REPORT FROM THE COMMISSION TO THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT, THE COUNCIL, THE EUROPEAN ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COMMITTEE AND THE COMMITTEE OF THE REGIONS Report on the progress made in the fight against trafficking in human beings (Fourth Report)
Date: 2022-12-19
Institutions: Directorate-General for Migration and Home Affairs, European Commission
Subjects: EU Member State, coronavirus disease, data collection, epidemic, fight against crime, help for victims, human rights, organised crime, prostitution, trafficking in human beings

EN 

  EN 

   EUROPEAN COMMISSION  Brussels, 19.12.2022  COM(2022) 736 final  REPORT FROM THE COMMISSION TO THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT, THE COUNCIL, THE EUROPEAN ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COMMITTEE AND THE COMMITTEE OF THE REGIONS Report on the progress made in the fight against trafficking in human beings (Fourth Report) {SWD(2022) 429 final}  
 
 
1.  INTRODUCTION 

Trafficking  in  human  beings  is  a  serious  crime  and  a  grave  violation  of  fundamental 
rights.  Combatting  it  is  a  priority  for  the  European  Union1.  Article  20  of  Directive 
2011/36/EU2  foresees  a  two-yearly  report  on  the  progress  made  in  the  fight  against 
trafficking  in  human  beings.  Despite  progress  made  over  the  past  years,  the  threat 
remains  high.  Recent  major  crises,  in  particular  the  Covid-19  pandemic  and  Russia’s 
aggression  against  Ukraine,  have  further  exacerbated  people’s  vulnerability  to  being 
exploited.  

According  to  the  EU  Serious  Organised  Crime  Threat  Assessment  20213  (EU  SOCTA 
2021), trafficking in human beings is a core activity of serious and organised crime in the 
EU and is set to remain a threat for the foreseeable future. Measures have been taken at 
the  EU  level  and  by  Member  States  in  order  to  prevent  the  crime,  reduce  demand  that 
fosters trafficking in human beings; break the business model of traffickers; protect and 
support the victims; as well as address the international dimension.  

This report takes into consideration:  

  The  contributions  submitted  by  all  Member  States  through  the  EU  Network  of 

National Rapporteurs and Equivalent Mechanisms (NREM);  

  The  contributions  from  members  of  the  EU  Civil  Society  Platform  against 

trafficking in human beings;  

  The contributions from nine EU Agencies4; 

  Reports  and  other  documents  from  EU  Agencies,  EU 

institutions  and 

International Organisations.   

More  specifically,  the  report  i)  identifies  key  patterns  and  challenges  in  addressing 
trafficking  in  human  beings,  ii)  outlines  the  main  anti-trafficking  actions  from  2019  to 
2022  and  iii)  provides  an  analysis  of  statistics  for  the  period  of  2019-2020,  which  is 
included in a Staff Working Document5. The data included in the report and in the Staff 
Working  Document  was  gathered  by  EUROSTAT  from  all  the  Member  States  via  the 
national statistical authorities. 

1  Communication  on  the  EU  Strategy  on  Combatting  Trafficking  in  Human  Beings  2021-2025, 
COM(2021)  171  final;  Council  conclusions  of  26  May  2021  setting  the  2022-2025  EU  priorities  for  the 
fight  against  serious  and  organised  crime  through  the  European  multi-disciplinary  platform  against 
criminal threats (EMPACT).  
2 Directive 2011/36/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 5 April 2011 on preventing and 
combating  trafficking  in  human  beings  and  protecting  its  victims,  and  replacing  Council  Framework 
Decision 2002/629/JHA, OJ L 101, 15.4.2011 
3 Europol, 2021 EU Serious and Organised Crime Threat Assessment, available at: link. 
4  European  Monitoring  Centre  for  Drugs  and  Drug  Addiction  and  EU  Agency  for  Law  Enforcement 
Training  (CEPOL),  the  European  Institute  for  Gender  Equality  (EIGE),  European  Monitoring  Centre  for 
Drugs and Drug  Addiction (EMCDDA), EU  Agency  for the Operational Management of Large-Scale IT 
Systems  in  the  Area  of  Freedom,  Security  and  Justice  (eu-LISA),  EU  Agency  for  Criminal  Justice 
Cooperation  (Eurojust),  EU  Agency  for  Law  Enforcement  Cooperation  (Europol),  the  EU  Fundamental 
Rights  Agency  (FRA),  European  Border  and  Coast  Guard  Agency  (FRONTEX),  the  EU  Agency  for 
Asylum (EUAA). 
5 SWD(2022) 429. 

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2.  CHALLENGES  AND  TRENDS  IN  COMBATTING  TRAFFICKING  IN 

HUMAN BEINGS IN THE EU  

2.1. Recent challenges related to trafficking in human beings 

The third report on the progress made in the fight against trafficking in human beings6, 
already  highlighted  the  implications  of  the  COVID-19  pandemic  for  trafficking  in 
human beings. According to Europol, the economic effects of the pandemic will drive 
increased  demand  for  labour  exploitation.  Civil  society  organisations  underlined  that 
certain categories of people, such as undocumented migrants, seasonal workers, persons 
in  precarious  working  and  living  conditions  and  persons  in  prostitution  had  been 
disproportionately  affected  by  measures  related  to  the  Covid-19  pandemic,  including 
travelling  restrictions.  Subsequently,  these  groups  are  more  vulnerable  to  the  risk  of 
falling victims of traffickers.  

The pandemic had also a significant impact on trafficking for sexual exploitation, notably 
as  the  physical  contacts  between  traffickers,  victims  and  clients  decreased  and  more 
operations moved online7. Similarly, several  Member States reported that the Covid-19 
pandemic had accelerated the move from street prostitution to private homes, short-term 
rentals and hotels8, as well as to the online environment9. This made it more difficult for 
law  enforcement  authorities  and  other  relevant  stakeholders  to  detect  and  reach  out  to 
possible victims of trafficking for sexual exploitation.  

The Covid-19 restrictions and several lockdowns contributed to further isolating victims, 
sometimes together with their traffickers. This was particularly the case for victims who 
could not return to their country of origin. Member States and civil society organisations 
observed  challenges  in  the  identification  and  referrals  of  victims  to  assistance,  support 
and  protection  services  (e.g.  healthcare,  counselling,  administrative  services,  legal 
assistance),  as  well  as  victims’  access  to  justice.  Moreover,  stakeholders  highlighted 
increased  difficulties  in  cross-border  law  enforcement  and  judicial  cooperation,  longer 
criminal  proceedings  due  to  remote  hearings,  as  well  as  a  decrease  in  the  number  of 
labour inspections during the pandemic.  

The Covid-19 pandemic has considerably accelerated the shift of criminal activities into 
the digital space, in  particular for trafficking for sexual  exploitation,  but also  for other 
forms.  Traffickers  use  technology  and  the  internet  (both  the  surface  web  and  the  dark 
web) for every phase of the offence, including the recruitment of the victims (which often 
takes place via social media platforms), communication between the traffickers, victims 
and  clients,  the  advertising  of  services,  organising  the  transportation  of  the  victims,  as 
well  as  proceeding  with  payments.  Children  have  notably  become  more  vulnerable  to 
online recruitment and grooming. The use of technology to commit trafficking offences 
created  significant  challenges  for  law  enforcement  and  judicial  authorities  as  it  allows 
criminals to reach out to more potential victims as well as clients, to move victims from 
one location to another more easily and to carry out their operations remotely. Traffickers 

6  REPORT  FROM  THE  COMMISSION  TO  THE  EUROPEAN  PARLIAMENT  AND  THE  COUNCIL 
Third report on the progress made in the fight against trafficking in human beings (2020) as required under 
Article  20  of  Directive  2011/36/EU  on  preventing  and  combating  trafficking  in  human  beings  and 
protecting its victims, COM/2020/661 final, and its accompanying Staff Working Document, SWD(2020) 
226 final.  
7 European Migrant Smuggling Centre, 5th Annual Activity Report (2021). 
8 Austria, Belgium, Croatia, France and Hungary. 
9 Croatia, Slovakia, Slovenia and Sweden. 

