COMMISSION STAFF WORKING DOCUMENT BLUE BIOECONOMY – TOWARDS A STRONG AND SUSTAINABLE EU ALGAE SECTOR Accompanying the document COMMUNICATION FROM THE COMMISSION TO THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT, THE COUNCIL, THE EUROPEAN ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COMMITTEE AND THE COMMITTEE OF THE REGIONS Towards a Strong and Sustainable EU Algae Sector
Date: 2022-11-15
Institutions: Directorate-General for Maritime Affairs and Fisheries, European Commission
Subjects: EU activity, aid to undertakings, algae, aquaculture, consumer information, environmental impact, innovation, renewable resources

EN 

  EN 

   EUROPEAN COMMISSION  Brussels, 15.11.2022  SWD(2022) 361 final  COMMISSION STAFF WORKING DOCUMENT BLUE BIOECONOMY – TOWARDS A STRONG AND SUSTAINABLE EU ALGAE SECTOR    Accompanying the document COMMUNICATION FROM THE COMMISSION TO THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT, THE COUNCIL, THE EUROPEAN ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COMMITTEE AND THE COMMITTEE OF THE REGIONS   Towards a Strong and Sustainable EU Algae Sector   {COM(2022) 592 final}  
 
 
Table of Contents 
1. 

Introduction: The Potential of Algae in Europe 

1.1. 

Scope 

1.2.  What are algae? 

1.3.  Algae sector – the most notable EU Blue Bioeconomy sector 

1.4. 

Political context 

2.  Problem definition 

2.1.  Overview of problem definition 

2.2. 

Low production volumes 

2.3.  High production costs 

2.4. 

2.5. 

2.6. 

Limited knowledge of market and consumers 

Limited knowledge on risks and impacts of an expanded algae production 

Fragmented governance framework 

3.  Why should the EU act? 

3.1. 

Legal basis and context 

3.2. Is it necessary for EU to act? 

3.3.  Would there be an added value of an EU action? 

4. The EU Algae Initiative and its objectives 

4.1. General objectives 

4.2. Specific objectives 

4.3. Operational objectives 

5.  Ongoing and proposed policy actions 

5.1.1. 

European Algae Stakeholder Forum (EU4Algae) 

5.1.2. 

Algae-related EU funding calls 

5.1.3. 

Strategic guidelines for the sustainable development of EU aquaculture 

5.1.4. 

Algae business support mechanisms 

5.1.5. 

The European Commission’s Knowledge Centre for Bioeconomy 

5.1.6. 

Algae related studies and projects 

5.1.7. 

Ocean literacy and awareness raising 

5.1.8. 

Algae related industry standards 

5.2.  Coordinated additional enablers – new proposed policy actions 

6.  Conclusions and recommendations 

1.  ANNEX 1: Proposed policy actions with explanations 

2.  ANNEX 2: STAKEHOLDER CONSULTATION SUMMARY 

Introduction and overview of the consultation strategy 

2.1.1. 

Consultation scope and objectives 

1 

4 

4 

4 

6 

12 

15 

15 

15 

16 

17 

17 

18 

19 

19 

22 

23 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

28 

28 

31 

32 

32 

32 

33 

33 

34 

34 

36 

51 

51 

51 

 
 
 
2.1.2. 

Selection of consultation activities & their accessibility 

2.1.3. 

Summary /overview on consultation activities by stakeholder groups and indicative timing 

2.1.4. 

Consultation webpage & communication activities 

  Consultation Activities and Tools 

2.2.1. 

Characteristics of the respondents 

  Webinar on Novel Foods regulation for algae and algae-based products 

  Webinar on Support the functioning of the EU algae markets 

  Webinar on Algae in Europe – Data collection and market information initiatives 

51 

52 

52 

53 

53 

54 

55 

57 

  Validation webinars of the environmental impact screening and the economic and social impact  58 

3.  ANNEX 3: STAKEHOLDER CONSULTATION RESULTS 

  Main stakeholder feedback 

3.1.1. 

General responses regarding the algae sector 

3.1.2. 

Responses on the five objectives and potential regulatory measures 

3.1.3. 

Objective 1. Improving governance framework 

3.1.4. 

Objective 2. Supporting the functioning of the market 

3.1.5. 

Objective 3. Ensuring sustainable development of the EU algae sector 

3.1.6. 

Objective 4. Increasing social awareness and acceptance 

3.1.7. 

Objective 5. Closing knowledge, research and innovation gaps 

4.  ANNEX 4: OVERVIEW OF EU LEGAL REFERENCES PERTAINING TO ALGAE 

5.  Annex 5: Expected impacts of a strong and sustainable EU Algae sector 

Potential environmental impacts. 

5.1.1. 

Environmental impacts of algae production. 

5.1.2. 

Environmental impacts of algae products. 

Potential social impacts 

5.2.1. 

Job creation. 

5.2.2. 

Quality of jobs 

  Health benefits. 

5.3.1. 

Food 

5.3.2. 

