting industrial sectors to reduce their overall climate and 
environmental  footprints  systematically  build  on  scientific  research  on  whole  life-cycle 
approaches (for instance, Level(s) for the building industry). However, for some industries, the 
fragmented policy responses to sustainability challenges have led to a lack of data availability 
for the sector as a whole (as mentioned above for the tourism sector). 

185 https://knowledge4policy.ec.europa.eu/biodiversity_en 
186 https://research-and-innovation.ec.europa.eu/funding/funding-opportunities/funding-programmes-and-open-
calls/horizon-europe/eu-missions-horizon-europe_en 

39 

 
 
 
At international level, the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and 
Ecosystem Services’ assessments have gained global recognition on par with the IPPC reports. 
Building  on  its  experience  with  the  Knowledge  Centre  for  Biodiversity  and  supported  by 
Horizon  Europe,  the  EU  is  fostering  the  development  of  a  global  support  service  for 
biodiversity and regional technical and scientific cooperation centres to implement the global 
biodiversity  framework.  There  is  a  need  to  improve  dataflows,  models  and  scenarios  to 
underpin the development of policy options and measures for  2040 and 2050, including the 
integration  of  biodiversity  data  into  climate  and  agriculture.  Setting  up  a  science  to  policy 
panel on chemicals, waste and to combat pollution187 is another milestone in an area where 
there is an urgent need for scientific evidence on the local and global impact of chemicals on 
human, animal and environmental health and their effect on each other. 

On  Better  Regulation,  there  is  a  strong  framework  in  place,  and  the  main  challenge  is  to 
improve implementation. The Regulatory Scrutiny Board’s opinions have called for improved 
environmental  analysis  in  almost  a  quarter  of  the  impact  assessments  developed  under  the 
European Green Deal to ensure an overall integrated approach. The issues are complex and 
combine  factors  such  as  the  lack  of  good  data,  poor  quantification  and  monetisation  of 
environmental impacts, and a paucity of better regulation work in Member States to underpin 
Commission  analysis. The  Regulatory  Scrutiny  Board  noted  that  the  analysis  of  economic, 
social, societal, competitiveness and environmental impacts was the weakest part of all impact 
assessments at first submission in 2022188. 

3.2 Environmental accounting 

The contribution and value of nature to a healthy economy and human prosperity and well-
being  is  increasingly  recognised,  including  in  standard  economic  thinking. Accounting  for 
natural  capital  in  public  and  private  systems  enables  collecting,  organising  and  using 
information on the stocks and flows of natural resources and trends over time.  
In  February  2023  a  provisional  agreement189  was  reached  on  the  amendment  of  Regulation 
(EU) 691/2011 on European environmental economic accounts, as regards new accounts on 
forests,  ecosystems  and  environmental  subsidies  and  similar  transfers.  This  follows  the 
Commission proposal of 2022. More specifically, the new module on ecosystem accounting 
builds on the first EU assessment of ecosystems190. The adoption in 2021 of the UN standard 
methodologies  for  ecosystem  accounting191  was  a  breakthrough.  The  standard  provides  a 
common  framework  for  organising  data  on  habitats  and  landscapes,  measuring  ecosystem 
services, tracking changes in ecosystem assets, and linking this information to economic and 
other human activity. Despite some progress, natural capital is still overlooked in many policy 
and business decisions. Better integrating value is one of the international commitments taken 
by the EU and Member  States as part of the global  biodiversity  framework. A standardised 
methodology is essential to further progress. 

In the private sector, the EU business & biodiversity platform192 has continued to provide a 
forum for businesses working to better understand and act on their impact and dependencies 

187 Ad hoc open-ended working group on a science-policy panel on chemicals, waste and pollution prevention | 
UNEP - UN Environment Programme 
188  Regulatory Scrutiny Board Annual Report 2022 
189 https://data.consilium.europa.eu/doc/document/ST-6430-2024-INIT/en/pdf 
190 JRC Publications Repository - Mapping and Assessment of Ecosystems and their Services: An EU ecosystem 
assessment (europa.eu) 
191 ‘System of Environmental-Economic Accounting– Ecosystem Accounting’ (SEEA-EA) (europa.eu) 
192 https://green-business.ec.europa.eu/business-and-biodiversity_en . 