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also  benefit  from  increased  anonymity,  notably  through  encrypted  communications 
solutions10.  

The  reporting  period  was  also  marked  by  Russia’s  military  aggression  against 
Ukraine, which started on 24 February 2022 and led to a mass inflow of people fleeing 
the war into the EU, of which 90% were women and children. The risks of trafficking in 
human  beings  were  considered  very  high  from  the  beginning.  Criminal  organisations 
were active at the border between Ukraine and the EU already before the war. In 2019-
2020,  Ukraine  was  among  the  top-ten  non-EU  citizenships  of  victims  identified  in  the 
EU,  mainly  for  sexual  and  labour  exploitation.  The  war  has  further  increased 
opportunities  for  traffickers  to  exploit  the  vulnerable  situation  of  people  fleeing  the 
aggression,  mainly  women  and  children,  for  their  financial  gain.  There  are  particular 
risks  of  growing  demand  for  the  services  exploited  from  victims  of  trafficking,  both 
offline,  for  instance  in  the  context  of  malicious  offers  for  private  accommodation, 
transport  and  assistance,  and  online,  including  on  social  media,  for  example  online 
advertising for sexual services with Ukrainian women. 

2.2. Trends in trafficking in human beings 

2.2.1. Victims (sex, age, citizenship) 

During the reporting period of 2019-2020, 14 311 victims of trafficking were registered 
in the EU. This number is slightly higher than the number recorded in the EU during the 
previous 2-year period (14 145). In 2021, the estimated number of victims was 7 109.11 
The decrease in the number of registered victims between 2019 (7 777) and 2020 (6 534) 
is  probably  linked  to  the  COVID-19  pandemic,  which  created  challenges  in  the 
identification  of  victims  of  trafficking.  It  should  be  noted  that  the  actual  number  of 
victims is likely to be significantly higher than reported data suggests, as the statistics 
only  capture  victims  that  become  known  to  one  of  the  registering  entities,  and  many 
victims remain undetected. 

Trafficking  in  human  beings  remains  a  crime  with  a  significant  gender  dimension. 
Women and girls  represented 63% of all registered victims  in  the EU.  However, the 
share of male victims (33%)12 increased as compared to 2017-2018 (23%)13.  

53%  of  the  victims  were  EU  citizens  and  43%  had  a  non-EU  citizenship14. 
The top-five EU countries as regards citizenship of trafficking victims by numbers were 
Romania, France,  Italy, Bulgaria and Poland. The top-five non-EU countries as regards 
citizenship of trafficking victims in the EU were Nigeria, China, Moldova, Pakistan and 
Morocco. 37% of all registered victims were citizens of the country in which they were 

10 European Migrant Smuggling Centre, 6th Annual Activity Report (2022). 
11 EUROSTAT launched the data collection for 2021, which could not be fully completed as some Member 
States could not provide the full data set on time. Therefore, EUROSTAT made estimations for the missing 
Member States based upon the values of previous years. For the number of victims DE and SE could not 
provide data. 
12 Throughout the report, percentages for the same indicators and reporting year do not always add up to 
100%, due  to the fact that Member States registered some victims under the  categories of “unknown” or 
“other”. The Staff Working Document on the statistical analysis provides more detailed information. 
13 For 4% of recorded victims of trafficking in human beings, the reported sex was ‘unknown’. 
14  For  2%  of  registered  victims,  the  citizenship  was  “unknown”  and  for  2%  the  citizenship  was  “other”. 
This  data  was  estimated  by  Eurostat  based  on  data  collected  from  the  Member  States  via  the  national 
statistical offices. 

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registered  (internal  trafficking).  All  or  nearly  all  of  the  victims  registered  by  Estonia, 
Hungary, Bulgaria, Romania and Slovakia were their own citizens 

2.2.2. Trafficking in human beings for the purpose of sexual exploitation  

Trafficking  for  the  purpose  of  sexual  exploitation  continued  to  be  the  most  prevalent 
form  of  exploitation  in  the  EU  during  2019-2020  (51%).  The  vast  majority  of  the 
victims are female (87%), of which 73% women and 27% girls. 

High-risk  sectors  for  sexual  exploitation  remain  the  same  as  for  previous  years,  i.e. 
prostitution,  escort  agencies  and  services,  the  pornography  industry,  massage  services, 
bars and nightclubs. Member States observed a rise in violence against women and girls 
during the pandemic. Europol highlighted that exploitative sexual services are advertised 
on escort and dating website, as well as on social media platforms.  “Sex tours”, during 
which  victims  travel  to  different  cities  to  meet  clients  in  rental  apartments  and  hotel 
rooms,  are  increasingly  reported.  As  mentioned  above,  Member  States  also  confirmed 
that technology is  widely  used  as a means to  recruit, advertise and sexually exploit  the 
victims.  Moreover,  Europol  reported  that  traffickers  lure  victims  to  enter  voluntary 
business agreements, as part of which they accept to engage in prostitution and hand over 
a  share  of  their  earnings  in  exchange  for  protection  and  support  with  administrative 
issues.  Persons  in  this  type  of  arrangement  do  not  necessarily  perceive  themselves  as 
victims, which makes it easier for traffickers to exploit them.   

Member  States15  frequently  reported  Nigeria  as  one  of  the  main  countries  of  origin  of 
victims  of  trafficking  for  sexual  exploitation.  In  addition,  several  Member  States16,  as 
well  as  Europol,  indicated  an  increase  in  South-American  women  and  transgender 
people, being trafficked for sexual exploitation.  

2.2.3. Trafficking in human beings for the purpose of labour exploitation 

Trafficking  for the purpose of labour exploitation is  the second most prevalent form  of 
trafficking in human beings in the EU (28%). It increased significantly as compared to 
2017-2018  (15%).  Men  represent  the  majority  of  the  victims  trafficked  for  labour 
exploitation (66%), while 34% are female victims. Trafficking for labour exploitation is 
the predominant form of exploitation in seven Member States17. Europol underlined that, 
while  trafficking  for  labour  exploitation  is  more  frequently  reported  than  before  in  the 
EU, many cases remain undetected.  

Criminal networks involved in trafficking for labour exploitation mainly operate in cash–
intensive  businesses  where  a  large  number  of  workers  paid  at  a  low  wage,  as  well  as 
seasonal workers are employed. These high-risk sectors include agriculture, construction, 
forestry,  food  processing,  assembly  lines,  hospitality,  retail,  carwashes,  beauty  and 
cleaning  services,  transportation,  housekeeping  and  domestic  assistance.  Traffickers 
increasingly recruit victims of trafficking for labour exploitation online, by setting up or 
cooperating  with  recruitment  agencies  and  subcontractors  in  order  to  provide  a  legal 
facade to their operations. 

While men are predominately the victims of labour exploitation (66%), several Member 
States  reported  that  women  were  increasingly  victims  of  trafficking  for  labour 
exploitation (34%), especially in domestic work or cleaning services. They often remain 

15 Including Belgium, France, Ireland, Spain and Sweden. 
16 Estonia, France, Netherlands and Spain. 
17 Belgium, Italy, Latvia, Luxembourg, Malta, Poland, Slovakia.  

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invisible, as their exploitation usually takes place in the private sphere and many of them 
come from non-EU countries. 

Nearly the same share of EU (45%) and non-EU (50%)18 victims of trafficking for labour 
exploitation  were  registered  in  the  EU  in  2019-2020.  However,  Member  States 
highlighted the particular vulnerability of migrants to this form of exploitation. They are 
often recruited in their country of origin by traffickers of the same nationality and lured 
into the EU by the perspective of higher wages. 

Member States19 reported that non-EU victims often enter the EU with a visa, although 
traffickers  sometimes  use  fraudulent  documents  (e.g.  identity  fraud,  false  employment 
contracts  and  legal  work  permits  obtained  through  the  use  of  shell  companies  and 
abusing  legal  pathways).  Some  Member  States20  mentioned  that  victims  from  non-EU 
countries, in particular from Asia (e.g. Vietnam), often have to work, for instance in nail 
salons or cannabis farms, to reimburse their debts incurred by the costs of travelling.   

