Study in support of the impact assessment on the development of an EU talent pool : final report.
Date: 2024-01-18
Institutions: Directorate-General for Migration and Home Affairs
Subjects: EU employment policy, EU migration policy, EURES, job access, job application, job vacancy, labour market, recruitment, report

STUDY IN SUPPORT OF THE 
IMPACT ASSESSMENT ON THE 
DEVELOPMENT OF AN EU TALENT 
POOL 

Final Report 

Written by Ramboll Management Consulting, Milieu Consulting, PwC, Kantar Public 
November 2023 

 
 
 
 
 
 
  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
EUROPEAN COMMISSION  

EUROPEAN COMMISSION 

Directorate-General for Migration and Home Affairs 
Directorate C — Migration & asylum 
Unit C2 — Legal pathways and integration 

European Commission 
B-1049 Brussels 

i 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
EUROPEAN COMMISSION  

STUDY IN SUPPORT OF THE 
IMPACT ASSESSMENT ON THE 
DEVELOPMENT OF AN EU TALENT 
POOL 

Final report 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
STUDY IN SUPPORT OF THE IMPACT ASSESSMENT ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF 
AN EU TALENT POOL 

Manuscript completed in November 2023 

This document has been prepared for the European Commission however it reflects the views only of the 
authors, and the European Commission is not liable for any consequence stemming from the reuse of this 
publication. 

Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2023 

© European Union, 2023 

The reuse policy of European Commission documents is implemented by Commission Decision 2011/833/EU of 
12 December 2011 on the reuse of Commission documents (OJ L 330, 14.12.2011, p. 39). Unless otherwise 
noted, the reuse of this document is authorised under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International 
(CC BY 4.0) licence (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). This means that reuse is allowed provided 
appropriate credit is given and any changes are indicated. 

PDF 

ISBN 978-92-68-09706-9   doi:10.2837/670902    DR-02-23-283-EN-N

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  STUDY IN SUPPORT OF THE IMPACT ASSESSMENT ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF 
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Table of Contents 

Table of Contents ................................................................................................ iv 

Technical annexes (provided as separate document) ..................................... vi 

List of Tables ...................................................................................................... vii 

List of Figures ...................................................................................................... xi 

Glossary ............................................................................................................. xvi 

Abstract ............................................................................................................ xviii 

Executive summary ........................................................................................... xix 

1. 

Introduction and context .............................................................................. 1 

1.1. Policy background ........................................................................................... 1 

1.2. Objectives and scope of the study .................................................................. 3 

2.  Problem definition ......................................................................................... 5 

2.1. Challenges and trends .................................................................................... 5 

2.2. The problem that requires action .................................................................. 32 

2.3. Analysis of the problem drivers ..................................................................... 46 

2.4. Future development of the problem drivers ................................................. 105 

2.5. Overview of the relevance to stakeholders in relation to the identified problem 
drivers ................................................................................................................ 108 

3.  EU Intervention .......................................................................................... 110 

3.1. Legal basis .................................................................................................. 110 

3.2. Subsidiarity: Necessity of EU action ........................................................... 111 

3.3. Subsidiarity: Added value of EU action ....................................................... 111 

4.  Objectives .................................................................................................. 113 

4.1. General and specific objectives .................................................................. 113 

4.2. Consistency with the identified problems .................................................... 113 

5.  Policy measures and comprehensive policy options ............................ 115 

5.1. Problem drivers ........................................................................................... 115 

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5.2. Policy Options ............................................................................................. 115 

5.3. Long list of policy measures ........................................................................ 120 

5.4. Detailed description of the retained policy measures .................................. 126 

5.5. Discarded policy measures ......................................................................... 149 

6.  Assessment of impacts ............................................................................ 150 

6.1. Baseline scenario ........................................................................................ 150 

6.2. Setting the foundations to estimate impacts ................................................ 166 

6.3. Impacts at macro-level ................................................................................ 173 

6.4. Costs and cost-savings ............................................................................... 220 

7.  Assessment and comparison of options ................................................ 271 

7.1. Assessment of policy options ...................................................................... 271 

7.2. Comparison of options ................................................................................ 280 

7.3. Preferred policy option ................................................................................ 281 

8.  Monitoring and evaluation ........................................................................ 282 

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Technical annexes (provided as separate document) 

Appendix 1:  Bibliography 

Appendix 2:  Detailed mapping of relevant EU initiatives 

Appendix 3:  Third country case studies 

Appendix 4:  Member State initiatives 

Appendix 5:  Technical feasibility and IT costs 

Appendix 6:  Policy options and corresponding policy measures 

Appendix 7:  Average  costs  associated  with  the  different  steps  of  international 
recruitment 

Appendix 8:  Methodology for estimation of non-IT impacts 

Appendix 9:  EURES network 

Appendix 10: Calculating efficiency 

Appendix 11: Sensitivity checks 

Appendix 12: Synopsis report

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List of Tables 

Table  1:  Working  age  population  in  the  EU27  by  type  of  NUTS3  region,  2022  and 
projection for 2075 .............................................................................................. 8 

Table 2: Shortage occupations by sector most often reported by PES, 2022 .......... 14 

Table 3: Share of occupations sought in online job ads in 2022, EU27 (percentage)
 ......................................................................................................................... 15 

Table 4: Surplus occupations by sector most often reported by PES, 2022 ............ 16 

Table 5: NACE sectors with the largest relative forecasted increase or decrease in 
employment by 2030, EU27 ............................................................................. 22 

Table 6: Categorisation of greening jobs (Dierdorff) ................................................ 23 

Table 7: List of critical occupations for the purpose of green transition ................... 24 

Table 8: Occupations with growing importance for the green transition .................. 25 

Table 9 Ranking of countries by likelihood of exploring job opportunities (N=808) .. 31 

Table 10: Top 20 countries of citizenship for recipients of first permits for remunerated 
activities in 2021, EU27 .................................................................................... 31 

Table 11: Third countries with the highest number of searches for EU jobs ............ 40 

Table 12: Breakdown of interest from outside the EU27 by occupational categories 
(Jan – Apr 2023) ............................................................................................... 41 

Table 13: Occupational categories in EU jobs with the highest share of interest from 
outside the EU27 (Jan – Apr 2023) .................................................................. 41 

Table -14 Long-list of typical information content of government information portals or 
sites for TCN jobseekers (not exhaustive) ........................................................ 48 

Table 15 TMS without dedicated information portal ................................................. 49 

Table  -16  MS  with  dedicated  information  portal  –  no  job  search  or  matching 
functionalities .................................................................................................... 50 

Table  17  Information  content  of  selected  government  information  portals  targeting 
TCN or jobseekers in general ........................................................................... 51 

Table -18 MS with dedicated information and job search portals ............................ 53 

Table  -19  Number of  job  listings  on  the  official  TCN-focused  job portals of  the  MS 
(and commercial comparison website) ............................................................. 58 

Table 20 Typical content of official TCN-focused job portals ................................... 59 

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Table -21 Job vacancy search functions of official TCN-focused job portals ........... 62 

Table - 22 Jobseeker profile functions of official TCN-focused job portals .............. 63 

Table 23 Application management functions of official TCN-focused job portals .... 64 

Table 24 Local country sites of selected global job platforms (September 2023) .... 65 

Table 25 Examples of job search events organised by MSs ................................... 66 

Table 26 Examples of international job placement agreements .............................. 66 

Table 27: EURES platform’s features ...................................................................... 72 

Table -28: Functionalities of the EURAXESS platform ............................................ 74 

Table -29: Overview of general rules to the LMT, per Member State ...................... 85 

Table -30 Examples for MS-issued special visas for skilled workers ....................... 91 

Table -31 Examples for fast-track procedures in the MS ......................................... 93 

Table 32: Stakeholders affected by the problems .................................................. 108 

Table 33: Objectives and problem drivers and sub-drivers .................................... 114 

Table 34: Overview of problem drivers .................................................................. 115 

Table 35: Long list of all policy measures considered ........................................... 122 

Table 36: Policy options grouping policy measures ............................................... 123 

Table 37: Detailed description of the policy measures under the theme of governance
 ....................................................................................................................... 127 

Table 38: Detailed description of the policy measures under the theme of scope of 
application ...................................................................................................... 128 

Table  39:  Detailed  description  of  the  policy  measures  under  the  theme  of 
interoperability ................................................................................................ 131 

Table 40: Detailed description of the policy measures under the theme of pathway for 
employers and potential applicants ................................................................ 133 

Table 41:  Detailed  description  of  the policy measures under recruitment  facilitation 
procedures ..................................................................................................... 145 

Table 42: Detailed description of the policy measures under specific support services 
for candidates and employers ........................................................................ 146 

Table 43: Detailed description of the policy measures under user experience ...... 148 

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Table 44: Discarded policy measures .................................................................... 149 

Table  45:  Job  openings  by  detailed  occupation  (2-digit)  and  level  of  qualification 
(2022-2030), cumulative, EU27 ...................................................................... 161 

Table 46: Expected number of labour migrants in EU Member States by 2030 under 
the different options ........................................................................................ 171 

Table 47: Success rate of matches under each policy option ................................ 172 

Table 48: Expected number of migrant inflows and job openings by 2030 under the 
different options .............................................................................................. 173 

Table 49: Impact of the policy options on labour market performance of TCNs in EU 
Member States ............................................................................................... 182 

Table 50: Summary of macro-impacts under each option ..................................... 216 

Table  51:  Conceptual  framework  for  costs  and  cost-savings  associated  with  the 
implementation of the EU Talent Pool ............................................................ 221 

Table  52:  Expected  number  of  CVs  and  job  opening  by  2030  under  the  different 
options ............................................................................................................ 222 

Table 53: Responsibilities at EU and national level under PO1 ............................. 226 

Table 54: Non-IT governance costs for the different sub-options of PO1 .............. 227 

Table 55: IT-costs for PO1 .................................................................................... 232 

Table 56: Qualitative benefits associated with PO1 sub-options and measures ... 233 

Table 57: Summary of costs and cost-savings associated with PO1 ..................... 235 

Table 58: Non-IT governance costs for PO2 ......................................................... 238 

Table 59. Roles and responsibilities of EU Secretariat .......................................... 239 

Table 60: IT-costs for PO2 .................................................................................... 243 

Table 61: Non-IT costs associated with the user journey for PO2 ......................... 245 

Table 62: Non-IT costs of additional components associated with PO2 ................ 249 

Table  63:  Cost-savings  associated  with  each  step  of  the  international  recruitment 
process for EU employers and TCNs ............................................................. 252 

Table 64: Qualitative benefits associated with PO2 measures .............................. 253 

Table 65: Summary of costs and cost-savings associated with PO2 ..................... 256 

Table 66: Non-IT governance costs for PO3 ......................................................... 258 

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Table 67: IT-costs for PO3 .................................................................................... 261 

Table 68: Non-IT costs of the user journey associated with PO3 .......................... 263 

Table 69: Non-IT costs of additional components associated with PO3 ................ 265 

Table 70: Qualitative benefits associated with PO3 measures .............................. 267 

Table 71: Summary of costs and cost-savings associated with PO3 ..................... 269 

Table 72: Scoring approach .................................................................................. 272 

Table 73: Assessment of options ........................................................................... 272 

Table 74: Multi-criteria impact matrix to compare policy options ........................... 280 

Table 75: Long list of possible indicators to monitor the objectives under the preferred 
option: Developing a focused EU Talent Pool building on certain components of 
EURES and targeted to specific occupations ................................................. 283 

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List of Figures 

Figure 1: Population share by age group, EU27 (percentage) .................................. 6 

Figure 2: Population share by age group, EU27, baseline projection (percentage) ... 6 

Figure 3: Total population by age group, EU27 (historic data and baseline projection)
 ........................................................................................................................... 7 

Figure  4:  Change  in  working-age  population  between  2022  and  2075  (baseline 
projection) ........................................................................................................... 8 

Figure  5:  Population  between  15-64  years  by  educational  attainment  level,  EU27 
(percentage) ....................................................................................................... 9 

Figure 6: Labour force by educational attainment level, EU27 (percentage) ........... 10 

Figure 7: Job vacancy rates in the business economy, EU27 (quarterly data) ........ 11 

Figure 8: Job vacancy rates in the business economy, by Member State (2023 Q1)
 ......................................................................................................................... 12 

Figure 9: Employment in health and social care, by detailed economic activity, EU27 
(1,000 persons) ................................................................................................ 17 

Figure  10:  Employment  in  health  and  social  care  in  2022,  by  Member  State  (as 
percentage of total employment) ...................................................................... 18 

Figure  11:  Employment  of  health  professionals  and  associate  professionals,  EU27 
(1,000 persons) ................................................................................................ 19 

Figure 12: Age structure of health professionals and associate professionals, EU27 
(percentage) ..................................................................................................... 20 

Figure  13:  Working-age  population’s  (20-64  years)  share  of  total  population  in 
selected countries and the EU27, 2020 ............................................................ 28 

Figure 14: Projected old-age dependency ratios for selected countries and the EU28
 ......................................................................................................................... 28 

Figure  15:  Talent  Attractiveness  scoreboard  results  for  OECD  countries,  2023 
(standard importance weights) ......................................................................... 30 

Figure 16: Share of non-domestic employed persons in health and social care, 20–
64-year-olds, EU27 (percentage) ..................................................................... 33 

Figure 17: Share of non-domestic employed persons in health and social care in 2022, 
by broad age group, EU27 (percentage) .......................................................... 34 

Figure 18: Problem tree ........................................................................................... 37 

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Figure 19: Number of first residence permits issued by main reason, EU27 ........... 39 

Figure  20:  Number  of  first  residence  permits  for  remunerated  activities  issued  by 
reason, EU27 ................................................................................................... 39 

Figure 21: Share of searches for EU jobs by jobseekers located outside the EU27 40 

Figure 22 Third-country nationals found to be illegally present, EU27 (1,000 persons)
 ......................................................................................................................... 45 

Figure 23: Channels used by TCNs for searching for a job ..................................... 67 

Figure 24: Barriers to finding a job (respondents who have worked in or searched for 
a job in the EU) ................................................................................................. 67 

Figure  25:  Barriers  to  finding  a  job  (respondents  who  have  neither  worked  in  nor 
searched for a job in the EU, TCN Survey) ...................................................... 68 

Figure 26: Internal channels used by employers to recruit staff from outside the EU
 ......................................................................................................................... 68 

Figure 27: External channels used by employers to recruit staff from outside the EU
 ......................................................................................................................... 69 

Figure 28: Access to candidates as a barrier against international recruitment ....... 70 

Figure  29:  Administrative  procedures  as  a  barrier  against  international  recruitment 
(Employer Survey) ............................................................................................ 82 

Figure 30: Barriers to finding a job (respondents who have worked in or searched for 
a job in the EU, TCN Survey) ........................................................................... 82 

Figure  31:  Barriers  to  finding  a  job  (respondents  who  have  neither  worked  in  nor 
searched for a job in the EU, TCN Survey) ...................................................... 83 

Figure 32: Administrative procedures as a barrier against international recruitment85 

Figure 33: Time and cost as a barrier against employment in EU ........................... 88 

Figure 34: Length of recruitment process (Employer Survey) ................................. 89 

Figure  35:  Barriers  to  finding  a  job  (respondents  who  have  either  worked  in  or 
searched for a job in the EU) ............................................................................ 90 

Figure  36:  Barriers  to  finding  a  job  (respondents  who  have  neither  worked  in  nor 
searched for a job in the EU) ............................................................................ 90 

Figure 37: Candidate profiles as a barrier against international recruitment .......... 100 

Figure 38: Challenges in comparing candidates’ skills .......................................... 103 

Figure 39: Barrier against international recruitment – recognition of qualifications 104 

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Figure 40: Barriers to finding a job – recognition of qualifications.......................... 105 

Figure 41: Overview of the pathway for employers and potential applicants to interact 
with the EU Talent Pool .................................................................................. 132 

Figure  42:  Population:  actual  and  Eurostat  projections  (different  scenarios)  up  to 
2030, EU27 .................................................................................................... 151 

Figure 43: Population projections up to 2030, by Member State (baseline projection; 
2023 = 100%) ................................................................................................. 151 

Figure 44: Population projections up to 2030 vs. GDP per capita (2022), by Member 
State (baseline projection; 2023 = 100%) ....................................................... 152 

Figure  45:  Population  broken  down  by  age  group,  EU27,  baseline  projection 
(percentage) ................................................................................................... 153 

Figure 46: Working-age population (15-64), EU27 (2022=100%) .......................... 154 

Figure  47:  Change  in  working-age  population  (2022-2030),  baseline  projection,  by 
Member State ................................................................................................. 154 

Figure 48: Old-age dependency ratio (population 65+ vs. 15-64 years), EU27 ..... 155 

Figure 49: Old-age dependency ratio (population 65 years or over to population 15 to 
64 years) by Member State ............................................................................ 156 

Figure 50: Projected job openings (2022-2030), annual and cumulative, EU27 .... 157 

Figure 51: Projected job openings by level of qualification (2022-2030), EU27 ..... 158 

Figure 52: Job openings by level of qualification (2022-2030), cumulative, EU27 . 159 

Figure 53: Job openings by occupation (2022-2030), cumulative, EU27 ............... 159 

Figure  54:  Job  openings  by  occupation  and  level  of  qualification  (2022-2030), 
cumulative, EU27 ........................................................................................... 160 

Figure  55:  Job  openings  by  detailed  occupation  (2-digit)  (2022-2030),  cumulative, 
EU27 .............................................................................................................. 161 

Figure 56: Projected annual immigration of third-country nationals (2023-2030), EU27
 ....................................................................................................................... 163 

Figure  57:  Projected  immigration  of  third-country  nationals  (2023-2030),  by  age 
group, EU27 (percentage) .............................................................................. 164 

Figure  58:  Projected  immigration  of  third-country  nationals  (2023-2030),  by  main 
reason of permit, EU27 .................................................................................. 165 

Figure 59: Projected number of third-country nationals arriving for employment (2023-
2030), annual and cumulative, EU27 ............................................................. 166 

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Figure 60: Simplified visual representation of the EU Talent Pool admission process
 ....................................................................................................................... 170 

Figure 61: Over-qualification rate in EU Member States, by citizenship, 2022 ...... 176 

Figure  62:  Expected  increase  in  labour  migration  in  EU  Member  States  under  the 
different policy options and their impact on job openings via the EU Talent Pool 
by 2030........................................................................................................... 177 

Figure 63: Median equivalised net income by citizenship across EU Member States, 
2021 ............................................................................................................... 179 

Figure 64: Employment, unemployment and inactivity rates in EU Member States, by 
citizenship, 2022 ............................................................................................. 180 

Figure 65: Impact of the different policy options on employment growth in EU Member 
States according to survey respondents ........................................................ 181 

Figure  66:  Impact  of  the  different  policy  options  on  the  wages  of  EU  nationals 
according to survey respondents .................................................................... 182 

Figure 67: Time required to find the first paid job in the host EU Member State, by 
citizenship, 2021 ............................................................................................. 184 

Figure  68:  Impact  of  the  different  policy  options  on  public  finances  in  EU  Member 
States according to survey respondents ........................................................ 185 

Figure  69:  Extent  to  which  the  following  features  would  change  the  likelihood  of 
registering on the platform, mean by firm size ................................................ 189 

Figure  70:  Impact  of  the  different  policy  options  on  SMEs  in  EU  Member  States 
according to survey respondents .................................................................... 189 

Figure 71. Share of SMEs across NACE sectors, 2021 ........................................ 190 

Figure 72: Personal remittances received, in current billion USD and as % of GDP, 
2021 ............................................................................................................... 194 

Figure 73: Impact of the different policy options on human capital in third countries 
according to survey respondents .................................................................... 196 

Figure 74: Impact of the different policy options on human capital in third countries, in 
case of the return of migrants, according to survey respondents ................... 196 

Figure 75: Share of people at risk of poverty and social exclusion, by citizenship, 2015 
and 2022 ........................................................................................................ 198 

Figure  76:  Impact  of  the  different  policy  options  on  social  cohesion  in  EU  Member 
States according to survey respondents ........................................................ 201 

Figure 77: Main obstacle to get a suitable job in the host country, by citizenship, 2021
 ....................................................................................................................... 202 

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Figure  78:  Impact  of  the  different  policy  options  on  ethical  recruitment  of  TCNs 
according to survey respondents .................................................................... 204 

Figure 79: Impact of the different policy options on fair working conditions of TCNs 
according to survey respondents .................................................................... 204 

Figure  80:  Potential  inflows  of  migrants  in  EU  Member  States  as  a  share  of  job 
openings by 2030, by occupation and by policy option .................................. 215 

Figure 81: Categories of costs per each policy option ........................................... 222 

Figure 82: International recruitment process and value-added of the EU Talent Pool
 ....................................................................................................................... 225 

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Glossary 

Acronym/ Term  Definition 

ANZSCO  

Australian New Zealand Classification of Occupation 

API 

ATS 

CRS 

Application programming interface 

Application tracking system 

Comprehensive ranking system 

DG EMPL 

Directorate-General Employment, Social Affairs & Inclusion 

DG GROW 

Directorate-General  Internal  Market,  Industry,  Entrepreneurship  and 
SMEs 

DG HOME 

Directorate-General Migration and Home Affairs  

DG RTD 

Directorate-General Research and Innovation  

EC 

ECG 

ECO 

EEA 

ELA 

EMN 

European Commission 

EURES Coordination Group 

European Coordination Office 

European Economic Area 

European Labour Authority 

European Migration Network 

ENIC-NARIC 

European Network of Information Centres 

EOI 

ESCO 

ETUC 

EU 

Expression of Interest 

European Skills, Competences, and Occupations 

European Trade Union Confederation 

European Union 

EUAA 

European Union Agency for Asylum 

EURES 

European cooperation network of employment services 

EUTP 

EU Talent Pool 

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Acronym/ Term  Definition 

FSTP 

GDP 

Federal Skilled Trades Programme 

Gross Domestic Product 

GDPR 

General Data Protection Regulation 

IA 

ICT 

ILO 

IOM 

IRCC 

Impact Assessment 

Information and Communications Technology 

International Labour Organisation 

International Organisation for Migration 

Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada 

ISCED 

International Standard Classification of Education 

IT 

LMT 

MBIE 

NCO 

NCQF 

OECD 

OIOO 

PES 

RWR 

SME 

TCN 

Information Technology 

Labour Market Test 

Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment of New Zealand 

National Coordination Offices for EURES 

New Zealand Qualifications Framework 

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development 

One-in-one-out  

Public Employment Service 

Red-white-red 

Small and medium sized enterprise 

Third country national 

TFEU 

Treaty of the Functioning of the European Union 

UNHCR 

United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees 

UX 

User experience 

Source: elaboration of the contractor (2023)

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Abstract 
This support study for the Impact assessment on the development of an EU Talent 
Pool, drafted for the DG of Migration and Home Affairs of the European Commission, 
firstly  presents  a  problem  definition,  setting  out  the  current  issues  linked  to 
international  recruitment  to  the  EU.  Thereafter,  it  compares  different  options  for 
designing an EU-wide matching tool linking Third Country Nationals and EU employers 
to improve this process. The study then goes on to identify a preferred option for doing 
so, which would involve creating a legislative proposal developing a focused EU Talent 
Pool that builds on certain components of EURES, targets specific occupations, and 
would be voluntary for EU Member States to participate in. 

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Executive summary 

This Executive Summary accompanies the Final Report for the study in support of the 
Impact assessment (IA) on the development of an EU Talent Pool awarded by the 
European  Commission,  DG  for  Migration  and  Home  Affairs  (DG  HOME)  to  the 
Consortium led by Ramboll Management Consulting, and further consisting of Kantar 
Public, Milieu Consulting and PwC. The contract was signed on 08/03/2023 and ran 
for eight months until 08/11/2023. 

The Talent Pool constitutes the first EU-wide matching tool linking Third Country 
Nationals (TCNs) and EU employers to facilitate international recruitment, and to: 

•  Make the EU more attractive to skilled workers from non-EU countries 

•  Help EU employers find the talent they need when this is not available within 

the EU 

The commitment to create an EUTP was first raised in the New Pact on Migration 
and  Asylum,  and  the  idea  was  then  developed  under  the  2022  Skills  and  Talent 
package. 

The background to launching this initiative is that EU Member States are increasingly 
experiencing the socio-economic effects of an ageing population and the prospect of 
a shrinking labour force. These issues have become the reality for employers in many 
EU  countries,  who  are  facing  labour  shortages  in  several  professions.  The  EU  is 
seeking  to  address  these  challenges  through  a  comprehensive  approach,  with  the 
facilitation  of  labour  migration  as  part  of  this  agenda.  In  fact,  the  European 
Commission  has  already  launched  a  series  of  initiatives  that  support  an  integrated 
approach to labour migration from non-EU countries, which are also relevant for the 
development of the EU Talent Pool. These include the: 

•  Aforementioned, New Pact on Migration and Asylum 

•  European Year of Skills 

•  Communication on Attracting skills and talent to the EU (also referred to as the 

Skills and Talent Package) 

•  Labour Migration Platform 

•  EU  Talent  Pool  Pilot  for  the  beneficiaries  of  temporary  protection  (i.e.  from 

Ukraine) 

•  European Skills Agenda 

•  Pact for Skills 

•  European Qualifications Framework 

•  European Care Strategy for caregivers and care receivers 

•  Green Deal Industrial Plan, with its third pillar consisting of the improvement of 

green and digital skills of the workforce 

At the same time, there are several tools already in place with similar objectives as 
the EU Talent Pool, linked to the movement of workers within the EU and to the EU 

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from  third  countries.  Besides  the  aforementioned  EU  Talent  Pool  Pilot  and  several 
Member  State  initiatives,  these  include:  EURES,  the  European  Job  Days  (part  of 
EURES), the Digital Skills and Jobs Coalition, the Innovation Talent Platform (DG for 
Research & Innovation), the Digital Skills and Jobs Platform and the EU Immigration 
Portal. 

The scope of this study, and indeed that of the EU Talent Pool, has been defined by 
taking  into  consideration  the  complex  interplay  of  complementary  EU  initiatives,  as 
described above. The thematic scope of this study has been confined to anything that 
could impact the functioning of the EU Talent Pool, including its governance and the 
actors involved as well as IT aspects and its functionalities and links to existing tools 
and  initiatives  (at  EU  and  Member  State  level).  While  there  are  also  many  other 
external, influencing factors which can impact the scope of the EU Talent Pool (e.g. 
wider  socio-economic  developments,  including  demographic  trends  and  the  ageing 
population, existing labour shortages which differ from one Member State to another 
and which are difficult to identify, etc.), these fall outside the scope of this study.  

The objectives for this study, as set out in the Terms of Reference, were the following: 

•  Supporting the European Commission in the implementation of the consultation 
strategy (i.e. collection and analysis of inputs from stakeholders and the wider 
public) 

•  Assessing the nature and scale of the problem and refining the policy options 

developed by the European Commission 

•  Assessing the impacts of the different options 

•  Comparing  the  policy  options  in  terms  of  effectiveness,  efficiency  and 

coherence 

•  Describing the future monitoring and evaluation of the performance of the EU 

Talent Pool 

The  geographical  scope  of  the  study  covered  the  Member  States  of  the  EU, 
although  key  effects  on  third  countries  are discussed  where  relevant.  The  scope  of 
application considers the situation of the EU on 1 January 2023 in terms of Member 
States  in  the  EU,  countries  that  are  candidates,  Schengen  and  non-Schengen 
countries.  

In terms of the temporal scope, the study’s estimates on the impacts of the EU Talent 
Pool cover the next five years, while other timelines have also been used throughout 
the study to describe more long-term trends and effects. 

The  methodology  used  for  the  study  relied  on  a  broad  range  of  stakeholder 
consultation  methods  to  gather  inputs,  including  participation  in  the  Commission’s 
consultations  (i.e.  especially  focus  groups  and  workshops),  analysis  of  written 
submissions  to  the  Call  for  Evidence,  individual  and  group  interviews,  a  broad 
stakeholder  survey,  a survey  to potential  users  (i.e.  both  TCNs  and  EU  employers) 
and, finally, ad-hoc follow-up surveys to gather specific inputs and fill gaps (e.g. with 
companies  active  in  international  recruitment  and  IT  service  providers).  This  was 
followed by the next step of data analysis and triangulation, bringing all these inputs 

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together and  complementing  this with  different  perspectives  based  on  the  technical 
expertise of the study team members. 

The  analysis  departed  from  a  problem  tree  (see  figure  overleaf) which  formed  the 
methodological cornerstone of the IA. 

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Figure: Problem tree 

Source: elaboration of the contractor (2023)

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As depicted in the figure, the main problem that the EU Talent Pool aims to address 
is  the  insufficient  recruitment  of  TCNs  through  legal  migration  pathways  to 
address EU labour and skill shortages. At the same time, the problem tree shows 
the  complex  interplay of  drivers  (both  related  to  employment  and migration),  sub-
drivers and contextual elements (both internal and external) that play a role, as well 
as the main consequences of the problem. 

To address the identified problems, a set of 36 detailed policy measures linked to 
the design and operation of the proposed EU Talent Pool  were identified and then 
grouped into seven categories: 

•  Governance 

•  Scope of application 

• 

Interoperability 

•  Pathway for employers and potential applicants 

•  Recruitment facilitation procedures 

•  Specific support services for candidates and employers 

•  User experience 

Subsequently,  the  measures  were  grouped  into  three  comprehensive  policy 
options that address the problem, differentiated by the level of ambition in terms of 
the scope of intervention. The three policy options are the following: 

•  Policy  Option  1:  Soft  measures  aiming  at  improving  information  provision 
and facilitating identification and matching, without deploying a new EU Talent 
Pool platform (non-legislative option) 

•  Policy Option 2: Developing a focused EU Talent Pool building on certain 
components of EURES and targeted to specific occupations (legislative option) 

•  Policy Option 3: Developing an open EU Talent Pool for all occupations on 
a  newly  developed  job  matching  platform,  inspired  by  other initiatives  in  the 
private sector (legislative option) 

For the latter two, sub-scenarios covering a situation where the use of the new tool 
would be made mandatory for the Member States, and a situation where participating 
in the operation of the tool would be voluntary, were distinguished during the study. 

The study then assessed the impacts of each of the policy options if implemented in 
practice  and  compared  these  against  each  other.  After  defining  the  baseline 
scenario (i.e. what would happen in case there were no policy intervention and the 
situation  would  continue  as  today),  the  assessment  of  impacts  was  undertaken  by 
considering  the  expected  labour  demand  and  supply,  and  then  estimating  macro-
economic impacts (including impacts on economic growth in the EU, impacts on the 
EU  labour  market,  impacts  on  public  finances  and  services  in  the  EU,  impacts  on 
SMEs  in  the  EU  and  impacts  on  sending  counties,  such  as  brain  drain/gain  and 

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remittances) and macro-social impacts (including impacts on social cohesion within 
the  EU, 
the  EU,  fundamental  rights  and 
environmental impacts), as well as potential costs and costs savings (i.e. primarily 
related to the IT-side of the platform). 

impacts  on  discrimination  within 

To summarise this assessment, a multi-criteria impacts analysis was undertaken to 
compare the different options covering the following criteria: 

•  Coherence 
•  Efficiency 
•  Effectiveness 
•  Fundamental rights 
•  Proportionality 
•  Technical feasibility 

Each policy option was given a score on a five-point scale for each of these criteria 
after which an unweighted average score was calculated, as summarised in the table 
below. 

Table: Multi-criteria impact matrix to compare policy options 

Criteria 

PO1 

PO2 

PO3 

Coherence 
Efficiency 
Effectiveness 
Fundamental rights 
Proportionality 
Technical feasibility 
Unweighted average 

0.5 
-1 
0.8 
-0.1 
0 
1 
0.2 

Voluntar
y 
3 
2 
2.8 
-0.3 
0 
2 
1.6 

Mandator
y 
3 
2 
2.8 
-0.3 
-3 
2 
1.1 

Mandator
y 
2 
2 
2.1 
0.3 
-3 
2 
0.9 

Voluntar
y 
2 
2 
2.1 
0.3 
-1 
2 
1.2 

Source: elaboration of the contractor (2023) 

As  evident  from  the  table  above,  PO2  (Developing  a  focused  EU  Talent  Pool 
building on certain components of EURES and targeted to specific occupations) under 
the  voluntary  scenario  has  the  highest  unweighted  average  score,  thereby  the 
greatest projected positive impact relative to the baseline. The voluntary scenario of 
PO2 is thus considered the preferred option for the EU Talent Pool initiative. 

The  preferred  policy  option  aligns  well  with  the  principles  of  subsidiarity  and 
proportionality by effectively addressing the cross-border problem of labour and 
skills  shortages  in  the  EU  through  cooperation  among  Member  States.  The 
centralised EU Talent Pool facilitates international job matching, providing access to 
qualified third country nationals for EU employers. This EU-level approach ensures 
efficiency in tackling labour shortages in strategically important sectors, which might 
not  be  effectively  addressed  by  national-level 
the 
standardised  processes  and  requirements  create  consistency  across  Member 
States,  reducing  fragmentation  and  improving  legal  clarity.  Its  voluntary  approach 
respects  Member  States'  autonomy,  allowing  them  to  participate  based  on  their 
specific needs and  priorities.  The EU-wide  nature of  the  initiative  is  proportional to 

initiatives.  Additionally, 

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achieve  its  objectives,  fostering  cooperation  without  imposing  undue  burdens  on 
Member States. 

In terms of impacts, the preferred policy option is projected to be most effective in 
addressing  labour  and  skills  shortages  in  the  EU.  The  targeted  approach  to 
sectors/occupations of strategic relevance to it is expected to address those gaps in 
a more effective way as the initiative would focus on areas where there is a genuine 
need  to  attract  workers  from  third  countries,  i.e.  where  the  workforce  in  the  EU  is 
limited. This policy option will also result in the most substantial increase in the labour 
force in the EU and in GDP growth, and it will benefit SMEs in particular through better 
access to a wider pool of jobseekers. Talent Partnerships, fostered by the preferred 
policy  option,  mitigate  brain  drain  risks  in  third  countries,  promoting  mutual  talent 
development. Additionally, this policy option was assessed to strike the right balance 
between effectiveness and cost-savings (efficiency), bringing significant cost-savings 
for both employers and TCNs that fully offset the initial setup costs and the costs of 
operations at EU and national level. In this regard, as the policy option is not expected 
to  result  in  any  significant  administrative  burden  for  businesses  and  citizens, 
considerations on the one in, one out approach were not necessary (as per Better 
Regulation Tool #59).  

Finally,  regarding  the  future  monitoring  and  evaluation  of  the  EUTP,  the  study 
made  several  recommendations  for  the  preferred    policy  option.  These  included 
relevant objectives, indicators, methodologies to establish the baseline situation, data 
source(s), frequency of collection and stakeholders involved.

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1. Introduction and context 

This  Final  Report  forms  the  final  deliverable  for  the  Study  in  support  of  the  Impact 
assessment (IA) on the development of an EU Talent Pool, awarded by the European 
Commission, DG Migration and Home Affairs (DG HOME) to the Consortium led by 
Ramboll  Management  Consulting,  and  further  consisting  of  Kantar  Public,  Milieu 
Consulting  and  PwC.  The  contract  was  signed  on  08/03/2023  and  will  run  for  eight 
months  until  08/11/203.  The  ultimate  aim  of  this  study  is  to  support  the  European 
Commission’s IA in selecting the specific design of the EU Talent Pool to inform their 
legislative proposal which is planned to establish this initiative. 

1.1. Policy background1 

EU Member States experience the prospect of ageing population2 and shrinking labour 
force3, issues which have become the reality of many EU countries and its employers 
who are facing shortages in many professions. The EU is seeking to address  these 
challenges through a comprehensive approach, with labour migration as part of this 
agenda.  In  fact,  the  European  Commission  has  launched  a  series  of  initiatives  that 
support an integrated approach to labour migration from non-EU countries, which are 
also relevant for the development of the EU Talent Pool.   

Firstly,  the  New  Pact  on  Migration  and  Asylum4,  adopted  by  the  European 
Commission in September 2020, sets out the importance of more effective procedures 
in  the  migration  process  and  recognises  legal  migration  as  an  essential  part  of  the 
comprehensive  approach  to  migration.  The  Pact  proposes  to  explore  an  EU  Talent 
Pool which could operate as an EU-wide platform for international recruitment of third 
country nationals.  

Moreover, in 2022, the European Commission’s Communication on Attracting skills 
and talent to the EU (also referred to as the Skills and Talent Package)5 set out a 
number  of  proposals  to  develop  a  sustainable  EU  policy  for  legal  migration.  The 
legislative pillar presented in the Communication proposed the revisions of Directive 
2003/109/EC for Long-term residents, of Directive 2011/98/EU, Directive on a Single 
Application/Permit,  and  the  reform  of  the  EU  Blue  Card  Directive6.  In  addition,  the 
Commission is monitoring the implementation of the Seasonal Workers Directive7 and 
the Intra-corporate Transfers Directive8. The operational pillar for attracting skills and 
talent indicated in the Communication9 consists of the Talent Partnerships and the EU 
Talent Pool. 

To  go  in  more  detail  on  the  Talent  Partnerships,  these  are  among  the  European 
Commission’s actions in the area of legal migration and integration and form part of 

1 This Section forms a summary of the policy background, whilst the Technical Annexes, no. 2 maps all of these, including the 
possible linkages with the EUTP, in more detail. 
2 https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/interactive-publications/demography-2023 
3 European Parliament Research Services (2022) Demographic Outlook for the European Union 
4https://commission.europa.eu/strategy-and-policy/priorities-2019-2024/promoting-our-european-way-life/new-pact-migration-
and-asylum_en#documents 
5 https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=COM%3A2022%3A657%3AFIN&qid=1651223944578 
6 https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex%3A32009L0050 
7https://home-affairs.ec.europa.eu/policies/migration-and-asylum/legal-migration-and-integration/work/seasonal-workers-
directive_en 
8  https://home-affairs.ec.europa.eu/policies/migration-and-asylum/legal-migration-and-integration/work/intra-corporate-transfers-
directive_en 
9 https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=COM%3A2022%3A657%3AFIN&qid=1651223944578 

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the New Pact on Migration and Asylum. These intend to provide a policy framework 
and funding to support international mobility and to address skills shortages in the EU 
labour  markets10.  Talent  Partnerships  thus  aim  to  support  work  or  training  mobility 
programmes for students, graduates and workers in partner countries to the EU and aim 
to boost  international  labour  mobility,  as  well  as  the development of  talent  in  a mutually 
beneficial way. Connections between the Talent Partnerships and the EU Talent Pool 
may be created as the latter can facilitate the implementation of the Talent Partnerships 
(e.g. by providing an additional channel for the recruitment of third country nationals). 
At the same time, already-existing actions of Talent Partnerships may facilitate certain 
measures which could for part of an EU Talent Pool. For instance, existing cooperation 
between authorities, employment agencies, social and economic partners, education 
and training providers part of Talent Partnerships could facilitate an EU Talent Pool. In 
the case of  the possible pre-screening of candidates for the EU Talent Pool, Talent 
Partnerships could also be used to facilitate this process for candidates who already 
took  part  in  Talent  Partnerships.  For  a  more  detailed  discussion  on  the  possible 
measures for the EU Talent Pool, including those related to Talent Partnerships, see 
Section 5.4. 

In October 2022, the European Commission and the European Labour Authority (ELA) 
launched  an  EU Talent  Pool  Pilot11  for  the  beneficiaries  of  temporary  protection12. 
This  initiative  is  being  implemented  by  the  ELA  through  EURES,  the  European 
cooperation  network  of  employment  services  created  to  facilitate  mobility  of  EU 
workers  across  Member  States.  Through  the  EURES  web  portal,  beneficiaries  of 
temporary protection can create their CVs which then become available to employers 
and employment services of Member States participating in the pilot project (i.e. at the 
moment: Croatia, Czechia, Spain, Finland, Poland, Cyprus, Lithuania and Slovakia). 
Insights from the experience of the pilot project will feed into the development of the 
EU Talent Pool as discussed in this study, but direct linkages will be limited due to the 
differences between this Pilot and the envisioned policy options for the EU Talent Pool, 
primarily in terms of the different target audience of both initiatives. Where the Pilot is 
only targeting beneficiaries of temporary protection who are already in the EU and have 
the right to work in each EU Member State, the target audience of the EU Talent Pool 
is residing in its home countries outside of the EU and they don’t have such rights yet. 

The European Skills Agenda13, launched in 2020, presented the EU objectives for 
upskilling  and  reskilling  during  the  subsequent  five  years.  Its  objectives  need  to  be 
achieved  through  collaboration  between  EU  Member  States,  business  and  social 
partners through 12 flagship actions and initiatives14. The Agenda places emphasis on 
having  a  concerted  approach  to  investing  in  the  right  skills  for  the  job  market  in 
European countries. The Pact for Skills15 was launched in 2020 as the first flagship 
action  under  the  Agenda,  with  the  aim  of  ensuring  effective  partnerships  across 
stakeholders  (e.g.  public  authorities,  social  partners,  companies,  education  and 
training  providers)  to  promote  skills  development  and  improve  matching  between 
labour market needs and available skills.  

10 https://home-affairs.ec.europa.eu/policies/migration-and-asylum/legal-migration-and-integration/talent-partnerships_en 
11  European  Commission  (2022)  EURES  -  EU  Talent  Pool  Pilot,  Available  at:  https://eures.ec.europa.eu/eu-talent-pool-
pilot_en#member-states-participating-in-the-eu-talent-pool-pilot.  
12 https://home-affairs.ec.europa.eu/policies/migration-and-asylum/common-european-asylum-system/temporary-protection_en 
13 https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_20_1196 
14 https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/qanda_20_1197 
15 https://pact-for-skills.ec.europa.eu/index_en 

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The Labour Migration Platform16 was launched on 10 January 2023 and it aims at 
promoting  high-level  discussions  between  the  European  Commission  and  migration 
and  employment  authorities  from  Member  States.  This  initiative  is  important  for  the 
design  of  the  EU  Talent  Pool  particularly  due  to  the  role  the  initiative  could  play  in 
discussing common issues across Member States regarding labour market shortages 
and  demography.  Notably,  some  recent  EU  strategies  and  plans  promote  a  more 
structured framework around certain sectors facing particular labour shortages in the 
EU. For instance, the European Care Strategy for caregivers and care receivers17 
aims at improving the situation of the employees active in this profession. Similarly, the 
European Commission presented the Green Deal Industrial Plan, with its third pillar 
consisting of the improvement of green and digital skills of the workforce18. In addition, 
the  Net Zero  Industry  Act  establishes  a  framework of  policy measures  that  aim  at 
strengthening Europe’s net-zero technology products manufacturing sector, which is 
of  relevance  for  creating  jobs  in  the  manufacturing  sector  that  promote  the  green 
transition.   

Finally, the European Year of Skills19 started on the 9th of May 2023 and will run until 
the 8th of May 2024 putting focus on participation of talent in the EU labour market, and 
thus  boosting  its  competitiveness,  with  particular  attention  on  the  green  and  digital 
transition and innovations related to it. Importantly, in the European Year of Skills, the 
EU Talent Pool initiative will be part of a wider package of EU initiatives, alongside a 
Communication  and  Recommendation  on  the  recognition  of  qualifications  of  third 
country nationals. 

Other relevant initiatives from which the EUTP can take inspiration are EURES20, the 
European Job Days21 (part of EURES), the Digital Skills and Jobs Coalition, the 
Innovation Talent Platform22 (DG RTD), and the Digital Skills and Jobs Platform23. 
Specifically for migrants from non-EU countries, the EU Immigration Portal24 provides 
information about immigrating to the EU, portal. Finally, the European Qualifications 
Framework25  is  a  tool  that  supports  transparency,  comparability  and  portability  of 
people’s qualifications in Europe. This tool applies to all types of education, training 
and qualifications, from school education to academic, vocational and professional.  

1.2. Objectives and scope of the study 

Considering  the  complex  interplay  with  other  EU  initiatives,  as  described  in  the 
previous section, it is crucial to properly define the scope this study. There are many 
topics which play a role as external, influencing factors which can have an impact on 
the  scope  of  the  study  (e.g.  wider  socio-economic  developments,  including 
demographic trends and the ageing population, existing labour shortages which differ 
from one Member State to another and which are difficult to identify, differences in the 
challenges faced by various sectors, lengthy immigration and recruitment processes, 
labour 
inconsistent  and 

fragmented  cooperation  with 

third  countries  on 

16 https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_23_103 
17 https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_22_5169 
18 https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_23_510 
19 https://commission.europa.eu/strategy-and-policy/priorities-2019-2024/europe-fit-digital-age/european-year-skills-2023_en 
20 https://eures.ec.europa.eu/index_en 
21 https://europeanjobdays.eu/en 
22 https://euraxess.ec.europa.eu/euraxess/innovation-talent-platform 
23 https://digital-skills-jobs.europa.eu/en 
24 https://immigration-portal.ec.europa.eu/index_en 
25 https://europa.eu/europass/en/europass-tools/european-qualifications-framework 

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mobility/migration management, labour market tests, recognition of qualifications, etc.). 
However, all  these  aspects  cannot  be  directly  addressed  by  the  EU  Talent  Pool.  In 
sum,  the  thematic  scope  of  the  study  will  be  confined  to  anything  that  impacts  the 
functioning of the EU Talent Pool, including governance and actors involved (i.e. ICT), 
as well as functionalities and links to existing tools and initiatives (at EU and Member 
State level). 

In terms of the objectives of this study, as set out in the Terms of Reference, these can 
be summarised as follows: 

•  Assessing the problem definition and refining the policy options developed by 
the European Commission, including in relation to the specific features of the 
EU Talent Pool, such as its scope of application, governance, admission criteria, 
IT  platform,  components  (including  with  regard  to  facilitating  recognition  and 
validation of skills and qualifications)  

•  Assessing  and  comparing 

thoroughly 

the  policy  options 

in 

terms  of 

effectiveness, efficiency and coherence 

•  Assessing the impacts of the different options, including economic impacts (e.g. 
on  EU  Institutions  and  Agencies,  Member  States,  companies,  SMEs  and 
industry, EU citizens as well as third countries and TCNs, etc.), the social and 
fundamental  rights  impacts  (e.g.  including  security,  digital  impacts,  the 
processing of personal data and working conditions) but also impacts on wider 
EU  policy  on  migration  management  and  the  environmental  impacts  of  the 
various  policy  options  (costs  and  benefits,  quantified  whenever  possible, 
including  One-In-One-Out  (OIOO),    and  related  administrative  costs  and/or 
savings for business and citizens) 

•  Describing the future monitoring and evaluation of the performance of the EU 

Talent Pool  

•  Supporting the European Commission in the implementation of the consultation 

strategy (i.e. collection and analysis of inputs) 

In terms of the geographical scope of the study, the focus will lie on all EU Member 
States,  while  some  impacts  in  third  countries  will  be discussed  where  relevant.  The 
scope of application considers the situation of the EU on 1 January 2023 in terms of 
Member States in the EU, countries that are candidates, Schengen and non-Schengen 
countries.  

In  terms  of  the  temporal  scope,  as  it  is  an  Impact  Assessment,  the  study  will  be 
primarily forward-looking and, as per the Terms of Reference, it will cover the next five 
years,  while  other  timelines  have  been  used  for  more  long-term  developments  and 
effects. 

What  has  further  aided  the  proper  scoping  of  this  study  is  the  development  of  the 
problem tree (see Figure 18) which forms the cornerstone of the IA.  

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2. Problem definition 

This  Section  forms  the  first  step  of  the  Impact  Assessment  and  firstly  discusses 
relevant challenges and trends, followed by a discussion of the problem that requires 
action, an analysis of its underlying problem drivers, the expected future development 
of  these  and,  finally,  an  overview  of  the  relevance  of  these  to  the  most  important 
stakeholders. 

2.1. Challenges and trends 

The following sub-sections provide a brief overview of the key demographic and labour 
market  trends  leading  to  structural  and  persistent  labour  and  skills  shortages  in 
Europe,  which  the  planned  EU  Talent  Pool  seeks  to  address.  They  furthermore 
discuss how shortages impact on the financing of social security systems. 

The  EU  Talent  Pool  needs  to  also  consider  the  challenge  of  negative  public 
perceptions of migration among some Europeans, especially with regard to irregular 
migration. This is a relevant contextual factor behind the focus of the Talent Pool on 
the influx of skilled workers and an expected increase of the relative significance of 
legal migration pathways. 

Lastly, the section presents essential facts and figures on the global competition for 
talent that will shape the environment in which the EU Talent Pool will operate. 

2.1.1. An ageing society and shrinking workforce 

The European Union (EU) is facing a growing challenge with its population’s ageing 
rapidly. According to the most recent demographic statistics from Eurostat, over a fifth 
(21.1 %) of the EU’s population was aged 65 or more in 2022.26 This marks a rapid 
increase over time: the corresponding number in 2011, only eleven years earlier, was 
merely  17.8%.  This,  together  with  the  slowly  decreasing  share  of  the  younger 
generations (those aged 0-14 years and 15-24 years on the graph below), has raised 
the median age of the EU population from 41.6 to 44.4 years in the same interval.27 

26 Population structure indicators at national level [DEMO_PJANIND__custom_6465412]  
27 Population structure indicators at national level [DEMO_PJANIND__custom_6465603]  

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Figure 1: Population share by age group, EU27 (percentage) 

Source: Population by age group [TPS00010__custom_6678592] 

The ageing of the EU27’s population will continue in the coming years, according to 
projections  available  from  Eurostat.  The  share  of  population  aged  65  and  over  is 
projected to further grow to 31.0% by 2075, almost doubling as compared to 2011. 

Figure 2: Population share by age group, EU27, baseline projection (percentage) 

Source: Population on 1st January by age, sex and type of projection [PROJ_23NP__custom_6678661] 

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At the same time, the working-age population is declining, not only in share but also 
in absolute terms. The proportion of 15 to 64 years in the total population has declined 
from 66.8% in 2011 to only 63.9% in 2022.28 In absolute numbers, this corresponded 
to  a  decrease  of  2.9%  (from  293.9  million  to  285.5  million).  29  Eurostat’s  baseline 
population  projection  estimates  that  this  number  will  drop  further  by  16.1%  to  only 
239.4 million in 2075, corresponding to a share of 55.8%.30 

Figure 3: Total population by age group, EU27 (historic data and baseline projection) 

Source : Eurostat (Population on 1 January by age group and sex [DEMO_PJANGROUP__custom_6678732], Population on 1st 
January by age, sex and type of projection [PROJ_23NP__custom_6678661] 

The projected decline in the EU27 masks very different demographic trends across 
Member States. In fact, the working-age population is projected to increase between 
2022  and  2075  in  four  Member  States  (Malta,  Luxembourg,  Sweden  and  Ireland), 
while  declining  by  less  than  10%  only  in  another  eight  countries.  This  group  of 
countries tends to have a higher GDP per capita than those at the bottom of the chart. 
Seven  Member  States,  all  with  relatively  low  GDP  per  capita,  are  projected  to  see 
declines in their working-age population of 30% or more in the coming five decades, 
according to the baseline population projections of Eurostat. 

28 The prime working-age category of 25 to 49 olds has decreased from 35.5% to 32.4% in these eleven years and is projected 
to fall to 27.8% by 2075. 
29 https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/DEMO_PJANGROUP/default/table?lang=en  
30 https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/PROJ_23NP/default/table?lang=en  

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Figure 4: Change in working-age population between 2022 and 2075 (baseline projection) 

Source: Eurostat (proj_23np) 

At the level of regions, the working-age population is typically shrinking the most in 
rural areas. In Eurostat’s 2019 projections (for which figures at NUTS3 level have been 
published31),  a  decrease  in  the  working  age  population  of  25.9%  is  projected  for 
regions  classified  as  ‘predominantly  rural’,  which  is  considerably  higher  than  the 
projected  decreases  in  ‘predominantly  urban’  (-12.3%)  or  ‘intermediate’  regions 
(20.1%). In addition, it is to be noted that the share of working age population as a 
percentage  of  total  population  was  already  slightly  lower  in  rural  and  intermediate 
regions than in urban regions in 2022. 

Table 1: Working age population in the EU27 by type of NUTS3 region, 2022 and projection for 2075 

2022 

2075 

Urban-rural typology 
Predominantly urban 
Intermediate 
Predominantly rural 

Total 

182.0 
174.2 
92.2 

15-64 years 
117.9 
110.6 
57.7 

Total 

183.9 
159.6 
77.8 

15-64 years 
103.4 
88.4 
42.8 

Change of 
WAP 

-12.3% 
-20.1% 
-25.9% 

286.2 
Source: Population on 1st January by age, sex, type of projection and NUTS 3 region [PROJ_19RP3__custom_6676959],  
Methodology – Rural development – Eurostat (europa.eu) 

234.6 

421.2 

448.4 

Total 

-18.0% 

Demographic  data  also  signals  a  rapid  shift  towards  a  better  educated  European 
workforce. The share of working age population with higher education levels (ISCED 
5-8) has been expanding at a fast pace, from 22.4% in 2011 to 30.2% in 2022. This 
also means that this segment of the population has grown in absolute numbers. The 

31  Note  that  the EU-  and  national-level  figures  in the  2019  Eurostat population  projection  differ  from those  in  the latest  2023 
projection. 

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share of 15–64-year-olds with medium levels of educational attainment (ISCED 3-4) 
has decreased slightly, and the share of persons with only low educational attainment 
(ISCED 0-2) more strongly. 

Figure 5: Population between 15-64 years by educational attainment level, EU27 (percentage) 

Source: Population by educational attainment level, sex and age [EDAT_LFSE_03__custom_6679293] 

The  same  applies  for  employed  persons:  the  share  of  workers  with  middle  and 
especially  with  low  education  levels  in  the  labour  force  has  decreased  significantly 
over the past decade, while the proportion of workers with tertiary education has grown 
strongly,  from  27.7%  to  36.3%,  according  to  figures  from  the  Cedefop  2023  Skills 
Forecast dataset. 

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Figure 6: Labour force by educational attainment level, EU27 (percentage) 

2.1.2. Structural labour and skills shortages 

Source: Cedefop 2023 Skills Forecast 

The ageing population, together with structural imbalances, has led to pressures on 
labour  markets  within  the  EU.  The  shrinking  supply  of  workers  in  Europe  alone  is 
enough to cause labour shortages. On the other side, changing societal and consumer 
needs32 and the increasing purchasing power of the population have led to an increase 
in the demand for workers.  

The unmet demand for labour, as approximated by the job vacancy rate in the EU, 
had been steadily rising since the third quarter of 2013, when economic activity started 
to recover from the global financial crisis of 2009-2010, before the Covid pandemic 
causing a temporary slump. This was however followed by a very quick rebound to 
levels much higher than before the lockdowns: the overall vacancy rate stood a 3% in 
the first quarter of 2023, more than doubling from 2010-2015 levels. It was markedly 
higher  even  than  vacancy  rates  of  the  tight  labour  market  from  before  the  Covid 
outbreak, by 0.6 percentage points.33 The 2023 Eurofound study on labour shortages 

32 This involves among others, higher demand for care services and the outsourcing of personal services traditionally done within 
the household to market actors. 
33 https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser//product/view/JVS_A_RATE_R2  

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expects  labour  shortages to  persist  in  Europe for years  to  come, with  demographic 
trends likely making them worse.34 

Figure 7: Job vacancy rates in the business economy, EU27 (quarterly data) 

Source: Eurostat (jvs_q_nace2)  

In  terms  of  geographic  patterns,  job  vacancy  rates  are  especially  high  currently  in 
Belgium, Austria, the Netherlands, Germany, Czechia and Sweden, while moderate in 
Bulgaria,  Spain,  Poland  and  Romania.  While  the  pressure  on  labour  supply  is  the 
largest in countries with the fastest-shrinking working age population – explained by 
low past birth rates and negative or insignificant net migration (examples are Bulgaria, 
Croatia, Italy, Latvia, Poland, Romania) – job vacancy rates tend to be lower in these 
Member  States,  suggesting  that  the  current  imbalances  on  the  labour  market  are 
structural and rather demand-led. Eurofound distinguishes between three groups of 
Member  States:  countries  with  very  high  levels  of  labour  shortages  with  strong 
increases  in  the  past  decade  (Austria,  Belgium,  Czechia,  Germany  and  the 
Netherlands);  countries  in  line  with  the  EU  average  (Cyprus,  Estonia,  Finland, 
Hungary, Italy, Latvia, Luxembourg, Malta, Slovenia and Sweden); and countries with 
lower  and  only  slowly  increasing  job  vacancy  rates,  typically  with  high  levels  of 
unemployment  and  informal  employment  (Bulgaria,  Croatia,  Greece,  Ireland, 
Lithuania, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia and Spain). 

34  Eurofound 
https://www.eurofound.europa.eu/publications/report/2023/measures-to-tackle-labour-shortages-lessons-for-future-policy  

shortages:  Lessons 

(2023),  Measures 

future  policy.  Available  at: 

labour 

tackle 

for 

to 

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Figure 8: Job vacancy rates in the business economy, by Member State (2023 Q1) 

Source: Eurostat (jvs_q_nace2)  

The  Commission’s  2022  communication  on  attracting  talent  mentions  that  labour 
shortages  are  also  evident  at  regional  level  owing  to,  for  example,  differences  in 
development levels between regions, the presence of urban areas within regions or 
divergent regional labour market and living conditions.35 

Serious structural shortages are also clearly evident at the sectoral level. As of first 
quartal of 2023, job vacancy rates were especially high in administrative and support 
service  activities  (4.6%),  accommodation  and  food  service  activities  (4.2%), 
construction  (3.7%),  professional,  scientific  and  technical  activities  (3.6%),  and 
information  and  communication  (3.5%).  On  the other hand,  sectors  that  experience 
lower  levels  of  unmet  demand  for  labour  include  financial  and  insurance  activities 
(1.9%),  electricity,  gas,  steam  and  air  conditioning  supply  (1.8%),  water  supply; 
sewerage,  waste  management  and  remediation  activities  (1.8%),  and  mining  and 
quarrying  (1.7%).36  These  trends  find  tangible  reflection  within  specific  Member 
States.  For  instance,  insights  derived  from  stakeholder  consultations  shed  light  on 
challenges faced by the Nordic countries, notably Sweden, in aligning labour demand 
for the renewable energy sector with their existing workforce. Despite some Swedish 
regions boasting among the lowest unemployment rates in Europe, (which is indicative 
of  advanced  regional  development),  the  growth  of  new  roles  within  the  renewable 
resources  sector  reveals  a  shortage  of  skilled  personnel  to  effectively  fill  these 
positions. 

Eurofound (2023) also reports that in the last quarter of 2022, recruitment challenges 
experienced by European employers have reached a record high. In the EU Business 

35 Commission Communication (2022) Attracting skills and talent to the EU (COM/2022/657 final) 
36 Job vacancy statistics by NACE Rev. 2 activity - quarterly data (from 2001 onwards) [JVS_Q_NACE2__custom_6683579] 

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and consumer surveys, 26% of managers of in industry reported that labour shortages 
were a production limiting factor, while the corresponding number in services was 30% 
and in construction 31%. 

The  first  main  explanation  behind  structural  labour  and  skills  shortages  is  that  the 
needs of the economy are changing. The Annual Report on Intra-EU Labour Mobility 
202237 analysed the transformation of EU’s labour market between 1999 and 2017 at 
the level of occupations. The report highlights a clear pattern of change, showing major 
increases in employment levels in health and social services, professional services, 
financial services, ICT & business services, and retail & hospitality. Together, these 
five sectors accounted for almost two-thirds of the total increase in jobs over this time 
frame.  

The employment growth within health and social care services alone accounted  for 
almost  the  entire  net  growth  observed  over  this  period  (+1,921,400  employed 
persons), due largely to the ageing European population leading to increased demand 
for healthcare professionals and care workers to provide support to the elderly with 
their daily activities such as personal care or mentoring. Other industrial sectors which 
showed large increases were professional services e.g., legal or accounting services 
(with 586,200 additional persons employed), retail & hospitality (225,900) as well as 
ICT & business services (207,100).  

On the other hand, there were some industries which experienced decreases in their 
employment  levels  between  1999  and  2017.  These  include  sectors  such  as 
manufacturing  (-764,300  jobs)  and  agriculture  (-353,000).  These  decreases  in 
employment  levels  can  be  mainly  attributed  to  labour-replacing  technological 
advancements coupled with the effects of globalisation - i.e. increasing international 
competition - resulting in a reshaping of global production chains with the outsourcing 
of production and jobs to other countries.  

The  most  often  reported  shortage  occupations  in  2022  in  the  EU,  according  to  the 
analysis  of  shortage  and  surplus  occupations38  of  the  European  Labour  Authority 
(ELA), are grouped and presented in the following table. These, in total, employ about 
14% of the EU workforce in 2020 – and could employ even more if these shortages 
did not prevent the filling of vacancies. It is to be noted that the list is based on the 
reporting  from  PES  and  is  hence  biased  towards  occupations  for  which  employers 
more often rely on PES to fill vacancies. Also, reporting PES in the Member States 
may be involved to differing degrees in the search for workers in different sectors, and 
may  have  different  criteria  for  how  to  identify  occupations  with  labour  or  skills 
shortages, weakening the comparability of reports. 

37 https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/00ed7c30-dd96-11ed-a05c-01aa75ed71a1/language-en  
38 https://www.ela.europa.eu/sites/default/files/2023-03/eures-labour-shortages-report-2022.pdf  

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Table 2: Shortage occupations by sector most often reported by PES, 2022 

Sector  

Construction and Building 
Trades 

Transport and Logistics 
Healthcare and Medical 

Information Technology and 
Software Development 

Hospitality and Food Services: 

Education 
Engineering and Technical 
Trades 

Machinery and Equipment 
Maintenance 
Cleaning and Maintenance 

Occupations in shortage within the sector  
Bricklayers and related workers; Carpenters and joiners; Plumbers 
and pipe fitters; building and related electricians 
Concrete placers, concrete finishers, and related workers 
Sheet metal workers; Floor layers and tile setters; Structural metal 
preparers and erectors; Painters and related workers; Plasterers; 
Roofers 
Heavy truck and lorry drivers; Bus and tram drivers 
Nursing professionals; Generalist medical practitioners 
Specialist medical practitioners; Physiotherapists 
Psychologists; Health care assistants 
Software developers; Applications programmers; Software and 
applications developers and analysts not elsewhere classified; 
Systems analysts 
Cooks; Waiters; Butchers, fishmongers, and related food preparers; 
Bakers, pastry-cooks, and confectionery makers 
Early childhood educators; childhood educators 
Metal working machine tool setters and operators; Welders and flame 
cutters; Electrical mechanics and fitters; Earthmoving and related 
plant operators; Electrical engineering technicians; Civil engineers 
Motor vehicle mechanics and repairers; 36.  Agricultural and 
industrial machinery mechanics and repairers 
Cleaners and helpers in offices, hotels, and other establishments 

Source: European Labour Authority 

Cedefop’s Skills-OVATE dataset39 which provides detailed quantitative information on 
professions and skills employers demand based on online job advertisements (OJAs) 
in 28 European countries complements the above data. Note that this dataset, in turn, 
is biased towards sectors with a high share of online recruitment. According to OVATE, 
the occupations most sought after in online ads are office associate professionals; ICT 
professionals;  office  professionals;  technical  labourers;  sales  workers  as  well  as 
researchers & engineers. 

39 https://www.cedefop.europa.eu/en/tools/skills-intelligence/skills-online-job-
advertisements?country=EU27_2020&year=2022#3  

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Table 3: Share of occupations sought in online job ads in 2022, EU27 (percentage) 

Occupational group 
Professionals 

Share 

26.36 

Occupations 
ICT professionals 
Office professionals 
Researchers & engineers 
Health professionals 
Legal & social professionals 
Teaching professionals 

Associate professionals 

18.77  Office associate professionals 

Science & engineering technicians 
Legal & social associate professionals 
Health associate professionals 
ICT technicians 

Service and sales 
workers 

11.56  Sales workers 

Clerks 

Personal service workers 
Care workers 
Protection workers 
10.36  Accounting clerks 

Elementary workers 

9.32 

Other support clerks 
Customer clerks 
Office clerks 
Technical labourers 
Cleaners and helpers 
Food preparation helpers 
Other elementary workers 
Agricultural labourers 
Street services workers 

Managers 

Trades workers 

Operators and 
assemblers 

Farm and related 
workers 

8.76  Business managers 
Technical managers 
Hospitality & retail managers 
CEOs, officials & legislators 
8.42  Metal & machinery workers 
Electro engineering workers 
Construction workers 
Other manufacturing workers 
Handicraft & printing workers 

6.3  Drivers & vehicle operators 

Machine & plant operators 
Assemblers 
Farm and related workers 

0.15 

Source: Skills-OVATE 

Share within group 
30.54 

Share overall 
8.05 

26.74 
22.25 
7.85 
7.66 
4.95 

25.53 
9.34 
7.99 
5.94 

28.23 
17.24 
3.73 

25.87 
25.42 
15.05 

17.2 
9.25 
5.09 
1.36 
0.33 

20.44 
13.91 
10.55 

24.62 
20.77 
14.47 
2.28 

39.48 
16.44 

51.19 

7.05 
5.87 
2.07 
2.02 
1.30 

4.79 
1.75 
1.50 
1.11 

9.61 

50.81 

5.87 

33.66 

66.77 

55.1 

37.86 

3.26 
1.99 
0.43 

2.68 
2.63 
1.56 

1.60 
0.86 
0.47 
0.13 
0.03 

1.79 
1.22 
0.92 

2.07 
1.75 
1.22 
0.19 

3.49 

6.22 

4.83 

3.19 

44.08 

2.78 

2.49 
1.04 

100.00 

0.15 

These structural shortages in a given sector or occupation can generally be attributed 
to (i) unattractive pay and working conditions, including a stressful environment, or low 
prestige, or (ii) mismatches with the local working force, if  the required qualifications 
and skills are simply not available for given medium and high-skilled occupations. 

Cedefop’s 2018 survey, presented in their publication “Insights into skill shortages and 
skill mismatch”40, found that 4 in 10 EU employers had difficulty finding people with 
the  right  skills,  even  though  unemployment  rates  peaked.  The  fast  pace  of 
digitalisation,  the  rapid  obsolescence  of  technological  skills  leads  to  significant 
structural shortages in digital and technological skills in general, encompassing many 
sectors and occupations. 

At the same time, there are skills and occupations for which insufficient demand exists 
in the EU. In the Cedefop survey about 39% of adult EU employees were found to be 

40 https://www.cedefop.europa.eu/en/publications/3075  

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over  skilled  and  trapped  in  low  quality  jobs.  The  ELA  analysis  for  2022  gives  the 
following list of occupations that are in surplus. 

Table 4: Surplus occupations by sector most often reported by PES, 2022 
Sector 

Administrative and Office Support 

Retail and Sales 
Design and Creative Arts 

Media and Communication 

Transportation 
Language and Linguistics 
Hospitality and Tourism 
Construction and Building Trades 
Cleaning and Maintenance 

Fashion and Clothing 
Beauty and Personal Care 
Childcare and Social Work 
Security and Safety 
Arts and Entertainment 
Academic and Research 
Miscellaneous: 
Administrative and Office Support 

Occupation in surplus by sector 
Administrative and executive secretaries; General office clerks;  Secretaries; 
Receptionists 
Library clerks 
Shop sales assistants; Cashiers and ticket clerks; Shelf fillers 
Graphic and multi-media designers;  Interior designers and decorators; 
Product and garment designers;  Visual artists 
Journalists; Advertising and marketing professionals; Public relations 
professionals 
Car, taxi, and van drivers 
Translators, interpreters, and other linguists 
Travel consultants and clerks; Travel guides; Hotel receptionists 
Building construction laborers; Building caretakers 
Cleaners and helpers in offices, hotels, and other establishments; 
Gardeners, horticultural, nursery growers 
Tailors, dressmakers, furriers, and hatters 
Beauticians and related workers 
Childcare workers; Social work and counselling professionals 
Security guards 
Musicians, singers, and composers 
Philosophers, historians, and political scientists 
Elementary workers not elsewhere classified; Hand packers; Stock clerks 
Administrative and executive secretaries; General office clerks;  Secretaries; 
Receptionists 
Library clerks 

Source: European Labour Authority 

With  regard  to  transversal  skills,  Cedefop  found  in  its  publication  “Skills  forecast: 
trends  and  challenges  to  2030”41  that  digital  skills  and  transversal  skills  such  as 
communication,  problem-solving  and  critical  thinking  will  be  in  high  demand.  High-
level cognitive and analytical skills will also be more and more important for the future 
of work.  

Traditional vocational skills such as those required in the construction and automotive 
industries  will  remain  in  demand  in  Europe.  The  publication  also  highlights  that 
transferable  skills will  become more  important,  as  well as  demand  for workers who 
can  work  effectively  in  interdisciplinary  teams.  Finally,  transversal  skills  such  as 
creativity,  flexibility  and  an  entrepreneurial  spirit  will  be  essential  in  the  future  job 
market. 

2.1.2.1. 

Healthcare sector 

The healthcare sector is one of the most important employers in the European Union, 
providing essential services to its 447 million residents. From a sectoral perspective, 
healthcare  services  are  primarily  grouped  under  the  NACE  division  ‘Human  health 
activities’ (NACE code 86), which is broken down into three groups: hospital activities, 
medical and dental practice activities, and other human health activities42.However, 
human health-related activities are also found in NACE division 87 ‘Residential care 
activities’. At the highest NACE level, human health is grouped together with social 

41 https://www.cedefop.europa.eu/en/publications/3077  
42  This  category  includes  e.g.  the  activities  of  midwives,  non-hospital  nurses  (e.g.  visiting  nurses  under  the  aegis  of  various  health 
programmes), physiotherapists or other paramedical professionals. 

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care (Section Q: Human health and social work activities, which also covers division 
88  ‘Social  work  activities  without  accommodation’),  and  this  is  the  level  at  which 
Cedefop publishes its sector forecasts, as well as corresponding to the relevant ESCO 
sector category43. 

Employment in the health and social sector has been growing rapidly in recent years 
in the EU27, from an overall number of workers of 17.4 million in 2008 to 21.7 million 
in 2022 (in Cedefop’s 2023 Skills Forecast dataset44 the corresponding figure is 22.3 
million). This marks an increase of 24.8% over this period, far surpassing the 3.8% 
total employment growth, and putting the health and social care sector third out of 19 
high-level sectors in terms of employment growth rates45, but first in absolute terms. 
Consequently, the share of NACE section Q in total employment has grown from 9.1% 
to 11.0%46 

Figure 9: Employment in health and social care, by detailed economic activity, EU27 (1,000 persons) 

Source: Eurostat (LFSA_EGAN22D) 

All three NACE divisions in health and social care have recorded steady increases in 
employment numbers, with the exception of residential care, which saw a significant 
outflow  of  workers  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Covid  epidemic,  although  employment 
numbers are on the rise again. Employment in human health activities has increased 
by 19.0% to 10.5 million (12.7 million in Cedefop’s 2023 Skills Forecast), in residential 
care by 21.4% to 3.4 million, and in social work without accommodation – involving, 
among others, non-residential care for the elderly and child  day-care activities – by 
45.5% to 3.5 million.47 The significance of the sector, in terms of number of workers, 

43 https://esco.ec.europa.eu/nb/node/210 

44 https://www.cedefop.europa.eu/en/projects/skills-forecast/dataset  
45 After J ‘Information and communication’ and M ‘Professional, scientific and technical activities’. 
46 Source: Eurostat (LFSA_EGAN22D) 
47 The latter ranks 6th out of 85 NACE divisions in terms of employment growth rates between 2008 and 2022. 

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is especially large in Denmark, the Netherlands, Finland, Sweden and Belgium – and 
the lowest in Romania, Cyprus and Bulgaria. 

Figure 10: Employment in health and social care in 2022, by Member State (as percentage of total 
employment) 

Source: Eurostat (LFSA_EGAN22D) 

At  the  occupational  level,  according  to  ISCO  classification,  the  main  relevant 
categories  with  regard  to  health  care  are:  22  ‘Health  professionals’  and  32  ‘Health 
associate  professionals’.  These  are  not  exclusively  occupations  related  to  human 
health care, as they include veterinarians and veterinary assistants, but they are the 
categories  for  which  Cedefop  has  employment  and  job  openings  forecasts.  The 
subdivision of the groups is given in the table below. 

In addition, the human health and social care sector also employs psychologists and 
social  work  professionals  (from  ISCO  minor  group  263);  social  work  associate 
professionals (341); childcare workers (531); as well as health care assistants, home-
based and other personal care workers (532). These relevant occupations however 
only  form  smaller  parts  of  their  ISCO  sub-major  group  for  which  Cedefop modelled 
labour  market  trends,  hence  specific  forecasts  are  not  available  to  add  to  the 
projections for sub-major groups 22 and 32. 

These  two  groups  account  for  a  modest  majority  of  all  employment  in  the  relevant 
NACE  section Q. Professionals  and associate professionals  together  accounted  for 
60.6%  of  workers  in  the  sector,  although  this  number  also  includes  an  unknown 
number  of  medical  teachers  and  workers  with  qualifications  not  linked  closely  to 
human health care, such as legal and ICT professionals. The sector also employs a 
large  number  (22.4%)  of  service  and  sales  workers  (this  category  includes,  among 
others: non-medical care personnel, facility caretakers, cooks), workers in elementary 
occupations  (6.4%)  and  clerical  support  workers  (5.7%).  On  the  other  hand,  health 

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professionals and associate professionals are also employed in significant numbers in 
other service sectors, such as trade (mostly pharmacies) or public administration. 

In 2022, around 6.0 million health professionals (29.2% more than in 2011) and 6.2 
million  health  associate  professionals  (20.6%  more)  were  employed  in  the  EU27, 
according to LFS data. The corresponding estimates in Cedefop’s 2023 Skills Forecast 
are 6.2 million and 6.5 million, respectively.  

Figure 11: Employment of health professionals and associate professionals, EU27 (1,000 persons) 

Source:  Employed persons by detailed occupation (ISCO-08 two digit level) [LFSA_EGAI2D__custom_7206775] 

Ageing has a very considerable effect on the sector. The ageing process has been 
rapid in recent years: the proportion of 50–64-year-old workers in health and social 
care has grown from 26.7% in 2008 to 33.6% in 2022. The proportion of workers who 
are at least 65 years old grew from 1.1% to 3.3%. 

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Figure 12: Age structure of health professionals and associate professionals, EU27 (percentage) 

Source:  Employment by sex, age and detailed economic activity [LFSA_EGAN22D__custom_7206872] 

The  labour market  in  the  health  and  social  care  sector  has  an  exceptionally  strong 
gender bias: women make up 78% of the labour  force. In more detail, the share of 
women among the employed in social work without accommodation (NACE division 
88) and in residential care (87) was 82% in 2022, while in the human health sector 
(86)  it  was  76%,  putting  these  three  sectors  1st,  2nd  and  4th  among  82  NACE 
divisions.48 The highest share of female labour in the sector is found in Latvia, Estonia, 
Lithuania, Finland, Slovakia and Portugal (84% or more).49 

Eurofound (2023) highlights that despite the growth in employment in these sectors, 
current forecasts predict a persistent shortage of labour in the medium and long term. 
The shortage of healthcare workforce is a global phenomenon, with WHO predicting 
a  shortfall  of  around  10  million  workers  by  2030.50  The  permanence  of  labour 
shortages  in  the  sector  reflects,  on  the  one  hand,  challenges  related  to  an  ever 
increasing demand from an ageing population, and  on the other hand problems with 
the  supply  as  the  existing  workforce  is  ageing,  suffers  skills  shortages  and 
mismatches, and as the wages and working conditions make many occupations in the 
sector unattractive. In recent years the COVID-19 pandemic has also aggravated the 
situation, putting an enormous strain on healthcare workers and leading many to quit. 

ELA  in  its  2021  labour  shortages  report  has  pointed  out  severe  shortages  among 
nursing professionals and general practitioners. Even though the number of doctors 
per  capita  in  Europe  has  increased  over  the  past  decade,  the  share  of  GPs  has 
declined. This shortage of GPs is linked among others to relatively lower incomes as 
compared  to  specialist  doctors.  Especially  certain  rural  areas  which  lack  a  modern 

48 https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/LFSA_EGAN22D__custom_6684246/default/table?lang=en  
49 https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/LFSA_EGAN22D__custom_6684261/default/table?lang=en 
50  WHO  (World  Health  Organization)  (2022),  Health  and  care  workforce 
https://www.who.int/europe/publications/i/item/9789289058339  

in  Europe:  Time 

to  act.  Available  at: 

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health infrastructure, have poorer working conditions and are generally less attractive 
to live in face severe shortages (including that of general paediatricians) and the sector 
has difficulties with recruiting candidates with the appropriate skills.51 

2.1.2.1. 

Digital transition 

The skills dimension to the digital transition of the European economy concerns two 
different  domains:  (i)  digital  skills  among  the  widest  groups  of  the  population,  who 
could  be  employed  in  different    sectors  and  different  occupations,  as  a  form  of 
horizontal  skill,  helping  them  participate  successfully  in  the  labour  market  via 
employability and job security; and (ii) specific and higher-level digital skills required 
for ICT-related research and innovation and the digital transition of given sectors, or 
specific technologies or companies within these sectors. 

For the first domain, research shows that basic digital skills can be linked to higher 
wages Even for those with low levels of educational attainment.52 Higher digital skills 
of  the  workforce  also  contributes  to  increased  innovation  and  productivity  in 
companies. 

At the same time, as pointed out in Eurofound (2023), Europeans are lagging behind 
other developed countries in this area. Romania has the highest percentage (25%) of 
adults with limited or no overall digital skills, while the Netherlands has the lowest (1%), 
according to Eurostat’s ICT survey. Remote working, with its significance increasing, 
and having received a strong boost during Covid lockdowns, requires the use of digital 
tools for managing and monitoring workers.53 Working in companies who introduced 
robots  and  automation,  AI,  also  puts  demands  for  at  least  basic  digital  skills  of  all 
workers. Cedefop’s 2021 European Skills and Jobs Survey has found that 87% of EU 
jobs require at least basic digital skills. Out of these, 52% have low skills demands, 
32% have moderate demands, and 17% have high demands.  

With regard to the second domain, Eurofound (2023) reiterates that skills shortages in 
the EU are currently particularly acute in sectors that require advanced digital skills, 
such as the ICT sector. The sector has shown impressive growth rates in recent years 
but  could have  been growing  even faster if enough  qualified personnel would  have 
been available. Job vacancy data shows that the job vacancy rate in the ICT sector is 
high and has increased between 2014 and 2022 in all European countries, except for 
Croatia, Greece and Ireland. The increase was very high in Belgium (5.1 percentage 
points), the Netherlands (4.6 pp) and Austria (4.0 pp). At the cross-sectoral level, in 
2022, 6% of European businesses had vacancies that were difficult to fill due to the 
need for ICT specialist skills, marking an increase of 3.4 percentage points from 2014.  

The study cites the forecast according to which even at the current employment growth 
rates – i.e. filled vacancies - the EU is still likely to be short of the 20 million experts 
needed in key ICT-related areas such as cybersecurity and data analysis in 2030.54 

51 ELA (2021), Report on labour shortages and surpluses: November 2021. Available at: https://www.ela.europa.eu/en/media/725  
52 OECD (2016), Innovating education and educating for innovation: The power of digital technologies and skills. Available at: 
https://www.oecd.org/education/innovating-education-and-educating-for-innovation-9789264265097-en.htm  
53  Eurofound 
https://www.eurofound.europa.eu/publications/report/2022/the-rise-in-telework-impact-on-working-conditions-and-regulations  
54  European  Commission  (2021b),  2030  digital  compass:  The  European  way  for  the  digital  decade.  Available  at: 
https://eufordigital.eu/library/2030-digital-compass-the-european-way-for-the-digital-decade/  

Impact  on  working  conditions  and 

regulations.  Available  at: 

(2022d),  The 

telework: 

rise 

in 

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2.1.2.2. 

Green transition 

The impact of the green transition on the level of employment has been assessed in 
the context of different studies.  

According to Eurofound’s 2019 study published as part of its ‘Future of manufacturing’ 
project55, the green transition is forecasted to impact the overall level of employment 
in  the  EU27  to  some,  albeit  relatively  small,  extent:  the  project  has  estimated  that 
employment in the EU would exceed the ‘business-as-usual’ baseline value by 0.5% 
in 2030 if it met its objectives under the Paris Climate Agreement, with employment 
growing the most in relative terms in Belgium, Spain, Germany Greece (it should also 
be noted that the comparable estimate for the United States is a minus 1.6%, mainly 
due to the high labour market share of extractive industries there). The impacts are 
much more pronounced at sectoral levels: employment is expected to be above the 
2030 baseline the most, in the case of a successful green transition, for construction 
(1.1%),  manufacturing  and  business  services  (0.7%  each),  but  16.6%  below  the 
baseline for mining. The model used also projects much of the employment created 
focused at the bottom and the middle of the wage distribution, filled by employees with 
low  to  medium-level  educational  attainment.  Eurofound  also  estimates  that  the  net 
effect of Fit for 55, the action plan to cut GHG by 55%, would be only 0.1% on total 
employment.  

On the other hand, Cedefop’s 2021 study on green employment predicts that if the 
European Green Deal emissions target is met, there would be an increase of 1.2% in 
employment, corresponding to around 2.5 million jobs by 2030.56 This is a significantly 
larger figure than Eurofound’s modelled estimates. 

The planned transition towards a climate-neutral European economy under the Green 
Deal, which involves ambitious objectives for cutting net greenhouse gas emissions, 
leads  to  certain  significant  sectoral  employment  shifts  (as  already  seen  in  the 
Eurofound study presented above), as well as new demand for 'green skills’ within the 
individual sectors (see key findings of relevant EU studies below). 

The  green  transition  is  anticipated  to  lead  to  a  transformation  in  the  employment 
structure,  with  job  losses  in  carbon-intensive  sectors  and  with  increases  in  sectors 
related  to  greening  the  economy.  It  is  expected  that  job  creation  will  be  unevenly 
distributed,  with  construction and  other primary and  utility  sectors,  as  well as  those 
manufacturing  low-carbon  goods  and  technologies,  likely  to  see  the  greatest 
increases. The table below presents the NACE sectors where sector shift effects are 
forecasted  for  employment  in  Cedefop's  'The  green  employment  and  skills 
transformation (2020-2021)' study. 

Table 5: NACE sectors with the largest relative forecasted increase or decrease in employment by 
2030, EU27 

Winners  
Water supply & waste management 

Losers 
Rubber/non-metallic mineral products 

55  Eurofound  (2019),  Energy  scenario:  Employment 
https://www.eurofound.europa.eu/publications/report/2019/energy-scenario-employment-implications-of-the-paris-climate-
agreement  

the  Paris  Climate  Agreement.  Available  at: 

implications  of 

56 Cedefop (2021), The green employment and skills transformation: Insights from a European Green Deal skills forecast scenario. 
Available at: https://www.cedefop.europa.eu/en/publications/4206  

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Winners  
Construction 
Wholesale and retail trade 
Administrative and support services 
Electricity 
Basic metals & metal products 

Losers 
Mining and quarrying 
Gas, steam & air conditioning 
Coke and refined petroleum 

Source: Cedefop 

At the occupational level, an increased need for new skills is anticipated within sectors, 
either  through  the  creation  of  new  ‘green  jobs’  or  in  the  greening  of  existing  ones. 
While  there  is  no  universally  agreed-upon  method  for  classifying  jobs  or  skills  as 
green, the approach taken in in Eurofound (2023) is based either on the output of the 
job, or the process involved. Jobs can be considered 'green' if they are connected with 
firms or industries that create outputs in the form of goods or services which are either 
environmental or relatively environmentally friendly. In a broader circle, jobs can also 
be classified as ‘green’ if they are linked to improving the environmental performance 
of production processes or companies, even if the outputs themselves are not seen 
as environmentally friendly. 

A classification methodology used by Eurofound is based on a study by Erich Dierdorff 
et al., who identify four types of green occupations.57 

Category 
No-greening 
New and emergent 

Enhanced skills 

Increased demand 

Table 6: Categorisation of greening jobs (Dierdorff) 

Description 
Occupations with limited or no impact of greening. 
New and emerging occupations that do not exist in ISCO-08 and are 
classified in one of the old codes, despite having new characteristics; 
these might require separate classification. 
Existing  occupations  that  will  potentially  require  changes  in  tasks, 
skills and knowledge as a result of the transition to a carbon-neutral 
economy, although the essential purpose of the occupation remains 
unchanged. 
Existing occupations that will not require changes in tasks, skills and 
knowledge  but  will  potentially  see  increased  demand  due  to  the 
transition to a carbon-neutral economy. 
Source: Eurofound (2023) 

Data  from  the  2021  Eurofound  European  Working  Conditions  Telephone  Survey 
(EWCTS)  suggests  that  almost  65%  of  European  workers  are  employed  in 
occupations that will not be affected, or only to a small extent, from the green transition 
(‘no-greening’).  On  the  other  hand,  about  10%  of  the  workforce  works  in  new  and 
emergent occupations, and close to 15% are in two latter categories, in jobs that will 
require enhanced skills or in sectors that are likely benefit from increased demand.58 

DG  EMPL  elaborated  a  list  of  labour  shortages  relevant  in  the  context  of  net-zero 
emissions  and  the  acceleration  of  digitalization  (see  table  below).  This  significance 
becomes  particularly  pronounced  when  analysing  sectors  that  directly  contribute  to 
fulfilling the EU's climate and digitalization ambitions. These occupations are pivotal 
because  they  are  directly  involved  in  designing,  implementing,  and  maintaining 

57 Dierdorff, E. C., et al. (2009), Greening of the world of work: Implications for O*NET®-SOC and new and emerging occupations. 
Available at: https://www.onetcenter.org/reports/Green.html  
58 https://www.eurofound.europa.eu/surveys/2021/european-working-conditions-telephone-survey-2021  

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technologies  and  infrastructure  that  reduce  carbon  emissions,  conserve  resources, 
and promote sustainability. The shortage of skilled professionals in these fields can 
impact the pace and success of the transition toward more environmentally friendly 
practices. 

Table 7: List of critical occupations for the purpose of green transition 

Critical occupation for the green transition  
Civil engineers 
Electrical engineers 
Systems analysts 
Software developers 
Web and multimedia developers 
Applications programmers 
Software and applications developers and 
analysts not elsewhere 
Electrical engineering technicians 
Bricklayers and related workers 
Concrete placers, concrete 
finishers and related workers 
Carpenters and joiners 
Roofers 
Plasterers 
Plumbers and pipe fitters 
Air conditioning and refrigeration mechanics 
Bricklayers and related workers 
Source: DG EMPL list presented during the IOM consultation  

These  data  were  confirmed  during  stakeholder  consultations,  particularly  in  the 
context of the green transition. Indeed, the regions with a vested interest in the green 
transition,  notably  in  Northern  Europe,  have  already  embarked  on  substantial 
investments  in  strategically  significant  green  industry  projects.  These  initiatives 
encompass  vital  areas  such  as  fossil-free  steel  production,  climate-smart  batteries, 
renewable energy, and sustainable mining. 

Nevertheless, the rapid expansion of these green industries is poised to generate a 
significant rise in the demand for labour and specialised skills. Projections indicate that 
by 2035, northern Sweden alone will necessitate the attraction of over 100,000 new 
individuals  to  facilitate  the  green  transition.  This  demographic  need  will  place 
considerable  strain  on  local  communities  and  the  scarcity  of  skills  and  labour  may 
become a substantial impediment to the green transition. 

Moreover, there are occupations that were not commonly experiencing shortages in 
previous years but that are now poised to become increasingly significant for the green 
transition.  This  shift  is  attributed  to  their  active  involvement  in  accelerating  the 
transition toward more environmentally sustainable practices. These are presented in 
the table below.  

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Table 8: Occupations with growing importance for the green transition 

Physical and engineering science technicians not elsewhere classified 
Environmental engineers 
Environmental protection professionals 
Chemical engineers 
Mechanical engineers 
Mechanical engineering technicians 
Process engineers 
Process engineering technicians 

Source: DG EMPL list presented during the IOM consultation  

The  2023  Global  Green  Skills  Report  by  LinkedIn,  upon  analysing  profiles  and  job 
postings  on  its  site,  finds  that  only  one  in eight  registered  professionals around the 
world has indicated one or more green skills. On the other hand, between 2022 and 
2023, the share of workers with green skills in the workforce rose by 12.3% (median 
across 48 country sites). The proportion of jobs asking for at least one green skill grew 
by 22.4% over the same period.59 

2.1.3. Public perception of migration 

As  mentioned  in  the  above  sections,  the  EU  is  facing  a  multitude  of  challenges  in 
relation  to  its  workforce  and  the  labour  and  skill  shortages  therein.  As  such  the 
introduction  of  labour  migration  of  third-country  nationals  targeting  these  shortages 
can  address  these  challenges.  Further,  labour  migration  can  offset  the  ageing  of 
society by increasing the share of younger workers and reverse the shrinking of labour 
forces,  subsequently  reducing  strains  on  the  financing  of  social  security  systems. 
While migration can be a solution to alleviate labour and skills shortages, a significant 
share  of  the  population  in  the  EU  views  third-country  national  (TCN)  migration  in  a 
negative light. 

The public perception of migration in the EU has become increasingly negative since 
the  early  2000s,  which  can  be  attributed  to  the  increasing  numbers  of  irregular 
migrants  and  refugees  arriving,  growing  economic  concerns,  the  rise  of  populist 
parties, and negative media coverage highlighting crime committed by migrants.  

A recent Eurobarometer survey60 found that 47% of Europeans felt that the integration 
of  immigrants  was  unsuccessful  in  their  country.  38%  of  Europeans  consider 
immigration equally a problem and an opportunity, while close to one in three (31%) 
think that immigration from outside the EU is more of a problem than an opportunity. 
This sentiment is higher in Eastern European countries where the number of economic 
migrants and refugees is otherwise lower.  