Pharmaceuticals 

Potential economic impacts 

59 

59 

59 

60 

60 

64 

66 

68 

70 

73 

83 

83 

83 

88 

90 

90 

91 

91 

91 

92 

92 

2 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Glossary 

Term or acronym 

Meaning or definition 

ABO 

B2B 

B2C 

BBF 

CEN 

CFP 

CMO 

COP26 

EABA 

EC 

EFSA 

EGD 

EMFAF 

EMFF 

ESIF 

FAD 

HRAP 

IMTA 

LCA 

MS 

MSP 

PBR 

OPC 

SME 

YOY 

Algae Biomass Organization 

Business-to-business 

Business-to-consumer 

Blue Bioeconomy Forum 

European Committee for Standardization 

Common Fisheries Policy 

Common Market Organisation 

UN Climate Change Conference (Conference of the Parties, COP) 

European Algae Biomass Association 

European Commission 

European Food Safety Authority 

European Green Deal 

European Maritime Fisheries and Aquaculture Fund 

European Maritime and Fisheries Fund 

European Structural and Investment Funds 

Fish Aggregating Devices 

High Rate Algal Pond 

Integrated multi-trophic aquaculture 

Life-cycle assessment 

Member States 

Maritime spatial planning 

PhotoBioReactors 

Open Public Consultation 

Small and Medium-sized Enterprises 

Year-on-year 

3 

 
 
 
 
1.  Introduction: The Potential of Algae in Europe 

1.1. Scope  

This  document  provides  supporting  information  to  the  development  of  the  European  Commission 
Communication  “Blue  Bioeconomy1  -  Towards  a  Strong  and  Sustainable2  EU  Algae  Sector3” 
(hereafter: “EU Algae Initiative”). The EU Algae Initiative will aim to unlock the algae potential in 
Europe by increasing sustainable production, ensuring safe consumption and boosting innovative use 
of algae and algae-based products. This will help to achieve the objectives of the European Green Deal, 
the transition to a green, circular self-sufficient and carbon neutral EU, post Covid-19 recovery and 
mitigation of economic crisis resulted by Russia’s military aggression against Ukraine. In this vain, 
this Staff Working Document aims to:  Identify valid, well-founded and realistic policy solutions 
and actions based on best available science, information, good practices and views provided by the 
relevant algae sector representatives during the stakeholder consultation process. 

This staff working document takes due account of previous analyses, recommendations, studies and 
guidelines of the Blue Bioeconomy and algae sector4. 

1.2.What are algae? 

Algae is a common name for a group of taxonomically unrelated organisms sharing a number of traits. 
Algae include cyanobacteria, eukaryotic microalgae and seaweeds (or macroalgae). Common traits are: 
oxygenic photosynthesis (use of visible light to fix CO2 with oxygen release), chlorophylls as main 
photosynthetic pigment, lack of differentiated tissues, primary producers in aquatic ecosystems. There 
are exceptions because some algae can grow in the dark using simple organic compounds and some 
algae do not possess photosynthetic organelles so are unable to perform photosynthesis5. 

1 The “blue bioeconomy”, includes any economic activity associated with the use of renewable aquatic biological resources to make 
products. Examples of such products include novel foods and food additives, habis, nutraceuticals, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, 
materials (e.g. clothes and construction materials) and energy. Businesses that grow the raw materials for these products, that extract, 
refine, process and transform the biological compounds, as well as those developing the required technologies and equipment all form 
part of the blue bioeconomy. European Commission., 2020. Directorate-General for Maritime Affairs and Fisheries, Blue bio-economy: 
situation report and perspectives, Publications Office. Available at: https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2771/053734 
2 If done right, algae cultivation goes beyond the notion of sustainability – it is regenerative by nature, where “regeneration” is the 
ability of an ecosystem – specifically, the environment and its living population – to renew and recover from damage. Regeneration 
refers to ecosystems replenishing what is being eaten, disturbed, or harvested. Regeneration's biggest force is photosynthesis which 
transforms sun energy and nutrients into plant biomass. 
3 The most notable sub-sector in Blue Bioeconomy is the algae sector (Blue economy report 2022) 
4 Provided in (non-exhaustive list) the: the Blue Bioeconomy Forum Roadmap, Pegasus-Phycomorph Seaweed Aquaculture Guidelines, 
Blue economy reports 2018-2022, Blue bioeconomy reports 2018 and 2020 , in Seaweed for Europe’s report, SUBMARINER 
Roadmap beyond 2021 (includes macroalgae, marine biotechnology, and sea multi-use  recommendations and national and trans-
national Baltic Sea Region projects e.g. Macro-cascade, GRASS, Alliance, ERA-NET Marine Biotehnology etc.), The Seaweed 
Manifesto,  Lloyd’s Register Foundation (2020), AAC Recommendation Seaweed, EnAlgae – several guiding documents and 
infosheets about algae; Protecting seagrass through payments for ecosystem services; Seaweed aquaculture cultivation challenges 
ecosystem services; Seaweed Cultivation in Scotland: A Guide; Practical Guidances for the Sustainable Ocean Principles, UN Global 
Compact; Policy brief Future of seaweed aquaculture industry; Brief on algae biomass production, ASC seaweed standard; Impact 
assessment study to support the development of EU Algae Initiative; the current Status of the Algae Production Industry in Europe: An 
Emerging Sector of the Blue Bioeconomy 
5 European standard EN 17399:2020 defines algae as a functional group of organisms consisting of microalgae, macroalgae, cyanobacteria 
and Labyrinthulomycetes. 

4 

 
 
                                                 
Although there is a vast range of algae species – with estimates suggesting 72,500 species6 – global 
production  focuses  on  five  genera  accounted  for  more  than  95%  of  world  seaweed  cultivation 
production7, including the well-known Japanese kelp, nori and wakame8,9. In Europe, the main species 
farmed and already sold on the European market are Saccharina latissima, Alaria esculenta and Ulva 
sp. On a smaller scale and for niche markets, there are also: Porphyra spp., Palmaria palmata, Codium 
tomentosum, Gracilaria gracilis and Laminaria digitata10, while for microalgae the species produced by 
most enterprises are Chlorella sp. and Nannochloropsis sp. 

The coastal EU waters are colonized by a strong diversity of wild populations of algae with a total of 
1550 different seaweed species11, of which only 23 are currently included as food or food supplements 
in the EU Novel Food catalogue12.  