40 

 
 
 
on  biodiversity,  including  in  annual  European  business  and  nature  summits193.  The 
Transparent  project194,  supported  by  the  EU  LIFE  programme,  has  developed  the  first 
corporate natural  capital  management accounting methodology. It is a powerful  tool to 
integrate  the  different  values  of  biodiversity  into  decision-making  at  all  levels.  The 
methodology  can  already  be  used  for  companies’  internal  decision-making  and  provide 
valuable data for their disclosures under the Corporate Sustainability Reporting Directive. The 
challenge for the future will be encouraging companies to adopt the methodology and further 
developing its biodiversity component. 

3.3 Nature-based solutions 

Nature-based solutions195, including the protection and restoration of biodiversity on land and 
at  sea,  have  many  climate,  environmental,  social  and  economic  benefits. They  help  reverse 
biodiversity loss, foster climate change mitigation and adaptation, and improve the resilience 
of agriculture, forestry, fisheries and other sectors of the bioeconomy. They also provide many 
job and business opportunities. 

In line with the 2022 Resolution 5/5 of the United Nations Environment Assembly196, the 
EU has set up an ambitious policy framework for accelerating and scaling up implementation 
of nature-based solutions  and strengthening synergies  among  all relevant national  strategies 
and plans. Several policy initiatives under the European Green Deal explicitly promote nature-
based  solutions  (for  example,  the  European  Climate  Law,  the  adaptation  strategy,  the 
biodiversity strategy, the European Bauhaus). The upcoming Nature Restoration Law requires 
Member States to foster synergies with climate change mitigation and adaptation. 

The EU’s Horizon 2020 and Horizon Europe research programmes have invested half a billion 
EUR in research and demonstration projects on nature-based solutions197. Efforts are ongoing 
to tackle the barriers to further investment. 

The preparation and update of national plans and strategies on implementing the Green Deal 
objectives198  gives  Member  States  the  opportunity  to  include  information  on  nature-based 
solutions that can strengthen synergies with other priorities. Stepping up investment is still a 
major challenge. 

3.4  Monitoring progress 

Good progress  has  been made in  monitoring environmental policies:  the 8th  environment 
action programme monitoring framework provides a strategic approach to measuring progress 

193 European Business and Nature Summit - European Commission (europa.eu) 
194 Transparent - Capitals Coalition 
195 The Commission defines nature-based solutions as ‘Solutions that are inspired and supported by nature, which 
are cost-effective, simultaneously provide environmental, social and economic benefits and help build resilience. 
Such solutions bring more, and more diverse, nature and natural features and processes into cities, landscapes and 
seascapes, through locally adapted, resource-efficient and systemic interventions’. Nature-based solutions must 
therefore  benefit  biodiversity  and  support  the  delivery  of  a  range  of  ecosystem  services.  See  Nature-based 
solutions (europa.eu). 
196  Resolution  5/5  on  nature-based  solutions  for  supporting  sustainable  development,  adopted  by  the  United 
Nations Environment Assembly on 2 March 2022. 
197 See: European Commission, European Research Executive Agency, Nature-based solutions – EU-funded nbs 
research projects tackle the climate and biodiversity crisis, Publications Office of the European Union, 2022, 
https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2848/42098 
198 This  includes  integrated  national  energy  and  climate  plans,  national  adaptation  plans,  national  biodiversity 
strategies and action plans, national restoration plans, strategic plans under the common agricultural policy, marine 
strategies and measures adopted under the common fisheries policy. 

41 

 
 
 
on  the  ground.  It  is  also  fully  consistent  with  more  detailed  sector-specific  environmental 
monitoring tools. 