According to the same survey, fear of economic competition from migrants can be a 
major source of negative public opinion towards immigration in Europe.  Indeed, the 
influx of third country migrants in the 2010s coincided with high unemployment rates, 
particularly  in  Southern  Europe.  There  are  concerns  also  about  the  protection  of 
European  labour  standards.  Some  stakeholders  –  European  trade  unions  amongst 
them - view initiatives to boost labour migration from third countries as a way that can 

https://economicgraph.linkedin.com/content/dam/me/economicgraph/en-us/global-green-skills-report/green-skills-report-

59 
2023.pdf  
60 https://europa.eu/eurobarometer/surveys/detail/2276  

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also contribute to maintaining pressures on working conditions in certain sectors and 
occupations, instead of raising them so they become attractive to larger numbers of 
EU workers. 

These findings are substantiated by the outcomes of the Call for Evidence initiated by 
the European Commission in conjunction with this Impact Assessment. A substantial 
majority  of  respondents  among  EU  citizens  expressed  criticism  towards  the 
implementation of the EU Talent Pool, citing a negative perspective on migration from 
TCNs to the EU.   

The main criticism of measures to promote the migration of TCNs into Europe coming 
from vocal political leaders is that the Europe’s primary policy aims should rather be 
the  activation,  reskilling  and  upskilling  of  persons  outside  of  the  labour  force  and 
unemployed persons already residing in the EU; further facilitating intra-EU mobility 
(from rural regions with little employment opportunities to richer urban regions), as well 
as  making  wages  and  working  conditions  attractive  enough  for  European  youth  – 
instead  of  relying  on  importing  foreign  workers.  In  particular,  within  the  Call  for 
Evidence, EU citizens strongly  contended that the EU already possesses an ample 
pool of well-educated individuals to meet the demands of available jobs. Specifically, 
there were assertions that certain Member States with elevated unemployment rates 
could effectively supply labour to other Member States experiencing shortages, and 
EU citizens highlighted that these opportunities should take priority over the design of 
an  instrument  for  TCNs.  However,  in  practice,  as  delineated  in  Section  2.2.1,  it 
becomes evident that intra-EU worker migration alone will be sufficient to solve labour 
shortages.  

The more vocal opponents of immigration such as political leaders, tend to also name 
lower  levels  of  funds  available  for  the  social  protection  of  native-born  European, 
overcrowding of healthcare, education and social care institutions, as well as crime 
among their fears. Most of these fears are connected to the influx of often irregular 
migrants and their ability to be economically and socially successfully integrated and 
to  meaningfully  contribute  to  financing  these  systems.  Another  apprehension, 
stemming exclusively from EU citizens who engaged in the Call for Evidence, revolves 
around concerns regarding the potential lack of integration among TCNs possessing 
diverse cultural or religious backgrounds compared to the prevailing ones within the 
EU.  These  fears  need  however  to  be  considered  in  the  light  of  the  potential  of  the 
integration of migrants into the many low-skilled professions facing labour shortages. 
These groups are partly TCNs (some have obtained citizenship)  who were seeking 
international  protection  and  whose  family  members  came  to  the  EU  for  family 
reunification.  Their  right  to  reside  was  based  on  protection  on  humanitarian 
grounds/family reunification, and not on their qualifications or skills.  

2.1.4. Global competition for talent 

There  is significant  competition  between  developed  nations  globally  for  TCNs at  all 
skills levels to boost their local workforce, and this trend is strengthening over time.  

The  global talent pool  has  grown  strongly in  recent decades, as  a  result  of  several 
factors,  including  better  access  to  good  quality  education  –  whether  general  or 
vocational, secondary or tertiary - and the globalisation of the economy, which allows 
for outsourcing of economic activities and the recruiting of TCNs in their country, for 

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more intra-company transfer of workers across borders, within internationally active 
companies, as well as increased skills transfers, business and professional contacts.61 
Access to quality education has become increasingly available, growing the population 
of  well-educated  workers  in  many  countries  around  the  world.  With  technical  and 
vocational training (with learning outcomes increasingly in line with the requirements 
of  countries  searching  for  TCN  workers)  becoming  more  accessible,  especially  in 
developing countries, TCNs who have previously enjoyed the opportunity to acquire 
sought-after skills and qualifications. In parallel, there has been a strong increase in 
the  volume  as  well  as  the  quality  of  tertiary  education  in  emerging  and  developing 
countries. This has led to a surge in the number of medium- and high-skilled workers 
entering  the  global  talent  pool,  including  in  sectors  and  occupations  with  persistent 
labour and skills shortages in Europe.  

Data from the World Bank shows that the proportion of population aged 25+ with at 
least  post-secondary educational  attainment,  or  with  tertiary educational  attainment 
has increased dramatically in the past decades around the world, especially in less-
developed  countries.62  In  absolute  terms  this  increase  is  even  higher  given  the 
population surge in these countries. 

Businesses are increasingly operating in a global environment. Global supply chains, 
advances in technology and communication capabilities, the spread of English as the 
language of global communication has all helped employers recruit overseas skills. 

The number of TCNs with low or relatively low educational attainment, ready and able 
to take low-skilled jobs in Europe or in other developed countries, is also increasing. 
This  originates  in  factors  like  an  improved  quality  of  basic  education;  a  continued 
spread  of  the  knowledge  of  English  or  of  other  European  languages;  a  generally 
improving financial capacity of families to pay for recruitment services, administrative 
fees and relocation. 

However,  at  the  same  time,  demand  for  this  labour  supply  from  other  developed 
countries,  and emerging  countries  as  well,  is also  increasing.  Countries  around  the 
world  face  the  same  ageing  problem  as  the  EU.  Comparative  data  from  OECD63 
shows that the EU27 will still have the second-worst old-age dependency ratio among 
selected  major  developed  or  emerging  economies  after  Japan  in  2025  and  will 
continue  to  age.  In  terms  of  the  share  of  working-age  population  (aged  20-64  in 
OECD’s classification), the EU27 was third from the bottom in the ranking of eleven 
major economies, with only the United Kingdom and Japan being further behind. 

61Global  Talent  2021.  How 
http://www.scm.oas.org/pdfs/2013/CIDI03946E.pdf 
62 https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.SEC.CUAT.LO.ZS 
63 OECD (2023), Old-age dependency ratio (indicator). https://data.oecd.org/pop/old-age-dependency-ratio.htm (Accessed on 30 
May 2023). 

the  new  geography  of 

resources  strategies.  

transform  human 

talent  will 

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Figure 13: Working-age population’s (20-64 years) share of total population in selected countries and 
the EU27, 2020 

Source: OECD 

However, the gap relative to countries with a currently more favourable age structure 
will start to close somewhat by 2050 and especially by 2075, as those countries will 
age more rapidly than the EU.64 

Figure 14: Projected old-age dependency ratios for selected countries and the EU28 

Source: OECD 

64 The old-age to working-age ratio is defined by OECD as the number of individuals aged 65+ per 100 people of working age 
(20 to 64). 

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These adverse demographic changes in world regions that are competing for talent, 
as well as those that could possibly supply talent, will mean rapidly growing demand 
and possible limits on the growth of supply. Also, demand for local talent is growing in 
the domestic economies as they develop.  

Consequently,  the  EU  is  likely  to  face  ever  stronger  competition  for  talent  from 
developed  and  emerging  economies,  as  well  as  from  flourishing  businesses  in  the 
local  economies  of  lesser-developed  countries  from  where  originate  potential  TCN 
jobseekers. 

The EU is still a rather popular destination for international migration due to its high 
standard of living and access to social and political rights. Statistics show that in 2019, 
over 6.7 million non-EU citizens lived in the EU and accounted for around 7.5% of the 
total  population.  However,  as  seen  earlier,  many  of  the  migrants  did  not  come  for 
employment reasons, and many do not have high levels of qualifications and skills.  

That  being  said,  the  attractiveness  of  the  EU  among  highly  skilled  migrants  is  not 
particularly  high.  OECD  statistics  on  international  migration  indicate  that  the  EU  is 
underrepresented among highly educated migrants (ISCED levels 5 and 6) currently 
residing in OECD members. The majority of these migrants have chosen to move to 
the  United  States,  Canada,  Australia or New Zealand.65  This has  been  a  long-term 
phenomenon, and consequently the EU, in aggregate, has a smaller share of foreign-
born citizens than these countries.66 

An important aspect of the challenge of attractiveness is the diversity among Member 
States.  Some  large  and  well-known  EU  Member  States  are  seen  as  relatively 
attractive.  The  Boston  Consulting  Group’s  large-scale  survey  in  2018  identified 
Germany (2nd place), Spain, France and Italy among the 10 most popular destinations 
to  work  among  jobseekers  on  the  online  international  recruitment  company  The 
Network.67  Smaller  Member  States  are  however  rarely  on  the  radar  of  TCN 
jobseekers. 

This  is  despite  the  fact  that  several  smaller  members  of  the  EU  are  rated  high  in 
objective  analyses  of  attractiveness.  The  OECD  Indicators  of  Talent  Attractiveness 
2023  scoreboard,  which  aggregates  several  factors  that  could  make  a  country 
preferable  as  a  destination  for  study  and  work,  puts  a  handful  of  smaller  Member 
States in the top spots with regard to their attractiveness for highly educated workers: 
Sweden, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Denmark and Ireland.68 The scoreboard rates 
the performance of countries under seven broad dimensions (Quality of opportunities; 
Income  and 
tax;  Future  prospects;  Family  environment;  Skills  environment; 
Inclusiveness; Quality of life). 

65 https://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=MIG  
66  https://read.oecd-ilibrary.org/social-issues-migration-health/recruiting-immigrant-workers-europe-2016/how-attractive-is-the-
https://read.oecd-ilibrary.org/social-issues-migration-
european-union-to-skilled-migrants_9789264257290-5-en#page3 
health/recruiting-immigrant-workers-europe-2016/how-attractive-is-the-european-union-to-skilled-migrants_9789264257290-5-
en#page3  
67 https://www.bcg.com/publications/2018/decoding-global-talent  https://www.bcg.com/publications/2018/decoding-global-talent  
68 https://www.oecd.org/migration/talent-attractiveness/  https://www.oecd.org/migration/talent-attractiveness/  

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Figure 15: Talent Attractiveness scoreboard results for OECD countries, 2023 (standard importance 
weights) 

Source: OECD 

The  survey  of  TCNs  in  source  country  (n=808)  revealed  that  the  EU  may  be 
considered  less  attractive  compared  to  countries  like  the  USA  and  the  UK. 
Respondents were asked to rank 8 countries based on where they are more likely to 
explore job opportunities. One third of the sample chose the USA as the first option, 
followed by the UK (23%). Germany was selected as the preferred country to relocate 
by  16%  of  respondents,  while  Australia  followed  closely  with  9%  of  respondents 
assigning it as their preference. 

Overall, 41% respondents are interested in move abroad for a period comprised from 
1 to 5 years; 25% for more than 5 years but not permanently; 16% permanently while 
9% for less than one year. 

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Table 9 Ranking of countries by likelihood of exploring job opportunities (N=808) 

Preference 
1st 
2nd 
3rd 
4th 
5th 
6th 
7th 
8th 

Country 
USA 
UK 
Germany 
Australia 
Spain 
Sweden 
France 
Estonia 

% of respondents 
30% 
23% 
16% 
9% 
7% 
7% 
6% 
1% 

Source: Survey to TCN in source country 

What respondents value the most in the EU compared to other non-EU countries are 
the level of earnings (54% of TCNs ranked either very positive or positive this element) 
and  the  opportunity  for  finding  a  job  (54%).  The  understanding  of  employment  and 
migration rules and procedures is considered positively by 40% of the TCNs while 39% 
value the chances of obtaining the visa/work permit to migrate in the EU. The elements 
ranked  relatively  more  negatively  are  the  costs  of  finding  a  job  and  migrate  (37% 
assessed this positively) and the level of taxes (35%). Regarding the survey to TCNs 
already  in  the  EU  (N=21),  Germany  seems  to  be  preferred  over  all  the  non-EU 
countries (24%, 5) while these (USA, UK and Australia) are equally selected as first 
option by 19% (4) of respondents. 

The most frequent countries of origin of the recipients of first permits generally include 
mid- and lower-income countries in the European neighbourhood; and developed or 
emerging  economies  with  large  populations  which  consequently  have  a  very  large 
talent  pool.  The  leading  countries  for  the  three  specific  schemes  for  highly  skilled 
workers show considerable overlaps. 

Table 10: Top 20 countries of citizenship for recipients of first permits for remunerated activities in 
2021, EU27 
EU Blue Card 

Researchers 

No. 

Highly skilled 
workers 

Total first 
permits for 
remunerated 
activities 

First permits for 
remunerated 
activities in 
general 
Ukraine 
Belarus 
India 
Russia 
Morocco 
Brazil 
Bosnia and 
Herzegovina 
Serbia 
Türkiye 
Philippines 
Colombia 
China 
United States 
Georgia 
Nepal 
Albania 
Moldova 
Kosovo*  
Pakistan 
Bangladesh 

1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 

8 
9 
10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
19 
20 

India 

767,494  Belarus 
69,621  Russia 
44,561 
28,483  Ukraine 
27,977  United States 
26,618  China 
19,364  Tunisia 

India 
United States 
United Kingdom 
Russia 
Brazil 
Türkiye 
China 

China 
India 
Iran 
Brazil 
United States 
Russia 
Türkiye 

17,194  Türkiye 
16,562  United Kingdom 
15,591  Brazil 
15,501  Morocco 
15,401  Lebanon 
13,715  Mexico 
13,676  Canada 
12,222  Australia 
11,714  Egypt 
10,966  Serbia 
10,474  Colombia 

9,940  Kazakhstan 
9,931  Japan 

South Africa 
Ukraine 
Iran 
Colombia 
Argentina 
Mexico 
Pakistan 
Canada 
Philippines 
Japan 
Belarus 
Egypt 
Australia 

United Kingdom 
Mexico 
Colombia 
Lebanon 
Tunisia 
Pakistan 
Japan 
Canada 
Morocco 
Ukraine 
Argentina 
South Korea 
Indonesia 

* Under UNSCR 1244/99, not recognised by all EU Member States 

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Source: Eurostat (migr_resocc) 

It is to be noted that there is also significant emigration from the EU to third countries 
(which  is  partly  re-patriation).  A  large  share  of  these  emigrants  however  are  older 
persons outside the labour force. 

2.2. The problem that requires action 

Below, firstly the identification and evolution of the problem is discussed, followed by 
an analysis of its related consequences. 

2.2.1. Identification and evolution of the problem 

In  its  2022  communication  ‘Attracting  skills  and  talent  to  the  EU’,  the  Commission 
points out that  in  order to  address  the  persistent and  growing  labour market  needs 
arising  from  the  unfavourable  demographic  trends  and  labour  and  skills  shortages 
mentioned in Section 2, mobilising the domestic workforce alone or facilitating intra-
EU mobility are not sufficient solutions.  

The capacity of intra-EU mobility of workers to solve shortages is constrained in fist 
line by the fact that in many of the key sectors and occupations where shortages exist, 
these shortages are experienced all across the EU. This can also be seen in the list 
of occupations flagged as facing shortages by PES. The occupations on the top of the 
list  are  identified  as  having  shortages  by  up  to  17  participating  PES,  with  none 
indicating a surplus. While certain Member States that have generally higher wages 
and can offer better working conditions may somewhat reduce their job vacancies (and 
have  done  so  for  decades),  the  number  of  vacant  positions  will  increase 
correspondingly  in  the  sending  countries.69  Similarly,  job  vacancy  rates  in  certain 
sectors in demand are consistently high among Member States. 

The mechanism is very similar to that of intra-country mobility, with a very long history 
in certain countries, where skilled labour moving to more attractive regions or cities, 
heavily aggravating shortages in the less developed, rural areas. In the field of human 
health, GPs and paediatricians are examples for this pattern. 

The proportion of EU27 mobile workers within the workforce is significant in a number 
of richer Member States, whether they are traditional (e.g. Germany, France, Belgium) 
or newly emerged destinations (such as Ireland or Finland). JRC (2023)70 mentions 
that the Westward movement of workers inside the EU has had large effects on the 
population  sizes  of  Member  States  in  recent  decades.  Some  Eastern  European 
countries have lost a large share of their population due to low fertility and emigration 
– mostly to other EU members. The worst hit, Bulgaria and the Baltic States, have lost 
between 16% and 26% between 1991 and 2015. 

However, the proportion of EU27 workers is usually still lower than that of TCNs. This 
is  the  case  in  the  health  care  sector,  for  instance,  where  TCNs’  share  has  been 
increasing from 2.5% in 2015 to 3.9% in 2022, clearly surpassing that of EU mobile 

69 The degree of correspondence would depend on circumstances and may not be 100%. 
70  Ukraine’s  population  future  after  the  Russian  invasion.  The  role  of  migration  for  demographic  change.  Available  at: 
https://pure.iiasa.ac.at/id/eprint/18667/1/JRC132458_01.pdf 

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workers (2.7%). It is to be noted that all figures are based on citizenship and not on 
country of birth: as mobile workers may apply for, and receive, citizenship after a while, 
their significance on the labour market is higher than what is reflected in the following 
statistics. 

Figure 16: Share of non-domestic employed persons in health and social care, 20–64-year-olds, 
EU27 (percentage) 

Source: Eurostat (LFS, ad-hoc request) 

An important trend behind the figures is the large advantage of TCNs among younger 
health care workers, those between 20 and 34 years – whereas they lag behind EU 
mobile workers among older employed persons. A part of the difference is explained 
by the naturalisation of TCNs who are older and have already resided longer in the 
EU.  This  is  however  only  a  partial  explanation,  hence  their  share  in  the  workforce 
(disregarding the effect of naturalisations) will further increase over time, even without 
expanding  labour  migration  from  third  countries.  This  trend  also  applies  to  other 
sectors. 

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Figure 17: Share of non-domestic employed persons in health and social care in 2022, by broad age 
group, EU27 (percentage) 

Source: Eurostat (LFS, ad-hoc request) 

Upskilling and reskilling measures also play an important role in addressing shortages. 
Examples  for  the  efforts  undertaken  include  initiatives  to  encourage  more  people, 
especially women, to study ICT and STEM subjects; help companies provide training 
to jobseekers in the occupations they need, introducing a dual system of vocational 
education  and  training,  or  creating  fast-track  training  opportunities  to  qualify  in 
shortage occupations.71  

Enhancing individuals' skills, abilities, and knowledge has become a central focus of 
EU policies. Initiatives such as the New Skills Agenda for Europe, aimed at reinforcing 
human capital, employability, and competitiveness, as well as the recommendation on 
Upskilling Pathways72, which introduces new prospects for adult education, have been 
introduced  to  assist  Member  States  in  enabling  citizens  to  unlock  their  talents  and 
reach  their  full  potential  by  acquiring  the  necessary  skills.  These  EU  initiatives  are 
typically funded by  European  Social  Fund  Plus  (ESF+)  and Erasmus+ Programme. 
Additional EU funding come from the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF), 
the EU Programme for Employment and Social Innovation (EaSI), Horizon 2020 and 
the  Structural  Reform  Support  Programme  (SRSP,  succeeded  by  the  Technical 
Support Instrument (TSI)). 

71 https://www.cedefop.europa.eu/en/news/skill-shortages-europe-which-occupations-are-demand-and-why  
72 AVAILABLE:  HTTPS://EUR-LEX.EUROPA.EU/LEGAL-CONTENT/EN/TXT/?URI=OJ%3AJOC_2016_484_R_0001 

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The Skill Agenda comprises several actions to ensure people have the right skills 
for jobs: 

•  Action  2  focuses  on  enhancing  skills  intelligence  through  data  tools,  data 

sharing, and personalized information. 

•  Action  3  supports  Member  States  in  developing  national  skills  strategies, 

emphasizing gender equality and digital skills. 

•  Action 4 proposes a Council Recommendation on Vocational Education and 

Training, emphasizing partnerships with employers. 

•  Action  5  promotes 

transnational  cooperation 

through 

the  European 

Universities initiative and upskills scientists. 

•  Action 6 supports green and digital transitions through skill development. 
•  Action 7 aims to increase STEM graduates and nurture entrepreneurial and 

transversal skills. 

•  Action 8 aims to develop comprehensive, inclusive adult learning systems, 
especially  through  online  and  community-based  learning  to  enhance  crisis 
resilience. 

It is however acknowledged in the Commission communication (the Skills and Talent 
Package) that these measures are not enough to fully address the problem. Indeed, 
the domestic workforce in the EU is not able to fully address labour shortages, despite 
the demand for workers in various sectors. The reasons are multiple and are related 
to: 

•  Skills  mismatch.  Skills  of  domestic  workforce  may  not  be  aligned  with  the 

specific requirements of the available jobs 

•  Labour market dynamics. Labour shortages are often concentrated in specific 
sectors  or  region,  while  labour  supply  may  be  located  in  different  contexts 
where jobs are not available.  

•  Demographic changes.  The  shrinking  of  working-age population  reduces  the 

pool of potential workers.  

•  Technology  advancements.  These  can  lead  to  changes  in  the  job  roles  and 

skills requirements 

The main problem to be addressed, identified through a review of existing EU policy 
and strategic documents and additional consultations with stakeholders, is hence the 
insufficient recruitment of skilled TCN through legal labour migration pathways 
to address EU labour and skills shortages. 

The definition of the problems has departed from the trends and challenges identified, 
setting out the socio-economic environment in which the problem manifests itself. The 
overall challenge for Europe which was explained earlier are the significant labour and 
skills  shortages.  As  these  cannot  be  solved  solely  by  relying  on  the  domestic 
workforce,  or  through  intra-EU  labour  mobility,  the  concrete  problem  that  can  be 
addressed  and  which  stands  in  the  focus  of  the  EU  Talent  Pool  initiative  is  the 
insufficient influx of skilled migrants – through legal ways. The concrete problem that 
can be addressed and which stands in the focus of the EU Talent Pool initiative is the 
insufficient influx of skilled migrants – through legal ways. 

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The graph below is a representation of the problem tree developed for the study. As 
the Impact Assessment process is iterative, this problem tree may still be refined after 
receiving  further stakeholder opinions,  completing  the  desk  research  and  analysing 
the survey results, see the figure below for a presentation of it. 

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Figure 18: Problem tree 

Source: elaboration of the contractor (2023)

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As  shown  in the  figure  below,  the  number of  migrants  applying  to enter the  EU  via 
legal pathways and requesting a residence permit mainly for employment reasons has 
been around 900,000-1.3 million per annum in the past few years (34-45% of the total 
–  note  however  that  recipients  of  residence  permits  for  family,  education  or  other 
reasons may also have the right to work and will indeed seek employment)73. This is 
considerably more than between 2013-2016 but still not enough to respond to the level 
of  skills  shortages.  For  comparison,  the  number  of  job  vacancies  reported  by 
companies  in  the  first  quartal  of  2013  was  3.7  million,  without  the  figures  from 
Denmark, France and Italy.74 Extrapolating to the full EU27, the number of reported 
vacancies  may  be  around  6.3  million.  While  -  unlike  annual  the  number  residence 
permits issued – this is a stock variable and a filled position would disappear from the 
vacancy statistics, it is reasonable to assume that with an increasing population new 
vacancies would be created, and it is also important to note that the actual labour need 
of the economy is higher than recorded vacant positions as employers in sectors with 
grave  labour  shortages  are  often  not  planning  for  expansion  (or  even  worker 
replacement) and do not define new posts let along taking active steps to fill these job 
openings.75,76  In  addition,  27%  of  the  first  permits  issued  in  2021  for  employment 
reasons were for validities of only 3-5 months, and 37% for 6-11 months, which signals 
that foreign talent is often only coming for short-term work. Only the remaining 37% 
(483,000) residence permits were issued for 12 months or longer.77 

73 Eurostad data on first permits by reason, length of validity and citizenship (MIGR_RESFIRST). 
74 The corresponding Eurostat dataset does not publish data for these countries for on request from the national statistical offices.  
75 Note that in Eurostat’s methodology for job vacancy statistics, a 'job vacancy' is defined as a paid post that is newly created, 
unoccupied, or about to become vacant: (a) for which the employer is taking active steps and is prepared to take further steps to 
find a suitable candidate from outside the enterprise concerned; and (b) which the employer intends to fill either immediately or 
within a specific period of time. 
76 https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser//product/view/TPS00172  
77 https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/MIGR_RESFIRST  

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Figure 19: Number of first residence permits issued by main reason, EU27 

Source: Eurostat (migr_resfirst) 

The majority of first permits for remunerated activities are issued for seasonal work, or 
for not further specified remunerated activities (this includes employees but also the 
self-employed, at various educational and skill levels), without using a specific scheme 
such as the EU Blue Card, schemes for highly skilled workers or for researchers. While 
permits  issued  for  highly  skilled  workers  do  have  a  visible  presence,  the  relative 
number  of  EU  Blue  Cards  and  especially  researcher  permits  are  remarkably  low, 
indistinguishable on the chart. The aim behind these schemes to attract skilled talent 
does not seem to be adequately met. 

Figure 20: Number of first residence permits for remunerated activities issued by reason, EU27 

November, 2023 

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Detailed  data  received  for  this  study  from  the  large  international  job  search  and 
matching platform Indeed  shows that only about 2.5% of all job postings in the EU are 
searched by jobseekers outside the EU27. This ratio has dropped during Covid when 
severe travel restrictions were in place but has rebounded since. 

Figure 21: Share of searches for EU jobs by jobseekers located outside the EU27 

Note: data not including Bulgaria, Cyprus, Estonia, Croatia, Lithuania, Latvia, Malta, Slovenia and Slovakia. 

Source: Indeed.  

Data provided by Indeed shows the country of origin of skilled jobseekers that search 
for EU jobs. 

Table 11: Third countries with the highest number of searches for EU jobs 

Jan-Apr 2019 

Country 

United Kingdom 

United States 

Switzerland 

Morocco 

Tunisia 

Canada 

Mexico 

Brazil 

India 

Argentina 

Algeria 

South Africa 

Türkiye 

Colombia 

November, 2023 

Click share 

Jan-Apr 2023 

Country 

Click 
share 

0.68%  United Kingdom 

0.23%  United States 

0.16%  Morocco 

0.11%  Switzerland 

0.10%  Tunisia 

0.09%  Türkiye 

0.07%  Canada 

0.07%  Brazil 

0.07% 

India 

0.05%  Colombia 

0.05%  Algeria 

0.04%  Argentina 

0.04%  Mexico 

0.04%  Australia 

0.31% 

0.29% 

0.15% 

0.15% 

0.12% 

0.10% 

0.09% 

0.08% 

0.08% 

0.08% 

0.06% 

0.05% 

0.04% 

0.04% 

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Jan-Apr 2019 

Jan-Apr 2023 

Australia 

Ukraine 

Russia 

Serbia 

0.04%  Madagascar 

0.03%  Peru 

0.03%  Senegal 

0.02%  South Africa 

Bosnia and Herzegovina 

0.02%  Pakistan 

Peru 

0.02%  Cameroon 

0.03% 

0.03% 

0.03% 

0.03% 

0.03% 

0.03% 

Note: data not including Bulgaria, Cyprus, Estonia, Croatia, Lithuania, Latvia, Malta, Slovenia and Slovakia. 

Source: Indeed.  

Search data from Indeed also shows which occupations are the most sought after by 
TCNs:  software  development,  administrative  assistance,  sales  and  management 
positions are in the lead. 

Table 12: Breakdown of interest from outside the EU27 by occupational categories (Jan – Apr 2023) 

Occupational category 

Software Development 

Administrative Assistance 

Sales 

Management 

Food Preparation & Service 

Customer Service 

Installation & Maintenance 

Production & Manufacturing 

Retail 

Loading & Stocking 

Share of clicks from outside the EU-27 

7.7% 

6.6% 

5.8% 

5.2% 

4.7% 

3.9% 

3.6% 

3.5% 

3.2% 

3.0% 

Source: Indeed 

In  terms  of  the  relative  share  of  TCNs  clicking  on  EU  job  postings  in  various 
occupational  categories,  irrespective  of  how  many  of  them  are  advertised  on  the 
platform,  software  development  is  still  in  the  lead.  It  is  followed  by  positions  in 
mathematics  and  data  science,  electrical  engineering,  information  design  and 
documentation, as well as mining, mechanical engineering and civil engineering. 

Table 13: Occupational categories in EU jobs with the highest share of interest from outside the EU27 
(Jan – Apr 2023) 

Occupational category 

Inbound clicks share 

Software Development 

Mathematics & Data Science 

Electrical Engineering 

10.1% 

9.3% 

8.0% 

Information Design & Documentation  7.6% 

Mining 

Mechanical Engineering 

Civil Engineering 

Architecture 

6.8% 

6.8% 

6.7% 

6.5% 

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Occupational category 

Inbound clicks share 

IT Operations & Helpdesk 

6.4% 

Scientific Research & Development 

5.9% 

Source: Indeed 

2.2.2. Consequences of the problem 

Below, four consequences of the problem are discussed in more detail. 

2.2.2.1. 

Unmet labour and skills demand 

If not addressed by actions leading to increased attraction and employment of TCNs, 
the  labour  and  skills  shortages  will  persist  and  further  aggravate  in  the  future. 
Cedefop’s “Skills forecast - trends and challenges to 2030”78 projects the evolution of 
future demand on the EU labour market, going down into the 2-digit ISCO occupational 
level.  The  analysis  is  calculating  with  both  sectoral  effects  (driven  by  demand  for 
certain  products  and  services,  such  as  green  technology,  health  care)  and  specific 
occupational  effects  (this  considers  technological  changes,  such  as  the  impact  of 
automation, ICT including new Artificial Intelligence solutions on the number and types 
of professionals needed in the individual economic sectors to satisfy demand). 

Fastest  rates  of  growth  are  projected  for  managerial,  professional,  and  associate 
professional  and  technical  jobs  (with  increases  of  above  10%  between  2016  and 
2030). The model also projects growth of over 10% for certain occupations with lower 
skills  levels:  sales,  security,  cleaning,  catering  and  caring  occupations  (especially 
elementary occupations are affected). 

At  the  two-digit  level,  the  analysis  forecasts  rapid  growth  for  business  and 
administration professionals and legal professionals, while significant job losses are 
projected for lower skill level clerical workers and for many skilled manual workers in 
manufacturing  and  in  agriculture.  This  pattern  is  described  in  the  report  as  a 
‘polarisation’  of  skill  demand,  with  demand  increasing  at  the  high-  and  low-skilled 
segments, but jobs at the middle skill level being hollowed out. 

These are the types of occupations79 that mostly suffer from labour and skill shortages 
already, and where supply problems will be even more aggravated as the skill demand 
will increase for these occupations. At the same time, current shortages of medium 
skill level workers in manufacturing and agriculture will likely recede as job losses are 
projected for skilled manual workers.  

The sectoral perspective of labour and skills shortages is also crucial to understand 
the  future  skills  demand  in  the  EU.  Yet  the  Cedefop  work  highlighted  how  the  shift 
from primary industries (agriculture and extraction industries) and basic manufacturing 
to service sectors is expected to be the main driver of employment growth from 2016 

78 https://www.cedefop.europa.eu/files/3077_en.pdf  
79  Particularly,  in  the  construction  sector:  Bricklayers  and  related  workers,  Carpenters  and  joiners  and  Building  and  related 
electricians; in the manufacturing sector: Metal working machine tool setters and operators, Plumbers and pipe fitters and Building 
and related electricians; in the hospitality and food service sector: cooks and waiters; in the cleaning sector: Cleaners and helpers 
in offices, hotels, and other establishments 

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to 2030. While sectors like legal, R&D, advertising, and support services are projected 
to  experience  rapid  growth  due  to  links  with  manufacturing  and  digitalisation,  other 
consumer-oriented sectors such as retail, accommodation, and food services are also 
expected to expand due to increased consumer spending and tourism. Moreover, the 
increase in public sector employment is primarily attributed to the growing demand for 
health services, stemming from the progressively aging population. 

The failure to attract workers from outside the EU in the above occupations – business 
and administration professionals and legal professionals - and ad will lead to unmet 
demand.  Particularly,  without  highly  skilled  TCN  workers  filling  specialist  positions, 
businesses  in  the  sectors  concerned  (service  sectors:  legal,  R&D,  ads,  retail, 
accommodation) will be unable to grow (including expansion of activities abroad) and 
even deliver on domestic or intra-EU customer demand. This leads to increased levels 
of imports to the EU or to obstacles to the growth of other sectors that would have 
relied on the supply concerned. 

If there are not enough workers in health care and long-term care (+0.7 between 2021 
and 2025 and +0.2 between 2026 and 2030), the quality of care will suffer as fewer 
qualified  workers  are  available  to  meet  patient  needs.  This  can  lead  to  longer  wait 
times for appointments, delays in treatment, and even life-threatening situations due 
to  a  lack  of  adequate  medical  staff.  Additionally,  without  enough  workers  in  these 
fields, the cost of providing care may increase as employers must hire more expensive 
temporary staff or outsource care to other providers. Finally, those who are employed 
in health care and long-term care may be overworked and experience burnout due to 
the increased demands on their time and energy. ELA Labour shortage report 2022 
show that nursing professionals are in shortage in 19 Member States; generalist and 
specialist  medical  practitioners  and    are  lacking  in  14  countries.  A  JRC  study  shed 
light on the potential contribution of migration in alleviating the pressure of workforce 
shortages in the healthcare sector even though challenges still persist in relation to 
the recruitment workers outside the EU.80  

As  seen  in  section  2.1.2.2,  labour  shortages  also  concern  the  green  transition 
(particularly in the sectors of construction, IT and digital, electrical and engineering). 
As  consequence,  the  development  and  acquisition  of  the  relevant  skills  and 
competence is becoming more pressing (such as competence related to renewables 
and energy efficiency). Vocational and technical profiles will be particularly in demand 
also in the light of the EU Green Deal Industrial Plan. Member States are facing labour 
shortage  in  this  sector  and  training  in  key  sectors  will  be  needed  to  facilitate  the 
transition to a net-zero economy. 

2.2.2.2. 

Lower flow of remittances, less knowledge and networks gains 

The EU provides a valuable employment opportunity for many citizens living in third 
countries.  The  remittances  they  send  back  home  to  their  families  and  communities 
often constitute a significant portion of their national economies and create a powerful 
economic  connection  between  the  EU  and  these  remote  communities.  This  link  is 
particularly beneficial for developing countries, since the money sent by their citizens 

80  Healthcare  and  long-term  care  workforce:  demographic  challenges  and  potential  contribution  of  migration  and  digital 
technology’ available at: https://publications.jrc.ec.europa.eu/repository/handle/JRC121698 

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working  in the  EU is  typically regulated  in  terms  of  taxation  and  exchange  rates as 
opposed to other forms of external financial aid. 

The EU is a very large sender of personal transfers to third countries: the total amount 
sent in 2021 reached 57.3 billion euro.81 Higher the labour migration, higher would be 
the stock of remittances and therefore the potential development for third countries. 
Although not being the main consequence of insufficient inflow of TCNs, lower flow of 
remittances can be a negative consequence in relative terms. 

Remittances  from  citizens  working  in  the  EU  play  an  important  role  in  maintaining 
economic stability for many third countries, as it provides funds that can be used to 
finance infrastructure projects, social programmes and provide small business loans. 
Additionally,  they  can  boost  local  consumer  spending  which  helps  stimulate  the 
economy. In this way, remittances from EU labour migrants have been demonstrated 
to contribute significantly to development on a wide scale. Development impacts in the 
receiving country cover enterprise development, business knowledge and information, 
economic  inclusion  and  inequality  reduction  for  individuals  in  the  country  of  origin, 
investment in infrastructures82. 

From an individual perspective, remittances offer improved personal security for many 
migrant  workers  as  well  as  their  families  at  home  –  providing  essential  financial 
support for those living in extreme poverty while simultaneously acknowledging their 
contribution to international development.  

Circular  migration  is  a  form  of  human  movement  in  which  individuals  migrate  to 
another country or region for temporary employment and then return home. This type 
of movement is an increasingly popular policy measure for countries around the world 
due to its potential to promote development. In particular, it has been suggested that 
circular migration from developed to developing countries could lead to what has been 
termed  “brain  gain”  –  an  increase  in  the  number  of  educated,  skilled  workers.  For 
example, they may learn more effective work practices, gain operational experience 
and acquire knowledge about the EU market. Migrants may use this knowledge for 
setting up businesses back home, secure well-paid jobs, and also to come back to the 
EU  easier,  at  a  lower  financial  and  personal  cost,  within  the  framework  of  circular 
migration. 

This phenomenon  is important  in  the  EU.  The  analysis  of  residence  permits  earlier 
showed that the majority of first/new permits linked to remunerated activities have a 
length of validity for a few months only. These TCN workers may return to their home 
country after expiry - perhaps re-visit the EU for work later again. 

In essence, the economic link established through remittances is an essential driver 
of progress for both host and home countries. The continued flow of migrants and their 
financial  contributions  not  only  sustains  economic  well-being  but  also  fosters 
development, individual security, and mutual growth. 

81https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-
explained/index.php?oldid=550117#The_EU_remained_net_sender_of_personal_transfers_and_net_receiver_of_employees.E
2.80.99_compensation_in_2021  
82 
at 
https://publications.jrc.ec.europa.eu/repository/handle/JRC125341, 
https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-
explained/index.php?oldid=550117#The_EU_remained_net_sender_of_personal_transfers_and_net_receiver_of_employees.E
2.80.99_compensation_in_2021 

development: 

remittances 

investment 

‘Available 

Diaspora 

finance 

from 

for 

to 

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Consequently,  the  absence  of  migrant  inflows  would  jeopardize  these  benefits  and 
disrupt  a  crucial economic  connection  between  the  EU  and  remote  communities  of 
TCNs, particularly in developing nations. Without the influx of remittances, the financial 
lifeline that supports local economies, community projects, and individual livelihoods 
would be severely diminished. This disruption would hamper economic stability, hinder 
developmental  progress,  and  potentially  lead  to  increased  inequality  within  these 
regions. 

2.2.2.3. 

Irregular migration pressures 

Irregular migration  has  been  a  serious  challenge  for  the  EU for many  years.  It  has 
been exacerbated in recent years (especially during the migration crisis of 2015, and 
is  again  on  the  rise,  as  of  2022)  due  to  an  influx  of  asylum  seekers  from  war-torn 
countries such as Syria and Iraq, as well as economic migrants from Africa, the Middle 
East and Asia.  

Figure 22 Third-country nationals found to be illegally present, EU27 (1,000 persons) 

Source: Third country nationals found to be illegally present [MIGR_EIPRE__custom_7207520]. 2021 figures ofr Latvia and 
Romania  

This has resulted in a large number of individuals trying to enter the EU irregularly, 
often making dangerous  journeys  across  land and  sea and  risking  their  lives  in  the 
process. IOM’s ‘Missing Migrants Project’ records a total of 28,009 migrants reported 
missing or dead between 2014 and the first half of 2023 for the Mediterranean route 
only,  with  the  numbers  being  again  on  the  rise  in  the  past  three  years,  slowly 
approximating the 2015 peak.83 

The  EU’s  policy  response  to  this  issue  has  been  characterised  by  greater  efforts 
towards  deterrence  and  containment,  especially  through  fighting  smuggling  and 
trafficking  and  establishing  more  effective  external  border  controls  (see  the 
Commission’s Communication  from 14  March  2023  on  establishing  the multiannual 

83 https://missingmigrants.iom.int/  

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strategic  policy  for  European  integrated  border  management84),  as  well  as 
emphasising and funding voluntary return and reintegration of irregular migrants (see 
the corresponding 2021 communications from the Commission85). 

While there are other contributing factors responsible for increasing irregular migration 
pressures on Europe such as weak border controls, legal loopholes allowing people 
access into Europe without prior checks or permission, it can be argued that a part of 
economic migrants who currently arrive irregularly to the EU could be led to using legal 
pathways,  especially  within  circular  migration  frameworks.  The  EU’s  new  Pact  on 
Migration and Asylum aims at further developing legal pathways, which are expected 
to partly contribute to reducing irregular migration – especially Talent Partnerships and 
work-related complementary pathways for persons in need of international protection 
are instrumental in this regard.86 

2.2.2.4. 

Reputational damage to the EU 

Barriers to  immigration  harm  the  reputation of  the  EU because  they  would  suggest 
that the EU is unwilling or unable to allow people from other countries to become a 
part of their society. This may be interpreted as a message that the EU is unwelcoming 
and  intolerant,  damaging  its  reputation  as  a  place  of  openness  and  diversity. 
Furthermore,  restrictive  immigration  policies  can  create  an  image  of  the  EU  as  a 
fortress, which may be seen as aggressive and hostile by people in other countries. 
This  can  damage  its  credibility  and  reputation  internationally.  Finally,  barriers  to 
immigration  can  also  lead  to  feelings  of  hostility  towards  immigrants  within  the  EU, 
creating  an  environment  of  suspicion  and  fear.  This  can  undermine  the  EU’s  core 
values of openness and inclusiveness. 

Complicated  and  costly  immigration  procedures  harm  the  reputation  of  the  EU 
because they create an image of an exclusive, unwelcoming and hard to access area. 
This  can  be  seen  as  a  sign  that  the  EU  is  not  open  to  newcomers,  which  can  be 
damaging to its reputation. Additionally, it can also be seen as a sign that the EU does 
not value the contributions of immigrants, making it harder for the EU to attract talented 
professionals  to  its  member  states.  The  high  costs  associated  with  immigration 
procedures can also make it difficult for lower-income individuals to access the EU, 
which undermines its core values of fairness and inclusiveness. 

2.3. Analysis of the problem drivers 

2.3.1. Problem driver 1: Non-transparent and ineffective cross-border job search and 
matching which involve a risk of unfair recruitment 

Below, four different aspects of the first problem driver are discussed: insufficient information 
on opportunities, rules, and existing tools; lack of suitable and effective channels and tools; 
high costs of cross-border search and matching; and risk of unfair recruitment. 

84 https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/ALL/?uri=CELEX%3A52023DC0146  

85 
content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A52021DC0056   

https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A52021DC0120, 

https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-

86 https://home-affairs.ec.europa.eu/system/files_en?file=2021-07/oo_eu_legal_pathways_inform_2021_en.pdf  

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2.3.1.1. 

Insufficient information on opportunities, rules and existing tools  

One of the reasons hindering jobseekers from abroad in looking for jobs in the EU, 
especially in smaller, lesser-known Member States - which otherwise could or should 
be attractive destinations - is that TCN often lack sufficient knowledge about the EU 
labour market and job opportunities in the MS; about essential aspects of moving to 
and living in the EU or the MS they are targeting; about the extensive amount of rules 
and  requirements for employment and  immigration, available  support services  -and 
ultimately the  chances  of  success  for being selected  and  allowed  to  immigrate  and 
take up work in the EU as a TCN. The decision of jobseekers to invest time and effort, 
and  possibly  money,  in  pursuing  opportunities  –  especially  in  MS  that  are  less 
attractive destinations – is likely to depend to a large extent on the expected probability 
of success.  

(1) Information on labour markets, rules and processes 

The amount of essential information that TCN need to find, process, understand before 
deciding whether to pursue employment opportunities in EU MS and how to proceed 
is substantial. Before they can travel to, and take up work in, the EU, TCN must first 
obtain  a  visa,  a  work  permit  and  an  authorisation  for  residence,  depending  on  the 
length  of  stay  and  type  of  job  offered.  They  also  have  to  get  their  qualifications 
recognised  if  they are  planning  to  work  in  regulated  profession.  During  stakeholder 
consultations,  the  Expert  Group  on  the  View  of  Migrants  highlighted  that  access  to 
information  is  indeed  a  barrier:  TCNs  often  face  a  lack  of  support  when  seeking 
employment  in  the  EU.  There  is  a  perceived  shortage  of  information  on  visa 
procedures, job opportunities, and even qualification recognition. 

An official “one-stop shop” of information in the form of government information portals, 
where  it  exists  (see  further  below),  is  helpful  to  TCN  jobseekers,  as  it  provides  a 
comprehensive range of free, reliable and up-to-date information. Such portals contain 
a broad set of information geared towards the needs of TCN jobseekers. The following 
table gives a (non-exhaustive) long-list of information that official information portals 
or sites targeting TCN can include, based on a desk research of government websites 
and dedicated portals in the EU. 

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Table -14 Long-list of typical information content of government information portals or sites for TCN 
jobseekers (not exhaustive) 

Group 

Type of information 

Labour market information, 
working in the country 

Job search information 

Administrative procedures 

Process information 

Living in the country 

Support services 

General information on working in the country 
Minimum wages, mandatory working conditions 
Labour market data 
Shortage occupations 
Skills and qualification requirements 
Job board / matching tool integrated into portal, or link to external sites  
Job search support schemes, training opportunities 
Guides to successful CV, job applications, job interviews 
Types of employment and residence permits and applicable criteria 
Checklists, points calculator (for points-based permits) 
Recognition and validation 
Immigration rules and criteria, including for family members 
Information on immigration procedure 
Administrative tasks at entry (registration etc.), when permit holder is changing 
employer or is made redundant, and when leaving the country 
Forms (possibility of online submission directly from the site) 
Links to responsible authorities 
Administrative deadlines 
Fees and other costs 
Guides on administrative tasks, applications (text or video) 
Application  processing  times,  prescribed  and  usual  (possibly  with  data 
extracted  from  the  real-time monitoring  of  application  processing  (as  e.g.  in 
Ireland87) 
Statistics on permits issued 
Information  on  taxes,  social  security  payments  and benefits,  retirement  and 
pension rights, health insurance, finding accommodation, schooling 
Helpdesk 
Booking of one-on-one consultations 

Member States show a considerable degree of diversity with regard to the approach 
they take to inform potential TCN jobseekers about working in living in the country. 
Several  Member  States  (14)  do  not  have  an  official  portal  or  dedicated  pages 
specifically designed to inform foreign talent they wish to attract about the important 
issues  elaborated  above  –  in  English  or  other  foreign  languages,  suitable  for  main 
TCN  target  groups.88  Subsequent  table  summarises  the  findings:  while  official 
websites in some MS such as Croatia and Slovakia do contain basic information on 
available  permits  or  employment  rules  for  TCN,  they  don’t  offer  comprehensive 
information, nor data, forms, or support tools. 

87 https://enterprise.gov.ie/en/what-we-do/workplace-and-skills/employment-permits/current-application-processing-dates/  

88 Note that these MS may provide information, however, for domestic employers on the legal and administrative requirements 
for  employing  TCN,  on  bilateral  agreements,  as  well  as  advice  on  the  recruitment  process,  including  links  to  international 
recruitment events or agencies. 

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Member State 

Bulgaria 

Croatia 

Cyprus 

Greece  

Hungary 

Ireland 

Italy  

Latvia 

Lithuania 

Luxembourg 

Malta 

Portugal  

Romania 

Slovakia 

Availability 
of 
information for TCN 
No official information sites found 

official 

Link 

- 

offers 

portal 

Official 
little 
information  specifically  for  TCN 
jobseekers. The PES-operated job 
portal not geared towards TCN 
No  official  information  sites  found. 
The  website  of  the  Ministry  of 
Labour provides information only to 
employers on TCN employment 
No official information sites found 

No official information sites found 

No official information sites found 

information 

Job search portal is not specifically 
geared  towards  TCN  jobseekers, 
information is in Italian  
The  national  PES  portal  offers  no 
for  TCN 
specific 
jobseekers 
PES  information  pages  for  foreign 
workers  are  geared 
towards 
jobseekers  and  not 
EU/EEA 
towards TCN 
The site of the PES in Luxembourg 
(ADEM) 
little 
information  specifically 
for  TCN 
jobseekers.  The  country’s  EURES 
office operates a job board for non-
domestic jobseekers but this is not 
dedicated to TCN. 

provides 

very 

information  portal  but  a 
No 
summary  document  on 
rules, 
procedures,  fees  etc.  is  published 
on the Jobsplus PES site. The PES 
job board is not dedicated to TCN 
National job search platform exists 
is  not  geared 
towards  TCN, 
information  is  only  available  in 
Portuguese 
No  official  information  for  TCN 
jobseekers on the PES portal or the 
responsible ministry’s website 

Little 
information  on 
website for TCN jobseekers 

the  PES 

https://www.hzz.hr/en/services/thir
d-country-non-eu-nationals/  
https://burzarada.hzz.hr/  

https://www.mlsi.gov.cy/mlsi/dl/dl.n
sf/page5f_en/page5f_en 

- 

- 

- 

https://www.cliclavoro.gov.it/ 

https://www.nva.gov.lv/en/job-
seeking  

https://uzt.lt/en/for-
jobseekers/finding-a-job-in-
lithuania/247  

https://adem.public.lu/en/marche-
emploi-luxembourg/travailler-
luxembourg/travailleurs-
etrangers/ressortissants-pays-
tiers.html 
https://work-in-
luxembourg.lu/offers?page=0 
https://jobsplus.gov.mt/job-
seekers-mt-MT-en-GB/guidance-
services/tcns-seeking-employment 

https://iefponline.iefp.pt/IEFP/ 

https://www.anofm.ro/  
http://www.mmuncii.ro/j33/index.p
hp/en/work  
https://www.upsvr.gov.sk/sluzby-
zamestnanosti/foreign-
citizens.html?page_id=272197 

Table 15 TMS without dedicated information portal 

A  second  set  of  5  MS  have  dedicated  information  sites  geared  towards  TCN 
jobseekers with more or less comprehensive information in the national language, in 
English and selected other languages, but these sites do not function as job search 
portals, have no integrated job board/matching functions.  

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Table -16 MS with dedicated information portal – no job search or matching functionalities 

Member State 

Availability of official information for TCN  Link 

Belgium 
(federal, 
regional) 

Website  of  the  Federal  Public  Services  for 
Employment,  Labour,  and  Social  Dialogue 
offers an entry point, linking to regional sites 
and  the  federal  immigration  office.  As  the 
regional 
employment  of  TCN 
competence,  dedicated  sections  on  the 
regional  ministries’  portals  are  the  main 
information sources for TCN jobseekers 

is 

France 

Poland 

Slovenia 

Dedicates section on the government portal 
working as an online administrative hub 
Public Employment Service portal 

Public Employment Service portal 

Sweden 

Public Employment Service portal 

and 

https://employment.belgium.be/en/themes/i
nternational/foreign-workers 
https://dofi.ibz.be/en/themes/third-country-
nationals 
https://www.vlaanderen.be/en/working-
enterprise-and-investment/working 
https://emploi.wallonie.be/home/travailleurs-
etrangers/permis-de-travail/vous-etes-
travailleur.html 
https://economy-employment.brussels/non-
eu-nationals 
https://www.service-
public.fr/particuliers/vosdroits/N107 
https://lang-psz.praca.gov.pl/en/  

https://www.ess.gov.si/en/jobseekers/emplo
yment-of-non-eu-migrant-workers 
https://arbetsformedlingen.se/other-
languages/nglish-engelska 

Source: Desk research of MS information portals or sites 

The information sites in the above table are typically sub-sections of the general Public 
Employment Services portals: this is the case in in Poland, Slovenia and Sweden. In 
the Belgian regions, the regional governmental portals supply the information to TCN 
jobseekers. As employment matters are regional competences in Belgium, the federal 
ministry’s  web  portal  only  provides  a  simple  entry  point  with  links  to  the  respective 
websites of the regional authorities and of the immigration office. 

With regard to their information content, the sites vary in breadth and depth, and none 
of them are all-encompassing. While the basic rules for employment as a TCN in the 
destination country (notably the different types of work permits and exemptions) and 
immigration  rules  are  summarised  everywhere,  they  do  not  present  structured 
information on important aspects of finding employment and living in the country that 
TCN jobseekers may need for an initial decision to pursue opportunities, e.g. labour 
market information, jobs in demand, qualification requirements, the expected duration 
and costs of the administrative procedure, and the availability of customised support 
is limited. Entry and residence rules and procedures may be presented via direct links 
to the sites of other authorities, as on the Swedish PES site, which does not contain 
information on administrative procedures and forms for immigration but leads to the 
web portal of the Swedish Migration Agency. 

The findings from the review of the sites’ content are presented in the following table. 

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Table 17 Information content of selected government information portals targeting TCN or jobseekers 
in general  

Group / Type of information 

BE 
(fed.) 

BE 
(Fland.) 

BE 
(Wall.) 

FR 

PL 

SI 

SE 

Languages89 90 

NL,  EN, 
FR, DE 

NL,  EN, 
FR, DE 

NL,  EN, 
FR, DE 

FR, EN 

PL,  EN, 
BE,  RU, 
UK 

SI, EN 

SE,  EN, 
DA,  FA, 
RU,  SO, 
TI, UK 

Labour market information, working in the country 

General  information  on  working  in  the 
country 
Minimum  wages,  mandatory  working 
conditions 
Labour market anti-discrimination rules 

Exploitation, human trafficking awareness 

Labour market data 

X 

Shortage occupations 
Skills and qualification requirements91 

Link to job board  

Job search support schemes 

Language training opportunities 

Other job-related training opportunities 

Guides  for    job  search,  successful  CV, 
applications, job interviews 

residence 

Types  of  employment  and 
permits and applicable criteria 
Checklists,  points  calculator  (for  points-
based permits) 
Recognition of foreign qualifications 

Validation of skills 

(visa) 

Immigration 
including for family members 
Information on immigration procedure 

rules  and  criteria, 

Administrative  tasks  at  entry  (registration 
etc.) 
Administrative  tasks  when  permit  holder  is 
changing employer or is made redundant 
Administrative 
country 
Forms  (possibility  of  online  submission 
directly from the site) 

tasks  when 

leaving 

the 

X 

X 

(x) 

X 

X 

X 

Job search information 

Administrative procedures 

X 

(x) 

X 

(x) 

(x) 

(x) 

(x) 

X 

X 

X* 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

(x) 

X 

X* 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

(x) 

(x) 

(x) 

X 

(x) 

(x) 

X 

(x) 

X* 

X* 

X* 

X* 

X* 

X* 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X* 

89  Language  codes:  (AR)  Arabic,  (BE)  Byelorussian,  (DA)  Dari/Afghanistan,  (DE)  German,  (FA)  Farsi/Iran,  (FR)  French,  (NL) 
Dutch,  (RU) Russian, (SO) Somali, (TI) Tigrinya/Ethiopia-Eritrea, (UK) Ukrainian. 

90 FR: Automated translation into English from the French original. PL: Automated translation for all foreign languages from the 
Polish original. SE: The linked site of the Swedish Migration Agency offers administrative information in many more languages. 

91 SE: Searchable database on job requirements only in Swedish. 

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Group / Type of information 

Links to responsible authorities 

Administrative deadlines 

Fees and other costs 

Guides on administrative tasks, applications 
(text or video) 

Application  processing  times,  prescribed 
and usual 
Statistics on permits issued 

Information  on 
taxes,  social  security 
payments  and  benefits,  retirement  and 
pension  rights,  health  insurance,  finding 
accommodation, schooling92 

Helpdesk93 

Booking of one-on-one consultations 

BE 
(fed.) 

BE 
(Fland.) 

BE 
(Wall.) 

X 

X 

X* 

X* 

X 

X 

FR 

PL 

X 

X 

SI 

X 

X 

Process information 

X 

X 

Living in the country 

SE 

X 

X* 

X* 

Support services 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

(x) 

Notes: (x) denotes information content geared towards all or intra-EU mobile jobseekers, not specifically towards the needs and 
circumstances of TCN (although the information might be provided in English or in other foreign languages as well). 

* BE: The federal ministry of labour links information content on the dedicated webpages of the Immigration Office. SE: The 
information is presented on the site of the Swedish Migration Agency, to which a link is provided on the PES portal. 

Source: Desk research of MS information portals or sites 

Finally,  the  last  group  of  MS  have  established  dedicated  job  portals  or  sections  for 
TCN  which  not  only  provide  information,  but  also  publish  vacancies  that  are  either 
primarily targeted at TCN (or intra-EU-mobile workers), or are part of the general PES 
job board but are suitable for use for TCN as they can find jobs that are relevant for 
them  through  search  filters.  The  portals  also  have  jobseeker  profile  creation  and 
various job search functionalities which are accessible for TCN. Here again, the scope 
and sophistication of the tools, and the amount of vacancies published on the portals 
vary. The number of job openings advertised on some of these job boards seems to 
be  too  low  for  the  portal  being  able  to  function  as  a  point  of  reference  for  TCN 
jobseekers.  The  sites  are  presented  in  the  following  table,  while  the  number  of  job 
postings and the job search functionalities are further explained in the following sub-
chapter 2.3.1.2. 

92 FR: Tax information. PL: Information on social security. SI: Information on social security obligations and on unemployment 
benefits. SE: Information on social security, benefits. 

93  SI:  The  dedicated  helpdesk  caters  for  TCN  from  Bosna-Herzegovina,  Serbia  and  for  seasonal  agricultural  workers  SE: 
Dedicated helpdesk for temporarily displaced persons from Ukraine. 

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Table -18 MS with dedicated information and job search portals 

Member State 

Availability of official information for TCN  Link 

Job portals targeting TCN 

Netherlands 

Germany 

Austria  

Denmark  

Estonia 

Finland  

The  portal  has  a  job  search  function  and 
provides information on working and living in 
the Netherlands  
Make it in Germany is a joib portal specially 
targeting foreign workers  
The  platforms  provides  services  for  both 
employers and skilled workers (information, 
info  on  events, 
function, 
job  search 
immigration and residence services) 
Job search and match platform. The platform 
provides  services  for  both  job  seekers  and 
employers. 
Work in Estonia portal 

https://www.welcome-to-nl.nl/immigration 

www.make-it-in-germany.com 

https://www.workinaustria.com  

https://www.workindenmark.dk 

https://workinestonia.com/  

Platform  to  explore  open  jobs  for  EN-
speaking professionals 

https://www.workinfinland.com/en/get-
started/ 

Job portals suitable for TCN 

Czechia 

Germany 

Spain 

Job  portal  for  foreigners  of  the  Ministry  of 
Labour and Social Affairs 
(vacancies  and  CV  registration  only  partly 
dedicated towards TCN) 
BfA  job  portal  (Bundesagentur  für  Arbeit) 
cater  for  TNC  jobseekers  with  information 
and specific search filters 
Centralised Talent Attraction Platform  

https://www.uradprace.cz/web/en/jobs-for-
foreigners  

ww.arbeitsagentur.de/en 

(under construction) 

In Germany, the portal ‘Make it Germany’ dedicated to qualified professionals covers, 
since its launch in 2012, all the issues surrounding migration to Germany. It provides 
key information about entry and visa procedures, finding jobs and life in Germany; it 
provides  information  on  how  job  application  process  in  Germany  works;  it  also 
supports  companies  on  how  to  secure  and  integrate  qualified  professionals  from 
abroad. In its 10 years of operation, the portal has been visited by 55 million users. 
There  are  now  3  times  more  workers  from  non-EU  countries  in  Germany  with  a 
temporary residence permit than before the launch of the portal. 

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Make it Germany platform  

Make it Germany an online platform and initiative by the German government to attract skilled workers from 
around  the  world  and  inform  them  about  opportunities  to  live  and  work  in  Germany.  The  platform  provides 
comprehensive  information  and  resources  to  help  foreign  workers  navigate  the  German  job  market  and 
immigration processes.  

Job Portal: The platform offers a job portal that lists job vacancies from various industries and sectors across 
Germany. Job seekers can search for job opportunities that match their qualifications and skills. 

Information on Living and Working in Germany: The platform provides detailed information on living and working 
in Germany. It covers essential topics such as work permits, visas, residence permits, social security, health 
insurance, taxes, and labour laws. A hotline Living and Working in Germany is also available.  

Language and Integration: "Make it in Germany" emphasizes the importance of language skills for integration 
into German society and the  labour market. It provides resources and  information on language courses and 
integration programs available in Germany. 

Recognition of Foreign  Qualifications:  The platform  guides skilled  workers  on  the  recognition  of  their  foreign 
qualifications in Germany, helping them understand the process and requirements for having their degrees and 
certifications recognised. A Service Centre for Professional Recognition is also available. 

Welcome Services: "Make it in Germany" offers information on welcome services available to foreign workers, 
which includes orientation programs and support for newcomers to help them settle in Germany smoothly. 

Events  and  Webinars:  The  platform  occasionally  hosts  events  and  webinars  related  to  living,  working,  and 
moving to Germany. These events provide opportunities for direct interactions with experts and officials. 

Information in Multiple Languages: The platform provides information in various languages, making it accessible 
to a diverse international audience. 

In Austria, the implementation of the reform of the Red-White-Red Card is under the 
remit of the Austrian Business Agency (ABA) which also manages the platform WORK 
in  AUSTRIA.  This  offers  a  range  of  services  ranging  from  information  provision  to 
individual  consulting  and  represent  the  first  contact  point  and  competent  partner  to 
national  companies  and  qualified  international  talents.  Currently  there  are  8,000 
international skilled workers on the Agency network. 

Lacking an official source, which is the case in some MS, the information gap can be 
partly  plugged  by  information  sites  operated  by  commercial  entities  or  non-
governmental organisations that provide free information. The comprehensiveness of 
accuracy  of  the  information  is  however  not  necessarily  safeguarded  by  these 
organisations, nor can they offer online submission tools, or the monitoring or on-site 
processing of applications. The labour market situation, rules, forms, procedures can 
change and need regular updates, which the operators of such external sites may not 
be able to provide.  

Alternatively,  jobseekers  can,  or  need  to,  ask  for  customised  information  and 
additional support from recruitment agencies or immigration lawyers/advisors for a fee, 
in the form of one-on-one consultations.  

An  important  additional  or  alternative  source  of  information  to  mention,  related  to 
commercial agency services, is the ‘word of mouth’. TCN jobseekers often ask workers 
who already established themselves in the targeted European destination country for 
information and advice. Especially the diaspora of the sending country is a generally 

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acknowledged pull factor of (economic) migration (see e.g. Collier & Hoeffler, 2018)94, 
through a range of transmission mechanisms, which includes their ability to provide 
trusted  information  to  new  jobseekers.  The  significance  of  this  source  may  vary 
between countries and communities. 

2) Information on likely success 

Secondly,  another  barrier  that  jobseekers  from  third  countries  lack  is  credible 
information that could help them gauge the chances of success when applying for a 
job  in  the  EU,  considering  their  qualifications  and  skills,  and  especially  the  likely 
outcomes of the necessary administrative procedures. Such information can be either 
indirect, feeding from statistics on the acceptance rate of applications for work permits 
and visa.  

As  an  example,  the  Irish  ministry  for  employment  publishes  annual  statistics,  from 
2018  onwards,  on  the  number  of  work  permits  issued,  refused  and  withdrawn  by 
applicant – by sector, nationality of applicant, county, as well as the company offering 
the employment.95 TCN jobseekers can also deduce their chances if the information 
sites provide explanatory guides or checkboxes, or – as in the example of the Austrian 
point-based system for the RWR Card, a point calculator.96 If officials sources do not 
provide such information, TCN can only rely on private agencies who can advise them 
on their chances, on the basis of their experience. 

2.3.1.2. 

Lack of suitable and effective channels and tools  

TCNs looking for jobs in the EU do have in theory a number of job search and matching 
tools  available,  but  access  to  them,  or  their  effective  use  for  TCNs  is  not  always 
ensured. The main channels and tools are the following: 

•  National job boards: all countries in the EU have some national job board (or 
boards)  but  these  are  in  the  local  language  and  geared  towards  domestic 
jobseekers.  Requirements  that  are  self-evident  in  the  local  context  but  not 
necessarily internationally (such as language proficiency) are not spelled out in 
the  postings.  This  means  that  third-country  nationals  will  often  be  unable  to 
search for job  opportunities  in  that  given target  country or will  lack  important 
information.  For  instance,  Cliclavoro  is  an  Italian  platform  provided  by  the 
Ministry of Labour that offers resources and job listings, only in Italian, making 
it more suitable for domestic job seekers than for foreigners. In Portugal, Net-
Empregos is one of the main job search platforms but only offers a job listing 
from various industries and sectors in Portuguese.  Similarly, local languages 
seem to be still widely predominant on job search websites and in job listings 
in many central EU (the Hungarian profession.hu and the Polish Pracuj.pl) and 
eastern  countries  (the  Bulgarian  Jobs.bg).  In  these  platforms,  information  on 
the recruitment process and administrative tasks for TCNs is not provided. 

94  Collier  P,  Hoeffler  A  (2018)  Migration,  Diasporas  and  Culture:  An  Empirical  Investigation.  In:  Kyklos,  Volume71,  Issue1, 
February 2018, pp. 86-109. 

95 https://enterprise.gov.ie/en/publications/employment-permit-statistics-2023.html  

96 https://www.migration.gv.at/en/service-and-links/points-calculator/  

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• 

International job search portals: International job search portals (for instance, 
Monster.com or Indeed) aggregate a large number of job postings from Europe 
but do not always contain sufficient postings from smaller EU Member States 
(from countries where they have no presence). For instance, there are no local 
Indeed  sites  in  Bulgaria,  Cyprus,  Estonia,  Croatia,  Lithuania,  Latvia,  Malta, 
Slovenia and Slovakia.  
Furthermore, they do not contain specific information on living and working in 
the  EU  or  support  tools  that  would  help  TCNs  who  do  not  know  the  target 
country,  requirements  (such  as  qualifications  and  skills  requirements), 
immigration procedures and applicable regulations. 

•  Social media and online job matching services: Services such as LinkedIn, 
Upwork, and Freelancer have wide reach and are preferred channels for many 
highly skilled professionals (they are not efficient channels for mass recruitment 
and for low- or medium-skilled workers). But as international job search portals 
above, they do not contain specific information on the target countries, geared 
towards helping TCNs.  

•  Recruitment  agencies:  Individual  support  from  international  recruitment 
professionals is useful for skilled workers with high revenue potential to ensure 
that the recruitment and immigration process goes smoothly, but as the fees 
are often substantial, these can be unaffordable for persons with lower revenue 
potential. This can create inequalities in access to support that could enhance 
their  chances  of  successful  employment  and  integration  There  are  also 
recruitment  agencies  that  organise  themselves  workers  at  lower  or  medium 
skills  levels  and  act  as  intermediaries.  Companies  can  rely  on  recruitment 
agencies  to  hire  foreigners  but  such  service  cannot  be  accessible  for  SMEs 
which have more limited resources (the survey to employers indicated that only 
one  third  of  SMEs  rely  on  these  agencies,  while  normally  half  of  companies 
uses them). 

•  Career  fairs  and  career  guidance  events:  Career  fairs  (including  online 
events, including events held on an ever-growing number of virtual career fair 
platforms) can be organised, or attended, by employers, recruiters or by public 
bodies  or  industry  associations,  where  jobseekers  can  receive  concrete 
information  on  jobs  and  requirements  and  even  matches  can  be  made. 
Traditionally,  the  large  majority  of  career  fairs  held  in  the  EU have  not  been 
specifically  geared  towards  TCNs  and  hence  could  not  cater  for  their 
information  needs.  However,  there  have  also  been  efforts  to  target  TCNs 
specifically, and pressures have mounted on EU employers in recent years to 
increase these efforts. For instance, the German Chamber for Foreign Trade 
(Auslandshandelskammer – AHK) in China has been organising fairs bringing 
together  German  employers  with  Chinese  applicants  since  2008.97  Such  job 
fairs  are  also  organised  in  third  countries  by  third-country  bodies,  with 
participation of individual EU employers (usually transnational corporations) or 
interest groups, Examples for such fairs are on-site and online events organised 
by  the  Philippine  Department  of  Labour  and  Employment  and  the  Philippine 

97 https://china.ahk.de/fairs/job-fair-beijing  

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Overseas  Employment  Administration,  or  Pakistani  higher  education 
institutions, with specific focus on overseas jobs.  However, these efforts are at 
national level only (or regional, or even company level), and hence they cannot 
cover  alternative  target  Member  States  or  TCN  opportunities  for  intra-EU 
mobility. 

As presented in the sub-chapter above, in several countries, dedicated platforms have 
been created with the intention of providing information and job search support to TCN 
jobseekers. These platforms are designed to assist them in various aspects related to 
employment:  providing  general  and  tailored  information,  allow  TCN  to  register  and 
advertise  their  job  profiles  to  potential employers, list  available  positions  and assist 
individuals  in  their  job  search  endeavours  via  various  tools,  guides  and  services.  
These are however fragmented according to national boundaries. There is no single 
European job platform with postings specifically directed at TCNs (i.e. vacancies that 
have passed or will pass the Labour Market Test, with language-, qualification- and 
other  job  requirements  appropriate  to  targeted  TCN  workers)  that  would  aggregate 
opportunities from across the EU.  

The ten job portals reviewed, targeting TCN, vary very considerably in terms of the 
amount of  vacancies  they  offer. From  among  the  job boards  that specifically target 
TCN, Make it in Germany is the largest with about 30,000 listings (as of September 
2023),  while    Welcome  to  NL  had  about  5,600  posts  and  Work  in  Denmark  about 
3,200. Two (Czechia, BfA in Germany) are large but include generic vacancies that 
are not specifically targeting TCN, and the remaining three portals are small or very 
small, with 70-1,800 posts, hence unlikely to obtain the attention of TCN or to operate 
efficiently. For comparison, the number of vacancies from these countries posted on 
the  commercial  job  board  Glassdoor  (the  global  version)  reach  tens  of  thousands, 
even  over  200,000  for  Belgium  (although  this  number  includes  Brussels  and  the 
Walloon region). 

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Table -19 Number of job listings on the official TCN-focused job portals of the MS (and commercial 
comparison website) 

Number  of  vacancies  listed 
on portal (Sep 2023) 

Number  of  vacancies  listed 
on  glassdoor.com 
(Sep 
2023) 

Member 
State 

Job portal 

Job portals targeting TCN 

Austria  

Belgium 
(Flanders) 
Denmark  

Estonia 

Finland  

Work in Austria 

Work in Flanders 

Work in Denmark 

Work in Estonia 

Work in Finland 

~1,800 

~70 

~3,200 

~430 

~400 

Germany 

Make it in Germany (DE-M) 

~30,000 

Netherlands  Welcome to NL  

~5,600 

Job portals suitable for TCN 

Czechia 

Germany 

Spain 

Job  portal  for  foreigners  of 
the  Ministry  of  Labour  and 
Social Affairs  
‘Jobsuche’  BfA  job  portal 
(Bundesagentur  für  Arbeit) 
(DE-J) 
Centralised Talent Attraction 
Platform  

~200,000  (not  exclusively  for 
TCN) 

~1  million 
specifically for TCN) 

(all 

jobs,  not 

73,155 

203,725 

25,147 

0 

23,751 

Unknown 

Unknown 

51,489 

- (under construction) 

Unknown 

Source: Desk research of MS portals 

In terms of the type of job-search-related content and functionalities they include, the official 
TCN job portals examined naturally have many similarities – as the main goal is to present 
vacancies to TCN jobseekers and let them search them - but they vary significantly in depth 
and sophistication. 

The table below gives an overview of the findings from the desk-based review with regard to 
typical  content,  tools  and  services,  structured  along  a  set  of  higher-level  headings.  The 
findings from the review of what the individual platforms contain are elaborated further below. 

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Table 20 Typical content of official TCN-focused job portals 

Heading 

Functionality 

Explanation 

Job search 
functionalities 

Search filters 

Free text search 

Automated matching 

Saved search profiles 

Alerts 

Structured profile   

Generated CV 

Document uploads 

Jobseeker 
profile 
functionalities 

Bio / jobseeker advert 

accessible 

Profile 
employers 
Online application 

to 

Application tracking 

Application 
management 

Standard filters used as single- or multiple-option (tick boxes) 
selection criteria to narrow down the range of vacancies shown 
to the user. 
Search for any freely entered keyword(s) in the text of the 
vacancy note 
An automated matching of vacancy notes to the jobseeker’s 
profile or search criteria, whereby the recommended jobs do 
not necessarily have to match with all jobseeker profile 
characteristic or search criteria. 
The possibility to save searches (filter settings, free keywords) 
in the user profile for later re-use. 
Sending email (or SMS) alerts or push notifications for new job 
vacancies posted that match a saved search or the jobseeker!s 
profile. 
A structured tool to register key jobseeker data such as 
educational attainment, work experience, as well as 
(confidential) contact details 
Generating standard CVs from the data in the structured 
jobseeker profiles 
Portal allowing jobseekers to upload documents such as CVs, 
diplomas or work permit that they may store on the site and 
also attach them to candidatures  
A function allowing jobseekers to compile ads, searchable fpr 
potential employers, where present themselves and the type of 
jobs they are interested in 
Data from the personal profiles of jobseekers is accessible to 
employers upon candidature, or generally searchable 
Optino to submit candidatures through the site (the registered 
profile and supporting documents uploaded can be linked) 
An electronic tool tracking the progress of applications: 
deadlines, possible rejection, invitations to interviews etc. 

The  findings  on  the  functionalities  of  the  individual  TCN-oriented  platforms  are 
presented below. This does not include the Spanish Talent Pool, which is not yet in 
operation,  but  a  brief  summary  of  the  initiative  is  given  here.  With  this  centralised 
platform, the Spanish federal government seeks to support the job search and the job 
matching  of  TCN  candidates  for  vacancies  that  are  difficult  to  fill  with  nationals  or 
EU/EEA jobseekers. The platform will facilitate various administrative procedures as 
well, as it will be a digital space for other ministries to collaborate for issues related to 
labour migration (employment, education, foreign affairs, etc.). 

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The Spanish Talent Pool 

Owner: Ministry of Inclusion, Social Security and Migration. This will be responsible for validating the companies 
before they can enter the platform.  

Candidate search platform: candidates can enter their personal information about their professional profile so 
that companies can identify suitable candidates and connect with them using their own mean of selection and 
accompaniment.  The platform  will  include  an anonymised  data  transmission  protocol  with  a  common  format. 
Matching platform: Companies will upload their vacancies to the platform and will be able to access to a short 
list of the best candidates with their professional profile and skills.  

Interoperability  with  EU  initiatives:  The  platform  will  use  EU  instruments  such  as  ESCO  classification  and 
Europass tools (not only the CV but also the Digital Credentials for Learning and other services offered by the 
Europass framework). Validation of skills and capabilities: specific systems for validation of language, IT tools 
will be provided together with software solutions for micro credentials and verification of qualification. 

The  table  overleaf  presents  the  contents  of  the  job  portals  reviewed  under  the  first 
heading ‘Job search functionalities’. All portals use standard search filters, although 
portals in six of the MS (AT, DE-M, DK, EE, FI, NL) only have a minimal number of 
such  filters,  usually  the  location  and  job  category  only,  with  a  small  number  of 
categories that can be selected under each filter. It is to be noted that the small number 
of  vacancies  published  on  these  sites  does  not  necessarily  justify  the  use  of  more 
filters  (with  the  exception  of  Make  it  in  Germany).  The  types  of  filters  seen  on  the 
portals are the following: 

•  Job  category  (AT,  BE,  EE,  FI)  or  function  (NL),  which  are  broad  and  non-
standard typologies for the jobs related to a high-level NACE sector or ISCO 
occupation,  or  both.  Portals  can  also  include  more  standard  occupation 
categories instead or in addition (AT, BE, DE-J, DE-M). Note that the Czech 
portal  does  not  have  this  filter,  jobseekers  can  use  the  free-text  search 
functionality to enter the sectors or occupations they are interested in. 

•  Location:  the  filter  can  work  through  a  small  number  of  standard  categories 
such as a small economic region (AT, NL) or city (EE, FI), an official region (DE-
M), or a combination of a list of regions and detailed administrative districts as 
well as a free-text field (BE), possibly with the option to also define a maximum 
distance from the city entered (CZ, DE-J) 

•  Employer: filtering for jobs from one specific employer (CZ, DE-J) 

•  Duration of contract: a filter for permanent and temporary employment contracts 

(DE-J, DK) 

•  Type  of  employment:  a  distinction  between  full-time  and  part-time  work  (AT, 
BE, CZ, DE-J, DK), possibly also additional categories such as commissioned 
work, student jobs (BE, CZ) 

•  Working time: the number of shifts and other working-time aspects of the job 

(BE, CZ) 

•  Salary offered: a minimum value for the remuneration indicated in the vacancy 

note, if any (CZ) 

•  Benefits: these can be accommodation offered, extra vacation day or other (CZ) 

•  TCN status: selection of jobs by TCN status (e.g. refugee) or the type of work 

permit the TCN already holds, if any (CZ) 

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•  Minimum level of education required: filter containing the ISCED categories that 

are required for the given job (BE, CZ) 

•  Professional qualification: a free-text entry field which is linked to a background 
database containing the standard qualifications from the national qualifications 
framework (BE) 

•  Work experience: the number of years of work experience the jobseeker must 
have (BE), or at least a distinction between labour market entrants and people 
with experience (DE-J) 

•  Language skills required: filter for jobs that require a minimum level of language 
proficiency in a selectable language – including the national language (BE, CZ) 

•  Suitability  for  people  with  disabilities:  filter  for  jobs  suitable  for  people  with 
reduced  mobility  or  with  visual  impairment  (CZ),  or  jobs  suitable  for  persons 
with severe disabilities (DE-J) 

•  Start date: the month when the work can or should be taken up (DE-J) 

•  Long-term vacancy: vacancies that are open for more than 3 months (CZ) 

•  Recency: search option for recent vacancy notes (BE, CZ, DE-J) 

The second functionality is a free-text search tool, which is present in all portals. The 
jobseeker  can  search  the  full  text  of  vacancy  notes  with  this  tool:  the  search  can 
concern  a  given  sector,  occupation  or  company,  as  some  portals  suggest,  but  the 
Dutch  portal,  for  instance  can  also  handle  more  complex  searches  with  manually 
entered Boolean operators which are explained in a pop-up window. 

No  job  portals  reviewed  offer  full-fledged  automated  matching  services  to  date  like 
LinkedIn and other commercial sites, whereby the automated matching algorithm will 
simultaneously  consider  various  factors,  for  instance:  jobseeker  profile  data  and 
preferences, the processing of uploaded CVs and other documents, past searches of 
the  user  or  that  of  similar  users  etc.),  although  two  (BE,  DE-J)  do  search  for  job 
suggestions based on key profile data. 

Only  three  portals  (BE,  DK,  DE-J)  can  save  and  store  searches  of  registered 
jobseekers. All of these portals can also send email alerts if a new job matching the 
saved search is posted. 

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Table -21 Job vacancy search functions of official TCN-focused job portals 

Member 
State 

Job portal 

Search 
filters 

Free text 
search 

Automated 
matching 

Austria  

Work in Austria 

Work in Flanders 

Belgium 
(Flanders) 
Czechia 

for 
Job 
portal 
foreigners  of 
the 
Ministry  of  Labour 
and Social Affairs  
Denmark   Work in Denmark 

Estonia 

Work in Estonia 

Finland  

Work in Finland 

Make it in Germany 

'Jobsuche’  BfA  job 
portal 
(Bundesagentur  für 
Arbeit) 
Welcome to NL  

Germany 

Netherland
s 

(ü) 

ü 

ü 

(ü) 

(ü) 

(ü) 

ü 

ü 

ü 

ü 

ü 

ü 

ü 

ü 

ü 

ü 

- 

(ü) 

- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

(ü) 

(ü) 

ü98 

- 

Saved 
search 
profiles 
- 

ü 

- 

ü 

- 

- 

- 

ü 

- 

Alerts 

- 

ü 

- 

ü 

- 

- 

- 

ü 

- 

Note: tick mark in brackets denotes simple filtering function few only a few filters (such as sector, type of occupation, temporary 
or permanent employment contract, full-time or part-time employment, region). Source: Desk research of MS portals 

The  second  group  of  functionalities,  linked  to  the  creating  and  using  of  jobseekers’ 
personal  profiles,  demonstrates  more  clearly  that  the  already  existing  national  job 
portals for TCN (reviewed for this study) only offer limited possibilities for TCN talent 
search and their matching with vacancies and/or employers potentially interested in a 
profile.  Only  the  ‘Jobsuche’  portal  of  the  German  PES,  which  is  a  generic  portal 
targeting all nationals (although it has information and useful tools for TCN), offers an 
adequate  range  of  services  from  creating  a  jobseeker profile  over generating  a  CV 
from the data, allowing document uploads (custom CV, diplomas etc.), the publishing 
of  jobseeker  ads,  to  making  the  profiles  searchable  for  employers.  From  the 
remainder, the (equally general) portal in Czechia and the Work in Flanders site offer 
at least the opportunity to create profiles which employers can access. The Belgian 
site  allows  jobseekers  to  specify  their  educational  background  and  attainment, 
competences, work experience (with contacts for employer credentials), as well as the 
types of jobs sought. 

98 Includes the possibility to use Boolean operators. 

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Table - 22 Jobseeker profile functions of official TCN-focused job portals 

Member State  Job portal 

Structured 
profile 

Generated 
CV 

Austria  

Work in Austria 

Belgium 
(Flanders) 
Czechia 

Denmark  

Estonia 

Finland  

Germany 

Netherlands 

Work in Flanders 

for 
Job 
portal 
foreigners  of 
the 
Ministry  of  Labour 
and Social Affairs  
Work in Denmark 

Work in Estonia 

Work in Finland 

Make it in Germany 

‘Jobsuche’  BfA  job 
portal 
(Bundesagentur 
Arbeit) 
Welcome to NL  

für 

- 

ü 

(ü) 

- 

- 

- 

ü 

- 

- 

ü 

- 

- 

- 

- 

ü 

- 

Docume
nt 
uploads 
- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

ü 

- 

/ 

Bio 
jobseek
er ads 

Profile 
accessible to 
employers 

- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

ü 

- 

- 

ü 

ü 

- 

- 

- 

ü 

- 

Under the third heading, ‘Application management’, the large German PES job portal 
again performs well, as it allows for online application and offers application tracking 
services. The first function can simplify the job search for jobseekers, and help avoid 
errors,  as  users  do  not  need  search  for  the  right  contact,  write  emails  and  attach 
supporting  documents,  deal  with  different  requirements  for  correspondence.  Even 
when the employer has an efficient online application system, jobseekers would need 
to  re-enter  their  profile  data  and  re-upload  their  documents  on  the  company 
recruitment  management  site.  Employers  can  also  benefit  from  online  application 
services which help them streamline their processes, avoid errors and unnecessary 
delays.  Furthermore,  channelling  applications  through  the  system  creates  data 
collection opportunities for PES which then contribute to improving its services and to 
learning more about labour market trends. 

On the other sites where online application is not possible, the job postings normally 
include  a  web  link  to  the  recruitment  system  of  the  employer  (if  any),  or  an  email 
address and telephone number where jobseekers can contact them. 

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Table 23 Application management functions of official TCN-focused job portals 

Member State 

Job portal 

Austria  

Work in Austria 

Belgium 
(Flanders) 
Czechia 

Denmark  

Estonia 

Finland  

-Germany 

Netherlands 

Work in Flanders 

for 
portal 
Job 
foreigners  of 
the 
Ministry  of  Labour 
and Social Affairs  
Work in Denmark 

Work in Estonia 

Work in Finland 

Make it in Germany 

‘Jobsuche’  BfA  job 
portal 
(Bundesagentur 
Arbeit) 
Welcome to NL  

für 

Online 
application 

- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

ü 

- 

Application 
tracking 
- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

- 

ü 

- 

Note: tick mark in brackets denotes limited possibilities to register for TCN (identification services geared more towards 
nationals or EU/EEA nationals). Source: Desk research of MS portals 

Because official job portals dedicated to TCN talent are not in operation in the majority 
of Member States, the importance of commercial sites is currently significant. Many 
skilled  workers  –  including  TCN  –  look  for  jobs  on  LinkedIn  or  large  international 
commercial job platforms (e.g. Indeed, Glassdoor99 or Monster), but the coverage of 
small EU Member States is not always sufficient on these platforms. As of September 
2023,  nine  Member  States  (Bulgaria,  Croatia,  Cyprus,  Estonia,  Latvia,  Lithuania, 
Malta, Slovakia and Slovenia) were not covered by any of the three lobal job boards 
mentioned above. TCN will need to actively search and find a suitable job board in 
these  countries,  at  least  for  vacancies  in  occupations  with  low-  or  medium-level 
qualification  requirements  that  are  not  usually  advertised  on  LinkedIn  (employers 
typically target jobseekers with higher qualification levels on LinkedIn: in the US, at the 
end of 2022, 33% of users had a bachelor’s diploma, 23% a master’s degree and 6% 
a  doctorate,  while  only  2%  of  users  had  completed  secondary  education  as  their 
highest level of educational achievement100). 

Furthermore, the local sites that the above global job portals have only pool vacancies 
from that individual Member State. Hence TCN cannot search for relevant job postings 
from several or all EU Member States simultaneously, even if they would be willing to 
consider opportunities in the EU in general. Smaller Member States that are not well 
covered  on  global job search  sites  can  thus easily  fail  to appear on  the  horizon for 
TCN jobseekers. 

99 Indeed and Glassdoor are both owned by the Japanese mother company Recruit Holdings. 

100 https://www.statista.com/statistics/246180/share-of-us-internet-users-who-use-linkedin-by-education-level/  

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Table 24 Local country sites of selected global job platforms (September 2023) 

Member State 

Indeed 

Glassdoor 

Monster 

Austria 

Belgium 

Bulgaria 

Croatia 

Cyprus 

Czechia 

Denmark 

Estonia 

Finland 

France 

Germany 

Greece 

Hungary 

Ireland 

Italy 

Latvia 

Lithuania 

Luxembourg 

Malta 

Netherlands 

Poland 

Portugal 

Romania 

Slovakia 

Slovenia 

Spain 

Sweden 

ü 

ü 

ü 

ü 

ü 

ü 

ü 

ü 

ü 

ü 

ü 

ü 

ü 

ü 

ü 

ü 

ü 

ü 

ü 

ü 

* 

* 

* 

ü 

ü 

* 

* 

ü 

ü 

* 

ü 

* 

* 

* 

ü 

* 

ü 

ü 

ü 

ü 

ü 

ü 

ü 

ü 

ü 

ü 

Note: * denotes countries with a large pool of vacancies searchable on the main 65lassdoor.com website  

Source: Indeed, Glassdoor, Monster 

One of  the  alternative  talent  search  actions mentioned  in the  beginning of  the  sub-
chapter are job events with a specific focus on international recruitment. Events are 
organised  by  public  authorities  and  bodies  or  by  industry  actors  (e.g.  Chambers  of 
Commerce),  partly  in the destination  country or online, partly  in  source  countries  in 
collaboration with third country partners. These events serve as a virtual or physical 
space  to  facilitate  direct  interaction  between  companies  and  potential  applicants. 
These  events  are  often  tailored  to  cater  to  specific  industries,  such  as  technology, 
healthcare, or engineering, aligning with the evolving demands of the labour market. 
Given the costs of such events, they typically target skilled workers with specialised 
expertise and large wage/value generation potential. Examples of job search events 
organised by MSs are given in the following table. 

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Member State  
Austria 

Denmark 

Finland 

Table 25 Examples of job search events organised by MSs 

Examples 
The  Austrian  Business  Agency  has  an  event  calendar  on  its  website  that  promote 
international events both on site and virtually. These events allow companies to present 
themselves  to  potential  applicants;  Roadshows  are  also  arranged  within  Austria, 
facilitating  visits  to  local  firms  by  promising  skilled  professionals  while  fostering 
connections with foreign universities, applied sciences institutions, and communities. 
On the Work in Denmark platform information on job fairs (both onsite and online) are 
provided where companies are encouraged to participate.  Numerous free webinars on 
living and working in Denmark are also offered. 
The  Espoo  Talent  Hub  delivers  Talent  Match  event  that  connect  employers  and 
professionals from various sectors. Professionals can network with employers at their 
physical  stands.  Professionals  and  companies  can  also  give  a  2-minute  pitch  and 
organize  1:1  meetings.  The  programme  is  also  streamed  online  and  is  held  both  in 
English and Finnish. 

Member states often rely on international job placement agreements to recruit TCN 
workers,  typically  in  a  sector  or  occupation  specific  manner,  including  those  with 
medium  or  lower  skills.  These  agreements  are  the  result  of  negotiation  and 
cooperation  between countries  and not  only  streamline  the  recruitment  process but 
also  ensure  that  both  employers  and  employees  are  aware  of  their  rights  and 
responsibilities.  These  agreements  typically  encompass  quotas,  detailed  visa  and 
work  permit  provisions,  agreements  on  the  recognition  of  qualifications,  and  social 
security arrangements. International agreements can lead to significant simplifications 
in  the  recruitment  process  for  the  quota  concerned,  including  exemptions  for 
employers  from  conducting  Labour  Market  Tests.  Examples  for  international  job 
placement agreements are provided in the table below. 

Member 
State 
Italy 

Table 26 Examples of international job placement agreements 

Examples 

Italy uses bilateral agreements with non-EU countries to promote regular channels for the entry of 
foreign  workers  and  enhance  recruitment  process  for  qualified  workers,  this  facilitating  their 
integration in the labour market. The agreements help strengthening the cooperation with countries 
that  contribute  to  migration  flows  such  as:  Philippines,  Republic  of  Mauritius,  Albania,  Egypt,  Sri 
Lanka, Morocco.  

Portugal  Portugal recently signed an agreement with India on the recruitment of Indian citizens to work in the 
country. When an employer wishes to hire an Indian worker, they are required to notify the Institute 
of  Employment  and  Vocational  Training  (IEFP)  that  will  then  convey  this  intention  to  the  Indian 
authorities. These latter will initiate a selection process leading to sign an employment contract.  After 
this, the visa will be issued.  

German  Germany has a specific scheme for the Western Balkans since 2016 which makes possible for people 
coming  from  the  Balkan  region  (Albania,  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina,  Kosovo,  North  Macedonia, 
Montenegro and Serbia) to migrate with a job offer and without the need to prove their qualification 
or language skills. These opportunities are typically for low-qualified workers.  

The views of stakeholders on the available channels and their experience with them 
suggest that the government or PES-operated national job portals are currently not 
among the main channels of recruitment. The survey to TCNs in source country 
allowed to grasp which are the most used channels for searching for a job. As the 
chart below shows, LinkedIn or other social media seem to be the preferred one, 
with 57% of the respondents relying on it either always or often. This is followed by 

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commercial job portals (Indeed, Monster etc…) and job posting on company website 
which are used either always or often by around the half of the sample.  

These results are in line with the preference of TCNs in the EU too.  

Some respondents mentioned other channels that are often used for searching for a 
job.  These  are  internet  search  and  informal  exchange  with  friends  and  relatives, 
Google, TV channels and ads in newspaper. 