No  data  was  reported  by  the  Member  States  on  legal  persons,  which  were  subject  to 
investigations, prosecutions or convictions for trafficking offences in 2019-2020. 

2.2.4. Trafficking in human beings for other forms of exploitation 

During the reporting period, forms of trafficking in human beings, other than sexual and 
labour exploitation, accounted for 11% of all cases21. Such forms of exploitation include 
forced criminal  activities, forced begging, illegal  removal of organs and “other”  forms, 
which are not included in the definition of Article 2(3) of Directive 2011/36/EU, such as 
illegal adoption, forced and sham marriages, illegal surrogacy and benefit fraud22. 

While  forced criminality and forced begging only  accounted for 3% of all registered 
victims in the EU for 2019-2020, several Member States23 reported an increase in these 
forms  of  exploitation.  Forced  criminality  is  often  associated  with  theft,  petty  crime, 
pickpocketing, shoplifting and selling drugs. Forced begging was the second main form 
of  exploitation  in  Estonia  (20%)  and  forced  criminality  was  the  second  most  prevalent 
form of exploitation in Greece (42%).  

Member  States  reported  that  women,  children  and  irregular  migrants  are  particularly 
vulnerable  to  trafficking  for  these  purposes.  Victims  often  have  a  disadvantaged 
background,  are  homeless  or  suffer  from  alcohol  or  other  addictions.  Some  Member 
States24 underlined that victims of trafficking for forced begging are mostly from Roma 
communities and persons with disabilities. Data on the number of victims of trafficking 
in human beings for the purpose of forced begging in 2019-2020 indicates that 47% were 
children25. 

18 The citizenship of 5% of registered victims of trafficking for labour exploitation was reported as ‘other’. 
19 Belgium, Cyprus, Estonia, France, Lithuania and Malta.   
20 Belgium, Ireland, Spain 
21 In 2017-2018, other forms of exploitation represented 18% of cases of trafficking in human beings in the 
EU.  
22  For  the  remaining  10%  of  recorded  victims  of  trafficking  in  human  beings,  the  reported  form  of 
exploitation was ‘unknown’. 
23 Bulgaria, Croatia, Greece, Ireland, Romania and Spain  
24 Austria and Bulgaria.  
25 31% were adults and 22% were unknown.  

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Several  Member  States26  reported  on  cases  of  trafficking  for  forced  and  sham 
marriages, which mainly affect vulnerable migrant women as well as ethnic minorities, 
such  as  Roma.  Member  States  highlighted  that  victims  of  this  form  of  exploitation  are 
often  also  trafficked  for  sexual  exploitation,  labour  exploitation  or  forced  begging. 
According  to  Eurojust,  women  coming  from  Roma  communities  in  Member  States  are 
particularly  vulnerable  to  being  trafficked  and  exploited  for  sham  marriages  for  the 
purpose of allowing the free entry and movement of third-country nationals in the EU27. 
In addition, European Institute for Gender Equality reported that women and girls victims 
of  forced  marriage  are  often  hidden  within  private  households  and  in  the  sector  of 
prostitution, which makes their detection and identification more difficult. 

Europol,  Eurojust  and  some  Member  States28  reported  cases  of  trafficking  for  the 
purposes  of  illegal  surrogacy  and  forced  pregnancy,  where  women  are  recruited  to 
give away their new-borns upon the promise of compensation or to participate in illegal 
surrogacy programmes.  

Trafficking  for  the  purpose  of  removal  of  organs29  and  benefit  fraud30  was  also 
reported by some Member States. These two forms of exploitation represented less than 
1% of registered cases in the EU in 2019-2020.  

2.2.5. Child trafficking 

Almost  one in  four victims  of trafficking in  human beings was a child (23%) in 2019-
2020.  The  majority  of  child  victims  were  female  (75%).  EU  citizens  were 
disproportionately represented among registered child victims (85%), among which 75% 
were  recorded  in  their  own  country  of  citizenship.  10%  of  child  victims  were  non-EU 
citizens31. Half of registered child victims were trafficked for sexual exploitation (50%), 
while 17% were trafficked for labour exploitation and 4% for forced begging32.  

Dating  and  escort  websites  often  advertise  child  victims  as  adults.  Children  are  also 
advertised  on  dedicated  websites  where  adults  are  specifically  looking  for  sexual 
encounters with children. Children are also often abused in clandestine settings, such as 
pop-up brothels and sometimes in public venues (hotels, restaurants, as well as sex, night 
and strip clubs).  

Several Member States33 highlighted the use of the “lover boy” method by traffickers to 
lure  children  and  young  adult  women  into  sexual  exploitation.  During  the  reporting 
period,  Europol  and  Eurojust  notably  supported  Romania,  France  and  Spain  in  two 
different  operations  targeting  criminal  networks,  which  recruited  victims  through  the 
“lover boy” method. “Lover boys” are human traffickers who usually operate by trying to 
make  young  girls  or  boys  fall  in  love  with  them,  or  by  manipulating  young  people 
through other means in order to exploit them, for instance in the sex industry. Nowadays, 

26 Bulgaria, Cyprus, Ireland, Greece and Lithuania 
27  Eurojust,  Report  on  national  legislation  and  Eurojust  casework  on  sham  marriages  (2020),  sham-
marriage-oct-2020-redacted.pdf (europa.eu) 
28 Bulgaria, Cyprus and Greece.  
29 Greece, Netherlands and Poland. 
30 Cyprus, Lithuania and Slovakia.  
31 For 3% of recorded child victims of trafficking in human beings, the reported citizenship was ‘unknown’ 
and for 2% was ‘other not specified’. 
32  8%  were  registered  for  other  forms  of  exploitation.  For  20%  of  registered  child  victims,  the  form  of 
exploitation was unknown.  
33 Belgium, Bulgaria, Estonia, Finland, Hungary, Luxemburg, Romania and Spain. 

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lover-boys  resort  more  quickly  and  frequently  to  threatening  their  victims,  using 
blackmail and violence.34 

Europol  and  several  Member  States35  reported  that  EU  family  clans  continue  to  traffic 
their own children, as well as other children who are in the same communities as them, 
mainly  for  begging,  pickpocketing  and  shop  lifting  or  as  domestic  servants.  Criminal 
networks  active  in  the  EU  also  use  children,  often  from  non-EU  countries,  to  commit 
various types of crimes, such as pickpocketing, shoplifting or selling of items36. Children 
are also trafficked through illegal adoption schemes37. 

2.2.6. Trafficking in human beings in the context of migration 

Trafficking  remained  a  challenge  in  the  context  of  migration38,  especially  in  some 
Member States, which reported that the majority of victims have a migrant background. 
Irregular  migration  created  profit  opportunities  for  trafficking  networks  and  exposed 
migrants  to  various  forms  of  trafficking  not  just  in  countries  of  destination,  but  also  in 
transit points and migration camps. There is a clear link with smuggling of migrants, with 
victims  recruited in  the  country  of origin,  sometimes with  the promise of a respectable 
job  in  the  EU,  and  trafficked  in  countries  of  destination  for  forced  labour  or  sexual 
exploitation in order to repay the transport arrangements that led them to the EU39. In this 
case, the traffickers are  often of the same nationality, or  ethnic  group,  as the victims40. 
There have been cases of voluntary recruitment by other victims41, but also of inadvertent 
recruitment  based  on  information  relayed  to  countries  of  origin  regarding  the 
opportunities of getting a job or a residence permit in countries of destination42. There are 
also numerous cases of trafficking of migrants who had arrived in the EU through legal 
routes and were later exploited43.  

3.  EU AND MEMBER STATES ACTIONS TO ADDRESS TRAFFICKING IN 

HUMAN BEINGS 

3.1. A comprehensive approach to addressing trafficking in human beings 

In April 2021, the Commission adopted the EU Strategy on Combating Trafficking in 
Human  Beings  2021-202544,  which  takes  a  comprehensive  approach  from  the 
prevention  of  the  crime  and  protection  of  victims  through  to  the  prosecution  and 
conviction of traffickers. As reported in the next sections, many of the legal, policy and 
operational initiatives announced in the four areas of the EU Strategy have significantly 
advanced or have already been implemented45. 

