Key figures on Europe : 2023 edition.
Date: 2023-08-03
Institutions: Eurostat
Subjects: EU statistics, agricultural policy, economic statistics, economy, education policy, energy policy, health policy, industrial policy, international trade, labour market, population policy, regional statistics, research and development, social policy, transport policy

Belgium
Bulgaria
Czechia
Denmark
Germany
Estonia
Ireland
Greece

BE
BG
CZ
DK
DE
EE
IE
EL

Spain
France
Croatia
Italy
Cyprus
Latvia
Lithuania
Luxembourg

ES
FR
HR
IT
CY
LV
LT
LU

Hungary
Malta
Netherlands
Austria
Poland
Portugal
Romania
Slovenia

HU
MT
NL
AT
PL
PT
RO
SI

Slovakia
Finland
Sweden

Iceland
Liechtenstein
Norway
Switzerland

SK
FI
SE

IS
LI
NO
CH

Key figures on Europe

2023 edition

Printed by Imprimerie Bietlot in Belgium

Manuscript completed in June 2023

This document should not be considered as representative of the European Commission’s official 
position.

Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2023

© European Union, 2023

The reuse policy of European Commission documents is implemented based on Commission Decision 
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Except otherwise noted, the reuse of this document is authorised under a Creative Commons Attribution 
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Cover and images: © EU original, additional elements Freepik.com

Maps, administrative boundaries © EuroGeographics © UN-FAO © Turkstat

Kosovo – this designation is without prejudice to positions on status, and is in line with UNSCR 1244/1999 
and the ICJ Opinion on the Kosovo declaration of independence.

The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on the maps do not imply official 
endorsement or acceptance by the European Union.

Theme: General and regional statistics
Collection: Flagship publications

Print:  ISBN 978-92-68-04392-9 
PDF:  ISBN 978-92-68-04391-2 

ISSN 1830-7892  doi:10.2785/42580 
KS-El-23-001-EN C
ISSN 2315-201X  doi:10.2785/494153  KS-EI-23-001-EN-N

Foreword

This sixth edition of Key figures on Europe follows on from the 
success of the five previous editions. It aims to provide innovative 
and intuitive visualisations and concise text so that users can 
rapidly obtain an understanding of the overall situation in the 
European Union (EU) as well as the differences between EU 
Member States.

Key figures on Europe contains a selection of key indicators 
at both EU and individual Member State level, drawing on 
the rich collection of data available. It provides an insight into 
recent developments across the EU with regard to: people and 
society; the economy and business; the environment and natural 
resources.

The statistical indicators presented in the 2023 edition may be 
used to assess the economic and social effects of the Russian 
military aggression against Ukraine and the lifting of COVID-19 
restrictions and measures on the EU and its Member States. 

You can find more up-to-date information on a wide range of 
socioeconomic issues in Statistics Explained, a portal that forms 
part of Eurostat’s official website, presenting statistical topics in an easily understandable way. The latest and most 
complete data can also be downloaded from the Eurostat website.

I hope that you find this publication interesting and useful both in your work and your daily life.

Mariana Kotzeva
Director-General, Eurostat

 ForewordKey figures on Europe – 2023 edition3Abstract

Key figures on Europe presents a selection of statistical data on the European Union 
(EU). Most data cover the EU and its Member States as well as the EFTA countries. This 
publication may be viewed as an introduction to EU statistics and provides a starting 
point for those who wish to explore the wide range of data that are freely available 
on Eurostat’s website at https:/ec.europa.eu/eurostat; they are complemented by a 
comprehensive selection of online articles in Statistics Explained.

Editors

Nina Jere, Annika Johansson and Helene Strandell
Eurostat, Unit B4 – Dissemination and user support

Contact details

Eurostat
Bâtiment Joseph Bech
5, rue Alphonse Weicker
2721 Luxembourg
E-mail: estat-user-support@ec.europa.eu

Production and layout

Giovanni Albertone, Simon Allen and Andrew Redpath – INFORMA s.à r.l.

For more information please consult

Eurostat’s website: https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat
Statistics Explained: https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained

Acknowledgements

The editors would like to thank colleagues in Eurostat who were involved in the 
preparation of this publication.

 Key figures on Europe – 2023 edition4AbstractTable of contents

Foreword 

Introduction 

1.  People and society 

Population 
Health 
Education 
Labour market 
Living conditions 
Digital society 

2.  Economy and business 
Economy and finance 
Prices 
Household consumption expenditure 
Government finance 
International trade 
Business 
Research and development 
Tourism 

3.  Environment and natural resources 

Transport 
Energy 
Environment 
Agriculture 
Fisheries 
Forestry 

3

6

9
10
16
18
21
27
30

33
34
36
39
40
42
46
53
54

57
58
63
68
72
74
75

 Table of contentsKey figures on Europe – 2023 edition5Introduction

Eurostat is the statistical office of the European 
Union (EU) situated in Luxembourg. Its mission is to 
provide high quality statistics for Europe, such as key 
information on Europe’s society, its economy and the 
environment that are needed by both citizens and 
decision makers.

Key figures on Europe is published every year: it 
focuses on annual data. The 2023 edition describes 
the situation in the EU and the European Free Trade 
Association (EFTA) countries, with the most recent 
data generally for 2021 or 2022 (depending on the 
source). As a consequence, the recovery from the 
COVID-19 crisis and the impact of the Russian military 
aggression against Ukraine may be seen for a variety 
of indicators.

Structure of the publication

Key figures on Europe provides users of official 
statistics with an overview of the wealth of 
information that is available on Eurostat’s website and 
within its online databases. It has been conceived to 
offer a balanced set of indicators for a broad cross-
section of information covering socioeconomic and 
environmental developments in the EU.

Key figures on Europe is divided into an introduction 
and three main chapters. The introduction includes 
information concerning data coverage and more 
generally how to access European statistics and 
supporting sources of information. The main 
chapters treat the following areas: people and society 
(population, health, education, the labour market, 
living conditions and the digital society); economy 

and business (GDP, prices, household consumption, 
government finance, international trade, business, 
research and development, and tourism); 
environment and natural resources (transport, energy, 
environment, agriculture, fisheries and forestry).

Each chapter presents a set of key indicators: a great 
deal more information can be found when consulting 
Eurostat’s website, which contains subject-specific 
publications, online articles and databases covering a 
broad and comprehensive range of data.

Data extraction and coverage

Data extraction

The statistical data presented in this publication were 
extracted at the start of May 2023.

Spatial data coverage

This publication presents information for the EU (a 
sum/average covering the 27 current Member States 
of the EU) as well as the individual EU Member States 
and the four EFTA countries. Data for consumer 
prices are an exception insofar as the composition of 
the EU aggregate changes over time (reflecting the 
composition of the EU as Member States join/leave 
the EU).

The order of the EU Member States in the figures 
usually reflects their ranking according to the values 
for (one of) the indicator(s) illustrated.

The map on the inside cover page identifies the 
EU Member States and EFTA countries, as well as 
showing the location of their capital cities.

 IntroductionKey figures on Europe – 2023 edition6Codes for EU Member States 
and EFTA countries

BE  Belgium
BG  Bulgaria
CZ  Czechia
DK  Denmark
DE  Germany
EE  Estonia
Ireland
IE 
EL  Greece
ES  Spain
FR  France
HR  Croatia

IT 
Italy
CY  Cyprus
LV  Latvia
LT  Lithuania
LU  Luxembourg
HU  Hungary
MT  Malta
NL  Netherlands
AT  Austria
PL  Poland
PT  Portugal

RO  Romania
SI  Slovenia
SK  Slovakia
FI  Finland
SE  Sweden

Iceland
IS 
LI  Liechtenstein
NO Norway
CH  Switzerland

Temporal data coverage

If data for a reference year (or reference period) are 
not available for a particular country, then efforts 
have been made to complete the coverage using data 
for recent previous reference years (these exceptions 
are footnoted). Particular attention should be paid to 
these deviations when the standard reference year 
is 2020 or 2021, as for some indicators – particularly 
those impacted by the COVID-19 crisis – large 
changes in 2020 and/or 2021 mean that earlier data 
may not be a good proxy for missing 2020 or 2021 
data.

Notes and flags

Notes and flags are means of explaining and defining 
specific characteristics of particular data. In this 
publication, these have been restricted as far as 
possible in order to allow more space for illustrating 
the data. The publication includes only the main 
notes required for interpretation of the data and to 
highlight when data for one year have been replaced 
with data for another. A full set of notes and flags are 
available on Eurostat’s website via online data code(s) 
presented for each illustration.

Accessing European statistics

The simplest way to obtain Eurostat’s wide range of 
statistical information is through its website. Eurostat 
provides users with free access to its databases and its 
publications in portable document format (PDF). The 
website is updated daily and presents the latest and 
most comprehensive statistical information available 
on the EU, its Member States, EFTA and enlargement 
countries (for some datasets, information may be 
provided for a wider range of non-EU countries).

Eurostat online data codes, such as nama_10_gdp, 
allow easy access to the most recent data on 
Eurostat’s website. In this publication, these online 
data codes are given as part of the source for each 
illustration.

Some of the indicators presented in this publication 
are relatively complex. Statistics Explained provides 
a comprehensive online glossary with definitions for 
a broad range of statistical indicators, concepts and 
terms; it is organised under thematic headings.

 IntroductionKey figures on Europe – 2023 edition71People and society

Population

Population
(million inhabitants, 1 January 2022)

EU

446.7 million

DE

Source: Eurostat (online data code: demo_gind)

Over the last decade, the total number of inhabitants 
in the EU grew at a relatively slow pace, when 
compared with historical developments. During 2020 
and 2021, the EU’s population declined; to some 
extent this reflected the impact of the COVID-19 crisis. 
As of 1 January 2022, there were 446.7 million people 
living in the EU, which was 265 000 less than a year 
before and 750 000 less than on 1 January 2020.

There are considerable differences in population 
levels between EU Member States: on 1 January 2022, 
the number of inhabitants ranged from 0.5 million 
in Malta up to 83.2 million in Germany. Together, 
Germany, France, Italy, Spain and Poland were home 
to almost two thirds (66.1 %) of the EU’s population.

1People and societyKey figures on Europe – 2023 edition10Population
(EU, 1 January 1960–2100)

Source: Eurostat (online data codes: 
demo_gind and proj_23np) and United 
Nations, Department of Economic 
and Social Affairs, Population Division 
(2022). World Population Prospects 
2022, Online Edition

In 1974, the EU’s share of the global population fell 
below 10.0 %. This downward pattern continued 
through to 2022 by when the EU accounted for 5.6 % of 
the world’s population. According to information based 
on Eurostat’s baseline projections, the population of 
the EU will grow, albeit slowly, up until the year 2026 

(453.3 million inhabitants), after which it is projected to 
fall back to 419.5 million by 2100. These developments, 
coupled with faster population growth in the rest of 
the world, mean that it is projected that around 1 in 
25 people – or 4.1 % of the global population – will be 
living in the EU by the turn of the century.