For climate policies, the 8th environment action programme’s headline indicators draw on data 
reported  by  the  EU  and  Member  States  under  GHG  inventories  to  the  UN  Framework 
Convention  on  Climate  Change.  The  2023  climate  action  progress  report  also  uses 
approximated GHG emission data from Member States as well as their national energy and 
climate plan reporting to monitor progress on climate and energy objectives. Additional data 
come from Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service (CAMS)199 and its reinforced capacity 
on CO2 Monitoring and Verification Support200. The revised monitoring framework for the 
circular economy measures the contribution of the circular economy to sustainability within 
the planetary boundaries, competitiveness and the EU’s open strategic autonomy. Its conclusion 
was  that  more  progress  is  needed  for  the  EU  to  become  circular  and  decrease  pressure  on 
natural  resources.  The  first  zero  pollution  monitoring  and  outlook  showed  progress  in 
reducing air pollution, risks from pesticides, antimicrobials and marine litter. However, there 
was  insufficient  progress  in  reducing  pollution  from  noise,  nutrients  and  waste.  Efforts  for 
measuring progress on the EU biodiversity targets have increased as part of the development 
of  the  EU  biodiversity  dashboard201.  To  fill  current  knowledge  gaps,  the  Commission  is 
developing sustainability indicators for the chemicals strategy on soil, forests and pollinators. 
It is also improving the pesticides risk indicator. 

The  Commission  launched  several  other  initiatives  to  improve  the  knowledge  base.  These 
include the knowledge centre on earth observation, on the blue economy and the raw materials 
information system. 

In recent years, the Commission has developed several new cross-cutting monitoring tools 
to  measure  progress  on  systemic  change,  including  on  the  UN  Sustainable  Development 
Goals202  and  resilience203.  Those  use  climate  and  environmental  indicators  from  existing 
thematic  monitoring  frameworks,  including  the  8th  environment  action  programme’s 
monitoring framework. These indicators are also used in the European Semester. 

As  requested  by  the  8th  Decision  and  announced  in  the  2023  Strategic  Foresight  Report204, 
work is ongoing to develop a framework to measure progress ‘beyond GDP’, by means of a 
sustainable and inclusive well-being dashboard. 

There are still major data and monitoring gaps, for instance on climate and the environment 
vs the social nexus, which need to be filled to set the right framework for a just and fair green 
transition.  Monitoring  the  link  between  competitiveness  and  green  transition  could  also  be 
further strengthened. 

4.  PROGRESS ON THE 2050 VISION OF LIVING WELL WITHIN THE 

PLANETARY BOUNDARIES 

The 8th environment action programme (Article 2.1) sets out a 2050 vision where people live 
well within the limits of the planet in a well-being economy. 

199 e.g. Anthropogenic and natural emissions | Copernicus 
200 Relying on new satellites, Akak CO2M, to be launched in 2026. 
201 https://dopa.jrc.ec.europa.eu/kcbd/dashboard/  
202 https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/sdi/database. 
203 https://commission.europa.eu/strategy-and-policy/strategic-planning/strategic-foresight/2020-strategic-
foresight-report/resilience-dashboards_en  
204 Commission's Strategic Foresight Report 2023 

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4.1 

Planetary boundaries 

The  Commission’s  2023  Strategic  Foresight  Report  2023  underlines  that  avoiding  the 
disruption  of  critical  natural  systems  is  essential  for  resilient  societies  and  sustainable 
economies. Scientists calculated that, at global level, six out of nine planetary boundaries 
have  been  transgressed  and  cascading  tipping  points  are  approaching205.  High-income 
Member States score among the highest for transgressing several planetary boundaries206. 

Water  scarcity  and  land  take  (the  conversion  of  land  to  artificial  surfaces,  in  particular 
through soil-sealing) are cross-cutting environmental challenges that link to several systems. 
They have therefore been selected as the best available indicators for the 2050 vision under the 
8th environment action programme monitoring framework. 

Water scarcity affects almost one third of the EU in at least one season (mostly in southern and 
western  Europe).  Despite  successful  efforts  to  reduce  water  abstraction  (-15%  since  2000), 
ongoing water scarcity challenges are likely to further increase with climate change. 