34 ‘Loverboys’ | Human trafficking and people smuggling | Government.nl 
35 Greece, Hungary and Romania. 
36 Europol, 2021 EU Serious and Organised Crime Threat Assessment, available at: link. 
37 Europol and Slovakia.  
38 Ireland, Greece, FRONTEX and civil society organisations. 
39 France and Spain. 
40 Italy and Sweden. 
41 France. 
42 Portugal. 
43 France, Malta. 
44 COM/2021/171 final. 
45 Reducing demand that  fosters trafficking  for all  forms of  exploitation; breaking the business  model of 
traffickers;  protecting,  supporting  and  empowering  the  victims,  with  a  specific  focus  on  women  and 
children; and the international dimension 

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One  of  the  priority  actions  of  the  EU  Strategy,  is  the  evaluation  of  Directive 
2011/36/EU46. The evaluation found that the Directive constituted a robust framework to 
prevent  and  combat  trafficking  in  human  beings,  as  well  as  protecting  the  victims,  and 
had  created  a  common  ground  at  EU  level  to  address  the  crime.  However,  it  also 
identified a number of issues, which present obstacles to reducing the scale of the crime, 
ensuring an effective law enforcement and judicial response against traffickers, as well as 
to  the  early  identification  of,  and  assistance  and  support  to  the  victims.  In  order  to 
address these shortcomings, the Commission proposed on 13 December 2022 a Directive 
amending  Directive  2011/36/EU  on  preventing  and  combating  trafficking  in  human 
beings and protecting its victims47. Moreover, in line with the outcome of the evaluation, 
the key non legislative actions of the EU Strategy continue to be highly relevant in order 
to improve the implementation of the Directive in the Member States.  

The  EU  Strategy  underlines  the  need  to  improve  data  recording  and  data  collection  on 
trafficking  in  human  beings  to  ensure  reliable  and  comparable  information  for  tailor 
made  policies.  In  2021,  the  Commission  moved  from  a  biannual  to  an  annual  data 
collection,  which  will  be  available  together  with  data  for  previous  reporting  years,  on 
EUROSTAT  website48.  The  Commission  proposes  to  amend  Directive  2011/36/EU  in 
order to make it mandatory for Member States to collect data on trafficking in human 
beings  and  report  those  statistics  to  the  Commission  on  an  annual  basis.  This  will 
allow a more up-to-date overview and monitoring of the scale of the phenomenon in the 
EU.  

Funding  for  combatting  trafficking  in  human  beings  was  provided  through  the 
Thematic  Facility  Work  Programmes  for  2021-2022  under  the  Asylum,  Migration  and 
Integration Fund (AMIF)49 and the Internal Security Fund (ISF)50 (for a total budget of 
EUR  13  million  for  Union  action  and  specific  action  under  direct  and  shared 
management). 

The  current  EU  Anti-Trafficking  Coordinator51  (EU  ATC)  was  appointed  on  1  July 
2021. Since then, the EU ATC has met with different stakeholders in the Members States 
and in non-EU countries and reinforced the cooperation with international organisations 
in the context of the implementation of the Anti-trafficking Directive and EU Strategy on 
Combatting Trafficking in Human Beings. Six meetings of the EU Network of National 
Rapporteurs and Equivalent Mechanisms took place, as well as four meetings of the EU 
Civil Society Platform against trafficking in human beings. The EU ATC developped and 
coordinated  the  implementation  of  a  Common  Anti-trafficking  Plan52  to  address  the 
risks  of  trafficking  in  human  beings  and  support  potential  victims  among  those  fleeing 
the war in Ukraine, in close cooperation with the National Rapporteurs and Coordinators, 
the EU Agencies, civil society organisations, Ukraine and Moldova.  

46 SWD(2022) 427. 
47  Proposal  of  the  Commission  for  the  European  Parliament  and  of  the  Council  amending  Directive 
2011/36/EU  on  preventing  and  combatting  trafficking  in  human  beings  and  protecting  its  victims 
(COM(2022) 732) 
48 The data will be published in Eurostat  website (Database  - Eurostat (europa.eu)) under Population and 
social conditions/Crime and criminal justice. 
49 AMIF - Thematic Facility Work Programme 2021-2022_en.pdf (europa.eu) 
50 ISF - Thematic Facility Work Programme 2021-2022_en.PDF (europa.eu).  
51 EU Anti-Trafficking Coordinator (europa.eu). 
52 A new Anti-Trafficking Plan to protect people fleeing the war in Ukraine (europa.eu). 

8 

 
 
 
 
                                                           
to  fight  against 

Trafficking  in  human  beings  is  also  addressed  through  a  comprehensive  approach  at 
national  level.  During  the  reporting  period,  Member  States  adopted  legal  and  policy 
instruments 
the 
implementation  of  Directive  2011/36/EU.  These  included  new  or  renewed  national 
strategies and action plans53, sets of guidelines, protocols and procedures54 aimed at 
supporting  the  relevant  stakeholders  in  detecting,  identifying  and  protecting  victims,  as 
well as measures to coordinate the efforts in the fight against human trafficking55. 

in  human  beings  and  supporting 

trafficking 

3.2.  Preventing  trafficking  in  human  beings  and  reducing  the  demand  that 
fosters the crime 

The  EU  Strategy  highlighted  that,  despite  prevention  initiatives,  the  demand  for  using 
exploited  victims’  services  has  not  been  reduced.  The  2019-2020  statistics  for  the 
criminal offence of the use of the services of trafficking victims, show that 11 Member 
States  reported  a  total  of  159  suspects,  46  prosecutions  and  51  convictions.  These 
numbers are significantly lower than during the previous reporting period56, which might 
be linked to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the criminal justice system. 

Assessing  the  possibility  of  modifying  the  provisions  of  Directive  2011/36/EU  on 
criminalising the use of exploited services from victims of trafficking was one of the 
key actions of the EU Strategy. Member States have different approaches to discouraging 
and  reducing  the  demand  and  not  all  of  them  have  made  use  of  Article  18(4)  of  the 
Directive  2011/36/EU,  which  requires  them  to  consider  taking  measures  to 
criminalise  the  knowing  use  of  services  exacted  from  victims.  During  the  reporting 
period,  Hungary  adopted  new  legislation,  which  criminalises  the  knowing  use  of 
exploited services and increased the level of penalties for the users when the victim is a 
child. The Netherlands criminalised the use of sexual services when the user knew or had 
a  serious  ground  to  suspect  that  the  person  was  a  victim  of  trafficking.  Penalties  are 
higher  if  the  victim  is  a  child.  In  2021,  Germany,  which  had  already  criminalised  the 
knowing  use  of  exploited  sexual  services,  adopted  a  stricter  approach  by  establishing 
criminal  liability  for  the  use  of  exploited  sexual  services  under  recklessness.  Cyprus 
amended its legislation in 2019 to increase the penalties for the offence of the use of any 
exploited  services  of  victims  and  removing  the  requirement  that  the  user  must  have  a 
“reasonable  suspicion”  in  cases  of  sexual  exploitation.  Moreover,  discussions  on  the 
criminalisation of the knowing use of exploited services and demand for sexual services 
are  taking  place  in  some  Member  States,  such  as  Slovakia  and  Spain.  Three  Member 
States57  have  also  carried  out  or  are  currently  conducting  an  evaluation  of  relevant 
legislation criminalising the use of exploited services.  

In  order  to  strengthen  the  criminal  justice  response  to  discouraging  demand,  the 
Commission  proposes  a  modification  of  Directive  2011/36/EU,  which  aims  at  making 
the  criminalisation  of  the  knowing  use  of  services  exacted  from  victims  of 
trafficking in human beings mandatory. 