Population change
(% of total population, 1 January 2012–2022)

EU overall change 

1.4 %

Source: Eurostat (online 
data code: demo_gind)

Between 1 January 2012 and 2022, the EU’s 
population rose 6.2 million (or 1.4 %); net inward 
migration was the driving factor behind this growth.. 
The rate of population increase during this period 
was highest in Malta and Luxembourg, with their 
populations increasing overall by almost one quarter 
(24.8 % and 23.0 %, respectively); at the other end 
of the range, the biggest decreases in percentage 
terms were observed in Croatia (down 9.7 %) and 

Latvia (down 8.3 %). A natural decrease in the 
number of inhabitants (more deaths than births) in 
Latvia, Lithuania, Croatia, Romania and Greece was 
reinforced by net outward migration (more people 
emigrating than immigrants arriving) leading to 
a decline in population numbers. There was also 
an overall decline in the populations of Bulgaria, 
Hungary, Portugal, Poland and Italy, despite net 
inward migration.

1People and societyKey figures on Europe – 2023 edition11EU average
1.53 births
per woman

Fertility rate
(live births per woman, 2021)

In developed countries, a total fertility 
rate of 2.1 is considered to be the 
replacement level: in other words, this 
is the average number of live births 
per woman that is required to keep 
the total number of inhabitants at 
a constant level (in the absence of 
migration).

In 2021, the total fertility rate ranged 
from a high of 1.84 live births per 
woman in France and 1.83 in Czechia, 
down to 1.13 in Malta.

Ageing population
(ratio, number of people aged 20–64 
years per person aged ≥ 65 years, EU, 
2002, 2022 and 2100)

Population ageing has been observed across 
much of Europe in recent decades. Changes 
in population structure can have serious 
implications for issues such as pension funds, 
government revenues and the provision of 
services such as health and social care. The 
number of working-age people (defined here 
as those aged from 20 to 64 years) in the EU 
expressed relative to the number of older 
persons (aged 65 years or over) fell from 3.8 
in 2002 to 2.8 by 2022. According to Eurostat’s 
baseline projections, this dependency ratio is 
expected to fall to 1.5 by 2100.

Source: Eurostat (online data code: demo_find)

Source: Eurostat (online data codes: demo_pjanind and proj_23np)

1People and societyKey figures on Europe – 2023 edition12Citizenship of the population
(%, share of total population, 1 January 2022)

On 1 January 2022, there were 
37.5 million foreign citizens living 
in the Member States of the EU. 
This figure was composed of 
13.7 million persons who were 
citizens of EU Member States 
other than the one in which they 
resided and 23.8 million citizens 
of non-EU countries. Note that 

citizens of other EU Member States

EU
3.1 %
5.3 %

non-EU citizens

there was also a small number 
of stateless persons and persons 
whose citizenship was unknown 
(not shown; together they 
accounted for 0.08 % of the EU’s 
total population).

In relative terms, foreign citizens 
accounted for 8.4 % of the total 
population in the EU, with this 
share ranging from almost half 
(47.1 %) of the population in 
Luxembourg to less than 1.0 % 
in Croatia. A majority (20) of the 
EU Member States reported a 
higher number of non-EU citizens 
than foreign citizens of other 
EU Member States within their 
populations.

Note: ranked on the total share for all foreign 
citizens, including stateless and unknown. 

Source: Eurostat (online data code: migr_pop1ctz)

1People and societyKey figures on Europe – 2023 edition13First time asylum applications
(number of applications in EU Member States, 2022)
Having peaked during the migrant crisis of 2015 
and 2016 at over one million first time asylum 
applications, the number of applications to the EU 
had fallen to just over half a million in 2021. However, 
there was a rebound in 2022 (up 64.0 %), with the 
total number of asylum applications rising to 881 220 

(equivalent to 0.2 % of the EU’s population). The 
highest numbers of asylum applications came from 
Syrian (131 970) and Afghan (113 495) citizens. Within 
the EU Member States, the most common countries 
for lodging an application included Germany, France, 
Spain and Austria.

Total applicants 
to the EU

881 220

Note: rounded data. Includes only applications made by non-EU citizens. 

Source: Eurostat (online data code: 
migr_asyappctza)

1People and societyKey figures on Europe – 2023 edition14First time asylum applications
(number per 100 000 inhabitants, 2022)

In 2022, there were 197 first time asylum 
applications lodged in the EU per 100 000 
inhabitants. This figure varied considerably 
between EU Member States with the 
highest ratios, by far, in Cyprus (2 386 
applications per 100 000 inhabitants) and 
Austria (1 185 applications per 100 000 
inhabitants). At the lower end of the 
range, there were two Member States 
that recorded single-digit ratios: Slovakia 
(9 applications lodged per 100 000 
inhabitants) and Hungary (zero applications 
per 100 000 inhabitants; a total of 45 first 
time asylum applications were lodged in 
Hungary during the course of 2022).

Note: applications made by non-EU citizens.

Source: Eurostat (online data codes: migr_asyappctza and demo_gind)

1People and societyKey figures on Europe – 2023 edition15Health

Life expectancy at birth
(years, EU, 2002–2021)

The impact of the COVID-19 crisis led to a fall in 
life expectancy in both 2020 and – to a lesser 
degree – 2021. Life expectancy at birth across 
the EU in 2021 was 82.9 years for women and 
77.2 years for men. The narrowing gender gap 
witnessed during the previous two decades was 
reversed during the pandemic.

Note: the y-axis is cut.

Source: Eurostat (online data code: demo_mlexpec)

Life expectancy at birth
(years, 2021)

EU 

80.1 years

Note: the y-axis is cut. DE and IE: 2020.

Source: Eurostat (online data code: demo_mlexpec)

Among the EU Member States, the highest average 
(for both sexes) life expectancy at birth in 2021 was 
recorded in Spain (at 83.3 years), while the lowest 
was in Bulgaria (71.4 years). Women had higher life 
expectancy than men in every EU Member State, with 
particularly large gender gaps in the Baltic Member 

States – Latvia (9.8 years), Lithuania (9.3 years) and 
Estonia (8.7 years). The narrowest gaps were recorded 
in the Netherlands (3.3 years), Malta (3.5 years) and 
Sweden (3.6 years).

Key figures on Europe – 2023 edition16People and society1Excess mortality
(%, compared with average annual baseline deaths, 2019–2021)

Note: ranked on excess mortality in 2021. The baseline number of deaths 
is the average annual number of deaths during the period 2016–2019.

Source: Eurostat (online data code: demo_magec)

In 2021, there were 5.3 million deaths in the EU. 
Compared with 2019 (before the onset of the COVID-19 
crisis), the number of deaths in 2021 was 644 261 higher 
in absolute terms, up 13.8 %. In the EU, excess mortality 
was considerably more volatile and greater in 2020 and 
2021 than in the years prior to the pandemic.

Excess mortality was greater in 2021 than in 2020 
in a majority (20) of EU Member States. The largest 
decreases in excess mortality between 2020 and 2021 

were observed in Belgium and Spain. The highest rates 
of excess mortality in 2021 were observed in Slovakia 
(37.4 %) and Bulgaria (37.3 %), with rates also above 
25.0 % in Poland, Romania and Czechia. By contrast, 
there were eight Member States where the number of 
deaths in 2021 was less than 10.0 % above the baseline 
average (for the period 2016–2019). In 2021, the lowest 
excess mortality rates were recorded in Sweden and 
Belgium.

1People and societyKey figures on Europe – 2023 edition17Education

Early leavers from education and training
(%, share of people aged 18–24 years, 2022)

The risk of poverty, unemployment or social exclusion is higher among 
people leaving school at a relatively young age. In 2022, the share of early 
leavers in the EU was 9.6 %, ranging from 15.6 % in Romania to 2.3 % in 
Croatia.

Young men (11.1 %) in the EU were more likely than young women (8.0 %) 
to be early leavers from education and training. In 2022, this gender gap 
was apparent in the vast majority of EU Member States (25 out of 27), 
with Bulgaria and Greece the only exceptions (with a higher share of early 
leavers among young women than young men). The largest difference 
between the sexes was recorded in Estonia, where the share of early 
leavers among young men was 6.8 percentage points higher than that for 
young women. Relatively wide gender gaps were also observed in Spain 
and Latvia. By contrast, there was almost no difference between the sexes 
in terms of their share of early leavers in Slovakia and Slovenia.

EU

9.6 %

Note: early leavers are defined 
as people who have attained 
at most a lower secondary 
education and who are not 
involved in further education or 
training. 

Source: Eurostat (online data 
code: edat_lfse_14)

Key figures on Europe – 2023 edition18People and society161 %  

of general upper
secondary pupils 
in the EU studied 
two or more foreign 
languages  
in 2021

Learning two or more foreign languages
(%, share of students in general upper secondary 
education, 2021)

Some 61.0 % of general upper secondary students in 
the EU were studying two or more foreign languages 
in 2021. At least 99.0 % of all general upper secondary 
students in Luxembourg, France and Romania were 
studying two or more foreign languages, compared 
with less than 15.0 % in Ireland and Portugal.

Note: IS, 2019.

Source: Eurostat (online data code: educ_uoe_lang02)

Young people neither in employment nor in education and training
(%, share of people aged 15–24 years, 2022)

The share of young people (aged 15–24 years) neither in employment 
nor in education and training (NEET) concerns people who were not 
employed and had not received any form of education or training during 
a specified period of time. In 2022, the NEET rate for young people in the 
EU stood at 9.6 %. The rate in Romania (17.5 %) was more than six times 
as high as that observed in the Netherlands (2.8 %).

Note: CH, 2020.

Source: Eurostat (online data code: edat_lfse_20)

1People and societyKey figures on Europe – 2023 edition19Fields of study for university graduates
(% share of all graduates, EU, 2020)

In 2020, there were 4.2 million tertiary 
education graduates across the EU: 
female university graduates (2.4 million) 
outnumbered their male counterparts 
(1.8 million). This pattern of more female than 
male graduates was repeated for a majority of 
fields of study and was particularly apparent 
among those having studied education, 
where there were more than four times as 
many female as male graduates. By contrast, 
there were almost four times as many male as 
female graduates among those having studied 
information and communication technologies.

4.2 million

university graduates in the EU

Note: ranked on the total share of graduates (male and 
female combined). 