Figure 23: Channels used by TCNs for searching for a job 

Source: Survey to TCN in source country 

The  usual  channels  of  recruitment  all  have  shortcomings  when  it  comes  to  TCNs 
finding job opportunities, understanding what is required and presenting themselves 
accordingly.  
Results from the survey confirmed this. TCNs living in source country that have worked 
in  or  searched  for  a  job  in  the  EU  (N=366)  have  experienced  difficulties  related  to 
finding  suitable  job  opportunities  in  line  with  their  skills  and  understanding  local  job 
requirements, with more than half considering these as important barriers.  

Figure 24: Barriers to finding a job (respondents who have worked in or searched for a 
job in the EU) 

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Source: Survey to TCNs in source country 

The non-transparent information regarding job opportunities in the EU as well as the 
rules and requirements for seizing these opportunities seem to represent the primary 
reasons why some TCNs have never searched for a job in the EU. Finding suitable 
job  opportunities  is  a  barrier  for  43%  of  the  respondents  while  44%  struggle  to 
understand how to align with job requirements.   

Figure 25: Barriers to finding a job (respondents who have neither worked in nor searched 
for a job in the EU, TCN Survey) 

Source: Survey to TCNs in source country 

These results seem to be valid also when looking at the TCNs already in the EU. In 
particular finding suitable job opportunities is an issue for 70% (14 out of 20) of the 
respondents. 

The problems are similar from the perspective of EU employers. 

When coming to internal channels, employers normally publish the job posting on their 
website (77% do it either often or very often) or rely on referrals from employees (52% 
do it either often or very often). 

Figure 26: Internal channels used by employers to recruit staff from outside the EU 

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Source: survey to Employers 

Regarding external channels for recruiting staff from outside the EU, LinkedIn remains 
the  most  used  one  (82%  use  it  either  very often  or  often)  while  public  employment 
service’s job portals and referrals from PES are never used by half of the respondents. 

Figure 27: External channels used by employers to recruit staff from outside the EU 

Source: survey to Employers 

When looking at the level of satisfaction when using these channels, overall employers 
seem to appreciate mainly LinkedIn and the job posting on their website. The PES’s 
job portals are instead considered less effective in supporting the recruitment activity.   

The existing channels they use will not attract a suitable pool of TCNs, and/or these 
channels  will  not  facilitate  successful  recruitment  of  TCNs,  lacking  necessary 
information and support tools geared towards their needs. To some (albeit smaller) 
extent the same applies to channels for recruiting intra-EU mobile workers.  

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In fact, according to the majority of employers participating in the survey (61%), the 
applications received are often unsuitable for the job requirements and 39% of them 
find difficult to find enough candidates from outside the EU.  

Figure 28: Access to candidates as a barrier against international recruitment 

Source: Survey to employers 

The  planned  EU  Talent  Pool  can  also  receive  inspiration  from  the  setup  and 
functionalities of job matching tools operated in third countries, specifically targeting 
foreign  workers.  The  initiatives  are  also  involving  fast-track  procedures  and  other 
administrative measures. The examples investigated are from Australia, New Zealand 
and Canada. The fiches have been attached in the technical annexes, no. 4. These 
countries  use  the  "Expression  of  Interest"  (EOI)  as  part  of  their  skilled  migration 
programs. Each country has its own specific system for managing EOIs, but the basic 
concept is similar across all three countries. In particular, candidates are required to 
provide accurate and truthful information in their EOIs. If they receive an invitation to 
apply for a visa, they must then submit a comprehensive application with supporting 
documents to demonstrate their eligibility for permanent residence or a skilled visa in 
the respective country. The Australian ‘SkillSelect’ functions not only as a measure to 
make immigration procedures more efficient but also as job matching tool. Employer 
get  direct  access  to  the  jobseeker  pool,  they  can  see  profiles  and  supporting 
documenatry evidence of the candidates and can contact them, but they don’t publish 
vacancy notices on this portal. Candidates from the pool that receive an offer from an 
eligible Australian employer are automatically invited to apply for a sponsored visa.  

A number of EU initiatives also exist that try to target intra-EU mobile workers (to be 
considered for the lessons learnt) and/or TCNs. The main elements of these are set 
out below, whist a full overview can be found in the technical annexes, no. 2. 

EURES  is  a  European  cooperation  network  of  employment  services,  designed  to 
facilitate the free movement of workers. Its IT platform – EURES Job Mobility Portal – 
serves as a mean for the exchange of information and for sharing best practices to 
benefit workers and employers. The following services are offered:  

•  Access to basic information on the portal, job-application and CV database and 

EURES network.  

•  Support  to  workers  with  the  provision  of  information  and  guidance  on  job 
opportunities.  This  includes  general  information  on  living  and  working 

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conditions in the country of destination, assistance to draw up job applications 
and CVs. 

•  Support to  employers with  the  provision  of  information  related  to  recruitment 
from  another  Member  States  as  well  as  of  assistance  in  the  formulation  of 
individual job requirements in a job vacancy.  

•  Post-recruitment  assistance  such  as  training  on  intercultural  communication, 

language courses and support with integration. 

•  Facilitated access to information on taxation, employment contracts, pension 
entitlement,  health  insurance,  social  security  and  active  labour  market 
measures. 

•  Support services in cross-border regions to provide workers and employers with 

information relating specific situation of frontier.  

•  Accesso to analysis on labour shortages and surpluses on national and sectoral 

labour markets  

However, from the 2021 evaluation101, some limitations emerged. First, that employers 
do not consider the platform user-friendly and easy to navigate. Second, that among 
the  EURES  countries,  31  have  established  a  mechanism  for  transferring  job 
vacancies, yet 13 of them have not yet implemented the transfer of CVs through the 
unified coordinated channel. This would create repercussions on the availability of pool 
of  candidate  accessible  to  employers.  It  also  affects  the  quality  and  quantity  of  job 
vacancies, consequently influencing the matching EURES system. 

Table below details the functionalities of EURES platform. 

101 Available at https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/471d614b-56e1-11eb-b59f-01aa75ed71a1 

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Tool 
Matching 
tool  

Table 27: EURES platform’s features  

Short description 
  Find a job. It is a search functionality for job seekers where multiple filters can be applied 
(occupation, sector, language of the job vacancy, work schedule, education level, work 
experience, contract type, extra benefits). The search interface is available in the 25 EEA 
languages. Job vacancies are published by employers through a EURES Employment 
Service partner. 

  Find candidates. The engine search allows pre-screened employers with specific access 

rights to find candidates and see their CVs by using keywords and applying filters 
(language skill, occupation, skills). To fine tune the research, employers can further 
search candidates according to their location, contract type, duration and education level. 
The functionality automatically proposes CV lists of candidates matching the selected 
filters. Search profiles can be saved and shared and an option to receive regular updates 
on candidates can be activated.  

My EURES 

  My Candidates.  Pre-screened employers with specific access rights can save multiple 

candidates in a repository of the platform. They can download or print the CVs proposed 
by the search engine and send candidates enquire. The function allows to be 
automatically notified when new candidates matching the criteria appear.  

  My Jobs. This section allows job seekers to view the enquired received from different 

companies. Enquires are also notified by email. In this section, job seekers can also set 
up different search profiles what will allow them to be notified about new job vacancies 
matching their search criteria.  

  My CV. Job seekers can create their online CV in different languages. The CV creators is 
composed of several sections – work experience, education and training, skills. Further, 
there is the desired employments section to describe the ideal job features such as the 
location, contract type and other employment aspects. CV can be published so that they 
can be searchable by employers for 12 weeks (extendable). Europass users can send 
their Europass CV to EURES  

and 

  For jobseekers. This section is for jobseekers with higher qualifications (students, 

Hints 
tips 

Other 
information  

Guidance 
and support  

graduates, teachers and researchers). It contains hints to find information on practical and 
legal aspects of mobility, job application, selection process (tests, interviews) and to settle 
in a new country. 

  For employers. The section makes available three check lists to support employers in the 
hiring processes for workers from other countries. The check lists entail to steps before 
recruiting workers (legal requirements, working permits, practical arrangements, language 
barriers), during the process (presenting the services offered by EURES portal to 
employers) and after having hired a worker from abroad (integration of workers, conditions 
at workplace). 

  Living and working section. Practical information and facts about labour market trend in 

each country in Europe are available.  

  Labour market information. Every year a report on labour shortages and surpluses is 

published on the platform. The report gathers data collected by Member States on their 
national labour markets. In addition, other information on labour market is available for 
each country in dedicated pages of the platform (Short overview of the labour market, 
Where are the available jobs and Where are the available workers) 

  EURES advisers. The platform offers a network of advisers to provide information required 
by job seekers and employers through personal contacts. Currently there are 900 EURES 
advisers across Europe that have developed practical, legal and administrative expertise 
in relation to mobility at national and cross-border levels. There is a search form to find 
them in each country or cross-border region  

  Skills and careers. Employers can explore learning opportunities for their employees to 
acquire new skills and learn about staff education and training opportunities throughout 
Europe 

Source: elaboration of the contractor (2023) 

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Another channel for matching employers with jobseekers from within the 31 members 
of the EU and the EEA (including Switzerland) are European Job Days102, an initiative 
organised  by  EURES and  the  European  Commission,  which  seeks  to  promote and 
enhance labour mobility within the EURES countries. The events – which are typically 
sector-specific - provide jobseekers with direct access to employers (large enterprises 
and  SMEs,  private  and  public)  from  other  countries,  and  providing  general  and 
practical information on both the opportunities and challenges associated with such 
mobility.  Employers  are  encouraged  to  advertise  their  vacancies  in  order  to  attract 
potential  talented  individuals  from  across  Europe  and  can  interview  or  chat  with 
interested  jobseekers  who  register.  Through  this  initiative,  jobseekers  can  listen  to 
presentations both on site and on the internet, and have access to tailored services, 
such as CV workshops and participating EURES Advisors. Interested jobseekers who 
do not ask for an interview can still express their interest in a specific company. In the 
latter  case,  the  employers  will  gain  access  to  their  profile  and  CV.  Altogether,  11 
events have taken place in 2023 until May, bringing together from a dozen to over 100 
employers and from 20-30 to over 600 vacancies at the end of May 2023 almost 7,000 
employers and 637 info points were registered in the database. 

EURAXESS103 is a pan-European network supported by the European Commission, 
dedicated to assisting researchers in moving and working throughout Europe. It seeks 
to promote international collaboration between scientists and institutions, create and 
strengthen  the  collaborative  potential  of  science,  technology  and  innovation,  and 
enhance research infrastructure in Europe. 

One  of  the  main  objectives  of  EURAXESS  is  to  support  the  recruitment  of  highly 
qualified  research  and  innovation  personnel  involving  mobility  across  borders  - 
including the facilitation of access to the labour market for highly qualified individuals 
from  outside  Europe.  EURAXESS  provides  a  wide  range  of  services  through  its 
website  including guidance on  visas/residence  permits  applications,  job  submission 
system  which  enables  direct  contact  with  companies/institutions  offering  job 
opportunities  in  different  countries  across  Europe,  access  to  dedicated  scholarship 
databases  for  funding  relocation  projects  related  directly  or  indirectly  related  to 
research  activities  within  Europe    as  well  as  assistance  in  finding  accommodation 
following  recruitment  campaigns  or during  stays  abroad.  Researchers can  also  find 
guidance material on tax issues, relevant for relocating individuals as well as national 
regulations  dealing  with  such  topics  as  intellectual  property  rights  or  protection  of 
privacy.  

Information  resources  like  conferences,  publications  journals,  databases  and 
networks are also made available on the EURAXESS website. Moreover, EURAXESS 
offers  online  self-assessment  tools  aiming  to  match  individuals’  interest  with 
organisations providing suitable working environments and also serves the purpose of 
giving advice on how best to prepare successful grant applications aimed at realising 
researcher mobility ambitions. 

The platform functionalities are detailed in the table below. 

102 https://europeanjobdays.eu/en  https://europeanjobdays.eu/en  
103 https://euraxess.ec.europa.eu/  https://euraxess.ec.europa.eu/  

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Table -28: Functionalities of the EURAXESS platform 

Tool  

Short description 

Search tools  

International 
networking  

Career 
development  

Information 
and 
assistance  

  Search for jobs. Through this function, researchers can look for job opportunities 
filtering by country, European Research Programme (H2020, Marie Skłodowska-
Curie Actions) and research field.  

  Search for hosting. Users can search for hosting opportunities as postdoctoral 
fellowships candidates according to the country and the European research 
programme.  

  Search for research talent. Research organisations and universities can post 

jobs to recruit and look through CVs. 

  Euraxess Worldwide. It is a tool supporting researchers working outside of 

Europe what want to explore and develop careers in Europe. The network aims 
at fostering scientific collaboration and attract talent to Europe. There are 
dedicated teams in different countries and regions (Africa, Singapore, Thailand, 
Indonesia, Malaysia, Vietnam, Australia, New Zealand, Latin America, China, 
India, Japan, Korea and North America). Euraxess Worldwide organises events 
– live and virtual – and shares information on the latest developments and 
opportunities in Europe for studying, working and progressing a scientific career.  
  Career Orientation tool. The tool helps researchers to plan upskilling path, define 
their career goals and navigate across career options. Young researchers can 
consult a career handbook and can access to the offer to virtual webinars and 
training. 

  Pipers Project Career Kit. It is a collection of external learning resources in the 

topics of entrepreneurial skills, information literacy, disciplinary working, 
leadership skills, managing a research career, professional development, public 
engagement, researcher self-assessment, market exploitation of research 
results and working with industry. The resources include different type of 
material (training, articles case studies) benefitting trainers and people in charge 
of training researcher. 

  Mentoring Programme ‘Shape the future of a Researcher coming to Europe.’ 

This programme aims at fostering the cooperation in the research field as well as 
international mobility by offering the opportunity to mentor early-stage 
researchers. The programme allows early-stage researchers coming from third 
countries to get support by highly skilled researchers for what regards career 
counselling, publication and presentations, networking, funding opportunities… 
  Pensions for Researcher. The web pages links to country specific information on 
pension systems. Information regards state pensions as well as occupational 
pensions. The page hosts one dedicated section on pension arrangements at 
European level such as the Pan-European Pension Fund for researcher104. 
  Search for information. Researchers can retrieve information on three main 

macro themes: leaving Europe, Living Europe and Working in Europe. As further 
specification, they can filter the information according to the different areas of the 
three topics (for instance, accommodation, entry conditions, visas, health 
insurance, intellectual property rights…). 

  National portals. The web page provides the link to access to national Euraxess 

Centres and find practical information about specific country context.  

Source: elaboration of the contractor (2023)

104 https://www.resaver.eu/ 

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In  substance,  recruitment  channels  have  evolved,  with  platforms  like  LinkedIn  and 
various social media networks emerging as dominant avenues for international hiring. 
These  platforms  have  proven  their  effectiveness  in  supporting  cross-border 
recruitment efforts while, in contrast, commercial web portals and PES portals seem 
to be less used and perceived as less effective in the recruitment process. On the side 
of  TCNs,  the  challenge  of  finding  a  suitable  job  highlights  a  persisting  difficulty  in 
navigating the available channels.  

In the EU, the landscape of talent attraction policies is diverse. While many countries 
have a well-established policy framework to attract skilled individuals, there exists a 
significant gap as several member states lack comprehensive policies in this domain. 
This disparity within the EU context underscores the need for a more harmonized and 
cohesive approach to talent attraction. 

Channels at EU level face certain limitations. EURES, while designed to enhance job-
matching across borders, might not always reflect the actual availability of CVs and 
job postings. This discrepancy would hinder the platform's effectiveness in connecting 
job  seekers and employers. Additionally,  EURAXESS,  which  caters to  researchers, 
may not fully address the broader scope of skills and professions present within the 
labour market.  

2.3.1.3. 

High costs of cross-border search and matching 

TCNs searching and applying for European jobs face significant costs.  Applying for 
jobs in any foreign country and moving there for work, especially if it is for long-term 
employment, involves a range of costs.  

In  August  2022,  the  OECD  initiated  an  extensive  online  survey  targeting  skilled 
workers  abroad  interested  in  employment  opportunities  in  Germany,  conducted 
through  the  migration  information  portal  Make  it  in  Germany.  From  the  survey,  it 
emerged that half of the participants consider job searching and securing a job offer 
as significant barriers to relocating to Germany105. 

Major cost factors in the job search phase are translations, administrative fees (e.g. 
for apostilles), possible costs of support from an employment agency or accessing a 
job search platform, as well as the significant cost of time put into the search. A 2023 
survey  conducted  by  the  German  Federal  Ministry  of  Labour  and  Social  Affairs 
identified that the most significant barrier to TCNs potentially interested in working in 
Germany were the perceived inability to find a job, or that they didn’t know where to 
look/apply for a job. Insufficient financial means to cover all costs came third (out  of 
ten).106  

Smaller  individual  costs  can  easily  add  up  to  considerable  amounts.  Certified 
translations may cost, depending on the origin and target languages and wage levels 
in the given country, up to $20 per pages.107 Apostilles may cost very little in some 

105 https://survey.oecd.org/upload/surveys/932136/files/Key%20findings_Your%20way%20to%20Germany%20survey(1).pdf 

106 OECD (2023) Migration Data Brief No 9, July 2023. Available at: https://search.oecd.org/migration/mig/Who-is-interested-and-
plans-to-migrate-to-Germany-to-work-Migration-Data-Brief-July-2023.pdf  

107 The source of this estimate was a desk research on fees demanded by translation services in selected third countries (India, 
Pakistan, Turkey), as advertised on their webslte. 

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places, but the fees can reach €30 (for instance consulates of Denmark and Estonia) 
or  more  per  document  in  others  (consulates  of  Ireland  and  Germany).108  If  the 
recruitment process is complex, TCNs may need to rely on support from employment 
agencies and pay a significant fee. A 2014 survey of migrant workers from Bulgaria, 
Ecuador,  Morocco,  Poland  and  Romania  employed  in  Spanish  agriculture109  found 
that median migration costs for TCN arriving via legal pathways were USD 530, less 
than  half  a  month’s  wage  (1,300  USD).  Most  workers  were  employed  as  seasonal 
workers, from four to nine months, earning USD 4,000-9,000 in total. However, this 
median value is biased to the downside as intra-EU mobile workers had to cover only 
travel  costs,  but  faced  no  costs  for  entry  documents,  medical  checks  and  recruiter 
fees. The latter should hence amount to several hundred USD in the case of TCNs. 
Recruitment  costs for higher-paying  jobs are  generally  higher:  Estonia for instance, 
has set the level of grant funding it provides to companies to recruit one top specialist 
in  the  field  of  science  and  engineering  at  3,000  EUR.110  Aggravating  the  financial 
burden on lower- or medium-skilled TCNs, recruitment fees (for recruitment agencies 
organising workers and preparing the paperwork) are considerably more often have 
to be paid by the TCN for low-paying jobs, while EU employers will usually compensate 
agencies themselves for recruitment in higher-paying jobs.  

Importantly,  while  job  opportunities  from  different  EU  Member  States  may  be 
advertised,  these  countries  often  have  their  own unique  set of  requirements.  Some 
may require certain qualifications or language proficiency that may not be available to 
everyone. Studying and understanding the requirements for any small Member State 
could be a large burden on TCNs, a prohibitively large relative transaction cost if they 
expect only a handful of jobs from that given country. 

Upon  being  selected,  further  administrative  fees  (visa,  work  permit)  will  arise.  For 
instance, the administrative fee for the application for a short-stay visa in Germany is 
€80; while the fee for a standard residence permit is €135, and a long-term residence 
permit for highly skilled workers is €250. The French Talent Passport costs €269 while 
in Finland the fee reaches the €490 for a work permit. In Ireland, either the candidate 
or the employer must pay a fee of €1,000 for an employment permit.  

Additional  cost  factors  will  comprise  the  costs  of  relocation,  and  possibly  language 
course fees (note that initiatives to offer free language courses to certain target groups 
of TCN exist, for instance in Estonia111) - and the time and effort involved in learning 
a  new  language  and  learning  about  the  details  of  working  and  living  in  a  foreign 
country. 

Some work in the EU may only require proficiency in English, but knowledge of the 
local language is usually necessary for any employment at medium- or high skill levels. 

108  https://assets.hcch.net/docs/f7980e41-53e2-470d-8c04-911c08ed3e69.pdf 
470d-8c04-911c08ed3e69.pdf  
109 
https://www.knomad.org/sites/default/files/2017-
05/KNOMAD_TWG3_Report%20on%20Migration%20Cost%20Pilot%20Surveys%20May%2011_final%20%28002%29_1.pdf, 
https://www.migrationdataportal.org/blog/migrant-recruitment-costs-eu  

  https://assets.hcch.net/docs/f7980e41-53e2-

110 
country_nationals.pdf  

https://home-affairs.ec.europa.eu/system/files/2020-09/20202_talent_attraction_and_international_recruitment_of_third-

111 
country_nationals.pdf  

https://home-affairs.ec.europa.eu/system/files/2020-09/20202_talent_attraction_and_international_recruitment_of_third-

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Only a few Member States have local languages that are also widely spoken in the 
world  –  such  as  French,  Spanish  or  Portuguese.  The  monetary  and  time  cost  of 
language courses can be perceived as an important barrier for TCNs. An important 
factor in the attractiveness of the United States, Canada, Australia and New Zealand 
is the lack of a language barrier for English-speakers. 

Several of the costs mentioned above are unavoidable but can explain why smaller 
non-English-speaking  countries  may  be  less  attractive  for  TCNs.  Other  costs, 
especially the time need for searching for jobs, for understanding job requirements, 
for  researching  living  and  working  conditions  in  a  given  EU  Member  State,  and  for 
administration could be potentially reduced by the Talent Pool initiative. 

From the perspective of EU employers, searching for foreign workers and assessing 
their  applications  is  also  likely  to  present  them  with  costs  above  the  recruitment 
procedure  for domestic  workers.  During  stakeholder consultations, the  International 
Organization  for  Migration  (IOM)  convened  a  session  involving  several  private 
companies for a focused discussion on the challenges they encounter in international 
recruitment.  Across  the  board,  these  companies  emphasised  the  significant  costs 
associated  with  recruiting  TCNs.  This  holds  true  for  both  larger  companies  that 
maintain  their  own  recruitment  teams  and  smaller  companies  that  rely  on  external 
recruiting firms. 

These  costs  may  include  administrative  expenses  such  as  translating  their  job 
postings  to  different  languages,  advertising  international  vacancies  in  local  and/or 
global job markets. On this latter, for instance, the cost depends on the channel used 
to  post the  job.  If  recruitment  platforms  are used,  the  cost  varies depending on  the 
options for free listings and paid features for better visibility. Employers pay per click, 
setting a daily budget; for example, LinkedIn and Indeed can offer sponsored job posts 
for as low as EUR 4.59 with an average cost per click of EUR 1.3. Typically, corporate 
job postings on platforms like Glassdoor receive around 250 resumes but estimates 
from  recruitment  agencies  and  employers  suggest  30-60  CVs  from  TCNs.  Job  ads 
usually  last  for  30  days,  although  the  duration  varies  based  on  the  position's 
specialization and industry. 

If employers rely on private recruitment agencies, fees typically can range from 10% 
to 30% of a jobseeker's final salary, depending on factors like job permanence and 
agency exclusivity. Additional costs may include advertising, contract management, 
and  placement  services.  Recruitment  agencies  often  charge  around  25%  of  a 
candidate's yearly salary when an employer signs an exclusivity contract, but this fee 
can decrease to 23% with a retainer fee or increase to 28% without retainer fee and 
exclusivity. 

Understanding the qualifications of TCN candidates, verifying the authenticity of their 
official  documents  and  credentials  involves  costs  that  are  considerably  above  the 
corresponding costs for hiring domestic workers, both in time and money. 

Costs  can  also  be  incurred  in  obtaining  the  necessary  permits  for  hiring  foreign 
workers – the Labour Market Test, then paying for work permits, visas, and residence 
permits  (if  the  costs  are  not  borne  by  the  employee).  Additionally,  businesses  may 
require  additional expenditure  to  train  and  integrate  foreign  staff,  possibly  including 
language courses.  

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In  terms of assessing applications  from  potential candidates,  businesses may  incur 
travel or accommodation expenses for interviewing in other countries. 

Moreover, the survey to employers highlighted how the costs related the process of 
hiring from outside are perceive as a barrier (for further detail see section 2.3.2.3).  

2.3.1.1. 

Risk of unfair recruitment 

ILO refers under the term "fair recruitment" to recruitment practices that are conducted 
in  line  with  International  Labour  Standards,  the  General  Principles  and  Operational 
Guidelines for Fair Recruitment, and the accompanying definition of recruitment fees 
and related costs.112 Both ILO and IOM have set out a list of fundamental principles. 

At  their  most  fundamental  level,  these  originate  in  fundamental  rights  such  as  the 
freedom of association, the right to collective bargaining, and the prohibition of child 
labour, forced labour, and discrimination. These principles must all be respected and 
upheld  during  recruitment.    Fair  recruitment  should  also  consider  labour  market 
demands  without  displacing  existing  employees  or  decreasing  working  standards. 
Employment and recruitment regulations should be clear, transparent (also for TCNs), 
and effectively enforced. 

During  stakeholder  consultations  with  the  ILO  and  the  FRA,  the  discussions 
highlighted  compelling  evidence  that  the  recruitment  of  third-country  workers  often 
involves abusive practices. These practices include the imposition of recruitment fees 
on workers (rather than employers), absence of contracts or contract substitution, and 
other related issues. Labour agencies and intermediaries span a spectrum from those 
knowingly  profiting  from  exploitative  labour  practices  to  criminal  organizations 
engaged in activities such as human trafficking and severe human rights violations. 
The ILO has also emphasized that, in some cases, job postings lack clear minimum 
specifications  for  working  conditions  and  employment  terms.  Workers  applying  for 
these positions lack transparent descriptions of the vacancies, both in terms of working 
standards  and  wages.  This  creates  substantial  risks  in  terms  of  fair  recruitment. 
Specifically  in  international  recruitment,  cross-border  hiring  should  adhere  to 
international labour standards as well as national laws, rules, employment contracts, 
and  collective  agreements.  These  standards  aim  to  safeguard  the  rights  and  well-
being of workers, by addressing the following potential risks: 

•  Application of recruitment fees.  

•  Lack of clarity of employment terms and with written agreements in a language 

that migrant employees can understand.  

•  Limited  access  to  information  about  their  rights  and  working  circumstances 
(free movement within and between countries, flexibility to leave their job and 
return home…)  

•  Limited access dispute resolution processes, and suitable remedies in case of 

alleged recruitment abuse. 

112 See ILO responses to the Commission’s questions on the development of an EU Talent Pool. 

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•  Skills  mismatches  and  under-employment  due  to  the  lack  of  reciprocal 

acknowledgment of talents and qualifications.113  

In their report, IOM defined the same principles, dividing them into general and special 
principles. 

At  the  Global Conference  on  the  Regulation  of  International Recruiting  in  Montreal, 
regulators from around the globe have developed 55 recommendations that align with 
international  human  rights,  labour  standards,  ILO  guidelines,  and  IRIS  multi-
stakeholder standards. In order to promote fair and ethical hiring that complies with 
international standards, the Montreal Recommendations on Recruitment underline the 
necessity of adopting or strengthening laws and regulations. It has recommended to 
adopt legislation to prohibit the charging of recruitment fees from workers. In order to 
promote transparency and legal accountability among jurisdictions and within supply 
chains, licensing and registration of labour recruiters must be implemented and made 
more  effective.  Additionally,  the  Montreal  Recommendations  emphasises  the 
importance  of  monitoring  and  compliance  with  the  rules  of  hiring  and  access  for 
employees to the mechanism for considering complaints and resolving disputes.114  

This leads to expectations for the EU Talent Pool to protect migrants from the risk of 
poor working conditions, exploitation, non-ethical hiring while striving to reduce labour 
and  skills  shortages  in  the  EU.  Unethical  recruitment  practices  often  involve 
exploitative measures such as excessive placement fees (basically a “worker pays” 
business  model),  deceptive  contracts,  and  coercive  labour  practices.  Under  the 
“worker pays” model, high recruitment fees are charged to the jobseekers, sometimes 
for  other  costs  such  as  relocation,  medical  exams, 
together  with  charges 
administrative procedures. According to the IOM115, such practices are most common 
in the recruitment of low-skilled workers. This is due to their due to their vulnerability 
and  limited  bargaining  power.  These  workers  often  come  from  disadvantaged 
backgrounds, lack information about their rights, and rely on intermediaries who may 
engage  in  exploitative  practices.  High  demand  for  cheap  labour  in  industries  like 
agriculture and construction further incentivizes unethical recruitment. 

Deceptive contracts can involve incorrect or misleading claims about work conditions 
and wage levels. This form of unethical recruitment can also affect medium- or highly 
skilled  persons,  e.g.  health  workers  whose  qualifications  will  intentionally  not  be 
recognised  and  will  be  employed  below  their  qualification  levels, for lower payment 
and worse working conditions.  

Evidence from FRA's research116 reveals the types of exploitation include: 

• 

Inadequate or no compensation for excessive working hours: workers receive 
very minimal or no  pay  despite  enduring  extremely long  working  hours. This 
practice not only violates labour standards but also compromises the health and 

113  ILO  (2019)  General  principles  and  operational  guidelines  for  fair  recruitment  &  Definition  of 
recruitment fees and related costs. 
114 The  Montreal  Recommendations  on  Recruitment: A  Road  Map  towards  Better  Regulation  (2020) 
International Organization for Migration 
115 https://emm.iom.int/handbooks/labour-migration/ethical-recruitment  https://emm.iom.int/handbooks/labour-migration/ethical-
recruitment  
116 http://fra.europa.eu/en/content/protecting-migrant-workers-exploitation-fra-opinions 

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safety of irregular migrant workers. Moreover, access to medical care was often 
denied by employers to avoid detection by authorities. 

•  Lack  of  clear  employment  contracts:  workers  are  either  not  provided  with 
employment contracts or received contracts written in a language they did not 
comprehend. This lack of clarity in employment terms left workers vulnerable 
to exploitation. 

•  Unagreed upon or illegal tasks: workers are frequently assigned tasks that had 
not been initially agreed upon. For instance, domestic workers are compelled 
to work not only for the employer but also for the employer's family members. 
In some instances, these tasks were illegal, such as being coerced into theft or 
drug cultivation. 

• 

Inadequate  and  degrading  accommodation:  employers  often  provide 
accommodation  to  workers  in  unsanitary  or  degrading  conditions.  This 
substandard  living  situation  exacerbated  the  vulnerability  and  hardship 
experienced by exploited workers. 

Coercive  labour  practices  may  include  limitations  on  freedom  of  movement,  the 
withholding of passports, resulting essentially in forced labour.  

While the situation may not be better in other potential destination countries around 
the world, such practices still cause reputational damage to the EU, and possible low 
willingness  of  many  qualified  TCNs  to  pursue  job  opportunities  in  the  EU  as  they 
perceive a tangible risk. 

A  main  factor  behind  TCNs’  perception  of  the  risk,  and  behind  actual  cases  of 
exploitation is their limited knowledge of the rules and what exactly to expect from and 
during the procedures of recruitment, of the red flags to look for.117 No information on 
the  legality  of  given  recruitment  agencies  or  employers,  no  access  to  employee 
reviews on these businesses contributes to keep the perceived and actual level of risk 
high. 

2.3.2. Problem  driver  2:  In-transparent,  cumbersome  and  costly  administrative 
procedures  

Complex  and  costly  administrative procedures  in  relation  to  migrating  to the  EU  for 
work  can  be  significant  barriers  to  the  immigration  of  skilled  workers.  The 
administrative  procedures  in  question  involve  a  series  of  complex  steps  for  TCNs, 
including  preparing 
furnishing  documentary  evidence  with 
translations  and  apostilles  to  obtain  visas  and  working  and  residence  permits, 
responding  to  requests  from  the  authorities,  participating  in  interviews,  observing 
deadlines. The administrative burden is also heavy on EU employers, who would not 
need to perform any additional administrative tasks if they hired a domestic worker or 
an EU citizen.  

the  applications, 

The  administrative  tasks  incur  costs  for  the  participants.  This  can  manifest  in 
significant  monetary  costs  (including  fees  for  external  support),  but  at  least  in  very 

117 
https://www.migrationpolicy.org/sites/default/files/publications/LaborMigration-Recruitment_0.pdf  

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considerable  time  and  effort,  especially  if  TCNs  pursue  opportunities  in  several 
Member States and if information and support is not easily available. 

2.3.2.1. 

Complexity of the overall migration framework (incl. fragmented labour 

migration procedures)  

The  system  of  rules  and  procedures for immigration  of  TCNs to  the  EU  for work is 
complex and partly fragmented, with legislative initiatives and measures existing both 
at the EU level and at the level of Member States. It is also a moving target for any 
interested  TCNs  or  EU  employers  observing  it:  the  EU  has  come  forward  with  a 
number of initiatives in recent years, taking on new responsibilities in the regulation of 
immigration  for gainful  activity  to  the  EU (see  the  (the EU Blue  Card,  regulation  on 
intra-corporate transferees, seasonal workers). 

Currently, there is EU legislation harmonising (aspects) of the immigration of certain 
categories  of  workers  who  come  to  the  EU  for  a  duration  of  over  90  days  -  highly 
qualified  workers  (EU  Blue  Card),  seasonal  workers,  intra-corporate  transferees, 
researchers  as  well  as  trainees  -  but  carrying  out  the  procedures  is  still  a  Member 
State-level competence. A main category of regular migration for gainful activity is not 
covered by EU legislation: that of workers who are not highly skilled, as well as that of 
investors and self-employed third-country nationals. 

Immigration rules and procedures can be different across Member States, especially 
if  they  have  special  categories  or  measures  in  place  (for  instance,  highly  skilled 
workers  outside  the  EU  Blue  Card  scheme,  schemes  facilitating  immigration  from 
specific  third  countries  under  bilateral  agreements).  The  systems  are  analysed  in 
studies  such  as  European  Migration  Network’s  2020  report  on  entry  and  residence 
conditions for highly skilled workers.118 

The survey to potential users (TCNs and employers) shed light on the perception on 
the administrative procedure. 

On the side of the employers, 61% find difficult to understand the complex rules and 
procedures for hiring from outside the EU. The risk that the application for work permit 
or visa will be rejects is considered as a barrier to international recruitment by 53% of 
the respondents. 

118  https://home-affairs.ec.europa.eu/system/files/2020-09/emn_highly-skilled_workers_booklet_feb08_en.pdf 
affairs.ec.europa.eu/system/files/2020-09/emn_highly-skilled_workers_booklet_feb08_en.pdf  

  https://home-

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Figure 29: Administrative procedures as a barrier against international recruitment (Employer Survey) 

Source: Survey to employers 

Likewise,  TCNs  often  recognize  the  potential  risk  of  their  work  permit  or  visa 
application being rejected, especially among TCNs who have prior experience working 
in  or  seeking  employment  within  the  EU.  Moreover,  a  significant  portion  lacks 
comprehension  of  employment  and  immigration  procedures,  with  over  half  of  the 
sample viewing this as a notable obstacle.  

Figure 30: Barriers to finding a job (respondents who have worked in or searched for a job in the EU, 
TCN Survey) 

Source: Survey to TCNs in source countries 

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Figure 31: Barriers to finding a job (respondents who have neither worked in nor searched for a job in 
the EU, TCN Survey) 

2.3.2.2. 

Lack of transparency of rules and procedures  

Source: Survey to TCNs in source country 

Given  the  variety  of  worker  categories  and  EU  and  Member  State  schemes  for 
immigration, it is very difficult and time-consuming for both TCN jobseekers and EU 
employers to gain a solid oversight.  

The job search and job matching process can be cumbersome for TCNs due to the 
complexities  of  applying  for  a  job  in  an  EU Member  State.  Candidates  will  need  to 
navigate  different  hiring  processes,  different  labour  laws  and  profession-specific 
regulations. It can also be difficult to find jobs that match candidates' qualifications and 
experience when they are unfamiliar with the job market and the exact requirements 
in that country. 

Jobseekers from third countries who are interested in working in the EU need a wealth 
of information before they can decide whether they should pursue an opportunity in a 
given Member State. They would normally need information on the labour market and 
labour  law  in  the  EU and  especially  in  the  specific  countries  they  are  interested  in, 
including  employment  regulations,  wage  minimums,  benefit  packages,  and  social 
security  availability.  Additionally,  jobseekers  need  to  check  if  any  particular 
qualifications or certifications are needed to work in their chosen EU country.  

On  the  other  hand,  EU  employers  also  need  information  about  what  is  needed  for 
domestic recruitment.  

There are EU initiatives that provide help. The EU Immigration Portal119 is an online 
resource for individuals who are seeking information and assistance with immigrating 
into the EU. It provides an overview of the various types of migration available, such 
as  economic  migration,  family  reunification,  student  and  research  programmes, 
humanitarian protection and border management. The portal provides a wide range of 
information on topics such as visas, residence permits, and other relevant documents 

119 https://immigration-portal.ec.europa.eu/index_en  https://immigration-portal.ec.europa.eu/index_en  

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needed to legally travel within the EU. It also provides details on how to decide which 
EU country to travel to and work or reside in, as well as information regarding social 
security rights for both mobile workers and permanent settlers.  

The portal also assists EU citizens living abroad by providing resources regarding their 
rights  when  relocating  inside  or  outside  of  the  EU,  such  as  mutual  recognition  of 
professional  qualifications  from  other  member  states  and  access  to  knowledge 
networks  across  Europe.  Additionally,  there  is  a  section  dedicated  to  providing 
information to employers wishing to recruit foreign nationals both from within the EU 
or  outside  its  borders.  This  includes  advice  on  topics  such  as  labour  market 
regulations,  procedure  for  hiring  foreign  nationals  within  their  home  country  or  at  a 
distance through online tools, advice on taking care of new recruits' arrival needs such 
as help finding housing or a place at local schools if needed.  

In addition, there is advice provided by national contact points regarding integration 
programs and support services for incoming migrants.  

The  EU  Immigration  Portal  offers  comprehensive  details  about  immigration  into 
Europe, as well as regarding mobile workers’ rights under EU law when living outside 
their  own  member  state.  It  aims  to  provide  visitors  with  detailed  information  on  all 
aspects related to migrating into or out of the European Union which can be accessed 
through convenient links conveniently located in several languages guaranteeing that 
anybody interested can access it without difficulties. 

One important procedure in this group is the Labour Market Test (LMT) which some, 
but not all, Member States apply. The labour market test (LMT) is a mechanism used 
by  most  countries  in  the  European  Union  to  regulate  access  to  their  domestic  job 
markets  for  third-country  workers.  The  LMT  has  typically  replaced  earlier  quota 
systems. It serves as a means to ensure that third-country nationals are only admitted 
to  apply  for  a  given  position  when  this  position  cannot  be  filled  by  a  domestic  or 
EU/EEA  citizen  worker  (or  legally  residing  third  country  nationals  who  enjoy  free 
movement rights on the Internal Market). 

This is typically the case when the employer has already unsuccessfully searched for 
EU citizens. However, the exact rules and methodologies differ among Member States 
and can be in-transparent to TCNs and EU employers. Certain categories of workers 
can be exempted in some Member States, depending on the national labour market 
situation and priorities: e.g. jobs for TCNs under bilateral agreements, TCN students 
in  the  country.  Also,  there  can  be  more  strategic  block  exemptions  for  certain 
occupations,  perhaps  only  in  certain  regions,  where  a  national  or  regional  labour 
market  analysis  already  established  the  need  for  TCN  workers  in  general.  These 
exemptions primarily target qualified and highly skilled workers, researchers, artists, 
seasonal workers, students, and graduates, among other eligible categories. 

Denmark,  Latvia,  the  Netherlands,  Portugal,  Romania,  Spain,  and  Sweden  do  not 
have  a  mandatory  LMT.  Nonetheless,  some  of  these  countries  have  implemented 
procedures  similar  to  the  LMT  to  assess  job  market  conditions  and  prioritize  local 
workforce opportunities. 

As for the rules and the process of the Labour Market Test, these may result in various 
degrees of complexity, duration and cost in the different Member States, depending 
also  on  the  type  of  job  and  third  country  in  question.  Typically,  the  employer  must 

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publish a job posting - for a given minimum period - with the local Public Employment 
Service or in a national job board or newspaper (modalities differ between MSs). If the 
vacancy could not be filled by candidates who met the published requirements, the 
employer can receive the permission to recruit a TCN and start the procedure to apply 
for a work permit. The reasons why EU or EEA applicants were not selected, if such 
applied,  must  be  properly  explained  in  the  employer’s  request  and  the  decision  to 
recruit a TCN justified. There is therefore a need for them to clearly understand what 
an acceptable reason is and what is not. 

According  to  employers  surveyed,  the  risk  of  an  unsuccessful  result  of  the  LMT  I 
concern 55% of the respondents.  

Figure 32: Administrative procedures as a barrier against international recruitment 

Source: Survey to Employers 

There is currently no comprehensive, customised information tool that could explain 
the  various  rules,  procedures  and  exemptions,  as  well  as  how  the  responsible 
authorities  will  take  decision.  In  the  following  table,  the  general  rules  that  Member 
States apply to the LMT are presented.   

Table -29: Overview of general rules to the LMT, per Member State 

Country  

Austria  

General rules  
Mandatory for Blue Card 
and applicants for RWR 

Specific exemptions 
  Skilled workers in shortage 

occupation  

  Very Highly Qualified worker 

Belgium  

Mandatory for the single 
permit  

Bulgaria  

Mandatory for applicants for 
a Single Permit (employed 
workers) 

  Blue Card holders 
  EU intra-company transfer 
  Researcher and scientific 

personnel 

  Specialised technicians  
  High-level management 
personnel who hold key 
positions in a company  

  Blue card holders 
  Guest lecturers  
  Teacher in higher and 
secondary schools 

  Performers 

International agreements 

Responsible body  

Austrian Public 
Employment Service 
(AMS) 

Employers advertise the 
vacancy while the 
Regional Employment 
Services checks the 
proof provided by the 
employers.  

Employment Agency 
(Migration Directorate of 
MoI) 

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Country  

General rules  

Specific exemptions 

Croatia  

Mandatory for the permit for 
employed worders 

Cyprus 

Czech 
Republic 
Estonia  

Mandatory for the employed 
worker permit 
Requested for all types of 
visas. 
It applies for applicants for 
temporary residence permit 
for employment 

Finland  

Requested for the residence 
permit for employed persons 

High demand professions (list 
published by the Employment 
Service 
NA 

NA 

Highly skilled professional: 
technology workers, researchers, 
scientists, top executives. 
Professions in shortage, 
Occupations in shortage 

France  

Germany  

Required for employed 
workers permit and for 
seasonal workers 
Requested for employed 
worker permit 

Greece  

Requested for employed 
worker permit 

Exemption: applicants of passport 
talent; categories exempted under 
international agreements 
highly qualified specialists with an 
academic education; applicants of 
EU Blue Card; candidates with a job 
offer with certain salary thresholds 
High-demand professions or 
occupations 

workers in critical skills occupation 
list 

Responsible body  

Croatian Employment 
Service 

Employment Services of 
District Labour Offices 
Regional Employment 
offices  
Estonian Unemployment 
Insurance fund 

Employment and 
Economic Development 
Office 

Pole Emploi 

Federal Employment 
Agency 

Greek Manpower 
Employment 
Organization 
Hungarian Labour Office 
(Munkaügyi Központ) 
Department of Social 
Protection Services 

Hungary  

Ireland  

Requested for single permits 
and work permits 
Required for the general 
employment permit 
50:50 
requires 
employers  to  have  sourced 
at  least  50%  of  their  staff 
from Ireland or the EEA 

Rule: 

Italy  

Required for work permit  

Latvia 

Required for work permit 

Lithuania 

Requested for work permits 

Luxembourg  Requested for work permit 

Malta 

Requested for applicants to 
work permit  

Netherlands  Requested for applicants to 
work permit 

Researchers, scientists, professors 
Intra-corporate transferees 
Seasonal workers  
Candidates covered by international 
agreements 
Artists, composers, 
sportsmen/coaches, teachers and 
university professors, potential EU 
Blue Card holders 
Highly skilled workers 
Profession in shortage  
Researchers / scientists 
: highly qualified workers (EU Blue 
Card) 

Health Related Professionals 
Technical & Building Professionals 
IT, Finance, Gaming and Education 
Professionals 
Teachers at international schools, 
religious leaders and artists 

Commission for 
Employment 

State Employment 
Agency (SEA) 

Lithuanian Labour 
Exchange (Lietuvos 
darbo birža) 

National Employment 
Agency (Agence pour le 
développement de 
l'emploi - ADEM) 
Jobsplus (the national 
employment agency) 

Dutch labour authorities  

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Country  

General rules  

Specific exemptions 

Poland 

Requested for applicants to 
work permit 

Highly qualified workers; 
occupations in great demand; 
candidates covered by international 
agreements 

Slovakia 

Requested for single permit   Professions in shortage 

Responsible body  

Voivodeship Office 

Central Office of Labour, 
Social Affairs and Family 

Source: elaboration of the contractor (2023), based on desk research 

Similar  difficulties  exist  with  the  transparency  of  procedures  and  decisions  of 
immigration authorities. European visa and work permit procedures for third-country 
workers  are  difficult  to  understand  and  the  outcomes  difficult  to  predict  due  to  the 
complexity of immigration laws, rules, procedures and assessment methodologies.  

The European Union and individual Member States have a complex system of rules 
and  regulations  that  govern  the  rights  and  responsibilities  of  third-country nationals 
who wish to enter, live, and work in the EU. Potential TCN workers must understand 
the specific requirements set by each Member State, which can be a burden if they 
are exploring opportunities in several countries.  

The  competent  labour  and  immigration  authorities  decide  on  the  entry,  work  and 
residence  permits  of  TCN  workers  recruited.  The  procedure  begins  with  the  EU 
employer applying for the work permit for the future employee and the employment 
permit for themselves. Generally, the work permit must be requested at the relevant 
embassy or consulate in the country of origin. In some cases, it can also be obtained 
from within the EU itself. The work permit is issued by considering a range of factors. 
Primary  considerations  normally  include  the  employment  contract,  the  applicant’s 
qualifications and diploma (where relevant). Authorities may also consider factors such 
as the applicant’s age, language proficiency, and the duration of the employment.  

The  visa  is  then  issued  if  the  work  permit  has  been  approved.  The  requirements 
usually  involve:  a  valid  passport,  proof  of  accommodation,  evidence  of  sufficient 
financial means, a police background check, a medical certificate of health – but there 
are variations depending on the occupation and the country. Immigration authorities 
must also consider any security risks posed by potential workers before granting them 
permission to enter and work in the EU. Once all the necessary documents have been 
collected and submitted, potential immigrants must normally also conduct an interview 
with an immigration officer. 

As  referenced  earlier,  under  problem  driver  2,  the  EU  Immigration  Portal  helps 
interested parties by offering information on all aspects related to migrating into the 
European  Union.  However,  jobseekers  may  not  be  necessarily  aware  of  this 
information, nor is it fully customised to their situation, so they understand which rules 
exactly  apply  to  them.  Also,  EU  employers  may  still  need  concrete  support  and 
guidance to navigate successfully and efficiently through the process. 

The lack of transparency around the process can create a perception of risk that can 
deter many TCNs from attempting to pursue job opportunities in the EU. 

2.3.2.3. 

Lengthy and cumbersome immigration procedures 

The above-mentioned procedures are not only in-transparent; they are also long and 
cumbersome for TCNs and employers alike.  

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The  processing  of  work  permit  applications,  according  to  reports,  can  take  several 
months  despite  efforts  for  streamlining,  although  there  are  large  variations.  The 
processing  time  for  visa  applications  can  also  vary  greatly  from  country to  country, 
making  it  difficult  to  estimate  how  long  it  will  take  to  receive  an  answer.  Short 
processing times for work permits are, for instance,  in Hungary (10-15 days) Latvia 
(15 days) and Slovakia (20 days). Many countries have varied processing times, as 
examples: Bulgaria (90-18o days), Germany (4-12 weeks), Netherlands (1-13 weeks). 

In addition to the above steps, immigrants may have to register with local authorities 
upon arrival in Europe and inform them of any changes in their living circumstances 
during their stay. For instance, in Germany, individuals who relocate are obligated to 
complete their registration within a two-week period after their move. To initiate this 
registration  process,  individuals  should  visit  the  registration  authority  of  their  local 
municipality, providing a valid ID card, passport, or an equivalent passport substitute 
document,  along  with  a  certificate 
the 
accommodation.  In  the  Netherlands,  migrants  need  to  register    within  5  days  of 
arriving:  they  need  to  make  an  appointment  at  the  municipality  to  receive  a  citizen 
service number (BSN) 

individual  offering 

furnished  by 

the 

The costs associated with the administrative procedure can be prohibitively expensive 
for many potential migrants, and also a considerable cost for EU employers above the 
recruiting costs of domestic workers or EU/EEA nationals. Employers incur costs of 
approximately EUR 200-300 for single permits. 

Furthermore,  the  time  required  to  complete  all  the  necessary  paperwork  can  be 
substantial, discouraging employers and TCN jobseekers. 
The survey conducted among employers further supports this observation, with an 
overwhelming majority expressing the belief that the entire recruitment and 
immigration process is excessively time-consuming (72%) and costly (51%). 

Figure 33: Time and cost as a barrier against employment in EU 

Source: Survey to Employers   

On the side of the employers, recruiting staff from outside the EU is consider more 
burdensome compared to national or intra-EU recruitment.  

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The chart below illustrates how the length of the recruitment process might depend on 
where the candidates are from, based on the experience of surveyed employers with 
international recruitment.  

On  average,  recruiting  staff  from  within  the  own  country  typically  takes  around  6 
weeks. However, when considering candidates from other EU countries, the process 
can extend to approximately 11 weeks. In stark contrast, the recruitment process for 
TCNs demands more than double the time required to hire an employee from the same 
country, taking more than 14 weeks to finalize the process. 

Figure 34: Length of recruitment process (Employer Survey) 

HOW MANY WEEKS DOES THE FULL RECRUITMENT PROCESS TYPICALLY 
TAKE? (FROM THE VACANCY NOTICE TO THE SIGNING OF THE 
CONTRACT) - MEAN

6,23

6,63

11,38

8,33

14,45

For candidates from
your country

For candidates from
within the EU

For candidates from
outside the EU

Source: Survey to employers 

Respondents who have
recruited outside of the EU
before, N=88

Respondents who have not
recruited outside of the EU
before, N=16

More  evidence  on  the  burden  of  the  recruitment process  comes  from the  survey  to 
TCNs in source country.  

The length of the recruitment process is considered an obstacle by 59% of the TCNs 
that have either worked or searched for a job in the EU, while 58% believes that the 
process of finding a job and obtaining permits it too costly.  

Similar results are observed among TCNs already in the EU. 

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Figure 35: Barriers to finding a job (respondents who have either worked in or searched for a job in 
the EU) 

Source: Survey to TCN in source country 

This represents a perceived obstacle also for those that have neither worked in nor 
searched for a job in the EU: the process appears to be too costly and long for half of 
them. 

Figure 36: Barriers to finding a job (respondents who have neither worked in nor searched for a job in 
the EU) 

Source: Survey to TCN in source country 

Special  visas  for  skilled  workers  are  offered  by  several  Member  States,  typically 
entailing criteria related to an applicant's qualifications, professional experience, and 
job  prospects  within  the  respective  Member  State.  The  specific  requirements  and 
procedures  can  differ  significantly  between  countries,  as  each  Member  State 
formulates  its  own  immigration  policies  and  regulations.  These  programmes  often 
require a proof of how the applicant's skills align with the specific labour market needs 
of  the  host  Member  State,  and  this  assessment  can  take  various  forms,  including 
point-based systems, such as the one employed in Austria. 

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While  the  majority  of  these  visa  schemes  primarily  target  skilled  workers,  some 
countries  extend  their  programs  to  encompass  low  to  medium-skilled  laborers.  For 
instance,  Czechia  has  established  a  dedicated  program  for  workers  occupying 
medium  and  low-skilled  positions.  In  Germany,  the  IT  sector,  always  in  demand, 
welcomes  specialists  without  formal  qualifications.  Sweden  has  also  adopted  two 
schemes: one for occupations that do not necessitate formal qualifications and another 
for industries with high demand, such as cleaning, construction, personal assistance, 
hotels, and restaurants. These programmes are designed to alleviate labour shortages 
in sectors where demand outstrips supply. 

In some cases, in addition to meeting qualification and employment criteria, obtaining 
a  visa  may  require  applicants  to  meet  specific  salary  thresholds.  This  practice  is 
observed  in  countries  like  Denmark,  Malta,  and  the  Netherlands,  where  applicants 
must demonstrate that their expected income meets or exceeds certain predetermined 
levels. 

Certain visas are tailored to cater specifically to particular sectors or professions. For 
instance, three Member States, Estonia, Portugal and Germany, have introduced IT 
schemes tailored to the technology sector, recognizing the demands and importance 
of this industry for their economy. 

Moreover, some Member States offer job seeker visas, allowing foreigners to enter 
the country with the primary purpose of seeking employment. Austria, Germany, and 
Portugal are among the countries offering such visas. Austria and Germany typically 
grant  this  type  of  visa  exclusively  to  skilled  workers,  while  Portugal's  programme 
appears  to  encompass  a  broader  range  of  job  seekers,  reflecting  a  more  inclusive 
approach to facilitating international employment opportunities. 

Table 30 Examples for MS-issued special visas for skilled workers 

Country  
Austria 

Type of visa  
Red-White-Red card assigned with 
point system  

Red-White-Red  card  plus  giving 
unlimited access to labour market  
Job seeker visa (6 months) 
Employee 
Highly 
Programme  (professions 
the 
in 
main classes 1 through 3 in the CZ-
ISCO job classification)  
The Simplified Employee Card 

Skilled 

The Skilled  Employee Programme 
(professions in the main classes 4 
through  8  in  the  CZ-ISCO  job 
classification) 
Positive Lists Scheme 

Czechia 

Denmark 

November, 2023 

Target group 
Highly  Qualified  Worker  with    employment 
offer. 
Skilled  Worker  in  a  Shortage  Occupation 
with a job offer 
Other  Key  Workers  who  are  to  take  up 
employment with a company in Austria 
Red-White-Red  Card  holder  employed  in 
Austria for at least 21 months 
Highly qualified workers  
highly skilled workers 

highly skilled foreign workers in occupations 
experiencing severe 
medium-skilled to low-skilled employees  

highly skilled workers in sectors with labour 
shortages 

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Country  

Estonia  

France 

individual  qualifications 

Type of visa  
Special 
scheme 
Residence permit  
Temporary  residence  permit  (with 
no quota) 
Passport talent  

Germany 

Work 
visa 
professionals 

for 

qualified 

Visa for IT specialist 

Visa for job seekers 

Ireland 

Critical Skills Employment Permit 

Atypical Working Scheme 

Malta  

 Key employee initiative 

Netherlands 

Highly skilled migrant program 

Portugal 

Residence 
qualified activity  

permit 

for 

highly 

Spain  

Sweden  

Tech Visa 

Job seeker visa (120 days) 
Visa for highly qualified workers  

Category A  
Category C 

Category D 

Target group 
Performer  or  artist,  athlete  or  coach,  or 
specialised chef. 
Highly qualified workers (top specialists) 
ICT specialists 

that 

completed 

Qualified workers or highly qualified worker, 
researcher  or  responsible  for  a  higher 
education  organization, 
intra-corporate 
transferee,  performer,  artist,  author,  and 
worker  with  a  national  or  international 
reputation 
Professionals 
higher 
education  institution  or  qualified  vocational 
training outside Germany 
IT  specialist 
that  are  either  qualified 
(university  degree,  apprenticeship…)  or 
without any formal qualification 
Candidate  with  vocational  or  academic 
training that is recognised in Germany  
highly  skilled  workers  in  high  demand 
occupations 

short-term  working  permit  for  highly  skilled 
employment in the medical sector, pharma, 
and biomedical manufacturing 
Highly skilled workers with a certain offered 
salary  
Employees with a job offer for which a high 
level  of  education 
Income 
conditions are applied.  
Highly qualified workers 

is  needed. 

in 

the  sector  of 

Qualified  migrants 
technology and innovation 
All type of workers 
Qualified professionals, senior management 
or graduated of a prestigious university) 
Highly skilled occupations 
Occupations that do not require a high level 
of 
competence/non-highly 
academic 
qualified occupations 
Workers  in  industries  that  are  demanding 
(cleaning, 
personal 
construction, 
assistance, hotels, and restaurants) 

Many  of  the  countries  with  special  visas  rely  on  list  of  occupations  in  demand  or 
occupations that are considered important for the national economy. Ireland offers a 
short-term  permit  to  professionals  in  the  medical  sector,  pharma  and  biomedical 
manufacturing.  Denmark  has  its  ‘Positive  List  for  Skilled  Work’  that  allows  to  those 
included in the list to access to residence permit; the Estonian action plan for work 
(2023-2025) focuses instead on skilled workers in the ICT sector and natural science. 

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In France, a ‘talent passport’ is issued to highly qualified people working in innovative 
enterprises and for individuals engaged in creative and artistic work.  

Many Member States also apply, above special visas targeting skilled TCN who can 
satisfy pressing needs of the economy, simplified procedures (fast-track procedures) 
to make access to the labour market smoother. These procedures have usually shorter 
time  limits  to process the  requests and  grant  migrants  the  access to  the  country  to 
start working even before the procedure is fully completed. 

In  Germany  for  instance,  the  Skilled  Immigration  Act  set  up  a  new  mechanism  to 
facilitate the entry of qualified professionals from abroad. Shorter time limits have been 
set  out  in  the  legislation  and  employers  receive  support  (provision  of  information, 
compilation of papers etc…) to conclude agreements with the Foreigners Authority. In 
Finland, highly qualified workers can also benefit from fast-track procedures and get 
a residence permit in two weeks. The fast-track procedure also allows TCN to avoid 
waiting until the receipt of the physical card abroad. 

In Denmark, employers can access to fast-track scheme if they are ‘certified’ by the 
Danish Agency for International Recruitment and Integration. The certification requires 
the company to be large and to express the need for recruiting highly qualified foreign 
employee from countries outside the EU and EEA thorough an online procedure. In 
addition, to access to this procedure, the salary must correspond to certain pay limit 
amounts.  In  Italy,  simplified  procedures are  foreseen  for managers,  highly qualified 
personnel and blue card holders. Compared the traditional process, applicants do not 
need any approval from the Italian Labour Board and the work permit application is 
replaced by a communication of the terms contained in the proposed contract.  

Table -31 Examples for fast-track procedures in the MS 

Examples 

Targe group 

The scheme allows employees to work from the day 
their  employers  submit 
for  a 
residence permit. This reduced the overall migration 
process by 30 days or more.  

the  application 

Residence  permits  granted  in  two  weeks.  A  new 
long-term  visa  was  introduced  to  allow  applicants 
enter  in  Finland  immediately  after  they  have  been 
issued with a residence permit without thus waiting 
for a residence permit card abroad.  
The  fast-track  procedure  enables  a  faster  entry  of 
third-country  nationals.  The  procedure  can  be 
initiated  by  employers  at  the  relevant  immigration 
authority  in  Germany,  this  enabling  them  to  keep 
track of the entry process. The whole administrative 
procedures was shortened: the processing time for 
the  recognition  of  professional  qualifications  now 
lasts  two  months  (compared  to  four  months  for 
standard applications). Overall, the visa procedure 
last 6 weeks.  
The Key Employee Initiative (KEI) provides a fast-
track  work  permit  for  TCNs,  who  are  employed  in 

candidates  with  a  job  offer 
with  a 
income; 
certain 
researchers; professionals in 
field;  
education 
the 
candidates  with  an  offered 
contract of three months 
specialists, 
/  middle 
top 
management  profiles,  EU 
Blue Card holders 

Skilled workers 

highly specialised workers 

93 

Member 
State  
Denmark 

Finland 

Germany 

Malta  

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Member 
State  

Examples 

Targe group 

Malta.  The  scheme  enables  work  permits  to  be 
issued  to  key  prospective  employees,  no  longer 
than  5  working  days  from  the  date  of  application, 
under normal circumstances. 

However, in the remaining set of MS there are no specific initiatives or policies aim at 
attracting foreign workers to address domestic labour shortages. In these countries, 
the only scheme for labour migration is the Single Permit that Member States apply 
based  on  the  EU  Single  Permit  Directive.  Such  visa  combines  the  authorisation  to 
reside and work into a single documents and it is normally issued for the duration of 
the employment contract. In some cases, the permit length is based on specific labour 
market  need.  These  are  typically  small  countries  (Croatia,  Latvia,  Luxembourg), 
countries less positioned to attract talents (Bulgaria) or countries that do not consider 
labour migration as an appropriate instrument to address labour shortages (Hungary).  

2.3.3. Problem  driver  3:  Difficulties  in  comparability  of  skills  and  qualifications 
obtained in third countries  

Transparency and recognition of skills and qualifications plays an important role for 
the purpose of job mobility as it allows for an exchange of trustworthy information and 
for  more  efficient  decision-making  processes  when  coming 
international 
recruitment.  Besides  the  micro  effects  at  individual  level,  the  failure  in  recognising 
qualification may also affect the labour market dynamics, creating disfunctions in terms 
of general level of wages and employment.  

to 

During targeted consultations with the FRA, it was disclosed that from 2020 to 2022, 
the  FRA  conducted  research  involving  third-country  nationals  (TCNs)  who  have 
established long-term residency within the EU. The findings of FRA's study reveal that, 
for TCNs who have resided in the EU for an extended period (more than 5 years), the 
lack of information coupled with intricate, protracted, and expensive procedures pose 
significant hurdles in recognizing qualifications acquired abroad within the EU. Among 
the  71  participants  who  held  an  EU  or  national  long-term  residence  permit  and 
possessed degrees earned abroad, as interviewed by the FRA, only 13 attempted to 
pursue recognition of their professional qualifications in the EU country of residence. 
Only seven of them succeeded, albeit not without encountering challenges. 

Recognition of skills and qualification is a term that is frequently used to refer to the 
following: 

Recognition of professional qualifications for accessing a regulated profession 

A  profession  is  regulated  when  the  access  to,  or  practise  of,  to  that  profession  is 
restricted by national law to those holding specific qualifications. Directive 2005/36/EC 
on the recognition of professional qualifications sets out rules for Member States to 
recognise the professional qualifications of EU nationals. This applies in many medical 
or more broadly health-related professions, crafts professions, teaching professions, 
architects, engineering professions and many others. The decision which professions 
are regulated and how depend on the Member State. 

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For recognition within the EU, the underlying principle is that a qualified professional 
in one Member State is in principle qualified to exercise the same profession in another 
Member State.  

recognition 

for  professions  with  harmonised  minimum 

The  Directive  2005/36/EC  also  foresees  several  routes,  including  a  system  of 
automatic 
training 
requirements:  doctor,  nurse  responsible  for  general  care,  dental  practitioner, 
veterinary surgeon, midwife, pharmacist and architect. For other professions, under 
the general system, recognition requires the confirmation that the applicant obtained 
a  qualification  giving  access  to  the  same  profession  in  the  home  country  in  case  it 
regulates  the  relevant  profession.  Member  States  can  compare  training  content  to 
identify substantial differences with training required to practice in the host Member 
State, in which case they need to foresee compensatory measures. The Directive also 
sets  out  rules  how  professional  experience  can  provide  access  to  a  regulated 
profession in the host country in case the profession has not been regulated in the 
home country. 

Recognition of skills and qualifications to inform recruiters or for ensuring employment 
conditions.  

For  a  well-functioning  labour  market,  transparency  of  skills  and  qualifications  is 
essential. This is a challenge for recruiters and jobseekers alike, and relevant in both, 
regulated and unregulated professions. The issue is about access to information, trust 
(or distrust) and the extent to which the employers are able to assess the potential of 
the candidate.  

As  part  of  the  recruitment  process  employers  seek  to  understand  the  skills  and 
competences of candidates and trust that they have the necessary capacities for the 
job. Individuals must demonstrate their own skills and qualifications in an accurate and 
comprehensive  way  so  that  employers  can  make  decision  on  the  basis  of  reliable 
information. 

Procedures  for  ensuring  transparency  of  skills  and  qualifications  –  validation  or 
recognition – are crucial as they directly affect the access to the new market for new 
entrants. This being true both for regulated professions, where formal qualifications 
are  needed,  and  for  non-regulated  sectors.  In  this  latter  case,  indeed,  holding 
qualifications can give access to the job and skills acquired on the jobs and through 
professional training can also be valorised without requiring formal recognition.  

Recognition of skills or qualifications, e.g. in the form of equivalence statements for 
qualifications, can help to remedy these issues. They can also ensure  that in labour 
markets  where  a  certain  qualification  or  certain  level  of  qualification  is  required  by 
social  partner  agreements  (and  not  by  law)  to  be  eligible  for  a  certain  level  of 
compensation or grade of profession in a company or sector, other nationals benefit 
from  the  applicable  working  conditions.  This  is  relatively  common  in  countries  with 
strong  tradition  of  sectoral  /  company  level  agreements.  In  Italy,  for  instance, 
professional  associations  play  a  role  in  defining  access  requirements  in  terms  of 
qualifications or competence to possess but also in certifying those competences and 
setting qualitative standards by delivering training.  
For instance, in Germany, in the metal and electrical industry, collective agreements 
may specify the required qualifications for certain skilled positions. In Denmark, in the 
maritime  and  logistics  sector,  a  collective  agreement  may  set  out  the  minimum 

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qualifications  or  certification  requirements  for  certain  job  roles,  such  as  ship  crew 
members,  logistics  operators,  or  port  workers.  These  requirements  may  relate  to 
specific  training  programs,  vocational  qualifications,  or  certifications  that  individuals 
must hold to be eligible for employment in those position. 

In general, the linkage between recognition of qualifications, labour market outcomes, 
and social dialogue120 is of paramount importance, particularly given the influence of 
skill  mismatches  on  labour  market  dynamics.  Collaborative  discussions  among 
stakeholders,  encompassing  employers,  workers,  governments,  and  regulatory 
bodies, ensure that strategies for recognising qualifications align with labour market 
needs, address mismatches effectively, and promote equitable opportunities for both 
native and migrant workers. By fostering effective social dialogue, policymakers can 
leverage  insights  from  diverse  perspectives  to  tailor  interventions  that  bridge  skills 
gaps, enhance labour market integration, and advance the goals of inclusive economic 
growth and employment121. 

Both in the case of regulated professions or regulated labour markets, recognition of 
qualifications is an essential precondition for the third country national to be able to 
exercise their profession and for their potential to be utilised. Since they fall out of the 
personal scope  of  Directive 2005/36/EC  recognition of professional qualifications of 
TCNs  follows  national  rules  and  procedures.  Depending  on  their  status  they  might 
benefit  from  equal  treatment  provisions.  The  right  to  equal  treatment  is  further 
reinforced by other Directives, such as 2011/98/EU on the Single Permit, 2003/109/EC 
for  third-country  long-term  residents,  and  2005/71/EC  for  third-country  nationals 
involved in scientific research. Particularly, Article 3 of Directive 2011/98/EU aims to 
facilitate intra-EU mobility for third-country nationals by considering evidence of formal 
qualifications  from  a  third  country  valid  if  the  holder  has  three  years  of  relevant 
professional  experience  within  the  Member  State  where  the  qualifications  are 
recognised. However, practical application of this provision varies under national rules, 
and mobile  third-country nationals  may be  subject  to  the  same  provisions as newly 
arrived third-country nationals. 

Recognition as part of the immigration process 

Recognition  may  also  happen  in  the  framework  of  immigration  procedures  when 
candidates  are  required  to  submit  documents  on  their  qualifications  and  work 
experience. In many countries, competent authorities are involved to check documents 
relating to the content and duration of professional qualification to establish if this is 
equivalent  to  the  national  reference  occupation.  The  recognition  of  qualification  is, 
therefore,  designed  to  assess  and  validate  foreign  qualification  and  determine  if 
candidates meet the requirement for specific worker categories. When points systems 

120  Social  dialogue  refers  to  the  structured  and  ongoing  process  of  communication,  negotiation,  and  consultation  between 
employers, workers, and their respective representatives, often with the involvement of governments or relevant authorities. This 
dialogue aims to address labor-related issues, improve working conditions, and shape employment policies. 

121 ILO workshop paper: The role of social partners in skills development, recognition and matching for migrant workers: 

A contribution to the Global Skills Partnership. Available at: https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_protect/---protrav/---
migrant/documents/meetingdocument/wcms_754106.pdf 

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are used (for instance in Austria for the Red-White-Red Card programme), having the 
qualifications recognised increases the chance to get the visa approved.  

Recognition for further learning (“academic recognition”) 

Academic recognition is often used for the purpose of further learning when a person 
wishes to continue studying. Academic recognition for higher education in Europe 
and the EU is ensured through the Bologna Process and the Lisbon Recognition 
Convention. Academic recognition can also be used for the purpose of employment, 
namely when one individual wants to seek employment in professions that are non-
regulated.  

In practice, all forms of recognition of qualifications contain an element of assessing 
the documentations proving the content, level of qualification as well as information on 
the authenticity of the documentation provided. The recognition, in particular, consists 
of  checking  the  accreditation  of  the  higher  education  institution  and  of  the  study 
programme followed by the verification of the level of studies and learning outcomes. 
Depending on whether the recognition is to be done for academic purposes (for further 
learning) or professional purposes, the bodies and processes for recognition will vary. 
Such  assessment  depends  on  the  extent  to  which  it  is  possible  to  determine  the 
degree of similarity of qualifications in relation to their main elements – entitlements to 
access specific professions, purpose, level, learning outcomes and quality assurance 
– when they are issued at sectoral, regional, national or international level122. 

Authenticity of documents is also a challenge in the process of qualification 
recognition. Verification of the documents is executed officially by the competent 
authorities or can be conducted by employers when they require original documents 
as part of job applications. This process is often subject to the payment of a fee.  

All in all, difficulties in the recognition of qualifications and skills concerns:  

•  Transparency issues: whether or not qualifications are presented in a way that 
economic  operators  (employers)  can  trust  the  personal  information  of 
candidates regarding their qualifications, skills and competence 

•  Procedural  aspects:  whether  or  not  the  process  to  get  the  recognition  / 
validation is smooth and efficient enough and candidates can access the labour 
market with no major issues 

2.3.3.1. 

Lack of transparency and information across Member States 

The lack of EU-wide mechanism for the recognition of foreign qualifications held by 
TCNs represents a key obstacle to international talent mobility, according to the OECD 
study  on  the  EU  Talent  Pool123.  TCNs,  especially  those  with  opportunities  in  other 
large  national  markets  (such  as  the  US  or  Canada),  may  choose  not  to  pursue 
recognition in multiple EU member states due to the associated complexity and opt for 
alternative employment options. 

Terminology 

122 
of 
https://www.cedefop.europa.eu/files/4117_en.pdf 
123 Building an EU Talent Pool: A New Approach to Migration Management for Europe | READ online (oecd-ilibrary.org) 

education 

European 

Cedefop 

glossary 

training 

policy. 

and 

available 

at: 

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Currently, the formal recognition of qualifications held by TCNs within the EU typically 
has  national  validity.  This  means  that  a  TCN  who  wants  to  practice  a  regulated 
profession in multiple EU member states must go through the qualifications recognition 
process separately in each member state. 

Despite  significant  harmonization  of  academic  qualifications  across  EU  member 
states, TCNs still face the burden of seeking recognition in each member state where 
they wish to work. 

The  lack  of  transparency  and  information  in  the  process of  qualification  recognition 
can be observed at several levels: 

1)  Lack  of  simple  and  transparent  information  about  which  professions  are 
regulated  in  which  countries  that  would  be  easily  accessible  to  third  country 
nationals.  Every  EU  Member  State  has  very  different  rules  on  regulated 
professions. There is an EU-level database of regulated professions managed 
by the European Commission, DG GROW124 linked to Europass and the ESCO 
classification. However, the extent to which this is a place where third country 
nationals  would  be  looking  for  such  information  remains  unclear  as  the 
database  appears to be  designed more  for policy  purposes  rather  that  to be 
consulted by TCNs and employers. 

2)  Lack of information about regulated labour markets, i.e. situations where social 
partner agreements require a certain level of qualification or certain qualification 
for the applicant to be eligible to a grade in a company and related  role and 
position (as   in the metal and electrical industry in Germany, for instance). 

3)  Fragmentation  of  the  information  on  the  procedures  for  formal  qualification 
recognition,  its  duration,  cost,  responsible  bodies,  etc.  While  this  information 
does  exist,  it  is  often  split  between  academic  recognition  (ENIC-NARIC 
network) and professional recognition. Recognition of qualifications procedures 
for TCNs vary significantly across professions and Member States as according 
to Directive 2005/36/EC EU countries can act in in with their own rules. Based 
on the Directive 2004/38/EC , some categories TCNs can benefit from equal 
testament  with  regard  to  the  recognition  of  diplomas,  certificates  and 
professional qualifications. These  include long-term residents, refugees, Blue 
Card holders and scientific researcher 

4)  Lack of information and familiarity on foreign higher education systems and on 
the quality assurance systems, this possibly causing distrust of employers in 
relation to the qualifications possessed by TCNs. More in general, the lack of 
understanding of foreign qualifications and therefore the possibility to compare 
these  qualifications  with  those  of  the  home  country  often  make  recruitment 
processes difficult and burdensome 

The key issues in the recognition of qualification happen therefore before the process 
starts  due  to  the  difficulties  in  understanding  qualification  both  for  employers  and 
TCNs.  A  2016  study  by  Ecorys125  highlighted  how  the  lack  of  information  on 

124 https://ec.europa.eu/growth/tools-databases/regprof/  
125 Study on Obstacles to Recognition of Skills and Qualifications, 2016. Available at: https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-
/publication/156689fd-e922-11e6-ad7c-01aa75ed71a1/language-en 

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recognition  services  (i.e.  structures  supporting  the  obtainment  of  recognition) 
represents an obstacle in the recognition of qualifications of third country nationals. 
Indeed, individuals seeking to move to a new country may find it challenging to identify 
the  correct  channels  and  authorities  responsible  for  evaluating  their  credentials. 
Moreover,  they  might  struggle  to  comprehend  the  specific  requirements  and 
documentation needed to initiate the recognition process successfully. 

Depending  on  the  country,  ENIC  NARIC can  have  separate  roles  in  the process  of 
requests for recognition of professional qualifications  acquired in third countries. They 
can provide legally binding input to the process of recognition of regulated professions 
(Belgium,  Denmark,  Romania).  However,  as  emerged  during  stakeholder 
consultations,  they  can  also  provide  advisory  opinions  which  did  not  offer  legal 
guarantees and, for non-regulated professions, the responsibility for assessments lies 
with the employers' discretion. In many cases126, the requests are processed by the 
relevant  competent  authority,  but  the  centres  provide  supporting  information  and 
advice  to them127.  As  ENIC NARIC representatives  emphasised during  stakeholder 
consultations, challenges are more prevalent in the context of non-formal education 
and  training,  as  established  frameworks  are  more  effective  for  formal  education. 
However, some EU countries offer support services to TCNs on this regard through 
recognition  information  centres  that  deliver  tailored  assistance  to  help  individuals 
navigate the procedures for their specific profession.  

Germany  

The Federal Employment Agency's ‘Recognition Counselling Service’ on the website Recognition in Germany 
offers free-of-charge personalised guidance and counselling to TCNs seeking recognition of their qualifications 
for  employment  purposes.  In  particular,  the  centre  supports  the  collection  of  necessary  documents,  the 
submission of the application. It also assesses the equivalence of professional qualifications. 

The  counselling  centres  are  present  in  different  Land  and  cities  in  Germany  as  well  as  in  other  16  non-EU 
countries. Furthermore, there is a hotline in case the counselling cannot happen in person. 

The same Ecorys study recognises as an issue also how skills and qualifications are 
presented  by  candidates  when  applying  for  a  job  in  the  EU.  TCNs’  knowledge  of 
standards or practices used across EU countries for applying for job is indeed often 
limited. This may jeopardise their chances to get their qualifications recognised and to 
compete in the labour market. 

The  survey  to  employers  confirmed  the  observation.  The  primary  worry  among 
employers appears to be the trustworthiness of candidates' CVs and profiles, which 
was  considered  a  significant  barrier  by  38%  of  the  respondents.  The  difficulties  in 
comparing  both  professional  and  educational  qualifications  with  those  in  the  home 
country represents an obstacle for around one third of the sample.  

Furthermore, approximately one-third of the respondents expressed scepticism about 
the authenticity of documents submitted by candidates as proof of their professional 
or educational experience.  

126 Belgium (FR), Denmark, Ireland, Lithuania, Sweden, Slovenia 

127 Belgium (FR), Germany, Italy, Lithuania, Netherlands, Sweden, Slovenia  

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Figure 37: Candidate profiles as a barrier against international recruitment 

Source: Survey to Employers 

2.3.3.2. 

Complex and ineffective recognition/validation procedures 

According  to  the  Directive  2005/36/EC  on  recognition  of  professional  qualifications, 
the  recognition  of  third  country qualifications is left to  the  Member States  based on 
their national rules128.  

There is currently relatively little existing evidence about the complexity or length of 
the procedure for formal qualification recognition. An IOM study129 highlighted that:  

“A fragmentation of the responsibility for assessing and recognizing qualifications and 
competences  is observed,  to  a higher or lesser extent,  in  most  EU countries”.  This 
concerns both regulated and non-regulated professions and is mainly due to the level 
of decentralisation and the distribution of responsibilities across different government 
level.  When  more  recognition  practices  exist  the  level of  complexity  increases  as  a 
consequence,  this  negatively  impacting  immigrants’  willingness  to  go  through  any 
recognition procedure.   

There  is  also  relatively  little  evidence  about  the  effectiveness  and  efficiency  of  the 
process for intra-EU recognition but the 2011 evaluation of the Directive 2005/36/EC130 
showed  that  even  within  the  EU  the  process  was  complex  and  burdensome  for 
stakeholders.  In  particular,  qualifications  holders  find  difficulties  in  collecting  (and 
translating) all the documents requested and lack of clear information to identify the 
competent  authority.  On  the  other  side,  competent  authorities  still  struggle  to  be 
compliant with the procedural rules and the deadlines foreseen by the Directive.  

Certain  Member  States  have  lengthy  procedures.  On  average  the  duration  of  the 
procedure is of approximately 50 days131. In Belgium for instance, there are regionals 
differences: while the procedure in the French and Flemish communities can last 4 / 5 

recognition_qualifications_competencesofmigrants.pdf 

128 Art 2 of Directive 2005/36/EC on the recognition of professional qualifications 
129 
(iom.int) 
130 EVALUATION OF THE PROFESSIONAL QUALIFICATIONS DIRECTIVE (Directive 2005/36/EC).  
131 Results from the consultations with ENIC-NARIC  

(iom.int) 

recognition_qualifications_competencesofmigrants.pdf 

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months, in the German-speaking community this last 2 weeks. In Ireland processing 
foreign qualifications takes 12 weeks for competent authorities. 

Applicants may incur a cost for the recognition of their diplomas. This is the case in 
Hungary, Belgium and France.  

Simplified recognition procedures 

Spain  

The Ministry of Universities in Spain issued a decree in 2021 to streamline the recognition of foreign 
degrees and the homologation procedure for regulated professions. This decree aims to expedite the 
recognition process, limiting it to a maximum of six months, instead of the previous average of more 
than two years due to bureaucratic processes, which has led to a backlog of thousands of pending 
cases.  

The  reduction  in  processing  time  has  been  achieved  through  a  comprehensive  digitalization  and 
substantial simplification of the administrative procedure. Applications are indeed only be accepted 
electronically,  and  the  applicant  is  able  to  monitor  the  status  of  the  procedure  at  any  time.  The 
technical committee in charge of the recognition have a maximum of two months to issue a report. 
However, such a report is necessary under four circumstances: for degrees from countries within the 
European  Higher Education Area, for degrees from countries with mutual recognition  agreements 
with  Spain,  for  degrees  from  institutions  with  quality  assurance  agreements  between  Spain  and 
another country, and for degrees from prestigious international universities and institutions. 

Lithuania  

The revised EU Blue Card Directive has been implemented into national law, and in addition to that, 
changes were made to the Law on the Legal Status of Foreigners in Lithuania to facilitate the entry 
of  highly  qualified  specialists  into  the  country's  labour  market.  One  significant  change  is  the 
broadening of the concept of high professional qualification. Since August 1, 2022, the qualification 
of information and communication technology (ICT) professionals is no longer solely dependent on 
holding a higher education diploma. Instead, it can also be recognised based on a minimum of three 
years of professional experience in the ICT field. 

Some EU countries offer online self-assessment tools that TCNs can use to determine 
the  likelihood  of  their  qualifications  being  recognised.  These  tools  provide  valuable 
information to individuals, enabling them to make informed decisions about migration 
and career opportunities. 

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Sweden  
The Qualification Assessment Tool is available on the platform of Swedish Council for Higher 
Education132 and provides a self-assessment process where users input information about their 
education,  qualification  and  work  experience.  The  tool  cover  1000  qualifications  from  77 
countries.  
Germany  
Recognition in Germany portal provides an online self-assessment tool for TCNs (‘Recognition 
Finder’).  The  tool allows individuals  to  enter  information about  their  qualifications,  education, 
work  experience,  and  other  relevant  details.  Based  on  the  information  provided  by  the  user 
(profession,  country  of  origin,  country  of  residence  –  if  in  Germany)  the  tool  generates  a 
preliminary  assessment  indicating  the  degree  of  correspondence  between  the  foreign 
qualifications  and  the  German  reference  qualifications  as  well  as  information  in  case  a 
recognition is required.  

Other  difficulties,  reported  by  the  Ecorys  study,  related  to  the  recognition  of 
qualifications are: 

•  Lack  of  coordination  between  institutions  involved  in  the  recognition  process 
(VET  systems,  education  providers  and  employers,  recognising  bodies, 
guidance  counsellors).  This  is  due  to  some  contexts  being  too  fragmented, 
where  stakeholders  might  fall  short  of  engaging  effectively  and  provide  end-
users (individuals and employers) with adequate support. Consultations on the 
EU  Talent  Pool  with  the  Group  of  Coordinators  for  the  recognition  of 
professional  qualifications  also  confirmed  this,  particularly  regarding  the 
regulated professions. The evaluations to assess qualifications are perceived 
complex and time consuming due to the different actors involved in the process. 

•  Lack of centralisation of where the decision is taken. Since different institutions 
are  entitled  for  the  recognition  of  regulated  professions  there  is  a  lack  of 
harmonised procedures even on the national level. This can be particularly true 
in  more decentralised countries  where  the  responsibilities  are  shared  across 
different government levels.  

Besides  the  difficulties  in  the  formal  procedures  leading  to  qualifications  to  be 
recognised, problems also affect the assessment of skills possessed by candidates 
during  the  recruitment  process  (through  in-house  or  specific  methods).  While  this 
approach  may  not  necessarily  lead  to  formal  recognition,  it  is  primarily  aimed  at 
ensuring  that  the  candidate's  skills  align  with  the  organization's  needs  and  the 
requirements of the job.. This is mainly due to the lack of capacity, particularly within 
SMEs, to assess foreign qualifications. 

This was confirmed also by survey results, that indicate that one third of the employers 
faces difficulty in comparing the skills possessed by TCNs with those of workers from 
their  own  country.  This  issue  can  arise  due  to  variations  in  educational  systems, 
certification  standards,  and  professional  experiences  across  different  countries. 
Among the SMEs, the barrier appears to be even more sever with 64% of companies 
expressing concerns on this regard.  

132 https://www.uhr.se/en/start/recognition-of-foreign-qualifications/qualifications-assessment-tool/ 

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 Figure 38: Challenges in comparing candidates’ skills  

Source: Survey to employers 

When  referring  to  qualification  recognition,  it  is  important  to  distinguish  between 
academic (for further learning) and professional purposes.   

For academic purposes, the degree of application of automatic recognition varies and 
EU  countries  –  in  most  cases,  individual  higher  education  institutions  -  decide  if 
whether or not to recognise academic qualifications obtained elsewhere for the access 
to  the  next  level  of  education.  Usually  individuals  can  obtain  a  ‘statement  of 
comparability’ of their university degree with the support of ENIC-NARIC centre in the 
country concerned. Depending on the country where the qualification is assessed, the 
ENIC-NARIC can finalise the recognition. In addition, a number of bilateral agreements 
rule the automatic recognition between EU countries and third countries. 

Some  countries  have  burdensome  document  validation  requirements:  in  Poland, 
diplomas  must  be  legalised  by  a  responsible  Polish  authority  in  the  country  of 
issuance, which could lead to additional complexities for third-country nationals133. 

Certain EU countries have introduced simplified or fast-track recognition procedures 
for  specific  in-demand  professions.  These  streamlined  processes  expedite  the 
evaluation  of  qualifications  for  individuals  working  in  professions  facing  labour 
shortages.  

In  November  2019,  the  Global  Convention  on  the  Recognition  of  Qualifications 
concerning  Higher  Education  was  adopted  by  the  40th  session  of  the  UNESCO 
General Conference, becoming the first United Nations treaty on higher education with 
a  global  scope.  Currently  recognised  by  23  states,  it  is  in  force  and  will  provide  a 
framework  for  fair,  transparent  recognition  of  higher  education  qualifications  in  a 
reasonable time frame. 

The  validation  of  skills  obtained  through  non-formal  and  informal  learning  is  less 
regulated. The EU recommended134 Member States to put in place national systems 

133 EMN 2023. Ad Hoc Query on the recognition of diplomas from third countries.  
134 https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex%3A32012H1222%2801%29 

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for validation with the aim to make skills more visible. Due to various factors such as 
differences  in  qualifications  recognition,  language  barriers,  and  discrimination, 
migrants  may  face  challenges  in  effectively  showcasing  their  skills  to  potential 
employers.  This  can  lead  to  a  skill  mismatch  and  over-qualification  occurs  when 
individuals, often with tertiary-level education, accept jobs that do not require their high 
level of qualifications. 

 For  doing  so,  Member  States  are  supported  with  practical  guidelines135  for  policy 
makers as well as an EU inventory of validation practices across Europe136.  

There  is  a  general  perception  that  the  recognition  procedure  can  be  unsuccessful 
when coming to TCNs’ qualifications. This risk is perceived as an important barrier by 
45% of employers. 

Figure 39: Barrier against international recruitment – recognition of qualifications 

Source: Survey to employers 

Similarly,  TCNs  in  source  countries  are  concerned,  with  around  half  of  the  sample 
considering it as an important obstacle.  

TCNs  already  in  the  EU  seems  to  be  some  less  concerned  about  this,  with  40% 
believing this is a concrete risk when applying for a job in the EU.  

135 https://www.cedefop.europa.eu/en/publications/4054 
136 https://www.cedefop.europa.eu/en/projects/validation-non-formal-and-informal-learning/european-inventory 

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Figure 40: Barriers to finding a job – recognition of qualifications 

RISK THAT QUALIFICATIONS WILL BE NOT RECOGNISED AS A BARRIER 
TO FINDING A JOB 

TCNS WHO HAVE EITHER WORKED IN OR SEARCHED 
FOR A JOB IN THE EU (N=359)

12%

8%

19%

25%

24%

12%

TCNS WHO HAVE EITHER WORKED IN OR SEARCHED 
FOR A JOB IN THE EU (N=366)

12%

9%

18%

26%

33%

2%

1 - NOT A BARRIER AT ALL

2

3

4

5 - VERY IMPORTANT BARRIER

DON'T KNOW

2.4. Future development of the problem drivers 

Source: Survey to employers 

Below, the expected future development of each of the problem drivers is discussed 
in detail. 

2.4.1. Future  development  of  problem  driver  1:  Non-transparent  and  ineffective 
cross-border job search and matching which involve a risk of unfair recruitment 

The following effects are expected regarding the development of problem driver 1: 

• 

Increasing inequality in talent attraction: The disparities among Member States 
regarding the development and accessibility of job search and matching tools 
are likely to widen. Countries with more advanced systems and initiatives (PES-
driven) will have a competitive advantage in attracting talent, while others with 
limited resources may struggle to keep up. In addition, in the EU as whole, this 
would result in an inability to attract the essential talents required to address 
labour market gaps. 

•  Continued skills mismatch: The fragmented job matching tools will continue to 
hinder employers' ability to find the most suitable candidates for specialised or 
niche positions. This skills mismatch can result in a labour market with unmet 
demand for certain skills and oversupply in others. 

•  Jobseeker  frustration:  Job  seekers  will  face  challenges  navigating  multiple 
platforms and systems across different EU countries. This complexity can lead 
to frustration and discourage potential talents from considering opportunities in 
the EU.  

•  Employers disengagement: companies, particularly the SMEs with more limited 
means, can abstain from hiring due the inadequacy of channels for job search 
and  job  matching,  creating  barriers  to  effective  talent  acquisition  and 
recruitment. 

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•  Missed  economic  opportunities:  The  lack  of  a  harmonised  EU-level  tool  for 
talent attraction may lead to missed economic opportunities for both job seekers 
and  businesses.  A  more  cohesive  and  unified  approach  could  unlock  the 
potential  of  foreign  human  capital,  contributing  to  economic  growth  and 
innovation across the EU. 

•  Fragmented  policy  responses:  The  lack  of  a  unified  EU-level  tool  may 
perpetuate  the  fragmentation  in  policy  responses  to  labour  shortages,  with 
individual  MSs  keeping  implementing  different  strategies.  In  particular only a 
subset  of  MS  may  develop  tailored  talent  attraction  tools  to  respond  to  their 
specific skills and labour demand and this will create inequalities in the access 
to opportunities and lack of coherence for both employers and job seekers to 
navigate the diverse landscape of recruitment practices (leading to confusion 
and potential exploitation).  

•  Social  Discontent  and  Discrimination:  Unfair  recruitment  practices  can 
exacerbate social tensions and contribute to feelings of discrimination among 
TCNs and within local communities.  

As a consequence of these problems, the lack of a harmonised approach to talent 
attraction may result in lower competitiveness for the EU as a whole, as it fails to tap 
into its full potential and attract the best talents from around the world. Indeed, the 
absence of a unified approach to job search and job matching, on one hand, limits 
the capacity of businesses to attract suitable candidates for high-demand positions 
while,  on another hand,  discouraged  TCNs from exploring  job opportunities  in  the 
EU.  