53 Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Czechia, Spain, Hungary, Italy, Ireland, Greece, Finland, Lithuania, 
Latvia, Netherlands, Romania, Slovakia, Portugal. 
54 Germany, Croatia, Greece, Italy, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Latvia. 
55 Germany. 
56  During  the  2017-2018  reporting  period,  11  Member  States  reported  a  total  of  170  suspects,  162 
prosecutions and 133 convictions in relation to the criminal offence of the use of the services of trafficking 
victims. 
57 Ireland, France and Luxembourg.  

9 

 
 
 
 
                                                           
In  line  with  the  EU  Strategy,  the  Commission  adopted  several  measures  aimed  at 
addressing the responsibility of companies and businesses to reducing demand for, and 
detecting  potential  cases  of  trafficking  in  human  beings  in  their  activities  and  supply 
chains.  In  July  2021,  the  Commission  and  the  European  External  Action  Service 
published a Guidance to assist EU businesses in taking appropriate measures to address 
the  risk  of  forced  labour  in  their  operations  and  supply  chains58.  Moreover,  the 
Commission’s proposal for a Directive on corporate sustainability due diligence sets 
out a horizontal framework to foster the contribution of businesses operating in the single 
market  to  the  respect  of  human  rights  through  their  own  operations  and  through  their 
value  chains,  by  identifying,  preventing,  mitigating  and  accounting  for  their  adverse 
human rights impact, including trafficking in human beings. On 14 September 2022, the 
Commission  presented  a  proposal for  a  Regulation  prohibiting products  made  with 
forced labour on the Union market59. These proposals - once adopted - will strengthen 
the Union’s efforts to assign stricter accountability of legal persons for human trafficking 
offences.  At  the  national  level,  Member  States  have  taken  or  are  considering  to  take 
measures to oblige companies above a certain size to carry out due diligence throughout 
their  supply  chain  to  detect  and  prevent  potential  labour  exploitation.  In  Germany,  the 
Act  on  Corporate  Due  Diligence  in  Supply  Chains  will  enter  into  force  on  1  January 
2023.  Belgium,  Finland,  the  Netherlands  and  Romania  are  working  towards  adopting 
similar  legislation.  Belgium  also  prepared  a  tool  box  with  guidance  for  companies  to 
identify human rights violations and labour exploitation. 

Additionally,  the  Commission  proposed  actions60  to  strengthen  the  effectiveness  of  the 
Employers’  Sanctions  Directive61,  which  prohibits  the  employment  of  irregularly 
staying  third-country  nationals,  including  victims  of  trafficking  in  human  beings.  The 
communication  set  out  that  the  Commission  would  promote  the  exchange  of  good 
practices  for  identifying  victims  of  exploitation  and  trafficking,  including  on  joint 
inspections  with  dedicated  units.  The  Commission  participates  in  the  meetings  of  the 
European  Platform  tackling  undeclared  work  within  the  European  Labour  Authority, 
which  mobilises  labour  inspectorates  in  the  Member  States  in  order  to  raise  awareness 
about undeclared work and labour exploitation and share practices in detecting possible 
victims of trafficking in human beings. Moreover, the European Labour Authority takes 
part  in  the  European  Multidisciplinary  Platform  Against  Criminal  Threats  (EMPACT) 
operational actions addressing trafficking for labour exploitation. 

The EU Strategy provides that awareness raising campaigns on the risks of trafficking 
are  important  means  to  detect  and  prevent  the  crime.  Member  States62  carried  out 
awareness  raising  campaigns  on  trafficking  in  human  beings  through  social  media, 
videos,  leaflets,  posters,  media,  as  well  as  in  schools,  among  others.  Some  Member 
States63 have put in place campaigns targeting clients on social media, dating website and 
advertising platforms for sexual services in order to raise their awareness of the risks of 
trafficking in human beings and encourage them to have a  more responsible behaviour. 

58 New EU guidance helps companies to combat forced labour (europa.eu). 
59 COM(2022) 453 final. 
60 COM(2021) 592 final. 
61  Directive  2009/52/EC  of  the  European  Parliament  and  of  the  Council  of  18  June  2009  providing  for 
minimum  standards  on  sanctions  and  measures  against  employers  of  illegally  staying  third-country 
nationals, OJ L 168, 30.6.2009, p. 24–32 
62 Such as Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, Finland, Hungary, Luxembourg, Latvia, Malta, Portugal and Spain. 
63 Belgium and Netherlands.  

10 

 
 
 
 
                                                           
Other Member States64 carried out awareness raising campaigns on labour rights and safe 
work opportunities, as well as on the risks of trafficking for labour exploitation.  

Despite the Covid-19 pandemic, Member States continued to deliver training to a wide 
range of stakeholders in order to enable them to detect and identify cases of trafficking, 
including law enforcement and judicial authorities, frontline staff, border guards, asylum 
and  immigration  officers,  health  professionals,  social  workers,  social  and  labour 
inspectors, consular staff, municipalities staff, as well as flight personal. 

3.3. Breaking the criminal business model of traffickers 

Law  enforcement  cooperation  has  significantly  intensified  during  the  period  2019-
202265, both at the EU and international levels. This is also reflected by the increase of 
29%  in  the  total  number  of  individuals  suspected  of  trafficking  in  human  beings,  as 
compared  to  the  previous  reporting  period66.  EU  citizens  accounted  for  62%  of  all 
suspects registered in the EU in 2019-2020.  

Many  Member  States67  reported  taking  part  in  the  EMPACT  operational  actions  to 
tackle  trafficking  in  human  beings,  including  in  cooperation  with  non-EU  countries68. 
Europol  supported  numerous  large-scale  actions  across  the  EU  on  sexual  exploitation, 
child  trafficking,  labour  exploitation  (including  focused  actions  in  the  agricultural 
sector),  as  well  as  forced  begging  and  forced  criminality.  Europol  continued  to  run  the 
Joint  Liaison  Task  Force  Migrant  Smuggling  and  Trafficking  in  Human  Beings 
established in 2019, focusing on developing intelligence-led coordinated actions against 
criminal  networks  involved  in  migrant  smuggling  and  trafficking  in  human  beings.  In 
addition,  Member  States69  carried  out  bilateral  cooperation  with  other  EU  Member 
States,  non-EU  countries70  as  well  as  EU  Agencies71  and  Interpol,  including  for 
investigations  cases,  the  posting  of  liaison  officers,  training  and  capacity  building, 
exchange of practices, among others.  

For  the  period  2019-2020,  6  539  prosecutions  and  3  019  convictions  were  recorded 
within  the  EU.  This  represents  a  slight  increase  as  compared  to  the  previous  reporting 
period72.  Nevertheless,  the  number  of  prosecutions  as  compared  to  the  number  of 
suspects  decreased  from  52%  in  2017-2018  to  43%  in  2019-2020.  The  number  of 
convicted  persons  as  compared  to  the  number  of  prosecutions  increased  from  39%  to 
46% during 2019-202073.  In 2021 the estimated number of prosecutions is  4 45274 and 
the estimated number of convictions is 2 50775. Nevertheless, despite the overall increase, 
the  absolute  number  of  prosecutions  and  convictions  remains  low,  especially  as 
compared to the number of registered victims and of suspects. 

64 Bulgaria, Croatia, Italy, Netherlands, Poland and Spain. 
65  Europol  supported  60  operational  meetings  in  2021,  as  compared  to  32  operational  meetings  in  2020. 
Europol supported 37 operational meetings only in the first half of 2022. 
66 15 214 suspects were registered in the period 2019-2020, as compared to 11 788 in 2017-2018. 
67  For  instance,  Austria,  Belgium,  Cyprus,  Czechia,  Germany,  Greece,  Spain,  Finland,  France,  Croatia, 
Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Malta, Netherlands, Portugal, Romania, Sweden, Slovakia.  
68 China, Nigeria, Vietnam, as well as the Balkan region and North Africa.  
69 Such as Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Greece, Spain, Croatia, Italy, Latvia, Malta, Portugal.  
70  For  example,  Bosnia-Herzegovina,  China,  Jordan,  Moldova,  Montenegro,  Nigeria,  Republic  of  North 
Macedonia, Serbia, Turkey, United Kingdom, etc. 
71 Europol, Frontex and, CEPOL.  
72 In 2017-2018, 6 163 persons were prosecuted. 
73 In 2017-2018, 2 426 persons were convicted. 
74 The value of Portugal was estimated. 
75 The value of Germany and Portugal were estimated. 