Source: Eurostat (online data codes: educ_uoe_grad01 
and educ_uoe_grad03)

1People and societyKey figures on Europe – 2023 edition20Labour market

Annual change in the labour force composition
(%, persons aged 20–64 years, EU, 2022)

Source: Eurostat (online data codes: lfsi_emp_a, lfsi_pt_a and lfsa_ugan)

Annual change in the labour force composition by age group
(%, EU, 2022)

Source: Eurostat (online data codes: lfsi_emp_a, lfsi_pt_a and lfsa_ugan)

Following the heavy impact of the COVID-19 crisis on 
the EU labour market in 2020 and to a lesser extent in 
2021, in 2022 there was a perceptible return to work: 
the size of the EU labour force (for persons aged 20–64 
years) increased 1.1 % compared with a year before. The 
number of persons in employment grew 2.0 %, while 
there were also increases in the number of part-time 
workers (up 1.0 %) and the number of employed persons 
with a temporary contract (up 1.2 %). By contrast, the 
number of unemployed persons fell 12.2 %.

In 2022, a core group of working-age people (aged 
25 to 54 years) accounted for almost three quarters 

(72.0 %) of the EU’s labour force (employed and 
unemployed persons) and for a slightly higher share 
of the total number of persons employed (72.5 %).

Young people (aged 15–24 years) are much more 
likely than older people to be in precarious work, 
such as agency, temporary, seasonal or casual work, 
or part-time employment. While young people 
accounted for 8.2 % of the total number of employed 
persons in the EU in 2022, their shares of part-time 
employment (15.2 %) and employment with a 
temporary contract (29.6 %) were considerably higher.

1People and societyKey figures on Europe – 2023 edition21Employment rate
(%, share of population aged 20–64 years, 2022)

EU
74.6 %

Source: Eurostat (online data code: lfsi_emp_a)

The EU employment rate – which measures 
the share of the population aged 20–64 
years who were in work – was 74.6 % in 
2022. There were eight EU Member States 
where at least 80.0 % of adults aged 20–64 
years were in employment: the highest 
rates were recorded in the Netherlands 
(82.9 %), Sweden (82.2 %) and Estonia 
(81.9 %). At the other end of the range, less 
than 70.0 % of adults aged 20–64 years 
were in employment in Croatia (69.7 %), 
Spain (69.5 %), Romania (68.5 %), Greece 
(66.3 %) and Italy (64.8 %).

1People and societyKey figures on Europe – 2023 edition22Annual change in the employment rate
(percentage points based on share of population 
aged 20–64 years, 2022)

Having fallen 1.0 percentage points between 2019 
and 2020 (to 71.7 %), the EU’s employment rate for 
people aged 20–64 years rebounded, climbing to 
73.1 % in 2021. There was further growth in 2022, as 
the rate rose an additional 1.5 percentage points to 
74.6 %. In 2022, employment rates in all EU Member 
States were higher than they had been in 2019, prior 
to the COVID-19 crisis.

Between 2021 and 2022, the employment rate for 
people aged 20–64 years rose in each of the EU 
Member States. The biggest annual increases were 
observed in Greece (up 3.7 percentage points) and 
Ireland (3.3 points). France and Luxembourg were 
the only Member States where the employment rate 
did not increase by at least 1.0 percentage points.

EL
+3.7 
points

Source: Eurostat (online data code: lfsi_emp_a)

EU
+1.5 
points

LU
+0.7 
points

1People and societyKey figures on Europe – 2023 edition23Unemployment rate
(%, share of labour force, EU, 2009–2022)

Source: Eurostat 
(online data code: une_rt_a)

In 2009, the EU unemployment rate for people aged 
15–74 years was 9.3 %. In the wake of the global financial 
and economic crisis, the unemployment rate rose 
sharply, peaking at 11.6 % in 2013. During the following 
six years, the unemployment rate fell each and every 
year, to stand at 6.8 % by 2019. In 2020, as labour markets 
were impacted by the COVID-19 crisis, the rate increased 
to 7.2 %. This was followed by a modest decrease in 

2021 and a more marked decrease in 2022. The EU 
unemployment rate stood at 6.2 % in 2022.

The EU youth unemployment rate (for people aged 
15–24 years) was 14.5 % in 2022, which was 2.3 times as 
high as the rate for the whole population (aged 15–74 
years) and 3.2 times as high as the rate for older persons 
(aged 55–74 years).

1People and societyKey figures on Europe – 2023 edition24Unemployment rate 
(% share of labour force aged 15–74 years, 2022)

In 2022, the highest unemployment rates among 
the EU Member States for people aged 15–74 
years were recorded in Spain (12.9 %) and Greece 
(12.5 %); none of the other Member States 
recorded double-digit rates.

Relatively low unemployment rates – close to 
3.0 % – were recorded in Germany, Malta and 
Poland, while the lowest rate was observed in 
Czechia (2.2 %).

EU
6.2 %

Source: Eurostat (online data code: une_rt_a)

Annual change in the unemployment rate 
(percentage points based on share of labour force aged 15–74 years, 2022)

Compared with 2021, the unemployment rate in 
2022 for people aged 15–74 years was unchanged 
in Romania; it fell in all of the remaining EU 

Member States. The largest falls were recorded in 
Greece (down 2.2 percentage points), Spain (down 
1.9 points) and Ireland (down 1.7 points).

Source: Eurostat (online data code: une_rt_a)

1People and societyKey figures on Europe – 2023 edition25Unadjusted gender pay gap
(%, difference between earnings of female and male employees as a percentage 
of earnings of male employees, based on average gross hourly earnings, 2021)

The unadjusted gender pay gap 
provides an overall picture of the 
differences in pay between men 
and women. It measures the gap 
in hourly earnings between male 
and female employees in industry, 
construction and services among 
enterprises with 10 or more 
employees.

In 2021, average hourly earnings 
for women across the EU were 
12.7 % lower than those for men. 
The widest gender pay gap was 
recorded in Estonia, where women’s 
earnings were 20.5 % lower than 
those of men. By contrast, the 
gap was less than 5.0 % in Poland 
(4.5 %), Slovenia (3.8 %) and 
Romania (3.6 %). A different pattern 
was observed in Luxembourg, as 
the average earnings of women 
were marginally higher than those 
of men (by 0.2 %).

Women in the EU 
earn on average 

12.7 % 

less than men

Note: IE, 2020; EL, 2018.

Source: Eurostat (online data code: earn_gr_gpgr2)

1People and societyKey figures on Europe – 2023 edition26Living conditions

People at risk of poverty or social exclusion
(million persons, EU, 2022)

In 2022, 95.3 million people, or 21.6 % of the 
EU population, were at risk of poverty or social 
exclusion. This means that they were in at 
least one of the following three conditions: 
at risk of poverty after social transfers; facing 
severe material and social deprivation; or 
living in a household with very low work 
intensity. The greatest risk of poverty or social 
exclusion was from income poverty, in other 
words, people who were at risk of poverty 
after social transfers: this condition was faced 
by 72.7 million people in 2022, among whom 
25.6 million were affected at the same time 
by one or both of the other two conditions. 
Compared with a year earlier, there were 
0.3 million fewer people at risk of poverty or 
social exclusion in 2022.

Source: Eurostat (online data code: ilc_pees01n)

People at risk of poverty or social exclusion
(% share of total population, 2022)

In 2022, the share of the population that was at risk 
of poverty or social exclusion was highest among the 
EU Member States in Romania (34.4 %) and Bulgaria 
(32.2 %). At least one in four of the population in 
Greece, Spain, Latvia and Estonia were also at risk of 

poverty or social exclusion. At the other end of the 
range, less than one in six people in the Netherlands, 
Slovakia, Finland, Poland and Slovenia were at risk 
of poverty or social exclusion, with a low of 11.8 % 
recorded in Czechia.

EU 

21.6 %

Note: CH, 2021. NO: 2020. IS: 2018.

Source: Eurostat (online data code: ilc_peps01n)

1People and societyKey figures on Europe – 2023 edition27Inability to face unexpected financial expenses
(% share of total population, 2022)

EU

31.5 %

Material deprivation refers to the enforced 
inability (rather than the choice not to do 
so) to pay for/afford specific expenses; 
one example is unexpected financial 
expenses. In 2022, almost one third 
(31.5 %) of the EU population living in 
private households were unable to face an 
unexpected financial expense. This share 
was 1.3 percentage points higher than in 
2021 (which may, at least in part, be linked 
to the growing cost-of-living crisis). More 
than two fifths of the population were 
unable to face an unexpected financial 
expense in 2022 in five of the EU Member 
States, with the highest share in Romania 
(47.9 %). By contrast, a relatively small 
proportion of the population in Malta and 
the Netherlands was unable to face such 
expenses (15.4 % and 14.6 % respectively).

Note: CH, 2021. NO: 2020. IS: 2018.

Source: Eurostat (online data code: ilc_mdes04)

1People and societyKey figures on Europe – 2023 edition28Inability to afford paying for  
a one-week annual holiday away from home
(% share of total population, 2022)

EU

28.6 %

Another component of material 
deprivation is the inability to afford one 
week of holiday away from home each 
year. In 2022, some 28.6 % of the EU 
population were unable to afford such a 
holiday. Note that these figures refer to 
an inability to afford a holiday and are 
not impacted by whether or not people 
could actually depart on holiday (for 
example, simply because they did not 
feel like taking a holiday). Some of the 
highest shares among the EU Member 
States – between two fifths and half 
of the population – were recorded in 
Hungary, Croatia, Bulgaria and Greece; a 
peak of 62.5 % was observed in Romania. 
By contrast, the share of the population 
that was unable to afford one week’s 
holiday away from home was around one 
tenth in Sweden (10.2 %) and was lower in 
Luxembourg (7.6 %).

Note: CH, 2021. NO: 2020. IS: 2018.

Source: Eurostat (online data code: ilc_mdes02)

1People and societyKey figures on Europe – 2023 edition29Digital society

Internet activities
(%, share of people aged 16–74 years, 2022)

Source: Eurostat (online data 
code: isoc_ci_ac_i)

The internet has become an integral part of most 
people’s lives, changing the way people study, 
work, communicate and enjoy their free time. In 
2022, 90.0 % of people (aged 16–74 years) in the 
EU declared they had used the internet during the 
previous three months. 

Across the EU, some of the internet activities most 
commonly performed in 2022 by people aged 16–74 

years included: sending/receiving e-mails (77.0 %), 
using instant messaging (71.8 %), finding information 
about goods and services (69.6 %) and telephoning 
or making video calls (65.5 %). A majority of people 
aged 16–74 years in the EU also used the internet 
(among other purposes) for reading online news sites 
/ newspapers / magazines (63.6 %), internet banking 
(59.7 %), participating in social networks (58.2 %) and 
seeking health information (52.0 %).