2.4.2. Future  development  of  problem  driver  2  In-transparent,  cumbersome  and 
costly administrative procedures 

The following effects are expected regarding the development of problem driver 2: 

• 

Increasing complexity: The  complexity of the migration framework, combined 
with  prolonged  visa  and  permit  processing  times,  exacerbates  the  already 
burdensome,  and  expensive  administrative  procedures  tied  to  international 
recruitment  and  labour  migration.  This  situation  will  further  increase  costs, 
reduces transparency, hinder talent mobility, and result in missed opportunities 
for employers. 

to  remain 

fragmented,  with  Member  States  pursuing 

•  Continued  fragmentation:  The  policy  framework  regarding  talent  attraction  is 
individual 
likely 
approaches,  leading  to  a  patchwork  of  policies  and  strategies.  EU  policy 
instruments,  such  as  the  Single  Permit  Directive,  could  partially  reduce  this 
fragmentation (e.g. by creating a single application procedure) although MSs 
still retain certain autonomy in immigration matters.  

•  Growing disparities: The disparities in incentives and benefits (talent attraction 
policies  and  simplified  avenues  to  access  national  labour  market)  offered  to 
potential talents are expected to persist, creating an uneven playing field for job 
seekers and businesses across different Member States. 

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•  Complexity for businesses and talents: The varying immigration policies across 
Member States will continue to add complexity for businesses and job seekers 
in navigating cross-border workforce recruitment. 

•  Challenges for businesses: companies may find it challenging to make informed 
decisions  on  investment  and  operations  due  to  unsuitable  tools  for  job 
matching. This being particularly true for  small and medium companies. This 
can  disproportionately  affect  SMEs,  diverting  valuable  resources  away  from 
core business activities and hindering their ability to compete effectively in the 
global marketplace. 

As  a  consequence  of  these  problems,  labour  shortage  will  become  more  pressing, 
and  the  lack  of  a  coordinated  talent  attraction  approach  may  exacerbate  the 
challenges faced by businesses in finding suitable workers. Moreover, technological 
advancements and demographic changes will continue to drive an increasing demand 
for skilled labour. Consequently, Member states are likely to intensify competition to 
attract talents by offering more generous incentives and concessions, this potentially 
leading to short-term approaches. In addition, in absence of transparent administrative 
procedures talents may be discouraged from considering the EU as a whole, opting 
instead  for  countries  with  the  most  favourable  conditions,  leading  to  potential  brain 
drain from certain regions. 

2.4.3. Future development of problem driver 3: Difficulties in comparability of skills 
and qualifications obtained in third countries 

The following effects are expected regarding the development of problem driver 3: 

•  Continued  complexity  in  recognition  procedures:  The  responsibility  for 
regulating  recognition  procedures  remains  with  individual  member  states, 
leading to an ongoing complexity for talented TCNs seeking recognition of their 
qualifications and skills. 

•  Lack of harmonisation due to limited EU tools. The absence of prospects for an 
agreement  among  EU  MS  and  their  professional  bodies  on  the  mutual 
recognition  of  qualifications  recognition  decisions  across  the  EU  will  remain 
complex. Mistrust and quality concerns on foreigners standards and process is 
likely to persist.  

•  Persisting  disparities:  The  maze  of  differing  rules,  procedures,  and 
documentation requirements across member states is likely to persist, creating 
disparities in the recognition process for TCNs.  

•  Limited  access  to  information:  Without  a  centralised  EU  platform  for 
qualification recognition procedures and guidelines, TCNs may continue to face 
difficulties in accessing essential information about the process, hindering their 
confidence in accessing the EU labour market. 

•  Underemployment and skills mismatch: TCNs without recognised qualifications 
may  force  TCNs  in  accepting  jobs  that  do  not  fully  utilize  their  capabilities, 
leading to underemployment and potential skills mismatch in the labour market. 

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As  a  consequence  of  these  problems,  businesses  and  employers  may  continue  to 
present challenges in assessing the qualifications and skills of TCNs candidates, this 
affecting their hiring decisions. Further, the complexity in qualification recognition may 
deter some talented third country nationals from considering opportunities within the 
EU,  leading  to  a  potential  brain  drain  as  they  seek  better  recognition  prospects 
elsewhere. 

2.5. Overview of the relevance to stakeholders in relation to the identified 
problem drivers 

The following table provides an overview of the stakeholders who are affected by the 
problem and individual problem drivers (see Section 2.2), how and to what extent. The 
overview also seeks to indicate – as of the guidance in the Better Regulation Toolbox 
– whose behaviour needs to change to address the problem. 

Table 32: Stakeholders affected by the problems 

Relevance of the problem and its drivers 

EU employers, both businesses and public sector employers, which operate in sectors with 
labour and skill shortages are negatively affected in the current situation as they either cannot 
fill vacancies (which leads to loss of revenue, competitiveness, innovation potential) or can do 
so only through a lengthy, costly and cumbersome procedure. They are affected by ineffective 
international job search tools and channels, or high costs, including the cost of time (Problem 
driver  1)am    They  also  face  excessive  administrative  burden,  including  monetary and  time 
costs,  and  uncertainties  about  the  outcomes  of  immigration  and  other  administrative 
procedures (Problem driver 2). Especially SMEs are affected by the problem and its drivers, 
as they generally have a lower talent attraction potential (jobseekers from third countries tend 
to prioritise large enterprises) and don’t have own recruitment channels and managed talent 
pools, may lack the financial means to participate on foreign job fairs or fund recruitment and 
relocation, and may not have sufficient human resource capacities and capabilities to navigate 
the  recruitment  and  immigration  process  relatively  efficiently.  SMEs  confront  difficulties  in 
understanding administrative processes linked to recruiting talent from abroad and this lack 
of transparency hamper their capacity to make well-informed choices (Problem driver 2, and 
driver 3 for recognition of skills and qualifications).  
Businesses  are  also  indirectly  affected:  in  general,  the  global  competitiveness  of  the  EU 
suffers from the problem; more specifically: they may experience supply chain issues or could 
only source more expensively  from alternative suppliers if their existing suppliers cannot fill 
up vacancies.  
In terms of necessary behavioural change, the take-up of the new platform by EU employers 
will be essential to successfully address the problem. This entails their active participation in 
posting  job  openings,  engaging  with  potential  candidates,  and  leveraging  the  platform's 
features  for  streamlined  job  matching  and  recruitment  processes.  A  substantial  number  of 
employers using the platform creates a critical mass of opportunities and positions, making it 
attractive for job seekers and increasing the chances of suitable matches. Moreover, a higher 
uptake makes the platform more accessible to a diverse range of job seekers, including both 
local and international talents. This does not necessarily imply diminished efforts in using other 
channels, e.g. job fairs, recruitment agencies or their own talent pool. 
EU citizens in general may be – indirectly  - negatively affected by the problem if persistent 
skills  shortages  hinder 
in  negative 
environmental/climate effects and a loss of the global competitiveness of the EU. They are 
also negatively affected as labour and skills shortages lead to a loss in public revenues, which 
restricts states’ possibilities in investment in public goods, social transfers etc. 
EU workers who work in sectors, regions or occupations where shortages exist and where the 
recruitment of TCN would be particularly feasible are somewhat positively affected currently, 
as there is  less competition, hence less pressure on  their job security, wages and working 

the  green  and  digital 

transition, 

resulting 

Stakeholder 
category 
Businesses 

Citizens 

EU 
workers 
and jobseekers 

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Stakeholder 
category 

Relevance of the problem and its drivers 

TCN 
jobseekers 

Consumers 

Public 
administrations 

Regions 

conditions  from  TCNs  than  it  otherwise  would  be.137  On  the  other  hand,  EU  workers  in 
businesses  that  struggle  due  to  talent  shortage  may  be  negatively  affected,  if  vacancies 
threaten  the  growth  of  the  company,  hence  their  prospects  for  promotion,  and  even    job 
security if the economic sustainability of the business is in danger.  
TCN jobseekers who are pursuing EU job opportunities or could be considering doing so are 
negatively affected by the obstacles to international recruitment (problem drivers 1, 2 and 3) 
and the shortcomings of the current complex EU immigration system (driver 4). They would 
either not be able to find and/or accept a job in the EU, or only at a relatively high cost. The 
barriers result in considerable administrative burden (both financial and in terms of time and 
effort), overly  long  procedures,  and uncertainty  about outcomes.  The  negative effects  may 
discourage  TCNs  trying  to  apply  for  jobs  in  the  EU  or  apply  for  jobs  in  additional  Member 
States.  
The successful addressing of the problem requires that TCNs are aware of the new platform, 
register on it and actively use it. 
EU  consumers  are  negatively  affected  if  the  goods  and  services  they  need  (with  special 
attention  at  care  services)  are  not  available  to  a  sufficient  degree  due  to  labour  and  skills 
shortages – or are more expensive than they otherwise would be. 
National, regional and local authorities of the Member States are negatively affected as they 
have to apply and enforce separate schemes and potentially complex existing rules (problem 
drivers 2 and 3), and not benefitting from joint solutions, economies of scale and scope that 
these solutions would afford (driver 1). They are dealing with administrative complexity and 
missing  opportunities  for  streamlining  and  optimizing  their  processes  through  collaborative 
and standardized approaches. 
For the success of the proposed Talent Pool, public administrations would need to join the 
initiative, ensure interconnectivity and supply legal and labour market information. 
Certain Member States and regions with net emigration and limited talent attraction are the 
most  negatively  affected  by  the  current  situation.  They  are  sending  regions  with  regard  to 
intra-EU labour mobility, and currently they are not attractive for TCNs due to relatively low 
wages, small scale of the relevant local labour market, language issues, limited knowledge of 
the  country  and  its  rules,  lack  of  existing  TCN  social  networks  and  communities  providing 
support to newcomers (e.g. for instance being a 'safety net’, or sharing their experience and 
knowledge, which is a significant source of information for TCN considering relocating to the 
EU). 

Third countries  The third countries of origin are negatively affected by the problem as they are losing out on 
higher remittances and the ‘brain gain’ from welcoming back migrant workers after they had 
gained experience in new methods and made business and professional contacts in the EU. 
There is also a presumably somewhat higher level of irregular migration from these countries 
as legal pathways are not fully utilised due to the barriers to be at least indirectly addressed 
by the initiative. There are possible positive side effects for countries of origin as they avoid 
an even larger level of ‘brain drain’ to the EU. This would be most problematic for the least 
developed countries where there are more incentives to migrate for skilled workers due to the 
lack of well-remunerated job opportunities. Furthermore, it helps mitigate the impact of labour 
migration  policies  on  'brain  drain'  through  means  such  as  dialogue  with  third  countries  or 
cooperation  on  skills  development  in  countries  of  origin  This  approach  prevents  possible 
labour  shortages  in  certain  sectors  of  their  economy  (seasonal  workers,  care  workers, 
especially in countries close to the EU, already with high levels of circular migration), which 
might  occur 
recruiting  TCNs  would  be  more  effective  and  no  adequate 
safeguards/compensatory  measures  were  in  place.  Cooperation  with  these  third  countries 
with regard to the countries and sectors covered by the Talent Pool, safeguards against brain 
drain that could be activated when necessary, and possibly with regard to functionalities where 
third  country  authorities  can  furnish  information  and  provide  support  –  perhaps  within  the 
framework of Talent Partnerships – may be helpful. 

if 

Source: elaboration of the contractor 

137 It is important to note that economic literature does not support the hypothesis that migration has generally a negative effect 
on wages and working conditions. However, several empirical studies have found pressures from third-country labour migration 
on wage levels in given labour market contexts. 

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3. EU Intervention 

In this Section, the legal basis of the EUTP is firstly discussed, followed by two aspects 
of the subsidiary principle (i.e. necessity of EU action and added value of EU action). 

3.1. Legal basis 

Title V of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU) establishes an 
area  of  freedom,  security,  and  justice,  with  Chapter  2  focusing  on  EU  policies 
concerning  border  checks,  asylum,  and  immigration.  Article  79(1)  TFEU  empowers 
the EU to develop a common immigration policy to manage migration flows efficiently 
and  ensure  fair  treatment  of  third-country  nationals  (TCNs)  residing  in  the  EU. 
Furthermore, Article 79(2)(a) TFEU grants the EU competence in the field of conditions 
of entry and residence, including standards on issuing long-term visas and residence 
permits  by  Member  States.  An  EU  Talent  Pool  initiative,  aimed  at  attracting  TCNs 
residing outside the EU for specific purposes, would be appropriately justified under 
Article 79(2)(a) TFEU, combined with Article 79(1), serving as a suitable legal basis 
for EU action in this domain. 

While  PO1  contemplates  the  introduction  of  non-legislative  measures  based  on 
existing  EU  initiatives,  PO2  and  PO3  propose  an  EU  Talent  Pool  initiative, 
necessitating an appropriate legal basis. PO2 envisions extending some components 
of EURES, while PO3 foresees the development of a fully autonomous EU Talent Pool 
for all legal migration purposes. Given these scenarios, the consideration of reusing 
certain EURES components from PO2 raises several important questions. 

EURES is a crucial reference in intra-EU cross-border job matching. It aims to facilitate 
the  free  movement of workers within the  EU  through  its human network and online 
service tools available on the European job mobility portal (EURES portal). The legal 
basis of EURES is Article 46 TFEU, which empowers the EU to adopt legislation to 
promote the free movement of workers within the EU by establishing a mechanism for 
matching job offers with job applications. However, EURES does not cover TCNs who 
do not enjoy the same free movement rights as nationals of the host Member State. 
Therefore, simply extending EURES to include TCNs would not be feasible, as its legal 
basis  and  objectives  are  not  aligned  with  those  of  an  EU  Talent  Pool  intended  for 
international recruitment and facilitating legal migration. 

The EU Talent Pool pilot project targeting individuals who have fled Ukraine and are 
permitted to work in the EU under temporary protection differs in personal scope from 
establishing a Talent Pool for other TCNs. People fleeing Ukraine and benefiting from 
temporary  protection  are  already  in  the  EU  and  enjoy  different  rights  of  movement 
within the EU compared to third-country nationals applying for vacancies through the 
EU  Talent  Pool.  Hence,  the  same  system  cannot  be  applied  to  an  EU  Talent  Pool 
aimed at candidates from third countries without the same rights of movement within 
the EU. 

However, the Union could adopt new legislation based on Article 79(2)(a) and Article 
79(1) and make cross-references to certain components of EURES, particularly its IT 
platform.  This  approach  would  not  require  amending  the  EURES  Regulation  and 
would be less demanding in technical and resource terms. The new Regulation could 

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refer to elements of the EURES Regulation, such as the use of the EURES IT platform, 
to apply them to the EU Talent Pool. 

3.2. Subsidiarity: Necessity of EU action 

According  to  Article  4(2)(j)  of  the  TFEU138,  matters  related  to  the  area  of  freedom, 
security and justice, such as an EU Talent Pool, are shared competences of the EU. 
As it does not fall under an EU exclusive competence of the EU, any EU action would 
have to comply with the subsidiarity criterion. The principle of subsidiarity entails that, 
in areas that do not fall within the scope of an exclusive competence, the EU should 
act  only  and  to  the  extent  that  the  objectives  of  the  proposed  action  cannot  be 
sufficiently achieved by the Member States. 

The  insufficient  recruitment  of  skilled  TCNs  through  existing  legal  labour  migration 
channels to address labour and skills shortages has a strong cross-border component. 
Although some digital platforms have been set up at national level or by some private 
companies  to  facilitate  job  matching  between  EU  companies  and  TCNs,  they  are 
limited in scope and do not address the EU-wide issue. 

The EU labour market operates in the context of the Single Market, which is cross-
border in nature. Therefore, initiatives at national level would not effectively address 
labour shortages across the EU, whereas a unified platform could help connect and 
bridge the gap between TCN labour supply and EU demand. Furthermore, there is a 
lack  of  coordination  and  fragmentation  with  existing  national  or  private  platforms, 
which  could  only  be  overcome  by  an  EU-level  platform  providing  a  harmonised, 
standardised and streamlined approach. 

Therefore, and in accordance with the provisions of Article 5(3) of the Treaty on the 
European Union (TEU), the objectives of an EU Talent Pool initiative, including inter 
alia enhancing the attractiveness of the EU for TCNs, facilitating and speeding up the 
matching of workers between EU employers and TCNs, increasing transparency and 
facilitating recognition/validation at EU level, or addressing existing labour and skills 
shortages  in  the  EU  by  supporting  the  international  recruitment  of  qualified  TCNs, 
could only be achieved at Union level. Member States could not satisfactorily address 
the problems identified, given the cross-border nature of these issues. 

3.3. Subsidiarity: Added value of EU action 

There  is a  strong  added  value of an  EU  Talent Pool initiative as  it  would provide  a 
centralised  platform,  with  a  wider  geographical  scope,  facilitating  broader  job 
opportunities and access to a larger pool of candidates and companies. This would 
contribute to the long-term global competitiveness, attractiveness and productivity of 
the European industry. The European dimension of the platform would also increase 
its visibility. All these aspects would contribute to tackling labour shortages in sectors 
of strategic importance at EU level and would have a positive impact on the functioning 
of the internal market, in particular through the possibility of targeted interventions in 
specific sectors across the EU. 

138 Article 4(2)(j), TFEU. Article 4(2)(j), TFEU. 

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An  EU  approach  would  have  the  advantage  of  establishing  homogeneous  and 
standardised processes and requirements applicable to all candidates and employers 
using  the  platform,  thus  ensuring  consistency  across  Member  States.  This  would 
increase transparency and reduce fragmentation, thereby improving legal clarity. 

It would also lead to economies of scale, as a single platform would be more efficient 
than the multiplication of similar platforms at national or company level. The reference 
to  EURES  components  would  reduce  costs  by  avoiding  the  multiplication  of  IT 
elements. There would also be efficiency gains for the participating Member States. 
They would be entitled to additional support and guidance in the recruitment process 
and the pool of vacancies and candidates would be wider.  

In addition, an EU Talent Pool would help promote economic growth, social inclusion 
and  fairer  labour  recruitment.  In  particular,  better  protection  against  unethical 
recruitment and labour exploitation could be achieved. 

An EU action would furthermore be in line with EU priorities, such as improving the 
management of legal migration, and EU policies, such as the EU Skills Agenda or the 
European  Pillar  of  Social  Rights,  which  would  in  turn  maximise  the  impact  of  the 
platform and contribute to the EU’s overall objectives.  

In addition to the principle of subsidiarity and in line with the principle of proportionality, 
the EU Talent Pool initiative would need not to go beyond what is necessary to achieve 
the objective of addressing existing labour and skills shortages in the EU by supporting 
the international recruitment of skilled TCNs, which, as mentioned above, cannot be 
achieved by Member States alone. Under PO2 and PO3, one alternative considered 
it to make the initiative binding on all Member States. Making this initiative compulsory 
for all Member States, or putting an end to similar national initiatives, would risk being 
disproportionate as it would limit the scope for national and regional decision-making 
beyond what is necessary to achieve the above objectives in a satisfactory manner. 
In addition, the creation of a fully autonomous tool, envisaged under PO3, could risk 
entailing financial costs for the Union disproportionate to the objectives to be achieved.  

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4. Objectives 

This  section  lists  the  general  and  specific  objectives  any  initiative  should  have  to 
address the above-mentioned problems faced in the EU labour markets. This section 
also highlights the interlinkages of the objectives with the identified problems.  

4.1. General and specific objectives  

This section presents the draft policy objectives that the EU Talent Pool should seek 
to achieve.  

4.2. Consistency with the identified problems 

The specific objectives (SO) have been designed based on the problem drivers (PD) 
and  sub-drivers  (PSD)  presented  in  chapter  2.3.  The  following  table  presents  brief 
explanations on how the specific objectives address the sub-drivers. 

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Table 33: Objectives and problem drivers and sub-drivers 

PD1 

PSD1.1 

Drivers and sub-drivers 
Non-transparent  and  ineffective 
job  search  and 
cross-border 
matching which involve a risk of 
unfair recruitment  
Insufficient information on rules and 
existing tools 

PSD1.2  Lack  of  suitable  and  effective 

channels and tools 

PSD1.3  High  costs  of  cross-border  search 

and matching 

PSD1.4  Risk of unfair recruitment 

PD2 

Non-transparent,  complex  and 
cumbersome 
migration 
procedures 

PSD2.1  Complexity of the overall migration 
framework (incl. fragmented labour 
migration procedures) 

PSD2.2  Lack  of  transparency  of  rules  and 

procedures 

PSD2.3  Lengthy 

and 
hiring/immigration procedures 

cumbersome 

PD3 

Difficulties  in  comparability  of 
skills and qualifications obtained 
in third countries 
of 

transparency 

and 

PSD3.1  Lack 

information across MS  

PSD3.2  Complex 

and 
recognition/validation procedures 

ineffective 

PD4 

Inconsistent  and 
fragmented 
cooperation  with  third  countries 
on  labour  mobility  /  migration 
management  

PSD4.1  Lack  of  coordination  structure  for 
Member  States’ 
initiatives  and 
agreements on legal migration vis-
à-vis third countries 

PSD4.2  Lack  of  capacity  of  certain  MS  to 
comprehensive 
third 

in 
engage 
migration  cooperation  with 
countries  

PSD4.3  Lack  of  common  approach  in  the 
EU  as  regards  skills  development 
and  validation  in  the  countries  of 
origin  

Proposed specific objectives and how they address the sub-drivers 
SO1: Making labour matching between EU employers and TCN easier 
and faster 

The  SO  seeks  to  support  TCNs  in  understanding  the  legal  frameworks 
regulating  employment  (wage  minimums,  benefit  packages,  and  social 
security) in the various EU countries so that they are put in a better position 
to make decisions when applying for a job. 
The  SO  aims  at  improving  the  offer  of  tools  and  initiatives  at  EU  level 
benefitting employers looking for migrant workers and TCNs, in view of their 
specific needs. The SO wants also to assist MS by integrating services and 
making interoperable existing systems (both at EU and national level). 
The SO wants to reduce the burden of TCNs when searching for working 
opportunities  in  Europe  and  of  employers  willing  to  hire  workforce  from 
outside EU, providing effective tools to support TCNs decision to move to 
the  EU.  The  SO  wants  to  make  applicants  fully  aware  of  possible  costs 
related to the research phase, by improving the access to information for job 
seekers and employers.   
Unfair recruitment practices might discourage TCNs from choosing the EU 
to move abroad. The SO wants to protect TCNs from these practices through 
preventing  mechanisms  allowing  for  a  fair  and  respectful  approach  to 
international labour mobility. By doing so, the SO seeks also to safeguard 
the  EU's  reputation  from  any  negative  associations  with  exploitative 
recruitment practices.   
SO2: Improve understanding  and  access  to  the  procedures  (support 
and guidance) 

The SO wants to provide support and guide to TCNs and employers to make 
administrative  procedures  related  to  migration  more  understandable  and 
easier  to  manage.  The  SO  intends  to  promote  a  better  harmonisation  of 
national initiatives and measures aimed at providing such information. The 
aim of this SO is to contribute to reducing the perceived complexity of TCNs 
and employers.  
The  SO  intends  to  promote  better  access  to  information  on  rules, 
the 
procedures,  responsibilities  of  competent  authorities  on 
issues 
surrounding  migration  procedures.  The  SO  also  wants 
to  provide 
customised support to TCNs in dealing with migration procedure.  
Immigration procedures are particularly cumbersome and TCNs chances to 
enter  the  EU  labour  market  can  be  at  risk.  The  SO  seeks  to  improve 
efficiency of hiring / immigration procedures.  
SO3: Reduce under-utilisation of skills and qualifications of TCNs by 
improving  their  transparency  and  comparability  and  facilitating 
recognition/validation 
The EU wants to support Member States with tools and information on how 
to compare skills and qualifications obtained in third countries. The SO  does 
not  intend  to  intervene  on  recognition  procedures  but  rather  to  improve 
clarity about the opportunities for qualification recognition.   
The SO seeks to improve the access to  the information on  procedures for 
qualification recognition. The SO wants to facilitate a better understanding 
of  the  steps  and  requirements  and  contribute  to  reduce  the  uncertainty 
throughout the recognition processes. 
SO4:Reduce  under-utilisation  of  skills  and  qualifications  of TCNs  by 
improving  their  transparency  and  comparability  and  facilitating 
recognition/validation 

N/A 

N/A 

N/A 

Source: elaboration of the contractor (2023) 

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5. Policy measures and comprehensive policy options 

Below, the policy measures and options considered in the study are described. First, 
the  problems  drivers  are  recalled  as  the  measures  will  have  to  link  back  to  these. 
Following this, the list of policy measures considered in the analysis is presented and 
then  the  measures  are  grouped  together  into  three  comprehensive  policy  options. 
After this, a detailed description of each policy measure is provided. Finally, several 
key considerations per policy option are presented which are to be kept in mind for the 
analysis. 

5.1. Problem drivers 

The table below recalls the four problem drivers including all sub-drivers as identified 
in the problem tree (Chapter 2).  

Table 34: Overview of problem drivers 

# 
1  Cumbersome  and  ineffective  international 

Problem driver 

job matching 

2  Employers  and  TCNs  have  difficulties  to 
understand  how  skills  and  qualifications 
obtained  in  third  countries  correspond  to 
those required at national level 

3  Non-transparent,  cumbersome  and  costly 

immigration procedures 

4  Fragmented cooperation with third countries 
on legal migration/migration management 

Problem sub-driver 

Insufficient information on international recruitment rules 

1.1 
1.2  Lack of effective recruitment channels/ tools at national and EU level 
1.3 High international recruitment costs for employers and TCNs 
1.4 Risk of unfair recruitment for TCNs 
2.1. Lack of transparency on comparability of skills and qualifications 
2.2. Complex and ineffective recognition and validation procedures in the 
MS 

3.1. Fragmented and complex migration framework within the EU 
3.2. Lack of transparency of migration rules and procedures often leading 
to irregular pathways 
3.3. Lengthy and cumbersome immigration procedures 
4.1 Lack of coordination of MS bilateral initiatives/agreements 
4.2.  Limited capacity  of certain MS to  engage  in  migration cooperation 
with third countries 
4.3  Lack  of  an  EU  common  approach  on  skills  development  and 
validation in countries of origin 

Source: elaboration of the contractor (2023) 

5.2. Policy Options 

Based on the problem definition and objectives described above, three different policy 
options have been identified, one non-legislative (Option 1) and two legislative options 
(Option  2  and  Option  3).  Policy  options  are  composed  of  packages  and  different 
combinations of policy measures. All the policy options propose specific measures to 
address the drivers identified but differ in their level of ambition. Several policy options 
have been pre-identified: 

•  Option  1:  Soft  measures  aiming  at  improving  information  provision  and 

facilitating identification and matching (non-legislative option)  

•  1.A: Transforming the EU Immigration Portal into a Talent Attraction Portal 
•  1.B: Organising job-matching events 
•  1.C: Developing a web-based portal on EURAXESS model 

•  Option 2: Developing a focused EU Talent Pool building on certain components 

of EURES and targeted to specific occupations (legislative option) 

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•  Option  3:  Developing  an  open  EU  Talent  Pool  for  all  occupations  with  a 
modernised matching platform inspired by other initiatives in the private sector 
(legislative option) 

Below, we present a description of all three policy options envisioned for the EU Talent 
Pool initiative which are further detailed by corresponding policy measures.  

5.2.1. Policy option 1: Soft measures aiming at improving information provision and 
facilitating identification and matching (non-legislative) 

Policy  option  1  is  the  first  option  considered  and  it  proposes  only  non-legislative 
actions and/or soft measures. This option is split in three sub-options. Overall, all three 
sub-options would be open to all Member States, third countries and occupations (i.e. 
employers from all Member State can participate to it, regardless of where they are 
based and the occupations they cover). In the following, the differences between the 
three sub-options are presented in more detail.  

Sub-option  1.A  proposes  to  enhance  the  EU  Immigration  Portal  by  upgrading  and 
modernising  it,  to  provide  more  clear,  up-to-date,  and  user-friendly  information  on 
immigration procedures to EU countries. Several aspects are assessed as part of this 
sub-option: developing a customised and interactive portal, updating information on 
immigration  procedures  in  the  Member  States,  including  new  information  on  the 
recognition of qualifications  in  Member States,  increasing  the  number of  languages 
the EU Immigration Portal is available in and making the Portal more user-friendly.  

Sub-option  1.B  proposes  the  organisation  of  job-matching  events  with  the  aim  of 
facilitating matching between EU employers and TCNs. These events would be based 
on  the  EURES  model  and  would  be  open  to  employment  in  all  sectors  and 
occupations.  

Sub-option  1.C  aims  at  developing  an  EU  Talent  Pool  through  non-legislative 
instruments (e.g. through a Recommendation of the European Commission), following 
the EURAXESS model. This proposal entails the creation of a web portal that serves 
as a repository for CVs of third-country nationals. Through this portal, individuals from 
third  countries  can  register  their  profiles,  which  will  be  available  for  employers  to 
browse using various filters. It is important to note that these personal profiles will not 
contain searchable personal data, and no personal data will be stored to comply with 
data protection regulations. This solution will not include job vacancies, thus there will 
not  be  any  direct  matching  between  CVs  of  TCNs  and  job  vacancies.  Instead,  the 
portal  will  rely  on  National  Coordination  Points  (NCPs)  to  facilitate  connections 
between  interested  employers  and  candidates,  which  would  be  responsible  for 
outreach to employers at national and local level, as well as connect admitted people 
with interested employers. In terms of the governance, there are different options that 
could be considered (further discussed below), but in any case, this will have to be 
done through already-existing bodies at EU and/or national level.  

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5.2.2. Policy  option  2:  Developing  a  focused  EU  Talent  Pool  building  on  certain 
components of EURES and targeted to specific occupations (legislative) 

Policy option 2 proposes the adoption of a new legislative act (on the basis of Article 
79(2)(a)  TFEU)  which  would  regulate  the  scope  of  application,  access  criteria, 
governance, specific components and functioning of the EU Talent Pool.  

This option proposes a voluntary system in which only interested Member States can 
decide  to  participate  to  the  initiative.  In  this  sense,  Member  States  will  notify  the 
European Commission about their interest to participate to the EU Talent Pool. As the 
name of the option suggests, this option will be targeting specific occupations where 
labour and skills shortages exist at EU and national level (i.e. this list of occupations 
for the EUTP will be based on a list developed by the Commission on the basis of a 
list of occupations with shortages in each Member State.). The pool will not be open 
for all job vacancies from all sectors and occupations, and it will be limited only to pre-
screened candidates fulfilling certain criteria to access the pool (i.e. depending from 
which measures are selected, see below, this can  range from self-declarations that 
they  are  active  in  certain  sectors  to  specific  qualifications  needed  for  certain 
occupations which may even include some tests). Under this option, the alternative of 
targeting  the  EU  Talent  Pool  to  only  highly  skilled  related  professions  will  also  be 
assessed.  

In terms of the governance of the EU Talent Pool, this option proposes a three-layered 
approach  to  governance  by  having  one  (1)  EU  Talent  Pool  Secretariat  within  the 
European Commission, which would be responsible for the overall management, one 
(2)  EU  Talent  Pool  Steering  Group  composed  of  Member  State  representatives 
coming  from  immigration  and  employment  authorities.  This  group  would  be 
responsible for defining operational objectives at a higher political level, and (3) EU 
Talent Pool National Contact Points designated by each participating Member State 
and responsible for the practical implementation of the EU Talent pool at national level. 
To support Talent Partnerships launched with third countries, liaison offices would be 
established in those countries. The EU Talent Pool would thus serve as a means to 
operationalise these Talent Partnerships by acting as a vehicle through which TCNs 
from partner countries are channelled into job placements within participating Member 
States. 

This  option  proposes  that  the  EURES  IT  solution  would  be  partially  re-used, 
specifically components like the job vacancies database,  a unique interface, search 
engine and an automatic matching tool. However, certain elements that cannot be re-
used  from  EURES  would  be  newly  developed,  such  as  the  interface  and  CVs 
database. In so doing, this option aims to capitalise on the strengths of the existing 
EURES system while custom-building specific components to meet the requirements 
of  the  new  solution.  Interoperability  with  national  platforms  will  be  ensured  as  it  is 
already  available  as  part  of  the  EURES  system  (with  some  adaptations  where 
needed).  Additionally,  interoperability  with  EURES  will  be  explored  beyond  the 
components of EURES that would be part of this option.  

Under this option, job vacancies from employers would be registered by NCPs and the 
possibility to re-use EURES format/requirements will be assessed. TCNs will have the 
option  to  register  their  profiles  directly  on  the  EU  Talent  Pool  platform,  and  this 
the  Europass  profile  builder.  The  minimum 
registration  process  will  utilise 

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requirements for the profiles would be determined on the basis of the European Skills, 
Competences, and Occupations (ESCO) classification. The aim is to streamline the 
profile  creation  process  by  leveraging  existing  tools  while  ensuring  that  the  profiles 
meet the necessary standards based on ESCO guidelines. The profiles of registered 
TCNs would undergo an automatic pre-screening process to determine if they possess 
the appropriate skills and qualifications for the targeted occupations. The criteria for 
this  pre-screening  may  include  having  the  right  skills  and  qualifications  to  work  in 
selected  occupations of  the  list  and/or having  a  completed  profile,  not being minor, 
and speaking at least one EU language. The pre-screening criteria may encompass 
factors such as academic and professional qualifications, relevant skills, professional 
experience and language proficiency necessary for employment in occupations of EU 
and national significance. Additionally, the pre-screening process would also verify the 
completeness  of  the  application,  and  there  would  be  an  assessment  of  the  TCN's 
knowledge of at least one EU language. The goal is to ensure that the profiles of TCNs 
on  the  EU Talent Pool align  with the  requirements  of  the  targeted occupations and 
enhance the chances of successful job placements within the EU.  

At  the  same  time,  employers  in  the  EU  would  undergo  quality  assurance  checks 
conducted  by  NCPs  to  assess  the  job  vacancies'  alignment  with  the  targeted 
occupations of the EU Talent Pool and their potential eligibility for TCNs when the local 
LMT  is  exhausted.  Additionally,  NCPs  could  conduct  quality  assurance  checks  on 
employers and their job vacancies to ensure fair recruitment practices and adequate 
working  conditions  following  the  same  procedures  they  already  have  in  place  at 
national level, and which differ from Member State to Member State. Employers would 
be required to comply with a Charter for Fair Recruitment,. These measures are put in 
place to safeguard the interests of TCNs and ensure that job opportunities within the 
EU Talent Pool offer fair and ethical working environments. 

With this option for the EU Talent Pool, employers will have the capability to search 
for  candidates  by  applying  various  filters  and  initiate  contact  with  them  once  their 
profiles  are  registered.  Simultaneously,  candidates  will  be  able  to  search  for  job 
vacancies available within the pool. The process of matching candidates with suitable 
job  opportunities  will  be  facilitated  by  an  automatic  matching  tool.  To  enhance  the 
experience, NCPs will offer personalised support to both employers and candidates, 
ensuring efficient and effective connections between them. 

One alternative that is assessed under this option is that upon request of employers, 
the validation of candidates' skills and qualifications would take place at national level, 
conducted by the relevant actors in each Member State. This option could explore the 
involvement of multiple accredited trusted parties based on specific occupation-related 
credentials. A second alternative is that the validation process would be conducted at 
the EU level for all profiles prior to admission by a trusted third-party validator. Potential 
options for this role could include a new EU body acting as a third-party validator or a 
private recruitment agency. 

Additional components of the EU Talent Pool under this Policy Option could include: 

•  Online 

information 

procedures, 
recruitment, 
validation/recognition of qualifications and skills obtained in third countries and 
living/working  conditions  would  be  made  available.  At  the  same  time, 

immigration 

on 

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interoperability with the EU Immigration could be considered (i.e. just linking or 
full integration). 

•  Tailored support and guidance will be provided to candidates and employers by 
NCPs,  covering  recruitment,  immigration  procedures,  and  validation  of 
qualifications and skills. Assistance throughout the matching process, including 
family reunification, will be offered. 

•  Specific support for displaced people in need of international protection will be 
considered, such as tailored pre-arrival and post-arrival support, flagging as in 
need  of  international  protection  on  the  portal,  and  connecting  them  with 
interested employers or relevant platforms/projects. 

•  Existing  transparency  and  comparability  tools  will  be  integrated  to  assist 
employers  and  third-country  nationals  in  understanding  and  comparing 
qualifications and skills, as well as living and working conditions (i.e. this could 
be linked to existing tools such as European Digital Credentials for leaning, EU 
Skills Profile Tool for Third Country Nationals and the European Qualifications 
Framework, for more details see Technical Annexes, No. 2) 

•  Facilitation  measures  related  to  migration,  like  fast-track  immigration  and 

recognition procedures, as well as exclusion from the local LMT. 

5.2.3. Policy option 3: Developing an open EU Talent Pool for all occupations with a 
modernised  matching  platform  inspired  by  other  initiatives  in  the  private  sector 
(legislative) 

Policy option 3 envisages the adoption of a new legislative act, also based on Article 
79(2)(a) TFEU regulating  the  scope  of  application, access  criteria, governance and 
functioning of  the  EU Talent  Pool.  Under this Option,  the  EU Talent  Pool would be 
mandatory for all Member States, but the option of developing an open voluntary tool 
is also considered under this option. The EU Talent Pool would be open to all TCNs 
and  job  vacancies  without  any  limitations  based  on  specific  skill  levels  or  targeted 
occupations. It would also be open to Talent Partnerships, although no specific link 
with the Talent Partnerships would be ensured. 

The different possibilities for the governance of the EU Talent Pool under this option 
is the same as for Option 2. However, the IT platform and functioning of the EU Talent 
Pool  would  involve  the  development  of  a  completely  new  IT  solution  with  relevant 
functionalities tailored to its purpose. This option includes creating a new automatic 
matching  tool  without  reusing  components  from  EURES.  It  also  considers  the 
possibility of a sophisticated IT solution with AI-based algorithms, inspired by modern 
private sector platforms. 

To ensure interoperability, data exchange with national platforms and EURES would 
be  established.  Where  possible,  interoperability  with  private  platforms  would  be 
ensured,  with  potential  links  to  various  private  matching  platforms  like  LinkedIn  or 
other advanced matching algorithms used in the private sector. 

Under this option, TCNs can directly register their profiles on the EU Talent Pool, and 
employers can also directly register their vacancies on the platform without relying on 
NCPs.  However,  the method  of  conducting quality assurance  checks  on  employers 
requires  further  thought,  as  there  would  be  no  pre-screening  and  validation  of 
vacancies.  Employers  can  search  and  contact  candidates  using  filters,  while 

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candidates can search for job vacancies. An automatic matching tool will assist in the 
matching process, with personalised support provided by NCPs as under PO2. Further 
assessments  include  the  possibility  of  TCNs  directly  applying  for  job  vacancies 
(compared to Option 2 where only employers can contact TCNs), linking with private 
matching platforms (through tender procedure, platforms embedded, or only linking), 
and utilising more advanced matching algorithms used in the private sector. 

Additional components will be similar to the ones for Option 2, only made mandatory 
under this option where these are voluntary under Option 2. For instance, facilitation 
measures related to migration would be incorporated by mandating Member States to 
implement  fast-track  immigration and  recognition  procedures,  along  with  exemption 
from the LMT. 

During the Call for Evidence, Policy Option 3 garnered particular endorsement from 
several stakeholders due to its perceived advantages. Specifically, the creation of an 
authentic  EU talent pool accessible to all  Member  States  is widely regarded as  the 
most favourable approach. Notably, this strategy holds substantial potential impact, as 
the establishment of an EU-wide talent pool obviates the need for individual Member 
States  to  develop  their  own  platforms  at  a  national  level.  This  not  only  streamlines 
hiring processes but also provides employers with access to a broader range of talent. 
Concurrently, it enables third-country nationals (TCNs) to access a wider array of job 
opportunities spanning across the entirety of the European Union. 

However, some stakeholders also pointed out a potential drawback. They highlighted 
that  adopting  this  Policy  Option  via  a  legislative  instrument  (which  strengthens 
harmonisation)  might  also  lead  to  prolonged  discussions  among  Member  States 
before its legislative enactment. 

5.3. Long list of policy measures 

The above-presented policy  options are  built  on a number  of  policy  measures.  The 
following section provides the names of each of the policy measures to be considered 
in the analysis of this study. In addition, a more detailed table presenting the policy 
measures under each policy option for an EU Talent Pool is presented in the Technical 
Annexes, no. 6. The measures are broken down into each of the main “themes” or 
groupings of measures which are the following: 

I. Governance 
II. Scope of application 
III. Interoperability 
IV. Pathway for employers and potential applicants 

• 
• 
• 
• 
•  Stage 1: Quality assurance checks for employers 
•  Stage 2: Vacancy creation by employers 
•  Stage 3: Profile creation by candidates 
•  Stage 4.1: Pre-screening of candidates 
•  Stage 4.2: Validation of candidates 
•  Stage 5: Search and matching 
•  Stage 6: Transparency of information and comparability tools 
•  V. Recruitment facilitation procedures 
•  VI. Specific support services for candidates and employers 

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•  VII. User experience 

Table presents the final list of policy measures excluding the three measured that have 
been discarded (which are presented in section 5.5) and Table  groups this final list of 
policy measures into relevant policy options considered for the development of an EU 
Talent Pool. More details describing each of these measures can be found below, in 
Section 5.4. 

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Table 35: Long list of all policy measures considered 

Policy Measure 

# 
1 

2 

3 
4 
5 

6 

7 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

28 

29 

30 

31 

32 

33 

34 

35 

36 

Governance of the EU Talent Pool through already-existing bodies at EU and / or national level 
Three-layered governance of the EU Talent Pool through a Secretariat within the European Commission, a 
Steering Group, and National Contact Points 
Creation of liaison offices in Third Countries via Talent Partnerships   
Extending EURES as it currently is designed to include TCNs 
The EU Talent Pool is open to employers and potential applications across all sectors 
The EU Talent Pool is open to employers and third country nationals for sectors/occupations identified as of 
strategic relevance 
Specific support measures for persons in need of international protection displaced in third countries who 
meet criteria to be admitted to the pool are also eligible to apply to the EU Talent Pool 
Candidates who fulfil the criteria of the EU Blue Card are admitted to the EU Talent Pool 
EU Member States have the option to voluntarily participate in the EU Talent Pool 

8 
9 
10  EU Member States are required to participate in the EU Talent Pool 
The EU Talent Pool is interoperable with existing platforms/systems at European level 
11 
The EU Talent Pool is interoperable with existing platforms at national level 
12 
13 
The EU Talent Pool is interoperable with private platforms 
14  Employers are not subject to any quality assurance checks 

15 

Employers are subject to quality assurance checks similar to the ones conducted in the context of EURES 
by PES within each respective Member State and respecting the Charter of Fair Recruitment 

16  Employers are subject to stricter quality assurance checks as compared to measure 14 
17 
18 

Job vacancies can be directly registered in the EU Talent Pool by employers  
Job vacancies are registered by National Contact Points  
Candidates are required to create a profile within the EU Talent Pool portal and upload their details manually 
(e.g. personal details, qualifications, skills, experience, and other relevant information) 
Candidates are required to submit their CV directly in a standardised format in the EU Talent Pool portal after 
which the software will process it 
The profiles of the candidates to the EU Talent Pool would not undergo an initial screening 
The profiles of the candidates to the EU Talent Pool would undergo an initial automatic pre-screening based 
on specific admission criteria  
Candidates self-declare that the information they provide (e.g. in relation to their qualifications, skills, or other 
relevant information) is correct and accurate 
Candidates are required to submit supporting documents during the profile creation to the portal, which under 
the request of employers or TCNs, would be validated at national level by existing national pathways (optional 
post-admission validation) 
Candidates are required to submit supporting documents during the profile creation to the portal which would 
go to a third-party validator to check the qualifications and credentials (mandatory pre-admission validation) 
The EU Talent Pool portal includes manual search functionalities using filters 
The  EU  Talent  Pool  portal  includes  a  semi-automatic  matching  tool  that  provides  suggestions  based  on 
specific criteria, that the user/employer ultimately chooses 
The EU Talent Pool uses a dedicated automatic matching tool 
Introducing a correspondence grid for automatic issuance of the equivalence between different qualifications 
or education systems 
Introducing a searchable EU-level tool on third country qualifications or statements/ decisions of recognition 
The EU Talent Pool signposts candidates and employers to relevant documents, resources and explanations 
about equivalence or qualifications 
Transparency and comparability tools are embedded into the EU Talent Pool 
Immigration authorities have direct access to validated profiles which have received a job offer with employers 
in the EU Talent Pool 
Fast-track  procedures  for  the  immigration  and  recognition  process  for  candidates  which  have  been 
successfully validated and matched in the EU Talent Pool 
Specific support with information on working conditions, recognition procedures, and immigration to Member 
States for candidates is made available on the EU Talent Pool 
National  Contact  Points  (NCPs)  provide  targeted  support  to  candidates  which  have  been  successfully 
validated and matched in the EU Talent Pool  
The EU Immigration Portal is expanded to include more information which is relevant for employers and TCNs 

37 
38  A new IT architecture that utilises existing IT platforms at EU level is designed 
39  A new IT solution with a unique IT entry point with its own visual identity is developed 
40  A specific mobile phone application is created 

Source: elaboration of the contractor (2023) 

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Cluster 

Governance 

Scope of application 

Policy option 1: Soft 
measures aiming at 
improving information 
provision and facilitating 
identification and matching 

  Governance of the EU 
Talent Pool through 
already-existing bodies 
at EU and/or national 
level 

  The EU Talent Pool is 
open to employers and 
potential applications 
across all sectors 
  EU Member States 
have the option to 
voluntarily participate in 
the EU Talent Pool 

Interoperability 

  n/a 

Table 36: Policy options grouping policy measures 

Policy option 2: Developing a focused EU Talent Pool building on 
certain components of EURES and targeted to specific 
occupations 

Policy option 3: Developing an open EU Talent Pool for all 
occupations with a modernised matching platform 
inspired by other initiatives in the private sector 

  Three-layered governance of the EU Talent Pool through a 
Secretariat within the European Commission, a Steering 
Group, and National Contact Points 

  Creation of liaison offices in Third Countries via Talent 

  Three-layered governance of the EU Talent Pool 

through a Secretariat within the European 
Commission, a Steering Group, and National 
Contact Points 

Partnerships 

  The EU Talent Pool is open to employers and third country 
nationals for sectors/occupations identified as of strategic 
relevance. This list will be based on a list developed by the 
Commission on the basis of a list of occupations with 
shortages in each Member State. 

  Persons in need of international protection displaced in 

third countries who meet criteria to be admitted to the pool 
are also eligible to apply to the EU Talent Pool 

  Candidates who fulfil the criteria of the EU Blue Card are 

admitted to the EU Talent Pool 

  EU Member States have the option to voluntarily participate 

in the EU Talent Pool 

  The EU Talent Pool is interoperable with existing 

platforms/systems at European level 

  The EU Talent Pool is interoperable with existing platforms 

at national level [e.g. XXX] 

  The EU Talent Pool is open to employers and 

potential applications across all sectors 
  Persons in need of international protection 

displaced in third countries who meet criteria to be 
admitted to the pool are also eligible to apply to the 
EU Talent Pool 

  EU Member States are required to participate in the 

EU Talent Pool 

  The EU Talent Pool is interoperable with existing 
platforms/systems at European level [e.g. xxx] 
  The EU Talent Pool is interoperable with existing 

platforms at national level [e.g. xxx] 

  The EU Talent Pool is interoperable with private 

platforms [e.g. xxx] 

  Employers are subject to stricter quality assurance 

checks 

Quality assurance 
checks for employers 

  Employers are not 

subject to any quality 
assurance checks. 

  Employers are subject to quality assurance checks similar 
to the ones conducted in the context of EURES by NCPs 
within each respective Member State and respecting the 
Charter of Fair Recruitment 

Job vacancy creation 
by employers 

  n/a 

  Job vacancies are registered by National Contact Points 

  Job vacancies can be directly registered in the EU 

Profile creation by 
candidates 

  Candidates are required to create a profile within the EU Talent Pool porta, using 
Europass where possible, and upload their details manually (e.g. personal details, 
qualifications, skills, experience, and other relevant information) 

November, 2023 

Talent Pool by employers 

  Candidates are required to create a profile within 
the EU Talent Pool portal and upload their details 

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Cluster 

Policy option 1: Soft 
measures aiming at 
improving information 
provision and facilitating 
identification and matching 
  Candidates are required to submit their CV directly in a standardised format in the EU 

Policy option 2: Developing a focused EU Talent Pool building on 
certain components of EURES and targeted to specific 
occupations 

Talent Pool portal after which the software will process it 

  Candidates are required to submit supporting documents during the profile creation to the 
portal, which under the request of employers or TCNs, would be validated at national 
level by existing national pathways (optional post-admission validation) 

Policy option 3: Developing an open EU Talent Pool for all 
occupations with a modernised matching platform 
inspired by other initiatives in the private sector 

manually (e.g. personal details, qualifications, skills, 
experience, and other relevant information) 

  Candidates are required to submit their CV directly 
in a standardised format in the EU Talent Pool 
portal after which the software will process it 
  Candidates are required to submit supporting 

documents during the profile creation to the portal, 
which under the request of employers or TCNs, 
would be validated at national level by existing 
national pathways (i.e. optional post-admission 
validation which can be requested both by 
employers and TCNs) 

Pre-screening 
candidates 

  n/a 

Validation of 
candidates 

  n/a 

Searching and 
matching  

  The EU Talent Pool 

portal includes manual 
search functionalities 
using filters. 

Transparency of 
information and 
comparability tools 

  n/a 

  The profiles of the candidates to the EU Talent Pool would 

  The profiles of the candidates to the EU Talent Pool 

undergo an initial automatic pre-screening based on 
specific admission criteria (i.e. specific ones related to the 
selected professions and/or general ones related to the 
completeness/quality of the application) 

would not undergo an initial screening 

  Candidates self-declare that the information they provide 

  Candidates self-declare that the information they 

(e.g. in relation to their qualifications, skills, or other 
relevant information) is correct and accurate 

  Candidates are required to submit supporting documents 

during the profile creation to the portal which would go to a 
third-party validator to check the qualifications and 
credentials (mandatory pre-admission validation) 
  The EU Talent Pool portal includes manual search 

functionalities using filters 

  The EU Talent Pool portal includes a semi-automatic 

matching tool that provides suggestions based on specific 
criteria, that the user/employer ultimately chooses 

provide (e.g. in relation to their qualifications, skills, 
or other relevant information) is correct and 
accurate 

  The EU Talent Pool portal includes a semi-

automatic matching tool that provides suggestions 
based on specific criteria, that the user/employer 
ultimately chooses 

  The EU Talent Pool portal uses a dedicated 

automatic matching tool 

  The EU Talent Pool refers candidates and employers to 
relevant documents, resources and explanations about 
equivalence or qualifications 

  The EU Talent Pool signposts candidates and 

employers to relevant documents, resources and 
explanations about equivalence or qualification 

  Transparency and comparability tools are embedded into 

  Transparency and comparability tools are 

the EU Talent Pool 

embedded into the EU Talent Pool 

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Cluster 

Policy option 1: Soft 
measures aiming at 
improving information 
provision and facilitating 
identification and matching 

Recruitment facilitation 
procedures 

  n/a 

Policy option 2: Developing a focused EU Talent Pool building on 
certain components of EURES and targeted to specific 
occupations 

Policy option 3: Developing an open EU Talent Pool for all 
occupations with a modernised matching platform 
inspired by other initiatives in the private sector 

Immigration authorities have direct access to validated 
profiles which have received a job offer with employers in 
the EU Talent Pool 

  Possible, voluntary fast-track procedures for some Member 

  Fast-track procedures for the immigration and 

recognition process for candidates which have been 
successfully validated and matched in the EU Talent 
Pool 

States for the immigration and recognition process for 
candidates which have been successfully validated and 
matched in the EU Talent Pool 

Specific support 
services for 
candidates and 
employers 

  Specific support with 

information on working 
conditions, recognition 
procedures, and 
immigration to Member 
States for candidates is 
made available on the 
EU Talent Pool. 

User experience 

  The EU Immigration 

Portal is expanded to 
include more 
information which is 
relevant for employers 
and third country 
nationals. 

  Specific support with information on working conditions, 

  Specific support with information on working 

recognition procedures, and immigration to Member States 
for candidates is made available on the EU Talent Pool 
  National Contact Points (NCPs) provide targeted support to 
candidates which have been successfully validated and 
matched in the EU Talent Pool 

conditions, recognition procedures, and immigration 
to Member States for candidates is made available 
on the EU Talent Pool 

  National Contact Points (NCPs) provide targeted 

support to candidates which have been successfully 
validated and matched in the EU Talent Pool 

  The inclusion of information on immigration and recognition 
procedures and working and living conditions directly in the 
EU Talent Pool portal (including the provision of links to the 
Immigration Portal), or 

  Same as under PO2, plus: 
  A unique, new website that utilises existing IT 

platforms at EU level is designed 

  A new IT solution with a unique IT entry point with 

  The integration of the revamped and upgraded version of 

its own visual identity is developed 

the Immigration Portal (which will then disappear) in the EU 
Talent Pool  

Source: elaboration of the contractor (2023)

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5.4. Detailed description of the retained policy measures 

Below, for each of the themes considered, a separate section is presented with an 
introduction  describing  what  is  considered  under  this  theme,  as  well  as  an 
overview  of  all  the  retained  policy  measures  considered  under  it  including  a 
detailed description and the specific problem drivers these aim to address. A few 
policy  measures  set  out  in  the  long  list  above  have  been  discarded,  the  policy 
measures concerned and the reasons for discarding them are set out in section 
5.5. 

5.4.1. Governance 

In the context of developing an EU Talent Pool, "governance" refers to the system, 
structure,  and  processes  put  in  place  to  manage  and  oversee  the  talent  pool's 
operations, policies, and decision-making. It encompasses the mechanisms and 
framework  through  which  the  talent  pool  would  be  structured,  regulated,  and 
guided  to  ensure  its  effectiveness,  fairness,  and  accountability.  The  policy 
measures reflecting the different types of governance will influence the context of 
all the other policy measures due to the importance of the governance structure of 
each option and sub-option for the EU Talent Pool. The table below presents more 
details on each of the measures considered under this theme.

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# 

Policy Measure 

Problem 
Driver 

Description 

Most affected 
stakeholders 

Table 37: Detailed description of the policy measures under the theme of governance 

1 

Governance  of  the  EU  Talent  Pool 
through already-existing  bodies  at  EU 
and / or national level 

Three-layered  governance  of  the  EU 
Talent  Pool 
through  a  Secretariat 
within  the  European  Commission,  a 
Steering Group, and National Contact 
Points 

Creation  of  liaison  offices  in  Third 
Countries via Talent Partnerships 

2 

3 

All 

All 

All 

November, 2023 

Governance through different existing bodies will be explored for all 
policy  options  and  sub-options:  governance  under  the  European 
Commission.  For  PO1.A,  the  possibility  of  having  the  Immigration 
Portal managed via a tender will be explored, for 1.B management  
by  the  European  Commission  directly  is  considered.  For  1.C, 
management  directly  by  the  European  Commission  is  considered. 
For  PO2,  the  governance  structure  of  EURES  will  be  largely 
recreated. In the case the EURES structure cannot be completely re-
used,  Member  States  will  have  to  designate  national  coordination 
bodies (e.g. based on those that are there with EURES, but with, for 
instance, the involvement of immigration authorities, etc.). Moreover, 
management  through  delegations  in  the  context  of  the  Talent 
Partnerships will be explored. Finally, for PO3, management by EU-
LISA and EUAA will be explored. 
Three-layered  governance  of  the  EU  Talent  Pool  established  by 
having  an  EU  Talent  Pool  Secretariat  within 
the  European 
Commission responsible for the overall management of the initiative; 
an  EU  Talent  Pool  Steering  Group  composed  of  Member  States 
representatives  from  the  immigration  and  employment  authorities 
and responsible for defining operational objectives at higher political 
level;  and  EU  Talent  Pool  National  Contact  Points  designated  by 
each  participating  Member  State  and  responsible  for  the  practical 
implementation of the EU Talent Pool at national level.  
The EU Talent Pool is a tool to make Talent partnerships operational 
as  a  vehicle  through  which  TCNs  from  partner  countries  are 
channelled  to  a  job  placement  in  the  participating  Member  State. 
Specific rules on registration, participation and validation would apply 
in this context.  In relation to measure  2 for  Policy Option 2, liaison 
offices would be established in third countries participating to Talent 
Partnerships. Private stakeholders, as well as Member States during 
targeted consultations, highlighted the value of linking the EU Talent 
Pool by providing a framework for the recruitment of TCNs who have 
benefited from support in the context of Talent Partnerships. 

  DG HOME/DG 

EMPL 

  ELA 
  Eu-LISA 
  EUAA 

  DG HOME/EMPL 

  EU Delegations in 
third countries 

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5.4.2. Scope of application 

Source: elaboration of the contractor (2023) 

The "scope of application" within the development of an EU talent pool pertains to the defined criteria or conditions that establish who 
the Talent Pool would aim to serve and engage with. In so doing, it sets the limits and guidelines for accessing the resources, services, 
and opportunities offered by the talent pool. The table below presents more details on each of the measures considered under  this 
theme. 

Table 38: Detailed description of the policy measures under the theme of scope of application 

# 

Policy Measure 

The  EU  Talent  Pool  is  open  to 
potential 
and 
employers 
applications across all sectors 

Problem 
Driver 
All 

4 

Description 

Most affected stakeholders 

The  EU  Talent  Pool  would  allow  participation  from  employers  and 
TCNs  across  all  sectors  and  industries.  This  would  mean  that 
employers from any sector would be able to utilise the Talent Pool to 
search for suitable candidates, and individuals with diverse skills and 
qualifications  could  apply  for  job  opportunities  in  any  field;  it  is 
considered  for  Policy  Options  1  and  3.  This  policy  measure  aligns 
with  the  perspective  expressed  by  several  stakeholders  during  the 
consultation  process, as  they emphasised the  necessity for an  EU 
Talent Pool to be open to all skills, as opposed to limiting its scope to 
specific job categories. 

  ELA 
  ETF 
  NCPs (most probably PES) 
  CEDEFOP 
  Organisations representing 

employers (e.g. 
Eurochambers, 
BusinesEurope, SMEUnited) 

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# 

Policy Measure 

Problem 
Driver 

Description 

Most affected stakeholders 

5 

The  EU  Talent  Pool  is  open  to 
employers  and 
third  country 
nationals for occupations identified 
as of  EU and national  relevance 

All 

Specific  support  measures 
for 
persons  in  need  of  international 
protection  displaced 
third 
countries  who  meet  criteria  to  be 
admitted to the EU Talent Pool 

in 

Candidates who fulfil the criteria of 
the EU Blue Card are admitted to 
the EU Talent Pool 

6 

7 

All 

All 

those 

This  measure  would  entail  that  the  EU  Talent  Pool  accepts 
participation from both employers and third country nationals who are 
interested  in  working  in  occupations  identified  as  of  strategic 
relevance.139  For  instance,  the  Talent  Pool  would  focus  on  certain 
sectors or occupations that have been identified by Member States 
and  at  EU-level  (e.g.  sectors  identified  as  having  a  high  demand 
which cannot be satisfied via intra-EU mobility). Employers in these 
occupations  can  access  the  EU  Talent  Pool  to  find  potential 
candidates,  while  third  country  nationals  with  relevant  skills  and 
qualifications  can  register  their  profiles  and  apply  for  concrete  job 
opportunities  within 
identified  occupations.  This  study 
considers particularly the following sectors or types of occupations in 
detail:  jobs  for  the  greening  of  the  economy,  jobs  for  the  digital 
transition, and health care. Ultimately, the list of occupations for the 
EUTP will be based on a list developed by the Commission on the 
basis of a list of occupations with shortages in each Member State. 
In addition to other eligible third country nationals, this measure aims 
to open the scope of the applications to the EU Talent Pool to people 
in need of international protection displaced in third countries. This is 
based on the assessment that there are currently limited routes for 
people in need of international protection in third countries into labour 
pathways in the EU (see problem definition for details). [under both 
PO2 and 3: clarify which support measures] 
This measure limits the access to the Talent Pool only to TCNs who 
would fulfil the criteria for the EU Blue Card. [specify under which PO 
and  move  above  under  targeted  occupations,  clarify  this  is  an 
alternative of the list of occupations] 

  ELA 
  NCPs (most probably PES) 

  CEDEFOP  
  Organisations representing 

employers (e.g. 
Eurochambers, 
BusinessEurope, 
SMEUnited) 

  UNHCR, IOM 
  EUAA 

IT experts / developers with 
knowledge of existing systems 
(e.g. Talent beyond 
boundaries) 

  European Commission 
  Potential users 

139 However, under this measure, the Talent Pool could still be open for TCNs active in additional sectors from third countries participating in the Talent Partnerships. 

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# 

Policy Measure 

Problem 
Driver 

Description 

Most affected stakeholders 

8 

EU Member States have the option 
to voluntarily participate in the EU 
Talent Pool 

All 

9 

EU Member States are required to 
participate in the EU Talent Pool 

All 

EU  Member  States  would  be  able  to  choose  whether  or  not  to 
participate in the EU Talent Pool under this measure. Only interested 
Member States can decide to participate and they would thus notify 
the European Commission about their interest to take part to the EU 
Talent  pool.  Member  States  can  be  free  to  choose  whether  they 
would  like  to  do  so  in  parallel  or  instead  of  their  current  national 
system in case they have this. If a Member State does not participate 
in the Talent Pool.  The  alternative of having  a  mandatory tool will 
also be assessed under this measure.  [add PO]  

the  EUTP  would  address  a  need 
The  voluntary  nature  of 
underscored  by  numerous  EU  Member  States  during 
the 
consultation  process  to  uphold  a  voluntary  approach  to  the  Talent 
Pool.  Each  Member  State  possesses  its  own  entry  rules  for  TCNs 
and  distinct  employment  policies  concerning  them.  Therefore, 
participation should indeed be voluntary, and the Talent Pool should 
remain accessible for subsequent participants. This approach would 
enable  tailoring  the  EUTP  to  the  specific  requirements  of  each 
individual  Member  State,  since  Member  State  hold  the  most 
comprehensive understanding of its own context. 
The  EU  Talent  Pool  as  a  mandatory  tool  applicable  to  all  Member 
States. This implies that EU Member States would have an obligation 
to  participate  in  the  EU  Talent  Pool  and  be  required  to  be  actively 
contribute to its functioning. However, they would still be able to keep 
their own national systems at the same time in parallel if they would 
wish so, meaning parallel systems could exist next to each other in 
the  worst-case  scenario.  The  alternative  of  having  a  voluntary  tool 
will also be assessed under this measure.  
Source: elaboration of the contractor (2023) 

  Ministries responsible for 
policymaking on labour 
migration 

  Employers and TCNs 

  Ministries responsible for 
policymaking on labour 
migration 

  Employers and TCNs 

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5.4.3. Interoperability 

“Interoperability" refers to the ability of different systems, platforms, or databases to seamlessly communicate, exchange data, and 
work  together  effectively.  This  would  involve  the  integration  and  compatibility  of  various  components  within  the  EU  Talent  Pool 
ecosystem to ensure smooth and efficient operations. The table below presents more details on each of the measures considered 
under this theme. 

# 

Policy Measure 

Problem 
Driver 

Description 

Most affected stakeholders 

Table 39: Detailed description of the policy measures under the theme of interoperability 

10 

The  EU  Talent  Pool  is 
with 
interoperable 
existing 
/ 
systems  at  European 
level 

platforms 

PD3 

11 

The  EU  Talent  Pool  is 
with 
interoperable 
existing 
at 
national level 

platforms 

PD3 

This measure proposes compatibility and integration between the Talent 
Pool  and  other  existing  platforms  or  systems  at  European  level  (e.g. 
EURES,  Europass).  This  measure  aims  to  leverage  the  strengths  of 
existing platforms, both public and private (i.e. only for Policy option 3, for 
instance  LinkedIn,  SkillLab,  etc.),  to  enhance  the  efficiency  and 
effectiveness of the EU Talent Pool.  
The  job  vacancies  registered  on  the  EURES  platform  would  then  be 
transferred to the EU Talent Pool for wider exposure and consideration 
by the candidates within the Talent Pool but only if the labour market test 
is concluded. This integration between the EURES IT Platform and the 
EU Talent Pool would while leveraging the existing infrastructure of the 
EURES platform.  
Interoperability was highlighted by many stakeholders during consultation 
as  a  crucial  aspect  to  align  the  existence  of  the  EURES  platform  and 
leverage synergies across different instruments.  
This measure proposes interoperability between the EU Talent Pool and 
existing  national-level  services  (national  databases  for  recruitment  or 
existing  talent  attraction  platforms  at  national  level).  Under  PO2,  the 
interoperability  with  national  systems  if  EURES  is  automatic  as  this  is 
currently already the case, even if it would need adaptation in case the 
database is extended due to the Talent Pool). ESCO would support this 
type of interoperability as a multilingual semantic asset. 

  ELA  
  Europass Advisory Group 
  EURES EGC 
  NCPs (most probably PES) from 

Member States with similar 
recruitment programmes/platforms  

  Recruitment platforms/agencies 

(e.g. LinkedIn, SkillLab) 

  Ministries from Member States 
(Employment, Immigration) 
  NCPs (most probably PES) 

12 

The  EU  Talent  Pool  is 
interoperable with private 
platforms 

November, 2023 

PD3 

Interoperability  with  private  recruitment  and  hiring  platforms,  such  as 
Linkedin and other similar platforms. [po?? Also mentioned in first row] 

  Recruitment platforms (e.g. 

Linkedin) 

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5.4.4. Pathway for employers and potential applicants 

Source: elaboration of the contractor (2023) 

The pathway for employers and potential applicants represents the process or pathway that they would go through from the initial 
point  of  engagement with  the  talent  pool until the  final outcome  of  a  candidate’s application.  It encompasses  the  various  stages, 
touchpoints, and interactions between the employer/applicant and the talent pool. The figure below provides an overview of the six 
main steps within the pathway which can be distinguished.  

Figure 41: Overview of the pathway for employers and potential applicants to interact with the EU Talent Pool 

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Source: elaboration of the contractor (2023) 

The table below presents more details on each of the measures considered under each of the stages described above under this 
theme. 

Table 40: Detailed description of the policy measures under the theme of pathway for employers and potential applicants 

# 

Policy Measure 

Problem 
Driver 

Description 

Most affected stakeholders 

13 

Employers are not subject 
to  any  quality  assurance 
checks 

PD3 

Stage 1: Quality assurance checks for employers 

This measure  implies that  employers who wish to participate in the  EU Talent 
Pool would  not  be required to undergo  any specific quality assurance checks. 
They would be able to directly register and access the Talent Pool without any 
formal  evaluation  or  screening  by  the  talent  pool  administrators  or  any  other 
relevant  authorities.  This  approach  assumes  that  employers  would  be  able  to 
engage in the Talent Pool without additional scrutiny or verification. Vacancies 
forwarded  to  the  Talent  Pool  by  NCPs  (only  for  the  policy  options  where  the 
involvement of these is included under the governance of the system) or private 
recruitment  services  may  come,  at  the  same  time,  from  employers  who  were 
checked  according  to  the  existing  national  rules  or  recruitment  company 
procedures. For this measure, both scenarios for direct registration of profiles by 
TCNs and registration through NCPs will be considered. 

  Potential users: employers 

(and/or organisations 
representing employers) 

14 

to 

the 

Employers  are  subject  to 
quality  assurance  checks 
similar 
ones 
conducted in the context of 
Public 
EURES 
by 
Services 
Employment 
respective 
within  each 
Member 
and 
respecting  the  Charter  of 
Fair Recruitment 

State 

PD1 

This measure would introduce quality assurance checks for employers that wish 
to participate in the EU Talent Pool which are similar to those conducted by the 
NCPs  within  their  respective  EU  Member  States  to  ensure  that  participating 
employers meet certain standards and requirements. These quality assurance 
checks will respect the Charter of Fair Recruitment (such as the one created for 
EURAXESS,  see:  https://euraxess.ec.europa.eu/jobs/charter/code)..  This  will 
follow  the  current  EURES  model  where  the  model  of  the  quality  assurance 
checks  conducted  within  EURES  can  be  re-used.  This  measure  could  be 
combined with the option of direct registration under measure 15. 

  NCPs (most probably PES) 

IOM 
ILO  
  ETUC 
  Organisations representing 

employers (e.g. 
Eurochambers, 
BusinessEurope, 
SMEUnited) 

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# 

Policy Measure 

Problem 
Driver 

Employers  are  subject  to 
stricter  quality  assurance 
checks  as  compared  to 
measure 14 

15 

PD1 

Job  vacancies  can  be 
directly  registered  in  the 
EU  Talent  Pool 
by 
employers 

Job 
are 
vacancies 
registered  by  National 
Contact Points 

16 

17 

PD1 

PD1 

Description 

Most affected stakeholders 

This  measure  entails  that  employers  interested  in  joining  the  EU  Talent  Pool 
would undergo more rigorous quality assurance checks compared to the ones 
described  under the previous measure (measure 13). These additional quality 
assurance  checks  could  involve  a  more  in-depth  assessment  of  employers' 
qualifications (e.g. authorisations to carry out certain activities), financial stability, 
legal compliance (i.e. no ongoing court cases), code of conducts and possible 
trainings on fair recruitment, or any other relevant aspects. The aim is to ensure 
a higher level of scrutiny and selectivity for employers participating in the Talent 
Pool,  potentially  also  raising  the  standards  and  quality  of  job  opportunities 
available to candidates. Alternatively, automatic screening is considered under 
Policy Option 3. 
This  measure  was  particularly  encouraged  by  a  series  of  stakeholders  during 
consultations, both at the level of authorities and NGOs, who advised otherwise 
about the potential risk of unfair recruitment practices.  
Stage 2: Job vacancy creation by employers 

Under this measure, employers would also have the possibility to directly register 
their job vacancies within the EU Talent Pool. Employers would be able to access 
the Talent Pool's platform or system and input the details of their job openings, 
such as job titles, descriptions, requirements, and application procedures. 

This  measure  is  an  alternative  to  measure  16,  where  it  is  not  the  employers 
directly  uploading their vacancies,  but the  NCPs doing so after screening and 
selection. 

  Potential users: employers 

(and/or organisations 
representing employers) 
  NCPs (most probably PES) 

IOM 
ILO 
  ETUC 
  Organisations representing 

employers (e.g. 
Eurochambers, 
BusinessEurope, 
SMEUnited) 

  Potential users: employers 

(and/or organisations 
representing employers) 
  NCPs (most probably PES) 

  NCPs (most probably PES) 

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Stage 3: Profile creation by candidates 

18 

Candidates  are  required  to 
create a profile within the EU 
Talent Pool portal and upload 
their  details  manually  (e.g. 
details, 
personal 
skills, 
qualifications, 
experience, 
other 
and 
relevant information) 

PD1 

this 

Pool's 

based 

information 

Under 
measure, 
candidates participating in the 
EU  Talent  Pool  would  be 
a 
requested 
create 
to 
the 
personal  profile  within 
portal, 
Talent 
potentially 
on 
Europass.  This  could  include 
inputting  details 
manually 
such  as  qualifications,  skills, 
work  experience, 
language 
knowledge,  and  any  other 
that 
pertinent 
would 
their 
showcase 
background  and  expertise. 
Candidates  would 
typically 
complete  an  online  form  or 
questionnaire provided by the 
Talent  Pool,  ensuring 
that 
their profile accurately reflects 
and 
their 
qualifications 
this 
abilities.  Under  PO2, 
includes on the equivalence of 
qualifications  in  EU  Member 
States.  This  could  include  a 
that 
self-declaration  stating 
candidates 
in 
targeted  sectors/occupations 
(i.e.  under  PO2 and PO3), to 
be checked by employers in a 
the 
later  stage 
matching. 

can  work 

following 

  Potential users: TCNs (Third 

Country Nationals) 

November, 2023 

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19 

Candidates  are  required  to 
submit  their  CV  directly  in  a 
standardised format in the EU 
Talent Pool portal after which 
the software will process this 

PD1 

to  submit 

This  measure  would  require 
candidates 
their 
Curriculum Vitae (CV) directly 
format 
in  a  standardised 
through  the  EU  Talent  Pool 
portal.  Candidates  would  be 
able  to  directly  register  their 
profile on the EU Talent Pool 
created  via  Europass  profile 
builder. 
minimum 
The 
requirements  for  the  profiles 
would  be  determined  on  the 
basis  of  European  Skills, 
Competences,  Qualifications 
and  Occupations 
(ESCO). 
Once the CV is submitted, the 
Talent  Pool's  system  would 
process  and  analyse  the  CV 
data, 
relevant 
information  and  populating 
profile 
the 
automatically.  Under 
this 
measure,  the  possibility  of 
uploading 
documents 
additional  to  their  CV  is  also 
considered. 

candidate's 

extracting 

  Potential users: TCNs (Third 

Country Nationals) 

  Employers 
  Member States 

November, 2023 

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Stage 4.1: Pre-screening of candidates 

20 

The profiles of the candidates 
to  the  EU  Talent  Pool  would 
not  undergo  an  initial  pre-
screening 

PD1 

Candidates  would  be  subject 
to an automatic pre-screening 
to  check  whether  the  third 
country national has the right 
skills or qualifications to work 
in  the  targeted  occupations. 
The  pre-screening  criteria 
shall be commonly agreed by 
the  participating  Member 
States.  For 
instance,  one 
specific  criterion  could  be 
linked 
of 
occupations  of  national  and 
EU  relevance.  They  might 
also 
include  more  general 
academic  and  professional 
qualifications, 
skills, 
professional  experience  and 
language  knowledge  relevant 
the 
to  be  employed 
occupations  of  EU  and 
national relevance. 

the 

list 

to 

in 

  Potential users: TCNs (Third 

Country Nationals) 

  Employers 
  Member States 
  Organisations representing 

employers (e.g. 
Eurochambers, 
BusinessEurope, 
SMEUnited) 

November, 2023 

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The profiles of the candidates 
to  the  EU  Talent  Pool  would 
undergo  an  initial  automatic 
on 
pre-screening 
specific admission criteria  

based 

PD1 

an 

This  measure  indicates  that 
the  candidate  profiles  within 
the  EU  Talent  Pool  would  be 
initial 
to 
subjected 
automatic 
pre-screening 
process to check whether the 
TCN  has  the  right  skills  or 
qualifications  to  work  in  the 
targeted occupations. [explain 
under  PO2  and  linked  to  the 
list] The pre-screening criteria 
shall  be  based  on  the  list  of 
occupations of national and of 
EU  relevance.  They  might 
include 
and 
professional 
qualifications, 
skills, professional experience 
and 
knowledge 
relevant to be employed in the 
occupations  of  EU  and 
national relevance. 

academic 

language 

  Potential users: TCNs (Third 

Country Nationals) 

  Employers 
  Member States 

Stage 4.2: Validation of candidates140 

in 

Candidates  self-declare  that 
the  information  they  provide 
(e.g. 
their 
relation 
qualifications,  skills,  or  other 
relevant 
is 
correct and accurate 

information) 

to 

PD2 

Candidates  participating 
in 
the  EU  Talent  Pool  would  be 
required  to  declare  that  the 
information they submit, such 
as  their  qualifications,  skills, 
work  experience,  and  other 
relevant details, is truthful and 
accurate  to  the  best  of  their 
knowledge.  The  information 
provided by candidates would 
then  be  later  screened  by 
following  being 
employers 
matched in the system.  

  Potential users: TCNs (Third 

Country Nationals) 

21 

22 

November, 2023 

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23 

Candidates  are  required  to 
submit supporting documents 
during  the  profile  creation  to 
the  portal,  which  under  the 
request  of  employers  or 
TCNs,  would  be  validated  at 
level  by  existing 
national 
national  pathways  (optional 
post-admission validation) 

PD2 

and 

upload 

Candidates would be required 
to 
submit 
supporting  documents,  such 
certificates, 
as  education 
training  records,  employment 
references  or  any  other 
relevant documents to the EU 
Talent  Pool  portal.  These 
documents  would  serve  as 
evidence of the qualifications, 
skills,  or  other 
information 
provided by the candidates in 
their  profiles.  The  respective 
employer, who is interested in 
considering  a candidate  for a 
job 
be 
vacancy,  would 
responsible for validating and 
verifying 
submitted 
the 
documents  to  ensure  their 
authenticity and accuracy. 

  Potential users: TCNs (Third 

Country Nationals) 

  Potential users: employers 

(and/or organisations 
representing employers) 

November, 2023 

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24 

25 

Candidates  are  required  to 
submit supporting documents 
during  the  profile  creation  to 
the portal which would go to a 
third-party  validator  to  check 
the 
and 
qualifications 
credentials  (mandatory  pre-
admission validation) 

PD2 

Stage 5: Searching and matching 

Candidates  are  required  to 
submit supporting documents 
during  the  profile  creation  to 
the portal which would go to a 
third-party  validator  to  check 
the 
and 
qualifications 
credentials  (mandatory  pre-
admission validation) 

PD2 

independent 

Candidates  would  upload 
their supporting documents to 
the EU Talent Pool portal, and 
these  documents  would  then 
be  assessed  and  verified  by 
an 
third-party 
validator,  which  could  be  a 
new EU body acting as a third-
party  validator  or  private 
recruitment  agencies.  The 
purpose of this validation is to 
the  credibility  and 
ensure 
authenticity of the candidates' 
qualifications,  credentials,  or 
other relevant information. 

independent 

Candidates  would  upload 
their supporting documents to 
the EU Talent Pool portal, and 
these  documents  would  then 
be  assessed  and  verified  by 
an 
third-party 
validator,  which  could  be  a 
new EU body acting as a third-
party  validator  or  private 
recruitment  agencies.  The 
purpose of this validation is to 
the  credibility  and 
ensure 
authenticity of the candidates' 
qualifications,  credentials,  or 
other relevant information. 

  Potential users: TCNs (Third 

Country Nationals) 

  Private employment agencies 
and recruitment agencies  

  Potential users: TCNs (Third 

Country Nationals) 

  Private employment agencies 
and recruitment agencies  

November, 2023 

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26 

The  EU  Talent  Pool  portal 
includes  a  semi-automatic 
matching  tool  that  provides 
suggestions based on specific 
the 
criteria, 
user/employer 
ultimately 
chooses 

that 

PD1 

This  measure  introduces  a 
semi-automatic  matching  tool 
within  the  EU  Talent  Pool 
portal.  Such  tool  would  use 
algorithms 
predefined 
or 
criteria  to  analyse  the  user's 
requirements 
and 
preferences,  and  based  on 
this  analysis,  would  generate 
suggested  candidate  profiles 
that may be a good fit. Under 
this measure, the NCOs could 
have  the  role  of  providing 
personalised  assistance 
to 
identify the right candidate/job 
vacancy.  Under  PO2,  the  re-
using of EURES matching tool 
and filters is considered. 

  Potential users: employers 

(and/or organisations 
representing employers) 

November, 2023 

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27 

The  EU  Talent  Pool  uses  a 
dedicated automatic matching 
tool 

PD1 

utilise 

The  EU  Talent  Pool  portal 
would  use  a  dedicated 
automatic  matching  tool  for 
matching between candidates 
and  job  vacancies.  The  tool 
advanced 
would 
algorithms 
and  machine 
learning  techniques  that  can 
process  unstructured  data  in 
the  CVs  or  other  documents 
uploaded by the candidates to 
match 
automatically 
candidate  profiles  with 
job 
vacancies 
employer 
or 
requirements.  Based  on  this 
analysis, 
tool  would 
calculate  match  scores  and 
generate automated matches, 
identifying  the  most  suitable 
candidates 
job 
opportunities.  

for  specific 

the 

  Potential users: employers 

(and/or organisations 
representing employers) 

November, 2023 

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Stage 6: Transparency of information and comparability tools 

28 

The EU Talent Pool signposts 
candidates  and  employers  to 
relevant 
documents, 
resources  and  explanations 
of 
about 
qualifications  

equivalence 

PD2 

in 

to 

and 

Integrated 
support 
employers  and  third  country 
better 
nationals 
understanding and comparing 
qualifications 
skills 
obtained from third countries. 
Candidates  and  employers 
can  receive  explanations  on 
the 
of 
equivalence 
qualifications  in  EU  Member 
States  (e.g.  on  categories 
used,  for  qualifications  and 
skills  distinguished  under  the 
relevant  EU 
frameworks, 
including the requirements for 
a given category). If possible, 
similar 
explanations  will 
accompany  the  standardised 
CV template. Links to external 
databases 
sites 
comparing  qualifications  and 
skills 
by 
be 
candidates  and  employers 
alike) will be provided, and the 
comparing 
possibilities  of 
qualifications 
frameworks 
from  third  countries  and  the 
Qualifications 
European 
(EQF)  will  be 
Framework 
explored.  

used 

and 

(to 

  Potential users: employers 

and TCNs 

  DG GROW/ DG EMPL 
  European Qualifications 

Framework Advisory Group 

  Group of coordinators on 

recognition of qualifications 

November, 2023 

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29 

and 
Transparency 
are 
comparability 
embedded into the EU Talent 
Pool 

tools 

PD2 

Source: elaboration of the contractor (2023) 

The EU Talent Pool will have 
embedded  tools  such  as  a 
multi-lingual 
occupational 
database,  e.g.  by  using 
academic 
ESCO, 
comparison 
qualifications 
tools, 
licence 
driver 
equivalence categories. In the 
case  of  ESCO,  which  is  a 
classification  of  occupations, 
skills 
competences 
relevant  for  the  EU  labour 
market  and  education  and 
training, 
this  measure  will 
explore the possibilities to use 
this classification. 

and 

  DG EMPL 
  ENIC-NARIC 
  ESCO Member States 

Working Group 

  European Qualifications 

Framework Advisory Group 

  Group of coordinators on 

recognition of qualifications 

November, 2023 

144 

 
 
 
 
 
5.4.5. Recruitment facilitation procedures 

Recruitment facilitation procedures refer to measures that enhance the recruitment and selection process of candidates from the EU 
Talent Pool by making it more efficient, streamlined, and effective. The table below presents more details on each of the measures 
considered under this theme. 

Table 41: Detailed description of the policy measures under recruitment facilitation procedures 

# 

Policy Measure 

Problem 
Driver 

Description 

30 

Immigration authorities have direct 
access to validated profiles which 
have  received  a  job  offer  with 
employers in the EU Talent Pool 

31 

for 

the 
Fast-track  procedures 
immigration 
recognition 
and 
process for candidates which have 
been  successfully  validated  and 
matched in the EU Talent Pool 

PD3 

PD3 

This  measure  would  entail  that  immigration  authorities  from  the  Member 
State  of  the  respective  employer  can  access  and  review  the  profiles  of 
candidates who have been successful in matchings with employers for a job 
position from vacancies posted by employers – upon an in-system request 
from the prospective employer and consent by the candidate. This access 
could  facilitate  immigration  procedures,  such  as  visa  applications  or  work 
permits, by streamlining the process and potentially expediting it based on 
the information available in the validated profiles. 

This  measure  involves  Member  States  introducing  fast-track  immigration 
and recognition procedures and exclusion from labour market tests. For PO 
2,  this  fast-track  possibility  will  be  optional,  whereas  for  PO  3  it  will  be 
mandatory to have fast-track procedures.  

Source: elaboration of the contractor (2023)

Most affected 
stakeholders 

  National authorities 
responsible for 
immigration in 
Member States 

  Employers 

  National authorities 
responsible for 
immigration in 
Member States  

  Employers 

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5.4.6. Specific support services for candidates and employers 

Specific  support  services  for  candidates  and  employers  entail  targeted  assistance  and  resources  to  help  both  candidates  and 
employers achieve their respective goals in the EU Talent Pool. The table below presents more details on each of the measures 
considered under this theme. 

Table 42: Detailed description of the policy measures under specific support services for candidates and employers 

# 

Policy Measure 

Problem 
Driver 

Description 

Most affected 
stakeholders 

32 

conditions, 

Specific  support  with  information  on 
recognition 
working 
to 
procedures  and 
is 
Member  States 
made available on the EU Talent Pool 

immigration 
for  candidates 

PD3 

include  details  about 

Under  this  measure,  the  platform  would  provide  written  assistance  and 
resources  to  candidates  regarding  the  recognition  of  qualifications  and 
credentials  in  different  Member  States,  as  well  as  information  on 
requirements for work permits and immigration to these countries. For PO 
1.A, this involves  the information from the Immigration Portal. For PO  2 
and  PO3,  this  includes  assessing  the  potential  addition  of  new  online 
information,  linking  to  the  EU  Immigration  Portal,  incorporating  the  EU 
Immigration Portal altogether, or integrating the upgraded version of the 
portal  as  under  PO1.  In  addition,  for  PO  2  and  PO  3,  integrating 
personalised  assistance  is  assessed.  For  information  on  recognition 
procedures  can 
the  specific  requirements, 
documentation, and processes that candidates need to follow to have their 
qualifications  recognised  in  a  particular  country  (as  well  as  competent 
authorities in the Member States). The EU Talent Pool can also provide 
support with information about immigration procedures by having relevant 
information  on  visa  requirements,  work  permit  information,  changes  in 
immigration policies,  documentation  guidance. The  information provided 
could be customised on a dynamic webpage, based on the specific profile 
of  the  candidate  (country  of  origin,  qualifications,  etc.)  and/or  specific 
employer  (Member  State,  sector  etc.).  Specific  support  for  displaced 
people in need of international protection should also be assessed (e.g. 
tailored  pre-arrival  and  post-arrival  support,  flagged  as  in  need  of 
international protection on the portal, only flagged by NCPs to interested 
employers, links with existing platforms/projects). 

  National authorities 
responsible for 
immigration in 
Member States 

  EURES 
  Potential users: 

TCNs 

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# 

Policy Measure 

33 

(NCPs) 
National  Contact  Points 
to 
provide 
targeted 
been 
candidates  which 
successfully validated and matched in 
the EU Talent Pool 

support 
have 

Problem 
Driver 

PD1 

Description 

National Contact Points would provide targeted support to employers (and 
possibly also to candidates) by offering targeted information and guidance 
under this measure, as well as additional information on the recognition of 
qualifications,  working  and  living  conditions  and  family  reunification, 
language support, and depending on the capabilities and capacities of the 
NCPs also on integration, family integration, and other relevant information 
for successful candidates who have been matched with employers in the 
EU.  

Source: elaboration of the contractor (2023)

Most affected 
stakeholders 

  Potential users: 

employers; TCNs 

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5.4.7. User experience 

User experience refers to the overall experience and satisfaction of candidates and employers when interacting with the platform. It 
encompasses the design, usability, and functionality of the platform, aiming to provide a positive and seamless experience  for all 
users. Different consultation methods revealed that while stakeholders do not exhibit a strong preference for any specific measures 
and perceive minimal differences in the costs associated with these measures, user-friendliness emerges as a highly emphasized 
theme in the development of each measure. The table below presents more details on each of the measures considered under this 
theme. 

# 

Policy Measure 

Problem 
Driver 

Description 

Table 43: Detailed description of the policy measures under user experience 

to 

The  EU  Immigration  Portal  is 
include  more 
expanded 
information  which  is  relevant  for 
employers  and 
third  country 
nationals 

A new IT architecture that utilises 
existing IT platforms at EU-level is 
designed 

A new IT solution with a unique IT 
entry  point  with  its  own  visual 
identity is developed 

34 

35 

36 

PD1 
PD3 

PD1 

PD1 

The  EU  Immigration  Portal  website  would  be  expanded  by  including  more 
information under this measure which could be relevant for both employers and 
third country nationals. This would entail extending the website by adding more 
languages than currently available (e.g. English, Spanish, French, Portuguese, 
Arabic)  and  making  the  website  more  user-friendly.  More  information  can  be 
added relevant to the specific scope of labour migration to specific Member States 
(e.g.  language  classes,  available  trainings,  resources  on  family  integration, 
relevant national platforms with job vacancies, as well as requirements for work 
permits and information on the recognition of qualifications).  
This measure would design a new IT architecture within the EU Talent pool that 
would establish connections and synergies with existing IT platforms at the EU 
level. These platforms could include established systems or databases that store 
relevant  information  about  job  vacancies,  candidate  profiles,  qualifications,  or 
skills.  
Creating a distinct digital platform that has its own distinctive user interface and 
visual design elements. It is different from the previous measure in that it starts 
from scratch and does not re-use elements from other platforms (e.g. EURES). 

Source: elaboration of the contractor (2023)

Most affected 
stakeholders 

  DG HOME 

  DG EMPL 
  ELA 
  Potential users: 

TCNs and 
employers 

  Eu-LISA 

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POOL 

5.5. Discarded policy measures 

The  table  below  lists  the  discarded  policy  measures  and  presents  the  key  reasons  for 
discarding them from the initial list throughout the study. Notably, the two policy measures 
are not present in the above list of policy measures because they have been discarded from 
a longer list of policy measures.  

Table 44: Discarded policy measures 

Cluster 

Policy measure 

Rationale 

No. from 
the long 
list (see 
Table) 

4 

25 

29 

30 

31 

40 

Scope 
application 

of 

Extending EURES as it is 
to include TCNs 

information 

Transparency 
of 
and 
comparability 
tools 

information 

Transparency 
of 
and 
comparability 
tools 

submit 

Candidates  are  required 
supporting 
to 
the 
documents  during 
profile  creation 
the 
to 
portal which would go to a 
third-party  validator 
to 
the  qualifications 
check 
credentials 
and 
(mandatory 
pre-
admission validation) 
Introducing 
a 
correspondence  grid  for 
automatic issuance of the 
between 
equivalence 
different  qualifications  or 
education systems 

information 

Transparency 
of 
and 
comparability 
tools 

tool  on 

Introducing  a  searchable 
EU-level 
third 
country  qualifications  or 
statements/  decisions  of 
recognition 

information 

Transparency 
of 
and 
comparability 
tools 

User 
experience 

authorities 
Immigration 
have  direct  access 
to 
validated  profiles  which 
have  received  a  job  offer 
with  employers  in  the  EU 
Talent Pool 
A  specific  mobile  phone 
application is created 

This is not possible legally speaking based on 
the EU treaties as EURES has a different legal 
basis  than  what  the  EUTP  will  have  as  the 
former covers EU citizens and the latter covers 
third country nationals. 
There  is  currently  no  harmonised  validation 
procedure at EU level, and creating this would 
imply extensive costs it would imply (i.e. a new 
Agency  would  have  to  be  created  as  the 
current  Agencies  do  not  have  the  legal 
mandate  to  do  this.  Moreover,  it  is  highly 
unlikely  that  member  States  would  give  up 
their own powers in this area. 