Additionally, algae are key organisms in coastal ecosystems that provide habitat, food, reproductive 
areas  and  shelter  to  species  from  different  levels  of  the  food  web13.  In  fact,  about  50%  of  the 
photosynthesis on Earth occurs in seaweeds and microscopic algae floating in the oceans14 absorbing 
a range of excess inorganic nutrients from the ocean, including nitrogen and phosphorus15, as well as 
16. Research is currently conducted on the carbon storage potential of 
other compounds such as CO2
algae, leading some to speak of a forthcoming “Seaweed Revolution”17, although carbon storage needs 
to be further explored18. 

6 How Many Species of Algae are There? Guiry, M., 2012. Journal of Phycology, 48(5), pp.1057-1063. 
7 Laminaria/Saccharina (35.4 percent); Kappaphycus/Eucheuma (33.5 percent); Gracilaria (10.5 percent); Porphyra/Pyropia (8.6 percent); 
and Undaria (7.4 percent), FAO, 2019 data 
8 The Global Status of Seaweed Production, Trade and Utilization. - FAO, 2018. Volume 124. GLOBEFISH Food and Agriculture 
Organization of the United Nations.  
9 Seaweeds and microalgae: an overview for unlocking their potential in global aquaculture development. FAO, 2021 
10  Michèle  Barbier,  Bénédicte  Charrier,  Rita  Araujo,  Susan  L.  Holdt,  Bertrand  Jacquemin  &  Céline  Rebours  (2019)  PEGASUS  - 
PHYCOMORPH European Guidelines for a Sustainable Aquaculture of Seaweeds, COST Action FA1406 (M. Barbier and B. Charrier, 
Eds), Roscoff, France. https://doi.org/10.21411/2c3w-yc73  
11 European seaweeds under pressure: Consequences for communities and ecosystem functioning. Mineur, F., Arenas, F., Assis, J., 
Davies, A., Engelen, A., Fernandes, F., Malta, E., Thibaut, T., Van Nguyen, T., Vaz-Pinto, F., Vranken, S., Serrão, E. and De Clerck, 
O., 2015. Journal of Sea Research, 98, pp.91-108.  
12 Algae as food and food supplements in Europe Araujo, R., Peteiro, C., 2021., EUR 30779 EN, Publications Office of the European 
Union, Luxembourg.  
13 Potential effects of kelp species on local fisheries. Bertocci, I., Araújo, R., Oliveira, P. and Sousa-Pinto, I., 2015. Journal of Applied 
Ecology, 52(5), pp.1216-1226. 
14 The majority of this production is from oceanic plankton - drifting plants, algae, and some bacteria that can photosynthesize. One 
particular species, Prochlorococcus, is the smallest photosynthetic organism on Earth. But this little bacteria produces up to 20% of the 
oxygen in our entire biosphere. That’s a higher percentage than all of the tropical rainforests on land combined (NOAA, 2022) 
Available at: https://oceanservice.noaa.gov  
15Seaweed Aquaculture for food Security, Income Generation and Environmental Health in Tropical Developing Countries World Bank 
Group, 2016; Development and objectives of the PHYCOMORPH European Guidelines for the Sustainable Aquaculture of Seaweeds 
Barbier, M., Charrier, B., Araujo, R., Holdt, S., Jacquemin, B. and Rebours, C., 2022. Phycomorph European Guidelines for a 
Sustainable Aquaculture of Seaweeds.   
16 Sequestration of macroalgal carbon: the elephant in the Blue Carbon room. Krause-Jensen, D., Lavery, P., Marba, N., Masque, P. and 
Duarte, C., 2018. Biology Letters, 14 ; Important contribution of macroalgae to oceanic carbon sequestration. Ortega, A., Geraldi, N.R., 
Alam, I. et al., 2019. Nat. Geosci. 12, 748–754.  
17 Lloyd’s Register Foundation. (2020). Seaweed Revolution: A Manifesto for a sustainable future (V. Doumeizel, ed.) 
18 A seaweed aquaculture imperative to meet global sustainability targets Duarte, C.M., Bruhn, A. & Krause-Jensen, D. 2021. Nat 
Sustain.; Testing the climate intervention potential of ocean afforestation using the Great Atlantic Sargassum Belt..  Bach, L.T., 
Tamsitt, V., Gower, J. et al., 2021. Nat Commun 12, 2556.  

5 

 
 
                                                 
1.3.Algae sector – the most notable EU Blue Bioeconomy sector 

While in Eastern Asia algae have been an integral part of human diets for centuries, in Europe they are 
mainly considered as niche19 or novel food product. Low in fat and rich in dietary fibres, micronutrients 
and  bioactive  compounds20,  algae  are  often  portrayed  as  healthy  and  low-calorie  food,  with  some 
species  known  for  having  particularly  high  protein  content21.  The  biochemical  compounds  and 
properties make algae a valuable ocean material, paving the way for a growing number of potential 
commercial applications also outside the food industry: animal/fish feed and feed additives, medical 
devices,  pharmaceuticals,  nutraceuticals,  fertilisers,  plant  biostimulants,  bio-packaging, 
cosmetics or biofuels22 (see Figure Nr.1)23. 