Land take continues to be a major pressure on biodiversity and ecosystems and threatens the 
EU’s capacity for climate mitigation. Between 2012 and 2018, the net land take in EU was on 
average 450 km2 annually (almost the surface of Andorra). The EU is unlikely to achieve the 
2050 target of no net land take. 

Built-up areas have increased in the EU, mostly in cities and commuting zones as a result of 
population growth, transport infrastructure, cultural preferences and economic growth. Even 
though the rate of net land take has fallen by more than 40% over the three observation periods, 
it is very unlikely that the ‘no net land take’ policy target for 2050 will be met. 

The  EU  biodiversity  strategy,  the  upcoming  Nature  Restoration  Law  and  the  Soil 
Monitoring and Resilience Law include ambitious measures to reverse land take and boost 
land’s valuable ecological functions (for example, carbon sequestration, water retention and 
protection from floods). The measures will also protect and restore the water cycle, making a 
key contribution to strengthen the EU’s water resilience. 

4.2 

Consumption footprint 

The green and digital transitions are vital in strengthening the EU’s open strategic autonomy, 
ensuring  its  long-term  competitiveness,  upholding  its  social  market  economy  model  and 
consolidating its global leadership in the new net-zero economy. The 2023 Strategic Foresight 
Report calls for a new economic model, decoupling economic growth from  virgin resource 
use and its negative environmental impact. 

Environmental resources, which are not infinite, form the very foundation of economic activity 
given that most eurozone businesses are highly dependent on natural resources. 72% of 
the 4.2 million companies in the euro area are highly dependent on at least one nature-related 
service, such as pollination, clean water, healthy soil, or timber207. The socio-economic benefits 
of investing in these resources far outweigh the costs: up to EUR 850 billion in avoided social 
and health costs from air pollution a year208, EUR 300 billion in economic benefits per year 

205 Planetary boundaries - Stockholm Resilience Centre 
206 Commission’s 2023 Strategic Foresight Report 
207 COM(2023) 376 final. 
208 See Third Clean Air Outlook, COM(2022) 673 final. 

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from  Natura 2000 ecosystem services,  and every euro invested in  nature  yielding  8 euro in 
broader socio-economic benefits209. 

The  8th  environment  action  programme  monitoring  framework  includes  the  consumption 
footprint. This estimates the overall impact of EU consumption, considering all phases of the 
product  (building  on  life-cycle  analysis),  and  jobs  and  gross  added  value  in  the  green 
economy to measure progress towards a regenerative and competitive economy. 

From 2010 to 2021, the EU consumption footprint increased by around 4%, with impacts 
due to climate change, fossil resources use and the release of particulate matter representing 
more  than  50%  of  the  overall  impact.  It  has  transgressed  the  planetary  boundaries  for  five 
impacts  (particulate  matter,  freshwater  ecotoxicity,  climate  change,  use  of  fossil-based 
resources, and use of mineral and metal resources). Although it is too early to assess the full 
impact  of  the  European  Green  Deal  on  the  ground,  according  to  the  Commission’s  Joint 
Research Centre, the EU’s consumption footprint is projected to grow further by 2030 based 
on  current  consumption  patterns  (in  terms  of  quantity  and  type  of  products  consumed)  and 
expected economic growth210. 

Progress  in  greening  the  EU  economy  will  play  a  major  role  in  to  reducing  the  EU’s 
consumption  footprint  and  boosting  competitiveness.  The  environment  goods  and  services 
sector has been very resilient in recent crises and outperformed the wider economy in the last 
decade: it represented 2.1% of total EU employment in 2010 and 2.5% in 2020, reaching 5.1 
million full-time equivalent employees. This growth is mainly due to job creation related to 
renewable  energy,  energy  efficiency  and  waste  management  and  is  expected  to  continue. 
However, this sector still accounts for less than 3% of the EU’s economy. The transition will 
create more green jobs, in particular in applying circular economy principles and moving to a 
low-carbon economy. The clean water, waste and remediation sector alone employs about 1 
million people, and investment in clean technologies and innovation in these sectors drives the 
demand for new talent. 