Key figures on Europe – 2023 edition30People and society1Internet activities
(%, share of people aged 16–74 years, EU, 2017 and 2022)

The proportion of people aged 16–74 years 
in the EU having participated in many of 
the most commonly performed internet 
activities grew between 2017 and 2022. 
As well as a continuation of a gradual 
well-established upward trend, the most 
recent developments may also reflect the 
impact of the COVID-19 crisis on some 
people’s internet activities. This was most 
apparent when looking at the use made 
of telephoning or video calls, as the share 
of people performing this activity rose 
28.5 percentage points between 2017 and 
2022. In a similar vein, given the widespread 
use of remote learning for schools, tertiary 
education and training during 2020 and 
2021, it is unsurprising that the share of 
the EU population using online learning 
material also increased, up 7.3 points; 
note that a large part of the school-age 
population (pupils aged less than 16 years) 
is not covered by these statistics. There 
was also a relatively large increase in the 
proportion of the EU population making use 
of internet banking, up 10.8 points between 
2017 and 2022.

As lockdown restrictions ended and people 
could once again participate in a broader 
range of leisure activities, participation 
rates for some of the most commonly 
performed internet activities fell. This was 
particularly notable for the share of the 
EU population aged 16–74 years seeking 
health information online; the proportion of 
people participating in this internet activity 
fell 3.3 percentage points between 2021 
and 2022.

Note: using instant messaging, not available for 2017.

Source: Eurostat (online data code: isoc_ci_ac_i)

1People and societyKey figures on Europe – 2023 edition31Using the internet for telephoning or video calls
(%, share of people aged 16–74 years, 2017 and 2022)

The share of people aged 16–74 years in the EU using the internet to make 
telephone or video calls increased 28.5 percentage points between 2017 
and 2022. The proportion of people using the internet to make such 
calls rose in each of the EU Member States during the period under 
consideration. The largest increases were recorded in Spain (up 
45.8 percentage points) and Ireland (up 42.0 points).

Note: IS and CH, 2021 instead of 2022.

Source: Eurostat (online data code: 
isoc_ci_ac_i)

Having risen rapidly at the onset of the COVID-19 crisis, 
the share of people in the EU making use of the 
internet for telephone or video calls rose at a 
slower pace in 2021, before almost stagnating in 
2022. A closer analysis of the latest data reveals that 
the EU Member States were almost evenly split, with 13 
Member States recording a fall in 2022 in their share of 
people using the internet to make telephone or video 
calls compared with 2021. The biggest decreases were 
registered in Austria and Slovenia, both down more 
than 5.0 percentage points.

1People and societyKey figures on Europe – 2023 edition322Economy and business

Economy and finance

GDP
(%, share of EU total, 2022)

EU GDP 

€15.8 trillion

Source: Eurostat (online data code: nama_10_gdp)

Gross domestic product (GDP) is an indicator used to measure 
the size and performance of an economy. It provides information 
on the value of goods and services produced during a given 
period. Within the EU, GDP was valued at €15.8 trillion in 2022. 
Germany had the largest economy among the EU Member States 
(€3.9 trillion, or 24.5 % of the EU total), followed by France (16.7 %) 
and Italy (12.1 %). At the other end of the range, Malta (0.1 %) had 
the smallest economy in the EU.

Key figures on Europe – 2023 edition34Economy and business2 
Real change in GDP
(%, annual change, based on chain-linked volumes, EU, 2000–2022)

Source: Eurostat (online data code: naida_10_gdp)

The real change in GDP shows the rate of change 
in economic output having removed the effects 
of price changes (inflation or deflation). Between 
2000 and 2008, the EU economy grew each year, 
with GDP rising 0.6–3.9 % in real terms. From 2009 
to 2013, the economy was strongly affected by 
the global financial and economic crisis, with GDP 
falling 4.3 % in 2009 and much smaller amounts 
in 2012 and 2013 (0.7 % and 0.1 %, respectively). 

Thereafter, the EU economy progressively 
recovered, with annual growth rates in the range 
of 1.6–2.8 % between 2014 and 2019. In 2020, the 
economy was heavily impacted by the COVID-19 
crisis (the direct health consequences and related 
restrictions) and GDP fell 5.6 %. GDP rebounded, 
rising 5.4 % in 2021 and growth was sustained the 
following year, when GDP rose a further 3.5 %.

GDP per inhabitant
(EU = 100, based on PPS, 2022)

GDP per inhabitant can be used to compare 
economic output of different sized economies. 
Within the EU, this ratio fell from €31 310 in 2019 
to €30 030 in 2020. However, it rebounded in 2021 
and then grew further in 2022, as the EU’s GDP 
per inhabitant climbed to €35 210. As the cost of 
living varies from place to place, the information 
presented here has been adjusted to reflect price 
level differences using an artificial currency unit 
called a purchasing power standard (PPS). Based 
on this measure, the relative living standards of 
individual EU Member States can be expressed 
in relation to the EU average (set to equal 100). 
In 2022, the highest value was recorded in 
Luxembourg, where GDP per inhabitant in PPS 
was 2.6 times as high as the EU average.  By 
contrast, GDP per inhabitant in Bulgaria was close 
to three fifths (58.7 %) of the EU average.

GDP per inhabitant in the EU

€35 210

Note: IS and NO, 2021. CH: 2020.

Source: Eurostat (online data code: nama_10_pc)

Key figures on Europe – 2023 edition352Economy and business 
Prices

Inflation rate
(%, annual change, 2022)

The inflation rate shows the change in the price of a basket 
of consumer goods and services. Prices in the EU increased 
0.7 % in 2020, 2.9 % in 2021, and 9.2 % in 2022. Double-digit 
price increases were observed in 12 of the EU Member States 
in 2022, with annual inflation highest in Estonia at 19.4 %.

Source: Eurostat (online data code: prc_hicp_aind)

Inflation rate
(%, annual rate of change, EU, average for 2015–2020, 2021 and 2022)

EU inflation was relatively modest during the period 
2015–2020. Thereafter, the rate of inflation accelerated 
and by December 2021 it was 5.3 %. This pattern 
continued into 2022, as price rises continued to 

increase up until a peak in October (when the inflation 
rate was 11.5 %). There were signs of slower price 
growth during the final two months of the year.

Source: Eurostat (online data code: prc_hicp_manr)

2Economy and businessKey figures on Europe – 2023 edition36Consumer prices
(%, annual rate of change, EU, 2021 and 2022)

In 2022, the EU’s overall inflation rate (covering all 
items) was 9.2 %. During the period 2015–2020 
the annual inflation rate had been in the range of 
0.1–1.9 %.

However, the sharp increase in overall prices 
experienced during 2021 and 2022 was not uniform, 
with marked differences between the different 
components that make up the all-items index; some 
of these differences may be linked to the impact 
of Russian military aggression against Ukraine. 

Housing, water and energy prices were up 18.0 % 
across the EU in 2022, transport prices up 12.1 %, and 
the price of food and non-alcoholic beverages up 
11.9 %. At the other end of the range, price increases 
for education, health, and clothing and footwear were 
relatively subdued (within the range of 2.0–3.0 %), 
while there was a modest fall (down 0.1 %) in the 
price of communications.

Source: Eurostat (online data code: prc_hicp_aind)

2Economy and businessKey figures on Europe – 2023 edition37Comparative price levels
(EU = 100, 2021)

Source: Eurostat (online data code: prc_ppp_ind)

Price level indices measure price differences between 
countries; these are expressed as a percentage of 
prices for the EU average, which is therefore set 
to equal 100. In 2021, the overall price level index 
was highest among the EU Member States in 
Luxembourg, Ireland and Denmark, all with values 
that were more than 40 % above the EU average. 
Price levels were around half the EU average in 
Romania and Bulgaria. There was a relatively low 
degree of variation in price levels for food and 

non-alcoholic beverages, with the highest prices in 
Luxembourg (25 % above the EU average) and the 
lowest in Romania (30 % below). A similar pattern 
existed for transport, with the highest prices in 
Denmark and Sweden (28 % above the EU average) 
and the lowest in Bulgaria and Romania (31 % below). 
By contrast, the price of housing, water and energy 
displayed a greater variation, from 94 % above the EU 
average in Ireland down to 64 % below in Bulgaria.

2Economy and businessKey figures on Europe – 2023 edition38Household 
consumption expenditure

Household budget structure
(%, share of total household consumption expenditure, EU, January 2022 and 2023)

In January 2023, the largest categories of 
household consumption expenditure in the 
EU were: food and non-alcoholic beverages; 
housing, water and energy; and transport. 
Together they accounted for close to half 
(47.1 %) of total expenditure. All three of these 
categories were characterised by high price 
increases during 2022, underlying their role in 
relation to the cost-of-living crisis.

The COVID-19 crisis impacted not only 
overall economic activity, but also household 
consumption patterns. Across the EU, the share 
of household expenditure on several categories 
commonly related to eating and living at home 
increased between January 2020 and January 
2021. However, with COVID-19 restrictions 
lifted, there was some evidence that household 
consumption was returning to its pre-pandemic 
structure. There was a rebound in the share 
of expenditure for activities outside the home 
between January 2022 and January 2023, most 
notably an increase of 2.1 percentage points for 
restaurants and hotels; there were also notable 
gains for recreation and culture and for transport 
(up 0.7 and 0.5 points, respectively).

Source: Eurostat (online data code: prc_hicp_inw)

2Economy and businessKey figures on Europe – 2023 edition39Government finance

General government deficit/surplus
(%, relative to GDP, 2021 and 2022)

In 2022, the general government deficit across the EU was 
equivalent to 3.4 % of GDP. Between 2021 and 2022 the deficit 
narrowed, reflecting the decreasing impact of the COVID-19 
crisis on government expenditure.

Six of the EU Member States recorded a budget surplus in 
2022; the highest was observed in Denmark (3.3 % of GDP). By 
contrast, Malta, Hungary and Romania had deficits that were 
greater than 5.0 % of GDP, with this ratio peaking at 8.0 % in 
Italy.

Source: Eurostat (online data code: 
gov_10dd_edpt1)

2Economy and businessKey figures on Europe – 2023 edition40General government gross debt
(%, relative to GDP, 2021 and 2022)

Source: Eurostat (online data code: gov_10dd_edpt1)

Consolidated gross debt in the EU was 84.0 % of GDP 
in 2022, down 6.0 percentage points from its peak of 
90.0 % in 2020 (reflecting the impact of the COVID-19 
crisis in that year). In 2022, consolidated debt was highest 
across the EU Member States in Greece at 171.3 % of GDP. 
Italy, Portugal, Spain, France and Belgium also recorded 
ratios of more than 100 %. At the other end of the range, 
Luxembourg and Bulgaria had ratios of debt to GDP that 
were below 25.0 % of GDP, with the lowest ratio observed 
in Estonia (18.4 %).