Figure 1. Potential commercial applications of algae in Europe24 

Beyond  these  examples,  algae  biomass  has  many  more  innovative  applications  that  are  being 
developed or scaled, including textile fibres, laundry detergents, construction materials, biochar for soil 

19 A good or service with features that appeal to a particular market subgroup. A typical niche product will be easily distinguished from 
other products, and it will also be produced and sold for specialized uses within its corresponding niche market. Niche products are more 
expensive than non-niche products. Examples of niche products are organic food, expensive, high quality coffee etc. 
20 Bioactive Compounds in Seaweed: Functional Food Applications and Legislation. Holdt, S.L. and Kraan, S. (2011). Journal of 
Applied Phycology, 23, 543-597.  
21 Palmaria palmata (also known as dulse), and Porphyra tenera (Holdt and Kraan, 2011). 
22 61% of seaweed production companies in Europe direct their biomass production to food uses (36% as human food, 15% for food-
related uses like supplements and nutraceuticals and 10% for feed). The 39% remaining are dedicated to cosmetics and well-being 
products (17%) and all other applications such as fertilizers and biostimulants (11%). For microalgae producing companies, these 
shares are similar: 56% or food uses and 44% non-food (with a higher relative importance of pharmaceuticals). Source: An overview of 
the algae industry in Europe. Producers, production systems, species, biomass uses, other steps in the value chain and socio-economic 
data, Vazquez Calderon, F., Sanchez Lopez, J.Guillen, J., Avraamides, M. editors, Publications Office of the European Union, 
Luxembourg, 2022, ISBN 978-92-76-54516 
23 Comparative proteomics reveals proteins impacted by nitrogen deprivation in wild. Garnier M, Carrier G, Rogniaux H, et al., 2014.; 
Sustainable Seaweed Aquaculture Full Recommendations. Barbier, Michele, et al., 2019.  
24 An overview of the algae industry in Europe. Producers, production systems, species, biomass uses, other steps in the value chain and 
socio-economic data, Vazquez Calderon, F., Sanchez Lopez, J.Guillen, J., Avraamides, M. editors, Publications Office of the European 
Union, Luxembourg, 2022, ISBN 978-92-76-54516 

6 

 
 
 
                                                 
improvement and carbon dioxide removal25 or methanation that converts the biomass into biogas. On 
the other hand, leakage of agricultural nutrients into the aquatic ecosystems can cause periodic blue-
green algae blooms with negative consequences on coastal ecosystems (through oxygen depletion and 
the creation of anaerobic conditions) and that also cause concerns for human health. This latter example 
demonstrates that by removing nutrients (causing eutrophication) from coastal marine waters we can 
bring waters them back into productive value chains thus turning coastal marine pollution into business 
opportunities.  

European  Algae  Biomass  Association  (EABA)  estimates  a  turnover  in  algae  products  in  EEA 
countries  of  more  than  €350  million  in  2018  (including  transformation),  by  considering  both 
companies  and  jobs.  This  estimate  reaches  more  than  €400  million26  when  including  equipment 
companies and R&D companies. In algae turnover data estimates, care should be taken by considering 
bulk biomass and transformed products, as algae product value (after transformation) greatly exceeds 
the value of bulk biomass (see figure Nr.2).  

Currently, 
algae 
methods 

Figure 
2. 
Current  EU 
algae  value 
chains27 

the 

main 
production 
the  EU 
in 
laid 
are 
down 
in 
figure  Nr.  3 
below. Main 
algae 
production 
volumes 

(according to the available data) in Europe and globally are provided in the Table 1 below.   

25Biochar from commercially cultivated seaweed for soil amelioration. Roberts, D., Paul, N., Dworjanyn, S., Bird, M. and de Nys, R., 
2015. Scientific Reports, 5(1) ; A Review on Application of Seaweed in Construction Industry. International Journal of Emerging 
Technology and Advanced Engineering. Praveena, R. and Muthadli, A., 2016., [online] 6(9) ;Focus on Fibres: Sustainable Seaweed 
Fabric... Seacell Ross, 2017. [Blog] The Sustainable Fashion Collective ; Seaweed Bacteria Could be the Answer to Environmentally 
Friendly Laundry Days. Gatten, E., 2020. The Telegraph, [online]. 
26  JRC  estimates  show  a  turnover  of  EUR  328  million  (including  processing)  plus  EUR  1  trillion  of  services  (including  technology 
providers, R&D, consultancy and trader/exporters. This values include macro, micro and spirulina. The estimates also show around 2 
000 people employed in the production and processing of macro, micro and spirulina plus 3 900 people in service enterprises. 
27 Source: EABA 

7 

 
 
 
                                                 
Figure 3. Main algae production methods in Europe 

France is the largest farmed seaweed producer in the EU, and only reported a production volume of 
500 tonnes in 201628. Seaweed farming of most species (Laminaria, Alaria, Undaria, Saccharina etc) 
requires the mastering of the reproductive life cycle (seeding, growing and harvesting), although some 
other species (Ulva, Porphyra,  etc.) can also  grow and multiply by themselves (undergo vegetative 
reproduction). Seaweed is mainly farmed out at sea but can also be produced in open ponds with direct 
access to sea water. Microalgae on the other hand are produced on-land in open or closed systems. In 
open systems, usually in Open Raceway Ponds (ORP) stirred by a paddle wheel, the growth medium 
is  in  direct  contact  with  the  atmosphere.  Closed  systems  are  usually  designed  as  Photobioreactors 
(PBR)  -  horizontally  or  vertically  arranged  tubes  or  panels  with  high  volumetric  productivity  and 
controlled conditions - or as fermenters – to benefit from the ability of microalgae to grow in the dark 
on sugars (heterotrophic production) - both with access to seawater for marine species or freshwater 
for freshwater species29. As of April 2022, a total of 187 algae and 212 Spirulina30 production plants 
(at sea and on-land) have been identified throughout the EU31,24. Among those algae plants, 57% 
produce  macroalgae  and  43%  microalgae  (by  number  of  production  plants,  not  the  production 
volumes). The largest number of companies are based in France, followed by Spain, Italy, Germany 
and Ireland. In other European countries (namely Faroe Islands, Greenland, Switzerland and the UK), 
there are 57 production plants (47 macroalgae, 8 microalgae and 2 Spirulina) have been mapped (Figure 
4). 