11 

 
 
 
 
                                                           
Between 2019 and  2021, 486 investigations and  prosecutions were referred to  Eurojust 
for  assistance76.  Eurojust  supported  156  Joint  Investigations  in  the  same  period77.  The 
number of investigations and prosecutions coordinated by Eurojust has decreased, from 
183 in 2019, to 163 in 2020 and to 140 in 2021, which may highlight difficulties or a lack 
of  awareness  of  Member  States  in  referring  cases  to  the  EU  Agency.  Several  Member 
States78 reported on participating in  Joint Investigation Teams  coordinated  by Eurojust, 
both with EU and non-EU Member States.   

On 14 June 2022, the EU ATC, together with Eurojust, organised the first meeting of the 
Focus Group of specialised prosecutors against trafficking in human beings, which is 
one  of  the  key  actions  of  the  EU  Strategy79.  The  meeting  brought  together  prosecutors 
and judges from the EU Member States in order to build expertise and intensify judicial 
cooperation  against  trafficking  in  human  beings,  including  in  the  context  of  the  war  in 
Ukraine.  

As  underlined  in  the  EU  Strategy,  systematic  training  of  law  enforcement  and  justice 
practitioners,  is  important  to  effectively  tackle  trafficking  in  human  beings.  CEPOL 
continued to provide training covering the main aspects of the fight against trafficking in 
human  beings,  such  as  prevention,  the  gender-specific  and  child-sensitive  approach, 
financial  and  online 
judicial 
cooperation,  as  well  as  the  early  identification,  assistance,  support  and  protection  of 
victims.  

investigations,  cross-border 

law  enforcement  and 

As  mentioned  previously,  traffickers  increasingly  moved  online  for  every  phase  of 
trafficking. As one of the key actions of the EU Strategy on Combatting Trafficking in 
Human  Beings,  the  Commission  extended  the  activities  of  the  EU  Internet  Forum  to 
discuss with the internet and technology companies and encompass measures to prevent, 
detect  and  remove  content  related  to  human  trafficking.  The  Commission  further 
proposes to include in the definition of trafficking in human beings offences committed 
or facilitated by means of information or communication technologies. 

Moreover, the Digital Services Act80 will be a relevant tool in detecting, monitoring and 
removing  online  content  related  to  trafficking  in  human  beings,  as  it  introduces  a  due 
diligence obligation for providers of intermediary services, such as online platforms, with 
the  aim  to  reduce  illegal  and  harmful  content  online,  including  trafficking  in  human 
beings.  

The  digitalisation  of  the  traffickers’  business  model  brought  opportunities  to  law 
enforcement  authorities  to  detect  the  victims  and  arrest  traffickers,  notably  through  the 
tracing  and  gathering  of  digital  evidence,  which  can  contribute  to  building  a  case  and 
complement the victim’s testimony81. Several EMPACT coordinated online joint actions, 

76  273  trafficking  in  human  beings  cases  were  referred  to  Eurojust  during  the  previous  reporting  period 
(2017-2018).  
77 107 Joint Investigation Teams were supported by Eurojust in 2017-2018.  
78 Such as Bulgaria, Finland, Germany, Hungary, Ireland, Malta, Spain and Romania.  
79 Focus group of prosecutors specialised in human trafficking meets for the first time | Eurojust | European 
Union Agency for Criminal Justice Cooperation (europa.eu)  
80  Regulation  2022/2065/EU  of  the  European  Parliament  and  of  the  Council  of  19  October  2022  on  a 
Single Market for Digital Services and amending Directive 2000/31/EC (Digital Services Act) (OJ L 277, 
27.10.2022, p.1) See also EUR-Lex - 32022R2065 - EN - EUR-Lex (europa.eu) 
81  Europol,  The  challenges  of  countering  human 
the  digital  era 
https://www.europol.europa.eu/publications-events/publications/challenges-of-countering-human-
trafficking-in-digital-era   

trafficking 

(2020), 

in 

12 

 
 
 
 
                                                           
supported  by  the  EU  Agencies,  including  Europol,  targeted  criminal  networks  using 
websites and social media platforms to recruit victims for sexual exploitation, including 
online platforms related to vulnerable Ukrainian refugees82. 

Member States83 adopted various strategies to detect cases of trafficking in human beings 
facilitated  by  the  use  of  technology.  These  include  monitoring  the  internet  (both  the 
surface  web  and  the  dark  web)  combined  with  real-time  open  source  intelligence 
analysis,  creating  cyber-unit  specialised  in  countering  trafficking  in  human  beings  and 
deploying  “cyber-patrols”  with  specialised  officers 
tasked  with  carrying  out 
investigations on the Internet, subject to relevant legal requirements. Web-scraping tools 
specifically  developed  for  extracting  information  from  websites  are  used  by  some  law 
enforcement  agencies,  particularly  to  identify  risk  and  vulnerability  on  Adult  Services 
Websites84. Several Member States have implemented systems for Internet users to report 
content and websites that they suspect are linked to illegal activities, including sexual and 
labour  exploitation.  Austria  mentioned  that  law  enforcement  authorities  use  digital 
evidence to trace the working hours and conditions, logistics of transport, daily income, 
threats and constant control and abuse of women who are victims of trafficking.  

Member  States85  carried  out  labour  inspections  in  order  to  detect  possible  cases  of 
trafficking  for  labour  exploitation,  including  within  the  framework  of  EMPACT 
“Trafficking in Human Beings”. Some Member States86 also adopted specific measures 
aimed at improving labour inspections in the area of trafficking in human beings, such as 
legislative acts expanding the inspection and investigative powers of financial authorities, 
setting-up of cooperation agreements between law enforcement and labour authorities, as 
well as creating a specific unit of labour inspectors competent for cases of trafficking in 
human beings. 

Moreover, Member States took  measures aimed  at  increasing and improving the use of 
financial investigations in trafficking in human beings cases, including training for law 
enforcement and judicial authorities, development of public-private partnerships between 
Financial Intelligence Units, National Labour Authorities and banks, strengthening of the 
capacity  of  law  enforcement  authorities  to  conduct  money  laundering  investigations  in 
relation to trafficking in human beings cases; and development of handbooks on financial 
investigations  and  asset  recovery87.  Member  States  also  reported  on  seizing  and 
confiscating assets and proceeds in the context of criminal proceedings on trafficking in 
human beings. The Commission’s proposal for a new Directive on asset recovery and 
confiscation88 contributes to the fight against trafficking in human beings by providing a 
new  set  of  rules  that  reinforces  asset  recovery  from  tracing  and  identification,  through 
freezing  and  management,  to  confiscation  and  final  disposal  of  proceeds  and 
instrumentalities of criminal offences, including from trafficking of human beings. 

The Commission proposes to amend Directive 2011/36/EU in order to further harmonise 
the EU legal framework with a view to facilitate cross-border cooperation in trafficking 

82 See for example: 20 countries spin a web for human traffickers during a hackathon | Europol (europa.eu). 
83 Such as Spain, France, Croatia and Netherlands.  
84  Council  of  Europe  Group  of  Experts  on  Action  against  Trafficking  in  Human  Beings,  Online  and 
in  human  beings  (2022),  https://rm.coe.int/online-and-technology-
technology-facilitate 
facilitated-trafficking-in-human-beings-summary-/1680a5e10c 
85 Such as Croatia, France, Ireland and Netherlands.  
86 Germany, Hungary and Lithuania.  
87 Cyprus, Netherlands and Spain. 
88 COM/2022/ 245 final. 

trafficking 

13 

 
 
 
 
                                                           
cases  and  address  emerging  threats.  In  addition  to  the  ones,  which  were  mentioned 
above,  these  modifications  consist  in  adding  forced  marriage  and  illegal  adoption 
among  the  forms  of  exploitation  that  Member  States  should  criminalise  and 
reinforcing  the  sanction  regime  against  legal  persons  in  relation  to  trafficking 
offences committed for their benefit.   