4.3  Well-being and fairness 

Nature and biodiversity  play a fundamental role in human health and well-being. The ‘One 
health approach’ recognises the interdependence of the health of humans, domestic and wild 
animals, plants and the wider environment (including ecosystems). 

While  EU  environmental  policies  have  brought  great  benefits  to  people  living  in  the  EU, 
questions remain on whether benefits or remaining impacts are distributed equitably within and 
among Member States. Vulnerable groups – be it for socio-economic reasons, health status, 
age, gender211 or minority status – are disproportionately affected by climate change extreme 
events,  environmental  hazards  and  related  health  risks.  People  at  risk  of  poverty  or  social 
exclusion have more difficulties in accessing quality drinking water and sanitation, which is 
considered an essential service under the EU Pillar of Social Rights212. 

Despite  improving  trends,  air  pollution  inequalities  remained  stagnant  between  2007  and 
2020. Levels of fine particulate matters (PM2.5) were consistently higher by around one third 

209 See IEEP (2013) The economic benefits of the Natura 2000 network. Final Synthesis Report to the European 
Commission. Publications Office of the EU and the Impact Assessment accompanying the Commission 
proposal for a Nature Restoration Law (SWD/2022/167 final), p. 96 – 104. 
210 https://joint-research-centre.ec.europa.eu/scientific-activities-z/zero-pollution-outlook-2022_en 
211 Review of the Implementation in the EU of area K of the Beijing Platform for Action: Women and the 
Environment. Gender Equality and Climate Change, p. 20. 
212 See: European Commission, Access to Essential Services: Evidence from EU Member States, Final 
Synthesis Report, 2023. 

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in  the  poorest  regions  (the  20%  with  the  lowest  GDP  per  capita).  It  is  unlikely  that  such 
environmental inequality will decrease in the coming years. 

Recent  Green  Deal  initiatives  include  dedicated  measures  for  vulnerable  people  (for 
example, in the proposed Air Quality and Urban Waste Water Directive), and further action is 
supported through implementation of the European Social Pillar of Rights on water access. To 
help vulnerable women, the EU gender equality strategy for 2020-2025 and the Recovery and 
Resilience  Facility  aim  to  incorporate  gender  and  intersecting  inequalities  in  the  green 
transition,  also  by  promoting  green  skills  among  women.  The  Facility’s  Just  Transition 
Mechanism213 will support workers and people in the regions most affected by the transition 
(with at least EUR 100 billion). The Social Climate Fund, accompanying the new emissions 
trading system (ETS2), will help shield vulnerable households, micro-enterprises and transport 
users from the impact of carbon pricing in the transport and building sectors. 

The  European  Green  Deal’s  Just  Transition  Mechanism  addresses  the  socio-economic 
consequences of the transition and brings a geographical dimension to ensure that no one and 
no region is left behind. The Social Climate Fund, to accompany the new ETS2, will address 
the  impacts  of  carbon  pricing  in  the  transport  and  building  sectors  and  provide  support  for 
vulnerable  households,  micro-enterprises  and  transport  users.  The  Just  Transition  Fund 
provides  targeted  support  to  those  territories  most  affected  by  the transition.  The  EU  is 
encouraging the education and training sector to contribute to strengthening competencies and 
skills so that learners of all ages are better prepared to engage in the green transition. 

Social cohesion and the fight against inequality in the EU would benefit from integrating an 
even stronger social dimension into transition policies to: (i) prevent environmental hazards 
from further exacerbating existing socio‑demographic differences within and among Member 
States;  (ii) share the costs of pollution  and the transition  fairly, reflecting people’s financial 
means and their environmental footprint; (iii) support the most affected groups and regions to 
alleviate  the  socio-economic  impact  of  the  transition  (e.g.  coal  regions)  and  unleash  job 
opportunities, better jobs and savings for everyone. 

213 Just Transition Mechanism - Funding & tenders (europa.eu) 

45