In a majority of the EU Member States, there was a fall in 
debt relative to GDP between 2021 and 2022. The biggest 
decrease was recorded in Greece (down 23.3 percentage 
points), while Cyprus, Portugal, Ireland and Croatia also 
recorded decreases in double digits. There were four 
Member States where debt as a share of GDP rose in 2022, 
with the highest increase in Czechia (up 2.1 points).

2Economy and businessKey figures on Europe – 2023 edition41International trade

International trade in goods with non-EU countries
(€ billion, EU, 2002–2022)

Having posted a trade surplus for goods during 10 
consecutive years from 2012 to 2021, the EU posted a deficit 
in 2022. Goods exported from the EU to non-EU countries 
were valued at €2 573 billion, which was €430 billion lower 
than the value of goods imported into the EU. The latest 
figures available suggest that world trade was booming in 
2022, with record highs for both exports and imports. Note 
that the data in this section are valued in current price terms 
and that part of the rapid increase in the value of trade may 
be attributed to price inflation, in particular for goods such 
as energy and food.

EU trade deficit

€430 billion

Source: Eurostat (online data code: ext_lt_intratrd)

2Economy and businessKey figures on Europe – 2023 edition42Top 10 partners for international trade in goods
(%, share of all partners, EU, 2022)

EU exports
EU imports

In 2022, the United States was the EU’s leading export 
market, receiving 19.8 % of the total value of goods 
exported outside the EU. The next largest export 
markets for EU goods were the United Kingdom (with a 
12.8 % share) and China (excluding Hong Kong; 9.0 %).

There was a different picture for imports, as more than 
one fifth (20.9 %) of all goods imported into the EU in 
2022 originated from China (excluding Hong Kong). The 
United States was the second largest country of origin 
for EU imports (11.9 %).

Between 2021 and 2022, there was a decline in the 
relative importance of Russia as one of the EU’s leading 
trading partners, reflecting the impact of sanctions/
restrictions imposed by the EU following Russian 
military aggression against Ukraine. While the value of 
EU exports to the rest of the world was 18.0 % higher in 
2022 (than in 2021), exports to Russia were 38.1 % lower.

Note: the figure shows the share of EU exports to non-EU 
countries and the share of EU imports from non-EU countries. 
Selected based on the average share of exports and imports.

Source: Eurostat (online data code: ext_lt_maineu)

2Economy and businessKey figures on Europe – 2023 edition43International trade in goods with Member States
(%, share of trade with all partners (intra- and extra-EU), 2022)

In 2022, 59.9 % of the EU Member States’ trade in goods concerned 
exchanges between Member States. The relative share of intra-EU 
trade was highest in Luxembourg at 86.3 % and also accounted for 
three quarters or more of total trade in Slovakia and 
Czechia. By contrast, the share of intra-EU trade was 
relatively close to 50.0 % in Italy, Cyprus and Greece, 
while Ireland had the lowest share, at 37.6 %.

Intra-EU trade

59.9 %

of total trade

Note: calculation based on the average 
value of exports and imports.

Source: Eurostat (online data codes: 
ext_lt_intratrd and ext_lt_intercc)

International trade in services with non-member countries
(€ billion, EU, 2010–2022)

In recent years, there has been a rapid increase 
in the value of world trade in services. This 
pattern was also observed across the EU, 
despite a fall in trade during the COVID-19 crisis. 
In 2022, exports of services from the EU to 
non-EU countries were valued at €1 300 billion 
while imports into the EU were valued at 
€1 126 billion. The EU recorded a trade surplus 
for services throughout the period 2010–2022, 
with the surplus of €175 billion in 2022 the 
highest during this period.

Source: Eurostat (online data code: bop_its6_det)

2Key figures on Europe – 2023 edition44Economy and businessTop 10 partners for international trade in services
(%, share of all partners, EU, 2021)

EU exports
EU imports

Note: the figure shows the share of EU exports to non-EU countries 
and the share of EU imports from non-EU countries. Selected based 
on the average share of exports and imports. The data shown for 
offshore financial centres exclude Singapore (for which information 
is shown separately).

Source: Eurostat (online data code: bop_its6_tot)

In 2021, the EU’s leading trade partners for services 
were the United States and the United Kingdom. 
Around one fifth of services exported from the EU 
were destined for the United States (22.3 %) and the 
United Kingdom (19.2 %). Switzerland was the third 
largest trade partner for the EU’s service exports 
(10.8 %). By contrast, more than one third (34.5 %) of 
services imported into the EU from non-EU countries 
originated in the United States, followed at some 
distance by the United Kingdom (18.5 %).

2Economy and businessKey figures on Europe – 2023 edition45Business

Developments for the sectoral structure of 
value added
(%, share of total value added, EU, 2000 and 2022)

Sectoral structure of value added
(%, share of total value added, EU, 2022

Note: the shares do not sum to 100.0 % for reasons 
of rounding.

Between 2000 and 2022, the share of EU total 
value added that was generated within the 
services sector rose from 69.2 % to 71.9 %, 
mainly due to increases in the output of 
professional, scientific, technical administrative 
and support service activities. By contrast, the 
relative share of some other parts of the EU 
economy contracted: industry’s share went 
down from 22.6 % to 20.6 %, while the share of 
agriculture, forestry and fishing fell from 2.5 % 
to 1.9 % and that of construction from 5.7 % to 
5.5 %.

Looking at the changes between 2021 and 
2022, value added increased (in current price 
terms) for all four parts of the EU economy. 
There were double-digit growth rates observed 
for: agriculture, forestry and fishing; industry; 
and construction. By contrast, the services 
sector saw its value added increase at a slower 
pace, up 8.1 %.

Source: Eurostat (online data code: nama_10_a10)

2Economy and businessKey figures on Europe – 2023 edition46Sectoral gross value added
(%, share of total value added, 2022)

EU
71.9 %

Services

EU
20.6 %

Industry

EU
5.5 %

Construction

EU
1.9 %

Agriculture,
forestry and fishing

Source: Eurostat 
(online data code: 
nama_10_a10)

In 2022, the share of services in total value added was above 80.0 % in the tourism-
oriented economies of Cyprus and Malta, although the highest share was recorded in 
Luxembourg at 86.3 % (which is characterised by a large financial services sector). The 
industrial economy contributed more than two fifths of total value added in Ireland 
(41.2 %), with the next highest share in Czechia (28.1 %). The largest relative contribution 
from construction (7.8 %) was observed in Austria, while the largest contribution from 
agriculture, forestry and fishing (5.8 %) was recorded in Latvia.

2Economy and businessKey figures on Europe – 2023 edition47Developments in the sectoral structure of 
employment
(%, share of total employment, EU, 2000 and 2022)

Sectoral structure of employment
(%, share of total employment, EU, 2022)

Note: the shares do not sum to 100.0 % for reasons of 
rounding.

The relative importance of services within the EU 
economy was almost the same for employment 
as it was for value added. In 2022, services 
provided work to 73.5 % of people employed in 
the EU, compared with 64.6 % at the turn of the 
millennium. The relative importance of all other 
sectors decreased between 2000 and 2022: the 
share of the EU workforce that was employed within 
the industrial economy fell from 19.9 % to 15.6 %, 
while the share of the agriculture, forestry and 
fishing workforce halved from 8.6 % to 4.3 %, and 
the share of persons employed in construction fell 
from 6.9 % to 6.7 %.

There was a 1.4 % fall in the total number of 
people employed across the EU at the onset of the 
COVID-19 crisis in 2020, followed by a comparable 
rebound the following year (up 1.5 % in 2021). The 
latest information available shows employment 
growth accelerating in 2022, up 2.0 %. The number 
of people employed increased in the EU in three 
of the four broad activity groupings in 2022, with 
the highest growth registered for construction and 
services; the only decline was in agriculture, forestry 
and fishing.

Source: Eurostat (online data code: nama_10_a10_e)

2Economy and businessKey figures on Europe – 2023 edition48Sectors of employment
(%, share of total employment, 2022)

EU
73.5 %

Services

EU
15.6 %

Industry

EU
6.7 %

Construction

EU
4.3 %

Agriculture,
forestry and fishing

Among the EU Member States, Romania had the lowest share (49.5 %) of its workforce 
employed in the services sector in 2022. By contrast, services provided work to 83.8 % of 
those employed in the Netherlands. Czechia was the only Member State to report that 
industry accounted for more than one quarter (28.0 %) of the total workforce. Romania 
(21.1 %) was characterised by a high share of total employment in agriculture, forestry 
and fishing, while Luxembourg was the only Member State to report a double-digit 
share (10.5 %) of its workforce employed in construction.

Source: Eurostat (online data 
code: nama_10_a10_e)

2Economy and businessKey figures on Europe – 2023 edition49Enterprise size class structure of the non-financial business economy
(%, share for each enterprise size class, EU, 2020)

Micro, small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) – in other words, 
enterprises with less than 250 persons employed – are often referred to as 
the backbone of the EU’s economy, providing jobs and growth opportunities. 
In 2020, an overwhelming majority (93.5 %) of enterprises in the EU’s 
non-financial business economy had less than 10 persons employed and 
were therefore classified as micro enterprises.

Note: the non-financial business 
economy includes the sectors of 
industry, construction, distributive 
trades and most market services 
other than finance. Enterprises: 
estimates made for the purpose of 
this publication.

Source: Eurostat (online data code: 
sbs_sc_sca_r2)

By contrast, just 0.2 % of all enterprises in the EU in 2020 had 250 or 
more persons employed and were classified as large enterprises. The 
economic weight of large enterprises in the EU was considerably greater in 
employment and value added terms, as they provided work to more than 
one third (35.7 %) of the EU’s non-financial business economy workforce and 
contributed close to half (47.5 %) of its value added.

2Economy and businessKey figures on Europe – 2023 edition50Enterprise size class shares of value added in the 
non-financial business economy
(%, share for each enterprise size class, 2020)

In 2020, there were 23.4 million 
SMEs (with less than 250 persons 
employed) in the EU’s non-financial 
business economy. Together, these 
SMEs employed 82.0 million people 
and contributed €3 410 billion of value 
added. The economic contribution 
made by SMEs was particularly notable 
in Cyprus (excluding electricity, gas, 
steam and air conditioning supply), 
Malta and Estonia, where SMEs 
provided more than 75.0 % of the value 
added in the non-financial business 
economy. The contribution of micro 
enterprises (employing fewer than 10 
persons) was particularly high in these 
three EU Member States.

By contrast, large enterprises (with 
250 or more persons employed) 
accounted for almost two thirds 
(65.7 %) of value added within the Irish 
non-financial business economy and 
for more than half of the value added 
in France, Germany and Sweden.

Note: RO, 2019. CY: excluding electricity, 
gas, steam and air conditioning supply. 
AT: excluding electricity, gas, steam and 
air conditioning supply and real estate 
activities. PT: excluding real estate activities.