In 2022, the Commission launched a call for proposals under the ISF on actions against 
trafficking  in  human  beings89,  with  a  total  budget  of  EUR  3  million,  which  aims  at 
breaking the criminal business model of human traffickers. The fight against trafficking 
in human beings is fully integrated in the EMPACT grants that support multidisciplinary 
actions  against  ten  crime  priorities  identified  by  the  Council  in  the  context  of  the 
EMPACT Cycle90.  

3.4. Early identification, assistance and protection of the victims  

In 2022, the Commission launched a call for proposals under the AMIF on the assistance, 
support and integration of third country national victims of trafficking in human beings91, 
with a total budget of EUR 4 million. The call supports concrete transnational measures 
aiming to enhance the integration of the victims in the host country, taking into account 
their specific needs and circumstances, as well as victims among vulnerable groups. 

EU agencies reported on their respective roles and actions for the early identification and 
protection  of  victims92.  EUAA  developed  a  vulnerability  toolkit  to  provide  a 
comprehensive  approach  to  the  issue  of  trafficking  in  human  beings  together  with  the 
other vulnerabilities focusing also on victims with special needs.  FRONTEX developed 
VEGA Children handbooks to improve the identification of children on the move at risk 
at  air,  land  and  sea  borders.  FRONTEX  Handbook  on  Risk  Profiles  on  Trafficking  in 
Human Beings is also a practical and operationally relevant tool that aims to respond to 
the needs of Border Guards and national authorities in the area of anti-trafficking. FRA 
prepared  a  manual  for  trainers  on  guardianship  for  unaccompanied  children,  including 
child  victims  of  trafficking,  and  carries  out  monitoring  at  the  border  to  help  staff  in 
identifying victims of trafficking in human beings.  

Member  States  took  measures  aimed  at  increasing  and  intensifying  the  early 
identification of victims of trafficking in human beings and their referral to assistance 
and  support  services.  Such  measures  include  detection  and  assessment  tools  used  in 
reception centres, guidelines for the referral of non-EU victims of trafficking arriving at 
airports, as well as developing projects, guidelines, protocols, handbooks and indicators 
to  detect  the  signs  of  trafficking  in  human  beings93.  Member  States  also  reported  on 
training  of  front-line  caseworkers,  police  officers  and  border  guards  on  the  early 
identification  of  potential  victims  of  trafficking  in  human  beings94.  Multidisciplinary 
training  dedicated  to  the  identification  and  protection  of  children  at  risk  of  becoming 
victims of trafficking was also organised by some Member States95, in cooperation with 

89 Funding & tenders (europa.eu) 
90  Council  Conclusions  setting  the  EU’s  priorities  for  the  fight  against  serious  and  organised  crime  for 
EMPACT 2022-2025, https://data.consilium.europa.eu/doc/document/ST-8665-2021-INIT/en/pdf  
91 Funding & tenders (europa.eu) 
92  Joint  report  of  the  JHA  agencies’  network  on  the  identification  and  protection  of  victims  of  human 
trafficking (europa.eu) 
93 For example Belgium, Croatia, Estonia, Italy, Finland, Hungary and Spain.  
94 For example, Cyprus, Finland, Latvia, Luxembourg and Romania.  
95 For example, France. 

14 

 
 
 
 
                                                           
civil  society  organisations  and  involving  child  protection  services,  staff  from  the 
administrative, judicial and socio-educational sector, among others. 

Member States took initiatives in order to improve informal or formal national referral 
mechanisms.  For  instance,  Portugal  started  to  implement  the  National  Referral 
Mechanism,  which  consists  in  a  protocol  defining  procedures  for  the  identification  and 
referral of (potential) child victims. France is developing a National Referral Mechanism, 
which  will  take  the  form  of  a  document  including  indicators  to  identify  victims  and 
define the roles and attributions of relevant stakeholders. Ireland approved the creation of 
a  revised  National  Referral  Mechanism,  which  will  allow  selected  civil  society 
organisations to  refer victims, among other measures. The Commission proposes in  the 
amendment  to  Directive  2011/36/EU  to  make  it  mandatory  for  Member  States  to 
establish national referral mechanisms aimed at the early identification of, assistance to, 
and  support  for  victims,  in  cooperation  with  relevant  support  organisations,  and  to 
appoint a national focal point for the referral of victims.  

In  line  with  the  EU  Strategy,  the  Commission  encouraged  Member  States  to  establish 
specialised shelters for victims of trafficking through EU funding. All Member States 
indicated  measures  and  actions  to  ensure  that  all  victims  identified  are  provided  with 
assistance, support and protection, taking into account gender and child-specific needs. 
These measures and actions include housing and specialised shelters for adult victims as 
well  as  children  and  provisions  of  medical,  psychological  and  legal  assistance.  Civil 
Society  Organisations  also  offered  a  diverse  range  of  counselling  services  for  potential 
victims of trafficking, as well as provided protection, shelter, medical, psychological and 
psychiatric support, legal, social, education and professional care.  

Several  Member  States96  reported  on  specific  amounts  of  compensation  awarded  to 
victims of trafficking in human beings, ranging from EUR 1 000 to EUR 29 295 in one 
year. Victims continue to face obstacles in  accessing justice and compensation, notably 
due to the fact that they may not be aware of their rights, lack information regarding the 
civil  or  criminal  proceedings  or  do  not  legally  reside  in  the  Member  States.  Member 
States and civil society organisations produced information material for victims of crime, 
including trafficking in  human beings, about  their rights  and relevant  procedures. They 
also adopted amendments to existing legislation; put in place training of law enforcement 
authorities  and  specialised  services  on  victims’  hearing;  set  up  rooms  dedicated  to  the 
hearing  of  victims  of  trafficking;  and  developed  new  procedures  to  assess  the  specific 
individual circumstances of the victims claiming compensation97.  

The specific prevention, protection and support measures envisaged in the Commission’s 
proposal for a Directive on combating violence against women and domestic violence98 
complement the measures laid down in Directive 2011/36/EU.  

3.5. International dimension 

The EU Strategy addresses trafficking in human beings as a transnational crime. Nearly 
half of the victims registered in 2019-2020 were non-EU citizens. As announced in the 
EU  Strategy,  the  Commission  adopted  an  EU  Action  Plan  against  Migrant  Smuggling 
(2021-2025)99, which aims at providing protection and assistance to smuggled vulnerable 

96 Belgium, Latvia and Slovakia.  
97 Czechia, France, Germany, Lithuania and Netherlands. 
98 COM/2022/105 final. 
99 COM(2021) 591 final. 

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migrants, with a particular attention to children and women, and contributes to fighting 
the smuggling networks and disrupting their business of moving victims for exploitation 
to the EU. 

In 2022, Russia’s military aggression against Ukraine has put the focus on addressing the 
threats  of  trafficking  in  human  beings  for  those  fleeing  the  war.  The  EU  has  acted 
promptly.  As  mentioned  above,  on  11  May  2022,  the  Solidarity  Platform  endorsed  a 
Common  Anti-trafficking  Plan100,  developed  and  implemented  under  the  lead  of  the 
EU Anti-Trafficking Coordinator, in close cooperation with the NREM, the EU Agencies 
and the European External Action Service. The Plan sets out concrete actions at the EU 
level  and  recommendations  for  the  Member  States  to  prevent  the  crime,  increase  law 
enforcement and judicial cooperation and protect potential victims. It also recognises the 
positive  role  of  EU  missions  on  the  ground,  including  EUAM  Ukraine  that  assists  the 
Ukrainian authorities in border management and contributes to the facilitation of the flow 
of  refugees  from  Ukraine  to  the  EU.  The  Council  also  activated  the  Temporary 
Protection Directive101, which has decreased the vulnerability of persons fleeing the war 
to trafficking in human beings  and complemented the actions and recommendations set 
out in the Common Anti-Trafficking Plan.  