28Towards sustainable European seaweed value chains: a triple P perspective, S W K van den Burg, H Dagevos, R J K Helmes, ICES 
Journal of Marine Science, Volume 78, Issue 1, January-February 2021, Pages 443–450. 
29 Brief on algae biomass production, Araujo, R., Lusser, M., Sanchez Lopez, J. and Avraamides, M. editor(s), Publications Office of the 
European Union, Luxembourg, 2019. 
30 Spirulina is the most commonly produced cyanobacteria globally and whether dried or prepared as a food or food additive, is a rich 
source of many vitamins and minerals 
31JRC algae database. Joint Research Centre and Bioeconomy Country dashboard – EC’s Knowledge Centre for Bioeconomy 

8 

 
 
 
 
                                                 
Figure 4.  Macroalgae, microalgae and Spirulina production plants in Europe (April 2022).28 

9 

 
 
 
Table Nr.1. Algae production volumes in Europe and globally 

Algae6 type 

Seaweed 
macroalgae) 

(or 

Microalgae 

Cyanobacteria 

harvesting 
and 

Production 
methods 
Wild 
(boat 
handpicked) 
Seaweed farming at 
sea (long lines) 
Seaweed 
on-land33  
In  open 
ponds 
photobioreactors  
In  open 
ponds 
photobioreactors  

raceway 
or 

raceway 
or 

farming 

Labyrinthulomycetes  In  open 

raceway 
or 

ponds 
photobioreactors  

European volumes (2020)  Global volumes 

300  000  tonnes  wet  weight 
per annum (or 37 000 tonnes 
eq. of dry weight per annum) 
~ 600 tonnes of wet  weight 
per  annum  (or  ~45  tonnes 
eq. dry weight per annum) 

1.09 million  tonnes of 
wet weight in 201532 

35.76  million  tonnes 
of wet weight in 20199 

~  100  tonnes  of  dry  weight 
per annum 

56  456  tonnes  of  wet 
weight in 202134 

~120  tonnes  of  dry  weight 
per annum 

No data 

Looking  forward,  algae  are  a  promising  ocean  resource,  largely  untapped  in  Europe  that  offers  an 
enormous potential for a variety of food and non-food uses. These have the potential to contribute to 
mitigate  the  impact  of  global  challenges  such  as  climate  change,  environmental  degradation, 
biodiversity  loss,  and  unsustainable  food  production  while  creating  new  business  opportunities  for 
Europe. Figure Nr.4. outlines how the EU Algae Initiative can contribute to achieving the objectives of 
the European Green Deal. The production of algae mitigates climate change by, for example, mitigating 
CO2, absorbing phosphorous and nitrogen14. Food applications of algae products can contribute to the 
Farm to Fork Strategy35  and  more sustainable and innovative food systems.  Additionally, non-food 
applications  of  algae,  such  as  for  the  production  of  biofuels36  can  help  achieve  sustainable  energy 
objectives.  

Nevertheless, to unlock algae potential in the EU a cross-cutting and realistic strategy needs to be put 
in  place  to  address  current  problems  from  scaling  up  the  production,  reducing  costs,  developing 
innovative technologies until improving knowledge about potential risks to the environment or human 
health and impacts from algae products and production processes (see heading 2 below) by achieving 
objectives (heading 4), proposed policy solutions, and corresponding actions points (heading 5 below).   

32 The Global Status of Seaweed Production, Trade and Utilization. FAO, 2018. Globefish Research Programme. Volume 124.   
33 In open raceway ponds or photobioreactors 
34 Seaweeds and microalgae: an overview for unlocking their potential in global aquaculture development. Cai, J., Lovatelli, A., Aguilar-
Manjarrez, J., Cornish, L., Dabbadie, L., Desrochers, A., Diffey, S., Garrido Gamarro, E., Geehan, J., Hurtado, A., Lucente, D., Mair, G., 
Miao, W., Potin, P., Przybyla, C., Reantaso, M., Roubach, R., Tauati, M. & Yuan, X. 2021. FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Circular No. 
1229. Rome, FAO. 
35 COM(2019) 640 final, 11.12.2019 
36 Are algae ready to take off? GHG emission savings of algae-to-kerosone production, Prussi M., Weindorf W., Buffi M., Sánchez López 
J., Scarlat N. 2021. Applied Energy 

10 

 
 
 
 
                                                 
Figure 4. Algae in the European Green deal 

Why algae are an untapped resource in the EU? 

While  today’s  EU  algae  sector  remains  small,  the  conditions  are  favourable  to  grow  it  into  an 
innovative sector within the EU Blue Bioeconomy. Figure Nr. 5 provides an overview of the EU 
demand for algae and algae-based products. As the EU is a top global importer of seaweed products 
in terms of value (€554 million in 2016)37, there is clearly a strong demand for seaweed in the EU 
which  is  only  set  to  increase  in  line  with  health  and  sustainability  trends9.  Seaweed  for  Europe 
estimates that European demand for seaweed will reach €3.0 – 9.3 billon in 2030 across all segments, 
with feed, food and biostimulants being the largest34. For example, the demand for Chlorella and 
Spirulina is growing in Europe, and it is expected that the European market for Chlorella will grow 
at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 6.4% to 202538. The CAPR for the European market 
of  Spirulina  is  expected  to  grow  with  8.7%  to  2025.  There  is  a  growing  vegetarian  and  vegan 
population in the EU; currently there are around 75 million vegetarians and vegans living in the EU39. 
This number is expected to increase in the coming years and leads to a growing market and increase 
in demand for plant-based food products, including algae. Additionally, the ageing population in the 
EU and increasingly health-conscious consumers are drivers for an increase in demand for algae food 
products, such as spirulina and chlorella based products. Moreover, EU coastal regions have been 

37 Hidden Champion of the Ocean: Seaweed as a Growth Engine for a Sustainable European Future. Seaweed for Europe, 2021.  
38 Entering the European market for seaweed or marine algae. CBI Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 2021. 
39 The European market potential for seaweed or marine algae. CBI Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 2021. 