Source: Eurostat (online data 
code: sbs_sc_sca_r2)

2Economy and businessKey figures on Europe – 2023 edition51Volume developments of industrial output
(%, annual change, EU, 2001–2022)

(%, overall 
change 
in output, 
2002–2022)

Source: Eurostat (online data code: sts_inpr_a)

In real terms, the EU’s industrial output peaked in 
April 2008 at the onset of the global financial and 
economic crisis and declined during the remainder 
of 2008. Output fell 14.3 % in real terms in 2009 
(compared with a year before). Subsequent growth 
came to an end in 2019 as industrial output decreased 
0.2 %. In 2020, as the impact of the COVID-19 crisis 
was felt, output decreased a further 7.3 %. In 2021, 
it rebounded (up 9.1 %) and returned to a level that 
was slightly above its pre-pandemic peak (recorded 
in 2018). The upward development continued in 2022, 
as industrial output grew a further 3.0 %.

Across the EU, the level of output for the mining of 
coal and lignite fell (in real terms) every year during 

the period 2001–2020; there was a rebound in 2021 
although output remained considerably below its 
pre-pandemic level and a further rapid expansion in 
2022. A similar pattern was observed between 2018 
and 2022 for clothing manufacturing and motor 
vehicles manufacturing, although their rebound 
in activity was more modest and only started to 
show signs of accelerating in 2022. By contrast, 
the level of output for pharmaceuticals increased 
almost continuously during the period 2001–2022. 
Pharmaceuticals was one of only a handful of 
industrial activities to report an increase in output in 
2020 and this was followed by very high growth rates 
for the two subsequent years.

2Economy and businessKey figures on Europe – 2023 edition52Research and development

Gross domestic expenditure on R&D
(% relative to GDP, 2021)

SE
3.35 %

  2.25 and above 
  1.50 – < 2.25
  1.00 – < 1.50
  Below 1.00

RO
0.47 %

Research and development (R&D) and innovation 
are central to providing the scientific and technical 
solutions needed to meet global societal challenges 
such as climate change or active and healthy ageing. 
EU gross domestic expenditure on R&D (GERD) was 
€328 billion in 2021, which marked a 5.9 % increase 
on the year before. Note that this rate of change is in 
current prices. 

GERD is often expressed relative to GDP, resulting in an 
indicator that is also known as R&D intensity. The EU’s 
R&D intensity rose above 2.00 % for the first time in 
2011 and continued to grow at a modest (and almost 
uninterrupted) pace through to 2020 (2.30 %). With 
economic activity rebounding from the COVID-19 crisis 
at a faster rate than the increase in R&D expenditure, the 
EU’s R&D intensity fell to 2.26 % in 2021.

Note: CH, 2019.

Source: Eurostat (online data code: rd_e_gerdtot)

2Economy and businessKey figures on Europe – 2023 edition53Tourism

Number of nights spent at tourist accommodation
(billion nights,  EU, 2011–2022)

2.73 billion 

nights spent in the EU 
in  2022

Tourism was heavily impacted by the COVID-19 
crisis, with the total number of nights spent in 
tourist accommodation across the EU halving 
between 2019 (2.87 billion nights spent) and 2020 
(1.42 billion). The impact of the COVID-19 crisis 
persisted into 2021, as the number of nights spent in 
tourist accommodation in the EU partially recovered to 
1.83 billion. In 2022, this measure of tourism returned 
to a level close to that observed before the pandemic, 
with 2.73 billion nights spent across the EU.

Note: these statistics cover business and leisure travellers.

Source: Eurostat (online data codes: tour_occ_ninat and 
tour_occ_nim)

Distribution of nights spent at tourist accommodation
(EU, 2022)

Source: Eurostat (online data 
code: tour_occ_nim)

Prior to the COVID-19 crisis, there was a relatively even 
split in terms of nights spent at tourist accommodation 
between domestic tourists (those who are resident 
in the same country as where they were staying) 
and international tourists. However, this situation 
changed during the pandemic, as international tourists 
faced a broader range of restrictions preventing 
them from travelling. In 2021, domestic tourists 
accounted for 67.9 % of the total nights spent in EU 
tourist accommodation. There was a partial recovery 
of international tourism in 2022, with the share of 

international tourists increasing to 44.1 %, while that of 
domestic tourists fell to 55.9 %.

The pandemic also impacted the type of 
accommodation that was used by tourists: 
the proportion of nights spent by tourists in 
holiday and other short-term accommodation and 
camping grounds increased. With the recovery 
in tourism activity during 2022, hotels and similar 
accommodation accounted for an increased share of 
the nights spent in EU tourist accommodation (61.9 %).

2Economy and businessKey figures on Europe – 2023 edition54Annual change in summer nights spent at tourist accommodation
(million nights, 2022)

Note: BG, EE, IE, not available.

Source: Eurostat (online data 
codes: tour_occ_ninat and 
tour_occ_nim)

From the summer of 2021 onwards, there was 
a rebound in tourist activity across much of 
the EU as many of the restrictions linked to the 
COVID-19 crisis were phased out; this pattern 
accelerated during 2022 as higher numbers of 
international tourists started to travel. 

During 2022, the largest increases, in 
absolute terms, in nights spent by domestic 
tourists were recorded in the two largest 
EU economies: Germany (up 97.4 million 
nights compared with 2021) and France (up 
52.1 million). For international tourists, the 
number of nights spent rose substantially 
in Spain (up 157.6 million nights), Italy (up 
86.4 million), France (up 67.3 million), Greece 
(up 52.9 million) and Austria (up 43.3 million). 
In Germany and Poland, there were more 
nights spent by domestic tourists than by 
international tourists.

The smallest overall changes were observed 
in Lithuania, Latvia and Luxembourg, 
where the number of nights spent in tourist 
accommodation in 2022 was fewer than 3.0 
million more than in 2021; this was also the 
case in Liechtenstein.

2Economy and businessKey figures on Europe – 2023 edition55Arrivals in EU tourist accommodation
(million arrivals, EU, 2019 and 2022)

Source: Eurostat (online data code: tour_occ_arm)

The number of arrivals in EU tourist accommodation has a 
strong seasonal component, with a peak recorded during 
the summer months. By the spring of 2022, domestic 
arrivals in EU tourist accommodation had (more or less) 
returned to pre-pandemic levels. International arrivals 
remained somewhat lower than they had been in 2019, 
although the gap closed during the year. Considering 
the whole of 2022, the number of domestic arrivals was 
back to 96.6 % of the equivalent figure for 2019, while the 
corresponding figure for international arrivals was 83.0 %.

2Economy and businessKey figures on Europe – 2023 edition563Environment and natural resources

Transport

Passenger cars
(number of cars per 1 000 inhabitants, 2020)

In 2020, there were 250 million passenger cars on 
the EU’s roads, equivalent to 559 cars per 1 000 
inhabitants or slightly more than one car for each 
two persons. Car ownership rates were highest in 
Luxembourg (682 per 1 000 inhabitants), followed by 
Italy, Poland, Finland and Cyprus (all above 640 per 
1 000 inhabitants). There were less than 400 cars per 
1 000 inhabitants in Latvia (390) and Romania (379).

From a technology perspective, newer cars may be less 
environmentally-damaging, with more efficient engines 
and lower emissions, although these benefits may be 
offset to some extent if there is a trend towards heavier 
or more powerful vehicles. There is also a growing 
share of electric/hybrid vehicles in the EU. In 2020, more 
than half (53.0 %) of all passenger cars in the EU were 
estimated to be at least 10 years old, compared with 
12.4 % that were less than two years old.

559 cars

per 1 000 inhabitants in 
the EU

Note: DK, excluding vans.

Source: Eurostat (online data codes: tran_r_vehst and demo_pjan)

3Environment and natural resourcesKey figures on Europe – 2023 edition58Passengers carried by air
(million passengers carried – arrivals and departures, EU, 2011–2021)

Source: Eurostat (online data code: avia_paoc)

The COVID-19 crisis had a considerable 
impact on air passenger transport, with 
a collapse in the number of passengers 
carried during 2020. This was followed by 
a modest recovery in 2021. In 2019, the 
total number of passengers carried by air 
to or from airports in the EU was around 
one billion (1 035 million). This figure 
dropped to 277 million in 2020, while there 
was a partial rebound the following year, 
with 374 million passengers carried in 2021.

Looking in more detail at the latest 
information available for 2021, there 
were 86 million air passengers carried on 

national flights within EU Member States 
in 2021. The number of air passengers 
flying between different Member States 
was 142 million, while a similar number of 
passengers were carried on international 
flights starting or finishing outside of the 
EU (146 million). In 2021, the number of 
national passengers was at 53.6 % of its 
2019 level, while lower ratios were recorded 
for international transport: passenger 
numbers on flights between different 
Member States and on international flights 
outside the EU were at, respectively, 39.9 % 
and 28.1 % of their 2019 level.

3Environment and natural resourcesKey figures on Europe – 2023 edition59Busiest EU passenger airports
(passengers on board, 2022)

Note: DK and EL, 
not available. 

Source: Eurostat (online 
data code: avia_paoa)

Between 2021 and 2022, the number of air passengers 
more than doubled for 7 out of the 10 busiest airports in the 
EU. The only exceptions – although they too posted rapid 
growth – were Frankfurt, Paris Orly and Palma de Mallorca 
airports. Post-pandemic, the fastest growth rates were 
observed in München and Roma Fiumicino airports, where 
passenger numbers were more than 2.5 times their level of 
2021. Despite the rapid upturn, all 10 of the busiest airports 
in the EU continued to record lower passenger numbers 
than before the pandemic (in 2019)..

In terms of the number of passengers carried, the busiest 
airport in the EU in 2022 was Paris Charles de Gaulle with 
57.5 million passengers on board. It was followed by 

Amsterdam Schiphol (52.5 million), Adolfo Suárez Madrid 
Barajas (50.3 million) and Frankfurt (49.0 million). There are 
considerable differences concerning the origin/destination 
of passengers passing through the busiest airports in 
the EU: more than half of the passengers in Paris Charles 
de Gaulle, Amsterdam Schiphol or Frankfurt were on 
international flights starting or finishing outside the EU, 
whereas more than half of the passengers in Lisboa, Palma 
de Mallorca and München airports were flying to/from 
other EU Member States, and more than one third of the 
passengers passing through Paris Orly were on national 
flights.