All the actions of the Plan have either been completed or are ongoing. The Commission 
notably  launched  a  dedicated  webpage  addressing  people  fleeing  Ukraine,  including  a 
section containing practical advice to refugees on how to avoid falling into the hands of 
traffickers102.  A  list  of  dedicated  emergency  anti-trafficking  helplines  to  help  potential 
victims was compiled and published online103. Actions under the EMPACT Operational 
Action  Plan  (OAP)  to  tackle  trafficking  in  human  beings  in  relation  to  Ukraine  took 
place104.  The  EU  ATC  chaired  a  meeting  with  the  internet  platform  and  technology 
companies  within  the  EU  Internet  Forum  in  order  to  encourage  online  platforms  and 
social media to raise awareness on the risks of, prevent and detect trafficking in human 
beings. The European Platform tackling Undeclared Work created a specific subgroup on 
tackling undeclared work among displaced persons and refugees from Ukraine. 

Member  States  and  civil  society  organisations,  as  well  as  EU  Delegations  and  EU 
missions  in  Ukraine  and  Moldova,  put  in  place  awareness  raising  and  prevention 
measures  to  reduce  the  vulnerabilities  of  people  fleeing  Russia’s  aggression  against 
Ukraine  and  address  the  specific  risks  of  trafficking  in  human  beings.  The  immediate 
response at the EU and national level certainly contributed to the very limited number of 
confirmed cases of trafficking in human beings.   

During  the  reporting  period,  the  Commission,  together  with  the  European  External 
Action Service, engaged with other main countries of origin and transit of victims and 
traffickers (Nigeria, China, Moldova, Pakistan, Morocco, Western Balkans, Turkey etc.) 
through involvement in operational actions, policy dialogues and targeted funding. This 
included  the  involvement  of  Albania,  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina,  Montenegro  North 
Macedonia and Serbia in EMPACT operational actions on trafficking in human beings. 

100 A new Anti-Trafficking Plan to protect people fleeing the war in Ukraine (europa.eu). 
101 Council Directive 2001/55/EC of 20 July 2001 on minimum standards for giving temporary protection 
in the event of a mass influx of displaced persons and on measures promoting a balance of efforts between 
Member States in receiving such persons and bearing the consequences thereof 
102 Information for people fleeing the war in Ukraine | European Commission (europa.eu). 
103 National hotline numbers for reporting a crime or seeking assistance (europa.eu). 
104  Human  traffickers  luring  Ukrainian  refugees  on  the  web  targeted  in  EU-wide  hackathon  |  Europol 
(europa.eu). 

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In  July  2022,  the  EU  launched  the  Support  Hub  for  Internal  Security  and  Border 
Management  in  Moldova105  with  trafficking  in  human  beings  being  one  of  its  top 
thematic priorities. Trafficking in human beings  is also  systematically addressed by the 
Commission  and  the  European  External  Action  Service  in  dedicated  human  rights  and 
security  dialogues  as  well  as  through  a  range  of  foreign  policy  instruments  and 
operational cooperation with partner countries.  

In the neighbourhood, the EU funded actions with anti-trafficking impact for EUR 15 
million under the EU Emergency Trust Fund for Africa in 2019-2022 and will contract 
further  EUR  84  million  under  the  Neighbourhood,  Development  and  International 
Cooperation Instrument (NDICI) 2021-2022 in order to address the growing involvement 
of  organised  crime  groups  in  the  irregular  migration  picture,  which  leads  to  increasing 
threat  of  trafficking  in  human  beings  along  migration  routes  especially  in  the 
neighbourhood.  The  EU  funded  actions  with  anti-trafficking  impact  through  its 
international  partnership  budget,  with  EUR  27.8  million  in  national  projects  (and 
additional  13  million  to  be  contracted),  as  well  as  EUR  575.5  million  in  regional  or 
multi-country  projects  (and  additional  EUR  38  million  to  be  contracted).  Further 
financial  contributions  are  currently  under  discussion.  Through  the  Internal  Security 
Fund Police, the Commission supported projects with partner countries along migratory 
routes  towards  the  EU  to  prevent  and  combat  migrant  smuggling  and  trafficking  in 
human  beings  with  EUR  11.6  million,  including  cooperation  with  Ivory  Coast,  Guinea 
Conakry, Nigeria, The Gambia, the Horn of Africa, Turkey and the Western Balkans. 

The  EU  stepped  up  cooperation  with  international  and  regional  organisations  active  in 
the  area106,  including  in  the  context  of  the  Inter-Agency  Coordination  Group  against 
Trafficking  in  Persons  (ICAT).  It  also  continued  its  engagement  with  the  Council  of 
Europe  and  its  Group  of  Experts  on  Action  against  Trafficking  in  Human  Beings 
(GRETA). The EU has actively participated in the Working Groups and Conferences of 
Parties  of  the  United  Nations  Convention  against  Transnational  Organised  Crime 
(UNTOC). It is also taking part in the Review Mechanism of UNTOC.  

Member  States  have  contributed  to  addressing  the  international  dimension  including 
through the provision of awareness raising campaigns, training, operational cooperation, 
technical  assistance  and  targeted  funding107  whilst  cooperating  with  international 
organisations.  The  EU  Agencies  have  undertaken  capacity  building,  operational 
cooperation, and technical assistance in partner countries.  

4.  CONCLUSIONS 

Between 2019 and 2022, the EU faced unprecedented challenges in fighting trafficking in 
human beings. The Covid-19 pandemic had a significant impact on victims of trafficking 
in  human  beings  and  with  regard  to  the  changing  modus  operandi  of  criminals,  which 
increasingly  and  rapidly  shifted  to  a  digital  business  model  of  trafficking  in  human 
beings for all forms of exploitation. While the risks of trafficking in human beings were 
taken very seriously from the beginning of Russia’s military aggression in Ukraine, the 

105  Informal  Home  Affairs  Council:  EU  launches  the  Support  Hub  for  Internal  Security  and  Border 
Management in Moldova (europa.eu) 
106 Such as the United National Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), the International Organization for 
Migration  (IOM),  the  UN  Refugee  Agency  (UNHCR),  the  International  Centre  for  Migration  Policy 
Development (ICMPD) and the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE). 
107  Belgium,  Czechia,  Estonia,  France,  Germany,  Hungary,  Italy,  Lithuania,  Netherlands,  Portugal, 
Slovenia and Spain.  

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threat remains high. The economic situation of refugees from Ukraine might deteriorate, 
which  will  increase  the  criminal  opportunities  of  traffickers  taking  advantage  of 
vulnerable people. This requires to continue monitoring the situation.  

The data reported by the  Member States show that trafficking in human beings has not 
decreased.  While  the  slight  rise  in  the  number  of  identified  victims  may  be  linked  to 
better identification, many victims remain undetected. Trafficking for labour exploitation 
has  significantly  increased  during  the  reporting  period.  This  form  of  exploitation  is 
underreported, which means that the actual number of victims is likely to be significantly 
higher.  Despite  progress  in  cross-border  law  enforcement  and  judicial  cooperation,  the 
numbers  of  prosecutions  and  convictions  of  traffickers  remain  low.  The  number  of 
prosecutions for trafficking offences as compared to the number of suspects dropped by 
9%  during  the  reporting  period  compared  to  2017-2018,  which  may  also  be  due  to  the 
challenges  faced  by  the  judicial  authorities  during  the  pandemic,  including  delays  in 
criminal proceedings.  

Nevertheless, many measures have been taken at the EU level and by the Member States 
in order to address these challenges, notably in the context of the implementation of the 
EU Strategy on Combatting Trafficking in Human Beings 2021-2025 and the Common 
Anti-Trafficking  Plan.  These  measures  contribute  to  the  comprehensive  approach  to 
combatting  trafficking  in  human  beings  and  need  to  continue.  Moreover,  the 
Commission’s proposal to amend Directive 2011/36/EU further aims at strengthening the 
legal  response  to  trafficking  in  human  beings  and  harmonising  the  EU  legal  anti-
trafficking framework.  

18