11 

 
 
 
                                                 
recognized as a fertile ground and with high opportunity areas for the algae sector to thrive. The 
Atlantic Ocean and the North Sea indeed provide ideal natural conditions for seaweed cultivation 
due to their cold, nutrient-rich waters40, and researchers believe that Europe has vast areas suitable 
for seaweed and macroalgae cultivation41. Besides, data show that China, having 13 000 km coastline 
with actual cultivation area of 136 223 ha (1362 km2), has cultivated 20.1 Mio tons of algae in 2019. 
At the same time, EU-27, with its 66 000 km coastline and 5 mio km2 of marine area (where 141 000 
km2 are near-shore area (0-1 nautical mile from coastline) and 715 000 km2 territorial waters (0-12 
nautical miles from coastline)) has an annual cultivated seaweed amount of less than 1000 t42. If the 
EU algae potential is to be unlocked, by 2030, one-third of algae products in the global market could 
be produced by the EU suppliers34. This increase in production would create around 85,000 jobs and 
would remove thousands of tonnes of phosphorus and nitrogen annually and would mitigate up to 
5.4 million tonnes of CO2 emissions per year. 

Figure 5. Expected growing demand for algae products 

1.4.Political context  

As  aquatic  resources,  algae  fall  under  the  European  Commission’s  Fisheries  and  Maritime  Affairs 
policy. More specifically, the algae sector, as part of the blue bioeconomy, is considered an evolving 
and growing innovative sector of the blue economy providing new prospects and creating jobs. Algae 

40 Recent Pace of Change in Human Impact on the World’s Oceans Halpern, B.S., Frazier, M., Afflerbach, J., Lowndes, J.S., Micheli, 
F., O’Hara, C., et al. (2019. Science Reports, 9, Article No. 11609. 
41 Global Potential of Offshore and Shallow Waters Macroalgal Biorefineries to Provide for Food, chemicals and Energy: Feasibility 
and Sustainability. Lehahn, Y., Nivrutti, I., Golberg, A., 2016.  
42  Spatial  Analysis  of  Marine  Protected  Area  Networks  in  Europe’s  Seas  II.  Agnesi,  S.,  Annunziatellis,  A.,  Chaniotis,  P.,  Mo,  G., 
Korpinen, S., Snoj, L., Tunesi, L., Reker, J., 2020. 

12 

 
 
                                                 
cultivation  falls  under  the  notion  of  aquaculture,  which  is  shared  competence43  between  the  EU 
Member States and European Commission (the latter performs an ″open method of coordination‶44).  
The EU algae initiative will be implemented as an initiative complementary to national legal acts and 
policies 

The EU’s new approach to the sustainable blue economy45 recognizes the role of algae in delivering 
on the European Green Deal46 objectives to ‘build a climate-neutral, green, fair and social Europe’ 
and  develop  innovative,  healthy  and  sustainable  food  systems,  and  a  sustainable  and  circular 
bioeconomy47. The document also sets an action to develop a dedicated EU Algae initiative48 in 2022. 
The various types of algae production fall under the Common Fisheries Policy (CFP), covering both 
harvesting  of  marine  biological  resources  and  aquaculture.  The  new  Strategic  Guidelines  for 
Aquaculture49 recognize algae’s potential as alternative protein source for sustainable food and feed 
systems  and  in  promoting  aquaculture  systems  with  lower  environmental  impact.  As  renewable 
biological  resources,  algae  are  also  a  small  but  growing  part  of  the  European  Commission’s 
Bioeconomy  Strategy  50,  setting  out  the  Commission’s  priorities  for  economic  activities  based  on 
renewable biological resources from land and sea and acting as a cross-sectoral policy framework to 
ensure optimum use of biological resources, as well as identification and resolving of potential trade-
offs.  The  strategy  is  also  related  and  fits  within  the  objectives  of  the  Clean  planet  for  all 
(decarbonisation strategy)51, which aims to improve the productivity of aquatic and marine resources 
to  capture  the  full  range  of  opportunities  of  the  bioeconomy  in  tackling  climate  change.  The 
Bioeconomy  strategy  development  in  EU  regions  report52outlines  that  Spain,  France,  Belgium 
Denmark,  Italy  and  Germany  have  bioeconomy  strategies  that  include  aquatic  biomass  from  fish, 
aquaculture production and algae. Additionally, Spain and Germany have highlighted blue growth and 
blue biotechnology respectively in their regional bioeconomy strategies53 