This policy measure was discarded because of 
the complexity it entails which goes beyond the 
scope  of  the  EU  Talent  Pool  whilst  also 
unnecessarily  complicating  it.  While  at  the 
same  time  already  existing  can  be  used  to 
reach the same goal  in a  more cost-effective 
way.  
Similar  to  the  above  measure,  this  policy 
measure was discarded due to its complexity 
that goes beyond the scope of the EU Talent 
Pool whilst also unnecessarily complicating it. 
As  above,  at  the  same  time  already  existing 
can be used to reach the same goal in a more 
cost-effective way. 
There  are 
from  a  data 
protection perspective regarding this measure. 
Moreover, it is considered disproportionate for 
its  purpose  and 
to  unnecessary 
leads 
duplication as checks would still have to be re-
conducted for immigration purposes. 
Creating a mobile application cannot be done 
for  Commission 
initiatives  under  current 
guidelines from DG COMM. 

legal  concerns 

Source: elaboration of the contractor (2023) 

November, 2023 

149 

 
 
 
 
6. Assessment of impacts 

This  chapter  forms  the  core  of  the  IA  where  firstly  a  situation  of  “no-change”  is 
discussed under the baseline scenario, followed by setting the foundations to estimate 
the impacts, impacts at macro-level and, finally costs and cost savings. 

6.1. Baseline scenario 

The following items are discussed as part of the dynamic baseline scenario: expected 
evolution of the EU labour force, expected evolution of labour and skills needs and, 
finally, expected evolution of migration. 

6.1.1. Expected evolution of the EU labour force 

As part of this topic, firstly population is discussed, followed by working age-population 
and old-age dependency ratio. 

6.1.1.1. 

Population 

The population of the EU27 – after an intermittent increase over the next few years 
which is explained by unusually high levels of immigration - is projected to reverse its 
historic  increasing  trend  in  Eurostat’s  EUROPOP  2023  baseline  projection,  entering 
an  era  of  population  decline  which  is  a  highly  significant  departure  from  post-war 
demographic developments at the EU level (note that the population declined in 2020 
and 2021141, attributable to the impacts of the Covid-19 epidemic on mortality, fertility, 
and  immigration  from  third  countries;  and  demographic  decline  is  already  being 
experienced  in  certain  Member  States  and  regions).  The  population  is  projected  to 
plateau at around 453 million inhabitants and slowly start to enter a long-term decline 
from 2027 onwards. While the population projected for 2030 (452.7 million) is slightly 
higher  than  corresponding  figures  for  2023  (451.4  million),  population  numbers  are 
projected to be in this model already in a decreasing trend. Under an alternative ‘low 
migration’ scenario, where the projected immigration from outside the EU is reduced 
by  a  third, the  Union’s  population  is projected  however to  decrease  significantly,  by 
0.9% (3.8 million) between 2023 and 2030, whereas the decrease is expected to be 
approximately by 1.8% (8.0 million) in a scenario when there is no net migration.  

Under a  ‘high migration’ scenario,  where projected  immigration  figures  from outside 
the EU are increased by a third in respect of the baseline, Eurostat’s model projects 
an increase in the EU27’s population by 1.5% (6.5 million). 

141 EU population increases again after two years decrease - Products Eurostat News - Eurostat (europa.eu) 

150 

November, 2023 

 
 
 
Figure 42: Population: actual and Eurostat projections (different scenarios) up to 2030, EU27 

Source: Population on 1st of January [TPS00001__custom_7062984], Population on 1st January by age, sex and type of 
projection [PROJ_23NP__custom_6678661] 

At  the  Member  State  level,  the  EUROPOP2023  projections  highlight  dramatic 
differences  in  demographic  trajectories.  The  baseline  projection  shows  population 
increases by 2030 in 14 countries (AT, BE, CY, DE, DK, ES, FI, FR, IE, LU, MT, NL, 
SE, SI), with Malta (+14%), Luxembourg (+12%) and Ireland (+5%) growing the most 
thanks to large-scale immigration, while 13 countries (BG, CZ, EE, EL, HR, HU, IT, LT, 
LV, PL, PT, RO, SK) will lose population. The largest relative population decreases are 
projected for Latvia (-7%), Bulgaria (-5%), Lithuania, Romania, Croatia and Greece (-
4% each). 

Figure 43: Population projections up to 2030, by Member State (baseline projection; 2023 = 100%) 

Source: Population on 1st January by age, sex and type of projection [PROJ_23NP__custom_6678661] 

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Projected  population  trends  tend  to  be  more  negative  in  Member  States  with  lower 
GDP per capita figures. 

Figure 44: Population projections up to 2030 vs. GDP per capita (2022), by Member State 
(baseline projection; 2023 = 100%) 

Source: Population on 1st January by age, sex and type of projection [PROJ_23NP__custom_6678661], GDP per capita in PPS 
[NAMA_10_PC__custom_7073439] 

At the same time, this projected population decrease is coupled with a general ageing 
of the EU27’s population, which has been an ongoing demographic process for many 
years and will rapidly continue in the future, according to EUROPOP2023 projections. 
The share of population aged 65 and over is projected to grow to 23.7% by 2030 (the 
corresponding value in 2022 was 21.2%), while the proportion of persons aged 80 and 
over will grow from 6.1% to 6.9%. The share of children below the age of 15 is projected 
to decline from 15.0% to 14.1%, and the share of working age population, aged 15-64, 
is projected to fall from its 63.9% share in 2022 to 62.2% by 2030. 

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Figure 45: Population broken down by age group, EU27, baseline projection (percentage) 

Source: Population on 1st January by age, sex and type of projection [PROJ_23NP__custom_6678661] 

6.1.1.2. 

Working-age population 

The  decline  of  the  share  of  the  working-age  population  leads  to  a  corresponding 
decline in absolute numbers, which is appearing already in the projections by 2030 but 
is expected to accelerate afterwards. The EUROPOP23 baseline scenario projects – 
under the assumption that exceptional immigration levels will gradually return to the 
historic average by 2027 - that the number will drop by 1.3% (a minus of 3.7 million 
persons) by 2030. The lower migration and no net migration scenarios involve more 
pronounced drops of 2.7% (-7.6 million) and 3.8% (-10.8 million), respectively. The size 
of  the  working-age  population  is  projected  to  slightly  increase  under  the  higher 
migration scenario, by 0.1% (+0.3 million persons) by 2030. 

It is to be noted again that the temporary reprieve of projected demographic decrease 
until 2024 is due to the unusually high number of immigrants that have recently arrived 
in  the  Union  -  and  the  modelling  method  employed  by  Eurostat  that  only  gradually 
reduces 2022 outlier figures until 2027 (when the projection arrives back at long-term 
historic averages). The extra boost in the 2022 numbers is coming predominantly from 
refugees who did not primarily come for employment reasons, and/or might not want 
to reside in the EU for long; they will thus not necessarily integrate into the labour force. 

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Figure 46: Working-age population (15-64), EU27 (2022=100%) 

Source : Population on 1st January by age, sex and type of projection [PROJ_23NP__custom_6678661] 

The  projected  decline  in  the  EU27  masks  very  different  demographic  trends  across 
Member States. Working-age population is in fact projected to increase between 2022 
and 2030 in 12 Member States (MT, LU, IE, SE, CZ, CY, ES, EE, BE, FI, NL, FR). 
Seven Member States (BG, RO, PT, LT, EL, HR, LV), all with relatively low GDP per 
capita, are however projected to see declines in their working-age population of 5% or 
more, according to the baseline population projections of Eurostat. 

Figure 47: Change in working-age population (2022-2030), baseline projection, by Member State 

Source : Population on 1st January by age, sex and type of projection [PROJ_23NP__custom_6678661] 

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154 

 
 
 
 
At the level of NUTS3 regions, the working-age population was projected to continue 
shrinking the most in predominantly rural areas in Eurostat’s earlier EUROPOP2019 
projections (the latest for which figures at NUTS3 level have been published142), and 
the  least  in  predominantly  urban  regions.  The  latter  have  somewhat  younger 
populations and are attracting more immigration. Although the regional breakdown was 
not available for the EUROPOP2023 projection at the time of the baseline analysis, it 
can be assumed that this pattern has remained stable. It is also to be noted that the 
share  of  working  age  population  as  a  percentage  of  total  population  was  already 
slightly lower in rural and intermediate regions than in urban regions in 2022. 

6.1.1.3. 

Old-age dependency ratio 

The shrinking working-age population will continue to put more and more pressure on 
the EU’s pension and social protection systems in the long run. The challenge can be 
seen  in  the  high  and  ever  increasing  old-age  dependency  ratios  in  Europe:  this 
indicator  shows  the  number  of  persons  aged  65  and  over  (i.e.  the  age  when  they 
generally  become,  or  have  traditionally  become,  economically  inactive)  per  100 
persons  of  working  age,  i.e.  aged  between  15  and  64,  the  usual  range  used  by 
Eurostat.143 

As presented on the chart below, the old-age dependency ratio – already at a very high 
33.0 in international comparison in 2022 – is projected to grow quickly in the coming 
years,  to  38.0  by  2030  under  the  baseline  scenario.  The  lower  migration  scenario 
projects a 38.5 dependency ratio by 2030, and the no net migration scenario 39.0. 

Figure 48: Old-age dependency ratio (population 65+ vs. 15-64 years), EU27 

Source : Population on 1st January by age, sex and type of projection [PROJ_23NP__custom_6678661] 

142  Note  that the  EU-  and  national-level figures in  the  2019  Eurostat population  projection  differ from those  in the  latest  2023 
projection, primarily due to volatility in migration. 
143 The indicator can be calculated using other age ranges as well, e.g. 20-64, where the lower bound is more accurately grasping 
the average age for persons to become economically active, considering the spread of tertiary education. 

155 

November, 2023 

 
 
 
 
In some countries - and in rural regions – the problem will likely be more prevalent.  

By 2030, the old-age dependency ratio is projected to surpass 40.0 in 6 Member States 
(PT, IT, EL, HR, FI, DE), while remaining below 30.0 only in 4 (MT, CY, IE, LU). The 
projected  ranking  shows  a  somewhat  different  picture  than  the  starting  positions  of 
these  countries  in  2022.  This  is  to  a  large  extent  a  consequence  of  the  chosen 
projection  methodology  of  Eurostat  which assumes  that  the distribution of migration 
flows between Member States (net migration) will approximate over time their share of 
the EU27 population. If net migration ratios will markedly differ between countries in 
the future, driven by factors such as persisting differences in GDP, the pull effect of 
existing social networks, language etc., the actual ranking of countries by old-age ratio 
reached in 2030 can turn out differently. 

Figure 49: Old-age dependency ratio (population 65 years or over to population 15 to 64 years) by 
Member State 

Source : Population on 1st January by age, sex and type of projection [PROJ_23NP__custom_6678661] 

6.1.2. Expected evolution of labour and skills needs 

The projections on labour and skills needs in the EU economy is based on Cedefop’s 
latest 2023 Skills Forecast dataset. This gives a forward projection up to 2030 of the 
size and composition of the population and labour force (based on Eurostat), as well 
as  employment  by  sector  (2-digit  NACE),  occupation  (2-digit  ISCO)  and  level  of 
educational attainment (three levels: low, medium and high) – together with modelled 
replacement  labour  demand  and  the  number  of  job  openings  to  be  filled  due  to 
retirement of existing workforce . The model of future employment levels is building on 
historic trends in employment data (LFS) and additional economic projections. 

The main indicator in the Cedefop dataset for quantifying additional labour and skills 
needs above the workforce already present in given sectors or given occupations is 
the ‘job openings’ variable. 

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November, 2023 

 
 
 
 
This indicator measures the need for labour inflow (into the EU, which can be broken 
down  by  Member  State,  sector  or  occupation)  to  reach  the  projected  employment 
numbers  for  the  EU  or  that  specific  sub-group.  This  is  calculated  as  the  sum  of 
‘expansion  demand’  (which  compares  the  projected  employment  level  in  the  actual 
year and the preceding year) and ‘replacement demand’ explained by the number of 
employed persons leaving the labour force permanently or temporarily144, or emigrate. 
In other words, this is equal to the number of workers who need to flow into the EU, 
MS, sector or occupation to occupy the vacancies only to maintain employment at the 
level of the preceding year. 

According to the Cedefop 2023 Skills Forecast, there will be an annual shortfall/gap of 
8.2-8.9 million persons. For comparison, the size of a young age cohort that is set to 
enter  the  labour  force  (e.g.  25-year-olds)  according  to  EUROPOP2023  will  remain 
below 5 million in their baseline projection in theEU27. The amount of  65-year-olds, 
who could proxy the number of persons leaving the labour force permanently, due to 
retirement, is projected to be 5.7-6.1 million each year, up to 2030. Accordingly, the 
young age cohort, numbering less than 5 million, cannot fully fill the vacancies of the 
old age cohort permanently leaving the labour force. While there is also a cohort of 
persons each year who have previously only temporarily left the labour force and do 
return to it (from parental leave, long-term incapacity, studies, working in a third country 
etc.), there  will  be a  comparable  number  of persons  who  will  leave  the  labour force 
temporarily in  the given  year for the  same  reasons.  The balance of  these  opposing 
factors will be close to zero.  

Overall, the cumulative job openings – which will be filled partly by a new EU27 age 
cohort, and partly by third country nationals coming to the EU - are projected to amount 
to 68.2 million by 2030. 

Figure 50: Projected job openings (2022-2030), annual and cumulative, EU27 

144 The main reason for permanently leaving the labour force is retirement; the reasons for leaving it temporary may be parental 
leave, study leave etc. 

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November, 2023 

 
 
 
 
Source: Cedefop 2023 Skills Forecast 

Breaking down this projection by level of education, the Skills Forecast suggests that 
the additional need for worker inflow will mostly concern persons with high educational 
attainment levels (4.7-5.0 million per year), and in second place those with medium 
education  levels  (3.4-3.7  million  per  year).  Additional  needs  of  workers  with  low 
educational attainment levels will be reduced according to Cedefop’s dataset (this is 
explained by the relatively low initial share of employed persons with low education in 
the labour force and by a significant decline in future demand). 

Figure 51: Projected job openings by level of qualification (2022-2030), EU27 

Source: Cedefop 2023 Skills Forecast 

In cumulative terms, the demand for highly educated workers - both new EU27 labour 
market entrants and TCNs – is projected to reach 38.9 million by 2030; while that of 
workers with medium levels of education 28.1 million, and only 1.1 million for workers 
with low educational attainment. 

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158 

 
 
 
Figure 52: Job openings by level of qualification (2022-2030), cumulative, EU27 

Source: Cedefop 2023 Skills Forecast 

The  highest  need  -  in  terms  of  absolute  numbers  -  for  the  recruitment  of  workers, 
broken down by ISCO 1-digit level will be in the category of Professionals, with a need 
for 18.2 million workers projected until 2030, followed by Technicians and associate 
professionals (12.2 million), and Service and sales workers (10.4 million). 

Figure 53: Job openings by occupation (2022-2030), cumulative, EU27 

Source: Cedefop 2023 Skills Forecast 

The relative significance of the need for highly educated workers will be the highest in 
the category of Legislators, senior officials and managers (in practice, this category is 

159 

November, 2023 

 
 
 
 
dominated by managers), Professionals, and Technicians and associate professionals, 
as well as Clerks. 

Figure 54: Job openings by occupation and level of qualification (2022-2030), cumulative, EU27 

Source: Cedefop 2023 Skills Forecast 

The breakdown of job openings by 2-digit ISCO categories shows the highest numbers 
for  Business  and  administration  associate  professionals  (4.8  million  by  2030), 
Teaching  professionals  (4.1  million), Business  and  administration professionals (3.8 
million),  Sales  workers  (3.5  million)  and  Personal  service  workers  (3.5  million).  It  is 
evident, however, that vacancies in some occupations, such as teaching professionals, 
are in many Member States less likely to be filled by TCN workers. 

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160 

 
 
 
Figure 55: Job openings by detailed occupation (2-digit) (2022-2030), cumulative, EU27 

Source: Cedefop 2023 Skills Forecast 

The table below gives detailed projections on the need for new workers in occupations 
at ISCO 2-digit level, broken down by educational attainment of the workers. 

Table 45: Job openings by detailed occupation (2-digit) and level of qualification (2022-2030), 
cumulative, EU27 

ISCO  Occupation (2-digit) 

11 
12 
13 
14 
21 
22 
23 

Chief executives, senior officials and legislators 
Administrative and commercial managers 
Production and specialised services managers 
Hospitality, retail and other services managers 
Science and engineering professionals 
Health professionals 
Teaching professionals 

Low 
11,835 
4,109 
1,764 
25,653 
12,232 
6,147 
15,141 

Medium 
137,467 
144,497 
186,049 
195,209 
302,909 
330,690 
428,347 

High 
541,379 
791,076 
1,375,597 
430,963 
2,675,643 
2,596,812 
3,675,576 

Total 
690,681 
939,685 
1,563,410 
651,825 
2,990,784 
2,933,647 
4,119,063 

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November, 2023 

 
 
 
ISCO  Occupation (2-digit) 

24 

25 

26 
31 
32 

33 

34 

35 
41 
42 
43 
44 
51 
52 
53 
54 
61 

62 

63 

71 

72 
73 
74 

75 

81 
82 
83 
91 
92 

93 

94 
95 
96 

associate 

technology 

administration 

related  associate 

Business and administration professionals 
Information  and  communications 
professionals 
Legal, social and cultural professionals 
Science and engineering associate professionals 
Health associate professionals 
Business 
and 
professionals 
Legal,  social,  cultural  and 
professionals 
Information and communications technicians 
General and keyboard clerks 
Customer services clerks 
Numerical and material recording clerks 
Other clerical support workers 
Personal service workers 
Sales workers 
Personal care workers 
Protective services workers 
Market-oriented skilled agricultural workers 
Market-oriented skilled forestry, fishery and hunting 
workers 
Subsistence 
gatherers 
Building  and  related  trades  workers,  excluding 
electricians 
Metal, machinery and related trades workers 
Handicraft and printing workers 
Electrical and electronic trades workers 
Food processing, wood working, garment and other 
craft and related trades 
Stationary plant and machine operators 
Assemblers 
Drivers and mobile plant operators 
Cleaners and helpers 
Agricultural, forestry and fishery labourers 
Labourers  in  mining,  construction,  manufacturing 
and transport 
Food preparation assistants 
Street and related sales and service workers 
Refuse workers and other elementary workers 

fishers,  hunters  and 

farmers, 

Low 
15,494 

Medium 
451,126 

High 
3,288,378 

Total 
3,754,999 

4,641 

200,946 

1,497,371 

1,702,956 

8,575 
17,870 
66,571 

155,369 
941,197 
1,058,784 

2,507,260 
1,687,497 
1,174,014 

2,671,202 
2,646,566 
2,299,365 

-19,218 

1,445,376 

3,399,616 

4,825,774 

17,149 

608,561 

1,225,019 

1,850,730 

112 
29,377 
37,707 
-40,057 
-22,930 
81,919 
-80,550 
30,022 
-39,028 
-87,021 

160,663 
1,029,353 
616,587 
512,735 
50,116 
2,144,914 
2,017,114 
1,616,114 
551,867 
453,664 

398,260 
1,079,898 
902,159 
713,592 
164,303 
1,226,738 
1,606,451 
814,423 
429,149 
474,193 

559,032 
2,138,628 
1,556,452 
1,186,267 
191,489 
3,453,571 
3,543,017 
2,460,558 
941,987 
840,838 

-9,290 

32,177 

36,180 

59,069 

-104,606 

-19,869 

2,333 

-122,139 

157,634 

1,666,067 

561,753 

2,385,453 

46,758 
1,283 
9,112 

1,488,933 
118,897 
593,130 

433,971 
99,030 
301,926 

1,969,660 
219,214 
904,169 

-55,076 

594,275 

297,193 

836,392 

24,638 
116,457 
126,892 
191,496 
13,808 

1,052,092 
494,525 
2,187,900 
1,989,407 
234,519 

342,001 
108,033 
643,388 
641,583 
79,236 

1,418,731 
719,014 
2,958,178 
2,822,486 
327,562 

281,499 

1,061,373 

387,037 

1,729,908 

67,165 
18,162 
148,154 
Source: Cedefop 2023 Skills Forecast 

352,202 
28,221 
517,851 

157,664 
2,792 
171,608 

577,034 
49,173 
837,611 

6.1.3. Expected evolution of migration 

As part of this topic,  immigration of third-country nationals is discussed, followed by 
immigration  of  working  age  third-country  nationals  and,  finally,  immigration  for 
employment purposes. 

6.1.3.1. 

Immigration of third-country nationals 

The projection for the inflow of TCNs had to be calculated from the EUROPOP2023 
net migration dataset. Eurostat does not disclose modelled immigration and emigration 
figures  separately,  as  these  are  less  robust  than  the  net  migration  projection.  The 
calculation was using the published Eurostat method for developing migration-related 
scenarios  The  ’higher  migration’-scenario  assumes  an  increase  by  1/3  in  the 

November, 2023 

162 

 
 
immigration  of  third  country  nationals.  145  By  multiplying  the  difference  between  this 
scenario and the baseline in net migration we can recalculate the modelled immigration 
numbers behind the net migration figure. 

A  further  essential  aspect  of  the  EUROPOP2023  methodology  was  that  it  had  to 
address  the  likely  bias  to  possible  historic  trend  analysis  techniques,  caused  by  an 
unusually high influx of migrants in 2022. For this reason, it was assumed that by 2027, 
Member State migration patterns will gradually return to their 2013-2021 average (with 
smaller  modification  factors  considered).  From  that  point  onward,  the  migration 
patterns  of  Member  States  will  converge  towards  each  other,  with  the  share  of 
immigrants  received  being  fully  proportionate  to  the  population  share  of  the  given 
Member State by 2100. 

On this basis, the annual immigration of TCNs is projected by Eurostat to be reverting 
from exceptional levels to about 1.8 million in 2027 and  remain close to that level in 
the 2027-2030 period as well. 

Figure 56: Projected annual immigration of third-country nationals (2023-2030), EU27 

Source: Assumptions for net migration by age, sex and type of projection 

6.1.3.2. 

Immigration of working-age third-country nationals 

Most  of  the  TCN  immigrants  will  be  of  working  age.  Immigrants  are,  on  average, 
considerably younger than the EU population as a whole. This applies both to historic 
data, sourced from Eurostat, and EUROPOP2023 projections: as of 1 January 2022, 
the  median  age  of  the  total  population  of  the  EU-27  stood  at  44.4  years,  while  the 
median age of immigrants (2021 data) was only 30 years. Correspondingly, the share 
of  working-age  persons  is  very  high  among  TCNs  immigrants,  above  80%  (in  the 
projection,  the  share  is  below  80%  only  for  2023,  where  the  model  is  still  highly 

145 Population projections in the EU - methodology - Statistics Explained (europa.eu) 

163 

November, 2023 

 
 
 
 
impacted by the exceptional year of 2022). In comparison, the share of working-age 
persons in the EU population as a whole (which already includes TCN migrants arriving 
in earlier years) is only 63.9%. 

Figure 57: Projected immigration of third-country nationals (2023-2030), by age group, EU27 
(percentage) 

Source: Assumptions for net migration by age, sex and type of projection 

6.1.3.3. 

Immigration for employment purposes 

The likely evolution of projected TCN immigration by main reason - family, education, 
employment  and  other  reasons  -  was  done  by  building  on  the  breakdown  of  first 
residence permits by main reason146, separately per Member State. Consistently, to 
the extent possible147, with the approach behind EUROPOP2023, it was assumed that 
between 2023 and 2027, all countries will maintain their historic breakdown for the 5-
year period between 2017 and 2021. From 2028 onwards, all individual breakdowns 
by Member State will converge towards the grand EU27 average. This method does 
not account for possible EU-wide or country-specific trends between 2013-2021 that 
could continue in the future. 

According  to  this  estimation  method,  the  number  of  TCN  migrants  under  the 
EUROPOP2023 baseline scenario who would arrive  for employment purposes will be 
around  400,000  per  year,  after  the  foreseen  expiration  of  the  temporary  protection 
directive in 2025. 

146 This is not entirely consistent with recorded immigration figures for various reasons. 
147 There was no historic first residence permits data available at Eurostat for the outlier year of 2022, from which a gradual return 
to the long-term average by 2027 could have been calculated. 

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November, 2023 

 
 
 
 
Figure 58: Projected immigration of third-country nationals (2023-2030), by main reason of permit, EU27 

Source: Assumptions for net migration by age, sex and type of projection, First permits by reason, age, sex and citizenship 
[MIGR_RESFAS__custom_6828377] 

An essential question is what share of projected TCN immigrants, irrespectively of the 
breakdown of (first) residence permits, are likely to ultimately seek employment. For 
instance, TCNs were and continue to be interested in working in the EU (and would 
hence be part of the target population for the Talent Pool) but who ultimately obtained 
their residence permit for family reasons – which could be an easier route for some – 
are likely to try to apply for EU jobs and pursue a corresponding permit at a later stage. 

Notwithstanding the above-mentioned possibility that a certain share of TCN receiving 
their  residence  permits  for  reasons  other  than  employment  could  be  considered  a 
target group for the Talent Pool, this baseline scenario only accounts for numbers of 
TCNs projected to come with the EU single permit, currently under renegotiation (or 
with  alternative  permits  such  as  the  EU  Blue  Card  that  is  awarded  for  employment 
reasons), extrapolated  – on the basis of the share of first residence permits given for 
employment  purposes.  Accordingly,  the  EUROPOP2023  baseline  projection  and 
above-described modelling of the split by main reason, the number of TCNs who come 
to the EU27 for employment purposes is projected to be about 400,000 per year, for a 
cumulated total of 3.8 million by 2030. This figure only concerns gross immigration - 
legal  entry  for  employment  purposes  -  and  does  not  account  for  TCNs  who  will 
subsequently emigrate from the EU27, either back to their country of birth or to a third 
country, without prejudging of the capacity to retain talent attracted in the first place to 
the EU. 

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165 

 
 
 
 
 
Figure 59: Projected number of third-country nationals arriving for employment (2023-2030), annual 
and cumulative, EU27 

Source: Assumptions for net migration by age, sex and type of projection, First permits by reason, age, sex and citizenship 
[MIGR_RESFAS__custom_6828377] 

6.2. Setting the foundations to estimate impacts 

6.2.1. Labour demand perspective: TCNs registering in the platform 

Baseline. The first step in estimating the impacts involved determining the potential 
number  of  profiles  that  would  be  registered  in  the  EU  Talent  Pool  by  2030.  This 
estimation  was  achieved  by  taking  the  profiles  of  TCNs  currently  available  in  the 
EUROPASS  suite  database  (around  1  250  000),  maintained  by  the  European 
Commission,148 and projecting them to 2030 using estimated trends in labour migration 
from the baseline scenario.149 These profiles serve as a proxy to gauge the level of 
interest of TCNs jobseekers in third countries to seek employment opportunities with 
EU  employers  and  more  generally  in  the  EU  single  market.150  The  fact  that  TCN 
jobseekers invest time and effort in registering their professional profiles and preparing 
their CVs in the EUROPASS format indicates genuine interest in pursuing professional 

148  See  EUROPASS  website  and  statistics  here:  https://europa.eu/europass/en/news/europass-celebrates-3-years-and-over-5-
million-users and https://europa.eu/europass/en/statistics  

149  The stock  of  registered  profiles of TCNs  in  EUROPASS  was  adjusted  in  line  with the  estimated  trends in labour migration 
(extrapolated on the basis of the number of legal permits issued for employment purposes in 2015-2022), resulting in a multiplier 
factor of 2.64. This entails that our baseline of TCNs from third countries potentially interested in seeking job opportunities in EU 
Member States is approximated to be 3 290 000 (1 250 000 times the multiplier of 2.64). 

150 Some limitations of using the number of Europass profiles of TCNs should be noted: i) the number includes also profiles of 
TCNs living in the EU, which are outside the scope of the Talent Pool initiative, and ii) on the opposite side, not all TCNs in third 
countries interested in coming to the EU for work-related reasons would fill up a EUROPASS profile. While the perfect proxy does 
not exist, considering the number of TCNs who filled in a Europass profile provides a useful indicator of the interest and readiness 
of TCN jobseekers to engage with EU employers and the labour market. This baseline is then adjusted by a number of factors 
(outlined in the remaining text of this section) to get closer to reality considering the context and scope of the initiative. 

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opportunities  within  the  EU  job  market,  as  well  mastery  of  IT  skills  and  EU  official 
languages for an employment-related purpose. 

The  baseline  number  of  expected  interested  TCNs  is  then  adapted  considering  a 
number  of  factors,  which  increase  or  decrease  the  uptake  of  the  initiative,  to  align 
estimations with the context and scope of the POs envisaged for the Talent Pool.  

Participation of Member States. The costs and impacts detailed below are calculated 
for both the mandatory and the voluntary alternatives  of PO2 and PO3. PO1, being 
non-legislative,  is  instead  assumed  to  have  only  a  voluntary  nature.  Under  the 
voluntary  alternative,  11  Member  States  are  assumed  to  participate  in  a  first  stage 
(until 2030), with a growing number of Member States joining later. This assumption 
was based on the preliminary outcome of the consultations with the Member States as 
well as on the assessment of the potential value of this instrument on the basis of future 
labour and skills shortages and demographic trends. In particular, the identification of 
the number of Member States largely relied on population projections: Member States 
with working-age population decline below EU average have been assumed as opting 
in. To give a sense of how the costs and benefits would change if more Member States 
were to participate in the initiative, an upper-bound in the estimated costs and benefits 
is also  provided  by  assuming  that 20  Member States  would  take up the  initiative.  A 
higher  take  up  would  result  in  greater efforts  and  outreach  potential  to  promote  the 
initiative,  thereby  resulting  in  a  higher  number  of  TCNs  jobseekers  potentially 
interested to register to the platform. Under the mandatory alternative instead, all of 
the  27  Member  States  are  assumed  to  participate.  The  effects  of  this  participation 
scenarios  on  the  potential  number  of  profiles  and  vacancies  in  the  Talent  Pool  is 
accounted  for  via  the  impact  of  information  and  awareness  campaigns,  as  detailed 
below. 

Attractiveness factors. There are a number of factors that may potentially increase 
the uptake of the initiative among TCNs jobseekers in third countries. Those include:  

• 

Information and awareness campaigns: those would promote the initiative of the 
Talent  Pool  worldwide  thus  increasing  the  number  of  potentially  interested 
jobseekers. According to the TCNs’ survey carried out, 28% of TCNs that have 
never applied for a  job  in  the EU would be interested  in  using  the  EU Talent 
Pool151. On this basis, it is estimated that, under the voluntary scenarios, the 
highest  impact  of  awareness  campaigns  would  be  for  PO3  as  this  covers  all 
occupations and hence it is expected to be the most attractive for TCNs; a 30% 
increase  was  assumed  for  this  policy  option,  following  the  results  of  the 
survey.152  PO2  is  also  expected  to  have  a  high  impact,  given  the  similar 
measures envisaged to PO3. However, in view of its targeted nature that would 

151 Stakeholder poll conducted by Kantar Public in 8 third countries with 880 TCNs participants. 28% of TCNs in origin countries 
responded that their likelihood to register to a portal that offers the search of job postings is very high (i.e. 10 on a scale from 1 
to 10). Additionally, almost 45% of respondents indicated that having a matching tool that recommends job postings matching 
their profile would strongly increase their likelihood of registering (i.e., 6-7 on a scale from 1 to 7). Those results significantly 
indicate a preference among TCNs in third countries for PO2 and, especially  PO3, as both offer the possibility of searching 
across job openings and the inclusion of matching tools (more sophisticated and automated under PO3).   

152 Even if far from perfect, the survey outreach efforts to third countries could proxy a potential information campaign effect. The 
fact  that  28%  of  respondents  would  be  interested  in  participating  to  the  initiative  when  it  includes  EU  job  postings  (thereby 
entailing that the information received was relevant for them to the extent that it would have triggered action from their side) is 
an indication of the potential increase in interested participants that raising awareness of the initiative could generate. It is true 
that the survey outreach efforts have been more limited than what one could expect under an EU level campaign. However, this 
may also hint at an underestimation of the current percentages assumed. 

167 

November, 2023 

 
 
 
cover  only  some  shortage  occupations,  it  will  attract  a  smaller  number  of 
additional  TCNs  than  PO3.  Therefore,  the  effect  was  assumed  to  be  10 
percentage points lower than for PO3 (i.e., 20%). PO1 is the least attractive for 
jobseekers in terms of functionalities offers (as it is a repository of anonymised 
CVs without a matching tool) and perspectives of the successful employment. 
Therefore a 1% increase was assumed for this policy option. To account for the 
fact that a higher number of Member States participating would result in greater 
efforts and outreach potential to promote the initiative, and thus in a larger pool 
of  TCNs  jobseekers,  the  effect  of  information  campaigns  is  increased  by  5 
percentage points for each policy option. Under the mandatory scenarios, a 10 
percentage  points  increase  was  estimated  for  PO2  and  PO3,  as  those  will 
include  all  Member  States  and  thus  greater  effort  and  a  larger  outreach 
potential.   

•  A shift away from irregular migration: it can be assumed that a share of irregular 
migration flows would convert into more legal channels of migration, including 
via the use of the EU Talent Pool initiative. In the context of the different POs, 
this translates into +1% of irregular migrants under PO1, +5% under PO2, and 
+10%  under  PO3,  who  will decide  to  use  the  Talent  Pool  instead of  irregular 
migration channels.153 

•  Link  with  Talent  Partnerships:  the  operational  link  with  Talent  Partnerships 
under  PO2  is  expected  to  have  a  relevant  positive  effect  on  the  number  of 
potentially interested TCNs as those participating in Talent Partnerships will be 
directly registered on the Talent Pool platform by the Liaison Officers. Currently, 
there are 7 Talent Partnerships under discussion. One can expect that by 2030 
this  number  would  have  increased.  For  our  calculations  we  thus  consider  10 
Talent  Partnerships,  each  of  which  entailing  an  extra  3  000  TCNs  who  have 
been trained and have obtained the Talent Partnership PASS. 

Restrictive  factors.  Registration  does  not  guarantee  immediate  admission  into  the 
EU Talent Pool. Each  profile  goes  through checks  and  pre-screening  practices  (the 
latter only applicable to PO2) before being admitted to the Talent Pool and becoming 
eligible for job matching. In particular: 

•  Checks  on  completion:  profiles  registered  on  online  platforms  are  often 
incomplete,  fake  or  lacking  relevant  information.  In  order  to  prevent  that  the 
Talent Pool platform will be flooded by unusable profiles, completeness checks 
would be conducted under each POs.154 To account for this in the estimation of 
potentially registered profiles, a reduction of -1% is accounted for under all POs.  

•  Pre-screening:  PO2  also  includes  an  automatic  pre-screening  in  accordance 
with the list of national and EU shortages occupations. Profiles not meeting the 
requirements  of  those  occupations  of  strategic  relevance  included  in  the 
platform will be screened out. To account for this, it was estimated that 35% of 

153 Irregular migrants are estimated as 10% of expected regular flows (on the basis of the ratio of 1:10 between the illegal border 
crossings to the EU detected by Frontex and the first residence permits in 2022). It is expected that there will be 16  million of 
legal migrants for all purposes by 2030. 

154 Checks on profile completion could include basic automatic data cleaning (e.g.,  incomplete information,  suspicious content 
detection, repetitive information detection, format verification and so on).   

168 

November, 2023 

 
 
 
the registered profiles will not meet the requirements and thus deducted from 
the total count of TCNs admitted to the platform.155 

Expected successful matches. After checks and pre-screening under PO2 and PO3, 
profiles meeting the requirements are admitted to the EU Talent Pool and are visible 
to  employers  and  eligible  for  job  matching.  The  share  of  the  profiles  that  will  be 
successfully matched with job vacancies (i.e., selection rate156) will differ under each 
policy option. The choice of the selection rate for each POs takes into account literature 
on  international  recruitment,157  which  was  adjusted  by  the  expected  quality  of  the 
profiles. More specifically: 

•  A  highest  selection  rate  is  expected  for  PO2  (i.e.,  11%)  as  it  includes  the 
automatic  pre-screening  mentioned  above,  the  possibility  for  employers  to 
request  to  TCNs  the  validation  of  their  profiles  via  validation  procedures 
available  at  national  level,  and  IT  tools  and  support  services  facilitating  the 
matching.  These  steps  enhance  the  quality  of  CVs  and  candidates  and 
consequently increase the possibility of successful matches. Additionally, PO2 
is strongly interlinked with Talent Partnerships, and a higher selection rate (i.e., 
30%)  was  estimated  for  TCNs  profiles  registering  in  such  context.  This  is 
because  those  candidates  would  have  participated  in  trainings  and  activities 
under this framework, including validation of skills and qualifications. Therefore, 
their profiles already undergone validation or certified training modules. Having 
access  to  validated  and  trustful  profiles  will  further  increase  the  rate  of 
successful matching.  

•  A lower selection rate is assumed for PO3 (i.e., 6.5%) as checks on candidates’ 
profiles are limited to profile completion. Additionally, the initiative will be open 
to all occupations entailing that all TCNs will be able to register, regardless of 
their skills and competencies, thereby increasing the cases where profiles will 
not match the requirements specified in job vacancies.  

•  The lowest selection rate of  PO1 (i.e., 0.5%) is justified by the lack of search 
and matching tools, support services and access by TCNs to job vacancies.  

The selection rate gives the number of expected successful matches (i.e., candidates 
selected by the employers out of the pool of  admitted jobseekers in the platform). A 
successful match is the outcome of the recruitment process entailing also interviewing 
and skills testing phases. After receiving a job offer, TCNs have to apply for a work 
permit in the Member States. Therefore, the estimated number of successful matches 

155 Slightly more than 50% of current jobs for migrants are in occupations that may not be included in the Talent Pool under PO2 
as not of strategic relevance (i.e., not included in the list in ELA 2023 shortages report, nor in ESDE 2023 report). However, this 
cannot entail a pre-screening rate of 50% as the vast majority of TCNs registering in the platform are assumed to already comply 
with the requirements of the occupations in scope. This is because the information and awareness campaigns under PO2 will be 
of targeted nature, entailing efforts only in those occupations that are relevant. See Appendix 9 for more details. 

156 The selection rate refers to the proportion of the admitted profiles that will be successfully matched with job vacancies under 
each policy option. In other words, it indicates the percentage of profiles that employers are expected to select from the total pool 
of admitted candidates (i.e., thus after checks and pre-screening) for potential job offers.  

157 Systematic publicly available data regarding selection rates across industries in the European Union are lacking. However, 
insights gathered from consultation activities conducted by the contractor indicate that among 100 received CVs for a position, 
only  around  30%  are  typically  shortlisted  for  deeper  consideration  following  pre-screening.  Furthermore,  sources  such  as 
CareePlug observe an average interview-to-hire ratio of 48%, indicating that a significant portion of candidates who have passed 
the  pre-screening  phase  reaching  the  interview  stage  successfully  secure  job  offers.  This  rate  diverges  across  sectors,  with 
cleaning services having a rate of approximately 27%, compared to significantly higher rates of 75% and 56% in the retail and 
healthcare industries, respectively. See for instance: https://www.careerplug.com/blog/recruiting-metrics-and-kpis/ 

169 

November, 2023 

 
 
 
is not equivalent to the number of TCNs obtaining a work permit as the subsequent 
immigration procedure depends on the assessment of the national authorities which 
might include additional requirements to the simple job offer. The discrepancy between 
the  number  of  successful  matches  and  the  number  of  issued  work  permits  is  not 
expected  to  be  significant,  and  therefore  the  number  of  expected  matches  could 
approximatively  represent  the  potential  inflow  of  TCNs  coming  via  the  Talent  Pool 
(additional to current labour migration flows, outlined in the baseline in Section 6.1.3.). 

The steps described above are visually represented by the figure below. Additionally, 
the table below presents the numbers of profiles expected under each policy options 
for each step. Further detail on the methodology behind estimations can be found in 
the Technical Annexes, no. 7. 

Figure 60: Simplified visual representation of the EU Talent Pool admission process 

Source: elaboration of the contractor (2023) 

As shown in the table below, the estimations for PO2 and PO3 vary depending on the 
two  alternatives  envisaged  for  Member  States'  participation.  In  particular,  estimates 
under the voluntary scenarios ("V") are lower compared to the mandatory scenarios 
("M"),  as  for  the  former  it  was  assumed  a  smaller  effect  for  information  campaigns 
given that only 11-20 Member State would participate in initiative. Additionally, PO2 is 
specifically  targeted  to  occupations  of  EU  and  national  relevance,  thus  focusing  on 
addressing  shortages  in  those  occupations  that  are  deemed  crucial  for  the  EU's 
economic development.  

November, 2023 

170 

 
 
 
 
Table 46: Expected number of labour migrants in EU Member States by 2030 under the different 
options 

Attractiveness factors 

Restrictive factor 

Effect 
of 
information 
campaigns 

Shifts 
away from 
irregular 
migration 

of 

Effect 
Talent 
Partnership 
link 

Checks 
completion 

on 

Pre-
screening 

Selection 
rate 

Expected 
successful 
matches 

Baseline 
of  TCNs 
interested 
in 
registering 
their 
profile158 

3 290 000  +1-6%  of 

baseline 

3 290 000  +10-15% 
of baseline 

3 290 000  +20% 
baseline 

of 

+1% 
irregular 
migration 
flows 

+5% 
irregular 
migration 
flows 

+5% 
irregular 
migration 
flows 

of 

n/a 

-1% 
of 
registrations after 
attractiveness 
factors 

n/a 

0.5% 

16  500  – 
17 300 

of 

+ 30 000 

-1% 
of 
registrations after 
attractiveness 
factors* 

of 

-35% 
registrations 
after checks on 
completion* 

11%** 

271  000 – 
282 500 

of 

+ 30 000 

-1% 
of 
registrations after 
attractiveness 
factors* 

of 

-35% 
registrations 
after checks on 
completion* 

11%** 

294 000 

s
O
P

1
O
P

V
2
O
P

M
2
O
P

  3 290 000  +30-35% 
of baseline 
V
3
O
P

  3 290 000  +40% 
M
baseline 
3
O
P

of 

n/a 

n/a 

+10%  of 
irregular 
migration 
flows 

+10%  of 
irregular 
migration 
flows 

-1% 
of 
registrations after 
attractiveness 
factors 

-1% 
of 
registrations after 
attractiveness 
factors 

n/a 

6.5% 

279  000 – 
296 000 

n/a 

6.5% 

307 000 

Source: elaboration of the contractor (2023) 
Note: “V” stands for the voluntary alternative (i.e., Member States can choose whether or not to participate to the initiative), 
while “M” stands for the mandatory alternative. For the voluntary alternatives ranges are included representing participation from 
11-20 Member States. *Checks on completion and pre-screening is not applied to the 30 000 TCNs coming via Talent 
Partnerships. **The selection rate for TCNs coming via Talent Partnership is estimated to be 30% (rather than 11%). 

To assess the success of each policy option in facilitating successful matches between 
candidates  and  employers,  we  consider  the  whole  selection  process,  starting  from 
when a candidate first shows interest in the platform (thus before any pre-screening or 
completion  checks  stage).  We  thus  compare  the  number  of  expected  successful 
matches  under each  policy  option  and  the number of  TCNs potentially interested  in 
registering in the platform (after attractiveness factors). This is presented in the table 
below. PO2 has the highest success rate of matches, which is in line with estimations 
of the EURES platform.159 Additionally, it is slightly higher than what was found in the 
literature;  although  limited,  sources  suggest  a  typical  rate  of  success  of  the  whole 
selection process below 5%.160 

158 Baseline: Number of EUROPASS CVs of TCNs in 2023 x 2.64  (projected labour migration trend  extrapolated on the basis of 
the number of legal permits issued for employment purposes in 2015-2022). 

159 The share of jobseekers finding employment thanks to the involvement of PES in their job search averages at around 7% 
according to inputs from Commission Services. 

160 The limited data sources from both Europe and other regions suggest that this rate tends to be below 5%. Notably, sources 
such as Jobvite, Lever, ERE, and SHRM propose a success rate (of the whole selection process) ranging between 1% and 2%. 
See  for  instance,  https://ideal.com/recruiting-metrics/;  https://www.jobvite.com/blog/recruiting-funnel/;  https://zety.com/blog/hr-
statistics.  

171 

November, 2023 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Table 47: Success rate of matches under each policy option 

POs 

TCNs 
in 
registering to the platform* 

interested 

Expected 
matches 

successful 

Success rate of matches** 

PO1 

3 338 900 – 3 503 400 

16 500 – 17 300 

0.5% 

PO2V 

3 729 000 – 3 893 500 

271 000 – 282 500 

PO2M 

4 058 000 

294 000  

PO3V 

4 437 000 – 4 601 500 

279 000 – 296 000 

PO3M 

4 766 000 

307 000 

7% 

7% 

6% 

6% 

Source: elaboration of the contractor (2023) 
Note: “V” stands for the voluntary alternative (i.e., Member States can choose whether or not to participate to the initiative), 
while “M” stands for the mandatory alternative. For the voluntary alternatives ranges are included representing participation from 
11-20 Member States. *This is the number of TCNs after attractiveness factors and before restrictive factors. **The success rate 
of matches is calculated by taking the expected successful matches over the number of TCNs interested in registering to the 
platform. 

6.2.2. Labour supply perspective: EU employers registering vacancies in the platform 

The expected successful matches represent the potential inflows of migrants via the 
EU  Talent  Pool  (thus  additional  to  the  baseline  presented  in  Section  6.1161).  This 
assumption is based on the expectation that there will be enough job vacancies in the 
EU to accommodate the additional inflows of migrants via the EU Talent Pool. In other 
words, the labour demand for migrant workers from third countries by EU employers 
will be sufficient to cover the labour supply coming via the Talent Pool. 

To estimate labour demand, we considered the job openings projected by Cedefop for 
the year of 2030.162 These job openings stem from both an expansion of employment 
and the need to replace existing workforce due to retirement and other factors. The 
estimated job openings available under the different options are presented in the table 
below, as well as their share covered by expected successful matches via the Talent 
Pool to bring labour demand and labour supply together. 

As for the labour supply, the participation scenarios (whether voluntary or mandatory) 
and the scope (whether targeted or open to all occupation) influence the estimates for 
the  expected  labour  demand.  More  specifically,  under  the  voluntary  scenario,  we 
considered  only  job  openings  coming  from  the  11-20  Member  States  that  would 
participate  in  the  EU Talent  Pool  initiative,  entailing  that  only  employers  from  these 
Member States will be able to register their vacancies.  This results in a reduction of 
around 40% (under the 11 Member States scenario) and 20% (under the 20 Member 
States  scenario)  of  job  openings  as  those  will  be  in  Member  States  not  likely  to 

161 The baseline presented in Section 6.1 represents the expected level of (labour) migration that would occur without any specific 
changes or interventions. The introduction of the EU Talent Pool initiative will impact the number of incoming migrants beyond 
what would typically be expected under normal circumstances. 
162 Cedefop skills forecast. However, only a share of the total job openings was considered in order to reflect the potential number 
of  job  openings  for  TCNs.  The  share  was  estimated  by  considering  the  current  percentage  of  TCN  workers  out  of  total  EU 
workforce (i.e., 5% according to Eurostat, labour force statistics, custom extraction) and adjusting it to 2030 (i.e., increasing this 
share to 7.5% to consider current population and migration trends). Please refer to Appendix 9 for more details. This entails that 
7.5% of the total job openings was considered as potential job vacancies to be included in the EU Talent Pool.  

172 

November, 2023 

 
 
 
participate.163 Under the mandatory scenario instead, the number of job vacancies is 
higher, as all employers from the EU will be able to register. Under the targeted scope 
of  PO2,  we  considered  only  job  openings  of  the  13  ISCO  2-digit  level  occupations 
identified  as  of  EU  and  national  relevance,  thereby  covering  those  occupations  for 
which  domestic  workforce  is  insufficient.  This  entails  a  reduction  of  55%  of  job 
openings  as  those  will  be  in  occupations  outside  the  scope  of  the  initiative  under 
PO2.164 In contrast, the number of potential job vacancies is higher for policy options 
with  a more  open  approach  (i.e.,  PO1165  and PO3) as  all  occupations  are  included, 
including those for which domestic workforce may be available.  

Table 48: Expected number of migrant inflows and job openings by 2030 under the different options 

Policy Options 

Estimated job openings for 
migrants166 

1: Soft measures 

3 830 000 – 5 100 000* 

2: Focused Talent Pool 

Voluntary   

1 720 000 – 2 300 000 

3: Open Talent Pool 

Mandatory  

Voluntary 

Mandatory  

2 870 000 

3 830 000 – 5 100 000 

6 380 000 

Share of expected 
successful matches over 
estimated job openings for 
migrants 
0.3-0.4% 

12-16% 

10% 

6-7% 

5% 

Source: elaboration of the contractor (2023) 
Note: *as PO1 follows only the voluntary scenario and is opened to all occupations, estimated job openings are the same as 
under PO3 voluntary. 

The assessment of macro-impacts (see Section 6.3) and costs and cost-savings (see 
Section 6.4) presented in subsequent sections, will rely heavily on the estimations of 
the labour demand and labour supply presented in the above tables.167  

6.3. Impacts at macro-level 

In  this  section,  we  present  the  impacts  associated  with  the  different  EU  talent  pool 
policy options: macro-economic and social impacts (including impacts on fundamental 
rights) and environmental impacts. Each section is structured in the same way, starting 
with a review of the literature on the impacts of labour migration, followed by a more 
detailed  assessment  of  the  impacts  of  the  different  options.  In  order  to  quantify  the 
impacts  of  the  different  options  as  far  as  possible,  we  rely  on  estimations  of  the 
expected  successful  matches  via  the  EU  Talent  Pool  under  the  different  options, 
presented in Section 6.2.  

163 Cedefop Skill Forecast includes the distribution of job openings by Member States. Therefore, the 40% reduction was calculated 
by taking the share of the job openings in the 11 Member States that are likely to opt-out from the initiative under the voluntary 
alternative out of the total job openings. The same approach was followed to establish the 20% share under the 20 Member States 
participation scenario. 
164 Cedefop Skill Forecast includes the distribution of job openings by occupation (at ISCO-02 digit level). Therefore, the 55% 
reduction was calculated by taking the share of job openings in occupations that will not be of relevance under the targeted scope 
of PO2 out of total job openings. 
165 The web-portal of TCNs CVs envisaged under PO1 does not include job vacancies from EU employers. However, estimation 
of potential job vacancies under this option is still relevant as the policy option includes job matching events and matching support 
provided by national contact points between EU employers and TCNs registered in the web-portal. 
166 As per Cedefop Skills Forecast. As mentioned above, only 7.5% of total job openings by 2030 was considered to proxy the 
potential job vacancies for TCNs to include in the Talent Pool. This number was then adjusted under the different policy options 
according to whether the participation is mandatory or voluntary (i.e., only job openings in 11-20 Member States participating were 
considered) and the scope was open or targeted (i.e., only job openings in 13 occupations of strategic relevance were considered).  
167 Please find more detail on the methodology and calculations in Appendix 9. 

173 

November, 2023 

 
 
 
6.3.1. Macro-economic impacts 

The  following  macro-economic  impacts  are  covered  in  this  Section:  impact  on 
economic  growth  in  the  EU,  impacts  on  the  EU  labour  market,  impacts  on  public 
financial  services  in  the  EU,  impacts  on  SMEs  in  the  EU  and,  finally,  impacts  on 
sending countries (i.e. brain drain/gain and remittances). 

6.3.1.1. 

Impacts on economic growth in the EU 

According to economic theory, migration can have an impact on GDP by increasing 
labour  supply  and  by  raising  productivity  through  human  capital  accumulation, 
research and innovation. Empirical studies in Europe have generally shown a positive 
relationship between migration, especially high-skilled migration, and GDP in migrant-
receiving countries.168 For instance, a recent OECD study at the regional level finds 
that, on average, a 20% increase in the share of migrants is associated with a 0.15% 
increase in regional GDP per capita. This percentage doubles to 0.36% for the 25% of 
poorest regions in a country.169 

Working-age  population.  A  direct  channel  through  which  the  relationship  between 
economic  growth  and  migration  unfolds  is  through  the  increase  in  the  working-age 
population and associated changes in the age pyramid of host countries. On average, 
migrants  tend  to  be more  concentrated  in the  younger age groups,  which  positively 
counteracts  the  ageing  of  the  population  in  EU  Member  States  and  promotes 
employment  and  growth.170  However,  empirical  research  shows  that  this  effect  is 
concentrated in urban areas: migration appears to offset labour losses in only one third 
of NUTS3 regions.171 In 2022, the share of new entrants to the EU labour force was 
around 25%  for  migrants and  around 13%  for nationals.172  However,  between 2015 
and  2019  only  27%  of  EU  (NUTS3)  regions173  benefited  from  migration  flows  large 
enough  to  compensate  for  the  deficit  in  the  working-age  population  caused  by  a 
negative cohort turnover.174  

Productivity  and  human  capital.  The  mechanisms  through  which  immigration  can 
raise  productivity  in  the  host  country  depend  on  a  wide  variety  of  factors,  the  most 
important of which is the skill level of the migrants (also relative that of the native-born 
population).  In  general,  the  literature  shows  that  high-skilled  migrants  increase 
productivity more than lower  skilled migrants. Indeed, the increase in human capital 

168 See, for instance, Docquier, Frédéric and Rapoport, Hillel, 'Documenting the brain drain of “La creme de la creme”', Jahrbücher 
für Nationalökonomie und Statistik, Vol. 229, 6, 2009, pp. 679-705. Ortega, Francesc and Peri, Giovanni, The aggregate effects 
of trade and migration: Evidence from OECD countries, Springer, 2014. Mitaritonna, Cristina, Orefice, Gianluca and Peri, Giovanni, 
'Immigrants and firms’ outcomes: Evidence from France', European Economic Review, Vol. 96, 2017, pp. 62-82. Trax, Michaela, 
Brunow, Stephan and Suedekum, Jens, 'Cultural diversity and plant-level productivity', Regional Science and Urban Economics, 
Vol. 53, 2015, pp. 85-96. Alesina, Alberto, Harnoss, Johann and Rapoport, Hillel, 'Birthplace diversity and economic prosperity', 
Journal  of Economic  Growth, Vol.  21,  2016,  pp.  101-138. Jaumotte, Ms  Florence,  Koloskova, Ksenia  and Saxena, Ms Sweta 
Chaman, Impact of migration on income levels in advanced economies, International Monetary Fund, 2016. 
169  OECD,  OECD  Publishing,  The  Contribution  of Migration to  Regional  Development,  OECD  Regional Development  Studies, 
2022.  
170 Bossavie, Laurent, Sanchez, Daniel Garrote, Makovec, Mattia and Ozden, Caglar, Skilled Migration: A Sign of Europe's Divide 
Or Integration?, World Bank Publications, 2022. See also : OECD, International Migration Outlook 2022, OECD Publishing Paris, 
2022, https://doi.org/10.1787/30fe16d2-en. OECD and European Commission, Indicators of Immigrant Integration 2023 : Settling 
In, OECD Publishing Paris, 2023, https://doi.org/10.1787/1d5020a6-en.  
171  Ghio,  Daniela,  Goujon,  Anne  and  Natale,  Fabrizio,  'Assessing  the  demographic  impact  of  migration  on  the  working-age 
population across European territories', Demographic Research, Vol. 46, 2022, pp. 261-272. 
172 Eurostat, labour force survey (lfsa_enewasn). The share of newly employed refers to the share of people in current job for 12 
months or less, in total employment.  
173Although regions are not specified, the paper mentions that NUTS3 territorial units where migration had a positive effect on 
cohort turnover were mainly distributed across the Netherlands, Belgium, Spain and Germany. 
174 Ghio, Daniela, et al., 2022. 

174 

November, 2023 

 
 
 
associated  with  high-skilled  migration  leads  to  a  broader  pool  of  skills  available  to 
employers and shifts the skill composition of the labour force.175 Lower skilled migrants 
can  also  have  a  positive  impact  on  productivity  by  encouraging  natives  to  take  up 
higher skilled jobs, but the effect has been shown to be relatively more limited.176 

Innovation. Skilled migration and the accumulation of human capital result in turn lead 
to increased research and innovation in the host country. The diversification of skills 
and the focus of migrants on tasks that they are better able at can stimulate innovation 
and  further  boost  productivity  and  economic  growth.177  Studies  have  shown  that  a 
steady flow of highly skilled migrants can push countries to adopt new technologies.178 
The  closer  a  country  is  to  the  technological  frontier,  the  greater  the  boost  to 
productivity.179  

Over-qualification. An important factor in realising productivity and economic gains is 
the  match  between  the  level  of  education  and  training  of  the  workforce  and  the 
requirements of the job. As research180 and the figure below reveal, employed TCNs 
are  more  likely to be over-qualified  for the  job  than  nationals or EU workers for the 
job.181 Over-qualification results in costs for individuals, businesses and society as a 
whole  (in  terms  of  e.g.  wage  penalties,  lower  employee  satisfaction,  higher  staff 
turnover).182 To effectively address skills shortages, a targeted approach that promotes 
skill selection based on labour market needs is crucial.183 By tailoring the initiative to 
occupations that are experiencing shortages, the emphasis is placed on matching the 
skills and qualifications of job seekers with the actual demands of the labour market.  

Over-qualification may be indicative of obstacles in skills and qualifications recognition. 
When a person’s qualifications and skills are not properly recognised, they may end 
up in job where they are overqualified. Indeed, experts suggest that the issue may not 
primarily  be  a  skills  shortage  but  rather  a  problem  with  recognising  and  validating 
existing skills.184 Recognition has considerable economic implications. In Canada, for 
instance,  they  estimate  that  the  presence  of  844  000  adults  whose  skills  and 

175 Alesina, Alberto, et al., 2016. Ortega, Francesc and Peri, Giovanni, 2014. Hunt, Jennifer and Gauthier-Loiselle, Marjolaine, 
'How much does immigration boost innovation?', American Economic Journal: Macroeconomics, Vol. 2, 2, 2010, pp. 31-56. Cross-
country empirical studies in the European Union come to a similar conclusion and typically find a positive impact of immigration 
on growth in receiving countries. See, for instance, Aleksynska, Mariya and Tritah, Ahmed, 'The heterogeneity of immigrants, host 
countries'  income  and  productivity:  a  channel  accounting  approach',  Economic  Inquiry,  Vol.  53,  1,  2015,  pp.  150-172Alesina, 
Alberto,  et  al.,  2016Felbermayr,  Gabriel  J,  Hiller,  Sanne  and  Sala,  Davide,  'Does  immigration  boost  per  capita  income?', 
Economics  Letters,  Vol.  107,  2,  2010,  pp.  177-179.  Boubtane,  Ekrame,  Dumont,  Jean-Christophe  and  Rault,  Christophe, 
'Immigration  and  economic  growth  in  the  OECD  countries  1986–2006',  Oxford  Economic  Papers,  Vol.  68,  2,  2016,  pp.  340-
360Jaumotte, Ms Florence, et al., 2016. 
176  Peri,  Giovanni  and  Sparber,  Chad,  'Task  specialization,  immigration,  and  wages',  American  Economic  Journal:  Applied 
Economics, Vol. 1, 3, 2009, pp. 135-169. Bosetti, Valentina, Cattaneo, Cristina and Verdolini, Elena, 'Migration of skilled workers 
and innovation: A European perspective', Journal of International Economics, Vol. 96, 2, 2015, pp. 311-322. D’Amuri, Francesco 
and Peri, Giovanni, 'Immigration, jobs, and employment protection: evidence from Europe before and during the great recession', 
Journal of the European Economic Association, Vol. 12, 2, 2014, pp. 432-464. 
177 Bossavie, Laurent, et al., 2022. 
178  Chander,  Parkash  and  Thangavelu,  Shandre  M,  'Technology  adoption,  education  and  immigration  policy',  Journal  of 
Development Economics, Vol. 75, 1, 2004, pp. 79-94. 
179  Lodigiani,  Elisabetta,  ‘Diaspora  externalities  and  technology  diffusion’,  Economies  Internationale,  3,  2008,  pp.  43-64. 
Vandenbussche, Jerome, Aghion, Philippe and Meghir, Costs, ‘Growth distance to frontier and composition of human capital’, 
Journal of Economic Growth, Vol. 11, 2006, pp. 97-127. 
180 European Training Foundation (ETF), ‘Qualifications and skills recognition : Increasing opportunities, building fairer societies’, 
2023. 
181 While over-qualification rate refers to vertical skills mismatches, horizontal ones are often shown via the rate of skills mismatch 
by field of education (i.e. the discrepancy between a person’s current occupation and their field of education). This latter indicator 
was not included as nationality breakdown is not available. See: Eurostat, Skills mismatch experimental indicators, Methodological 
note. 
182 ILO, Skills mismatch of natives and immigrants in Europe, 2017. 
183 OECD, Matching Economic Migration with Labour Market Needs, 2014. 
184 European Training Foundation (ETF), Recognition of prior learning, new developments and financing approaches, 2021. 

175 

November, 2023 

 
 
 
credentials are undervalued results in an annual loss of approximately EUR 11 billion 
in income.185 

Figure 61: Over-qualification rate in EU Member States, by citizenship, 2022 

Notes: No data for Bulgaria, Croatia, Romania and Slovakia. No data for EU movers for Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Hungary, 
Poland, Portugal, Slovenia. 

Source: Eurostat, labour force survey, lfsa_eoqgan 

Impacts of the Policy Options on economic growth of the EU 

The  EU  Talent  Pool  initiative  envisages  three  options,  all  of  which  will  lead  to  an 
increase  in the  number of  migrant  workers in  the  EU.  This increase  will  expand the 
available labour supply and partially offset the effects of an ageing  population.186 As 
previously shown in Table , PO1 has the lowest expected rate of successful matches 
as  the  tools and  resources  are more  limited compared  to  those  foreseen  in  the  two 
legislative options (e.g., job vacancies, matching tools, and personalised support is not 
included in PO1). PO2 has a more targeted approach, focusing on those occupations 
at EU and national level that are experiencing shortages and thus cannot be filled by 
using domestic workforce. The targeted approach results in comparatively limited flows 
of  migrants  when  compared  to  PO3,  which  in  contrast  is  open  to  all  occupations. 
However, the targeted approach also entails a more effective way of addressing actual 
needs of the labour market, compared to PO3, which would include occupations that 
could be filled also by domestic workforce.  

In  terms  of  labour  demand,  the  impact  of  these  flows  on  future  job  openings  up  to 
2030187  is  illustrated  in  the  figure  below.  The  number  of  expected  job  openings  is 

185 Ibid. 
186 As mentioned elsewhere in this report, shortages are not solely related to a lack of workforce, but also to limited skills available 
in EU Member States (especially in certain sectors such as green- and ICT-related sectors). While labour migration flows can 
offer a short-term solution to address these skills gaps, it is essential to complement this approach with a focus on upskilling and 
reskilling the current domestic workforce. For more context, please refer to: Guerrini, Federico, European year of skills: How to 
upskill and reskill workers to meet labour market needs, EIT Digital, 2023. 
187 Estimates on projected job openings until 2030 are taken from Cedefop Skills Forecast. These include job openings to occur 
in the future due to both expansion of employment and the need to replace existing workforce leaving the occupation for various 
reasons, with retirement being the most common. Out of all estimated job openings estimated by Cedefop, we considered only 
those potentially for TCNs, by considering the current labour market share of employed TCNs (around 5% as per Eurostat, labour 
force survey, custom extraction) and adjusting it to 2030 (i.e., estimating it to be 7.5% considering current population and migration 
trends). More information can be found here : https://www.cedefop.europa.eu/en/tools/skills-forecast  

176 

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01020304050607080TCNsEU moversNationals 
 
 
 
different for each option, as it has been adjusted according to whether the options are 
voluntary or mandatory, and whether they involve a targeted or open approach. The 
figure shows that, while PO3 under the mandatory scenario is expected to result in a 
higher number of incoming third country nationals via the EU Talent Pool (given the 
open  approach  that  entails  higher  number  of  potential  candidates  and  a  greater 
number  of  available  job  vacancies),  PO2  is  more  effective  in  meeting  future 
employment  needs  in  the  selected  number  of  occupations.  The  list  of  occupations 
reflects  the  actual  need  of  attracting  from  abroad  as  domestic  workforce  will  be 
insufficient.  Under  PO2,  the  expected  inflow  of  migrants  using  the  EU  Talent  Pool 
platform will cover around 16% of job openings registered in the EU Talent Pool by 
2030. 

Figure 62: Expected increase in labour migration in EU Member States under the different policy 
options and their impact on job openings via the EU Talent Pool by 2030 

Note: refer to Technical Annexes, no. 7 for more details on estimations. Only the upper-bound of the ranges for the voluntary 
options is shown. The lower-bound is: 0.3% for PO1, 12% for PO2 and 6% for PO3. 

Source: elaboration of the contractor (2023)  

The positive impacts of the Talent Pool in addressing labour shortages within the EU 
have been further confirmed by the targeted consultation activities conducted in the 
context  of  this  study.  For  instance,  the  International  Labour  Organisation  (ILO), 
consulted in the context of this study, agrees that the Talent Pool could bring added 
value  in  addressing  labour  shortages  and  facilitating  international  recruitment. 
However, this depends not only on the implementation modalities and socio-economic 
context,  but  also,  and  importantly,  on  the  commitment  and  buy-in  from  relevant 
stakeholders (including social partners). Indeed, collaboration between national public 
authorities and governments and social partners is key to help identify labour market 
needs and trends, as well as to ensuring productivity, inclusive growth and improved 
working  conditions.188  In this regard,  the  governance  structure  under  PO2  and PO3 
may be more in line with the arguments brought forward by ILO during consultation. 

188 Inputs from the International Labour Organisation (ILO) during targeted consultation activities conducted in the context of this 
study. 

177 

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  01 000 0002 000 0003 000 0004 000 0005 000 0006 000 0007 000 000PO1PO2 VoluntaryPO2 MandatoryPO3 MandatoryPO3 VoluntaryExpected successful matchesExpected job openings0.4%16%5%7%10% 
 
 
 
The increase in the labour force is brough about by the EU Talent Pool is also expected 
to have a positive impact on the GDP through additional wages.189 Specifically, PO1 is 
projected to contribute around EUR 235-260 million, PO2 is expected to generate EUR 
3.855-4.255  billion  under  the  voluntary  approach  and  EUR  5.2  billion  under  the 
mandatory  approach.  Lastly,  PO3  is  estimated  to  result  in  EUR  3.968-4.458  billion 
under the voluntary approach and EUR 5.4 billion under the mandatory approach. The 
impact  of  the  mandatory  scenario  in  PO3  is  expected  to  be  higher  due  to  its 
unrestricted approach, followed by the mandatory approach in PO2. 

In addition to widening the pool of potential candidates for EU employers, the EU Talent 
Pool  is  expected  to  facilitate  a  more  effective  match  between  the  skills  and 
competences of candidates and the requirements of available jobs, thereby avoiding 
to  some  extent  over-qualification  and  promoting  productivity  gains.  Each  option 
includes  features  aimed  at  facilitating  this  matching, although  this is expected  to  be 
more limited in the context of PO1. In particular, PO1 contributes to improved skill-job 
matching  through  job  matching  events,  while  PO2  includes  features  such  as  pre-
screening,  validation,  and  search  and  matching  tools.  In  addition,  PO3  uses  an  AI-
based  matching  tool  (more  sophisticated  than  the  semi-automatic  one  envisaged 
under  PO2)  that  streamlines  the  matching  process  and  improves  outcomes. 
Furthermore, both legislative options offer information provision, tools for comparability 
and  transparency,  as  well  as  personalised  support  that  improve  EU  employers’ 
understanding  of  skills  and  experience  gained  in  third  countries,  leading  to  better 
matches. As ILO mentioned in the context of consultation activities, the enhancement 
of better skills-vacancy matching can contribute to decreasing informality in the labour 
market,  as  unrecognised  demand  for  low-to-medium-skilled  jobs  can  end  up  being 
partially filled by irregular migrant workers.190 

In terms of the impacts on innovation and research, all three policy options have the 
potential  to  contribute  to  some  extent  to  fostering  innovation  by  increasing  the 
diversification  of  skills,  perspectives,  experiences and  backgrounds.  However,  PO2, 
with its targeted approach focused on addressing specific skills shortages, holds the 
potential  to  have  a  more  direct  impact  on  fostering  innovation  and  research.  The 
occupations  covered  by  PO2,  such  as  Science  and  Engineering  Professionals  and 
Associate  Professionals,  and  ICT  Professionals,  are  often  at  the  forefront  of  driving 
innovation and research. By ensuring that these key occupations are filled with skilled 
individuals,  the  policy  can  significantly  contribute  to  advancements  in  technological 
fields.  The  skill  selection  based  on  labour  market  needs  ensures  that  shortages  in 
crucial  areas  for  innovation  are  addressed,  which  can  lead  to  increased  research 
output and technological progress. 

6.3.1.2. 

Impacts on the EU labour market  

Below, several relevant impacts are  discussed: wages, employment, unemployment 
and inactivity and impacts of the policy options on the EU labour market. 

Wages. As the figure below shows, TCNs report systematically lower wages in almost 
all Member States. The impact of migration on wages and employment has been the 
subject  of  considerable  debate.  While  economic  theory  predicts  that  an  increase  in 

189 Wages are included in the computation of GDP when using an income-based approach. See Appendix 9 for more details. 
190 Inputs from the International Labour Organisation (ILO) during targeted consultation activities conducted in the context of this 
study. 

178 

November, 2023 

 
 
 
labour supply, including through migration, would lead to a fall in wages, there is no 
conclusive  evidence  that  immigrants  systematically  depress  the  wages  of  natives. 
Instead, the impact of immigration on the host country’s labour market seems to largely 
depend largely on migrants’ characteristics and decisions (e.g. gender, origin, skills, 
length  of  stay)  and  on  economic  and  institutional  factors  in  the  host  country  (e.g. 
unemployment level, strength of unions, extent of informal economy, wage rigidities). 
These factors determine the integration process of immigrants into the labour market 
and  whether  they  are  substitutes  or  complements  to  native  workers.  This,  in  turn, 
determines the dynamics of wage formation.191  

Figure 63: Median equivalised net income by citizenship across EU Member States, 2021 

Source: Eurostat, income and living conditions survey, custom extraction. 
Note: in PPPs. No data for BG, EE, EL, HR, HU, LT, LV, PL, PT, RO, SI, and SK. 

Empirical  research  on  the  impact  of  immigration  on  wages  and  employment  has 
produced  mixed  results.  While  some  studies  have  found  no  significant  effects192, 
others have found negative impacts193. However, when differences in skill levels are 
considered,  the  results  are  more  nuanced.  Skill  complementarity  between  migrants 
and natives has been found to play an important role. In this regard, research shows 
that immigration can have a positive impact on the wages and labour supply of low-
skilled  workers  in  migrant-receiving  countries  if  immigrants  have  high  skills  that 

191  Batsaikhan,  Uuriintuya,  Darvas,  Zsolt  and  Raposo,  Inês  Gonçalves,  People  on  the  move:  migration  and  mobility  in  the 
European Union. Bruegel Blueprint Series 28, 22 January 2018, 2018. Edo, Anthony and Rapoport, Hillel, 'Minimum wages and 
the labor market effects of immigration', Labour Economics, Vol. 61, 2019, pp. 101753. 
192 Ottaviano, Gianmarco IP and Peri, Giovanni, 'Rethinking the effect of immigration on wages', Journal of the European Economic 
Association, Vol. 10, 1, 2012, pp. 152-197. Peri, Giovanni and Sparber, Chad, 2009, EU enlargement and Ireland’s labor market. 
Blanchflower, David G and Shadforth, Chris, 'Fear, unemployment and migration', The Economic Journal, Vol. 119, 535, 2009, 
pp. F136-F182. 
193 Borjas, George J, 'The labor demand curve is downward sloping: Reexamining the impact of immigration on the labor market', 
The quarterly journal of economics, Vol. 118, 4, 2003, pp. 1335-1374. Dustmann, Christian, Frattini, Tommaso and Preston, Ian 
P,  'The  effect  of  immigration  along  the  distribution  of  wages',  Review  of  Economic  Studies,  Vol.  80,  1,  2013,  pp.  145-173. 
Dustmann,  Christian,  Schönberg,  Uta  and  Stuhler,  Jan,  'Labor  supply  shocks,  native  wages,  and  the  adjustment  of  local 
employment', The quarterly journal of economics, Vol. 132, 1, 2017, pp. 435-483. 

179 

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05 00010 00015 00020 00025 00030 00035 00040 000ATBECYCZDEDKESFIFRIEITLUMTNLSENationalsEU moversTCNs 
 
 
 
complement those of natives.194 However, while the benefits of immigration are often 
diffuse and may take time to materialise, the costs in terms of displacement or wage 
losses are immediate and concentrated on specific groups of workers.195 

Employment,  unemployment  and  inactivity.  The  literature  as  consistently  shown 
that the labour market performance of TCNs in EU Member States is generally lower 
than that of native or EU mobile workers.196 Indeed, TCNs systematically show lower 
activity  and  employment  rates  and  higher  unemployment  rates  between  2016  and 
2021,197  and  again  in  2022  (see  figure  below).  In  addition,  there  is  evidence  of 
significant mismatches between the skills of migrants (especially of high-skilled) and 
the job requirements that they take up in the host country.198 However, research also 
shows  that  the  performance  of  migrants  tends  to  converge  to  that  of  natives  in  the 
longer  term199  and  that  the  share  of  migrants  correctly  matched  to  occupation 
requirements gradually increases over time (even though this increase is mainly driven 
by the integration of highly educated migrants).200  

Figure 64: Employment, unemployment and inactivity rates in EU Member States, by citizenship, 2022  

Source: Eurostat, labour force survey, custom extraction. 

Impacts of the Policy Options on the EU labour market 

194  Docquier,  Frédéric,  Ozden,  Çağlar  and  Peri,  Giovanni,  'The  labour  market  effects  of immigration  and  emigration  in  OECD 
countries', The Economic Journal, Vol. 124, 579, 2014, pp. 1106-1145. Beerli, Andreas and Peri, Giovanni, 'The labor market 
effects of opening the border: New evidence from Switzerland', 2015. 
195 Bossavie, Laurent, et al., 2022. 
196 OECD, Third-country nationals' integration in the European Union, 2018. Wollenschlager, Ferdinand, van der Mei, Anne Pieter, 
Robin-Olivier, Sophie  and  Verschueren,  Herwig,  'Analytical  report on  the  legal  situation  of third-country  workers  in  the EU  as 
compared to EU mobile workers', 2019. 
197 Hassan, Emmanuel, Siöland, Linus, Akbaba, Berkay, Cinova, Daniela, Gasperini, Michela, and Geraci, Matthew, European 
Commission, Directorate-General for Employment, Social Affairs and Inclusion, Annual Report on Intra-EU Labour Mobility 2022, 
2022. 
198  Aleksynska,  Mariya  and  Tritah,  Ahmed,  'Occupation–education  mismatch  of  immigrant  workers  in  Europe:  Context  and 
policies',  Economics  of  Education  Review,  Vol.  36,  2013,  pp.  229-244Beyer,  Robert  CM,  The  labor  market  performance  of 
immigrants in Germany, International Monetary Fund, 2016. Sparreboom, Theo and Tarvid, Alexander, 'Skills mismatch of natives 
and immigrants in Europe', International Labour Office, Conditions of Work and Equality Department, ILO. Switzerland: Geneva, 
2017. 
199 Batsaikhan, Uuriintuya, et al., 2018. 
200 Aleksynska, Mariya and Tritah, Ahmed, 2013. 

180 

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0102030405060708090EU moversTCNsNationalsEU moversTCNsNationalsEU moversTCNsNationalsEmployment rateInactivity rateUnemployment rate 
 
 
 
Ceteris  paribus,  an  increase  in  the  number  of  migrants  as  a  result  of  facilitated 
international recruitment through the different options foreseen for the EU Talent Pool 
is expected to have a positive impact on employment rates in the Member States (by 
raising workforce levels). This finding is also reflected in the survey results obtained 
from a wide range of stakeholders (see figure below).201 Among the options, PO1 is 
expected to have a relatively smaller impact, while PO2 is expected to have a larger 
impact.  In  particular,  a  relatively  larger  proportion  of  respondents  (around  20%) 
expressed  concern  about  the  potential  negative  impact  on  employment  rates 
associated  with  PO3.  This  concern  is  likely  to  stem  from  the  perception  of  survey 
respondents  that  the  less  targeted approach  of  PO3 may  lead  to  the  recruitment  of 
migrants  (although  domestic  workforce  is  available)  who  do  not  necessarily 
complement  the  skills  of  EU  nationals,  contrary  to  PO2  which  focuses  on  those 
occupations that are in shortage at EU and national level thereby for which domestic 
workforce is insufficient. 

Figure 65: Impact of the different policy options on employment growth in EU Member States 
according to survey respondents 

Source: elaboration of the contractor based on the broad stakeholder survey 

However,  as  shown  above,  the  anticipated  impact  of  the  potential  employment 
following matching of labour migrants with EU employers from the Talent Pool initiative 
on  employment  rates  is  expected  to  be  moderate.  This  is  further  exemplified  in  the 
table below, which shows that the labour market performance of migrants under the 
different  options  changes  slightly  compared  to  the  baseline,  all  other  things  being 
equal.202 The most significant changes are in PO3 with the mandatory scenario, where 
the  employment  rate  increases  by  3  percentage  points  and  the  inactivity  and 
unemployment rates both decrease by 1-2 percentage points each.  

201 The survey targeted a wide range of stakeholders including public authorities,  private sector organisations, civil society and 
representative  organisations  (e.g.  NGOs,  business  associations,  EU  level  networks,  trade  unions),  research  institutes  and 
academia. More information on consultation activities can be found in the separate Stakeholder Consultation Report. 
202 Impacts on macro-indicators, such as employment rates, were estimated according to the expected flow of labour migrants by 
2030 via the EU Talent Pool (see Table ). In particular, for each macro-indicator the flow of migrants was added or deducted from 
the baseline according to the expected impact. For instance, the expected average inflow of migrants under PO1 is of 160 500 – 
17 300 migrants. Adding this flow to the current stock of employed migrants in the EU increases the employment rate of TCNs of 
few percentage points relative to the baseline. The same reasoning was applied to calculate the change in unemployment and 
inactivity rates. However, in those cases, the additional flows were deducted from the baseline as migrants coming via the EU 
Talent Pool will, by nature of the initiative, already be employed. 

181 

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0%10%20%30%40%50%60%70%80%90%100%PO1PO2PO3-3 [negative impact]-2-10 [no impact]123 [positive impact]Don't know 
 
 
 
Table 49: Impact of the policy options on labour market performance of TCNs in EU Member States 
Unemployment rate 

Employment rate 

Inactivity rate 

Option 

Baseline (2022) 
1: Soft measures 
2:  Focused  EU 
Talent Pool 
3:  Open  EU 
Talent Pool 

Voluntary  
Mandatory 
Voluntary 
Mandatory 

61.9% 
62.1% 
64.7% 
64.9% 
64.8% 
65.1% 

28.9% 
28.9% 
27.7% 
27.6% 
27.7% 
27.5% 

9.1% 
9.0% 
7.6% 
7.4% 
7.5% 
7.4% 

Note: As the difference between the two take-up scenarios (of 11 and 20 Member States) under the voluntary options is 
minimal, no ranges are included. 
Source: Contractor elaboration (2023). 

While research on wages and migration is inconclusive, the expected inflows from the 
EU Talent Pool initiative are likely to be too small to have any significant impact on 
wages. This is consistent with the findings of the survey, where respondents indicated 
that they did not expect any substantial change in the wages of nationals in EU Member 
States  (see  figure  below).  Furthermore,  as  emphasised  in  the  literature  above,  the 
impact on the wages of native workers will depend on a number of factors, one of which 
is  the  complementarity  between  the  skills  of  migrants  and  those  of  native  workers. 
Given that all the options envisaged for the EU Talent Pool initiative are designed to 
fill  current  job  vacancies  and to  address occupations and  sectors marked  by  labour 
shortages  in  the  EU,  it  is  reasonable  to  assume  complementary  of  skills.  This 
assumption is particularly true for PO2, which foresees a more targeted approach. In 
this regard, PO2 focuses on shortages in occupations that cannot be met by domestic 
workforce and thus addresses gaps where there is an actual need to attract labour and 
skills. 

Figure 66: Impact of the different policy options on the wages of EU nationals according to survey 
respondents 

Source: elaboration of the contractor based on the broad stakeholder survey 

November, 2023 

182 

0%10%20%30%40%50%60%70%80%90%100%PO1PO2PO3-3 [negative impact]-2-10 [no impact]123 [positive impact]Don't know 
 
 
6.3.1.3. 

Impacts on public finances and services in the EU 

A growing (and relatively recent) body of literature has examined the fiscal impact203 
of  immigration  in  European  Member  States,  with  the  aim  of  determining  whether 
migrants are net contributors or net beneficiaries. The results of the empirical evidence 
are mixed, but typically point to a net fiscal contribution of migration in the range of +/- 
1% of GDP.204 In most OECD countries, the fiscal impact is generally neutral or slightly 
positive,  suggesting  that  migrants  tend  to  be  net  contributors  to  the  tax  and  social 
security  systems  in  their  destination  countries.205  In  the  EU,  migrant  workers  are 
estimated to have made a net contribution of around EUR 42 billion to the national tax 
and benefit systems in 2008.206 More recently, the average annual net contribution of 
migrants  has  been  estimated  to  average  at  EUR  1  510  per  capita.207  Although  this 
contribution is small, high-skilled migrants and intra-EU mobile workers tend to have a 
more positive fiscal impact compared to lower skilled migrants.208  

Although studies on fiscal impacts may differ in their methodological209 and accounting 
approaches210,  they  tend  to  agree  on  the  strong  influence  of  factors  such  as  the 
demographic  (especially  age  structure)  and  socio-economic  (e.g.  employment, 
education  level)  profile  of  migrants,  household  conditions  (e.g.  number  of  children, 
poverty  rate)  and  the  reason(s)  for  migration  (e.g.  work,  family  reunification, 
humanitarian reasons). These factors also influence the evolution of the fiscal impact 
of migrants over time. In general, empirical studies have shown that migrants tend to 
have a negative fiscal impact in the short term and a positive net fiscal impact in the 
longer term as they become more integrated into the labour market.211 

Active  working-age  adults  migrating  for  work  reasons  are  more  likely  to  be  net 
contributors  in  the  short  term  and  have  a  more  neutral  effect  in  the  longer  term.212 

203  Different  definitions  have  been  given  in  the literature  but,  generally,  fiscal  impacts  are  intended  as the  difference  between 
immigrants’ contributions to public finances through taxes and social contributions and the benefits they receive (e.g. in healthcare, 
education, social welfare). 
204 Rowthorn, Robert, 'The fiscal impact of immigration on the advanced economies', Oxford Review of Economic Policy, Vol. 24, 
3, 2008, pp. 560-580Batsaikhan, Uuriintuya, et al., 2018. 
205 OECD, The fiscal impact of immigration  in OECD countries, International Migration Outlook 2013, 2013. 
206 Barbone, Luca, Zaidi, Salman and Bontch-Osmolovski, Mikhail, 'The Foreign-Born Population in the European Union and its 
Contribution  to  National  Tax  and  Benefit  Systems  Some  Insights  from  Recent  Household  Survey  Data',  Available  at  SSRN 
1549362,  2009.  Similar  positive  net  effects  have  been  observed  in  France  (see,  Chojnicki,  Xavier,  'The  Fiscal  Impact  of 
Immigration in F rance: A Generational Accounting Approach', The World Economy, Vol. 36, 8, 2013, pp. 1065-1090.), the United 
Kingdom (Vargas-Silva, Carlos, 'EU migration to and from the UK after Brexit', Intereconomics, Vol. 51, 5, 2016, pp. 251-255.. 
Dustmann, Christian; Frattini, Rommaso, 'The Fiscal Effects of Immigration to the UK', Economic Journal, Vol. 124 (580): F593–
F643, 2014.), and the Scandinavian countries (Hansen, Marianne Frank, Schultz-Nielsen, Marie Louise and Tranæs, Torben, 'The 
fiscal impact of immigration to welfare states of the Scandinavian type', Journal of Population Economics, Vol. 30, 2017, pp. 925-
952.). 
207 Fiorio, Carlo, Frattini, Tommaso, Riganti, Andrea and Christl, Michael, 'Migration and public finances in the EU', 2022. 
208 On average, high-skilled migrants in well-paid positions are likely to contribute more to taxes compared to low-skilled migrants 
in low-wage jobs. However, it's worth noting that certain migrant groups in the UK may experience skills mismatch, leading them 
to work below their actual skill level and potentially affecting their tax contributions. Dustmann, Christian; Frattini, Rommaso, 2014. 
Hansen, Marianne Frank, et al., 2017. 
209  While  some  studies  use  a  static  approach  (taking  a  snapshot  of  net  public  finances  in  a  given  year),  others  consider 
contributions  during  the  life-cycle by  using  a  dynamic  approach.  Bélanger,  A.,  Christl, M.,  Conte, A., Mazza,  J.,  Narazani, E., 
Projecting the net fiscal impact of immigration in the EU, EUR 30407 EN, Publications Office of the European Union, 2020. 
210 While some studies include public services in the equation of net public finances, others do not. Batsaikhan, Uuriintuya, et al., 
2018. 
211 Bélanger, A., Christl, M., Conte, A., Mazza, J., Narazani, E., 2020. Chojnicki (2013) finds that for migrants in France, the fiscal 
impact is negative at 14 years old but positive and peaking at 25 years. It decreases afterwards and turns negative after 47 years 
old. 
212 The lack of evidence of immigrants being a burden on public finances was shown by Furlanetto and Robstand (2016) when 
analysing immigration in Norway. The authors argue that as migrants come to Norway mainly for work reasons, in the short run 
they increase public revenue through tax and social contributions (thus have a positive effect on public finances). In the long-run, 
as public expenditures increase (e.g. due to family reunification), the net effect on public finances becomes more neutral. See : 

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However, only around 40% of migrants find a suitable job within the EU Member States 
within  the  first  3  months  of  their  arrival.  Almost  30%  of  them  takes  more  than  12 
months.213 

Figure 67: Time required to find the first paid job in the host EU Member State, by citizenship, 2021 

Source: Eurostat, labour force survey ad-hoc module 2021, custom extraction 

A  recent  study  by  the  European  Commission’s  Joint  Research  Centre214  looks 
precisely  at  these  differences  in  net  fiscal  contributions  over the  life  cycle  of  TCNs, 
natives  and  intra-EU  mobile  workers  and  finds  that  the  increased  integration  of 
migrants  into  EU  labour  market  could  generate  large  fiscal  gains  for  host  Member 
States in the longer term. Although natives currently contribute more to the net fiscal 
balance  than  third-country  migrants,  projections  indicate  that  the  ageing  of  native 
population  is  likely  to  reverse  this  relationship,  with  natives  becoming  larger  net 
beneficiaries by 2035.215 Migration is therefore essential and without improvements in 
the labour market integration of migrants, EU mobile workers are expected to be the 
only group making a positive net contribution to government budgets. 

Impacts of the Policy Options on public finances 

In terms of the impact on public finances, the additional tax revenue under the different 
options is estimated to be EUR 56-59 million for PO1, EUR 918-957 million for PO2 
under the voluntary scope and EUR 996 million under the mandatory scope, EUR 945 

integration  see: 

IMF,.“The  refugee  surge 

in  Europe;  economic  challenges”, 

Furlanetto,  F.  and  Ø.  Robstad,  'Immigration  and  the  macroeconomy:  Some  new  empirical  evidence',  Review  of  Economic 
Dynamics, Vol. 34, 2019. For similar studies showing that the impact of migrants on the EU labour market depends on their level 
of 
IMF  Staff  Discussion  Note  16/2, 
InternationalMonetary  Fund,  2016.  https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/sdn/2016/sdn1602.pdf;  World  Bank  (2016).Global 
monitoring  report  2015/2016:  development  goals  in  an  era  of  demographicchange.  Washington,  DC:  World  Bank. 
https://doi.org/10.1596/978-1-4648-0669-8. 
from 
http://pubdocs.worldbank.org/pubdocs/publicdoc/2015/10/503001444058224597/Global-Monitoring-Report-2015.pdf 
213 It should be however noted that this indicator only counts the period that migrants spend looking for a job when they arrive in 
their new host country; time of the job search in the country of origin is not included. This may bias the numbers towards a lower-
bound.  
214 Bélanger, A., Christl, M., Conte, A., Mazza, J., Narazani, E., 2020. 
215 Ibid. The research paper estimates that the average annual net fiscal contribution of TCNs will exceed the contributions of 
natives by about EUR 1 570 in 2035 under the baseline scenario. For more on methodology and limitations please refer to the 
cited paper.  

Retrieved 

November, 2023 

184 

010203040506070Less than 3monthsFrom 3 to lessthan 6 monthsFrom 6 to lessthan 12monthsFrom 12months to lessthan 2 yearsFrom 2 to lessthan 3 yearsFrom 3 to lessthan 4 years4 years oroverEU moversTCNsNationals 
 
 
 
million and 1 billion for PO3 under the voluntary scope and EUR 1.04 billion under the 
mandatory scope.216 

Additionally,  survey  respondents  agreed  that  PO1  would  have  a  minimal  impact  on 
public finances, while PO2 and PO3 would have a more significant impact (see figure 
below),  likely  due  to  the  higher  number  of  job  placements  under  the  two  legislative 
options that would result a greater number of incoming TCNs. In particular, the larger 
influx  of  migrants  expected  under  PO2  and  mostly  under  PO3  could  potentially  put 
additional pressure on public services, including housing, healthcare and education, 
especially considering that migrants often bring their families with them. 