3Environment and natural resourcesKey figures on Europe – 2023 edition60Inland freight modes of transport
(%, share of inland freight based on tonne-kilometres, 2021)

77.3 %

of freight transport 
in the EU was by road

EU inland freight transport (excluding pipelines) in 2021 was estimated at around 2.5 
trillion tonne-kilometres. Most of this total (77.3 %) was carried by road; the remainder 
was split between rail (17.0 %) and inland waterways (5.6 %). Rail accounted for more 
than half of all inland freight transported in Lithuania and Latvia (62.5 % and 53.4 %, 
respectively), while inland waterways accounted for 41.9 % of the freight transported 
within the Netherlands.

Note: CY and MT, no 
railways. CZ, DK, EE, IE, EL, 
ES, CY, LV, LT, MT, PL, PT, 
SI and NO: no navigable 
inland waterways.

Source: Eurostat  
(online data code:  
tran_hv_frmod)

3Environment and natural resourcesKey figures on Europe – 2023 edition61Busiest EU short sea shipping ports
(million tonnes of goods transported 
to/from main ports, 2021)

The busiest 20 short 
sea shipping ports 
accounted for 
51.5 % 

of the total weight of 
goods transported 
to/from EU ports

In 2021, the total weight of goods transported to/from main ports in the EU 
by short sea shipping was 1.8 billion tonnes; this was equivalent to a 6.0 % 
increase when compared with 2020. Rotterdam in the Netherlands was by far 
the busiest EU port in terms of goods transported (215 million tonnes; 12.0 % 
of the EU total). The weight of goods handled in Rotterdam was more than 
twice as much as in the second busiest port, namely Antwerp in Belgium 
(99 million tonnes), which in turn was around twice as much as in the next 
busiest port, Trieste in Italy (51 million tonnes).

Note: excludes the movement of 
cargo across oceans (deep sea 
shipping).

Source: Eurostat (online data code: 
mar_sg_am_pw)

3Environment and natural resourcesKey figures on Europe – 2023 edition62Energy

Structure of final energy 
consumption
(%, based on joules, EU, 1990 and 2021)

In 2021, the EU’s final energy consumption 
was 39 351 petajoules (PJ); this was 6.2 % 
higher than the level recorded in 2020 (when 
consumption fell as a result of the COVID-19 
crisis). Petroleum products accounted for more 
than one third (34.8 %) of the EU’s final energy 
consumption (although their share was falling), 
with electricity (22.8 %) and natural gas (22.6 %) 
also recording relatively high shares.

When compared with 1990, the EU’s 
consumption of energy in 2021 remained 
more or less stable, with an average increase 
of 0.1 % per year. This overall development hid 
a considerable shift in the structure of the EU’s 
final energy consumption, moving away from 
solid fuels and petroleum products towards 
electricity as well as renewables and biofuels. 
For example, the share of solid fuels fell from 
11.5 % to 2.5 % between 1990 and 2021, while 
that of renewables and biofuels rose from 4.3 % 
to 11.8 % during the same period.

Note: solid fuels includes coal, manufactured gases, peat, 
oil shale and oil sands. The residual category of waste 
(non-renewable) – not presented here – accounted for 
0.5 % of EU final energy consumption in 2021.

Source: Eurostat (online data code: nrg_bal_s)

3Environment and natural resourcesKey figures on Europe – 2023 edition63Final energy consumption by end use
(1990 = 100, based on joules, EU, 1990–2021)

Note: the residual 
category of other sectors 
includes residential use, 
agriculture, forestry and 
fishing, and services 
other than transport.

Source: Eurostat (online 
data code: nrg_bal_s)

In 2021, industry accounted for slightly 
more than one quarter (25.6 %) of the 
energy consumed within the EU, while 
the share for transport was 29.2 %, leaving 
45.2 % for other sectors – these mainly 
concern residential use and services.

Energy consumption for transport rose 
at a relatively rapid and uninterrupted 
pace between 1990 and 2019 (other than 
during the global financial and economic 
crisis and its aftermath), as consumption 
increased overall 30.8 %. By contrast, final 
energy consumption within industry fell by 
close to one quarter (down 22.9 %) during 
the same period, with a particularly large 
decline in consumption during the global 
financial and economic crisis in 2009 
(down 13.6 %). From 2020 onwards, these 
long-term developments were interrupted 
by the COVID-19 crisis. The overall level 
of final energy consumption in the EU fell 
5.6 % in 2020 (compared with 2019), with 
a particularly large decline for transport 
(consumption down 12.9 %). With a partial 
recovery from the pandemic in 2021, 
overall energy consumption rebounded, 
increasing 6.2 % (compared with 2020). 
The fastest increase in energy consumption 
was observed for transport (up 9.3 %).

3Environment and natural resourcesKey figures on Europe – 2023 edition64Final energy consumption in the residential sector by use
(%, EU, 2021)

In the EU, the main residential use of energy 
in 2021 was for heating homes, accounting 
for 64.4 % of final energy consumption in 
the residential sector. The share used for 
water heating was 14.5 %, just ahead of 
lighting and electrical (13.6 %; this excludes 
the use of electricity for the main heating, 
cooling or cooking systems). Main cooking 
devices required 6.0 % of the energy used. 
Space cooling and other uses accounted for 
0.5 % and 1.1 %, respectively.

Note: the shares do not sum to 100.0 % for reasons 
of rounding.

Source: Eurostat (online data code: nrg_d_hhq)

Final energy consumption in the residential sector by fuel
(%, EU, 2021)

In 2021, around four fifths of the final 
energy consumption in the residential 
sector in the EU was covered by three 
fuels: natural gas (33.5 %), electricity 
(24.6 %) and renewables and biofuels 
(21.2 %). Notably smaller shares were 
observed for oil and petroleum products 
(9.5 %), derived heat (8.6 %) and solid 
fossil fuels such as coal (2.5 %).

Note: the shares do not sum to 100.0 % for reasons 
of rounding.

Source: Eurostat (online data code: nrg_bal_c)

Key figures on Europe – 2023 edition65Environment and natural resources3Electricity and natural gas prices 
(€ per kWh, household consumers, average prices for second half 2022)

Note: ranked on total electricity prices. IS: electricity prices, first half of 2022. LI: natural gas prices, 
first half of 2022. CY, MT, FI, IS and NO: natural gas prices not available.

Source: Eurostat (online data codes: nrg_pc_204 and nrg_pc_202)

Electricity and natural gas prices are typically composed 
of three components: the basic price of energy, network 
charges, and taxes and/or levies. The proportion of 
taxes and levies in the overall retail price varies greatly 
between EU Member States. In the wake of the rapid 
increase in the price of energy following Russia’s military 
aggression against Ukraine, many governments in the 
EU provided some form of subsidy to help households 
and businesses. These subsidies – in the form of refunds/
allowances – were sometimes greater than taxes and 
levies; this was the case, for example, in the Netherlands 
for electricity and Luxembourg for natural gas.

In the second half of 2022, household prices for 
electricity – presented here for a household with annual 
consumption within the range of 2 500–5 000 kWh – 
averaged €0.284 per kWh across the EU. Consumers in 
Denmark paid the highest prices for their electricity, 5.4 
times as much as those in Hungary. 

The price of natural gas – measured here for a household 
with annual consumption within the range of 20–200 GJ 
– averaged €0.114 per kWh across the EU in the second 
half of 2022. Consumers in Sweden paid 7.9 times as 
much as consumers in Hungary for their natural gas.

3Environment and natural resourcesKey figures on Europe – 2023 edition66Energy dependency rate
(%, net imports as a share of gross available energy, 2021)

The energy dependency rate indicates the extent to 
which an economy relies upon imports to meet its 
energy needs. In 2021, the EU’s dependency rate was 
55.5 %: in other words, net imports accounted for 
more than half of gross available energy. 

None of the EU Member States were self-sufficient 
in relation to their energy needs, with some of the 
smaller ones – Malta, Luxembourg and Cyprus – 
almost completely reliant on external supplies.

Note: NO, value not shown (= −616.6 % in 2021). A negative value 
indicates that a country exports more energy than it imports.

Source: Eurostat (online data code: nrg_ind_id)

Energy from renewable energy sources
(%, share of total gross final energy consumption, 2011 and 2021)

In 2021, some 21.8 % of the EU’s gross final energy consumption was 
from renewable energy sources, compared with 14.5 % a decade earlier. 
In 2021, more than three fifths (62.6 %) of the final energy consumption 
in Sweden was from renewable sources, while shares of more than two 
fifths were also recorded in Finland and Latvia.

Energy in the EU from 
renewable energy 
sources in 2021

21.8 %

Source: Eurostat (online data code: nrg_ind_ren)

3Environment and natural resourcesKey figures on Europe – 2023 edition67Environment

Employment in the 
environmental economy
(million full-time equivalents, EU, 2005 
and 2020)

The environmental economy 
includes activities that relate to 
environmental protection and the 
management of natural resources. 
Overall, there were 5.1 million 
people working in the EU’s 
environmental economy in 2020, 
which marked an increase of 47.5 % 
when compared with the situation 
in 2005.

In 2020, the management of energy 
resources had the largest workforce 
within the EU’s environmental 
economy (1.9 million), followed by 
waste management (1.3 million) 
and other environmental protection 
(1.1 million). The size of the EU 
workforce for the management 
of energy resources was 2.2 times 
as large in 2020 as it had been in 
2005; this was by far the most rapid 
expansion among the different 
subsectors of the environmental 
economy. By contrast, there was a 
modest fall during the same period 
in the number of persons employed 
for wastewater management.

Note: the residual category of other 
environmental protection includes, 
for example, general environmental 
administration and education.

Source: Eurostat (online data code: 
env_ac_egss1)

3Environment and natural resourcesKey figures on Europe – 2023 edition68Environmental tax revenue
(%, relative to GDP, 2021)

Environmental taxes can be used 
to try to influence the behaviour of 
economic operators, both producers and 
consumers. In 2021, EU environmental 
tax revenues were valued at €326 billion, 
equivalent to 2.2 % of GDP. This ratio 

Note: LI, 2019.

Source: Eurostat (online data code: env_ac_tax)

Environmental tax revenue in the EU  
2.2 % of GDP

peaked at 3.9 % in Greece, while it was 
at least 3.0 % in Croatia, the Netherlands 
and Italy. By contrast, environmental tax 
revenues accounted for 1.5 % of GDP in 
Luxembourg and for 1.2 % in Ireland.

Greenhouse gas emissions
(1990 = 100, based on tonnes of CO2 equivalents, 2020)

Developments in the level of greenhouse gas 
emissions may be traced using data for the Kyoto 
basket of greenhouse gases. By 2020, greenhouse 
gas emissions in the EU had fallen 31.7 % compared 
with their 1990 levels; note that economic activity 
was particularly low during the first year of the 

COVID-19 crisis. Between 1990 and 2020, the quantity 
of greenhouse gas emissions fell in all but two of the 
EU Member States. The level of emissions more than 
halved in Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Romania and 
Bulgaria. 