43 EUR-Lex - 12016E004 - EN - EUR-Lex (europa.eu); FAQ EU competences and Commission powers (europa.eu) 
44 Aquaculture policy (europa.eu); Open method of coordination - Wikipedia,  
45Sustainable  Blue  economy  communication  (COM(2021)  240  final  (17-5-2021)  recognizes  potential  of  algae  to  provide  viable  and 
sustainable alternative food and feed materials and to produce other bio-based products. Algae-based food and feed production in the EU 
is a major opportunity for the development of a sustainable food sector that will alleviate environmental pressures exerted by agriculture, 
aquaculture, and fisheries. Animal feed produced from microalgae can help reduce catches of wild fish. Producing algae in the sea can 
help remove excess carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus from water. The Commission will also explore the potential of cell-based seafood 
as an innovative and sustainable alternative. 
46 Available at: European Green Deal 
47 The EU Blue Economy report 2022.European Commission, Directorate-General for Maritime Affairs and Fisheries, Addamo, A., 
Calvo Santos, A., Guillen J., et al.., 2022. 
48 To adopt a dedicated initiative on algae in 2022 to support the development of the EU’s algae industry. The initiative will facilitate 
the authorisation of algae as novel foods by cutting application costs, facilitate market access, increase consumer awareness and 
acceptance of algae products and close gaps in knowledge, research and innovation; 
49 Available at: EU Blue Farming 
50 Available at: Bioeconomy Strategy 
51 Available at: Clean planet for all 
52 Available at: Bioeconomy Strategy Development in EU Regions 
53 Pays de la Loire region (France) published one sectoral strategy on algae: Regional roadmap for the microalgae sector. Andalusia 
(Spain) has 1 regional bioeconomy strategy embedded in blue growth: Bases for an Andalusian strategy to promote business activity in 
the field of the blue economy. The Canary Islands (Spain) have three bioeconomy strategies embedded in blue growth: Canary Islands 
Blue Economy Strategy 2021-2030. 

13 

 
 
                                                 
On 22 June 2022 the Commission adopted its proposal for EU legally binding nature restoration 
targets54, with the objective in particular to restore ecosystems capable of removing and storing carbon 
and  preventing  and  reducing  the  impact  of  natural  disasters.  Algae’s  potential  for  carbon  uptake, 
recycling  and sequestration  and nature-based solution towards the impact of natural  disasters could 
help achieve these targets. Connected are the Commission’s initiatives    on the certification of carbon 
removals  and  adopted  communication  on  sustainable  carbon  cycles  with  algae  carrying  potential 
towards the objectives by removing and storing carbon and nutrients from marine ecosystems in their 
production cycle55. Overall, enhanced EU production and use of algae will help to ensure sustainable 
food and farming systems, economic circularity and bio-based products.  

Algae  cultivation  should  also  consider  and  can  contribute  to  marine  ecosystem  conservation  and 
restoration, where the EU puts forward various legislations with a positive bearing on EU ecosystems. 
The  Habitats  Directive56,  Marine  Strategy  Framework  Directive57  and  the  Water  Framework 
Directive58 aim to conserve and ensure good environmental status of EU waters to protect marine life, 
including algae, from the cumulative pressures of climate change and other anthropogenic pressures57. 
Furthermore, all Directives specify that developments, including algae cultivation, should not lead to 
negative ecosystem impacts (e.g. ecosystem-based management of human activity 

While algae are referred to in various pieces of EU legislation, there is currently no dedicated EU policy 
focused specifically on algae. Most relevant legal acts  are further elaborated in the subheading 1.5, 
while a more comprehensive overview of algae related legislation is provided in Annex X. Within the 
EU, some Member States already recognise the potential of algae by introducing algae cultivation into 
national  strategic  documents  like  National  Strategic  Aquaculture  Plans,  Marine  Spatial  Plans 
and/or National Bioeconomy Strategies59. 

At  international  level,  the  possible  capacity  of  algae  to  store  and  sequester  carbon  provides  an 
opportunity  to  help  reach  greenhouse  gas  emission  reduction  targets  set  under  the  Paris  Climate 
Agreement60 . In addition, a scaled algae industry shows opportunities to contribute to nearly the entire 
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)61,62 agenda, from coastal communities' empowerment and 
ocean regeneration to low-impact food systems. Under the Convention of Biological Diversity (CBD), 
the Nagoya Protocol aims to preserve the genetic diversity of ecosystems by increasing cooperation 
among  stakeholders  involved  in  access  to  and  benefit-sharing  for  genetic  resources  (e.g.  resource 
exchange, collaborative research, inclusion of local and/or indigenous knowledge)10.  

54 Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council on nature restoration, COM(2022) 304 final of 22.6.2022. 
55 Available at: Sustainable Carbon Cycles 
56 Available at : Habitats Directive 
57 Available at : Marine Strategy Framework Directive 
58 Available at : Water Framework Directive 
59As of April 2022, ten Member States have dedicated bioeconomy strategies (Austria, Finland, France, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, 
the Netherlands, Portugal and Spain) and seven Member States (, Croatia, Czechia, Hungary, Lithuania, Poland, Slovakia, Sweden) are 
in the process of developing a dedicated strategy at national level (European Commission’s Knowledge Centre for Bioeconomy country 
dashboard and EU Bioeconomy Strategy Progress Report, forthcoming).  
60 The Paris Agreement 
61 Available at: Sustainable Development Goals 
62 Available at: Algae2030 (algonauts.org) 

14 

 
 
                                                 
2.  Problem definition  

2.1.Overview of problem definition 

The Blue Bioeconomy Forum Roadmap63  published by the Blue Bioeconomy Forum64 at the end of 
2019 and after an extensive consultation process of around 300 stakeholders, identified 14 problems, 
structured  around  4  domains:  (1)  Policy,  environment  and  regulations;  (2)  Finance  and  business 
development; (3) Consumers and value chains and (4) Science, technology and innovation. This sub-
heading is a follow-up of the above roadmap and takes into account latest developments.  

A number of problems were identified with regards to the current EU algae sector and the potential for 
sustainable growth of the sector. Figure Nr.7 outlines the most significant problems of the current EU 
algae sector, and the resulting specific and general objectives to address these problems. The specific 
and general objectives are explained in more detail in chapter 4.  