Figure 68: Impact of the different policy options on public finances in EU Member States according to 
survey respondents 

Source: Contractor survey on a broad range of stakeholder groups. 

However, it is important to note that while both legislative options may slightly strain 
public finances, the actual impact may not be substantial, particularly considering the 
potentially  limited  flow  of  migrants,  especially  under the  more  constrained  nature  of 
PO2. Furthermore, since the scope of the EU Talent Pool revolves around jobseekers 
migrating for work-related reasons, they will have less needs to access social benefits 
and it is likely that their net contribution on public finances will be positive already in 
the short term (as they will be integrated into the local labour market from their arrival 
and will have a stable income, reducing their reliance on social welfare benefits). 

6.3.1.4. 

Impacts on SMEs in the EU  

Small  and  medium-sized  enterprises  (SMEs)  within  the  European  Union  are 
encountering significant challenges in recruiting and retaining skilled staff. A recently 
released Flash Eurobarometer217 sheds light on the demands and obstacles faced by 
SMEs in relation to their recruitment and retention efforts. The survey underscores the 
crucial role skilled workers play in the success of SMEs in Europe, with a staggering 
95%  of  all  SMEs  expressing  that  having  employees  with  the  appropriate  skills  is  of 

216 More details on the calculations of tax revenue can be found in Appendix 9. 

217  European  Commission,  Flash  Eurobarometer  529:  European  Year  of  Skills:  Skills  shortages,  recruitment  and  retention 
strategies in small and medium-sized enterprises, 2023. The number of SMEs respondents is around 13 000 SMEs. 

185 

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0%10%20%30%40%50%60%70%80%90%100%PO1PO2PO3-3 [negative impact]-2-10 [no impact]123 [positive impact]Don't know 
 
 
 
paramount  importance  to  their  business  model.  Specifically,  82%  find  it  "very 
important," while 13% consider it "moderately important." 

However,  three-quarters  (74%)  of  SMEs  in  Europe  currently  grapple  with  concrete 
skills shortages for at least one job role within their organisation. This pressing issue 
was also acknowledged by President Von Der Leyen in her 2023 State of the Union 
Address, where she highlighted examples such as hospitals delaying treatments due 
to a shortage of nurses and two-thirds of European companies desperately seeking IT 
specialists without success.218 This situation hampers the overall business activities of 
nearly  two  thirds  (63%)  of  companies.  Furthermore,  nearly  half  of  them  (45%)  also 
report hindrances in their efforts to embrace or use digital technologies, and four in ten 
(39%) face challenges in transitioning to more environmentally sustainable business 
practices.  

Facilitating access to a larger pool of workers is likely to alleviate the challenges faced 
by  SMEs  when  it  comes  to  international  recruitment  and  identifying  suitable 
candidates,  thereby  allowing  SMEs  to  broader  their  search  for  skilled  professionals 
beyond  local  borders.  As  reported  by  the  European  Commission’s  Joint  Research 
Centre (JRC) in its latest Annual Report on European SMEs, hiring new skilled staff is 
one of the four major obstacles for SME employers.219 Research shows that the more 
difficult it is for enterprises to find skilled labour, the more often SME employers recruit 
skilled workers from abroad: a 2017 study from Germany shows that while only 11% 
of SMEs targeted their hiring efforts at third-country nationals in the past five years, 
that  proportion  was  expected  to  more  than  double  (24%)  over  the  following  five 
years.220 

Aside from demand driven by labour and skill shortages, SME recruitment of migrant 
workers is found to be driven by owner-managerial values, as well as the perceived 
skill  level  and  necessity  of  migrant  labour.221  Research  shows  that  the  career 
experience of migrant SME owner-managers influence their behaviour in recruiting and 
retaining  international  staff:  a  more  positive  experience  of  a  TCN  SME  manager  is 
associated  with  a  greater  likelihood  them  recruiting  other  third  country  nationals,  in 
turn.222  

Research however indicates that SME employers may lack awareness and training in 
managing  diversity.  This  may  lead  to  the  (unintentional)  adoption  of  practices  and 
policies which make it more difficult for foreign workers to integrate into the workforce; 
this is particularly the case for employees who originate from countries outside the EU 
and whose cultural distance is higher.223 Moreover, from a practical perspective, SMEs 

218 The speech can be consulted here : https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/ov/speech_23_4426 
219 Di Bella, L., Katsinis, A., Lagüera-González, J., SME Performance Review 2022/2023, 2023, ISBN 978-92-9469-591-8, doi: 
10.2826/69827. 
220 Arne Leifels and Michael Schwartz (2017).   Foreign workers in German SMEs: Focus on Economics, a strong plea for free 
labour markets. KfW Research, No. 154. https://www.kfw.de/About-KfW/Newsroom/Latest-News/News-Details_394113.html 
221 Lähdesmäki, Merja and Suutari, Timo, 'Good workers, good firms? Rural SMEs legitimising immigrant workforce', Journal of 
Rural Studies, Vol. 77, 2020, pp. 1-10. 
222 Crowley-Henry, Marian, O'Connor, Edward P and Suarez-Bilbao, Blanca, 'What goes around comes around. Exploring how 
skilled  migrant  founder–managers  of  SMEs  recruit  and  retain  international  talent',  Journal  of  Global  Mobility:  The  Home  of 
Expatriate Management Research, Vol. 9, 2, 2021, pp. 145-165. 
223 Suban, R., & Zammit, D. E. (2019). Promoting the integration of third-country nationals through the labour market : combating 
discrimination in employment : the case of third-country nationals in Malta. Mediterranean Human Rights Review, 1, 98-117. 

186 

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may  face  difficulty  in  accommodating  workers  who  speak  their  language  poorly, 
especially in countries with limited or no language basin abroad.224 

Small  firms  may  also  be  less  likely  to  risk  hiring  unknown  employees  if  recruitment 
costs  are  high  and  sponsorship  requirements  are  complex.  A  review  of  the  EU 
instruments suggests that some labour migration channels favour larger firms, with few 
OECD countries having labour migration instruments specifically targeting or favouring 
SMEs.225  

In  addition  to  relying  on  immigration,  the  European  Union  (EU)  has  a  strong 
commitment to enhancing the lifelong learning and skills development of its workforce 
through  funding  and  policy  initiatives.  The  European  Year  of  Skills226  has  placed  a 
significant emphasis on skills development, and Member States have embraced the 
target of ensuring that at least 60% of adults participate in training annually by 2030. 
Substantial  resources,  approximately  EUR  65  billion  of  EU  funds,  are  allocated  to 
support education, training, and skill-building initiatives. 

The European Skills Agenda227 and the Pact for Skills228 have played pivotal roles in 
facilitating training opportunities for both companies and workers throughout Europe, 
benefiting over 2 million individuals already. Additionally, the European Commission 
has  taken  concrete  steps  to  alleviate  the  challenges  faced  by  SMEs  with  a 
comprehensive  set  of  initiatives.  This  SMEs  Relief  Communication229  includes  non-
legislative measures to ensure a skilled workforce for SMEs by continuing to support 
training actions and the matching between skills with SMEs needs. 

Impacts of the Policy Options on EU SMEs 

The implementation of the EU Talent Pool is expected to benefit SMEs by easing their 
access  to  international  recruitment  thus  allowing  them  to  tap  into  a  wider  pool  of 
jobseekers and create a critical mass of employees. Large companies already enjoy 
relatively easier access to international talent due to their have well-developed human 
resources departments and subsidiaries and branches in third countries. Conversely, 
SMEs often face higher barriers to entry due to the increased transaction costs and 
risks associated with international recruitment. 

The impact on SMEs is likely to be more pronounced for the two legislative options 
(PO2  and  PO3).  This  is  mainly  due  to  the  higher  added  value  of  the  search  and 
matching tools offered, as evidenced by the figure below on the outcomes of the survey 
targeting EU employers conducted in the context of this study. In particular, the figure 
shows that for SMEs the value of automatic (under PO3) and semi-automatic (under 
PO2)  tools  is  greater  relative  to  large  firms.  These  tools  streamline  the  recruitment 
process by efficiently matching suitable candidates with job vacancies, saving valuable 
time and effort for SMEs that often operate with limited resources, including time and 
personnel for extensive recruitment procedures.  

224 Ramasamy, S. (2016), “The Role of Employers and Employer Engagement in Labour Migration from Third Countries to the 
EU”,  OECD  Social,  Employment  and  Migration  Working  Papers,  No.  178,  OECD  Publishing,  Paris. 
http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5jlwxc0366xr-en 
225 Ibid. 
226 More information available here : https://year-of-skills.europa.eu/index_en  
227 More information available here : https://ec.europa.eu/social/home.jsp?langId=en  
228 European Commission, Pact for Skills Annual Report 2022, Progress on upskilling and reskilling the European workforce, 2022.  
229 More information available here : https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/IP_23_4409  

187 

November, 2023 

 
 
 
The graph below also shows that a great benefit for SMEs is that only candidates with 
relevant profiles can apply to the vacancy, which is more prominently ensured via pre-
screening practices included under PO2. In this sense, the ability to access a dataset 
of CVs, especially if they have been pre-screened under PO2, would be of great benefit 
to  SMEs,  by  reducing  the  search  costs  and  providing  a  streamlined  and  efficient 
process  for  identifying  suitable  candidates,  addressing  their  resource  constraints 
effectively.  Private  employers,  recruitment  agencies  and  business  associations 
consulted in the context of this study have indeed highlighted the prominent challenges 
SMEs face to recruit internationally, especially when it comes to the identification and 
selection  of  candidates,  given  the  limited  resources  they  have  available.  While 
multinationals  may  have  local  offices  in  third  countries  or  partnerships  with  local 
public/private stakeholders, SMEs often lack those links.230  

Moreover,  SMEs  may  lack  the  in-house  expertise  and  knowledge  on  migration  and 
employment  procedures  when  it  comes  to  hiring  TCNs,  as  they  often  do  not  have 
(extensive) Human  Resources  (HR)  departments  similar  to  those  available  in  larger 
multinational  corporations.231  Measures  related  to  the  provision  of  information  and 
personalised support (especially under the two legislative options) may be crucial in 
this regard. In the same vein, SMEs may lack (in-house) resources required to validate 
and assess the legitimacy of applications from third country nationals, which is more 
commonly  available  to  multinational  corporations.232  It  is  however  true  that  the 
importance of validation procedures is high among both clusters of firms (see figure 
below),  thereby  leaning  towards  stronger  preference  for  PO2  as  this  policy  option 
includes  alternatives  for  validation  of  skills  and  qualifications  obtained  in  third 
countries.233 

In addition, the EU Talent Pool can offer significant value for those occupations where 
finding suitable candidates proves challenging. This holds true not only for SMEs but 
also for multinational corporations. In this context, PO2 is expected to have the most 
pronounced impact. By specifically addressing shortages in targeted occupations, this 
policy option would encompass profiles that are typically hard-to-find. This is the case 
for  instance  for  ICT  specialists.  In  2022,  approximately  9.5%  of  EU  enterprises 
indicated that they engaged in recruiting or attempting to recruit ICT specialists during 
the  year  2021.234  Among  these  enterprises,  a  significant  62.8%  encountered 
challenges in filling these specialised vacancies. This trend was particularly prominent 
among large enterprises, where 48.8% reported recruitment efforts for ICT specialists 
in 2021, in contrast to a lower rate of 6.4% among small enterprises.235 

230 Inputs from recruitment agencies, employers and business associations (e.g. SMEUnited, BusinessEurope, Eurochambres) 
conducted in the context of this study. 
231 Input validated from inputs provided via consultation activities with European Labour Authority (ELA) and recruitment agencies 
conducted in the context of this study. 
232 Inputs from recruitment agencies, employers and business associations (e.g. SMEUnited, BusinessEurope, Eurochambres) 
conducted in the context of this study. 
233 Please refer to Section 5.4.4 for more context on the different measures related to validation of candidates’ profiles envisaged 
under PO2. 
234  Eurostat,  ICT  specialists  –  statistics  on  hard-to-fill  vacancies  in  enterprises :  https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-
explained/index.php?title=ICT_specialists_-_statistics_on_hard-to-
fill_vacancies_in_enterprises#Employment_and_recruitment_of_ICT_specialists 
235 Ibid. 

188 

November, 2023 

 
 
 
Figure 69: Extent to which the following features would change the likelihood of registering 
on the platform, mean by firm size 

Note: Range goes from 1 [strongly decrease it] to 7 [strongly increase it] with 4 being representing no effect. 

Source: Contractor survey on EU employers. 

The  results  from  the  employers’  survey  are  also  reflected  in  the  outcomes  of  the 
broader  stakeholders’  survey  results  (see  figure  below).  Indeed,  the  two  legislative 
options are expected to have stronger positive impacts on SMEs. 

Figure 70: Impact of the different policy options on SMEs in EU Member States according to 
survey respondents 

Source: Contractor survey on a broad range of stakeholder groups 

While  the  more  targeted  approach  of  PO2  may  better  address  labour  shortages  by 
focusing  on  those  strategic  occupations  that  cannot  find  suitable  workforce  among 
nationals and  EU  workers, the more  restrictive  approach  can  create  implications  on 
the number of SMEs able to access the platform. Estimating the number of SMEs that 
will be affected is challenging, as harmonised EU-level statistics on occupations and 

November, 2023 

189 

4.404.604.805.005.205.405.605.806.006.20Sharing of job postings between the EU Talent Pool and national job portalsOnly candidates with required profiles can apply to your job postings (e.g.qualifications, language proficiency...)Candidates self-declare that the information they provide in their profiles iscorrect and accurateCandidates are required to submit supporting documents during the profilecreationAuthenticity and correctness of supporting documents submitted by thecandidate is verified by an external validatorA semi-automatic matching tool provides a shortlist of candidates who match jobrequirements (structured data)An automatic matching tool provides a ranked shortlist of candidates, alsoprocessing CVs and documents (unstructured data)Fast-track administrative procedures for selected candidatesQuality checks of employers when registering (legal compliance, bankruptcy)Large firmsSMEs0%10%20%30%40%50%60%70%80%90%100%PO1PO2PO3-3 [negative impact]-2-10 [no impact]123 [positive impact]Don't know 
 
 
 
firm size are not available.236 However, SMEs comprise the vast majority of firms in all 
sectors (see figure below). This entails that while the approach of PO2 may be more 
restrictive, the pool of SMEs able to use the initiative would still be significant.  

Figure 71. Share of SMEs across NACE sectors, 2021 

Note: B: Mining and quarrying; C: Manufacturing; D: Electricity, gas, steam and air conditioning supply; E: Water 
supply, sewerage, waste management and remediation activities; F: Construction; G: Wholesale and retail trade; 
repair  of  motor  vehicles  and  motorcycles;  H:  Transportation  and  storage;  I:  Accommodation  and  food  service 
activities;  J:  Information  and  communication;  K:  Financial  and  insurance  activities;  L:  Real  estate  activities;  M: 
Professional, scientific and technical activities; N: Administrative and support service activities; P: Education; Q: 
Human health and social work activities; R: Arts, entertainment and recreation.  
Source: Eurostat, structural business statistics, code: sbs_sc_ovw. 

More  detail  can  be  provided  when  looking at  the  three main macro-sectors that  are 
generally  suffering  from  labour  shortages  in  most  Member  States  (see  Section  2): 
green, health and ICT sectors.237 

Green sector.238 Broadly speaking, green SMEs can contribute to the protection of the 
climate, environment and biodiversity in various ways. Some are “green performers” – 
SMEs  focusing  on  reducing  the  environmental  footprint  via  resource-efficient 
processes – while others are “green innovators” – SMEs focusing on producing green 
products and services (e.g., renewable energy).239 Greening production processes or 

236 This is ideally needed as one assumption taken in this report is that the potential list of occupations included under the targeted 
scope of PO2 is given by the ELA shortages report, complemented with inputs from Commission Services and ESDE 2023 report.  
237 As information on occupations and firm size is not available at EU level, we rely on literature and sectoral statistics from Eurostat 
when available. We considered three main macro-sectors (green, ICT and health) that are most suffering from shortages according 
to the above-mentioned list. For instance, occupations relevant for the green sector and identified as of strategic relevance include: 
31- science and engineering associate professionals and 21 – science and engineering professionals. Those relevant for the ICT 
sector  and  identified  as  of  strategic  relevance  include:  21  –  science  and  engineering  professionals,  25  –  information  and 
communications technology professionals, 31- science and engineering associate professionals, 71 – building and related trades 
workers excluding electricians, 72 – metal machinery and related trades workers, 74 – electrical and electronic trades workers, 
83 – drivers and mobile plant operators. Those relevant for the health sector and identified as of strategic relevance include: 22 – 
health professionals, 51 – personal service workers, 53 – personal care workers. 
238 Environmental impacts are further discussed in Section 6.3.2.4. In that section, considerations in defining and estimating the 
number of green jobs and green sectors are also included. 
239 OECD, SMEs: Key Drivers of Green and Inclusive Growth, Issue Paper in: Inclusive solutions for the green transition, 2018. 
190 

November, 2023 

 
 
 
 
designing and producing green products generally requires a workforce with specific 
and specialised skills and expertise.240 

As  Europe  witnesses  a  growing  number  of  green  performers  and  innovators,  the 
demand for technical skills in this field is on the rise. Eurobarometer surveys on this 
topic reveal that a significant portion of SMEs, more than half of the approximately 13 
000 SMEs respondents, have already invested or plan to invest in emissions reduction 
and climate change mitigation.241 Additionally, more than two-thirds of SMEs (around 
9 000) are already actively engaged in resource efficiency activities, primarily cantered 
around waste reduction and energy conservation.242  

This surge in green initiatives is propelled by the ambitious objectives of the European 
Green Deal, which foresees a reduction in net greenhouse gas emissions by at least 
55% by 2030 and zero net emissions by 2050. Within the Green Deal, the Green Deal 
Industrial Plan fosters an environment conducive to scaling up the production of net-
zero  technologies  and  products  to  meet  Europe's  climate  targets.  Following  these 
efforts, the  value of  EU’s  net-zero  start-ups ecosystem  in 2021  doubled  since  2020 
and  reached  over  EUR  100  billion.  In  addition,  the  number  of  green  jobs  in  the 
European economy is growing; it went from an estimated 3.2 million in 2000 up to 4.5 
million in 2019.243 

However, the transition towards a more sustainable and green economy necessitates 
expertise and skills that may not be readily available in the EU. In this regard, four in 
ten SMEs (39%) face challenges in transitioning to more environmentally sustainable 
business practices due to skills shortages.244 Similarly, 23% of SMEs (around 3 000 
out of 13 000) report that a main barrier to undertaking resource-efficiency actions is 
the lack of specific environmental expertise.245 Those numbers indicate a high potential 
pool of SMEs,  across all  sectors, that  would  benefit  from  the  Talent  Pool (including 
under the restrictive scope of PO2). 

ICT sector. The number of SMEs in the ICT sector246 is around 1 240 000, making up 
around 99% of the total number of enterprises in the sector.247 This represents a very 
large  sectoral  base  for  the  potential  uptake  of  the  Talent  Pool  under  the  targeted 
approach of PO2. Additionally, as it is the case for green skills, also digital skills are 
cross-cutting across sectors, entailing that SMEs not necessarily operating in the ICT 
sector may require workers with strong digital expertise and knowledge. Indeed, the 
green  transition  is  highly  interlinked  with  the  digital  revolution,  in  that  digitalisation 
offers SMEs the potential to become more productive and reduce their environmental 

240 In this regard, the Flash Eurobarometer 498 defines a “green job” as “one that directly deals with information, technologies, or 
materials that preserves or restores environmental quality. This requires specialised skills, knowledge, training, or experience …”. 
European  Commission,  Annual  Report  on  European  SMEs  2021/2022,  SMEs  and  environmental  sustainability,  Background 
document, 2022. 
241 European Commission, Annual Report on European SMEs 2021/2022, SMEs and environmental sustainability, Background 
document, 2022. 
242 European Commission, Flash Eurobarometer 498: SMEs, green markets and resource efficiency, 2021. The number of SMEs 
respondents is around 13 000 SMEs. 
243  More  information  available  here :  https://commission.europa.eu/strategy-and-policy/priorities-2019-2024/european-green-
deal/green-deal-industrial-plan_en  
244  Flash  Eurobarometer  529  on  European  Year  of  Skills :  Skills  shortages,  recruitment  and  retention  strategies  in  small  and 
medium-sized enterprises. The number of SMEs respondents is around 13 000 SMEs. 
245 European Commission, Flash Eurobarometer 498: SMEs, green markets and resource efficiency, 2021. The number of SMEs 
respondents is around 13 000 SMEs. 
246 NACE code J. 
247 Eurostat, Structural Business Statistics, code: SBS_SC_OVW. 

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impact.248  However,  a  large  share  of  SMEs  reports  not  having  enough  human 
resources, also in terms of skills and expertise, to undertake concrete actions towards 
the digital revolution. Indeed, among SMEs with very limited digitalisation, or that have 
not yet digitalised any of their activities, 90% indicated the lack of required skills as a 
main cause. Even if less problematic, the lack of required skills plays a role also in the 
digitalisation strategy of SMEs with very or more extensive digitalisation, as indicated 
by more than 30% of those.249  

Health sector. The number of SMEs in the health sector250 is around 2 130 000, which 
represents around 99%  of  the  entire  totality  of  the  enterprises  in the  sector.251  As  it 
was the case for the ICT sector, this also entails a very large sectoral base for potential 
uptake from SMEs of the Talent Pool initiative under PO2. Disaggregating this number 
across  the  different  subsectors  show  that  the  majority  of  SMEs  in  the  sector  are 
concentrated among Medical and dental practices activities (44%) and Other human 
health activities (48%), which can include activities for human health not performed by 
hospitals or by medical doctors or dentists (e.g., midwives, physiotherapists or other 
paramedical practitioners, medical massage and so on).  

Overall, the staggering number of SMEs taking actions towards the green and digital 
transition and the high number of SMEs operating in the health and ICT sectors entail 
a  high  (and  growing)  potential  demand  for  specialised  skills  and  expertise  in  those 
fields.  In  this  context,  while  a  limited  scope  of  the  Talent  Pool  may  restrict  SMEs 
registration, a considerable number of SMEs will still directly operate for the strategic 
sectors that will likely be part of the initiative, or will require critical skills and expertise 
(e.g., digital skills or green skills) that will be included in the platform. These direct and 
indirect  perspectives  indicate  a  substantial  pool  of  potential  beneficiaries  among 
SMEs. 

6.3.1.5. 

Impacts on sending third countries: brain drain / gain and remittances 

Brain  gain  and  brain  drain.  Research  shows  that,  particularly  in  the  short  term, 
emigration  (and  especially  highly  skilled  emigration)  can  lead  to  slower  growth  and 
stagnating  productivity  in  sending  countries,  by  reducing  the  level  of  human  capital 
available.252 This is particularly a prominent issue in the sector of healthcare. Indeed, 
a  large  share  of  the  literature  on  the  topic  of  brain  drain  focuses  precisely  on  this 
sector.253 The healthcare sector presents complex challenges in both destination and 
origin  countries.  In  destination  countries,  concerns  revolve  around  sustainability  of 

248 European Commission, Annual Report on European SMEs 2021/2022, SMEs and environmental sustainability, Background 
document, 2022. 
249 Survey of SME Associations, European Commission, Annual Report on European SMEs 2020/2021: Digitalisation of SMEs, 
2021. 
250 NACE code Q. 
251 Eurostat, Structural Business Statistics, code: SBS_SC_OVW. 
252 Beine, Defoort, and Docquier (2011) and Docquier and Rapoport (2009) used a cross-sectional analysis in a sample of sending 
countries  and  find significant  and  sizeable  positive  effects  of  highly-skilled migration  prospects  on  human  capital  formation  in 
developing countries. Beine, Michel, Docquier, Frédéric and Oden-Defoort, Cecily, 'A panel data analysis of the brain gain', World 
development,  Vol.  39,  4,  2011,  pp.  523-532Docquier,  Frédéric  and  Rapoport,  Hillel,  2009.  See  also:  Frličková,  Barbora,  ‘The 
Phenomenon of Brain Drain and Immigration of a High-Skilled Workforce to the Slovak Republic’, Faces of Migration, Ambrela, 
2021. 
253 See for instance, Dodani, Sunita and LaPorte, Ronald, ‘Brain drain from developing countries, how can brain drain be converted 
into wisdom gain ?’, Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, Vol. 98., 2005. B.M. Kuehn: “Global shortage of health workers, 
brain drain stress developing countries”, in JAMA, 2007, Vol. 298, No. 16, pp. 1853-18555. RCSI, Brain Drain to Brain Gain : 
Ireland’s two-way flow of Doctors, 2017. 

192 

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health systems relying on highly skilled foreign-trained health workers, along with high 
costs  associated  with  international  recruitment,  such  as  language  training  and 
induction expenses. The underutilisation of migrant health workers' skills due to lack 
of qualification recognition is also a prominent issue. In countries of origin, healthcare 
workforce  migration  can  worsen  existing  shortages  and  disparities  in  healthcare 
distribution, leading to increased workloads for remaining professionals in understaffed 
areas. Although some migrant health workers do return home, their motivations vary, 
including family reasons, entrepreneurial pursuits, or retirement. The unmet demand 
for  health  workers  in  high-income  countries  further  drives  migration  from  low-  and 
middle-income  countries,  exacerbating  the  issue.  Migrant  care  workers,  mostly 
women, contribute to this trend, forming a "global care chain" as they leave their own 
families to meet demand in affluent nations.254 

It  is  true,  however,  that  in  the  longer-term  labour  migration  can  provide  access  to 
valuable  knowledge  accumulated  abroad.  Empirical  research  on  the  relationship 
between  brain  drain  and  migration  has  positive  long-term  effects  on  the  country  of 
origin and the potential for subsequent brain gain.255  

Migration is often perceived as a linear process in which workers move permanently 
from one country to another. However, some authors256 stress the non-linear trajectory 
of  migration.  A  large  proportion  of  migrants  (especially  highly  skilled  migrants  who 
move  for work reasons) either  return  to  the country  of  origin  or move on  to  another 
country (often several times). This circularity allows sending third countries to benefit 
from a brain gain (i.e. increased knowledge, experience, education and skills) when 
the migrant returns home. Returning migrants may also start new businesses in their 
country of origin, helping to create employment opportunities and contributing to fuel 
growth in the local economy.257 

Another  (more  indirect)  mechanism  through  which  brain  gain  may  occur  via  the 
development  and  enhancement  of  educational  curricula  and  programmes  in  the 
countries  of  origin.  This  has  been  studied  particularly  in  the  healthcare  sector.  For 
instance,  researchers have  found  that  an  increase  in  the  emigration  of  nurses  from 
developing to developed countries can lead to an increase in the number of nurses in 
the  sending  countries  due  to  the  increased  demand  for  (and  supply  of)  nursing 
programmes.258  However,  for  this  to  happen,  sending  countries  need  to  be  able  to 
expand their school capacity to meet the increased demand for education.259  

Remittances.  In  addition  to  brain  gain,  emigration  can  benefit  sending  countries 
through remittances, namely the transfer of money from migrants working abroad to 
their families living in another country. According to World Bank data, total international 
remittances were around USD 794 billion in 2022.The figure below shows the number 

254 International labour organisation (ILO), ‘The future of work in the health sector’, Working Paper No. 325. 

255 Beine, Defoort, and Docquier (2011) and Docquier and Rapoport (2009) used a cross-sectional analysis in a sample of sending 
countries  and  find significant  and  sizeable  positive  effects  of  highly-skilled migration  prospects  on  human  capital  formation  in 
developing countries. Beine, Michel, Docquier, Frédéric and Oden-Defoort, Cecily, 'A panel data analysis of the brain gain', World 
development, Vol. 39, 4, 2011, pp. 523-532Docquier, Frédéric and Rapoport, Hillel, 2009. 
256 See, for instance, Zimmermann, K, 'Circular migration', 2014. 
257 Ibid. 
258 More specifically, the authors found that the increased (foreign) demand for nurses raised the demand for (and subsequently 
the  supply  of)  nursing  programmes  in  the  Philippines.  The  increase  in  nursing  degrees  meant  that  a  large  proportion  of  the 
additional nurses stayed in the sending country; for each nurse that went abroad, two new people graduated from nursing school. 
The increase in emigration lead to a rise in the number of nurses in the Philippines, rather than to a brain drain. Abarcar, Paolo 
and Theoharides, Caroline, 'The international migration of healthcare professionals and the supply of educated individuals left 
behind', Draft paper, 2017. 
259 Bossavie, Laurent, et al., 2022. 

193 

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of remittances received (and as a percentage of GDP) in different geographical areas. 
In  general,  around  79%  of  remittances  were  destined  for  low-  and  middle-income 
countries Over the years, remittances to the latter group have shown constant positive 
annual growth rates (with the exception of 2020), going from a total of USD 447 billion 
in 2015 to a projected USD 639 billion in 2023.260  

Figure 72: Personal remittances received, in current billion USD and as % of GDP, 2021 

Source: World Bank estimates based on IMF balance of payments data. 
Note: Figures exclude high income countries. 

The main recipients of remittances in 2022 were India, Mexico and China. However, 
when measured as a share of GDP, smaller countries such as Tonga, Lebanon and 
Samoa have the highest ratios. The largest sending countries are almost always high-
income countries: in 2020, these are the United States (consistently the top sending 
country,  with  an  outflow  of  USD  68  billion  in  2020)  followed  by  the  United  Arab 
Emirates,  Saudi  Arabia,  Switzerland  and  Germany  (USD  22  billion).261  Moreover, 
compared  to  foreign  direct  investment, official development assistance and  portfolio 
investment flows, remittances have been the largest source of external finance for low- 
and middle-income countries since 2015.262  

At  the macro  level,  scholars have  emphasised  the  role  of  remittances  in  supporting 
economic growth (by stimulating demand for goods and services)263 and contributing 
significantly  to  the  balance  of  payment  current  accounts  of  developing  countries, 
mainly due to their low volatility (as they do not follow business cycles as other private 
capital flows).264 At the micro level, remittances provide an additional source of income 

260 Dilip, Ratha, Eung, Ju, Kim, Sonia, Plaza, Elliott, J, Riordan, Vandana, Chandra and William, Shaw, Remittances Brave Global 
Headwinds, Special Focus: Climate Migration, Bank, KNOMAD-World, 2022. 
261 IOM, World Migration Report 2022, 2022. 
262 Dilip, Ratha, et al., 2022. 
263 A number of studies have studied the impact of remittances on developing countries’ GDP. Some examples include Meyer and 
Shera (2017) and Bettin and Zazzaro (2012) who find that a 1% increase in remittances leads to a 0.2-0.3% increase in GDP per 
capita. Meyer, Dietmar and Shera, Adela, 'The impact of remittances on economic growth: An econometric model', EconomiA, 
Vol.  18,  2,  2017,  pp.  147-155.  Bettin,  Giulia  and  Zazzaro,  Alberto,  'Remittances  and  financial  development:  substitutes  or 
complements  in  economic  growth?',  Bulletin  of  Economic  Research,  Vol.  64,  4,  2012,  pp.  509-536Usman,  Mohammed  AM, 
Ozdeser, Huseyin, Çavuşoğlu, Behiye and Aliyu, Umar Shuaibu, 'On the Sustainable Economic Growth in Sub-Saharan Africa: 
Do Remittances, Human Capital Flight, and Brain Drain Matter?', Sustainability, Vol. 14, 4, 2022, pp. 2117. 
264 De, Supriyo, Islamaj, Ergys, Kose, M Ayhan and Reza Yousefi, S, 'Remittances over the business cycle: Theory and evidence', 
Economic Notes: Review of Banking, Finance and Monetary Economics, Vol. 48, 3, 2019, pp. e12143Chami, Ralph, Hakura, Dalia 
and Montiel, Peter J, 'Remittances: an automatic output stabilizer?', 2009. 

194 

November, 2023 

01234567020406080100120140East Asia & PacificEurope & Central AsiaLatin America &CaribbeanMiddle East & NorthAfricaSub-Saharan AfricaCurrent USD(in billion)% of GDP 
 
 
 
for recipient households, alleviating extreme poverty265 and acting as a sort of social 
insurance against economic shocks.266 Overall, the use of remittances by recipients 
determines  their  impact  on  social  and economic aspects  in  the  receiving  country. A 
number of studies on developing countries have shown that a relatively high proportion 
of  recipients  spend  remittances  on  essential  needs  (e.g.  basic  consumption  and 
healthcare) and education.267  

At the same time, the significance of remittances as a source of financing for low- and 
middle-income countries varies: a recent meta-analysis of the existing literature shows 
that the average effect of remittances on growth is positive but economically small, with 
growth-enhancing effects in Asia, but not Africa.268 However, estimating the effects of 
remittances on economic growth remains empirically challenging.269 Nonetheless, it is 
important to consider the potential negative effects of remittances, such as reducing 
local labour supply and fostering dependency on this passing source of income, which 
in  turn  reduces  local  productivity.270  Additionally,  remittances  can  alter  household 
spending habits in ways that are less conductive to development (for instance, when 
they finance ‘status-oriented’ consumption) and can contribute to inflation if they are 
not reinvested in more beneficial ways.271  

Finally,  as  migrants  become  more  integrated  in  their  host  country  of  work  and  their 
financial situation improves, they tend to send a smaller portion of their income back 
to their home country over time.272 Some research suggests that remittances peak at 
10 years after the migrant’s arrival to the host country and decline afterwards. Reasons 
such as naturalisation, family reunification, weakening links with the home country and 
the formation of new families contribute to this trend.273 

Impacts of the Policy Options on Third Countries 

The Talent Pool's impact on remittances is anticipated to be positive across all policy 
options. The arrival of labour migrants from third countries with stable incomes via the 
initiative is expected to contribute positively to remittance flows. The actual amount of 
these contributions varies according to the projected number of inflows associated with 
each  policy  option.  Specifically,  PO1  is  expected  to  yield  the  lowest  remittance 
amounts, namely EUR 44-46 million, due to its fewer potential inflows, while  PO3 is 
projected  to  generate  the  relatively  highest  remittance  amounts  owing  to  its  larger 
potential inflows, namely EUR 739-784 million under the voluntary alternative and EUR 

265 Adams and Page (2005) found that a 10% increase in per capita international remittances can result in a 3.5% decline in the 
share of the population living in poverty. Similar findings result from Banga and Sahu (2014). See : Adams Jr, Richard H and 
Page, John, 'Do international migration and remittances reduce poverty in developing countries?', World development, Vol. 33, 
10,  2005,  pp.  1645-1669Banga, Rashmi  and Sahu,  Pritish Kumar,  'Impact  of  remittances  on  poverty in  developing countries', 
UNCTAD, United Nations, Switzerland, Vol. 35, 2, 2010, pp. 45-68. 
266 Economics, Oxford, The Remittance Effect, a lifeline for developing economies through the pandemic and into recovery, 2021. 
267 Ibid. 
268  Cazachevici,  Alina,  Havranek,  Tomas  and  Horvath,  Roman,  'Remittances  and  economic  growth:  A  meta-analysis',  World 
development, Vol. 134, 2020, pp. 105021. 
269 Clemens, Michael A and McKenzie, David, 'Why don't remittances appear to affect growth?', The Economic Journal, Vol. 128, 
612, 2018, pp. F179-F209. 
270 Catalina, Amuedo-Dorantes, ' The good and the bad in remittance flows', IZA world of labor, 2014. 
271 Hagen-Zanker, Jessica, 'Effects of remittances and migration on migrant sending countries, communities and households', 
EPS-PEAKS Economic and private sector professional evidence and applied knowledge services, 2015. 
272 Straubhaar, Thomas and Vâdean, Florin P, 'International migrant remittances and their role in development', 2006Lianos, TP 
and Cavounidis, J, 'Propensity of migrants in Greece to remit', Economic Systems, Development Policies and Business Strategies 
in the Era of Globalisation, ed. V. Angelis and L. Maroudas, 2006, pp. 609-622. 
273 Echazarra, Alfonso, Working Paper 5-2010, Centre for Census and Survey Research, University of …, Accounting for the time 
pattern of remittances in the Spanish context, 2011. 

195 

November, 2023 

 
 
 
813  million  under  the  mandatory  one.  PO2  is  estimated  to  generate  EUR  712-748 
million under the voluntary alternative and EUR 779 million under the mandatory one. 

While on one hand, the EU Talent Pool initiative may theoretically result in a loss of 
labour  for  third  countries,  leading  to  potential  shortages  in  strategic  sectors  and 
hampering economic growth and development, on the other hand, it may also result in 
brain gains. This is particularly evident when migrants return to their countries of origin 
after completing their work contracts in EU Member States. The contrasting arguments 
were confirmed by the survey respondents. While the effect on human capital in third 
countries is expected to be relatively more negative for all policy options (as indicated 
in the first figure), this effect disappears when the eventual return of migrants to their 
country of origin is considered (as shown in the second figure). 

Figure 73: Impact of the different policy options on human capital in third countries according to survey 
respondents 

Source: Contractor survey on a broad range of stakeholder groups 

Figure 74: Impact of the different policy options on human capital in third countries, in case of the 
return of migrants, according to survey respondents 

Source: Contractor survey on a broad range of stakeholder groups 

November, 2023 

196 

0%10%20%30%40%50%60%70%80%90%100%PO1PO2PO3-3 [negative impact]-2-10 [no impact]123 [positive impact]Don't know0%10%20%30%40%50%60%70%80%90%100%PO1PO2PO3-3 [negative impact]-2-10 [no impact]123 [positive impact]Don't know 
 
 
 
In addition, the impact of PO2 on brain drain is likely to be more limited thanks to the 
inclusion  of  tailor-made  Talent  Partnerships.  The  latter  are  specifically  designed  to 
mitigate  the  risks  associated  with  brain  drain  by  fostering  labour mobility  and  talent 
development in a mutually beneficial way. By fostering collaboration and knowledge 
exchange between countries, PO2 aims to minimise the adverse impact on the human 
capital  of  third  countries  and  to  promote  the  long-term  development  and  mobility  of 
skilled people. Stakeholders consulted via targeted consultation activities in the context 
of  this  study  generally  agreed  with  the  use  of  skills mobility  partnerships  to  prevent 
brain drain. ILO, for instance, is in favour of this approach. However, it also indicates 
that  partnerships  should  be  expanded  in  terms  of  both  their  scope  and  inclusivity. 
Indeed, the current approach tends to emphasise more the demand for highly skilled 
workers in destination countries. There is thus a need to extend these partnerships to 
encompass low and medium skilled workers as well. In this sense, ILO underscores 
the  importance  of  striking  a  balance  between  the  interests  of  origin  and  destination 
countries, ensuring skills development and preventing brain drain while catering to a 
broader range of skill levels and economic sectors.274 Furthermore, particular attention 
should be given to sectors that may create greater detrimental impacts in countries of 
origin in terms of brain drain. This is the case for instance for the healthcare sector, in 
shortage  not  only  in  EU  Member  States  but  also  in  low-medium-income  third 
countries.275  The  European  Training  Foundation  (ETF)  has  reiterated  several  times 
during consultation that one of the key success factors of the Talent Pool is the link 
with Talent Partnerships to promote a win-win approach and the sustainability of the 
initiative in the medium-long term, from a political and technical point of view.276 Lastly, 
the International Organisation for Migration (IOM) was also strongly in favour of the link 
with Talent Partnership under PO2. IOM indicated that the success of the Talent Pool 
hinges on robust bilateral and multilateral coordination, guided by international human 
rights  and  labour  standards,  and  a  shared  commitment  to  achieving  sustainable 
development  for  all  parties  involved.  Encouraging  entrepreneurship,  reducing 
remittance  transaction  costs,  predicting  skills  needs  in  both  origin  and  destination 
countries,  and  facilitating  productive  return  and  reintegration,  including  pre-return 
orientation services, are also recommended.277 

6.3.2. Macro-social impacts 

The  following  macro-social  impacts  are  discussed  in  the  below:  impacts  on  social 
cohesion within the EU, impacts on discrimination within the EU, Fundamental Rights 
and, finally, environmental impacts. 

6.3.2.1. 

Impacts on social cohesion within the EU 

The social inclusion of TCNs remains a persistent problem in EU Member States, as 
shown by the high percentage of TCNs at risk of poverty and social exclusion  in the 

274 Inputs from the International Labour Organisation (ILO) during targeted consultation activities conducted in the context of this 
study. 

275 Ibid. 

276 Inputs from the European Training Foundation (ETF) during targeted  consultation activities conducted in the context of this 
study. 

277 Inputs from International Organisation for Migration (IOM) during targeted consultation activities conducted in the context of 
this study. 

197 

November, 2023 

 
 
 
figure below. In a context where almost 70% of EU citizens overestimate the actual 
share  of  migrants  in  the  population278,  public  perceptions  shape  attitudes  towards 
immigration and influence the dynamics of social cohesion in receiving countries.279 
The interrelationship between migration flows to EU Member States and public opinion 
and  attitudes  has  been  widely  explored  in  the  literature.  A  considerable  body  of 
research  has  focused  on  the  phenomenon  of  public  backlash  that  often  occurs  in 
response  to  migration  in  receiving  Member  States.280  Various  factors  contribute  to 
public  anti-immigration  attitudes,  including  economic  factors  (such  as  the  threat  of 
labour market competition between migrants and natives) and non-economic factors 
(such as racial and cultural concerns).  

Figure 75: Share of people at risk of poverty and social exclusion, by citizenship, 2015 and 2022 

Source: Eurostat, survey of income and living conditions, ILC_PEPS05N. 

In contrast, however, there is a growing body of conflicting evidence that finds either 
no relationship between migration and public opinion and attitudes towards migrants281 
or a positive relationship282. What this latter stream of literature disputes, compared to 
the backlash studies is the assumption that negative perceptions against migrants will 
persist in the long run. In fact, public attitudes towards migrants in EU Member States 
may  evolve  positively  over  time,  as  countries  become  accustomed  to  being 
destinations  for  migrants.283  This  long-term  habituation  effect  could  potentially  be 

278 European Commission, Integration of immigrants in the European Union, Special Eurobarometer 519  
279  Alesina,  et  al.  (2023)  find  that  when  it  comes  to  concerns  about  immigration,  the  latter  are  strongly  correlated  with 
misperceptions.  Alesina,  Alberto,  Miano,  Armando  and  Stantcheva,  Stefanie,  'Immigration  and  redistribution',  The  Review  of 
Economic Studies, Vol. 90, 1, 2023, pp. 1-39. 
280 Quillian, Lincoln, 'Prejudice as a response to perceived group threat: Population composition and anti-immigrant and racial 
prejudice in Europe', American sociological review, 1995, pp. 586-611Scheepers, Peer, Gijsberts, Mérove and Coenders, Marcel, 
'Ethnic exclusionism in European countries. Public opposition to civil rights for legal migrants as a response to perceived ethnic 
threat',  European  sociological  review,  Vol.  18,  1,  2002,  pp.  17-34.  Strabac,  Zan  and  Listhaug,  Ola,  'Anti-Muslim  prejudice  in 
Europe: A multilevel analysis of survey data from 30 countries', Social Science Research, Vol. 37, 1, 2008, pp. 268-286. 
281 Evans, Geoffrey and Need, Ariana, 'Explaining ethnic polarization over attitudes towards minority rights in Eastern Europe: a 
multilevel analysis', ibid., Vol. 31, 4, 2002, pp. 653-680. 
282 Sides, John and Citrin, Jack, 'European opinion about immigration: The role of  identities, interests and information', British 
Journal of Political Science, Vol. 37, 3, 2007, pp. 477-504Van Hauwaert, Steven M and English, Patrick, 'Responsiveness and 
the macro-origins of immigration opinions: Evidence from Belgium, France and the UK', Comparative European Politics, Vol. 17, 
2019, pp. 832-859. 
283  Claassen,  Christopher  and  McLaren,  Lauren,  'Does  Immigration  Produce  a  Public  Backlash  or  Public  Acceptance?  Time-
Series, Cross-Sectional Evidence from Thirty European Democracies', British Journal of Political Science, Vol. 52, 3, 2022, pp. 
1013-1031. 

198 

November, 2023 

 
 
 
 
influenced by economic gains from migration or by multiculturalist policies.284 Results 
from  the  Special  Eurobarometer  591  on  the  integration  of  migrants  confirm  an 
improvement in the level of comfort with interacting with migrants in all types of social 
relationship (+7 percentage points since 2017, reaching 64% in 2021).285 

Interpersonal relations also appear to play a role in shaping social cohesion. There is 
evidence that contact with immigrants within the local communities leads to positive 
attitudes  towards  these  groups.286  This  adaptation  can  take  some  time.  Research 
shows that societies seem to become more acculturated and thus more accepting of 
migrants over longer periods of time.287 Indeed, a thorough multivariate analysis of the 
migrant  integration  in  Western  Europe,  disaggregated  by  ethnicity  and  generation, 
shows that first-generation migrants are less likely to integrate than second- or third 
generations,  although  this  difference  is  more  pronounced  in  civic  rather  than  social 
integration. Researchers conclude that low levels of social integration are more likely 
due  to  a  lack  of  opportunities  for  inter-mixing,  rather  than  to  social  prejudice  or 
discrimination.  However,  some  respondent  groups  (particularly,  those  of  Middle 
Eastern, North African and Central Asian descent, and Sub-Saharan African descent) 
have  been  found  to  face  a  greater  structural,  cultural  and  social  disadvantages  to 
integration.288 Moreover, research on the social integration of migrants suggests that 
this is facilitated by inclusive and positive attitudes in the host country, although native 
attitudes towards racism and cultural diversity appear to affect EU migrants more than 
non-EU migrants.289 

Some studies have also analysed the reverse causal relationship, i.e. the effect of anti-
immigrant  attitudes  have  on  migration  flows.290  Unsurprisingly,  higher  levels  of 
negative attitudes are associated with lower levels of migration; research has found 
that  a  10%  increase  in  negative  attitudes  reduces  inflows  by  0.4%.291  This  effect  is 
stronger when it comes to TCNs relative to EU mobile workers but the magnitude of 
the  effect  is  smaller  when  compared  to  economic  factors  (e.g.  income  levels  and 
unemployment),  which  would  reduce  inflows  by  0.9%,  but  still  significant.292 
Conclusions from this line of research underline the importance of building better social 
cohesion  between  natives  and  immigrants  in  order  to  reduce  social  tensions  and 
misperceptions related to migration and to prevent them from discouraging migration 
flows  (needed  to  address  labour  shortages  and  attract  talents)  as  well  as  to  retain 

284  Bloemraad,  Irene  and  Wright,  Matthew,  '“Utter  failure”  or  unity  out  of  diversity?  Debating  and  evaluating  policies  of 
multiculturalism',  International  Migration  Review,  Vol.  48,  1_suppl,  2014,  pp.  292-334.  Dancygier,  Rafaela  M  and  Donnelly, 
Michael J, 'Sectoral economies, economic contexts, and attitudes toward immigration', The journal of politics, Vol. 75, 1, 2013, 
pp. 17-35. 
285  European Commission, Integration of immigrants in the European Union, Special Eurobarometer 519   
286 Hewstone, Miles and Swart, Hermann, 'Fifty‐odd years of inter‐group contact: From hypothesis to integrated theory', British 
Journal  of  Social  Psychology, Vol.  50,  3,  2011,  pp.  374-386. Stein,  Robert  M, Post,  Stephanie  Shirley  and  Rinden,  Allison  L, 
'Reconciling context and contact effects on racial attitudes', Political Research Quarterly, Vol. 53, 2, 2000, pp. 285-303. Wagner, 
Ulrich, Van Dick, Rolf, Pettigrew, Thomas F and Christ, Oliver, 'Ethnic prejudice in East and West Germany: The explanatory 
power  of  intergroup  contact',  Group  Processes  &  Intergroup  Relations,  Vol.  6,  1,  2003,  pp.  22-36.  Weber,  Hannes,  'Attitudes 
towards minorities in times of high immigration: a panel study among young adults in Germany', European sociological review, 
Vol. 35, 2, 2019, pp. 239-257. 
287 Gorodzeisky, Anastasia and Semyonov, Moshe, 'Competitive threat and temporal change in anti-immigrant sentiment: Insights 
from a hierarchical age-period-cohort model', Social Science Research, Vol. 73, 2018, pp. 31-44. 
288 Heath, Anthony F and Schneider, Silke L, 'Dimensions of migrant integration in Western Europe', Frontiers in sociology, Vol. 
6, 2021, pp. 510987. 
289 Naveed, Amjad and Wang, Cong, 'Can attitudes toward immigrant explain social integration in Europe?  EU versus non-EU 
migrant', Social Indicators Research, Vol. 153, 1, 2021, pp. 345-383. 
290  Di  Iasio,  Valentina  and  Wahba,  Jackline,  'Natives'  Attitudes  and  Immigration  Flows  to  Europe',  2023Gorinas,  Cédric  and 
Pytliková, Mariola, 'The influence of attitudes toward immigrants on international migration', International Migration Review, Vol. 
51, 2, 2017, pp. 416-451. 
291 Di Iasio, Valentina and Wahba, Jackline, 2023. 
292 Ibid. 

199 

November, 2023 

 
 
 
TCNs  in  employment,  once  recruited.  This  is  emphasised  by  the  fact  that  fear  of 
migration harbours a significant contagion effect across countries, often triggered by 
political or security-related events, such as Brexit.293 

Impacts of the Policy Options on social cohesion in EU Member States 

In light of the above, the options foreseen in the EU Talent Pool initiative are likely to 
have  a  neutral,  or  at  most  positive,  impact  on  social  cohesion  within  the  migrant-
receiving Member States (this is also reflected in from the survey respondents depicted 
in the figure below). Main reasons behind this include: 

• 

Integration  focus:  One  of  the  main  reasons  is  the  initiative's  emphasis  on 
facilitating the integration of migrants into the local labour market and society 
right from their arrival. Particularly under options PO2 and PO3, the Talent Pool 
provides personalised support and assistance through National Contact Points 
(NCPs).  This  approach  enhances  the  integration  process  for  incoming  TCNs 
and  their  families  (e.g.  by  providing  them  with  the  required  information  and 
support).  Such  support  mechanisms  can  strengthen  social  cohesion  by 
promoting  positive  interactions  between  migrants  and  the  local  community. 
Additionally,  by  prioritising  early  integration  efforts,  the  Talent  Pool  aims  to 
foster a sense of belonging and inclusion for migrants, which can contribute to 
social cohesion and reduce potential social tensions associated with migration. 

•  Labour market participation: As migrants find suitable job opportunities in the 
host country, they can contribute to the economy, foster mutual understanding, 
and  create  a  sense  of  interdependence  with  the  local  population,  positively 
impacting social cohesion. The open nature of PO3 can have a more positive 
impact on labour market participation and economic contribution, as more job 
vacancies are available for a wider range of skills and qualifications. However, 
PO2 targeted approach may lead to a more efficiency matching of migrants with 
specific  skills  that  are  in  high  demand,  potentially  resulting  in  a  quicker 
integration of migrants into the workforce in shortage occupations. 

•  Fostering diversity and knowledge exchange: By providing access to a diverse 
talent pool, the initiative can help fostering a well-balanced labour market with 
skilled  workers  from  various  backgrounds.  Enhancing  cooperation  and 
collaboration  among  diverse  groups  may  promote  knowledge  exchange  and 
cultural understanding, which are essential elements of building social cohesion 
in multicultural societies. 

•  Reduced social disparities: The Talent Pool's efforts to match skilled migrants 
with job opportunities can lead to reduced social disparities between different 
groups in the society. When people have access to meaningful employment and 
opportunities, it can foster a sense of fairness and unity, contributing to social 
cohesion. 

293  The  transmission  of  migration-related  fear  between  countries  occurs  through  various  interconnected  channels,  namely 
geopolitical (e.g., concerns about security issues), financial (e.g., investor sentiment) and economic-societal (e.g., employment 
situation in the destination country). For more details refer to: Guenichi, Hassan, Chouaibi, Nejib and Khalfaoui, Hamdi, 'Contagion 
effect of migration fear in pre and European refugee’s crisis period: evidence from multivariate GARCH and wavelet empirical 
analysis', Comparative Migration Studies, Vol. 10, 1, 2022, pp. 1-20. 

200 

November, 2023 

 
 
 
 
Figure 76: Impact of the different policy options on social cohesion in EU Member States according to 
survey respondents 

Source: Contractor survey on a broad range of stakeholder groups 

Furthermore,  the  targeted  approach  of  PO2  may  result  in  relatively  more  positive 
impacts on social cohesion compared to PO3. More specifically, PO2 aims to address 
specific labour market needs by focusing on occupations suffering from shortages that 
cannot be effectively fulfilled by domestic workers. This targeted nature of PO2 ensures 
a  more  direct  alignment  between  the  skills  migrants  bring  and  the  job  opportunities 
available,  minimising  potential  perceptions  of  competition  between  migrants  and 
nationals.  The  research  presented  above  shows  that  negative  attitudes  and  social 
tensions tend to decrease when migrants are perceived as contributing to addressing 
labour shortages and increasing the overall economic prosperity of a country.294 

In contrast, while PO3 includes a broader scope by being open to all occupations, it 
may have a slightly different impact on social cohesion. The inclusive approach of PO3 
encompasses a wider range of job opportunities, potentially leading to a more diverse 
influx  of  migrants  across  various  sectors.  While  this  could  contribute  positively  to 
diversification, it might also bring about a higher level of competition for job positions, 
which might impact social cohesion to a certain extent. 

6.3.2.2. 

Impacts on discrimination within the EU 

Despite  the  existence  of  a  strong  anti-discrimination  legal  frameworks  in  the  EU295, 
discrimination  in  employment  remains  a  widespread  problem.  Among  the  groups 
identified as most vulnerable to employment discrimination are migrants third country 

294  See  for  instance :  Claassen,  Christopher  and  McLaren,  Lauren,  'Does  Immigration  Produce  a  Public  Backlash  or  Public 
Acceptance? Time-Series, Cross-Sectional Evidence from Thirty European Democracies', British Journal of Political Science, Vol. 
52, 3, 2022, pp. 1013-1031. 
295 The EU legal framework against discrimination is based on several key directives and regulations that aim to combat various 
forms  of  discrimination  and  promote  equality.  The  main  directives  and  regulations  include:  Directive  2000/43/EC  against 
discrimination on ground of race and ethnic origin; Directive 2000/78/EC against discrimination at work on ground of religion or 
belief, disability, age or sexual orientation; Directive Proposal (COM(2008)462) against discrimination based on age, disability, 
sexual  orientation  and 
found  here: 
https://commission.europa.eu/aid-development-cooperation-fundamental-rights/your-rights-eu/know-your-rights/equality/non-
discrimination_en#:~:text=Any%20discrimination%20based%20on%20any,sexual%20orientation%20shall%20be%20prohibited. 

religion  or  belief  beyond 

the  workplace.  More 

information  can  be 

November, 2023 

201 

0%10%20%30%40%50%60%70%80%90%100%PO1PO2PO3-3 [negative impact]-2-10 [no impact]123 [positive impact]Don't know 
 
 
 
national.296  For  instance,  TCNs  are  more  likely  to  be  discriminated  against  on  the 
grounds of foreign origins than EU movers (see figure below). 

Figure 77: Main obstacle to get a suitable job in the host country, by citizenship, 2021 

Source: Eurostat, labour force survey ad-hoc module 2021, custom extraction. 

Discrimination can be a significant barrier to labour market integration. Such structural 
discriminatory inequalities can lead to limited access to the labour market and lower 
wages.297  For  instance,  the  figure  below  on  the  employment  rate  by  educational 
attainment level reveals that highly educated TCNs have an employment rate almost 
15 percentage points lower than EU movers and nationals. This suggests the existence 
of employment obstacles and highlights untapped potential for economic gains.  

Employers’ language pre-requisites are sometimes found to be unrealistically high and 
used as a means of excluding migrants: however, there are currently few integration 
initiatives that raise employers’ awareness of the skills that migrant workers already 
possess.298  This  is  an  important  gap  to  address,  given  that  a  body  of  research  on 
employer prejudice has demonstrated the dominant role of perceived cultural proximity 
as a form of discrimination, rather than immigrant status per se.299 

Discrimination in the workplace can lead to under-skilling and underutilisation of skills, 
reducing  opportunities  for  non-EU  nationals  and  hindering  integration.300  This  is 
because, in addition to preventing individuals from finding employment that matches 
their  skill  level,  discrimination  can  also  impede  training  and  skills  development 
opportunities.301  In  addition, the  literature  shows that  greater pre-immigration  labour 
market  experience  is  associated  with  poorer  job  matches,  likely  due  to  the  limited 

296 European Commission, Racism and discrimination in employment in Europe 2013-2017, European network  racism, 2017. 
297 ENAR, Racism & Discrimination in Employment in Europe 2013-2017, Shadow Report, 2018. 
298 Nwabuzo, Ojeaku and Schaeder, Lisa, 'Racism and discrimination in the context of migration to Europe', European Network 
Against Racism Shadow Report, Vol. 2016, 2015. 
299 Esses, Victoria M, 'Prejudice and discrimination toward immigrants', Annual review of psychology, Vol. 72, 2021, pp. 503-531. 
300 EMN, Attracting Highly Qualified and Qualified Third-Country Nationals: EMN Synthesis Report, 2013. 
301 Rafferty, Anthony, 'Skill underutilization and under-skilling in Europe: The role of workplace discrimination', Work, Employment 
and Society, Vol. 34, 2, 2020, pp. 317-335. 

202 

November, 2023 

0.01.02.03.04.05.06.07.08.09.0Discriminationon the groundsof foreign originLack of languageskills in hostcountrylanguage(s)Lack ofrecognition offormalqualificationobtained abroadNo suitable jobavailableOther obstacleRestricted rightto work becauseof citizenship orresidence permitEU moversTCNs 
 
 
 
transferability of foreign skills and experience.302 Importantly, working below one’s skill 
level is associated with lower wages,303 poorer job satisfaction304 and a higher risk of 
poverty.305  

Evidence  on  the  effect  of  AI-based  hiring  systems  on  discrimination  in  recruitment 
practices  is  mixed.306  While  AI  technology  can  enhance  the  efficiency  of  these 
processes, and may reduce biases by automating them, it is important to  recognise 
that AI heavily relies on datasets that are generated by humans. This means that any 
biases inherent in the data can be inherited by AI models, potentially leading to biased 
outcomes. Numerous research studies have highlighted instances of bias in machine 
learning  applications,  ranging  from  facial  recognition  systems  to  the  ranking  of  job 
candidates.307 Furthermore, the literature reports a critical inconsistency between the 
statistical  measures  of 
in  machine-learning  governance 
mechanisms and the more context-sensitive interpretation of inequality adopted by the 
European  Court  of  Justice,  creating  a  critical  gap  between  legal,  technical  and 
organisational notions of algorithmic fairness.308 

fairness  embedded 

Impacts of the Policy Options on discrimination 

In  the  context  of  the EU Talent  Pool,  various  measures are  implemented  under the 
different  options  to  ensure  fair  and  ethical  recruitment  practices  and  prevent 
discrimination. These are more pronounced in PO2 and PO3 through measures related 
to  quality  checks  on  employers  and  vacancies.  These  checks  aim  to  identify  and 
address any discriminatory practices in recruitment and job offerings and promote fair 
and  ethical  recruitment  practices,  ensuring 
to  non-
discriminatory principles when selecting candidates from the Talent Pool. While PO2 
entails more basic checks on whether e.g., information in the vacancy notice includes 
discriminatory  wordings,  those  envisaged  under  PO3  may  be  more  effective  in 
identifying  cases  of  unfair  recruitment  and  non-compliance  with  international 
standards.309 Although PO1 does not directly include measures related to checks on 
job vacancies and employers, the involvement of national contact points in facilitating 
candidate-vacancy  matches  could  lead  to  light  and  basic  checks  on  vacancies  to 
ensure that basic requirements are met. 

that  employers  adhere 

302 Chiswick, Barry R and Miller, Paul W, 'The international transferability of immigrants’ human capital', Economics of Education 
Review, Vol. 28, 2, 2009, pp. 162-169. 
303 Leuven, Edwin and Oosterbeek, Hessel, 'Overeducation and mismatch in the labor market', Handbook of the Economics of 
Education, Vol. 4, 2011, pp. 283-326. 
304  Green,  Francis  and  Zhu,  Yu,  'Overqualification,  job  dissatisfaction,  and  increasing  dispersion  in  the  returns  to  graduate 
education', Oxford Economic Papers, Vol. 62, 4, 2010, pp. 740-763. 
305 Thomas, Kevin JA, 'Occupational stratification, job-mismatches, and child poverty: understanding the disadvantage of Black 
immigrants in the US', Social Science Research, Vol. 50, 2015, pp. 203-216. 
306 See for instance, Lennart, H., Milad, M., Audrey, L., Riccarda, M., and Ina, R., ‘Ethics Guidelines for Using AI-based Algorithms 
in Recruiting : Learnings from a Systematic Literature REview, 2022, http://hdl.handle.net/10125/79348; D. F. Mujtaba and N. 
R. Mahapatra, "Ethical Considerations in AI-Based Recruitment," 2019 IEEE International Symposium on Technology and Society 
(ISTAS), Medford, MA, USA, 2019, pp. 1-7, doi: 10.1109/ISTAS48451.2019.8937920; Hunkenschroer, A.L., Luetge, C. Ethics of 
AI-Enabled  Recruiting  and  Selection:  A  Review  and  Research  Agenda.  J  Bus  Ethics  178,  977–1007  (2022). 
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-022-05049-6 
307 D. F. Mujtaba and N. R. Mahapatra, "Ethical Considerations in AI-Based Recruitment," 2019 IEEE International Symposium 
on Technology and Society (ISTAS), Medford, MA, USA, 2019, pp. 1-7, doi: 10.1109/ISTAS48451.2019.8937920. 
308 Wachter, Sandra, Mittelstadt, Brent and Russell, Chris, 'Why fairness cannot be automated: Bridging the gap between EU non-
discrimination law and AI', Computer Law & Security Review, Vol. 41, 2021, pp. 105567. 
309 However, as it will be further expanded in Section 6.4.4., checks under PO3 may be less technically feasible and add additional 
burden on stakeholders, especially employers, making the initiative less attractive for them. 

203 

November, 2023 

 
 
 
Survey  respondents  also  agreed  that  the  two  legislative  options  could  have  a  more 
positive impact on promoting ethical  recruitment (see figure above) and fair working 
conditions (see figure below). 

Figure 78: Impact of the different policy options on ethical recruitment of TCNs according to survey 
respondents 

Source: Contractor survey on a broad range of stakeholder groups. 

Figure 79: Impact of the different policy options on fair working conditions of TCNs according to survey 
respondents 

Source: Contractor survey on a broad range of stakeholder groups 

Additionally,  the  platform  may  include  transparent  to  promote  inclusivity  by 
encouraging employers to consider a diverse range of candidates, thereby reducing 
biases that may arise from traditional recruitment methods. However, PO3 may face 
some challenges related to discrimination when it comes to the AI-based search and 
matching tools to identify suitable candidates matching them with the requirements in 
job vacancies. AI-based systems may be susceptible to biases that have the potential 
to  result  in  discriminatory  outcomes.  These  issues  are  further  elaborated  in  the 
following section from a fundamental rights perspective. 

November, 2023 

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0%10%20%30%40%50%60%70%80%90%100%PO1PO2PO3-3 [negative impact]-2-10 [no impact]123 [positive impact]Don't know0%10%20%30%40%50%60%70%80%90%100%PO1PO2PO3-3 [negative impact]-2-10 [no impact]123 [positive impact]Don't know 
 
 
 
6.3.2.3. 

Fundamental Rights 

The policy options under consideration have been assessed in terms of their impact 
on  the  fundamental  rights  enshrined  in  the  Charter  of  Fundamental  Rights  of  the 
European Union (EU Charter)310. Several fundamental rights have been considered in 
this respect, such as: 

•  Right  to  privacy  and  protection  of  personal  data:  As  the  processing  of 
candidates’ personal data constitutes a limitation on the fundamental rights to 
privacy (Article 7) and personal data protection (Article 8), any restriction on the 
processing of individuals’ personal data must be necessary and proportionate 
in  the  light  of  the  objectives  set  out  in  the  different  options,  especially  those 
involving the development of an EU Talent Pool to facilitate the recruitment of 
skilled TCNs through labour migration pathways to address EU labour and skills 
shortages,  and  should  not  result  in  direct  or  indirect  discrimination  against 
individuals 

•  Right to engage in work and to choose an occupation: The EU Talent Pool 

will strengthen the right of TCNs to engage in work in the EU (Article 15) 

•  Right to fair and just working conditions: Verification mechanisms should be 
in place to ensure that employers with an increased risk of labour exploitation 
are subject to more rigorous assurance checks, so that TCNs are guaranteed 
working conditions that respect their health, safety and dignity (Article 31) 

•  Right to non-discrimination: Users of the EU Talent Pool shall have the right 
to non-discrimination (on the basis of sex, race, colour, ethnic or social origin, 
genetic features, language, religion or other belief, political opinion, membership 
of a national minority, property, birth, disability, age or sexual orientation and 
nationality)  (Article  21).  In  addition,  equality  between  women  and  men  as 
regards employment, work and pay must also be ensured (Article 23) 

As the introduction of the EU Talent Pool will not change the existing legal migration 
mechanisms and instruments for TCNs to work in the EU, no substantial impact on the 
freedom  of  movement  and  of  residence  (Article  45(2)),  social  protection  (Article  34) 
and education and training (Article 14) has been identified. Depending on their legal 
status,  TCNs  will  be  able  to  benefit  from  the  rights  linked  to  their  legal  status.  For 
example, users of the EU Talent Pool have the right to be reunited with their family 
members  if  they  fulfil  the  conditions  of  the  Family  Reunification  Directive311.  If  such 
TCNs are allowed to work in the EU on the basis of the Seasonal Workers Directive312, 
for example, they will not be entitled to family reunification.  

As  several  of  the  policy  options  would  also  provide  TCNs  with  clear,  up-to-date  an 
user-friendly  information  regarding  immigration  procedures  as  well  as  living  and 
working conditions in different EU Member States such measures would have a minor 

310  Charter  of  Fundamental  Rights  of  the  European  Union,  OJ  C  326,  26.10.2012,  p.  391–407,  available  at:  https://eur-
lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:12012P/TXT. 
311 Council Directive 2003/86/EC of 22 September 2003 on the right to family reunification, OJ L 251, 3.10.2003, p. 12–18, available 
at: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32003L0086.  12–18, available at: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32003L0086.   
312 Directive 2014/36/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 26 February 2014 on the conditions of entry and stay 
of  third-country  nationals for  the purpose  of  employment  as seasonal  workers,  OJ  L  94,  28.3.2014,  p.  375–390,  available  at: 
https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/ALL/?uri=CELEX%3A32014L0036. 
https://eur-
lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/ALL/?uri=CELEX%3A32014L0036.  

375–390, 

available 

at: 

November, 2023 

205 

 
 
 
positive impact as they would increase the awareness and hence make these rights 
more  effective.  For  example,  PO1A  aims  at  providing  information  on  immigration 
procedures to EU countries and on the recognition of qualification, while PO2 could 
include  information  on  recruitment,  immigration  procedures,  validation/recognition of 
qualifications and skills obtained in third countries and living/working conditions. Such 
measures  would  have  a  minor  positive  impact  on  the  freedom  of  movement  and  of 
residence as well as on the right to education and training. 

While some policy options will have a significant positive impact on certain fundamental 
rights, such as the right to engage in work and to choose an occupation (Article 
15 of the EU Charter), by providing opportunities for qualified TCNs to work in the EU, 
certain fundamental rights  could  be  affected.  These  include  in particular the  right  to 
privacy and the protection of personal data, the right to non-discrimination and the right 
to fair and just working conditions. 

Right  to  privacy  and  protection  of  personal  data.  The  policy  options  assessed 
should respect the EU data protection legal framework, in particular Articles 7 and 8 of 
the EU Charter, the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR)313 and national laws 
implementing  it,  as  well  as  Regulation  (EU)  2018/1725314,  which  applies  to  the 
processing of personal data by EU institutions315. The GDPR ensures the protection of 
natural persons, regardless of their nationality or employment status (Article 3 GDPR), 
with  regard  to  the  processing  of  their  personal  data  and,  in  particular,  provides  for 
certain rights and obligations as well as safeguards with regard to the lawful, fair and 
transparent processing of personal data, including with regard to automated individual 
decision-making.  The  data  protection  impact  of  the  policy  options  depends  on  the 
amount and type of data to be exchanged through the platform (individual CVs, other 
information), the governance structure and the type of data processing operations.  

First,  in  the  light  of  the  purpose  limitation  principle  (Article  5(1)(b)  GDPR),  any 
processing  of  personal  data  through  the  EU  Talent  Pool  should  only  take  place  for 
specific, explicit and legitimate purposes and those personal data should not be further 
processed  in  a  way  incompatible  with  those  purposes.  It  is  therefore  important  to 
establish  a  legal  basis  for  the  processing  of  candidates’  profiles  and  their  data. 
Moreover, in light of data minimisation principle only data that are adequate, relevant 
and  limited  to  what  is  necessary  in  relation  to  the  purposes  for  which  they  are 
processed should be processed (Article 5(1)(c) GDPR). No impact on the right to data 
protection has been detected in case of PO1A (transforming the EU Immigration Portal 
into  a  Talent  Attraction  Portal)  as  this  policy  option  does  not  entail  processing  of 
personal data. Remaining soft measures under PO1 (organising job-matching events 
and developing a web-based portal) however pose  certain negative impact on the 
right  to  data  protection  as  the  processing  of  personal  data  is  not  regulated  in  a 
legislative act. Non-legislative instruments are indeed not subject to the same level of 
scrutiny  as  legislative  instruments,  and  they  may  not  be  as  effective  in  protecting 

313 Regulation (EU) 2016/679 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 April 2016 on the protection of natural persons 
with regard to the processing of personal data and on the free movement of such data, and repealing Directive 95/46/EC, OJ L 
119, 4.5.2016, P. 1-88, available at: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reg/2016/679/oj.  
314 Regulation (EU) 2018/1725 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 October 2018 on the protection of natural 
persons with regard to the processing of personal data by the Union institutions, bodies, offices and agencies and on the free 
movement of such data, and repealing Regulation (EC) No 45/2001 and Decision No 1247/2002/EC, OJ L 295, 21 November 
2018, pp. 39-98, available at: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reg/2018/1725/oj. 
315 European Data Protection Supervisor, Answer to a notification of prior checking EURES, the European Job Mobility Portal 
(Case 
https://edps.europa.eu/sites/default/files/publication/10-09-
at: 
2009-012), 
03_letter_npc_eures_en.pdf.  

3  September 

available 

2010, 

November, 2023 

206 

 
 
 
personal  data.  Option  PO1B  proposes  the  organisation  of  job-matching  events  with 
the  aim  of  facilitating  matching  between  EU  employers  and  TCNs.  As  this  is  a  soft 
measures  that  is  not  legally  regulated  and  harmonised  at  the  EU  level,  it  poses 
moderate negative impact on data protection as it would be on the organisers of such 
events to ensure compliance with EU data protection rules, especially the principle of 
legality  and  purpose  limitation.  Due  to  diverging  national  data  protection  laws  and 
diverging opinions and decisions of national Data Protection Authorities on the topics 
such  as  legal  basis,  principle  of  minimisation  and  data  protection  safeguards,  this 
option could create different level of protection of personal data across EU Member 
States. A number of data protection concerns also arise when it comes to  PO1C, in 
that the use of non-legislative instruments significantly limits the protection of 
personal data and the ability to put in place the required safeguards. The fact that this 
simpler  platform  would  not  include  any  checks  nor  pre-screening  could  result  in 
processing of superfluous data that are not necessary for the purpose of processing or 
in processing of inaccurate and outdated data. This option also opens doors to possible 
misuse  of  personal  data  as  such  data  would  be  available  to  unverified  circle  of 
employers who could use the data for other purposes than for legal forms employment 
of TCNs. Although this option  incorporates certain safeguards to limit the impact on 
data protection such as the measure that personal profiles will not contain searchable 
personal data and that no personal data will be stored on the web portal, the lack of 
uniform  rules  and  legislative  safeguards  still  negatively  impacts  the  right  to  data 
protection.  PO2  (focused  EU  Talent  Pool)  and  PO3  (open  EU  Talent  Pool),  being 
legislative options, are thus expected to have a more positive impact on the TCNs’ 
right to data protection. However, personal information from TCNs and employers 
will still be gathered and processed, thus  generating implications for data protection 
compliance. In this regard, the standardised procedure of data collection envisaged 
under  these  options  positively  impacts  the  right  to  data  protection.  Requiring 
candidates to register their professional profiles in a standardised format reduces the 
risk of processing superfluous and irrelevant personal data as TCNs are prevented to 
add  any  data  that  is  not  strictly  necessary  for  job  selection  (e.g.  data  on  economic 
status,  gender,  family  situation).  If  TCNs  are  required  to  upload  their  CVs  in  a 
standardised format  or  enter the  relevant  information  in  the  fields provided,  the  tool 
can better determine which personal data should be provided and can minimise  the 
data to be processed. If the EU Talent Pool were to include the possibility to upload 
documents in addition to professional profiles and CVs, safeguards would have to be 
put in place to ensure that only such personal data are shared through the tool that are 
relevant  and  proportionate  to  the  purposes  of  processing  and  that  no  special 
categories of data are shared through the tool.  

Second, with regard to the governance structure, the tasks and roles of the main actors 
need  to  be  defined  in  the  processing  of  personal  data  in  order  to  ensure  that  the 
responsibility  for  compliance  with  data  protection  rules,  including  those  concerning 
secure  processing,  is  clear.  It  is  necessary  to  clearly  identify,  in  the  form  of  a 
regulation316  or  other  legal  act,  who  is  the  controller317,  possible  cases  of  co-
controllership  and  joint  controllership,  who  are  the  processors318  and  which  other 

for  example 

the  EURES  Regulation 

316  See 
content/EN/TXT/?uri=uriserv%3AOJ.L_.2016.107.01.0001.01.ENG.  
317 Controller is a natural or a legal person, public authority, agency or other body, which, alone or jointly with others, determines 
the purposes and means of processing of personal data. See Article 4(7) GDPR. 
318 Processor is the one who processes personal data on behalf of the controller (Article 4(8) GDPR), whereby their responsibilities 
and tasks shall be government by a data processing agreement or other legal act (see Article 28(3) GDPR). 

(EU)  2016/589,  available  at:  https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-

November, 2023 

207 

 
 
 
actors have the right to access the data (data recipients)319320. Taking into account the 
multiple  actors  involved  and  their  different  responsibilities  and  tasks,  it  would  be 
necessary  to  consider  the  following  aspects:  who  is  responsible  for  obtaining  the 
consent of the candidates, who is responsible for ensuring the accuracy of the data, 
who  is  responsible  for  ensuring  transparency  and  providing  the  candidates  with  a 
privacy  notice,  who  can  determine  the  retention  periods,  who  is authorised  to  grant 
access  to  the  database  and  to  transfer  data  to  third  parties,  who  is  responsible  for 
responding to data subject rights’ requests, who bears the responsibility for the security 
of the IT system, etc. These considerations are relevant for all policy options, which 
foresee  a  layered  governance  structure  at  EU  and  national  level  (including  third 
countries in PO2). From a data protection perspective legislative options PO2 and PO3 
are a preferred option as the rules and responsibilities between main actors will be 
set  in  a  legislative  act,  providing  more  legal  certainty  and  security  for  the  rights  of 
TCNs. 

Third,  the  data  processing  operations  would  need  to  be  analysed  against  data 
protection  principles,  in  particular  the  principles  of  data  minimisation  (Article  5(1)(c) 
GDPR), storage limitation (Article 5(1)(e) GDPR) and security of data (Article 5(1)(f) 
GDPR). It is also important that candidates are informed about the data processing, 
including  data  sharing,  in  a  transparent,  clear  and  efficient  manner321,  and  that 
mechanisms are in place for them to exercise their data subject rights. (i.e. right to be 
informed  about  the  processing  of  their  data322;  right  to  access323,  rectify324,  and 
erase325 their data; right to withdraw consent326; right to restrict327 and object328 to the 
processing  of  their  data,  including  to  automated  processing329;  right  to  data 
portability330; right to file a complaint before a national supervisory authority331 and right 
to an effective judicial remedy against a controller or processor332). Please note that 
the choice of the legal basis may also impact the scope of data subjects’ rights. Similar 
as above, legislative options PO2 and PO3 seem to have a better impact on data 
protection  rights  of  TCNs  than  non-legislative  initiatives  as  the  basic  principles  and 
data subject’s rights could be regulated at a legislative level. 

The  key  to  a  more  effective  use  of  the  EU  Talent  Pool  in  PO2  and  PO3  is  the 
interoperability  with  existing  platforms/systems  at  EU  level  (e.g.  EURES,  Europass) 
and at national level. Interoperability of information systems is a way to ensure that 
information is shared appropriately and efficiently with those who have both the need 
and  the  right  to  access  it.  Any  sharing  or  linking  of  existing  data  between  different 
platforms would need to ensure full respect of the fundamental right to data protection. 
The same applies to any exchange of data (e.g. access, transmission, receipt) between 

2010, 

available 

3  September 

319 Article 4(9) GDPR. 
320 European Data Protection Supervisor, Answer to a notification of prior checking EURES, the European Job Mobility Portal 
https://edps.europa.eu/sites/default/files/publication/10-09-
at: 
2009-012), 
(Case 
03_letter_npc_eures_en.pdf. 
321  See  for  example  the  EURES  data  protection  statements,  available  at:  https://eures.ec.europa.eu/data-protection-
statements_en.  
322 Articles 12 – 14 GDPR. 
323 Article 15 GDPR. 
324 Article 16 GDPR. 
325 Article 17 GDPR. 
326 Article 7(3) GDPR. 
327 Article 18 GDPR. 
328 Article 21 GDPR. 
329 Article 22 GDPR. 
330 Article 20 GDPR. 
331 Article 77 GDPR. 
332 Article 79 GDPR. 

November, 2023 

208 

 
 
 
different actors. Any action taken in relation to data is considered ‘processing’ under 
the GDPR’s definition of a processing operation333 and therefore requires a legal basis 
in Article 6(1) GDPR and, in the case of processing of special categories of personal 
data, must also be allowed under Article 9(2) GDPR. In addition, any exchange of data 
must comply with the basic data protection principles set out in Article 5 GDPR, such 
as the principle of fairness and transparency, the principle of purpose limitation,  the 
principle of data minimisation, the principle of accuracy, and the principle of integrity 
and  confidentiality  of  personal  data.  It  will  also  need  to  be  proportionate  to  the 
objectives of the different policy options. 

The  establishment  of  new  IT  architecture  and  solutions,  as  well  as  a  mobile  phone 
application, especially in the case of PO3, also implies the establishment of adequate 
data security. New IT solutions should explicitly provide for appropriate safeguards for 
the fundamental rights and interests of data subjects. Appropriate safeguards in this 
context refer in particular to relevant technical and organisational measures taken to 
ensure a level of security appropriate to the risk of the processing (see, for example, 
Article 32 GDPR), in line with the principles of data protection by design and by default 
(Article 25 GDPR). If the infrastructure is not provided by the EU, but by an external 
cloud service provider, it is important that any transfer of personal data is secure and 
that  the  relationship  with  such  a  service  provider  is  governed  by  a  data  processing 
agreement (DPA). 

As  discussed  in  below,  the  proposed  policy  options  also  include  automated  IT 
solutions, such as candidate screening and selection process, a tool to match supply 
(CVs  of  candidates)  and  demand  (vacancy  notices)  for  work,  a  quality  assurance 
procedure to check employers and a possible function to validate skills. Where such 
processing would lead to a decision based solely on automated processing and where 
such a decision would produce legal effects for individuals, the controller should take 
appropriate measures to safeguard the rights and freedoms and legitimate interests of 
data subjects, such as the right to obtain human intervention, to express their point of 
view and to contest the decision (Article 22 GDPR), as well as the right to transparency 
in the use of automated decision-making tools (Article 12 GDPR). Note that if any of 
the policy options would rely on automated processing without human intervention, this 
would  only  be  possible  in  exceptional  circumstances,  such  as  when  based  on  the 
explicit consent of the data subject (Article 22(2) GDPR). 

A data protection impact assessment (DPIA) must be carried out before setting up a 
system  for  processing  data  that  is  likely  to  result  in  a  high  risk  to  the  rights  and 
freedoms  of  natural  persons  (Article  35  GDPR).  DPIAs  are  required  in  particular  in 
case  of  ‘systematic  and  extensive  evaluation  of  personal aspects  relating to  natural 
persons  which  is based  on  automated  processing,  including  profiling,  and  on  which 
decisions  are  based  that  produce  legal  effects  concerning  the  natural  person  or 
similarly significantly affect the natural person’ (Article 35(3)(a) GDPR). 

Right  to  non-discrimination.  The  establishment  of  the  EU  Talent  Pool  must  be 
carried out with due respect for the right not to be discriminated. Article 21 of the EU 
Charter  prohibits  any  discrimination  based  on  a  number  of  grounds,  including  age, 
disability, race, language, membership of a national minority, nationality or ethnic or 
social origin, among several others.  

333 Article 4(2) of the GDPR. 

November, 2023 

209 

 
 
 
As a preliminary remark it should be stressed that although the principles of equality 
and  non-discrimination  are  core  principles  of  EU  law,  there  are  limits  to  their 
application  to  TCNs.  These  principles  apply  only  to  those  TCNs  that  are  in 
comparable and similar situations to EU citizens and may be limited by other Treaties 
provisions  and  secondary  EU  law.  EU  directives  lay  down  specific  rights  to  equal 
treatment and non-discrimination for TCN workers in a number of areas. For example, 
the  Employment  Equality  Directive  (Directive  2000/78/EC)  and  the  Racial  Equality 
Directive (Directive 2000/43/EC) prohibit discrimination against TCNs on a number of 
grounds, but do not cover differences in treatment based on their legal status and on 
nationality. Similarly, legal migration directives (e.g., the Seasonal Workers Directive, 
the Posted Workers Directive, the Single Permit Directive, etc.) ensure equal treatment 
of  TCNs  with  EU  citizens  in  a  number  of  areas  related  to  their  employment  but  not 
based on their legal status or nationality. 

Discrimination on grounds of nationality, which is prohibited by the EU Charter and the 
Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU)334, is reserved for EU citizens 
and does not apply to TCNs335. Therefore, if the EU Talent Pool were to favour certain 
TCNs over others on  the  basis of  their  nationality,  this would  be  a  political decision 
from the perspective of EU migration policy and would have no impact on fundamental 
rights. In the same way, the EU can decide with which third countries it would establish 
the Talent Partnership. 

In addition, Article 32 of the EU Charter provides that equality between women and 
men must be ensured in all areas, including  employment, work and pay. Any policy 
measure  must  therefore  to  be  assessed  for  its  potential  discriminatory  effects  and 
impact  on  gender balance.  For example,  the  screening  and  selection  of  candidates 
both when applying manual search filters or automated tools will need to be based on 
objective and non-discriminatory admission criteria. This is in particularly relevant for 
PO2, where the EU Talent Pool is limited to certain specific sectors/occupations and 
to certain pre-screened candidates who meet the required admission criteria. Although 
the choice of admission criteria may not be discriminatory per se, indirect discrimination 
may occur due to the fact that many sectors do not have an equal representation of 
women  and  men.  Promoting  one  sector  over  another  may  indirectly  discriminate 
between  women  and  men.  The  choice  of  inappropriate  admission  criteria  could 
therefore only exacerbate the gender imbalance in the EU workforce.  

As  explained  above,  under  the  social  impact,  various  measures  are  implemented 
under the different options to prevent discriminatory practices, in particularly in  PO2 
and PO3. These include measures related both to quality checks on employers and on 
vacancies. As for the former, employers could be checked against the Charter of Fair 
Recruitment following the current EURES measures or could even undergo a rigorous 
quality  assurance  checks  consisting  of 
in-depth  assessment  of  employers' 
qualifications (e.g. authorisations to carry out certain activities), financial stability, legal 
compliance (i.e. no ongoing court cases), code of conducts and possible trainings on 
fair  recruitment,  or  any  other  relevant  aspects.  As  for  the  latter,  measures  such  as 
screening of vacancies by the PES would have a positive impact on non-discrimination. 
Currently, PO2 considers particularly sectors or types of occupation based on objective 

334 See Article 21(2) of the EU Charter and Article 18 of the TFEU. 
335 Brouwer, E. R., & de Vries, K. M. (2015), Third-country nationals and discrimination on the ground of nationality: article 18 
TFEU  in the  context  of  article  14 ECHR  and  EU  migration  law:  time  for  a  new  approach,  in  M.  Van den  Brink, S. Burri, &  J. 
Goldschmidt (Eds.), Equality and human rights: nothing but trouble?, pp. 123-146. 

210 

November, 2023 

 
 
 
criteria such as labour shortage.  Measures in PO1 are however less elaborated but 
the involvement of national contact points in facilitating job matching could be seen as 
a sort of soft safeguard. 

In  PO2,  the  profiles  of  candidates  would  undergo  an  initial  pre-screening  based  on 
specific  admission  criteria.  While  this  could  result  in  discrimination,  the  measures 
proposed such as that pre-screening criteria would need to be commonly agreed by 
the participating Member States on the basis of the list of occupations of national and 
EU relevance, diminishes any negative impact on the right to non-discrimination. 

For  policy  options  where  automated  systems  are  used  to  match  labour  supply  and 
demand,  the  impact  of  such  algorithmic  management  on  non-discrimination  would 
need to be assessed. The establishment of an automated matchings tool is foreseen 
in PO2 and PO3, with the impact on fundamental rights being the highest in PO3, which 
uses  a  dedicated  fully  automated  matching  tool  with  minimal  (or  not  at  all)  manual 
labour. Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML) systems, like humans, are 
susceptible to biases that may arise at any stage of the process and may, under certain 
conditions, lead to discrimination. In the development and use of AI/ML, it is important 
to identify and mitigate these biases in order to develop robust and ethical automated 
systems336. If adopted, the proposed EU Artificial Intelligence Act (AI Act)337 and the 
AI Liability Directive338 will need to be considered in the development of the EU Talent 
Pool.  If  the  tool  would  deploy  high-risk  AI/ML  systems,  it  would  also  need  to  be 
developed,  validated  and  tested  for  potential  biases  that  could  have  discriminatory 
effects339. Although no direct measures are proposed under PO2 and PO3 to address 
this risk, close cooperation between all relevant stakeholders in the stage of developing 
AI/ML tools would have a positive impact on protection against discrimination. In the 
further stages, guidance and support by the NCOs would also help limit any negative 
impact on potentially discriminatory matchings. 

Right  to  fair  and  just  working  conditions.  TCN  workers,  especially  those  in  an 
irregular situation, are at heightened risk of labour exploitation and/or human trafficking 
due  to  a  number  of  factors,  such  as  poverty,  dependence  on  the  employer,  lack  of 
knowledge  of  EU  working  conditions  and  rights,  language  and  cultural  barriers, 
ineffective  workplace  inspections  and  lack  of  focus  on  prevention,  and  due  to  their 
vulnerable situation.  

According  to  Article  31  of  the  EU  Charter,  every  worker  has  the  right  to  working 
conditions which respect his or her health, safety and dignity, and the right to limitation 
of maximum working hours, to daily and weekly rest periods and to an annual period 
of paid leave. In the Tümer case340, the Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU) 
clarified that the safeguards established in EU law, apply to all workers, including TCNs 

336 Van Giffen, B., Herhausen, D., Fahse, T., ‘Overcoming the pitfalls and perils of algorithms: A classification of machine learning 
biases  and  mitigation  methods’,  Journal  of  Business  Research,  Vol.  144,  May  2022,  pp.  93-106,  available  at: 
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0148296322000881?via%3Dihub.  
337  Available  at:  https://digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu/en/library/proposal-regulation-laying-down-harmonised-rules-artificial-
intelligence.  
338 Available at: https://commission.europa.eu/business-economy-euro/doing-business-eu/contract-rules/digital-contracts/liability-
rules-artificial-intelligence_en.  
339 See Article 10 of the AI Act on Data and data governance.  
340  Case  C-311/13:  Judgment  of  the  Court  (Fifth  Chamber)  of  5  November  2014,  O.  Tümer  v  Raad  van  bestuur  van  het 
Uitvoeringsinstituut 
https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
het  Uitvoeringsinstituut 
content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A62013CA0311. 
Werknemersverzekeringen, available at: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A62013CA0311.  

Werknemersverzekeringen, 

v  Raad 

available 

bestuur 

Tümer 

van 

van 

at: 

November, 2023 

211 

 
 
 
in  an  irregular  situation.  Those  TCNs  authorised  to  work  in  the  EU  are  entitled  to 
working conditions equivalent to those of EU citizens (Article 15(3) of the EU Charter). 

In order to combat labour exploitation, it is important for the EU Talent Pool to have in 
place quality assurance procedures for the admission of employers. Such procedures 
should be based on a risk approach, meaning that employers with an increased risk of 
labour exploitation should be subject to more stringent assurance check. This would 
involve  dividing  employers  into  different  risk  categories,  based  on  criteria  such  as 
sector of activity or geographical location. Sectors, where workers are at higher risk of 
labour exploitation include labour-intensive sectors such as agriculture, construction, 
food and catering industry, domestic work, cleaning, meat processing, transport and 
forestry341. As non-legislative initiatives under PO1 lack quality checks on the side of 
the employers, there could be a slight negative impact on the TCNs’ right to fair and 
just  working  conditions.  On  the  other  hand,  measures  such  as  quality  checks  on 
employers and vacancies foreseen for PO2 and PO3 can have positive impact on 
promotion of fair and ethical recruitment. Those include checks of against the Chapter 
of Fair Recruitment following the current EURES measures, rigorous quality assurance 
checks  of  employers  consisting  of  in-depth  assessment  of  employers'  qualifications 
(e.g. authorisations to carry out certain activities), financial stability, legal compliance 
(i.e.  no  ongoing  court  cases),  code  of  conducts  and  possible  trainings  on  fair 
recruitment, or any other relevant aspects, as well as screening of vacancies by the 
PES.  