EU

−31.7 %

compared with 1990

Note: greenhouse gases include carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, 
hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, nitrogen trifluoride and sulphur hexafluoride. 
These gases are aggregated by using global warming potential (GWP) factors to 
obtain data in CO2 equivalents.

Source: Eurostat (online data code: 
env_air_gge), based on European 
Environment Agency (EEA)

3Environment and natural resourcesKey figures on Europe – 2023 edition69Source sectors of greenhouse gas 
emissions
(%, based on tonnes of CO2 equivalents, 
EU, 1990 and 2020)
In 2020, the total quantity of EU greenhouse gas 
emissions was 3.4 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide 
equivalents. The principal sources of greenhouse gas 
emissions in the EU were energy industries (40.7 % of 
the total; including not only fuel combustion in energy 
industries but also in sectors other than transport, 
manufacturing and construction) and transport (23.1 %; 
this includes international aviation).

The only source that increased the quantity of its 
greenhouse gas emissions between 1990 and 2020 was 
transport, with an overall increase of 6.8 %. This was despite 
a dramatic fall in emissions at the onset of the COVID-19 
crisis. For example, emissions from international aviation fell 
57.8 % between 2019 and 2020. Otherwise, the quantity of 
greenhouse gas emissions fell between 1990 and 2020 for 
each of the remaining sources, with decreases of more than 
one third recorded for waste management (down 39.5 %), 
energy industries (down 41.7 %) and manufacturing and 
construction (down 43.4 %).

Note: energy industries includes not only fuel 
combustion in energy industries but also in sectors 
other than transport, manufacturing and construction. 

Source: Eurostat (online data code: env_air_gge), based 
on European environment agency (EEA)

3Environment and natural resourcesKey figures on Europe – 2023 edition70Municipal waste generation
(kg per inhabitant, 2021)

Note: BG, IE, IT, AT and IS, 2020. EL: 2019.

Source: Eurostat (online data code: env_wasmun)

Municipal waste constitutes around one tenth of the total waste 
that is generated each year in the EU. On average, each inhabitant 
in the EU generated 530 kg of municipal waste in 2021. Among 
the EU Member States, municipal waste generation was highest in 
Austria (834 kg per inhabitant), Luxembourg (793 kg) and Denmark 
(786 kg). By contrast, municipal waste generation was less than 
400 kg per inhabitant in Estonia, Poland and Romania, where the 
lowest rate was recorded (302 kg per inhabitant).

EU

530

kg
per inhabitant

In 2021, there were 234.0 million tonnes 
of municipal waste treated in the EU, 
representing 98.8 % of the municipal waste 
generated. Material recycling accounted for 
30.1 % of the municipal waste treated across 
the EU, while the share for composting and 
digestion was 19.3 %: these are generally 
considered to be the most environmentally 
sustainable treatment methods. By contrast, 
more than one quarter (26.7 %) of the 
municipal waste treated in the EU was 
incinerated with energy recovery and a 
small part (0.5 %; 2019 data) without energy 
recovery, while almost one quarter (23.3 %) 
was landfilled.

Municipal waste treatment methods
(%, share of all methods, EU, 2021)

Note: the shares do not sum to 100.0 % for reasons of 
rounding. Incineration (disposal): 2019.

Source: Eurostat (online data code: env_wasmun)

Key figures on Europe – 2023 edition713Environment and natural resourcesAgriculture

Top five EU Member States for the production of selected agricultural products
(%, share of EU total, 2022)

DE

FR

PL

NL

IT

FR

DE

PL

RO

ES

ES

DE

FR

PL

NL

ES

IT

FR

NL

PL

PL

ES

DE

FR

IT

Note: milk, cereals and rice, vegetables, 
and fruits, berries and nuts, 2021. EU 
estimates for poultry meat based on 
available data (excluding EE and NL).
(1)  All types of fruit and berries are 
covered, including strawberries, 
grapes and citrus fruit.

Source: Eurostat (online data codes: 
apro_mk_farm, apro_cpnh1 and 
apro_mt_pann)

ES

IT

FR

PL

EL

FR

DE

IT

ES

IE

Agricultural products are a major part of the EU’s 
regional and cultural identity. In 2021, there were 
297.5 million tonnes of cereals and rice harvested 
in the EU, France accounting for the largest share 
(22.7 %). In a similar vein, some 159.8 million tonnes 
of raw milk were available on EU farms, with Germany 
recording the highest share (20.4 %). A total of 
65.8 million tonnes of vegetables were harvested in 
the EU, with Spain accounting for the highest share 
(24.2 %). There were 62.2 million tonnes of fruit, 
berries and nuts harvested in the EU, with Spain again 
recording the highest share (28.3 %); these figures 

comprise all types of fruit, including those used for 
the production of beverages.

Fresher information is available concerning the 
production of meat: in 2022, the EU produced 22.1 
million tonnes of pig meat, an estimated 12.1 million 
tonnes of poultry meat, and 6.6 million tonnes of 
bovine meat. Spain (23.0 %) and Germany (20.3 %) 
each accounted for more than one fifth of the pig 
meat produced in the EU. Poland had a similar share 
(22.5 %) of the EU’s production of poultry meat, while 
France accounted for around one fifth (20.5 %) of the 
bovine meat produced in the EU.

3Environment and natural resourcesKey figures on Europe – 2023 edition72Organic crop area
(%, share of utilised agricultural area, 2021)

In 2020, the total area available for organic crops across the EU was 
14.7 million hectares (excluding kitchen gardens).  Organic crop 
farming accounted for 9.1 % of the EU’s total utilised agricultural 
area. The share of organic crop farming ranged in 2021 from lows 
of 2.0 % or less in Malta, Bulgaria and Ireland to highs of 20.2 % 
in Sweden, 23.0 % in Estonia and 25.7 % in Austria (2020 data). In 
several EU Member States – Lithuania, Croatia, France (2019–2020), 
Luxembourg, Finland and Ireland – there was double-digit growth 
between 2020 and 2021 in the area set aside for organic crops. Faster 
expansions were observed in Romania and Cyprus while by far the 
largest increase was in Portugal where the area more than doubled.

Organic crop  
area in the EU

9.1 %

  15.0 and above 
  9.0 – < 15.0
  5.5 – < 9.0
  Below 5.5

Austria
25.7 %

Note: the indicator shows the area fully converted or under conversion to organic 
farming as a share of the utilised agricultural area (excluding kitchen gardens). EU, EL, 
FR, AT, PL, IS and NO: 2020.

Source: Eurostat (online data code: org_cropar)

Malta
0.6 %

3Environment and natural resourcesKey figures on Europe – 2023 edition73Fisheries

EU Member States with  
the largest fish catches
(1 000 tonnes live weight, main fishing areas, 2021)

Although the EU fishing fleet operates worldwide, the 
vast majority (70.0 %) of its catch in 2021 was taken from 
the Northeast Atlantic. The largest fish catches in this area 
were recorded for Denmark, France, the Netherlands, Spain 
and Ireland (2017 data), with the most common species 
including herring, mackerel and sprats. The next largest 
fishing areas (by weight of catch) for the EU as a whole 
were the Mediterranean and Black Sea (9.8 % of the total), 
the Eastern Central Atlantic (7.3 %) and the Western Indian 
Ocean (7.0 %).

27  Northeast Atlantic
37  Mediterranean and Black Sea
34 Eastern Central Atlantic
51  Western Indian Ocean

21  Northwest Atlantic 
41  Southwest Atlantic
47  Southeast Atlantic

Note: CZ, LU, HU, AT and SK are landlocked. IE: 2017. EU totals by area include 2017 data 
for IE and 2016 data for LV.

Source: Eurostat (online data code: fish_ca_main)

3Environment and natural resourcesKey figures on Europe – 2023 edition74Forestry

Area of forest and other wooded land
(% share of total land area, 2020)

Finland
76.1 %

  50.0 and above 
  33.3 – < 50.0
  25.0 – < 33.3
  Below 25.0

EU

43.9 %

Malta
1.7 %

Source: Eurostat (online data codes: for_area and reg_area3) 
and Food and Agriculture Organization

The EU has many different types of forests, reflecting its 
climatic diversity, soil types, altitude and topography. Forests 
provide an important renewable resource: for example, they 
offer a habitat for animals and a livelihood for humans, while 
mitigating climate change and providing some protection 
from concerns such as soil erosion or surface run-off.

In 2020, there were 180 million hectares of forests and 
other wooded land covering 43.9 % of the EU’s land area. In 

absolute terms, Sweden (30.3 million hectares) and Spain 
(28.0 million hectares) had the largest areas of forest and 
other wooded land. In relative terms, the forests and other 
wooded land of Finland (76.1 %) and Sweden (74.5 %) 
covered the largest proportions of land area. Malta was the 
only EU Member State to record a single-digit share (1.7 %) 
and also had the smallest area of forest and other wooded 
land (530 hectares).

3Environment and natural resourcesKey figures on Europe – 2023 edition75Getting in touch with the EU

In person

All over the European Union there are hundreds of Europe Direct Information Centres. You can 
find the address of the centre nearest you at: european-union.europa.eu/contact-eu/meet-us_en

On the phone or by e-mail

Europe Direct is a service that answers your questions about the European Union. You can contact 
this service 

 - by freephone: 00 800 6 7 8 9 10 11 (certain operators may charge for these calls), 

 - at the following standard number: +32 22999696, 

 - via the following form: european-union.europa.eu/contact-eu/write-us_en.

Finding information about the EU

Online

Information about the European Union in all the official languages of the EU is available on the 
Europa website (european-union.europa.eu).

EU Publications

You can view or order EU publications at op.europa.eu/en/web/general-publications. Multiple 
copies of free publications can be obtained by contacting Europe Direct or your local 
documentation centre (european-union.europa.eu/contact-eu/meet-us_en).

EU law and related documents

For access to legal information from the EU, including all EU law since 1951 in all the official 
language versions, go to EUR-Lex (eur-lex.europa.eu).

Open data from the EU

The portal data.europa.eu provides access to open datasets from the EU institutions, bodies 
and agencies. These can be downloaded and reused for free, for both commercial and non-
commercial purposes. The portal also provides access to a wealth of datasets from European 
countries.

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KEY FIGURES ON 

EUROPE

2023 EDITION

Key figures on Europe presents a selection of statistical data on the 
European Union (EU). Most data cover the EU and its Member States 
as well as the countries of the European Free Trade Association (EFTA). 
This publication may be viewed as an introduction to EU statistics 
and provides a starting point for those who wish to explore the 
wide range of data that are freely available on Eurostat’s website at 
https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat together with a range of online articles 
in Statistics Explained.

For more information
https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/

Follow us on social media!

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EurostatStatistics

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Print:  ISBN 978-92-68-04392-9
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