Lastly,  policy  measures  such  as  provisions  of  information  on  the  EU  labour  and 
immigration legal framework, which are present in all policy options, help to promote 
fair recruitment of TCN workers by raising awareness on workers’ rights and disposal 
complaints  mechanisms.  Such  measures  aimed  at  raising  awareness  have  thus  a 
positive  impact.  To  promote  fair  recruitment,  employers  and  recruitment  agencies 
should provide accurate information about potential jobs and living conditions342. The 
EU Talent Tool should include a quality assurance process to check the accuracy of 
the information provided by the employers. 

6.3.2.4. 

Environmental impacts 

The EU places great emphasis on the transition to a green economy as a fundamental 
component of its growth model. Under the European Green Deal (EGD), the EU aims 
to  achieve  climate  neutrality,  with  an  interim  target  of  reducing  net  greenhouse  gas 
emissions by at least 55% by 2030 and reaching net zero emissions by 2050.343 This 
shift towards sustainability and a net-zero economy will have a significant impact on 
the  economies  of  EU  Member  States,  with  variations  across  different  occupations, 
sectors and categories of workers.  

Research on the effect of the green transition on employment in the EU argues that 
although  some  existing  jobs  are  expected to  slowly disappear (e.g.  those  related  to 

341 European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights, Protecting migrants in an irregular situation from labour exploittation: Role of 
the  Employers  Sanctions  Directive,  2021,  available  at:  https://fra.europa.eu/sites/default/files/fra_uploads/fra-2021-employers-
sanctions-directive-report_en.pdf  and  European  Union  Agency  for  Fundamental  Rights,  Protecting  migrant  workers  from 
exploitation in the EU : Boosting workplace inspections, available at: https://fra.europa.eu/sites/default/files/fra_uploads/fra-2018-
protecting-migrant-workers-boosting-inspections_en.pdf.  
342  International  Labour  Organisation,  Fair  recruitment  and  access  to  justice  for  migrant  workers,  2022,  available  at: 
https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_protect/---protrav/---migrant/documents/publication/wcms_850615.pdf.  
343  More  information  can  be  found  on  the  European  Commission  website :  https://commission.europa.eu/strategy-and-
policy/priorities-2019-2024/european-green-deal_en.  

212 

November, 2023 

 
 
 
coal  and  gas  extraction),  new  types  of  jobs  will  emerge,  increasing  employment 
opportunities and supporting employment growth.344 Indeed, the net aggregate impact 
of green policies on employment is generally estimated to be positive.345 For instance, 
research  on  the  impact  of  net-zero  policies  estimate  that  between 1  and 2.5 million 
jobs will be created by 2030, provided the right policies are implemented.346 While the 
net employment effect may be small in magnitude, job creation will be uneven across 
the economy with larger impacts in a limited subset of sectors and occupations (e.g. 
primary sector and utilities, construction sector347). Eurofound estimates that 15% of 
workers  are  in  occupations  that  will  be  more  significantly  impacted  from  the  green 
transition.348  

The impact is not only an increase in the demand for labour, but also  an increase in 
the  demand  of  workers  with  specific  “green”  skills.  As  the  green  transition  is 
knowledge-  and  innovation-intensive,  it  has  so  far  been  skills-biased,  with  highly 
educated  workers  dominating  the  emerging  employment  opportunities.349  One 
example  is  the  agri-food  industry,  which  encompasses  agriculture  and  good 
production,  distribution  and  processing.  As  the  agri-food  industry  is  responsible  for 
around a third of all greenhouse gas emissions worldwide, the EGD is strongly focused 
on making the sector more sustainable. A critical success factor is responding to the 
emerging  needs  of  qualified  workers  (mainly  in  STEM  subjects,  engineering  and  IT 
skills).  Many  of  those  skills  will  be  used  by  workers  in  managerial  and  professional 
occupations.350  

Effectively  addressing  these  challenges  requires  long-term  strategies,  such  as  the 
rethinking of educational curricula and training courses to adapt to the changing labour 
market and developing the skills needed within the EU. In the short to medium term 
however, migration (especially highly qualified workers) could provide an alternative 
way to address those needs and prevent that the green transition from being held back 
by  a  lack  of  skills  and  labour.  The  EU  Talent  Pool  could  thus  support  the  green 
transition by providing labour and skills to key sectors driving the transition. 

Impact of the EU Talent Pool policy options 

Understanding  the  potential  of  the  EU  Talent  Pool  to  address  shortages  in  "green 
occupations" presents challenges, primarily due to the lack of harmonisation regarding 
which ISCO categories can be classified as "green." To identify occupations relevant 
to  both  shortages and  the  green  transition, the EU Commission  analysed  ISCO  04-
digit level data. They considered ELA shortages data351 and flagged occupations that 
targets 
their  contribution 
were  relevant 

the  EU's  climate 

terms  of 

to 

in 

344 OECD, Job Creation and Local Economic Development 2023. Bridging the grreat green divide, OECD Publishing, Paris, 2023, 
https://doi.org/10.1787/21db61c1-en.  
345 Ibid. OECD, Employment Implications of Green Growth: Linking jobs, growth, and green policies, OECD Report for the G7 
Environment Ministries,  2017a.  Eurofound,  Changing  labour  markets  -  How  to  prevent  a  mismatch  between  skills  and jobs  in 
times of transition - Background paper, Eurofound, Dublin, 2023. 
346 CEDEFOP, The green employment and skills transformation. Insights from a European Green Deal skills forecast scenario, 
Luxembourg: Publications Office, 2021, http://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2801/112540. 
347 The construction sector is experiencing significant and persistent labour shortages throughout the EU. Those will be likely be 
amplified by the green transition as forecasts indicate that, to meet the EGD targets by 2030, the sector would need to provide 
training for an additional 3 to 4 million workers. Ibid. 
348 Eurofound, Working conditions in the time of COVID-19: Implicaitons for the future, European Working Conditions Telephone 
Survey 2021 series, Publication Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, 2022. 
349 OECD, 2023. 
350  CEDEFOP,  Growing  green.  How vocational  education  and  training can  drive  the  green transition in agri-food, Policy Brief, 
2023. 
351 European Labour Authority (ELA), Labour shortages report 2022 – EURES, 2023. 

213 

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implementation352,  as  well  as  those  not  previously  in  widespread  shortage  but 
expected to grow in importance for the transition due to their active role in accelerating 
greening activities.353 

However, when assessing how policy options could contribute to addressing shortages 
in these sectors, a limitation arises due to the lack of detailed data at ISCO 04-digit 
level in terms of job openings and employment of TCNs.354 Currently, only aggregated 
data at ISCO 02-digit level is available, limiting the analysis to occupations where this 
level of aggregation does not hinder meaningful insights. In particular, we focused on 
those  ISCO-02  occupations  having  the  most  occurrences  of  the  relevant  ISCO-04 
occupations  in  shortage.355  Findings  give  hints  on  potential  contributions  of  the  EU 
Talent  Pool  to  employment  needs  in  some  of  the  occupations  driving  the  green 
transition.  

Outcomes are shown in the figure below, which depicts the potential inflow of migrants 
in those occupations (under the different options) as a percentage of job openings in 
those  occupations.  The  findings  show  that  the  EU  Talent  Pool  has  potential  in 
addressing labour needs in the identified green occupations. Among the policy options, 
PO2 with a mandatory approach yields the highest contribution, reaching 20% for metal 
machinery  and  related  trades  workers,  while  PO1  exhibits  the  lowest  contributions. 
The  more  targeted  nature  of  PO2  towards  sectors  of  strategic  relevance,  including 
“green”  occupations,  may  indeed  prove  to  be  more  effective  in  addressing  specific 
labour market needs that cannot be filled via intra-EU labour mobility only, fostering 
the green transition. 

352 2142 Civil engineers, 2151 Electrical engineers, 3113 Electrical engineering technicians, 7112 Bricklayers and related workers, 
7114  Concrete  placers,  concrete,  finishers  and  related  workers,  7115  Carpenters  and  joiners  7121 Roofers,  7123 Plasterers, 
7126 Plumbers and pipe fitters, 7127 Air conditioning and refrigeration Mechanics, 7212 Welders and flame cutters, 7213 Sheet-
metal workers, 7214 Structural-metal preparers and erectors, 7223 Metal working machine tool setters and operators, 7231 Motor 
vehicle mechanics and repairers, 7233 Agricultural and industrial machinery mechanics and repairers, 7411 Building and related 
electricians, 7412 Electrical mechanics and fitters 
353  3119  Physical  and  engineering  science  technicians  not  elsewhere  classified,  2143  Environmental  engineers,  2133 
environmental  protection  professionals,  2145  Chemical  engineers,  2144  Mechanical  engineers,  3115  Mechanical  engineering 
technicians. 
354 Employment of TCNs across occupations is only available from EU-LFS at ISCO 02-digit level. Employment of TCNs is needed 
for the analysis to proxy the potential distribution of migrants inflows via the Talent Pool across occupations. Job openings from 
Cedefop Skills Forecast is only available at ISCO 02-digit level. Job openings are necessary for the analysis to understand the 
extent to which potential inflows of migrants across occupations addresses employment needs.  
355 For instance, for occupation 71 -Building and related trades workers, 2 out of 3 occupations at ISCO 03-digit level were flagged 
as relevant for the green transition, and 7 out of 16 for ISCO 04-digit level. For 72 – Metal machinery and related trades workers, 
the same approach results in 2 out of 3 occupations at ISCO 03-digit level and 6 out of 13 at ISCO 04-digit level. For 74 – Electrical 
and electronic trades workers, 1 out of 2 at ISCO 03-digit and 2 out of 5 at ISCO 04-digit level. Finally, for 21  – Science and 
engineering professionals, 3 out of 6 occupations are ISCO 03-digit level were relevant for the green transition, and 7 over 24 at 
ISCO 04-digit level.  

214 

November, 2023 

 
 
 
Figure 80: Potential inflows of migrants in EU Member States as a share of job openings by 2030, by 
occupation and by policy option 

Note. As the difference between the two take-up scenarios (of 11 and 20 Member States) is minimal, no ranges are included.  

Source: elaboration of the contractor (2023). 

November, 2023 

215 

0510152025Science and engineeringprofessionalsBuilding and related tradesworkers excluding electriciansMetal machinery and relatedtrades workersElectrical and electronic tradesworkers% of expected inflows on job openingsPO1PO2 voluntaryPO2 mandatoryPO3 mandatoryPO3 voluntary 
 
 
6.3.3. Summary 

Macro-impact 

Indicator 

PO1 

PO2 

PO3 

Table 50: Summary of macro-impacts under each option 

Macro-economic impact 

Impacts on economic growth 

Working-age 
population 

Labour 
shortages 

Potential  additional 
(to 
the  baseline) 
TCNs  via  the  EU 
Talent Pool 

of 

Share 
job 
openings  covered 
additional 
via 
inflows 
brought 
about  by  the  EU 
Talent Pool  

16 500 – 17 300 

V: 271 000 – 282 500 

V: 279 000 – 296 000 

M: 294 000  

M: 307 000 

0.3-0.4% 

V: 12-16%  

M: 10% 

V: 6-7% 

M: 5% 

GDP 

Additional wages  

EUR 235-260 million 

V: EUR 3.855-4.255 billion 

V: EUR 3.968-4.458 billion 

M: EUR 5.2 billion 

M: EUR 5.4 billion 

impact 

to 
Low-to-moderate  positive 
improved  skill-job  matching  through  job 
matching  events  and  the  support  of 
national  contact  points  in  intermediating 
the  matching  between  job  vacancies  of 
EU employers and TCNs profiles. 

as 

impact  via 
Moderate-to-high  positive 
pre-screening, 
features 
such 
validation,  and  search  and 
(semi-
automatic)  matching  tools.  Additionally, 
the  inclusion  of  information  provision, 
tools for comparability and transparency 
and personalised support would improve 
EU  employers’  understanding  of  skills 
and experience gained in third countries, 
leading to better matches. 

and 
Matching 
overqualification 

n/a 

November, 2023 

and 

process 

High positive impact via the use of an AI-
based matching tool that streamlines the 
matching 
improves 
outcomes.  Additionally,  the  inclusion  of 
information 
for 
provision, 
tools 
transparency  and 
comparability  and 
personalised support would improve EU 
employers’  understanding  of  skills  and 
experience  gained  in  third  countries, 
leading to better matches. 

216 

 
 
 
 
 
Macro-impact 

Indicator 

PO1 

PO2 

PO3 

Innovation  and 
research 

n/a 

Low  positive  impact  as  contribution  is 
limited  to  enhancing  diversification  of 
skills,  perspectives,  experiences  and 
backgrounds.  

Moderate-to-high  positive 
impact  as 
focused  on  addressing  specific  skills 
shortages  in  sectors  driving  innovation 
(e.g.,  Science  and 
and 
Engineering Professionals and Associate 
Professionals and ICT Professionals). 

research 

Low  positive  impact  as  contribution  is 
limited  to  enhancing  diversification  of 
skills,  perspectives,  experiences  and 
backgrounds. 

Impacts on EU labour market 

Labour  market 
performance 

Employment rate 

62.1% 

Inactivity rate 

28.9% 

Unemployment rate  9.0% 

V: 64.7% 

M: 64.9% 

V: 27.7% 

M: 27.6% 

V: 7.6% 

M: 7.4% 

V: 64.8% 

M: 65.1% 

V: 27.7% 

M: 27.5% 

V: 7.5% 

M: 7.4% 

Wages 

n/a 

Public finances 

Contribution 
public finances 

to 

Increase 
revenue 

Impacts on SMEs 

Searching  and 
matching 

n/a 

November, 2023 

No  impact  given  that  the  number  of 
incoming TCNs via the Talent Pool under 
this  option 
to  be  not 
is  expected 
significant enough to have an impact on 
wages. 

Low  positive  impact  as  the  targeted 
approach to occupations where domestic 
workforce  is  not  sufficient  may  ensure 
complementarity  between  the  skills  of 
TCNs and those of the local workforce. 

No  impact  given  that  the  number  of 
incoming TCNs via the Talent Pool under 
this  option 
to  be  not 
is  expected 
significant enough to have an impact on 
wages. 

in 

tax 

EUR 56-59 million 

V: EUR 918-957 million 

V: EUR 945 million - 1 billion 

M: EUR 996 million 

M: EUR 1.04 billion 

Low  positive  impact  as  searching  and 
matching  is  limited  to  job  matching 
events  and  manual  effort  from  national 

Moderate-to-high  positive 
impact  by 
offering  semi-automatic  search  and 
matching 
pre-screening, 
information  provision  and  personalised 
support, optional validation, and targeted 

tools, 

Moderate positive impact by offering fully 
automatic  search  and  matching  tools, 
information  provision  and  personalised 
support 

217 

 
 
Macro-impact 

Indicator 

PO1 

PO2 

PO3 

contact  points  to  match  the  CVs  in  the 
web-portal with EU employers. 

approach 
positions. 

addressing 

hard-to-fill 

Impacts on sending third countries 

Brain drain/gain 

n/a 

Remittances 

Increase 
in 
remittances (benefit 
for Third Countries) 

Macro-social impacts 

Impacts on social cohesion 

Social cohesion 

n/a 

Impacts on discrimination 

Discrimination 

n/a 

Impacts on fundamental rights 

November, 2023 

Low positive impact given the potential of 
brain drain counteracted by the benefits 
of  brain  gain  in  case  of  TCNs  return  to 
country of origin. 

Moderate  positive  impact  as  brain  drain 
will  be  mitigated  via  the  link  with  Talent 
Partnerships  and  the  benefits  of  brain 
gain  will  materialise  in  case  of  TCNs 
return to country of origin. 

Low positive impact given the potential of 
brain drain counteracted by the benefits 
of  brain  gain  in  case  of  TCNs  return  to 
country of origin. 

EUR 44-46 million 

V: EUR 712-748 million 

V: EUR 739-784 million 

M: EUR 779 million 

M: EUR 813 million 

Low positive impact by fostering diversity 
and knowledge exchange, and reducing 
social disparities to a certain extent. 

Moderate-to-high  positive 
impact  by 
ensuring  integration  via  NCPs  support, 
fostering 
labour  market  participation, 
knowledge 
fostering  diversity  and 
exchange and reducing social disparities 
and reducing perceptions of competition 
between  native  workers  and  incoming 
TCNs. 

Moderate  positive  impact  by  ensuring 
integration  via  NCPs  support,  fostering 
labour  market  participation, 
fostering 
diversity  and  knowledge  exchange  and 
reducing social disparities 

Low positive impact via the intermediary 
role of national contact points in matching 
candidates  to  job  vacancies,  entailing 
light and basic checks on vacancies. 

Moderate  positive  impact  by  ensuring 
quality  assurance  checks  on  employers 
and job vacancies via a more structured 
approach and guidelines to employers.  

strict 

automatic 

Moderate-to-high  positive 
impact  by 
quality 
ensuring 
assurance checks on employers and job 
vacancies 
to  be  however  weighted 
against  the  potential  risks  of  using  AI-
based tools. 

218 

 
 
Macro-impact 

Indicator 

PO1 

PO2 

PO3 

Right  to  privacy 
and protection of 
personal data 

n/a 

Moderate-to-high negative impact as the 
use  of  non-legislative 
instruments 
significantly 
the  protection  of 
personal  data  and  the  ability  to  put  in 
place the required safeguards. 

limits 

to  non-

Right 
discrimination 

n/a 

Neutral-to-light negative impact as scope 
is opened to all TCNs and occupations. 

Light  negative  impact  as  the  use  of 
legislative  instruments  allows  for  the 
required safeguards to be put in place. 

Light  negative  impact  as  the  use  of 
legislative  instruments  allows  for  the 
required safeguards to be put in place. 

impact  as 

the 
Moderate  negative 
indirect 
targeted  scope  may  create 
discrimination  and 
the  use  of  an 
automatic  matching  tools  may  generate 
biases.   

Moderate negative impact as the use of a 
fully  automated  matching tools  powered 
by  AI-based  algorithms  may  generate 
biases. 

Right  to  fair  and 
just 
working 
conditions 

n/a 

Environmental impacts 

Light  positive  impact  via  information 
provision 

impact  via 
Light-to-moderate  positive 
information  provision  and  basic  checks 
on employers and vacancies.  

Moderate positive impact via information 
provision and strict checks on employers 
and vacancies. 

Occupations 
contributing 
to 
the  EU's  climate 
targets 
implementation 

Share  of  expected 
inflows of TCNs via 
the  Talent  Pool  on 
for 
job  openings 
those 
specific 
occupations* 

0.4% 

V: 16% 

M: 18% 

V: 7.2% 

M: 7.9% 

Note: “V” stands for the voluntary alternative (i.e., Member States can choose whether or not to participate to the initiative), while “M” stands for the mandatory alternative. Ranges are included for 
the voluntary options according to the take-up of Member States (11-20). *Average across occupations considered for the calculation. 

Source: elaboration of the contractor (2023) 

November, 2023 

219 

 
 
 
6.4. Costs and cost-savings 

Following  the  presentation  of  the  conceptual  framework,  expects  costs  and  cost 
savings for each of the three Policy Options are discussed. 

6.4.1. Conceptual framework 

In addition to the macro impacts, the various policy options will generate IT and non-
IT related costs and cost-savings for different stakeholders. The main stakeholders in 
this context include the European Commission, EU employers, third-country nationals 
and  national/regional  public  authorities.  In  order  to  fully  assess  these  financial 
implications, a conceptual framework is provided in the table below. 

The costs are related to the development and implementation of the EU Talent Pool 
and are primarily borne by the European Commission and national public authorities 
in  the  EU  Member  States.  These  costs  fall  into  several  categories,  such  as 
governance, IT platform, user journey, and additional components, which are further 
detailed  below.  On  the  other  hand,  the  cost-savings  arise  from  streamlining  the 
standard  steps  of  international  recruitment.  To  estimate  these  savings,  we  first 
analysed  the  monetary  and  time  costs  associated  with  the  standard  international 
recruitment process and then compared them to the potential cost-savings that the EU 
Talent Pool can offer to employers and TCNs. These cost-savings are grouped into 
immigration-related  steps,  and 
three  categories:  employment-related  steps, 
opportunity  costs.  The  latter  category  evaluates  the  potential  gains  in  wages  and 
revenues  that  jobseekers  and  employers  can  achieve  by  utilising  the  Talent  Pool 
instead of following standard procedures. 

Each policy option is assessed against these categories of costs and cost-savings to 
provide a comprehensive understanding of their financial implications. Before looking 
at the detailed estimates for each policy option, the remaining of this section provides 
more detailed information on the different categories of costs and cost-savings. 

220 

 
 
Table 51: Conceptual framework for costs and cost-savings associated with the implementation of the 
EU Talent Pool 

Category 

Subcategory 

Type 
cost/cost-
savings 

of 

Stakeholders  bearing 
the 
cost/  benefitting  from  cost-
savings 

Costs associated with the implementation of the EU Talent Pool 

Governance 

EU and national level 

One-off 
recurrent 

and 

EU  Commission, 
public authorities 

national 

IT platform 

Development 
maintenance 

and 

One-off 
recurrent 

User journey 

Additional 
components 

Profile registration 
Quality assurance 
Pre-screening 
Validation 
Search and matching 

Information provision 
Targeted support 
Facilitation measures 

One-off 
recurrent 

Recurrent 

and 

and 

Cost-savings stemming from streamlining current steps of international recruitment 

Employment-
related steps 

Recurrent 

Employers 

Recurrent 

TCNs jobseekers 

Advertising the vacancy 
Screening, 
optional 
validation,  matching  and 
selecting 

Creating a CV 
Finding opportunities 
Compiling information 
Selection  and  matching 
process 

Immigration-
related steps 

Conducting LMT 
Obtaining visa / permits 

Recurrent 

Employers 
jobseekers 

and 

TCNs 

Opportunity cost  Gain in turnover 

Recurrent 

Employers 

Gain in wages 

Recurrent 

TCNs jobseekers 

Source: elaboration of the contractor (2023)  

Costs.  The  diagram  presents  the  accounting  costs  associated  with  the  different 
options that need to be assessed. The cost categories are broken down into:  

•  Governance,  which  includes  the  costs  related  to  the  establishment  and 
management of the EU Talent Pool at both EU and national levels. It involves, 
among other, the horizontal coordination efforts between bodies at national level 
to ensure effective implementation and operation. 

•  User  journey,  which  encompasses  various  stages  (e.g.  registration,  pre-
screening,  quality  checks,  searching  and  matching)  related  to  the  use  of  the 
platform, from the profile registration to the matching process.  

221 

 
 
• 

IT Platform, which is part of the user journey and encompasses the development 
and maintenance of the platform.  

•  Additional  components,  which  cover  various  features  that  enhance  the 
effectiveness of the Talent Pool framework, such as the provision of information, 
targeted support and measures to facilitate a smooth recruitment process. 

Figure 81: Categories of costs per each policy option   

Source: elaboration of the contractor (2023)  

The costs associated with the different options will depend on the expected number of 
potential TCN jobseekers and EU employers that will participate in the Talent Pool. As 
outlined in Section 6.2, the cost estimates have been adjusted by using the expected 
numbers of profiles  admitted to the Talent Pool and of successful matches under the 
different  policy  options,  as  well  as  the  estimated  number  of  job  openings.  The 
estimates were presented in Table  in Section 6.2 and are reported again in the below 
table for the reader’s convenience.  

Table 52: Expected number of CVs and job opening by 2030 under the different options 

Policy 
Options 

PO1 

PO2 V 

PO2 M 

PO3 M 

PO3 V 

Labour supply 

CVs  admitted in  the 
platform* 

Selection rate 

Expected  successful 
matches 

Labour demand 

Job openings for migrants 

3 305 500 – 3 468 
366 

0.5% 

2 410 300 – 2 516 
165 

2 622 000 

4 718 000  

4 293 000– 4 555 
485 

11%** 

6.5% 

16 500 – 17 300 

3 830 000 – 5 100 000 

271 000 – 282 500 

1 720 000 – 2 300 000 

294 000 

307 000 

2 870 000 

6 380 000 

279 000 – 296 000 

3 830 000 – 5 100 000 

Source: elaboration of the contractor (2023) 

222 

 
 
 
Note: “V” represents the voluntary scenario, while “M” represents the mandatory one. For the voluntary alternatives ranges are 
included representing participation from 11-20 Member States.  *This is the outcome after the consideration of attractiveness 
and restrictive factors. **For TCNs in the context of Talent Partnerships, a selection rate of 30% was considered. See Technical 
Annexes, no. 7 for more details on the calculations. 

The  non-IT  costs  associated  with  each  policy  options  were  calculated  based  on  a 
number  of  sources.  In  general,  the  governance  was  estimated  by  considering  the 
current  costs  associated  with  the  EURES  network  governance  and  adjusting  the 
figures  (i.e.,  staff  costs  and  budget  for  activities)  based  on  the  expected  successful 
matches under each policy option. Costs for the governance at EU level relied on the 
staff and allocated budget to the different activities of the ECO hosted within ELA and 
the EU Commission (prior ELA’s establishment). Figures on this are taken from ELA’s 
Single Programming Document 2023 – 2025 and inputs from interviews with ELA and 
the European Commission conducted in the context of this study. At national level, the 
number of FTEs and budget (covering staff costs and other activities) for NCPs relies 
on estimations from NCOs budget and FTs under the EURES network. Estimates on 
the costs of the NCOs come from the ad-hoc survey to NCOs conducted in the context 
of  this  study,  triangulated  with  ex-post  EURES  evaluation.356  More  details  on  the 
sources  and  methodologies  to  calculate  the  costs  are  explained  under  each  policy 
option and in Appendix 9. 

The IT costs associated with each policy option were determined using a parametric 
estimation  approach.  This  methodology  relied  on  several  key  proxies,  including 
historical cost breakdown data from existing platforms like EURES, full-time equivalent 
(FTE) costs based on EU-LISA's Maintenance Working Order (MWO) contracts and 
projections for the quantity of job offers and CVs. Additionally, considerations regarding 
the  number  of  participating  Member  States  and  development  efforts  estimated  in 
collaboration  with  relevant  stakeholders,  including  private  IT  service  providers  and 
local public employment services (PES), as well as the size of the development team, 
were taken into account to estimate IT costs. 

Cost savings. On the other side of the coin, the implementation of the EU Talent Pool 
will  lead  to  cost  savings  (monetary  and  in  terms  of  time)  for  employers  and  TCNs 
jobseekers. In order to estimate these, it is necessary to compare the current costs of 
the  international  recruitment  process  with  the  added  value  that  can  result  from  the 
implementation  of  the  EU  Talent  Pool.  The  diagrams  below  provide  a  visual 
representation of these two paths for employers and jobseekers. The cost-savings can 
be divided into: 

•  Employment-related  steps,  which  encompass  the  various  stages  of  the 
recruitment process that are directly related to employment (e.g. assessing job 
requirements, publishing the vacancy, screening through applications, selection 
and  matching).  Measures  tackling  current  bottlenecks  in  the  recruitment 
process  (as  identified  in  the  problem  definition)  can  significantly  reduce  both 
monetary  and  time-related  costs,  enabling  employers  to  optimise  their 
recruitment strategies and find the right talent more efficiently. 

• 

Immigration-related  steps,  which  encompass  the  various  procedures  and 
requirements related to immigration (e.g. conducting LMT, obtaining a visa/work 
permit).  While  the  EU  Talent  Pool  does  not  aim  to  directly  address  the 

356  European  Commission  (2021).  Study  supporting  the  ex-post  EURES  evaluation  and  the  second  biennial  EURES  report, 
Contract VC/2019/0854. 

223 

 
 
 
complexities  of  immigration  procedures  (as  this  is  a  national  competency),  it 
strives to provide valuable assistance and support to employers and TCNs in 
navigating  these  processes  via  the  provision  of  relevant  information  and 
targeted support.  

•  Opportunity  costs,  which  refer  to  the  potential  benefits  or  gains  foregone  by 
choosing one course of action over another. In the context of the EU Talent Pool 
initiative,  opportunity  costs  are  particularly  relevant  when  comparing  the 
benefits  of  using  the  Talent  Pool  for  international  recruitment  against  the 
traditional recruitment procedures (i.e., business as usual). For employers, the 
opportunity cost lies in the potential gain in turnover (or productivity), while for 
TCNs jobseekers it relates to the potential gain in wages, that could be achieved 
when going through a more expedient process via the Talent Pool, rather than 
following normal procedures.357 

As shown in the diagram below, the implementation of the EU Talent Pool will provide 
benefits to EU employers and TCN jobseekers in third countries at each stage of the 
international  recruitment  process.  The  advantages  for  employers  will  be  particularly 
significant during the candidate identification and selection phases, as the Talent Pool 
will  offer  a  large  pool  of  candidates  interested  in  working  in  the  EU  and  potentially 
suitable for the job requirements. This advantage is especially prominent under PO2, 
where  pre-screening  processes  are  in  place.  Additionally,  under  PO2  and  PO3,  the 
platform will provide employers with the ability to search on specific skills and profiles 
and offer a list of potentially suitable candidates through a matching tool.  

For TCNs, one of the main benefits offered by the implementation of the Talent Pool is 
the convenience of having a single portal to access job opportunities in EU Member 
States.358 This eliminates the need to rely on multiple platforms, streamlining the job 
search process. Moreover, the Talent Pool ensures that employers are checked for fair 
recruitment practices, enhancing the overall job-seeking experience for TCNs.   

While the EU Talent Pool does not directly address issues related to immigration or 
employment  procedures  (e.g.  obtaining  a  visa  or  work  permit,  or  having  skills  and 
qualifications recognised), it does include information provision and targeted support 
to help both TCNs and EU employers navigate through these processes. Given that 
approaches  and  frameworks  to  immigration  and  employment  procedures  can  vary 
across  Member  States,  the  provided  assistance  proves  to  be  support  is  valuable  in 
facilitating a smoother process for all parties involved.   

357 Opportunity costs are the potential benefits or gains that are forgone or sacrificed when choosing one course of action over 
another. In the context of the EU Talent Pool initiative, opportunity costs become particularly relevant when comparing the benefits 
of  using  the  Talent  Pool  for  international  recruitment  against  the  traditional  steps  (outlined  in  Appendix  7).  The  time  used  by 
employers in looking for candidates, and by TCNs in looking for a job, entails losses in turnover (for employers) and wages (for 
TCNs). By accessing the Talent Pool, employers and TCNs will cut the time needed to recruit or find a job, thereby reducing their 
losses in turnover and wages. As PO1 entails mainly qualitative benefits that are hard to quantify, opportunity costs could not be 
computed for this policy option. Without clear quantifiable outcomes, it is not possible to determine the potential gains for TCNs 
and employers. 
358 Even though under PO1 job vacancies will not be included in the platform, job-matching events and the support of National 
Contact Points in matching employers and jobseekers will provide similar value added. 

224 

 
 
 
Figure 82: International recruitment process and value-added of the EU Talent Pool 

Note: * E.g. EU Skills Profile Tool for TCNs, the Europass Platform including the European Digital Credentials for Learning, 
comparison between the European Qualifications Framework and Quality frameworks from third countries, The European 
multilingual Classification of Skills Competences, Occupations and Qualifications (ESCO) 

Source: elaboration of the contractor (2023)  

While  we  present  quantifiable  cost  savings  (in  terms  of  time  and/or  money)  in  the 
assessment, it should be noted that there are a number of additional benefits from the 
Talent Pool options that are more difficult to quantify in nature. These benefits mainly 
relate to targeted support, the inclusion of comparability and transparency tools and 
information provision. These features are likely to result in time and resource savings 
for both  employers and  TCN jobseekers, as  the  Talent  Pool  can  act  as  a  one-stop-
shop for information and support. As time-saving and cost-saving benefits are difficult 
to  quantify,  they  are  mainly  considered  qualitatively  in  the  comparison  of  options  in 
Section 7. 

The subsequent sections provide an overview of the accounting and qualitative costs 
and cost-savings associated with the different options of the Talent Pool.  

225 

 
 
 
 
6.4.2. Policy Option 1: Soft Measures 

PO1  is  the  non-legislative  option  that  foresees  the  implementation  of  three  soft 
measures aiming at improving information provision and facilitating identification and 
matching. Those measures partially build on existing EU tools and include: 

• 

Improving the EU Immigration Portal (soft measure PO1A) 

•  Organising job matching events (soft measure PO1B) 

•  Developing  an  EU  Talent  Pool  through  non-legislative  instruments  (soft 

measure PO1C) 

PO1 is open to all sectors and occupations and, since it is a non-legislative option, is 
voluntary for Member States. Firstly, the costs associated with this PO are discussed, 
followed by the cost savings and a summary table. 

6.4.2.1. 

Costs associated with PO1 

The following two topics are considered here: governance and IT platform and other 
IT-related costs. 

Governance 

The  different  soft  measures  within  PO1  will  require  some  level  of  horizontal 
coordination and management at the EU level, operational contact points at national 
level.  The  roles  and  responsibilities  envisaged  under each  soft  measure  are  further 
described in the table below. The table gives the baseline for the governance of PO1. 
However,  alternatives  could  be  envisaged  and  are  further  described  and  assessed 
below. 

soft 

PO1 
measures 
PO1A 

PO1B 

PO1C 

Table 53: Responsibilities at EU and national level under PO1 

Responsibilities at EU level 

Responsibilities at national level 

the  content  provided  by 

Management  and  coordination  of 
contact points at national level; 
Review 
national authorities; 
Maintenance  and  update  of 
portal on the IT-side. 
Management and coordination for the 
organisation of job-matching events. 
Management  and  coordination  of 
national  contact  points  and  assistance 
in outreach actions; 
Maintenance of the web-portal on the 
IT side. 

the 

Gathering and providing information at 
national level 

n/a*  

Reach  out  to  employers  to  facilitate  the 
matching with interested candidates 

Source: elaboration of the contractor (2023) 
Note: *PO1B does not foresee involvement of national authorities as the organisation of events will be done at EU level. 

On the basis of the abovementioned tasks to be performed by EU and national staff, 
the  table  below  provides  an  overview  of  the  estimated  governance  costs.  The 
aggregated governance cost at national level depends on the uptake of the initiative 
among Member States. The average budget per NCP is EUR 153 000, this entails a 
total budget at national level of EUR 1 683 000 when 11 Member States participate in 
the  initiative,  and  of  3  060  000  when  20  Member States  participate  in  the  initiative. 

226 

 
 
Explanations on how the budget and FTEs at national level have been calculated are 
below.  Costs  at  EU  level  instead  do  not  depend  on  the  number  of  Member  States 
participating in the initiative; therefore no range is provided.  

Table 54: Non-IT governance costs for the different sub-options of PO1 

Sub-options 

Costs 

Type  of  cost 
and 
stakeholder 

Assumptions 
comments 

and 

other 

Staff within the EU Commission 

A. 

Improving  the 
Immigration 
Portal 

7 FTEs (Officials) 
EUR  183  000  budget  for  staff 
expenses 

Recurrent 
costs  for  EU 
Commission  

is 

The Immigration Portal is currently 
European 
hosted 
at 
the 
Commission. 
baseline 
The 
revamp  and 
to 
alternative 
modernise  the  Immigration  Portal. 
In  this  table,  costs  associated  to 
are 
this 
baseline 
this 
presented.  Deviations 
alternative,  and  associated  costs, 
are described in the text below. 

alternative 
from 

B.  Organising 

job  matching 
events 

C.  Developing 

an  EU  Talent 
Pool  through 
non-
legislative 
instruments 

22 

2 FTEs (Contract Agents)  
EUR  182  000  budget  for  staff 
expenses 
EUR 
for 
700 
organisation  of  one  job-matching 
event, for a lower bound of 900 000 
EUR budget for 40 events, and an 
upper  bound  of  1  820  000  EUR 
budget for 80 job matching events 
per year. 

budget 

Recurrent 
costs  for  EU 
Commission 

Estimates  on  the  costs  associated 
with job matching events are based 
on estimates for European (Online) 
Job  Matching  events  organised  in 
the context of EURES. Inputs from 
EU  Commission  were  considered 
to estimate staff needs. 

2 FTEs (Officials) 
EUR  342  000  budget  for  staff 
expenses 

Recurrent 
costs  for  EU 
Commission 

Estimations based on EURAXESS 
structure and costs; inputs provided 
by Commission Services. 

Contact points at national level 

three 

All 
measures 

soft 

1 FTE per Member State, for a total 
of  11-20  FTEs  per  11-20  Member 
States 
EUR 153 000 budget for staff costs 
and activities, for a  total budget of 
EUR 1 683 000 – 3 060 000 per 11-
20 Member States. 
Activities  relate  to  matching  (soft 
information 
measure  1C)  and 
gathering  and  provision 
(soft 
measure 1A).  

for 

Recurrent 
costs 
public 
national 
authorities 

Estimates  are  based  on  the  costs 
associated with the current EURES 
NCOs  (for  activities  related 
to 
information 
matching 
and 
provision)  and  adjusted  by 
the 
expected  number  of 
incoming 
TCNs and job openings associated 
with  PO1.  Commission  Services 
inputs  were  also  considered  to 
adjust the number of FTEs. 

Total annual recurrent costs 
- For EU Commission: EUR 2 069 000 (recurrent)359 
- For all 11-20 Member States national public authorities: EUR 1 683 000 – 3 060 000 (recurrent) 

Source: elaboration of the contractor (2023) 

At the EU level, the overall governance structure foresees 11 FTEs, split among the 
various  soft  measures:  7  Officials  under  PO1A  (i.e.,  1  coordination  manager  and  6 

359 This is assuming an average of 60 job matching events per year. 

227 

 
 
 
 
 
subject matter experts), 2 Contractual Agents under PO1B and 2 Officials under PO1C. 
Incremental staff costs at EU level were calculated on the basis of average personnel 
costs provided by Commission Services: EUR 171 000 per year for Officials and EUR 
91  000  per  year  for  Contract  Agents.360  The  total  amount  of  costs  at  EU  level  was 
calculated by summing up the costs under each measure. 

Soft  measure  PO1A.  The  EU  Immigration  Portal  is  hosted  within  the  European 
Commission.  Under  the  current  structure,  the  team  managing  and  maintaining  the 
portal consists of one coordination manager and 6 administrators to provide expertise 
in  immigration  topics, all  working  a  share  of their  time on this portfolio.  Additionally, 
information  gathering, and  provision are  conducted at  the national level through the 
European  Migration  Network  (EMN),  involving  approximately  6  staff  members  per 
Member State. The coordination manager oversees the collaboration between national 
stakeholders, the 6 subject matter experts at the EU level, and the IT team (comprising 
two people) responsible for implementing the information into the portal. Currently, the 
updating process for the Immigration Portal occurs periodically and takes around 6-7 
months.361 This process includes a 3–4-month period for Member States to collect and 
provide  the  required  information,  followed  by  quality  checks  and  clarifications 
conducted  by  the  subject  matter  experts  within  the  EU  Commission.  There  may  be 
additional follow-ups between the EU Commission and Member States to ensure the 
accuracy and transparency of information.  

Under PO1A a fully-fledged revamp and update of the immigration portal is envisaged. 
This  will  entail  additional  resources  at  EU  level  for  this  purpose.  In  particular,  while 
under  the  current  structure,  validated  by  DG  HOME,  the  coordination  manager  is 
working on average around 30% per week on the Immigration Portal, this time would 
be increased to 100% under PO1A (amounting to an incremental cost of EUR 119 700) 
to cater for the additional work and more frequent updates (assumed to take place on 
an annual basis). The time needed from the 6 subject matter experts will be assumed 
to be 10% of their weekly time for 6 months to the review of the content.362 For the 
remaining 6 months of the year (when work on updates is more limited and it is merely 
a matter of maintenance), the workload of the subject matter experts is assumed to 
decrease to around 2-3% of their time (or 1 hour per week). Currently, the time invested 
by  the  subject  matter  expert  is  very  low  over  the  span  of  the  year;  therefore,  costs 
associated  with  the  time  needed  from  them  under  PO1A  will  be  assumed  to  be 
incremental costs. The total staff incremental staff cost at the EU level is thus estimated 
to be approximately EUR 183 000 per year.363 

If the EU Immigration Portal were to be expanded to include additional information on 
recognition procedures, the costs associated to PO1A would increase at the EU level 
as  the  team  within  the  EU  Commission  would  need  to  be  extended  to  cater  for 
expertise  on  recognition  procedures  and  the  coordination  would  require  additional 

360 The same breakdown is also considered for PO2 and PO3. 

361 The latest update happened in 2019 and included the addition of 4 migration profiles (to reach the current total of 11 migration 
profiles).  
362 Inputs on the work allocation for the coordination manager come from the team managing the Immigration Portal within the EU 
Commission. Subject matter experts working 10% a week per 6 months implies around 4 hours a week for 6 months. This would 
give them around 3 hours per Member State per migration profile, which was confirmed by the European Commission to be on 
average enough time (when it comes to revise updates on existing pages). 
363  This  is  the  incremental  cost  of  increasing  the  time  allocated  to  the  coordination  manager  (i.e.,  EUR  119  700)  plus  the 
incremental cost of the 6 subject matter experts, working 10% on the portfolio for the 6 months of the update and 2/3% for the 
remaninig 6 months (i.e, EUR 63 300). For the calculations, the number of hours worked per person per year (FTE) is estimated 
to be 1 720. European Commission, 2019, H2020 Programme User’s Guide for the Personnel Costs Wizard, p. 13. 

228 

 
 
 
resources  as  well.  This  could  involve  increasing  to  2  the  number  of  coordination 
managers  and  adding  4  additional  administrators  with  expertise  in  recognition 
procedures, working 15% of their time on this portfolio for 6 months (when the workload 
on updates is heavier) and 2-3% for the remaining 6 months.364 Consequently the total 
costs  for  updating  existing  information  on  immigration  procedures  and  adding  new 
information on recognition procedures would rise to around EUR 1 057 000 per year. 

Soft measure PO1B. The organisation of job matching events is envisaged to take 
place at EU level within the EU Commission by 2 Contract Agents (for a total staff cost 
of EUR 182 000). They will be responsible or the organisation and management of the 
events  including  related  administration,  agenda,  promotion,  collaboration  with 
stakeholders and partnering organisations, logistics (for hybrid or in-person events).  

The budget will be therefore centralised at EU level and will cover any activity related 
to  the  organisation  of  the  events,  such  as  promotion  material,  technology  and 
equipment, event materials, translation and interpretation services, venue and logistics 
(for  hybrid  or  in-person  events).  To  estimate  this  budget,  we  have  used  the  cost 
estimates for the European (Online) job days organised in the framework of EURES. 
In  2022,  a  total  of  44  events  across  the  EU/EFTA  were  organised  (4  information 
sessions  and  40  job  matching  events).  Most  of  them  (more  than  90%)  focused  on 
specific sectors of interest, such as tourism, ICT, and engineering. All the events were 
conducted online (with only 5 offering the possibility to participate onsite). The average 
duration of the events was of around 4 hours. Each job matching event included an 
average of 52 employers and 163 total positions advertised. The average number of 
jobseekers was around 276365. The total budget for the European Coordination Office 
(ECO) within ELA for European (Online) Job Days was of approximately EUR 1 000 
000 EUR, i.e. EUR 22 700 per event in 2022. Using these figures as a proxy for the 
EU  Talent  Pool  and  assuming  a  lower-bound  of  40  events  per  year  and  an  upper-
bound of 80 events per year, the average budget required would range from EUR 900 
000 EUR to EUR 1 800 000, averaging at EUR 1 362 000 per year. 

Soft measure PO1C. This soft measure foresees the addition of 2 Officials at EU level 
within  the  EU  Commission  to  manage  the  web  portal  with  the  CVs  repository  and 
coordinate contact points at national level, for a total staff cost of  EUR 342 000 per 
year.366 Staff members will be responsible for facilitating the link between interested 
employers (at national and local level) and candidates admitted to the web-portal.  

At national level, the overall governance foresees 1 FTE per national contact point and 
a budget of EUR 153 000 for staff costs and activities. Those figures were estimated 
by taking the number of NCOs staff under EURES (i.e., 3-5 people on average across 
NCOs), and budget (i.e., EUR 1 200 000 on average across NCOs)367 and adjusting 
them to the context of PO1 according to: 

(i)  the  number of potentially  interested  jobseekers (i.e.,  3  305  500  – 3  468  366) 
and expected vacancies (i.e., 3 830 000 – 5 100 000) under this policy option 

364 The time required to do content review in for recognition is expected to be higher considering that information is new. It is thus 
assumed to take around 6 hours per Member State. This was confirmed by the European Commission to be on average enough 
time (when it comes to revise new information). 
365 Exact number of jobseekers participating to the events is not available. The average has been estimated by taking the total 
number  of  participating 
to  date  (312).  Source : 
https://europeanjobdays.eu/en, last access in July 2023. 
366 This includes 1 administrator and 1 contractual agent. 
367 Estimates on costs on the EURES structure come from the ad-hoc survey to NCOs conducted by the contractor, triangulated 
with the ex-post EURES evaluation. 

total  number  of  events 

far  (85  996)  over 

jobseekers  so 

the 

229 

 
 
 
relative to the same figures within EURES (i.e., 1 000 000 CVs online and 5 000 
000 posts368), and  

(ii) the foreseen  activities  to be  conducted by national contact  points under  PO1 

relative to those of NCOs under EURES.  

Based  solely on  point (i), the  number of  FTEs  in  national  contact  points under  PO1 
should  be  around  6  FTEs.  However,  this  has  been  revised  downwards  when 
considering point (ii). NCOs under EURES carry out a wide range of activities, such as 
matching,  recruitment,  information  and  guidance,  post-recruitment  assistance  (e.g., 
language  training  and  integration  support),  network  management  (e.g.,  of  EURES 
Members  and  Partners),  reporting  and  communication.369  Under  PO1,  instead,  the 
activities  carried  out  by  the  contact  points  will  be  mainly  focused  on  supporting  the 
matching  between  employers  and  TCNs  under  PO1C.370  Therefore,  the  estimated 
number of FTEs was reduced to 1 FTE per contact point.  

When it comes to the budget, an NCO budget of around EUR 1 200 000 covering staff 
costs and activities for 3-5 FTEs371 would entail a budget of around EUR 300 000 to 
cover staff costs and activities for 1 FTE under PO1. However, considering that range 
of activities conducted by NCOs, this budget is likely to be an overestimation for contact 
points under the Talent Pool. To provide a more accurate figure, we considered only 
the share of the contact points budget that will be dedicated to matching and, to a lower 
extent, information provision. This is estimated to be around 50% of the total budget 
estimated above (i.e., EUR 300 000). This percentage was estimated by looking at the 
budget allocation of NCOs under EURES; 65% of their budget is spent for matching 
and recruitment (35%) and information and guidance (30%).372 In the context of PO1, 
information and guidance is expected to play relatively smaller role compared to what 
it entails under the EURES framework, therefore we considered 15%, rather than 30%. 
The final amount of the budget is thus estimated to be EUR 153 000. 

IT platform and other IT-related costs373  

The  estimated  cost  breakdown  for  the  proposed  initiatives  over  a  10-year  period, 
excluding  alternative  measures374,  is  as  follows:  approximately  €646  thousand 
allocated for the development of the EU Immigration Portal, around €42 thousand for 
the  required  development  to  advertise  job-matching  events,  about  €3  million  for 
creating  an  EU  Talent  Pool  through  non-legislative  instruments,  approximately  €3.9 
million for operations (maintenance). IT infrastructure costs would range from €1.6 to 
1.7 million depending on the number of Member States participating in the initiative. 

368  Figures 
apps/cvo/page/statistics?lang=en&app=2.15.1-build-1&pageCode=statistics_cvo 

from  EURES  Statistics 

last  accessed  July  2023 

taken 

[ 

] :  https://ec.europa.eu/eures/eures-

369 Those activities were validated by the ad-hoc survey to NCOs conducted in the context of this study. 

370  For  PO1A,  contact  points  within  the  EMN  would  be  responsible  for  gathering  and  providing  information  (as  per  current 
structure). For PO1B, the management and organisation of events will be centralised at EU level. 

371 Estimates on costs on the EURES structure come from the ad-hoc survey to NCOs conducted by the contractor, triangulated 
with the ex-post EURES evaluation. It is not possible to split between staff costs and budget for activities as this information was 
not available. 

372 Estimates on costs on the EURES structure come from the ad-hoc survey to NCOs conducted by the contractor, triangulated 
with the ex-post EURES evaluation. 

373 IT costs related to the development and maintenance of the IT platform for the EU Talent Pool are closely interconnected with 
other cost categories, particularly those associated with the user journey. Due to this strong interlinkage, we consolidated all costs 
that arise from IT-related activities and include them in this section. Thus, this section includes IT-costs related to the IT platform 
per se, but also costs stemming from IT-related activities in other categories of costs (e.g. governance, user journey). 
374 Cost estimates for alternative measures are available in appendix 5 and 6 for all Policy options 

230 

 
 
 
Implementing  additional features  would  cost  approximately €2.9 million.  In  total, the 
estimated  cost  amounts  would  range  from  €12.1  million  to  €12.2  million.  For  more 
details and a comprehensive understanding, please refer to Appendix 5 and 6, and the 
table below provides the cost breakdown. 

In the following table, cost components are presented with corresponding cost ranges 
based on the involvement of 11 or 20 Member States, respectively. Those costs where 
a range is not provided do not depend on the take up of the initiative among Member 
States. 

231 

 
 
PO 1 

Baseline 

Total over ten 
years 
(11 – 20 
Member States) 

Y1-Y2 
(11 – 20 Member 
States) 

Y3 
(11 – 20 
Member 
States) 

Y4 
(11 – 20 
Member 
States) 

Y5 
(11 – 20 
Member 
States) 

Y6 
(11 – 20 
Member 
States) 

Y7 
(11 – 20 
Member 
States) 

Y8 
(11 – 20 
Member 
States) 

Y9 
(11 – 20 
Member 
States) 

Y10 
(11 – 20 
Member 
States) 

Table 55: IT-costs for PO1 

Development 

€3,749,988 

€3,749,988 

Development for 
improving the EU 
Immigration 
Portal 
Development for 
organising job-
matching events 
Development of 
an EU Talent 
Pool through 
non-legislative 
instruments 
Operations 
(maintenance)375 
Infrastructure 

Additional 
features 
implementation376 
Total Cost 

€645,829 

€645,829 

€41,666 

€41,666 

€3,062,493 

€3,062,493 

€3,937,488 

€0 

€562,498 

€562,498 

€468,749 

€468,749 

€468,749 

€468,749 

€468,749 

€468,749 

€1,599,472 - 
€1,678,280 
€2,860,000 

€319,894 - €335,656  €159,947 - 

€0 

€167,828 
€715,000 

€159,947 - 
€167,828 
€715,000 

€159,947 - 
€167,828 
€238,333 

€159,947 - 
€167,828 
€238,333 

€159,947 - 
€167,828 
€238,333 

€159,947 - 
€167,828 
€238,333 

€159,947 - 
€167,828 
€238,333 

€159,947 - 
€167,828 
€238,333 

€12,146,948 - 
€12,225,756 

€4,069,883 - 
€4,085,644 

€1,437,445 - 
€1,445,326 

€1,437,445 - 
€1,445,326 
Source: elaboration of the contractor (2023)

€867,029 - 
€874,910 

€867,029 - 
€874,910 

€867,029 - 
€874,910 

€867,029 - 
€874,910 

€867,029 - 
€874,910 

€867,029 - 
€874,910 

375 Maintenance costs encompass ongoing activities including bug fixes, updates, security enhancements, and system support. In initial stages, these costs can be higher due to bug fixing and 
system stabilisation. However, as the system matures, maintenance costs become more predictable and stable, with routine maintenance activities decreasing over time. 

376 "Additional features implementation" costs cover the development of new functionalities or features for the system. These costs can vary based on the complexity of the additions and are 
typically  higher  during  the  early  stages  when  new  features  are  being  integrated.  As  the  system  evolves,  these  costs  might  stabilise,  with  a  more  predictable  budget  for  incorporating  new 
functionalities. The implementation of additional features involves various activities, which are planned to be outsourced to a contractor. Typically, these activities would require a total of 5 full-time 
equivalents (FTEs) encompassing different roles. This distribution would include 1.0 FTE for Business Analysis, 1.0 FTE for project management, 1.0 FTE for development, 0.5 FTE for quality 
assurance, 1.0 FTE for technical experts, and 0.5 FTE for testing. 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
6.4.2.2. 

Cost savings associated with PO1 

The cost savings associated with PO1 are predominantly qualitative, i.e. they cannot 
be  easily  quantified  in  monetary  terms.  These  savings  arise  primarily  from  the  time 
saved by both employers and TCNs at various steps of the international recruitment 
process. The table below provides an overview. 

Table 56: Qualitative benefits associated with PO1 sub-options and measures 

Steps 

Qualitative benefits 

Employers 

Identifying 
candidates 

Matching  vacancy 
and candidates 

The web-catalogue of TCNs CVs will provide a wider pool of candidates, as 
it will encompass jobseekers from all third countries, creating a centralised 
platform  for  employers  (rather  than  having  to  access  several  portals  and 
platforms).  This  will  facilitate  the  identification  of  potential  candidates, 
reducing the need for extensive search and screening. 

The organisation of job-matching events will enhance the match between the 
skills  possessed  by  TCNs  and  the  job  requirements,  thereby  facilitating 
effective matches (and avoid mismatches). It will also enable companies to 
connect with and reach out to TCNs more easily. This aspect is particularly 
beneficial  for  SMEs,  which  may  have  limited  resources  compared  to 
multinational companies when it comes to engaging with TCNs. 

When it comes of the web-catalogue of TCNs CVs, the intermediary role of 
the  NCPs  adds  an  additional  layer  of  support  to  the  matching  process  by 
facilitating the matching of CVs in the pool with EU employers and reducing 
the burden on employers. 

Validation 
or 
recognition of skills 
and qualifications 

The inclusion of information on recognition procedures will save employers 
time by eliminating the need to search for and retrieve this information online. 

Obtaining 
visa/permits 

TCNs 

Finding 
opportunities 

Recognition 
validation 
procedures 
obtaining 
visa/permits 

Updated and clear information provision on immigration procedures will save 
employers  time  otherwise  spent  searching  for  relevant  details  online  or 
seeking assistance from third-party services. 

The implementation of job-matching events and the involvement of NCPs in 
facilitating  the  matching  process  will  significantly  increase  the  chances  of 
TCNs finding suitable job opportunities that match with their specific skills and 
qualifications.  

/ 

and 

The  inclusion of information (in multiple  languages) on the recognition and 
validation  procedures  in  place  in  the  different  Member  States  will  save 
jobseekers time by reducing the efforts of having to retrieve this information 
independently. 

Source: elaboration of the contractor (2023) 

Soft measure 1A. Updating the existing EU Immigration Portal with accurate and up-
to-date  information  on  labour  migration  in  the  EU  and  Member  States  will  grant 
employers  and  TCNs  easy  access  to  comprehensive  and  transparent  information 

 
 
regarding  migration  schemes  and  requirements.  Expanding  the  portal  to  include 
information  on  recognition  and  validation  procedures  in  Member  States,  as  well  as 
working  and  living  standards,  will  further  reduce  the  time  needed  for  research  and 
potential consultations with third parties or intermediaries. Additionally, the inclusion of 
additional  languages  will  greatly  facilitate  the  understanding  of  the  information  for 
TCNs. 

Soft measure 1B. The organisation of job-matching events will enable employers from 
EU Member States to make direct contact with jobseekers from third countries, thus 
streamlining  the  recruitment  process  and  saving  on  related  costs.  For  TCNs,  job-
matching events provide a direct opportunity to interact with potential employers from 
EU  Member  States,  making  job  opportunities  more  accessible  and  reducing  the 
financial burden associated with seeking employment abroad. 

Soft  measure  1C.  The  web  portal  with  a  catalogue  of  CVs  will  allow  employers  to 
access  a  pool  of  jobseekers  and  match  those  with  available  vacancies  through  the 
intermediary role of NCPs, saving them the time and costs associated with traditional 
recruitment  processes  (e.g.  advertising  vacancies,  conducting  extensive  screening, 
and handling numerous applications). 

Although the soft measures mentioned above could support and facilitate several steps 
of the international recruitment process, their impact in terms of time- and cost-savings 
is  expected  to  be  relatively  smaller  compared  to  the  two  legislative  policy  options, 
described below. For instance,  PO2 and PO3 envisage more advanced IT solutions 
that automate some of the manual processes foreseen for PO1, such as search and 
matching tools, which will streamline identification (of candidates and job vacancies) 
and  selection  of  candidates.  The  two  legislative  options  also  include  facilitation 
measures  (e.g.,  possibility  to  skip  the  LMT)  and  more  targeted  and  personalised 
support, which will further cut down on time and costs. Finally, in light of the fact that 
only qualitative benefits were identified for PO1, no opportunity costs can be estimated 
for this policy option.

 
 
6.4.2.3. 

Summary 

Table 57: Summary of costs and cost-savings associated with PO1 

Category 

Sub-category  Type of cost 

Stakeholders bearing 
the cost 

Associated costs (EUR) 

Y1 

Y2 

Each subsequent 
year 

Governance 

EU level 

Recurrent 

EU Commission 

2 069 000* 

2 069 000* 

2 069 000* 

National level 

Recurrent 

National public authorities  1 683 000 – 3 060 

000 

1 683 000 – 3 
060 000 

1 683 000 – 3 060 
000 

EU level 

Recurrent/One-off  EU Commission 

4 069 883 – 4 085 644 

1 009 633 – 1 017 
514 

IT platform and other 
IT-related costs 

Total costs 

For EU Commission: 

For 11-20 Member States national public authorities: 

4 103 941 – 4 111 
822 

4 103 941 – 4 
111 822 

3 078 633 – 3 086 
514 

1 683 000 – 3 060 
000 

1 683 000 – 3 
060 000 

1 683 000 – 3 060 
000 

Note: * This represents the total costs for all soft measures. For PO1A, the baseline scenario of updating the Immigration Portal (without integrating new content on immigration procedures) is 
considered. For PO1B, an average of 60 job matching events is considered. 
Source: elaboration of the contractor (2023) 

 
 
6.4.3. Policy Option 2: Focused EU Talent Pool 

Firstly, the costs associated with this PO are discussed, followed by the cost savings 
and a summary table. 

6.4.3.1. 

Costs associated with PO2 

PO2 foresees two alternatives in terms of participation: one on voluntary participation 
by Member States and the second on mandatory participation. Under both alternatives, 
the  policy  option  takes  a  targeted  approach  to  occupations  of  strategic  importance. 
Under the voluntary participation, we assumed a take up of 11-20 Member States. In 
addition, we relied on occupations at ISCO 2-digit level and included 13 occupations 
of  strategic  relevance.  These  were  selected  based  on  ELA’s  list  of  widespread  and 
persistent  shortages,  complemented  with  inputs  from  Commission  Services.377  The 
voluntary nature and the targeted scope of PO2 imply limitations on the potential labour 
demand from EU employers and labour supply from TCN jobseekers. Therefore, the 
expected likely number of TCN profiles in the EU Talent Pool ranges between 2 410 
300  –  2516  165  under  the  voluntary  scenario  and  2  622  000  under  the  mandatory 
scenario. The number of expected job openings by 2030 (from Cedefop) for TCNs (in 
the specific occupations included) is around 1 720 000 – 2 300 000 for the voluntary 
scenario and almost 2 870 000 for the mandatory one.378 

Governance 

The governance foreseen for PO2 includes the establishment of a Secretariat within 
the  European  Commission  to  ensure  horizontal  coordination,  a  Steering  Group 
composed  of  national  representatives  from  participating  Member  States  (including 
immigration  and  employment  authorities)  to  take  high-level  decisions  and  National 
Contact  Points 
immigration  and  employment 
authorities. As PO2 also includes the links with Talent Partnerships, the governance 
foresees the establishment of Liaison Offices in third countries participating in Talent 
Partnerships. 

including  representatives 

from 

To  estimate  the  costs  of  the  governance,  we  used  the  current  governance  of  the 
EURES  network  governance.  The  latter  served  as  a  basis  to  infer  the  full  costs  of 
implementing similar governance structures under PO2. The costs associated with the 
EURES structure were adjusted for the context of the EU Talent Pool envisaged under 
PO2  in  terms  of  expected  CVs  and  job  openings.379  The  table  below  provides  an 
overview of governance costs and the related assumption. At the national level, ranges 
are  provided  for  aggregated  staff  FTEs  and  budget  according  to  whether  11  or  20 

377 ELA shortages report (2023) presents occupations at ISCO 4-digit level, presented above in the problem definition (Section 2) 
and baseline (Section 6.1). However, data on employment levels of migrants and job openings is not available at this level of 
disaggregation. Therefore, the 2-digit occupations suffering from shortages were aggregated at 2-digit level. The list includes : 21 
– science and engineering professionals, 22 – health professionals, 24 – business administration professionals, 25 – information 
and  communications  technology  professionals,  31-  science  and  engineering  associate  professionals,  51  –  personal  service 
workers, 53 – personal care workers, 71 – building and related trades workers excluding electricians, 72 – metal machinery and 
related trades workers, 74 – electrical and electronic trades workers, 75 – food processing wood working garment and other craft 
and related trades, 83 – drivers and mobile plant operators, 91 – cleaners and helpers. Commission Services inputs and ESDE 
2023 report were also considered when drawing this list to include occupations that have not been in widespread shortage in 
previous years but are likely to grow in importance for the transition due to their active role in the acceleration of greening activities. 
European Commission, Employment and Social Developments in Europe, Addressing labour shortages and skills gaps in the EU, 
Annual Review, 2023. 
378 Job openings from Cedefop Skills Forecast were restricted as in the case of labour supply ; namely, only job openings coming 
from the 11-20 Member States participating and related to the 13 occupations at ISCO 2-digit level were included. 
379 An overview of the EURES network associated costs at EU and national level can be found in the Technical Annexes, no. 9. 

 
 
 
Member States are assumed to participate in the initiative by 2030, under the voluntary 
alternative. For EU level costs, a similar range is provided for horizontal coordination 
and training budgets, under the voluntary alternative, as those depend on the number 
of NCPs assumed. Those costs where a range is not provided, under the voluntary 
alternative, do not depend on the take up of the initiative among Member States. 

 
 
Table 58: Non-IT governance costs for PO2 

Type  of  cost 
and 
stakeholder 

Recurrent 
costs 
Commission 

for  EU 

Assumptions and other comments 

To estimate the total number of FTEs within 
the EU Commission, FTEs within ECO were 
considered.  The  latter  has  been  estimated 
by considering the ELA Single Programming 
Document  2023  –  2025  and  inputs  from 
interviews  with  ELA  and  the  European 
Commission conducted by the contractor.  

n/a 

Labour  Migration  Platform 
example.  

taken  as 

Recurrent  cost 
for 
national 
public 
authorities 

The  estimates  are  based  on  the  costs 
associated  with  current  EURES  NCOs  and 
adjusted  by 
the  expected  number  of 
incoming TCNs and expected number of job 
openings  associated  with  PO2  (under  the 
voluntary  and  mandatory 
scenarios). 
Commission  Services 
inputs  were  also 
considered  to  adjust  the  number  of  FTEs 
required. 

Costs 

Secretariat within EU Commission 

Voluntary  
13  FTEs  (including  1  business  manager 
handling IT platform coordination) 
EUR 1 903 000 budget for staff expenses 
EUR 2 467 000 – 3 023 500 budget for non-IT-
related activities, including: 

o  EUR 97 000 – 176 000 for horizontal 

coordination activities 

o  EUR 582 000 – 1 060 000 for training 

activities  

o  EUR 487 500 for communication 
o  EUR 1 300 000 for translation 

Mandatory 
13  FTEs  (including  1  business  manager 
handling IT platform coordination) 
EUR 1 903 000 budget for staff expenses 
EUR  3  931  500  budget  for  non-IT-related 
activities, including: 

o  EUR  238  000 

for  horizontal 

coordination activities 

o  EUR 1 906 000 for training activities  
o  EUR 487 500 for communication 
o  EUR 1 300 000 for translation 

Steering Group 

2-4  persons  (headcount)  from  immigration 
and employment authorities from participating 
Member  States,  attending  around  2-3 
meetings per year. 
Costs  already  included  in  the  Secretariat 
budget for activities. 

National Contact Points 

Voluntary 
3 FTEs per NCP, for a total of 33-60 FTEs for 
11-20  Member  States.  This 
includes 
immigration and employment authorities. 
EUR  730  000  budget  per  NCP  for  staff  and 
other activities expenses, for a total of EUR 8 
000  000  –  14  600  000  budget  for  11-20 
Member State. 
Member  States  can  decide  to  nominate  for 
NCPs  (some  of 
the)  colleagues  already 
working  for  EURES  NCOs.  In  those  cases, 
costs would be lower. 

Mandatory 
4 FTEs per NCP, for a total of 108 FTEs for 27 
Member States. This includes immigration and 
employment authorities. 

 
 
 
 
 
 
Costs 

Type  of  cost 
and 
stakeholder 

Assumptions and other comments 

EUR  1  000  000  per  NCP  for  staff  and  other 
activities expenses, for a total of EUR 27 000 
000 budget for 27 Member State. 
Member  States  can  decide  to  nominate  for 
NCPs  (some  of 
the)  colleagues  already 
working  for  EURES  NCOs.  In  those  cases, 
costs would be lower. 

Liaisons Offices with TCs 

2 FTEs from EU Member States in each of the 
Talent Partnership third countries, for a total of 
20 FTEs in case of 10 Talent Partnerships.  
EUR  72  000  for  annual  salary  per  person, 
amounting  to  around  1  440  000  EUR  for  20 
FTEs. 
Member  States  can  also  appoint  colleagues 
already posted in third countries. In this case, 
the  additional cost  of  creating  a  liaison  office 
would be minimal.  

Recurrent  cost 
for 
national 
authorities  

There  are  currently  7  Talent  Partnership 
under discussion. We are assuming that an 
additional  3  Talent  Partnerships  will  be 
operational by 2030.  
Assuming  an  average  of  2  people  from 
participating  EU  Member  States  relocating 
the  Talent 
to 
Partnerships,  according  to  EU  Commission 
inputs. 

third  countries  of 

the 

Total costs 
Voluntary 
- For EU Commission: EUR 4 370 000 – 4 926 500 (recurrent) 
- For all 11-20 Member States national public authorities: EUR 9 440 000 – 16 040 000 (recurrent)  
Mandatory 
- For EU Commission: EUR 5 834 000 (recurrent) 
- For all 27 Member States national public authorities: EUR 28 440 000 (recurrent)  

Source: elaboration of the contractor (2023) 

Secretariat within the Commission. The EU level body is expected to consist of 13 
non-IT-related staff members: 7 administrators, 4 contract agents, and 2 secretaries. 
The  staff  costs  were  calculated  based  on  average  personnel  costs  provided  by 
Commission Services: EUR 171 000 per year for administrators and secretaries, and 
EUR  91  000  per  year  for  contract  agents.  Additionally,  the  initial  team  may  be 
expanded in the future to cater adapt to the changing needs and requirements of the 
Talent Pool. Roles and responsibilities for each category of personnel are in the table 
below. 

Table 59. Roles and responsibilities of EU Secretariat 

Staff members  Task 

Administrators 

-  Support to negotiations  
-  Preparation ahead entry into force 
-  Drafting delegated and implementing acts + negotiations over years 2026 - 2027 
-  Setting up governance structure and comitology  
-  Annual Work Programme  
-  Data protection (including drafting and finalising controllership agreements) 
-  Contract management of service providers and IT coordination (internal IT 

Steering Group and submission to IT board) 

-  National Contact Points related activities (operating procedures, charter, funding 
support, set up of the NCPs Network, training and capacity building activities) 

-  Coordination with Talent Partnerships Liaison Officers 
-  Support to MS participating in Talent Partnerships 
-  Specific regime for Talent Partnership (pass requirements, information 

campaign) 

 
 
Staff members  Task 

Contract 
Agents 

Secretaries 

-  Support to negotiations + preparation ahead entry into force 
-  Preparation of training needs and capacity building modules 
-  Indicators framework, monitoring and evaluation 
-  Communication strategy and organisation of events, networking 
- Administrative support (coordination and organisation of meetings) 

The  budget  at  EU  level  for  operational  activities  covers  horizontal  coordination, 
training,  communication  and  translation.  Estimations  of  the  budget  for  each  activity 
depend on a number of factors: 

-  Horizontal  coordination  entails  the  management  of  the  overall  Talent  Pool 
structure at national level. Therefore, costs of horizontal coordination depend 
on the number of NCPs foreseen. To estimate the required budget, we looked 
at  the  allocated  budget  for  horizontal  coordination  activities  of  the  European 
Coordination  Office  (ECO)  within  the  EURES  structure  under  ELA,  which 
amounts  to  around  EUR  300  000  per  year,380  for  34  NCOs  across  Member 
States. Considering that under the Talent Pool, we envisage between 11 and 
20 NCPs under the voluntary alternative and 27 under the mandatory, the total 
budget  ranges  between  EUR  97  000–  176  000  and  EUR  238  000, 
respectively.381 

-  Training entails the organisation of trainings session for NCP personnel across 
all participating Member States. As above, to estimate the required budged, we 
looked at the allocated budget for training activities of ECO within ELA, which 
accounts for around EUR  3 000  000.382  Considering  that  under  the  voluntary 
alternative, we envisage 3 FTEs per NCP (for a total of 33-60 FTEs across 11-
20 NCPs), the total budget ranges between EUR 582 000– 1 060 000. Under 
the mandatory, with 4 FTEs per NCP, the total training cost is EUR 1 906 000. 
-  Communication  entails  activities  to  promote  the  initiative  and  enhance  its 
visibility.  As  communication  campaigns  will  be  targeted  to  the  occupations 
included  in  the  initiative,  this  budget  depends  on  the  number  of  occupations 
envisaged under the policy option. The EURES ECO budget for communication 
amounts to EUR 1 500 000 and the EURES system includes all occupations 
across the EU.383 Under PO2, the scope will be targeted to those occupations 
of strategic relevance (i.e., 13 occupations at ISCO 2-digit level). Therefore, the 
final budget amounts to EUR 487 500.  

-  Translation  entails  not  only  translation  services  related  to  the  IT  platform  but 
also  translation  of  information  materials  and  campaigns  or  interpretation 
services  when  it  comes  to  communications with  third  countries’  authorities  or 
cross-border initiatives. This budget was kept the same as it currently is under 

380 This has been estimated by considering the ELA Single Programming Document 2023 – 2025 and inputs from interviews with 
ELA and the European Commission conducted by the contractor. 
381  This  is  the  result  of  the  following :  300  000*11/34,  300  000*20/34,  and  300  000*27/34.  The  same  approach  was  used  to 
calculate the budget for the other operational activities. 
382 This has been estimated by considering the ELA Single Programming Document 2023 – 2025 and inputs from interviews with 
ELA and the European Commission conducted by the contractor. 
383 This has been estimated by considering the ELA Single Programming Document 2023 – 2025 and inputs from interviews with 
ELA and the European Commission conducted by the contractor. 

 
 
 
the ECO within ELA, as the types of services will be very similar. The budget is 
thus EUR 1 300 000. 384 

Steering group. This high-level body will be established to provide a space for national 
authorities  to  consult  each  other,  discuss  about  recurrent  issues  and  find  solutions 
together. The creation of such a group will not yield significant costs, as participation 
will  be  limited  to  few  national  representatives  from  the  migration  and  employment 
perspective and activities will entail the participation to 2-3 meetings per year. In those 
meetings, other relevant stakeholders can also participate as audience (e.g. social and 
economic partners at EU level, EU institutions and agencies).385 

National Contact Points. NCPs will be responsible for the practical implementation of 
the  initiative  at  the  national  and  local  level.  The  members  of  the  bodies  will  be 
appointed  by  the  Member  States  according  to  their  national  context.  Ideally  those 
bodies will leverage on the current structure of NCOs within the EURES network and 
re-use  (some  of)  their  staff.  However,  additional  staff  with  expertise  on  migration 
processes may be included given the international context of the Talent Pool. Activities 
of  the  NCPs  will  be  related  to  the  management  of  the  IT  platform  but  also  to  the 
provision of information, personalised support to employers and/or TCNs and quality 
assurance checks on employers and vacancies. At the onset of the initiative, this team 
may provide those basic activities to facilitate and ensure the smooth implementation 
of the initiative. However, those services may be expanded at a later stage to cater for 
additional services. 

NCPs entail 3 FTEs per Member States under the voluntary scenario and 4 under the 
mandatory, for a total of 33-60 FTEs per 11-20 Member States and 108 FTEs per 27. 
The budget is instead to be around EUR 730 000 per NCP under the voluntary scenario 
and  EUR  1  000  000  under  the  mandatory  one.  As  under  PO1,  those  figures  were 
estimated  based  on  the  number  of  NCOs  staff  and  budget  under  the  EURES 
network386 adjusted by the number of potentially interested jobseekers and expected 
vacancies  under  PO2,  relative  to  the  same  figures  within  EURES.  As  activities 
foreseen for NCPs will be relatively more similar to those of NCOs, compared to those 
under  PO1,  no  specific  adjustment  was  made  on  the  estimates,  as  it  was  instead 
necessary for PO1 estimations.  

Liaison Offices in third countries. Several Member States are currently developing 
Talent Partnerships with Egypt, Morocco, Tunisia, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Nigeria, and 
Senegal.  The  number  of  Talent  Partnerships  is  likely  to  increase,  so  estimations 
assume  around  10  Talent  Partnerships  based  on  inputs  provided  by  the  EU 
Commission.  Not  all  Member  States  participate  in  each  Talent  Partnership;  rather, 
participation ranges from 1 to 6 Member States per Talent Partnership. Based on EU 
Commission  inputs,  Liaison  Offices  foresee  that  Member  States  relocate  around  2 
people from their staff to third countries participating in Talent Partnerships. However, 
some Member States (especially at the beginning) may choose to use staff members 

384 This has been estimated by considering the ELA Single Programming Document 2023 – 2025 and inputs from interviews with 
ELA and the European Commission conducted by the contractor. 
385 Inputs from the EU Commission. 
386 Estimates on costs on the EURES structure come from the ad-hoc survey to NCOs conducted by the contractor, triangulated 
with the ex-post EURES evaluation. 

 
 
 
that  are  already  posted  in  those  countries  (lowering  the  costs  as  no  relocation  is 
needed). 

IT platform and other IT-related costs387 

The estimated cost breakdown for the baseline of the proposed initiatives over a 10-
year period, excluding alternative measures, is as follows: development costs ranging 
from approximately €8.8 million to €11.5 million depending on the number of Member 
States participating in the initiative, operation (maintenance) costs ranging from €9.3 
million to €12 million, and infrastructure costs ranging from €2.7 million to €3.6 million. 
Implementing  additional features  would  cost  approximately €6.6 million.  In  total, the 
estimated  costs  could  vary  from  €27.4  million  to  €33.7  million.  For  more  detailed 
information and  a  comprehensive  understanding, please  refer to  Appendix 5 and  6, 
and the table below presents the cost breakdown.

387 IT costs related to the development and maintenance of the IT platform for the EU Talent Pool are closely interconnected with 
other cost categories, particularly those associated with the user journey. Due to this strong interlinkage, we consolidated all costs 
that arise from IT-related activities and include them in this section. Thus, this section includes IT-costs related to the IT platform 
per se, but also costs stemming from IT-related activities in other categories of costs (e.g. governance, user journey). 

 
 
 
 
Total over ten 
years 
(11 – 20 - 30 
Member States) 

Y1-Y2 
(11 – 20 - 30 
Member States) 

Y3 
(11 – 20 - 30 
Member States) 

Y4 
(11 – 20 - 30 
Member States) 

Y5 
(11 – 20 - 30 
Member States) 

Y6 
(11 – 20 - 30 
Member States) 

Y7 
(11 – 20 - 30 
Member States) 

Y8 
(11 – 20 - 30 
Member States) 

Y9 
(11 – 20 - 30 
Member States) 

Y10 
(11 – 20 - 30 
Member States) 

Table 60: IT-costs for PO2 

€8,847,377 - 
€10,350,602 - 
€11,519,777 
€174,999 

€8,847,377 - 
€10,350,602 - 
€11,519,777 
€174,999 

€224,999 

€224,999 

€224,999 

€224,999 

€599,999 

€599,999 

€449,999 

€449,999 

€4,349,984 

€4,349,984 

€149,998 

€149,998 

PO 2  

Baseline 
Develo
pment 

EUROP
ASS 
adaptati
on and 
integrati
on 
Prescre
ening 
tool 
creation 
TCN 
CVs' DB 
creation 
EURES 
job 
vacanci
es' DB 
adaptati
on and 
integrati
on 
EURES 
search/
matchin
g 
engine 
adaptati
on and 
integrati
on 
Core 
system 
Integrati
on of 
EU 
Talent 
Platform 
with 
other 
systems 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Member 
States 
integrati
on 
Operati
ons 
(mainte
nance)  
Contract
or 
operatio
ns for 
baseline  
Member 
States 
integrati
on 
operatio
ns 
Infrastr
ucture 

Additio
nal 
feature
s 
implem
entatio
n388 
Total 
Cost 
for EU 
Talent 
Pool 

€2,672,400 - 
€4,175,625 - 
€5,344,800 

€9,268,326 - 
€10,834,663 - 
€12,052,926 

€2,672,400 - 
€4,175,625 - 
€5,344,800 

€0 

€1,324,047 - 
€1,547,809 - 
€1,721,847 

€1,324,047 - 
€1,547,809 - 
€1,721,847 

€1,103,372 - 
€1,289,841 - 
€1,434,872 

€1,103,372 - 
€1,289,841 - 
€1,434,872 

€1,103,372 - 
€1,289,841 - 
€1,434,872 

€1,103,372 - 
€1,289,841 - 
€1,434,872 

€1,103,372 - 
€1,289,841 - 
€1,434,872 

€1,103,372 - 
€1,289,841 - 
€1,434,872 

€6,483,726 

€0 

€926,247 

€926,247 

€771,872 

€771,872 

€771,872 

€771,872 

€771,872 

€771,872 

€2,784,600 - 
€4,350,938 - 
€5,569,200 

€0 

€397,800 - 
€621,563 - 
€795,600 

€397,800 - 
€621,563 - 
€795,600 

€397,800 - 
€621,563 - 
€663,000 

€331,500 - 
€517,969 - 
€663,000 

€331,500 - 
€517,969 - 
€663,000 

€331,500 - 
€517,969 - 
€663,000 

€331,500 - 
€517,969 - 
€663,000 

€331,500 - 
€517,969 - 
€663,000 

€2,735,394 - 
€3,147,812 - 
€3,555,836 
€6,578,000 

€547,079 - 
€629,562 - 
€711,167 
€0 

€273,539 - 
€314,781 - 
€355,584 
€1,644,500 

€273,539 - 
€314,781 - 
€355,584 
€1,644,500 

€273,539 - 
€314,781 - 
€355,584 
€548,167 

€273,539 - 
€314,781 - 
€355,584 
€548,167 

€273,539 - 
€314,781 - 
€355,584 
€548,167 

€273,539 - 
€314,781 - 
€355,584 
€548,167 

€273,539 - 
€314,781 - 
€355,584 
€548,167 

€273,539 - 
€314,781 - 
€355,584 
€548,167 

€27,429,097- 
€30,911,078 - 
€33,706,539 

€9,394,456 - 
€10,980,164 - 
€12,230,944 

€3,242,086- 
€3,507,090 - 
€3,721,930 

€3,242,086- 
€3,507,090 - 
€3,721,930 

€1,925,078- 
€2,152,789 -  
€2,338,622 

€1,925,078- 
€2,152,789 -  
€2,338,622 

€1,925,078- 
€2,152,789 -  
€2,338,622 

€1,925,078- 
€2,152,789 -  
€2,338,622 

€1,925,078- 
€2,152,789 -  
€2,338,622 

€1,925,078- 
€2,152,789 -  
€2,338,622 

Source: elaboration of the contractor (2023) 

388 These activities would typically involve a total of 11.5 full-time equivalents (FTEs) across various roles. The allocation includes 2.0 FTEs for Business Analysis, 1.0 FTE for project management, 
2.5 FTEs for development, 0.5 FTE for quality assurance, 3.5 FTEs for technical experts, and 2.0 FTEs for testing. 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
User journey 

The user journey starts with the registration of profiles by TCNs and employers and 
ends with the search and matching of the users admitted to the platform. As several 
features of the user journey have IT-related-costs that have already been estimated 
under  the  IT  platform  section,  the  focus  here  is  on  non-IT  related  costs.  These  are 
listed  in  the  table  below.  However,  none  of  the  steps  has  non-IT-related  costs 
significant enough to require an assessment. 

Table 61: Non-IT costs associated with the user journey for PO2 

Costs 

Type of cost 

Assumptions and other comments 

Registration of profiles 

Insignificant associated non-IT costs. 
IT-related costs and assumption described under IT platform. 

Pre-screening of TCNs 

No associated non-IT costs. 
IT- related costs and assumptions described under IT platform 

Quality assurance for employers 

Insignificant associated non-IT costs. 

Validation of candidates’ profiles 

Costs  association  to  optional  validation  are  borne  by  employers,  as  per  current  practice,  and  thus  do  not 
represent incremental costs. 

Search and matching 

IT-related costs and assumptions described under IT platform. 

Total non-IT costs 
n/a 

Source: elaboration of the contractor (2023) 

Registration of profiles. TCNs are required to fill in their profile manually. The time 
needed  can  vary  depending  on  a  number  of  factors  (e.g.  educational  level  of  the 
jobseeker,  work  experience).  In  general,  the  average  estimated  time  to  fill  in  a 
EUROPASS profile is around 1-3 hours.389 Similarly, NCPs will be required to register 
and create the job vacancies for employers. The time that will be required is generally 
assumed to be around half a day for online procedures. Interoperability with national 
and  EU  level  platforms  may  reduce  this  time  (see  section  IT  platform).  As  those 
estimated costs are small and one-off for employers and TCNs jobseekers, they have 
not been included in the table above, as they do not entail significant financial impact. 

Pre-screening of TCNs. The pre-screening of TCNs has an impact on the number of 
potential  CVs  ultimately  available  in  the  Talent  Pool.  The  pre-screening  on  the 
completion  of  profiles  and  the  compliance  with  the  sectors/occupations  of  strategic 
relevance reduces the potential labour supply and thus has an impact on the structure 
of the costs of the governance calculated above and cost-savings implications that will 
be described further down. Additionally, on the IT-side, pre-screening entails IT costs 
that have been elaborated above (see section on IT platform). 

389 Inputs from consultation activities conducted in the context of this study and internal expertise based on related projects. 

 
 
 
Quality assurance for employers. Before vacancies are published in the EU Talent 
Pool, NCPs are required to conduct “quality checks” on the legitimacy of the employer 
and an assessment on the vacancy. PO2 foresees basic checks on the line of those 
currently  conducted  by  national  PES  in  the  context  of  EURES.  Checks  done  on 
employers  vary  from  Member  State  to  Member  State.  However,  some  of  the  main 
elements checked include:390 

•  The national registration number and / or VAT number; 

•  The activity / business sector; 

•  The validity of email address(es); 

•  The  website  /  web  presence  and/or  content  (e.g.  bad  quality  text  and 

design/overall appearance); 

•  The connection between the employer/manager and the company; 

In general, vacancies are scanned through to check for the presence of discriminatory 
wording  or  for  general  compliance  with  national  labour  laws  regulations  (mainly  in 
terms of working hours and remuneration). In addition, national EURES members may 
leverage on the EURES network to request more information about the employer and 
the vacancy by contacting NCOs or EURES advisers of the employer’s Member State 
and requesting clarifications or further verification checks.  A similar support network 
and collaboration may be envisaged under the EU Talent Pool to streamline practices 
and facilitate checking. 

Both verifications, of the employer and of the vacancy do not usually take a significant 
amount of time, averaging around half a day. In exceptional cases where follow-ups 
and further verification are needed, the process can take up to around 3 weeks.391 As 
there are no significant monetary costs associated with quality checks on employers 
and vacancies and the standard duration of the process is relatively small, those have 
not been included in the calculation of the costs.  

PO2  also  foresees  the  signing  of  a  charter  on  fair  recruitment  by  employers.  The 
charter will establish a set of principles and guidelines to ensure ethical and transparent 
recruitment  practices  and  it  will  draw  upon  existing  instruments,  such  as  the 
International  Labour  Organisation  (ILO)  initiative  on  fair  recruitment  and  World 
Employment Confederation (WEC) Code of Conduct. 392  The creation and signature 
of  the  charter  will  not  require  significant  time  and  costs  and  therefore  no  further 
assessment is provided.  

Validation  of  candidates’  profiles.  PO2  includes  the  possibility  to  have  post-
admission validation under national pathways if requested by TCNs and employers. 
Costs  related  to  validation  procedures  are  paid  by  employers  as  per  international 
standards  on  fair  recruitment.  Therefore,  no  additional  incremental  cost  is  foreseen 

390 Consultation with European Labour Authorities (ELA) conducted in the context of this study. 
391 Inputs from consultation activities with EURES NCOs conducted in the context of this study. 
392 The ILO Fair Recruitment Initiative (FRI) was launched in 2014 in the context of the ILO Director General’s calll for a Fair 
Migration  Agenda.  The  first  phase  of  implmenetation  run  through  2014-2019  and  included  the  development  of  additional 
knowledge, tools and guidance on those topics. The second phase (2021-2025) will continue to be based on international labour 
standards (ILS), global guidance and social dialogue. The World Employment Confederation (WEC) Code of Conduct includes 
principles that ethical, quality and professional private employment services should consider when offering their services. 

information 

More 
https://wecglobal.org/world-employment-confederation-global/code-of-conduct-
2/#:~:text=Such%20principles%20include%20a%20ban,their%20use%20of%20Artificial%20Intelligence.  

found  here :  https://www.ilo.org/global/topics/fair-recruitment/fri/lang--en/index.htm  and 

can  be 

 
 
 
under this measure. However, one alternative that could be considered would be for 
Member  States  to  finance  (part  of)  the  validation  procedures  requested  under  the 
Talent Pool to foster and support the initiative.  

The average cost associated with validation procedures amounts to an average of EUR 
140 per application.393 This figure has been estimated based on information provided 
by national representatives of the National Academic Recognition Information Centres 
(NARIC) network and their websites. NARIC is a consortium of national organisations 
that  provides  information  and  expertise  on  the  recognition  of  foreign  qualifications. 
Besides  their  advisory  role,  several  NARIC  representatives  are  also  involved  in  the 
evaluation of foreign qualifications. They assess and evaluate the level, content and 
comparability  of  foreign  qualifications  with  respect  to  the  national  education  system 
and provide a comparability statement to certify equivalence.  

Post-admission optional validation would result in an upper-bound cost of around EUR 
89 000 000 and EUR 132 000 000 for the voluntary (11 Member States) and mandatory 
scenarios,  accordingly.  Those  figures  represent  the  worst-case  scenario  (i.e.  all 
expected  profiles  admitted  to  the  EU  Talent  Pool  will  request  validation  of  their 
qualifications).  Supporting  employers  by  paying  a  share  of  this  cost  could  have  a 
beneficial effect on the uptake of this initiative. 

The  optional  approach  of  this  measure  was  preferred  to  the  mandatory  one  for  a 
number of reasons. Firstly, it may be more attractive to both multinational companies 
and SMEs, with the latter expressing greater interest. While multinationals often have 
the skills and resources in-house (including through branches and subsidiaries in third 
countries) to conduct validation procedures, SMEs are instead more likely to welcome 
the opportunity to engage in validation measures.394 Furthermore, validation is also not 
always  considered  necessary  by  employers.  Thus,  implementing  a  mandatory 
validation process might create bottlenecks rather than facilitate recruitment. Allowing 
employers to decide whether they require validation of specific profiles could lead to a 
more  efficient  and  effective  process.  Lastly,  the  mandatory  approach  could  also 
discourage TCNs jobseekers from using the Talent Pool initiative if they perceive the 
registration process as cumbersome and time-consuming (validation procedures are 
estimated to take on average around one month).  

When TCNs were asked395 about features related to validation procedures in the Talent 
Pool (such as external verification of documents for employer trust, the requirement to 
upload evidence of qualifications and skills during profile creation, and self-declaration 
of  personal  information),  these  features  were  considered  relatively  less  important 
compared  to  other  aspects  like  job  matching,  employer  verification  and  information 
services. Approximately 44-45% of TCNs responded that features related to validation 
procedures would somewhat increase their likelihood of using the Talent Pool, while 
around 12-15% responded that it would somewhat decrease it. On the other hand, for 
other features (e.g., job matching, employer verification, and support and information 
services)  around  55%  of  respondents  indicated  that  those  would  increase  their 
likelihood of using the Talent Pool, while around 7% expressed that it would somewhat 
decrease their likelihood. 

393 This figure comes from consultation activities with national representatives of the NARIC network, conducted in the context of 
this study. Information missing was complemented by desk research via the ENIC-NARIC website. 
394 Inputs from recruitment agencies consulted in the context of this study.  
395 This survey was conducted by the contractor in the context of this study targeting TCNs in third countries. More information on 
consultation activities can be found in the separate Stakeholder Consultation Report. 

 
 
 
Search  and  matching.  Costs  and  assumptions  related  to  searching  and  matching 
have been elaborated under IT-platform section.  

Additional components 

Additional  components  foreseen  for  the  EU  Talent  Pool  under  PO2  include  the 
provision of information, targeted support, transparency and comparability tools and 
facilitation  measures.  As  mentioned  above,  some  of  these  features  entail  IT-related 
costs, which have already been estimated under the section on IT platform. Therefore, 
this section focuses  on  non-IT  costs,  which are  summarised  in  the  table  below  and 
explained further down.

 
 
Table 62: Non-IT costs of additional components associated with PO2 

Type of cost  Assumptions and other comments 

Recurrent for 
EU 
Commission 

Estimates  come 
the 
scenario of expanding the immigration portal 
to include recognition procedures. 

from  PO1A  under 

Costs 
Information provision 
12 FTEs (2 Officials and 10 Contract Agents) 
EUR 1 057 000 total budget for staff expenses 

Targeted support 
Voluntary  
EUR  218  500  out  of  the  total  budget  of  NCP 
presented  in  governance  section,  and  already 
included in the estimated budget for NCPs. 

for 

Recurrent 
cost 
national 
public 
authorities 

Mandatory 
EUR  300  000  out  of  the  total  budget  of  NCP 
presented  in  governance  section  and  already 
included in the estimated budget for NCPs. 
Transparency and comparability tools397 
No associated non-IT costs. 
IT-related costs and assumptions described under IT platform 
Facilitation measures398 
EUR  60  extra  per  application  for  fast-track 
recognition procedures. 
EUR  170  extra  per  application  for  fast-track 
immigration procedures. 

(Optional) 
Recurrent 
cost 
national 
public 
authorities 

for 

Voluntary 
EUR  16  000  000  –  17  000  000  per  11-20 
Member  States 
recognition 
procedures, and 
EUR  46  000  000  –  48  000  000  per  11-20 
Member  States 
immigration 
procedures. 

fast-track 

fast-track 

for 

for 

Assuming around 30% of the total budget of 
NCPs is spent on targeted support.396 

Estimations come from the difference in costs 
between 
fast-track 
procedures.399 

standard 

and 

Mandatory 
EUR 17 600 000 per 27 Member States for fast-
track recognition procedures, and 
EUR 50 000 000 per 27 Member states for fast-
track immigration procedures. 
Total costs 
Voluntary 
- For EU Commission: EUR 1 057 000 (recurrent) 
- For all 11-20 Member States national public authorities: EUR 62 300 000 – 65 000 000 (recurrent)  
Mandatory 
- For EU Commission: EUR 1 057 000 (recurrent) 
- For 27 Member States national public authorities: EUR 67 600 000 (recurrent)  

Source: elaboration of the contractor (2023) 

Information provision. Information provision for PO2 foresees two alternatives: 

a)  The inclusion of information on immigration and recognition procedures and working 

and living conditions directly in the EU Talent Pool, or 

b)  The  integration  of  the  revamped  and  upgraded  version  of  the  Immigration  Portal  as 
under PO1A (entailing that the Immigration Portal will disappear), and the inclusion of 

396 The share of 30% comes from consultation activities with EURES NCOs conducted in the context of this study, triangulated 
with  the  EURES  ex-post  evaluation.  European  Commission  (2021).  Study  supporting  the  ex-post  EURES  evaluation  and  the 
second biennial EURES report, Contract VC/2019/0854. 
397  E.g.,  EU  Skills  Profile  Tool  for  TCNs,  the  Europass  Platform  including  the  European  Digital  Credentials  for  Learning, 
comparison  between  the  European  Qualifications  Framework  and  Quality  Frameworks  from  third  countries,  the  European 
multilingual Classification of Skills Competences, Occupations and Qualifications (ESCO). 

398 E.g., Skipping the Labour Market Test (LMT), fast-track procedures when it comes to recognition and immigration processes. 

399 Estimates on the total costs (fees) and duration related to immigration and recognition procedures come from desk research 
and consultation with national NARIC representatives conducted in the context of this study. 

 
 
 
 
 
 
additional information on recognition procedures and working and living conditions in 
the EU Talent Pool. 

In both cases, the non-IT costs associated in terms of resources need to collect and 
provide  information  are  the  same  and  can  be  retrieved  from  the  estimations  under 
PO1A.  This  is  because  in  both  cases  the  type  and  amount  of  information  to  be 
gathered would be the same, whether under the Talent Pool directly (point a) or under 
the Immigration Portal (point b). Therefore, the total cost associated with this measure 
amounts to around EUR 1 057 000 per year. It is reasonable to assume similar costs 
with PO1A also considering that a similar process will be followed; the involvement of 
NCPs to gather information and a similar manual process. 

While accounting costs are the same, integrating the EU Immigration Portal into the 
EU  Talent  Pool  (point  b)  may  have  qualitative  implications.  In  this  case,  the  EU 
Immigration  Portal  would  cease  to  exist  as  a  separate  platform,  with  all  relevant 
information  solely  accessible  to  stakeholders  having  access  to  the  EU  Talent  Pool. 
This means that the availability of the information would be limited to those utilising the 
Talent  Pool,  potentially  affecting  stakeholders  who  were  previously  accessing 
information directly through the EU Immigration Portal.400 

Targeted support. Targeted and personalised support will be provided by NCPs at 
various stages of the user journey and in particular: 

•  To employers during the registration phase 

•  To employers and TCNs during the search and matching phase 

•  To  employers  and  TCNs  when  it  comes  to  information  on  recruitment, 
immigration  procedures,  family  reunification,  validation  and/or  recognition  of 
qualifications and skills obtained in third countries, living and working conditions 
in EU Member States 

The  costs  associated  with  the  targeted  support  have  already  been  included  in  the 
estimated  budget  for  NCPs  (under  the  governance  section).  Based  on  information 
provided by the EURES NCOs, information and guidance for workers and employers 
(including  information  on  living  conditions  in  EURES  countries)  account  for  around 
30% of the total NCO budget.401 

Transparency  and  comparability  tools.  The  inclusion  of  transparency  and 
comparability tools will generate IT costs, which have been included in the IT platform 
section above. Additionally, those tools will also result in cost savings that have been 
further elaborated below.  

Facilitation  measures.  Facilitation  measures  under  PO2  foresee  the  possibility  for 
Member States to waive the labour market test or to use fast-track immigration and 
recognition procedures.402 These will result in time-savings which are included in the 
cost-savings  section  described  below.  However,  fast  track  procedures  entail  also 

400 Around 700 000 unique users are estimated to use the EU Immigration Portal every year. This figure comes from inputs from 
Commission Services. 
401 Estimates come from consultation activities with EURES NCOs conducted in the context of this study, triangulated with the 
EURES  ex-post  EURES  evaluation.  European  Commission  (2021).  Study  supporting  the  ex-post  EURES  evaluation  and  the 
second biennial EURES report, Contract VC/2019/0854. 
402 In both cases, estimations of fast-track procedures were taken from current practices in Member States that implement them. 
Although it may slightly differ based on the context, a fast-track procedure is a streamlined and expedited process that can involve 
reduced  processing  times,  simplified  documentation  requirements  and  fewer  bureaucratic  steps  compared  to  the  standard 
procedures. Fast-track processes generally entail higher costs to cater for these benefits. 

 
 
 
higher monetary costs. It is estimated that the difference in fees between a normal and 
a  fast-track  procedure  is  of  around  EUR  60  per  application  for  recognition 
procedures403  and  EUR  170  per  application  for  immigration  procedures.404  We 
consider  that  the  fees  paid  to  public  authorities  for  the  recognition/validation  of 
qualifications and for visas and work permits correspond to the cost of the time spent 
by public authorities on these procedures, provided that the fees charged by them do 
not exceed the recovery costs of providing these services. In other words, we assume 
that public authorities do not derive any benefit from these services. In this sense, the 
extra fees can be considered as additional costs on public authorities, accounting to a 
total of EUR 62 300 000 – 65 000 000 per 11-20 Member States and EUR 67 700 000 
per 27 Member States when considering the expected flows of migrants brought about 
by the voluntary and mandatory alternatives under PO2. 

6.4.3.2. 

Cost savings associated with PO2 

The implementation of PO2 can lead to a number of benefits for both employers and 
TCNs. Cost-savings should be assessed against a baseline. The latter is given by the 
current costs and length of a standard international recruitment process. Indeed, each 
step in the recruitment process entails some costs for employers. These costs depend 
on a number of factors, including different national contexts (e.g. national labour laws), 
the  sectors/occupations  involved  (e.g.  whether  they  are  in  shortage,  if  they  are 
regulated  or non-regulated  professions),  type  of  TCN  (e.g.  seasonal  worker,  highly-
qualified worker, researcher), the worker’s level of education, the worker’s country of 
origin and whether bilateral partnerships exist with the EU Member State, the size of 
the hiring firm (e.g. SMEs, multinational). Given the large number of variables that can 
affect cost estimates, we considered the recruitment process for an average employed 
worker.405  

Employment- and immigration-related steps 

The table below gives an overview of the quantifiable cost-savings (monetary and in 
terms of time) associated with the steps of the recruitment process that are relevant in 
the context of the PO2, for both employers and TCNs.  

The average time needed for international recruitment ranges between 2-3 months for 
employers and TCNs. To this, additional 2-3 months should be added for immigration 
procedures (i.e. LMT and obtaining and visa/work permit), bringing the total duration 
of international recruitment to around 4-6 months on average.406 The costs associated 
with international recruitment are normally borne by employers.407 The average cost to 
employers of recruiting a third country national can be between EUR 1 500 and EUR 
2 500 per candidate (excluding relocation costs).408 This cost can rise to EUR 8 500-

403 Information on fast-track procedures for recognition of qualifications is scant. To estimate the costs and duration of a potential 
fast track procedure we considered cases of urgency. In Italy for instance, urgent applications follow a faster process (normally 1 
month faster than the normal procedure) and imply higher costs (around EUR 100 more than for a normal procedure). 
404 Fast-track for immigration procedures is in place in a number of Member States. To estimate the difference in costs and duration 
between a fast track and a normal procedure we considered Finland, Germany, Latvia and Lithuania. The average cost for a 
normal procedure in those countries is of around EUR 200 for employers and average duration is of around 2.5 months. With fast-
track, the costs increase to approximately EUR 370 (around EUR 170 extra) and average duration drops to around 1 month. 
405 More details and context on the steps needed to recruit third country nationals can be found in the Technical Annexes, no. 7. 
406 Inputs from recruitment agencies and employers consulted in the context of this study. 
407 International Labour Organisation (ILO), Employment Service Convention, 1948 (No. 88). International Labour Organisation 
(ILO), Private Employment Agencies Conventions, 1997 (No. 181). International Labour Organisation (ILO), General principles 
and operational guidelines for fair recruitment and definition of recruitment fees and related costs, 2019.  
408 Inputs from recruitment agencies and employers consulted in the context of this study. 

 
 
 
10 000 when adding services of international recruitment agencies.409 However, these 
represent very specific cases (e.g. highly specialised or technical skills needed, high 
level positions) and have therefore not been included in the calculation of cost-savings.  

Table 63: Cost-savings associated with each step of the international recruitment process for EU 
employers and TCNs 

Steps 

Current costs 

Monetary 

Time 

Relevant 
measure(s) of 
PO2 

Cost-savings 

Employers 

Conducting labour 
market tests 

n/a 

Publishing 
the 
vacancy via social 
job 
media  and 
boards 

EUR 
400 
vacancy410 

150-
per 

Recognition 
skills 
qualifications 

of 
and 

n/a 

Obtaining 
visa/permits 

n/a 

3-4  weeks 
average 
vacancy 

on 
per 

Possibility 
to  skip 
the  LMT  as  part  of 
facilitation 
measures 

days 

30 
vacancy 

per 

IT 
platform 
publish vacancies 

to 

3-4  weeks  when  deciding  to 
skip  LMT,  otherwise  no 
impact. 

At  most,  EUR  150-400  (in 
case  the  Talent  Pool  fully 
replaces those means) 

Normal  procedure: 
52 
per 
days 
application 
Fast 
track 
procedure: 26 days 
per application 

Normal 
procedures: 
weeks411 
Fast 
procedures: 
weeks 

9 

track 
3 

to 
Possibility 
activate 
fast-track 
procedures  as  part 
of 
facilitation 
measures 

to 
Possibility 
activate  fast  track 
procedures  as  part 
of 
facilitation 
measures 

26  days 
procedures per application 

recognition 

for 

for 
6  weeks 
procedures per application 

immigration 

TCNs 

Compiling 
information 
documents 

Obtaining 
visa/permits 

As for employers 

and 

As for employers 

Total cost savings 
- For employers: EUR 150-400 and 2-3 months per vacancy (resulting in EUR 74 500 000 – 77 700 000 total 
savings for all estimated vacancies under the voluntary scenario and in EUR 80 850 000 under the mandatory 
scenario)412 

409 E.g., Identifying CVs, arranging interviews, dealing with overall administration, negotiating the offer. 
410 Average cost of job boards and social media is tricky to estimate. The cost of publishing a job on recruitment platforms can 
vary depending on the platform and the specific features and options chosen. Most platforms offer the possibility to publish the 
job post for free, while allowing employers to pay a fee for broader visibility or additional promotional features. Fees are normally 
on a pay-per-click basis, meaning that employers pay each time a job seeker clicks on their job post. A daily budget is normally 
set by the employer, after which the platform will stop displaying the listing. This implies that costs vary depending on wide range 
of variables including e.g. the size and turnover of the company, the level of the position being advertised, the industry in which 
the company operates in, the general recruitment strategy of the employer. However, assuming a daily budget of EUR 5-13, and 
considering that job advertisements typically stay active for 30 days, the total estimated cost ranges between EUR 150-400 per 
vacancy. The assumption of a EUR 5-13 daily budget will result in around 115 clicks (as the average cost per click is around EUR 
1.3) after 30 days. Assuming that only half of those will actually submit the application, a receipt of 50-60 CVs is in line with inputs 
provided by recruitment agencies and employers during consultation activities. For further context, please refer to the Technical 
Annexes, no. 7. 
411 Even if some recruitment agencies, consulted in the context of this study, indicated longer duration of the process (between 4-
5 months). 
412 Total vacancies filled were proxied by the expected inflow of migrants under each policy option, assuming that one vacancy 
would fill one position. 

 
 
 
Steps 

Current costs 

Monetary 

Time 

Relevant 
measure(s) of 
PO2 

Cost-savings 

- For TCNs jobseekers: 2-3 months per application 

Source: elaboration of the contractor (2023) 

Note: Only steps of international recruitment where the Talent Pool will have an impact have been included. A full overview is 
presented in Appendix 8. 

In terms of accounting costs, employers could save up to EUR 150-400 per vacancy, 
reducing the  cost  of  recruiting  international workers from  an  upper-bound of  EUR 2 
500 to around EUR 2 100-2 350 per vacancy, by lowering costs associated with the 
publishing of vacancies. This would result in around EUR 74 500 000 – 77 700 000 
total savings across EU employers under  PO2 with a voluntary scope, and  EUR 80 
850 000 under PO2 with a mandatory scope.413   

Qualitative benefits. Besides quantifiable cost-savings, the measures associated with 
PO2  can  also  result  in  a  number of  qualitative  benefits.  Those  are  described  in  the 
table  below.  While  difficult  to  quantify,  those  qualitative  benefit  can  also  result  in 
additional savings for employers and TCNs. 

Table 64: Qualitative benefits associated with PO2 measures 

Qualitative benefits 

The  search  and  match  tool  will  significantly  reduce  the  time  required  to  find  potential 
candidates by allowing employers to search based on specific  criteria and being matched 
accordingly. According to consultation activities, this feature will be especially beneficial for 
SMEs  as  they  often  lack  resources  to  go  through  a  recruitment  process  involving  a  high 
number  of  applicants.414  In  addition,  personalised  support  will  be  available  to  employers 
during the matching process, further reducing time and resources needed. 
Standardised  use  of  EUROPASS  format  by  candidates  will  streamline  the  information 
presented in CVs, making it easier for employers to scan relevant profiles and identify skills, 
thereby saving time. Pre-screening for profile completeness and for profiles relevant to the 
sectors/occupations  of  strategic  importance  will  reduce  the  time  needed  for  employers  to 
screen applications. 
The integration of information on recognition procedures and the use of transparency tools 
and  integration  of  existing  tools  will  improve  the  understanding  of  existing  skills  and 
qualifications.  This  is  particularly  advantageous  for  SMEs,  which  may  not  have  in-house 
departments,  or  local  recruitment  teams  in  the  sourcing  country,  to  assess  and  verify 
credentials, preventing the inclusion of fake or fraudulent degrees and information.415   
Updated and clear information provision on immigration processes will save employers time 
otherwise spent searching for relevant details online or seeking assistance from third-party 
services. 

TCNs will have access to a single platform that provides comprehensive job opportunities in 
EU  Member  States,  significantly  reducing  the  time  required  for  job  searching.  Quality 
assurance  procedures  for  employers  and  vacancies  will  ensure  that  the  available 
opportunities  adhere  to  fair  and  ethical  recruitment standards,  preventing  exploitation  and 
unfair  working  conditions.  Quality  assurance,  pre-screening,  support  from  NCPs  and 
transparency tools will also ensure that the skills and qualifications owned by the jobseeker 
are correctly matched with those offered in the job ad.  
The  EU  Talent  Pool  will  provide  information  and  support  to  TCNs  regarding  the  different 
procedures in place in Member States, reducing the time needed to retrieve this information 
independently. 

Steps 
Employers 
Publishing  the 
vacancy 
and 
identifying 
candidates 

Screening 
candidates 

Validating  and 
recognition  of 
skills 
and 
qualifications 

Obtaining 
visa/permits 

TCNs 
Finding 
opportunities 

/ 

Recognition 
validation 
procedures and 
obtaining 
visa/permits 

413 Total vacancies filled were proxied by the expected inflow of migrants under each policy option, assuming that one vacancy 
would fill one position. 
414 Inputs come from consultation activities with recruitment agencies and employers conducted in the context of this study.  
415 Inputs come from consultation activities with recruitment agencies and employers conducted in the context of this study. 

 
 
 
 
Steps 
Completing 
post-arrival 
process 

Qualitative benefits 
Information provision on work and living conditions in EU Member States, coupled with the 
support provided by NCPs, will facilitate the integration of TCNs into the local labour market 
and society. Moreover, specific support will be available to ensure the integration and well-
being of the migrant worker’s family. 

Source: elaboration of the contractor (2023) 

Opportunity costs 

The EU Talent Pool can lead to significant time savings across the various steps of the 
recruitment process. Those time savings can stem from the provision of information 
and  personalised  support  offered  that  can  speed  up  the  process  by  centralising 
information,  matching  and  searching  tools  that  can  fasten  the  identification  and 
selection of potentially suitable candidates and the inclusion of facilitation procedures 
(such  as  the  possibility  to  skip  the  labour  market  test  or  go  through  fast-track 
recognition and immigration procedures) that further cut down time needed to recruit 
internationally. All of the above-considered elements are estimating to reduce the total 
time needed for international recruitment by around 2-3 months.416 

While accounting cost-savings may be limited, the EU Talent Pool could have relatively 
stronger  financial  impact  in  terms  of  opportunity  costs.  As  mentioned  above,  the 
standard international recruitment process typically takes around 6 months. However, 
the process via the Talent Pool could cut down time to 3.5 months.417 In this context, 
opportunity costs can be calculated for TCNs (in terms of lost wages) and employers 
(in terms of lost revenue) when conducting international recruitment with and without 
the use of the Talent Pool. The difference between the two will give the cost-savings 
associated with using the Talent Pool. 

TCNs jobseekers. For TCNs, the average wage in Europe is estimated to be around 
EUR  1  500  per  month.418  Under  the  standard  recruitment  process,  TCNs  would 
experience a loss in wages of approximately EUR 9 000 during the 6-month period. In 
contract,  by  using  the  Talent  Pool  and  opting  for  facilitation  procedures,  the  loss  in 
wages  would  decrease  to  around 5 250  EUR.  The  different  of  EUR 3 750  per TCN 
represented the cost-savings associated with using the Talent Pool instead of standard 
procedures.  Considering  that  around  271  000  –  282  500  successful  matches  are 
expected under this option in the voluntary scenario, the maximum total gain in wages 
(assuming that TCNs would go through the facilitated procedures) would reach around 
EUR 1 044 065 000 – 1 088 370 000. Under the mandatory scenario (with a potential 
inflow of migrants of around 294 000), the total wage gain amounts to EUR 1 132 676 
000. 

Employers.  The  same  reasoning  can  be  applied  to  EU  employers  in  terms  of  lost 
revenue.  To  estimate  the  average  revenue  per  worker  for  employers,  we  take  the 
average wage and multiply it by three, following the standard approaches to measuring 
the cost of a vacancy.419 The total revenue loss for international recruitment without 
the Talent Pool is around EUR 28 000 per employer. However, when using the Talent 

416 While some of the aspects that can cut down time are more qualitative and harder to quantifity (e.g., information provision and 
personalised support), the inclusion of facilitation measures are estimated to reduce the total time needed by 2-3 months (see 
Table). It can be assumed that contributions of the qualitative elements are included within the estimation of a reduction of 2-3 
months, also considering that recruitment steps are not necessarily sequential but rather done in parallel.   

417 The time needed to recruit could be even smaller if considering qualitative benefits, however the latter cannot be quantified. 
418 Eurostat, survey of income and living conditions (SILC), Median equivalised net income in purchasing power parity, customised 
extraction. 
419 
DJS, 
https://drjohnsullivan.com/uncategorized/cost-of-vacancy-formulas-for-recruiting-and-retention-managers/ 

Retention  Managers, 

Recruiting 

Formular 

available 

Vacancy 

Cost 

and 

for 

at: 

of 

 
 
 
Pool,  this amount  is reduced  to  around  EUR 16  000,  resulting  in a  turnover gain  of 
EUR 11 500 per employer. Considering the expected number of vacancies that will be 
filled, the total revenue gain from PO2 is of around EUR 3 132 195 000 – 3 265 111 
000 across all employers under the voluntary scenario. Under the mandatory scenario, 
the figure amounts to EUR 3 548 280 000. 

 
 
Sub-category  Type of cost 

Table 65: Summary of costs and cost-savings associated with PO2  
Associated costs (EUR) 

Stakeholders 
bearing the cost  

6.4.3.3. 

Summary 

Category 

Governance and 
other non-IT related 
costs 

EU level 

Recurrent 

EU Commission 

National level 

Recurrent 

National public 
authorities 

IT platform and other 
IT-related costs 

EU Level 

Recurrent/One-off  EU Commission 

Y1 

Y2 

V: 5 426 500 – 6 
000 000 
M: 6 891 000 

V: 9 440 000- 16 
040 000* 
M: 28 440 000* 

V: 5 426 500 – 6 
000 000 
M: 6 891 000 

V: 9 440 000- 16 
040 000* 
M: 28 440 000* 

V: EUR 6 722 056 – 6 804 539 
M: EUR 6 886 144 

Each subsequent 
year 

V: 5 426 500 – 6 
000 000 
M: 6 891 000 

V: 9 440 000- 16 
040 000* 
M: 28 440 000* 

V: EUR 1 906 255 – 
1 947 497 
M: EUR 1 988 299 

V: EUR 348 075 – 
543 867 
M: EUR 696 150 

National level 

Recurrent/One-off 

National public 
authorities 

V: EUR 2 672 400 – 4 175 625 
M: EUR 5 344 800 

Total costs 

For EU Commission: 

For Member States national public authorities: 

Total cost-savings** 

For EU employers: 

V: EUR 8 787 528 
– 9 402 269   
M: EUR 10 334 072  

V: EUR 8 787 528 
– 9 402 269   
M: EUR 10 334 072 

V: 7,332,755 – 
€7,947,497 
M: €8,879,299 

V: EUR 10 776 200 
– 18 127 812 
M: EUR 31 112 400 

V: EUR 10 776 200 
– 18 127 812 
M: EUR 31 112 400 

V: EUR 9 788 075 – 
16 583 867 
M: EUR 29 136 150  

V: 3 206 695 000 – 
3 342 811 000 
M: 3 600 000 000 

V: 3 206 695 000 – 
3 342 811 000 
M: 3 600 000 000 

V: 3 206 695 000 – 
3 342 811 000 
M: 3 600 000 000 

 
 
Category 

Sub-category  Type of cost 

Stakeholders 
bearing the cost  

Associated costs (EUR) 

Y1 

Y2 

Each subsequent 
year 

For TCNs jobseekers: 

V: 1 044 065 000 – 
1 088 370 000 
M: 1 132 676 000 

V: 1 044 065 000 – 
1 088 370 000 
M: 1 132 676 000 

V: 1 044 065 000 – 
1 088 370 000 
M: 1 132 676 000 

Source: elaboration of the contractor (2023) 
Note: “V” represents the voluntary scenario and “M” the mandatory one. *Costs of facilitation measures not included as optional under this policy option. **Cost-savings are aggregated at EU level 
per total number of expected job vacancies filled, proxied by the expected number of inflows under PO2 (assuming that one vacancy fills one position).

 
 
 
6.4.4. Policy Option 3: Open EU Talent Pool 

Firstly, the costs associated with this PO are discussed, followed by the cost savings 
and a summary table. 

6.4.4.1. 

Costs associated with PO3 

In contrast to the more targeted approach envisaged under  PO2, PO3 foresees the 
Talent Pool to be open to all sectors and occupations. Under PO3, costs are assessed 
under the two scenarios of having the initiative being mandatory for all Member States 
and of leaving the choice voluntary. In this latter case, the same 11-20 Member States 
as under PO2 were chosen. The less restrictive nature of PO3 entails a higher number 
of  potential  candidates  and  job  openings  in  the  Talent  Pool,  relative  to  PO2.  In 
particular,  when  the  initiative  is  kept  voluntary,  expected  professional  profiles  are 
around 4 293 000 – 4 555 485, and job openings amount to around 3 830 000 – 5 100 
000. When the initiative is instead mandatory, the number of potential candidates is 4 
718 000, and job openings to amount to 6 380 000.  

Governance 

The governance envisaged for PO3 is very similar to that established under PO2. The 
only difference is the lack of direct link with the Talent Partnerships and thus liaison 
offices in third countries. Associated costs is in the table below. 

Table 66: Non-IT governance costs for PO3 

Costs 

Secretariat within COM 

Voluntary  
13  FTEs  (including  1  business  manager 
handling IT platform coordination). 
EUR 1 903 000 budget for staff expenses 
EUR 3 867 600 – 4 741 000 budget for non-IT-
related activities, including: 

o  EUR 97 000 – 176 000 for horizontal 

coordination activities 

o  EUR 970 600 – 1 765 000 for training 

activities  

o  EUR 1 500 000 for communication 
o  EUR 1 300 000 for translation 

Type of cost 

Assumptions and other comments 

Recurrent  cost 
for 
EU 
Commission 

To  estimate  the  total  number  of  FTEs 
within  the  EU  Commission,  FTEs  within 
ECO  were  considered.  The  latter  has 
been  estimated  by  considering  the  ELA 
Single  Programming  Document  2023  – 
2025 and inputs from interviews with ELA 
and the European Commission conducted 
by the contractor.  

Mandatory 
13  FTEs  (including  1  business  manager 
handling IT platform coordination) 
EUR 1 903 000 budget for staff expenses 
EUR  5  897  000  budget  for  non-IT-related 
activities, including: 
o  EUR 

horizontal 

for 

238 
coordination activities 

000 

o  EUR 2 859 000 for training activities  
o  EUR 1 500 000 for communication 
o  EUR 1 300 000 for translation 

Steering Group 

Same as for PO2 

 
 
 
 
Type of cost 

Assumptions and other comments 

Recurrent  cost 
for 
national 
public authorities 

The  estimates  are  based  on  the  costs 
associated  with  current  EURES  NCOs 
and adjusted by  the  expected  number  of 
incoming  TCNs  and  expected  number of 
job openings associated with PO2 (under 
the  voluntary  and  mandatory  scenarios). 
Commission  Services  inputs  were  also 
considered to adjust the number of FTEs 
required. 

Costs 

National Contact Points 

Voluntary  
5 FTEs per NCP, for a total of 55-100 FTEs per 
11-20 Member State. This includes immigration 
and employment authorities. 
EUR  1  600  000  budget per  NCP  for  staff  and 
other activities expenses, amounting to a total 
of  EUR  17  600  000  –  32  000  000  per  11-20 
Member States. 
Member  States  can  decide  to  nominate  for 
NCPs (some of the) colleagues already working 
for EURES NCOs. In those cases, costs will be 
lower. 
Mandatory  
6  FTEs  per  NCP,  amounting  to  a  total  of  162 
FTEs  per  27  Member  States.  This  includes 
immigration and employment authorities. 
EUR  2  000  000  budget per  NCP  for  staff  and 
other activities expenses, for a total of  54 000 
000 EUR per 27 Member States.  
Member  States  can  decide  to  nominate  for 
NCPs (some of the) colleagues already working 
for EURES NCOs. In those cases, costs will be 
lower. 

Total costs 
Voluntary scenario 
- For EU Commission: EUR 5 770 600 – 6 644 000 (recurrent) 
- For all 11-20 Member States national public authorities: EUR 17 600 000 – 32 000 000 (recurrent)  
Mandatory scenario 
- For EU Commission EUR 7 800 000 (recurrent) 
- For all 27 Member States national public authorities: EUR 54 000 000 (recurrent)  

Source: elaboration of the contractor (2023) 

Secretariat within the Commission. Similar to PO2, the Secretariat at EU level will 
be responsible for horizontal coordination activities, a communication strategy and the 
provision of translation services. Lastly, a centralised budget is foreseen for training 
activities for the network of NCPs staff at large. As the number of NCPs to coordinate 
will be higher under the mandatory scenario, the staff included under the Secretariat is 
slightly higher than in the voluntary scenario. In addition, the budget allocated to the 
different activities is also lower in the voluntary scenario, as fewer participating Member 
States imply a simpler governance and fewer resources. 

Steering group. Same as under PO2. 

National Contact Points. The structure and approach to NCPs are exactly the same 
as described under PO2. As above, the voluntary scenario involves lower costs than 
the  mandatory  one  as  a  lower  number  of  participating  Member  States  also  means 
fewer potential candidates and job opening on the platform, thus reducing the number 
of resources needed for the NCPs. It is important to notice that the costs associated 
with  the  voluntary approach for  PO3 are different  from  those  previously seen  under 
PO2. This is because the latter has a targeted approach while PO3 is kept open to all 
sectors  and  occupations  (with  a  higher  number  of  potential  candidates  and  job 
openings on the platform).  

 
 
 
IT platform and other IT-related costs420 

The estimated cost breakdown for the baseline of the proposed initiatives over a 10-
year period, excluding alternative measures, is as follows: development costs ranging 
from approximately €15.9 million to €23.6 million depending on the number of Member 
States participating in the initiative, operation (maintenance) costs ranging from €16.7 
million  to  €24.8  million,  and  infrastructure  costs  ranging  from  €10.6  million  to  €14.2 
million.  Implementing  additional  features  would  cost  approximately  €11.4  million.  In 
total,  the  estimated  costs  could  vary  from  €54.6  million  to  €74.1  million.  For  more 
detailed information and a comprehensive understanding, please refer to Appendix 5 
and 6, and the table below presents the cost breakdown.

420 IT costs related to the development and maintenance of the IT platform for the EU Talent Pool are closely interconnected with 
other cost categories, particularly those associated with the user journey. Due to this strong interlinkage, we consolidated all costs 
that arise from IT-related activities and include them in this section. Thus, this section includes IT-costs related to the IT platform 
per se, but also costs stemming from IT-related activities in other categories of costs (e.g. governance, user journey). 

 
 
 
 
PO 3 

Development 

EUROPASS 
adaptation and 
integration 
TCN CVs' DB 
creation 
Job vacancies' 
DB creation 
Sarch/matching 
engine 
integration 
Employer 
registration – 
Direct 
registration 
without 
screening 
Core system 

Integration of 
EU Talent 
Platform with 
other systems 
Member States 
integration 

Operations 
(maintenance) 

Contractor 
operations for 
baseline 
Member States 
integration 
operations 

Infrastructure 

Total over ten 
years 
(11 – 20 - 30 
Member 
States) 
€15,897,975 - 
€20,256,225 - 
€23,645,975 
€224,999 

Y1-Y2 
(11 – 20 - 30 
Member 
States) 

€15,897,975 - 
€20,256,225 - 
€23,645,975 
€224,999 

€374,999 

€374,999 

€899,999 

€899,999 

€749,999 

€749,999 

€449,999 

€449,999 

€5,249,983 

€5,249,983 

€199,997 

€199,997 

€7,748,000 - 
€12,106,250 - 
€15,496,000 
€16,692,874 - 
€21,269,036 - 
€24,828,274 

€8,557,474 

€8,135,400 - 
€12,711,563 - 
€16,270,800 

€7,748,000 - 
€12,106,250 - 
€15,496,000 
€0 

€0 

€0 

Table 67: IT-costs for PO3 

Y3 
(11 – 20 - 30 
Member 
States) 

Y4 
(11 – 20 - 30 
Member 
States) 

Y5 
(11 – 20 - 30 
Member 
States) 

Y6 
(11 – 20 - 30 
Member 
States) 

Y7 
(11 – 20 - 30 
Member 
States) 

Y8 
(11 – 20 - 30 
Member 
States) 

Y9 
(11 – 20 - 30 
Member 
States) 

Y10 
(11 – 20 - 30 
Member 
States) 

€2,384,696 - 
€3,038,434 - 
€3,546,896 

€2,384,696 - 
€3,038,434 - 
€3,546,896 

€1,987,247 - 
€2,532,028 - 
€2,955,747 

€1,987,247 - 
€2,532,028 - 
€2,955,747 

€1,987,247 - 
€2,532,028 - 
€2,955,747 

€1,987,247 - 
€2,532,028 - 
€2,955,747 

€1,987,247 - 
€2,532,028 - 
€2,955,747 

€1,987,247 - 
€2,532,028 - 
€2,955,747 

€1,222,496 

€1,222,496 

€1,018,747 

€1,018,747 

€1,018,747 

€1,018,747 

€1,018,747 

€1,018,747 

€1,162,200 - 
€1,815,938 - 
€2,324,400 

€1,162,200 - 
€1,815,938 - 
€2,324,400 

€968,500 - 
€1,513,281 - 
€1,937,000 

€968,500 - 
€1,513,281 - 
€1,937,000 

€968,500 - 
€1,513,281 - 
€1,937,000 

€968,500 - 
€1,513,281 - 
€1,937,000 

€968,500 - 
€1,513,281 - 
€1,937,000 

€968,500 - 
€1,513,281 - 
€1,937,000 

€10,627,171 - 
€12,486,341 - 
€14,208,263 

€2,125,434 - 
€2,497,268 - 
€2,841,653 

€1,062,717 - 
€1,248,634 - 
€1,420,826 

€1,062,717 - 
€1,248,634 - 
€1,420,826 

€1,062,717 - 
€1,248,634 - 
€1,420,826 

€1,062,717 - 
€1,248,634 - 
€1,420,826 

€1,062,717 - 
€1,248,634 - 
€1,420,826 

€1,062,717 - 
€1,248,634 - 
€1,420,826 

€1,062,717 - 
€1,248,634 - 
€1,420,826 

€1,062,717 - 
€1,248,634 - 
€1,420,826 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Additional 
features 
implementation
421 
Total Cost for 
EU Talent Pool 

€11,440,000 

€0 

€2,860,000 

€2,860,000 

€953,333 

€953,333 

€953,333 

€953,333 

€953,333 

€953,333 

€54,658,020- 
€65,451,602 - 
€74,122,511 

€18,023,409 - 
€22,753,493 - 
€26,487,628 

€6,307,413 - 
€7,147,068 - 
€7,827,723 

€6,307,413 - 
€7,147,068 - 
€7,827,723 

€4,003,297 - 
€4,733,996 - 
€5,329,906 

€4,003,297 - 
€4,733,996 - 
€5,329,906 

€4,003,297 - 
€4,733,996 - 
€5,329,906 

€4,003,297 - 
€4,733,996 - 
€5,329,906 

€4,003,297 - 
€4,733,996 - 
€5,329,906 

€4,003,297 - 
€4,733,996 - 
€5,329,906 

Source: elaboration of the contractor (2023)

421 These activities would typically involve a total of 20 full-time equivalents (FTEs) across various roles. The allocation includes 4.0 FTEs for Business Analysis, 1.0 FTE for project management, 
4.0 FTEs for development, 1.0 FTE for quality assurance, 6.0 FTEs for technical experts, and 4.0 FTEs for testing. 

 
 
 
 
User journey 

The  user  journey  follows  the  same  structure  and  approach  as  previously  described 
under PO2, resulting in no significant non-IT cost to be estimated for the user journey 
under PO3. This is shown by the table below, which is kept for clarity and consistency.   

Table 68: Non-IT costs of the user journey associated with PO3  

Costs 

Type 
cost 

of 

Assumptions and other comments 

Registration of profiles 
Insignificant associated non-IT costs. 
Quality assurance for employers 
Insignificant associate non-IT costs. 
Search and matching 
IT-costs and assumptions described under IT platform 
Total costs 
n/a 

Source: elaboration of the contractor (2023) 

Registration of profiles. As for PO2, TCNs are required to fill in their profile manually 
so the estimated time can be re-used from PO2 (around 1-3 hours). Contrary to PO2, 
employers  also  can  register  their  vacancies  directly,  so  the  time  needed  should  be 
shifted from NCPs to employers.  

Quality  assurance  for  employers.  PO3  introduces  additional  measures  for  quality 
assurance compared to PO2. The impact of introducing automatic checks is assessed 
in the section on IT platform and include more comprehensive background checks on 
employers (in terms of financial stability, legal compliance and any history of labour-
related  violations  or  unethical  practices)  and  automatic  checks  on  the  terms  and 
conditions in the vacancy notice that go beyond remuneration and working hours to 
include  other  employment-related  standards  (e.g.  overtime,  health  and  safety, 
employee  benefits,  etc.).  While  stricter  measures  may  provide  greater  quality 
assurance on employers and the vacancies published, they may also place a greater 
burden on national authorities responsible for conducting those checks compared to 
PO2.  This  could  lead  to  additional  resource  allocation  and  increased  workload  for 
these authorities, potentially affecting their ability to efficiently manage other aspects 
of their responsibilities. In addition, stricter checks may also disincentivise employers 
(especially SMEs) if they perceive the process as cumbersome or time-consuming.422 
Lastly, employers are often already subject to quality assurance checks at the national 
level to operate legally and recruit workers. Introducing similar checks in the context of 
the EU Talent Pool could lead to duplication of efforts and risks of double procedures. 
In  addition  to  automatic  checks,  other  quality  assurance  measures  could  be 
implemented  to  prevent  discrimination  and  ensure  fair  recruitment  that  are  not 
necessarily a pre-condition for registration. Such measures may include: 

•  Asking  for  feedback  from  jobseekers.  Implementing  a  regular  survey  among 
jobseekers to gather their feedback and review their experience with employers 
can be an effective way to identify any issues or instances of discrimination. By 

422  This  was  also  highlighted  during  consultation  activities  with  business  associations  (e.g.  SMEUnited,  BusinessEurope, 
Eurochambres) conducted in the context of this study. The issue was particularly stressed for SMEs. 

 
 
 
 
incentivizing  jobseekers  to  provide  feedback,  employers  are  encouraged  to 
maintain fair recruitment procedures.423  

•  Monitoring  employer-vacancy  relation  in  the  portal.  Establishing  a  system  to 
monitor  the  relationship  between  employers and  vacancies  on  the  portal  can 
help  identify  any  patterns  or  discrepancies  that  may  suggest  discriminatory 
practices. This monitoring can provide valuable insights into the fairness of the 
recruitment process and allow for timely interventions when necessary.  

•  Producing a handbook on fair recruitment and anti-discrimination. Developing a 
comprehensive  handbook  that  outlines  the  principles  of  fair  recruitment  and 
provides guidance on preventing discrimination can be an effective tool to share 
with employers after their registration. Contrary to a Charter on fair recruitment 
(under PO2), which is a concise and high-level public declaration of commitment 
to fair recruitment principles, a handbook can offer more practical instructions 
and best practices for implementing fair recruitment processes. 

While the costs associated with the first two measures are minimal and not significant 
enough  to  warrant  specific  calculations,  costs  for  handbook  can  be  quantified  more 
easily.  In  particular,  assuming  a  team  of  one  Administrator  and  two  Contractual 
Agents,424 the total cost is one-off for the European Commission (as one can foresee 
costs to be centralised at EU level) and would amount to around EUR 353 000 to cover 
with the calculated EU budget allocated for communication activities (see section on 
governance above). 

Search and matching. IT-related costs elaborated under the section on IT platform. 

Additional components 

Additional  components  under  PO3  are  similar  to  those  included  in  PO2  and  are 
outlined in the table below. Estimates are adjusted for the context of  PO3 under the 
mandatory and voluntary scenarios. As IT-related costs are included in the IT platform 
section, the focus here is on non-IT costs only. 

423 This measure was also suggested by IOM during consultation activities held in the context of this study. 

424  Number  of  resources  needed  for  the  creation  of  a  handbook  come  from  expert  judgement  and  contractor  experience  in 
implementing similar projects for EU institutions. 

 
 
 
Table 69: Non-IT costs of additional components associated with PO3 

Costs 

Information provision 

Type of cost 

Assumptions and other comments 

12 FTEs (2 Officials and 10 Contract Agents)  
EUR 1 057 000 total budget for staff expenses 

Recurrent  for  EU 
Commission 

Estimates  come  from  PO1A  under  the 
scenario  of  expanding  the  immigration 
portal to include recognition procedures. 

Targeted support 

Mandatory  
EUR 600 000 out of the total budget of NCPs 
presented in governance section, and already 
included in the estimated budget for NCPs. 

cost 
Recurrent 
for national public 
authorities 

Assuming around 30% of the total budget 
of NCPs is spent on targeted support.425  

Voluntary 
EUR 480 000 out of the total budget of NCPs 
presented in governance section, and already 
included in the estimated budget for NCPs. 

Transparency and comparability tools426 

Included in cost-savings. 
IT-costs and assumptions described under IT platform 

Recurrent 
cost 
for national public 
authorities 

Estimates  are  based  on  the  difference  in 
cost  between  standard  and 
fast-track 
procedures. 

Facilitation measures427 

60  EUR  extra  per  application  for  fast-track 
recognition procedures, and 
170  EUR  extra  per  application  for  fast-track 
immigration procedures. 

Mandatory 
EUR 18 420 000 for fast-track recognition for 
27 Member States, and 
EUR  52  190  000  for  fast-track  immigration 
procedures for 27 Member States. 

Voluntary 
EUR 16 740 000 – 17 760 000 for fast-track 
recognition for 11-20 Member States, and 
EUR 47 430 000 – 50 320 000 for fast-track 
immigration  procedures  for  11-20  Member 
States. 

Total costs 
Mandatory 
- For EU Commission: EUR 1 057 000 (recurrent) 
- For all 27 Member States national public authorities: EUR 70 610 000 (recurrent) 
Voluntary 
- For EU Commission: EUR 1 057 000 (recurrent) 
- For 11-20 Member States national public authorities: EUR 64 170 000 – 68 080 000 (recurrent) 

Source: elaboration of the contractor (2023) 

Information provision. Same as for PO2. 

Targeted  support.  As  for  PO2,  personalised  support  from  NCPs  to  employers and 
jobseekers  will  be  provided  at  different  stages  of  the  user  journey  and  in  particular 
when it comes to information provision. The costs associated with the targeted support 
have  already  been  included  in  estimated  budget  for  the  NCPs.  Based  on  the 

 
 
 
 
 
 
information  provided  by  the  EURES  NCOs,428  information  and  guidance  to  workers 
and employers (including information on living conditions in EURES countries) account 
for around 30% of the total NCO budget. 

Transparency  and  comparability  tools.  The  inclusion  of  transparency  and 
comparability tools will generate IT costs, which have been included in the IT platform 
section  above.  In  addition,  they  will  also  result  in  cost  savings,  which  are  detailed 
below.  

Facilitation measures. The facilitation measures under PO3 foresee the possibility to 
Member States to skip the labour market test or going through fast-track immigration 
and  recognition  procedures  under  the  voluntary  scenario.  These  aspects  become 
mandatory  under  the  mandatory  scenario.  In  addition  to  the  time  savings,  further 
described  below,  the  facilitation  measures  will  also  result  in  additional  burdens  for 
public authorities at national level. As discussed under PO2, we consider that the fees 
paid  to  public  authorities  for the  recognition/validation  of qualifications  and  for visas 
and work permits correspond to the cost of the time spent by public authorities on these 
procedures, provided that the fees charged by them do not exceed the recovery costs 
of providing these services. In other words, we assume that public authorities receive 
no benefit from these services. In this sense, the additional fees can be considered as 
additional costs for public authorities, which amount to a total of EUR 70 610 000 under 
the mandatory (costs for 27 Member States) and EUR 64 170 000 – 68 080 000 under 
voluntary (costs for 11-20 Member States) scenarios.  

6.4.4.2. 

Cost savings associated with PO3 

Firstly,  the  employment-  and  immigration-related  cost-savings,  followed  by  the 
opportunity costs. 

Employment- and immigration-related cost-savings  

Similar to PO2, the implementation of PO3 will also result in cost and time savings for 
both employers and TCNs throughout the recruitment process. The quantifiable time 
savings  associated  with  each  step  of  the  process  are  comparable  to  those  of  PO2, 
potentially  reducing  the  total  recruitment  time  by  2-3  months.  Similarly,  accounting 
costs result in around EUR 84 425 000 and EUR 76 725 000 – 81 400 000 total savings 
across EU employers, under PO3 mandatory and voluntary scenarios, accordingly.429 

Qualitative benefits. The vast majority of the qualitative benefits previously described 
for PO2 remain valid also for PO3. However, there are some differences between the 
two options, which are outlined in the table below.

425 The share of 30% comes from consultation activities with EURES NCOs conducted in the context of this study, triangulated 
with  the  EURES  ex-post  evaluation.  European  Commission  (2021).  Study  supporting  the  ex-post  EURES  evaluation  and  the 
second biennial EURES report, Contract VC/2019/0854. 
426  E.g.,  EU  Skills  Profile  Tool  for  TCNs,  the  Europass  Platform  including  the  European  Digital  Credentials  for  Learning, 
comparison  between  the  European  Qualifications  Framework  and  Quality  Frameworks  from  third  countries,  the  European 
multilingual Classification of Skills Competences, Occupations and Qualifications (ESCO). 

427 E.g., Skipping the Labour Market Test (LMT), fast-track procedures when it comes to recognition and immigration processes. 

428 Inputs come from consultation activities with EURES NCOs conducted in the context of this study, triangulated with EURES 
ex-post  evaluation.  European  Commission  (2021).  Study  supporting  the  ex-post  EURES  evaluation  and  the  second  biennial 
EURES report, Contract VC/2019/0854. 
429 Total vacancies filled were proxied by the expected inflow of migrants under each policy option, assuming that one vacancy 
would fill one position. 

 
 
 
Table 70: Qualitative benefits associated with PO3 measures 

Steps 

Employers 
Publishing 
vacancy 
identifying 
candidates 

the 
and 

Screening  through 
candidates 
TCNs 
Finding 
opportunities 

Qualitative benefits 

The  implementation of a fully automatic matching  tool powered by artificial 
intelligence (AI) will have a more significant impact on the time required to 
identify  and  match  candidates  with  vacancies  compared  to  PO2.  This  is 
because while the matching tool of PO2 will be semi-automatic (i.e., requiring 
a certain  degree  of  manual work), AI-powered tools are capable of quickly 
analyse and compare the skills, qualifications and preferences of candidates 
with the requirements  of job vacancies, resulting in  a more accurate  list of 
potential suitable candidates (thus requiring no additional manual work). 
The impact of pre-screening will be smaller for PO2 as it will be only on profile 
completeness. 

TCNs  will  benefit  not  only  from  having  access  to  a  single  platform  that 
consolidates job opportunities in EU Member States but also from being able 
to  contact  employers  directly.  This 
increased  access  and  direct 
communication  will  empower  TCNs,  strengthen  their  influence  on  the 
possibility  to  be  hired  and  significantly  reduce  the  time  needed  for  job 
searching. 
The quality assurance procedures for employers and vacancies under  PO3 
will be more stringent than under PO2. These stricter procedures provide a 
higher level of assurance that the available opportunities adhere to fair and 
ethical recruitment standards (even if they may result in highest costs in terms 
of time and resources).   

Source: elaboration of the contractor (2023) 

Opportunity costs 

Similarly  to  the  approach  taken  for  PO2,  opportunity  costs  can  be  calculated  in  the 
context  of  PO3,  again  assuming  that  the  standard  international  recruitment  process 
typically lasts around 6 months and the process via the Talent Pool approximately 3.5 
months. The remainder of this section looks at the opportunity costs for TCNs (in terms 
of lost wages) and employers (in terms of lost revenue) when conducting international 
recruitment with and without the use of the Talent Pool in order to estimate the cost-
savings associated with the use of the Talent Pool. 

TCNs jobseekers. In line with the calculations made for PO2, the average wage of 
TCNs in Europe is estimated to be around EUR 1 500 per month, which would result 
in  an  opportunity  cost  of  around  EUR  9  000  under  the  standard  international 
recruitment path and of around EUR 5,250 under the Talent Pool path. The difference 
of EUR 3 750 per TCN represents the cost-savings associated with using the Talent 
Pool instead of the standard path. 

Considering  the  potential  of  around  307  000  successful  matches  under  PO3  in  the 
mandatory scenario, the total wage gain would reach around EUR 1 182 760 000. In 
the case of the mandatory scenario, the implementation of the facilitation measures 
will be mandatory, so the amount estimated above is not just an upper bound but the 
expected  total.  In  the  case  of  the  voluntary  scenario,  the  total  amount  of  expected 
inflow  of  migrants  by  2030  is  279  000  –  296  000,  implying  a  total  gain  in  wages  of 
around EUR 1 074 886 000 – 1 140 380 000. 

Employers. The similar approach applied to employers results in an average loss of 
revenue per employer of EUR 28 000 when going through standard procedures and 
16 000 EUR when going through the EU Talent Pool. The difference results in a gain 
in revenue of EUR 11 500 per employer. Considering the expected number of filled 
vacancies across the EU (approximated by the expected inflows under PO3), the total 

 
 
gain in revenue through in the mandatory scenario is around EUR 3 548 280 000, and 
of EUR 3 224 658 000 – 3 421 143 000 for the voluntary scenario. 

 
 
6.4.4.3. 

Summary 

Table 71: Summary of costs and cost-savings associated with PO3  

Category 

Sub-category  Type of cost 

Stakeholders 
bearing the cost  

Associated costs (EUR) 

Y1 

Y2 

Governance and 
other non-IT related 
costs 

EU level 

Recurrent 

EU Commission 

National level 

Recurrent 

National public 
authorities 

IT platform and other 
IT-related costs 

EU Level 

Recurrent/One-off  EU Commission 

V: 6 827 600 – 7 
700 000 
M: 8 857 000 

V: 81 770 000 – 
100 000 000 
M: 124 610 000 

V: 6 827 600 – 7 
700 000 
M: 8 857 000 

V: 81 770 000 – 
100 000 000 
M: 124 610 000 

V: 10 275 409 – EUR 10 647 243 
M: 10 991 628 

National level 

Recurrent/One-off  National public 

authorities 

V: 7 748 000 – 12 106 250 
M: 15 496 000 

Each subsequent 
year 

V: 6 827 600 – 7 
700 000 
M: 8 857 000 

V: 81 770 000 – 100 
000 000 
M: 124 610 000 

V: EUR 3 562 401 – 
3 748 318 
M: EUR 3 920 510 

V: 1 016 925 – 1 
588 945 
M: 2 033 850 

Total costs 

For EU Commission: 

For Member States national public authorities: 

Total cost-savings* 

For EU employers: 

V: 11 965 304 – 13 
023 621 
M: 14 352 814 

V: 11 965 304 – 13 
023 621 
M: 14 352 814 

V: 10 390 001 – 11 
448 318 
M: 12 777 510 

V: 85 644 000 – 
106 053 125 
M: 132 358 000 

V: 85 644 000 – 
106 053 125 
M: 132 358 000 

V: 82 786 925 – 101 
588 945 
M: 126 643 850 

V: 3 301 000 000 – 
3 502 543 000 

V: 3 301 000 000 – 
3 502 543 000 

V: 3 301 000 000 – 
3 502 543 000 

 
 
Category 

Sub-category  Type of cost 

Stakeholders 
bearing the cost  

Associated costs (EUR) 

Y1 

Y2 

Each subsequent 
year 

For TCNs jobseekers: 

M: 3 632 000 000 

M: 3 632 000 000 

M: 3 632 000 000 

V: 1 074 886 000 – 
1 140 380 000 
M: 1 182 760 000 

V: 1 074 886 000 – 
1 140 380 000 
M: 1 182 760 000 

V: 1 074 886 000 – 
1 140 380 000 
M: 1 182 760 000 

Source: elaboration of the contractor (2023) 
Note: “V” represents the voluntary scenario and “M” the mandatory one. *Cost-savings are aggregated at EU level per total number of expected job vacancies filled, proxied by the expected number 
of inflows under PO2 (assuming that one vacancy fills one position).

 
 
 
7. Assessment and comparison of options 

Below, an assessment of the policy options is presented, followed by a comparison of 
the options and, finally, the preferred option. 

7.1. Assessment of policy options 

This section includes an assessment of the proposed policy options in comparison to 
the baseline scenario. The criteria for the assessment were selected on the basis of 
their expected magnitude, their likelihood and their relevance to stakeholders and in 
line with the Better Regulation Guidelines. This includes: 

•  Coherence430:  assessing  the  alignment  and  impact  of  the  policy  options  in 
relation  to  EU  legislation  and  instruments,  as  well  as  national  legislation  and 
initiatives within the employment and migration domains.  

•  Efficiency431:  assessing  the  incremental  costs  and  cost-savings  accrue  to 
different  stakeholders  (i.e.  EU  Commission,  national  public  authorities,  EU 
employers  and  TCNs  jobseekers)  that  are  generated  by  the  different  policy 
options. 

•  Effectiveness: assessing  whether  the  specific objectives  of  the  initiative  can 
be realised via the various policy options. Specific objectives (SO) include: 1) 
Ensuring more effective international job matching, 2) Improving comparability 
of  skills  and  qualifications  obtained  in  third  countries  with  those  required  at 
national  level,  3)  improving  understanding  and  access  to  immigration 
procedures, and 4) incentivising cooperation on migration with third countries 
as part of a Talent Partnership. 

•  Fundamental  rights:  assessing  the  compliance  of  the  design  of  the  policy 
options  with  fundamental  rights  (including  as  enshrined  in  EU  and  national 
laws). 

•  Proportionality:  assessing  whether  the  actions  and  measures  envisaged 
under each policy option are proportionate to the objectives the initiative seeks 
to achieve. 

•  Technical feasibility: assessing the technological and technical constraints to 
allow for the implementation, monitoring and enforcement of the policy options. 

The assessment is both qualitative and quantitative (when it comes to efficiency) and 
draws upon the analysis presented above on impacts (Chapter 7) and EU intervention 
(Chapter 3). The assessment and comparison of the different policy options is based 
also  on  inputs  from  stakeholders,  literature,  and  expert  judgement.  All  the  available 
evidence  is  translated  into  scores,  as  in  the  table  below.  As  all  the  different  criteria 
have  different  units  of  analysis,  the  scoring  approach  is  designed  to  standardise 
impacts, facilitating a comparison of the various policy options, which is presented in 
the  subsequent  section.  A  positive  score  represents  a  positive  impact  of  the  policy 
option in relation to the baseline, while a negative score represents a negative impact. 
In the scoring, options are compared to the baseline and not between themselves.

430 Only external coherence is considered, as per Better Regulation Toolbox (tool #47). 
431 Only costs and cost-savings that could be monetised are included in the calculation of efficiency, as per Better Regulation 
Toolbox (tool #57); more details can be found in the Technical Annexes, no. 10. 

271 

 
 
 
Score 
-3 
-2 
-1 
0 
1 
2 
3 

Table 72: Scoring approach 

Description 
Strong negative impact 
Moderate negative impact 
Small negative impact 
No impact [baseline] 
Small positive impact 
Moderate positive impact 
Strong positive impact 

Source: elaboration of the contractor (2023) 

The table below presents the assessment and comparison of the different options against the above criteria.  

Criteria 
Coherence  

PO1 

PO2* 

Table 73: Assessment of options 
Motivation 

PO3* 

0/1 

3 

2 

The  EU  talent  pool  appears  coherent  with  the  current  legal  and  policy  framework 
governing  legal  pathway  schemes  to  EU  Member  States.  It  does  not  create  new 
pathways but facilitates third-country nationals' access to existing pathways by providing 
a European database of job advertisements and CVs. 

Additionally,  the  initiative  is  in  line  with  number  of  other  EU  legislation,  policies  and 
objectives aimed at enhancing skills recognition, labour market integration and overall 
collaboration among Member States. Those initiative include:432 
  Europass:  The  Talent  Pool  allows  registration  via  Europass  format  of  profiles  and 
builds upon the initiative aim of offering a standardised framework for documenting 
skills,  competences  and  qualifications,  facilitating  transparency  and  comparability 
across EU Member States. 

  European Digital Credentials for learning (within Europass platform), EU Skills Profile 
Tool for TCNs, EQF: those are all tools that may be included in the platform (under 
PO2  and  PO3)  as 
the 
understanding  of  skills  and  qualifications  and  allow  the  correct  matching  with  job 
requirements.  

transparency  and  comparability 

to  enhance 

tools 

432 For a full overview, plase refer to Appendix 2. 

272 

 
 
 
 
 
Criteria 

PO1 

PO2* 

PO3* 

Efficiency 
Accounting costs and cost-savings 
to  governance,  user 
related 
journey 
additional 
components433 

and 

-1 

2 

2 

Motivation 
  EURES platform: the initiative (under PO2 and PO3) foresees full interoperability with 
platforms at EU level to ensure seamless sharing of data and increase the effective 
and efficient use of the platform.  

Given the above-mentioned EU level initiatives, the Talent Pool is thus in line with EU 
efforts in improving skills mismatches via fostering recognition of skills and qualifications. 
In this sense, recognition of qualifications is an important issue for third country nationals 
who are looking to work in the EU. While the initiative does not directly address this issue 
by  facilitating  procedures,  it  does  provide  information  and  support  to  help  TCNs 
jobseekers, public authorities and EU employers navigate this process. Those support 
measures are particularly more prominent under PO2 and PO3.  

Furthermore,  PO2  will  make  use  of  Talent  Partnerships  by  providing  a  platform  for 
employers  and  third  country  nationals  to  connect  with  each  other.  The  pool  will  also 
provide information about Talent Partnerships, and it will help to match candidates with 
opportunities in partner countries. The EU Talent Pool and Talent Partnerships are both 
complementary  tools  that  can  help  to  make  existing  legal  pathways  to  migration  in 
Europe more efficient and effective. 

Finally, the EU Talent Pool is also coherent with the broader EU objective of promoting 
economic  growth,  sustainable  development,  and  innovation.  By  making  it  easier  for 
employers  to  find  skilled  workers  from  third  countries,  EU  Talent  Pool  is  expected  to 
boost economic growth, green transition, and innovation in the EU. 

When it comes to accounting costs and cost-savings, PO3 under the mandatory scope 
is the most favourable. Although this policy option is also the most expensive for the EU 
Commission  and  national  public  authorities,  costs  are  fully  offset  by  the  benefits 
generated for EU  employers and TCNs. The open and  mandatory nature under  PO3 
ensures that all employers and jobseekers can benefit from the initiative. This results in 
a greater expected number of job vacancies being filled efficiently through the EU Talent 
Pool, saving time and costs relative to being filled without the initiative. PO2 has lower 
costs  relative  to  the  other  legislative  option,  as  well  as  lower  benefits.  The  targeted 
nature entails that not all employers and jobseekers will be able to benefit from the Talent 

433 Only incremental (i.e. additional to the baseline of not having a Talent Pool initiative) accounting costs and cost-savings were included in the calculation of efficiency (i.e. qualitative benefits are not included) 
for those stakeholders for which they could be estimated. Efficiency calculations are based on Y1 costs and cost-savings. Those are compared to the baseline (i.e. business as usual), as per Better Regulation 
Toolbox (tool #57). More details on the calculations for accounting costs and costs-benefits, please refer to the Technical Annexes, no. 10. 

273 

 
 
 
 
 
 
Criteria 

PO1 

PO2* 

PO3* 

Effectiveness 
GO:  Addressing  existing  labour 
and skills shortages in the EU 

1 

3 

2 

SO1:  Ensuring  more  effective 
international job matching 

1 

2/3 

2/3 

Motivation 
Pool initiative, thus decreasing the aggregated cost-savings. PO1 receives a negative 
score due to the lack of quantifiable cost-savings that can offset the monetizable costs.  

Participation to and scope of the initiative  
As shown by the analysis in Section 6.3.1., PO2 is the most effective in meeting future 
employment  needs  given  its  targeted  nature  to  a  list  of  occupations  of  strategic 
relevance that cannot be filled solely by using domestic workforce. This entails that this 
policy option directly addresses labour and skills shortages in targeted occupations. PO3 
is addressing labour shortages to a smaller extent,  as the higher number of incoming 
TCNs via this policy option is outweighed by the high number of job openings following 
its open approach (including for occupations for which domestic workforce is available). 
PO1 is the addressing labour shortages to the smallest extent given the relatively lower 
expected successful matches.  

User journey and additional components 
PO1 does not include a number of measures (e.g., pre-screening, validation, targeted 
support, search and matching automated tools) that facilitate the steps of international 
recruitment  resulting  in  better  matching.  However,  it  does  include  the  provision  of 
practical  information  that  could  contributed  to  attracting  potential  candidates,  the 
organisation  of  job-matching  events  that  can  promote  direct  interactions  and 
connections  between  jobseekers  and  EU  employers  and  the  intermediary  role  of 
national contact points to foster matches. In contrast  PO2 and PO3 include tools and 
measures that enhance the attractiveness of the initiative and more effectively address 
labour shortages. Those measures include: IT platform with search and matching tools, 
validation procedures (only PO2), information provision, targeted support, user-friendly 
and supported registration for both TCNs and EU employers.  
Information provision 
All  three  policy  options  are  expected  to  provide  TCNs  with  improved  access  to 
information  on  international  recruitment  procedures  and  job  opportunities  across  EU 
Member States. This can cut the time needed to hire a worker from third countries, as 
all relevant information will be pooled together in one platform, thereby enhancing the 
effectiveness of international recruitment.  

Search and matching 
When it comes to effective matching, the impact of the two legislative options (PO2 and 
PO3) is anticipated to be stronger compared to the soft measures outlined in PO1. One 
reason for this is the implementation of the IT-platform in PO2 and PO3, which will serve 

274 

 
 
 
 
Criteria 

PO1 

PO2* 

PO3* 

SO2:  improving  comparability  of 
skills and qualifications obtained in 
third countries  with those required 
at national level 

1 

3 

2 

Motivation 
as a comprehensive  hub for TCNs to  explore a wide range of opportunities available 
across the EU. Although PO1 includes job-matching events that will raise awareness of 
opportunities, its scope is more limited in terms of the number of participants from both 
employers  and  TCNs,  and  the  range  of  opportunities  presented.  Between  the  two 
legislative options, PO3 is expected to have a slightly higher impact in ensuring effective 
recruitment.  This  is  due  not  only  to  the  inclusion  of  fully  automatic  matching  tools, 
powered by AI, but also to empowerment of TCNs to connect directly with employers. 
As  a  result,  they  may  become  more  proactive  in  utilising  the  tool  and  demonstrate 
increased interest in opportunities within the EU.  

Interoperability 
Additionally, interoperability with EU and national systems under PO2 and PO3 can play 
a  crucial  role  in  enhancing  the  effectiveness  of  the  matching  process.  By  facilitating 
seamless data exchange between different platforms, interoperability can optimise the 
identification of suitable job candidates and opportunities. 

Fair recruitment 
Lastly,  the  design  of  the  Talent  Pool  places  significant  emphasis  on  fair  recruitment 
practices, particularly in PO2 and PO3, where specific measures are included to address 
and  tackle  these  issues.  PO3,  in  particular,  incorporates  strict  automatic  checks  to 
ensure that employers are aware of and comply with international and EU standards for 
international recruitment. While PO2 has more basic checks compared to PO3, they can 
still act as deterrents and effectively identify dubious job vacancies. On the other hand, 
PO1  does  not  involve  direct  checks  on  employers  and  vacancies.  While  it  offers  job-
matching  events,  the  absence  of  direct  checks  may  limit  its  ability  to  address  fair 
recruitment practices compared to the legislative options. 
Information provision 
A  significant  bottleneck  in  international  recruitment  lies  in  the  recognition  and 
comparability of skills and qualifications obtained in third countries with those required 
at  the  national  level  within  EU  Member  States.  The  EU  Talent  Pool  addresses  this 
challenge effectively by providing valuable information on recognition procedures, which 
is included in all three policy options.  

Comparability and transparency tools 
Furthermore,  PO2  and  PO3  go  a  step  further  by  incorporating  comparability  and 
transparency  tools.  These  tools  will  aid  in  better  understanding  the  skills  and 
qualifications  acquired  in  third  countries,  facilitating  a  smoother  assessment  of  their 
relevance  in  the  EU  labour  market.  Moreover,  PO2  allows  for  the  possibility  of  going 

275 

 
 
 
 
 
Criteria 

PO1 

PO2* 

PO3* 

SO3: improving the understanding 
and 
immigration 
procedures 

access 

to 

1 

3 

3 

SO4:  Incentivising  cooperation  on 
migration  with  third  countries  as  a 
part of a Talent Partnership  

0 

2/3 

1 

Motivation 
through validation procedures, either before or after admission to the Talent Pool. This 
feature  offers  employers  an  additional  layer  of  assurance  in  verifying  the  skills  of 
potential candidates. 

Facilitation measures 
To streamline the recognition process, PO2 and PO3 also introduce simplified and fast-
track procedures, easing the burden on employers and reducing the time required for 
qualification  assessment.  These  measures  will  significantly  enhance  the  efficiency  of 
recruitment processes and promote the utilisation of valuable skills possessed by TCNs 
within the EU labour market. However, while in PO2 whether or not to implementation 
such procedures remain within the decision span of Member States, under PO3 those 
measures will be mandatory. Therefore, the yielded benefits are expected to be higher 
under  PO3,  even  though  the  mandatory  nature  may  create  challenges  for  public 
authorities e.g., in case where they have to foresee additional procedure paths that are 
not currently in practice. 
Information provision 
Immigration procedures vary significantly across EU Member States, and they are often 
indicated as being cumbersome and lengthy. While the Talent Pool  initiative does not 
directly address bottlenecks related to immigration procedures, which fall under national 
competences, it offers substantial value by serving as a comprehensive information hub. 
All of the three policy options envisage provision of practical and relevant information on 
immigration procedures in Member States, leveraging on the existing EU Immigration 
Platform.  Such information will  benefit TCNs,  EU employers and  public authorities by 
making administrative procedures more understandable and easier to handle. 

Targeted support 
PO2  and  PO3  go  a  step  further  by  offering  personalised  support,  which  will  further 
ensure  guidance  in  navigating  through  the  national  procedures,  and  fast-track 
immigration procedures, which will speed up the process for the candidates admitted in 
the Talent Pool.  
Link with Talent Partnerships 
Among the three policy options, PO2 is the one with the strongest impact towards this 
specific objective, via creating structured links and connections with Talent Partnerships. 
In particular, PO2 focuses on making the Talent Partnerships operational, serving as a 
channel for TCNs from identified third countries to secure job placements in participating 
EU  Member  States.  This  policy  option  would  implement  specific  regulations  for 
registration,  participation  and  validation  within  the  Talent  Partnerships  framework, 
streamlining the process for candidates from partner countries. PO3 is open to Talent 

276 

 
 
 
 
Criteria 

PO1 

PO2* 

PO3* 

Fundamental rights 
Right  to  privacy  and  protection  of 
personal data 

-2 

-3 

-3 

Right  to  engage  in  work  and  to 
choose an occupation 
Right 
conditions 

just  working 

fair  and 

to 

2 

0/1 

3 

2 

3 

3 

Right to non-discrimination 

-1 

-3 

-2 

Motivation 
Partnerships  without  foreseeing  a  specific  link  or  regulations.  Therefore,  expected 
impacts of PO3 are much lower than the more structured approach under PO2. 

IT platform 
All policy options raise data protection concerns as TCNs are required to share personal 
data through the EU Talent Pool. The processing of personal data should comply with 
the  EU  data  protection  legal  framework  ensuring  necessary  and  proportionate 
restrictions  and  respecting  individuals’  privacy  rights.  PO2  and  PO3  have  a  more 
significant  data  protection  impact.  A  high  score  is  given  also  to  PO1  due  to  the 
requirements of personal data in PO1C. 
All the options of the EU Talent Pool will strengthen the right of TCNs to engage in work 
in the EU.  
Quality checks on employers 
TCNs are particularly vulnerable to labour exploitation. In this regard, quality assurance 
checks on employers and vacancies foreseen for PO2 and PO3 can help promote fair 
and ethical recruitment and prevent labour exploitation. Stricter checks and measures 
are envisaged for PO3, which would act as stronger deterrents.  

Information provision 
The provision of information on the EU labour and immigration legal framework, which 
are present in all policy options, also help to promote fair recruitment. 
Scope of application 
All policy options raise some concerns when it comes to the compliance of the principle 
of non-discrimination. However, PO2 is assessed to have the highest impacts. Under 
PO2 the EU talent pool is limited to some specific occupations and certain pre-selected 
candidates  who  meet  the  required  admission  criteria.  In  this  context,  indirect 
discrimination  may  occur  due  to  the  fact  that  many  sectors  do  not  have  equal 
representation of women and men. In  this regard,  PO1 and  PO3 are  more  protective 
when  it  comes  to  compliance  with  discrimination,  as  it  would  be  open  to  all  TCNs, 
regardless of their skill level or professional credentials, and to all sectors and industries.  

Matching tools 
Furthermore, the establishment of an automated matching tool between labour supply 
and demand (foreseen in PO2 and PO3) would raise concerns on discrimination, with 
the impact being higher for PO3 using a fully automated matching tool AI-powered. 

Proportionality 

0 

V: 0 
M: -3 

M: -3 
V: -1 

Participation to the initiative 

277 

 
 
 
 
 
Criteria 

PO1 

PO2* 

PO3* 

Technical feasibility434 

1 

2 

2 

Motivation 
EU action in the field of international recruitment would ensure ‘the efficient management 
of migration’, ‘fair treatment to third country nationals residing legally in Member States’, 
and ‘the prevention of illegal immigration’ mentioned in Article 79 TFEU. Furthermore, 
the  EU  Talent  Pool  can  help  attract  talent,  enhance  the  inclusion  and  integration  of 
TCNs,  protect  fundamental  rights,  as  well  as  a  ensure  harmonisation  of  the  single 
market. However, some concerns in terms of proportionality should be pointed out when 
it  comes  to  PO2  and  PO3.  The  two  legislative  options  consider  indeed  a  scenario  in 
which  the EU Talent Pool  would be compulsory for  all  Member  States. This scenario 
risks  being  disproportionate  in  that  it  would  limit  the  scope  for  national  and  regional 
decision-making beyond what is necessary to achieve the objectives of the initiative in 
a satisfactory manner.  

IT-platform 
The  creation  of  a  fully  autonomous  tool,  envisaged  under  PO3,  could  risk  entailing 
financial costs for the Union disproportionate to the objectives to be achieved. 

Facilitation procedures 
Lastly, the mandatory inclusion of facilitation measures in  PO3 would impact not only 
the  administrative  capacity  of  Member  States  but  also  their  organisational  discretion. 
The  compulsory  nature  of  such  procedures  leads  to  a  negative  impact  on  the 
proportionality ratio of the policy option in this regard. 

Overall, based on the technical feasibility assessment, all three policy options for the EU 
Talent Pool demonstrate viability and the potential for successful implementation within 
a reasonable timeframe. While some specific features may pose greater challenges or 
may not be the most prudent choices (as specified in the Technical Annexes, no. 7), the 
overall feasibility of establishing the EU Talent Pool is well within the capabilities of the 
EU. 

PO1  stands  out  as  the  most  straightforward  to  implement,  requiring  relatively  less 
development effort and financial investment. However, it is important to note that while 
PO1 offers valuable tools, its impact and added value might be perceived as somewhat 
limited when compared to the more sophisticated features proposed by the other two 
policy options, in particular PO3 which is the most complex in terms of feasibility of the 
three Policy options. 

434 The Technical Feasibility assessment of the different Policy Options can be found in the Technical Annexes, no. 5. 

278 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Criteria 

PO1 

PO2* 

PO3* 

Motivation 

PO2  and  PO3,  which  propose  the  development  of  a  complex  and  sophisticated  EU 
Talent  Pool,  present  promising  prospects  for  simplifying  the  process  of  TCNs  finding 
jobs in the EU. However, it is essential to recognise that the development process under 
these  options  could  be  more  intricate  and  resource  intensive.  PO2,  involving  the 
expansion  of  existing  structures,  will  necessitate  seamless  integration  with  current 
systems.  It  will,  however,  be  able  to  leverage  existing  EURES  and  interoperability 
features which would make the feasibility of this policy option simpler than PO3.435 

On the other side, PO3, envisaging the creation of a Talent Pool from the ground up, 
may  require  specialised  attention  and  extensive  efforts  to  ensure  its  successful 
implementation. 

Considering the potential benefits of a comprehensive and advanced EU Talent Pool for 
both employers and job-seeking TCNs, careful consideration must be given to selecting 
the  policy  option  that  best  aligns  with  the  EU's  long-term  goals  and  resources.  With 
proper planning, technical expertise, and commitment, the EU Talent Pool can become 
an  indispensable  resource  in  facilitating  the  mobility  and  integration  of  talented 
individuals from around the world into the European workforce. 

It is important to note that, at this stage many features are still not confirmed or marked 
as tentative which means that the final configuration can substantially change the final 
technical impact. 

Source: elaboration of the contractor (2023) 

Note: *PO2 and PO3 are split into the mandatory (M) and voluntary (V) scenarios only when the scores are different for the two alternatives

435 Discussions are ongoing regarding the entry point for PES and employers. Member States would favour having one integrated entry point for both EURES and the EUTP under PO2. While technically 
possible, this is currently out of scope by request of DG Home. 

279 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
7.2. Comparison of options 

After conducting the  assessment  of  the  different policy options  as described  above, 
this section employs a multi-criteria decision analysis approach (MCDA) to compare 
options. MCDA is well-suited for considering a diverse set of assessment criteria, as 
presented earlier, which may involve different units of measurement. To present this 
information in a structured manner, we utilise a multi-criteria impact matrix (see table 
below). The  latter provides an  organised  representation of  the performance  of  each 
policy  option  across  various  criteria.  Each  element  in  the  matrix  corresponds  to  the 
(unweighted) average impact  of a  specific policy  option  based on individual criteria. 
The assessment considers both quantitative and qualitative information to evaluate the 
criterion  scores,  thus  offering  a  comprehensive  and  balanced  perspective  on  the 
impacts of each option. 

Criteria 

PO1 

PO2 

PO3 

Table 74: Multi-criteria impact matrix to compare policy options 

Voluntary  Mandatory  Mandatory  Voluntary 

Coherence 
Efficiency 
Effectiveness 
Fundamental rights 
Proportionality 
Technical feasibility 
Unweighted average 

0.5 
-1 
0.8 
-0.1 
0 
1 
0.2 

3 
2 
2.8 
-0.3 
-3 
2 
1.1 
Source: elaboration of the contractor (2023) 

3 
2 
2.8 
-0.3 
0 
2 
1.6 

2 
2 
2.1 
0.3 
-3 
2 
0.9 

2 
2 
2.1 
0.3 
-1 
2 
1.2 

As evident from the table above,  PO2 under the voluntary scenario has the highest 
unweighted average, thereby resulting in having the greatest positive impact relative 
to  the  baseline.  PO2  under  the  voluntary  scenario  is  thus  considered  the  preferred 
option. 

Sensitivity analysis 

To ensure robustness of the analysis and the final ranking of the options, we conducted 
sensitivity tests. Specifically, we examined the impact of weighting the criteria for the 
final average in the multi-criteria impact matrix. In the context of the Talent Pool, some 
dimensions may be more important than others, and accordingly, they should be given 
more weight in the overall evaluation. For instance, this may be the case for technical 
feasibility, given that the initiative heavily relies on IT platforms.   

We ran three sensitivity checks: 

•  Sensitivity  test  1:  Adding  more  weight  on  technical  feasibility  and  decreasing 

the weight on other criteria equally; 

•  Sensitivity  test  2:  Adding  more  weight  on  effectiveness  and  decreasing  the 

weight on other criteria equally; 

•  Sensitivity test 3: Adding more weight on efficiency and decreasing the weights 
on other criteria equally (except for technical feasibility that is left unchanged). 

The  results  of  the  sensitivity  checks  show  that  PO2  under  the  voluntary  scenario 
remains the preferred option.436  

436 Results can be found in the Technical Annexes, no. 11. 

280 

 
 
 
7.3. Preferred policy option 

After the assessment and comparison of the different options, PO2 under the voluntary 
approach  emerges  to be the  preferred  option.  This  policy  option  ranked  the  highest 
when comparing the different assessment criteria among the all the policy options and 
was robust to sensitivity checks.  

PO2  aligns  with  the  principles  of  subsidiarity  and  proportionality  by  effectively 
addressing the cross-border problem of labour and skills shortages in the EU through 
cooperation  among  Member  States.  The  centralised  EU  Talent  Pool  facilitates 
international job matching, providing access to qualified third country nationals for EU 
employers. This EU-level approach ensures efficiency in tackling labour shortages in 
strategically important sectors, which might not be effectively addressed by national-
level  initiatives.  Additionally,  the  standardised  processes  and  requirements  create 
consistency across Member States, reducing fragmentation and improving legal clarity. 
PO2's  voluntary  approach  respects  Member  States'  autonomy,  allowing  them  to 
participate  based  on  their  specific  needs  and  priorities.  The  EU-wide  nature  of  the 
initiative  is  proportional  to  achieve  its  objectives,  fostering  cooperation  without 
imposing undue burdens on Member States. 

In terms of impacts, PO2 is projected to be more effective in addressing labour and 
skills shortages in the EU. The targeted approach to sectors/occupations of strategic 
relevance of PO2 is expected to address those gaps in a more effective way as the 
initiative  would  be  focus  on  areas  where  there  is a  genuine  need  to attract  workers 
from third countries, as domestic workforce is limited. This policy options will also result 
in  the  most  substantial  increase  in  labour  force  and  GDP  growth,  benefitting  SMEs 
through  access  to  a  wider  pool of  jobseekers.  Talent  Partnerships  fostered  by  PO2 
mitigate  brain  drain  risks  in  third  countries,  promoting  mutual  talent  development. 
Additionally,  PO2  strikes  the  right  balance  between  costs  and  cost-savings, 
demonstrating significant cost-savings for both employers and TCNs that fully offset 
costs at EU and national level. In this regard, as the policy option is not expected to 
have significant burden for businesses and citizens, considerations on the one in, one 
out approach are not necessary (as per Better Regulation Tool #59). 

281 

 
 
8. Monitoring and evaluation 

This section outlines the relevant arrangements to monitor progress and outputs of the 
policy elements. As PO 2 has been selected as the preferred one, the monitoring and 
evaluation arrangements for this option will be focused on this option.  

As per the Better Regulation Guidelines437, the IA should examine potential indicators 
and/or regulatory reporting requirements that will be required to monitor and evaluate 
the  preferred  option.  Given  that  the  EU  Talent  Pool  is  a  new  initiative  under 
development, data will have to be collected by using a combination of sources, both 
existing  and  new.  Existing  databases  (e.g.,  Eurostat,  Cedefop  data  etc.)  will  be 
relevant  in  providing  contextual  information  on  aspects  such  as  labour  and  skills 
shortages,  immigration  trends,  and  other  areas  where  data  may  be  useful  to 
understand  the  context  that  the  EU  Talent  Pool  is  part  of.  Data  extracted  from  the 
platform (e.g. analytics, traffic etc.) will be important in monitoring and evaluating the 
EU Talent Pool. User satisfaction surveys can also be a source of new data which can 
provide useful insights from TCNs and employers. 

Considering the aspects outlined above, the section below aims to set out key headline 
indicators  that  could  be  used  to  monitor  the  progress  of  the  EU  Talent  Pool  in  the 
future. 

437 Better Regulation Guidelines Toolbox, p. 356. Available at: https://commission.europa.eu/law/law-making-process/planning-
and-proposing-law/better-regulation/better-regulation-guidelines-and-toolbox_en 

282 

 
 
 
The following table presents a series of headline indicators that could be used to measure the achievement of each of the objectives under the 
preferred option.  

Table 75: Long list of possible indicators to monitor the objectives under the preferred option: Developing a focused EU Talent Pool building on certain 
components of EURES and targeted to specific occupations 

Objective  

Indicators 

Baseline  

Data source(s) 

Frequency  of 
collection 

Stakeholder involved 

General objective: Address EU labour and skills shortages by supporting international recruitment of third-country nationals via legal migration pathways 
Support  the  international 
recruitment of skilled third-
country  nationals  using 
legal migration pathways 

Annually 

• 

• 

• 

1: 

Data 
Indicator 
extracted  from  the  EU 
Talent Pool platform. 
Indicator  2:  Cedefop 
skills forecast. 
Indicator 3: Eurostat.  
Indicator 4: Eurostat and 
Europop.  

• 

• 
• 

1.  No. of TCNs registered to 
the EU Talent Pool. 
2.  No.  of  unfilled  vacancies 
by  qualification  level  and 
by  occupation  in  each 
Member State. 

3.  No.  of  single  or  other 
work  permits  issued  by 
(EU  Blue  Card, 
type 
work 
seasonal 
authorisations etc.). 
4.  Share  of  permits  issued 
for  employment  reasons 
in all residence permits. 

• 

• 

• 

Indicator 1: EU 
labour and skills 
shortages continue 
to be addressed 
through existing 
tools at national and 
European level. 
Indicator 2: EU 
labour and skills 
shortages continue 
to be addressed 
through existing 
tools at national and 
European level. 
Indicator 3: EU 
labour and skills 
shortages continue 
to be addressed 
through existing 
tools at national and 
European level. 
Indicator 4:  EU 
labour and skills 
shortages continue 
to be addressed 
through existing 
tools at national and 
European level. 

Indicator 1: IT 
management of 
the EU Talent 
Pool. 
Indicator 2: 
Public 
Employment 
Services, 
European 
Commission, 
Cedefop.  
Indicator 3: 
European 
Commission.  
Indicator 4: 
National 
migration 
authorities. 

• 

• 

• 

283 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Objective  

Indicators 

Baseline  

Data source(s) 

Frequency  of 
collection 

Stakeholder involved 

Specific objective 1: Ensure more effective international job matching 

Facilitate  a 
faster  and 
in 
simplified 
international job matching 

process 

5.  Most searched types of 
jobs  in  the  EU  Talent 
Pool by TCNs. 

6.  Percentage  of  matches 
initial 

that  pass 
stages of recruitment.  

the 

7.  No.  of  candidates  who 
benefit from recruitment 
facilitation measures. 
8.  Outcome  of  the  quality 
for 
assurance  checks 
employers registered to 
the EU Talent Pool.  
9.  No. of users (TNCs and 
employers) who use the 
searching and matching 
possibility 
the 
platform. 

of 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

Indicator  5:  TCNs 
existing 
use 
possibilities 
for 
international 
recruitment.  
Indicator  6:  TCNs 
existing 
use 
possibilities 
for 
international 
recruitment.  
Indicator  7:  Existing 
recruitment 
facilitation 
procedures which are 
limited.  
Indicator  8:  Existing 
quality 
assurance 
checks performed by 
Public 
the 
Employment 
Services  of  each 
Member  States  and 
other actors.  
Indicator  9:  TCNs 
and  employers  using 
existing 
other 
possibilities 
for 
international 
recruitment.  

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

Indicator  5:  Based  on 
data  extracted  from  the 
EU  Talent  Pool  platform 
and  data  from  National 
Contact Points. 
Indicator  6:  Based  on 
data  extracted  from  the 
EU  Talent  Pool  platform 
and  data  from  National 
Contact Points. 
Indicator  7:  Based  on 
data  extracted  from  the 
EU  Talent  Pool  platform 
and  data  from  National 
Contact Points.  
Indicator 
Data 
8: 
extracted  from  the  EU 
Talent  Pool  platform. 
Data on the no. of verified 
employers  who  pass 
quality 
the 
number of employers who 
are  small  and  medium 
enterprises  (SMEs),  and 
the number of employers 
rejected.  
Indicator 
Data 
extracted  from  the  EU 
Talent Pool platform. 

checks, 

9: 

Bi-annually 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

Indicator 5: IT 
management of 
the EU Talent. 
Pool, 
Indicator 6: IT 
management of 
the EU Talent. 
Pool, National 
Contact Points. 
Indicator 7: 
National Contact 
Points. 
Indicator 8: IT 
management of 
the EU Talent. 
Pool. 
Indicator 9: IT 
management of 
the EU Talent. 
Pool. 

284 

 
 
 
 
 
Objective  

Indicators 

Baseline  

Data source(s) 

Facilitate 
interoperability 
with  existing  platforms  in 
international recruitment 

Talent  Pool 

10.  No.  of  platforms  that  the 
is 
EU 
interoperable 
with 
(private/EU-level/national-
level). 

11.  No. of users accessing the 
from 
interoperable 

EU  Talent  Pool 
platforms 
with the initiative. 

• 

• 

Indicator 10: No 
platforms 
interoperable for the 
scope of 
international 
recruitment. 
Indicator 11: No 
users.  

• 

• 

Indicator  10:  Data  from 
the  EU  Talent  Pool 
platform.   
Portal 
Indicator 
analytics  extracted  from 
the  EU  Talent  Pool 
platform or portal analytics 
of national websites. 

11: 

Frequency  of 
collection 
Annually 

Specific objective 2: Improve comparability of skills and qualifications obtained in third countries with those required at national level 

access 

to 
Facilitate 
transparent 
and 
accessible  information  for 
TCNs 
employers 
about requirements on the 
recognition  of  skills  and 
qualifications 
EU 
countries  

and 

in 

12.  Use of transparency and 
comparability tools438. 

• 

13.  No. of TCNs and 

employers demanding 
post-admission validation. 

Stakeholder involved 

• 

• 

Indicator 10: IT 
management of 
the EU Talent 
Pool. 
Indicator 11: IT 
management of 
the EU Talent 
Pool, National 
Contact Points. 

• 

• 

Indicator 12: IT 
management of 
the EU Talent 
Pool.  
Indicator 13: IT 
management of 
the EU Talent 
Pool. 

Annually 

Indicator  12:  A  user 
for 
satisfaction  survey 
both 
and 
candidates 
employers  will  provide 
feedback in relation to the 
platform,  and  this  survey 
will 
include  questions 
about  the  usefulness  of 
and 
transparency 
comparability tools.  
Indicator  13:  Data  on 
usage extracted from the 
EU Talent Pool platform 

12: 

Indicator 
Existing 
and 
transparency 
comparability 
tools 
provided  at  EU  and 
national level. 
Indicator 
13: 
Existing  services  of 
post-admission 
validation.  

Indicator 14: 
Existing assistance 
services from Public 
Employment 
Services and private 
actors.  

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

Provide 
personalised 
support  and  guidance  on 
of 
validation/recognition 
qualifications  and  skills 
obtained in third countries  

14.  No.  of  TCNs  and 
provided 
personalised 

employers 
with 
support and guidance. 

15.  Effectiveness of support 

services. 

14: 

Indicator 
Data 
extracted  from  the  EU 
Talent Pool platform.  
Indicator 15: Information 
qualitative 
from 

a 

Annually 

• 

• 

Indicator 14: IT 
management of 
the EU Talent 
Pool. 
Indicator 15: 
Management of 

438 E.g. EU Skills Profile Tool for Third-Country Nationals, Europass, European Qualifications Framework and Quality Frameworks from third countries, the European multilingual Classification of Skills 
Competences, Occupations and Qualifications (ESCO). 

285 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Objective  

Indicators 

Baseline  

Data source(s) 

Frequency  of 
collection 

Stakeholder involved 

assessment with users of 
the EU Talent Pool.  

the EU Talent 
Pool.  

• 

Indicator 15: 
Existing support 
services provided by 
existing platforms for 
international 
recruitment of TCNs.  

Specific objective 3: Improve understanding and access to immigration procedures 

on 

Promote  better  access  to 
information 
rules, 
procedures, 
of 
responsibilities 
competent  authorities  to 
TCNs 
in  dealing  with 
immigration procedures 

16.  Usefulness 
information 
through 
Immigration Portal. 

of 
the 
provided 
EU 

the 

17.  Platform 

traffic 

on 
relevant  sections  (i.e. 
share  of  unique  visitors 
/  registered  users  who 
immigration 
visit 
information 
sections, 
average reading time).  

Provide  tailored  guidance 
on 
immigration 
procedures 

18.  No.  of  candidates  and 
employers  provided  with 
tailored  assistance 
in 
international recruitment.  

• 

• 

• 

Indicator 16: User 
satisfaction survey with 
candidates about the 
usefulness and relevance 
of the information 
provided in the EU 
Immigration Portal as part 
of the EU Talent Pool.  
Indicator 17: Data 
extracted from the EU 
Talent Pool.  

• 

• 

Indicator 
16: 
Annually. 
Indicator 
17: 
Monthly. 

• 

• 

Indicator 16:  IT 
management of 
the EU Talent 
Pool, European 
Commission.  
Indicator 17: IT 
management of 
the EU Talent 
Pool. 

Indicator 18: Data from 
National Contact Points.   

Annually 

• 

Indicator 18: 
National Contact 
Points.  

• 

• 

• 

Indicator  16:  The 
current version of the 
EU 
Immigration 
Portal439.  
Indicator  17:  No 
traffic on the relevant 
sections.  

18: 
Indicator 
Number of TCNs and 
employers  provided 
personalised 
with 
by 
assistance 
existing  NCPs  and 
private actors. 

Specific objective 4: Incentivise cooperation on migration with third countries as part of a Talent Partnership 

cooperation 
Improve 
between EU countries and 
third  countries  part  of  a 
Talent Partnership 

19.  No. of Member States and 
third countries involved in 
Talent Partnerships. 

• 

Indicators 
19:  
Talent  Partnerships 
continue  to  develop 
with 
further 

• 

Indicator 19: Data 
collected on all existing 
Talent Partnerships. 

Annually 

• 

Indicator 19: 
European 
Commission, 
Steering Group, 

439 https://immigration-portal.ec.europa.eu/index_en 

286 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Objective  

Indicators 

Baseline  

Data source(s) 

20.  No.  of  registered  TCNs 
coming 
third 
countries  part  of  a  Talent 
Partnership. 

from 

• 

limited 

potentially 
scalable mobilities. 
Indicator  20:  Talent 
Partnerships 
continue  to  develop 
further 
with 
potentially 
limited 
scalable mobilities. 

• 

Indicator 20: Data 
extracted from the EU 
Talent Pool. 

Source: elaboration of the contractor (2023)

Frequency  of 
collection 

Stakeholder involved 

• 

National Contact 
Points. 
Indicator 20: 
National Contact 
Points. 

287 

 
 
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