Figure 7. Problems, objectives and proposed action areas for the EU Algae Initiative. 

2.2. Low production volumes  

Nowadays,  99%  of  algae  production  volumes  in  the  EU  depend  on  seaweed  harvesting  from  wild 
populations at sea65. Although well managed and based on advice from national scientific bodies, algae 
harvesting from the wild will not be able to sustain the growing demand for algae products in the future. 
Farmed seaweed represents roughly only 1% of the algae biomass in the EU, while globally, there is 
an opposite trend, where 99% of global seaweed production comes from farming practices. Upgrading 

63 Available at: Blue Bioeconomy Forum Roadmap 
64 DG MARE of the European Commission and the Executive Agency for Small and Medium Sized Enterprises (EASME) initiated the 
Blue Bioeconomy Forum (BBF) in 2018 to bring together industry, public authorities, academia, finance and civil society in order to 
strengthen EU's competitive position, exploit the potential of renewable resources and ensure the sustainable use of the resources of the 
emerging blue bioeconomy. The aim of the BBF was to develop a common understanding of the current status of blue bioeconomy in the 
EU  and  to  collectively  identify  strategic  developments,  market  opportunities,  appropriate  financial assistance,  regulatory  actions  and 
research priorities. 
65 68% of the macroalgae production enterprises in the EU harvest from wild stocks24 

15 

 
 
 
                                                 
and accelerating sustainable seaweed cultivation systems is crucial to achieve successful increase 
of seaweed production volumes in the EU.  Long  and cumbersome  process do deploy a farm (i.e. 
access to maritime space) is one of the causes of low production. In addition, current competition for 
marine space for various activities can be tackled via the modification of the national Maritime Spatial 
Plans (MSP) in the Member States with well-integrated seaweed farming. However, this will need to 
be  done  without  jeopardizing  the  environmental,  economic  or  social  objectives  on  which  current 
maritime spatial planning is based, and following a careful assessment of trade-offs and co-benefits.66  

Although microalgae cultivation amounts are currently negligent in the EU (estimated 350 t yearly), 
microalgae cultivation in photobioreactors (71%) which are closed on-land systems67 have a potential 
of substantial scale-up of the production without a maritime space requirements and limited land needs. 
Additionally, 19% of microalgae is produced in open ponds and 10% is produced in fermenters.   

Whereas 83% of companies producing Spirulina use open-ponds. European production volumes are 
minor but the economic value of the resulting products is notably compared to seaweed. Cultivation 
of microalgae requires specific infrastructure, valuable equipment and manpower which make 
the production costs relatively high. Upscaling microalgae production systems can reduce costs but 
need space and considerable investments, which, at a producer’s level is very challenging. 

In  general  terms,  when  addressing  algae  cultivation,  species  selection  and  improvement  as  well  as 
metabolic enrichment strategies can provide solutions to not only increase biomass volumes but also 
increase the proportion of interesting valuable compounds within the algae. Although a longer process, 
upstream  knowledge  (research  in  genomics,  metabolomics  etc.)  is  essential  to  provide  solid 
knowledge-based  solutions.  Moreover,  the  EU  already  possesses  a  sound  research  basis  but 
technology transfer should be strongly supported, besides investments and space.  

2.3. High production costs  

Cultivating algae in the EU is costly today. This explains why most products are not competitive on 
the global market and confines them to niche markets. Strategies to be more cost efficient and to have 
more  optimised  processes  can  be  deployed  individually  (to  reduce  energy  and  water  consumption, 
increase automation and nutrient recycling, etc.), but globally, the following strategies are currently 
being implemented to reduce production costs: 

●  Upscaling algae production systems can reduce costs but would need more space and considerable 
investments. The latter could be achieved without any risk if the downstream market was secure 
and stable. Fluctuating market prices and the unstable position of niche markets make investments 
risky at a producer’s level. 

●  Developing advanced biorefinery technologies to valorise each fraction of the algae biomass can 
increase the global value of the incoming algae biomass and in effect the cost-effectiveness of algae 

66 As emphasised by the Bioeconomy Progress Report: ‘Bioeconomy Policy: Stocktaking and future developments’, integrated land and 
sea use assessments are essential to ensure environmental integrity, provide good biosphere stewardship, and finally develop sustainable 
biomass strategies 
67 Current Status of the Algae Production Industry in Europe: An Emerging Sector of the Blue Bioeconomy. Araujo et al., 2021. 

16 

 
 
                                                 
cultivation. However, not all algae biomass fractions are marketable. Bringing more novel algae 
species to the EU market in line with the Novel Food Regulation needs to be continued (e.g. via the 
EU4Algae project).  

2.4. Limited knowledge of market and consumers  

In the EU, algae-based products have been consumed for decades without explicit knowledge of the 
consumers.  Today,  consumer  awareness  towards  natural  ingredients  and  plant-based  products  is 
increasing, and has slowly expanded the diversity of other algae food and high value health products 
besides the simple low value texturisers.  

However, algae-based food is not traditionally consumed in the EU and there is a large proportion of 
consumers  who  are  not  ready  or  even  willing  to  integrate  algae  in  their  staple  diet.  Awareness  on 
exceptional  nutritional  benefits5,19,38,40  and  low  environmental  footprint38,35  and  acceptance  of 
algae  products  should  be  raised  to  the  EU  citizens  in  order  to  boost  the  demand.  At  the  moment, 
potential  consumers  have  limited  knowledge  on  how  to  prepare  algae-based  recipes,  about  the 
consumption of algae products, and on the potential risks that may arise due to the presence of certain 
compounds (for seaweed: iodine, heavy metals, inorganic arsenic), and simply where to buy products.  

The business-to-business markets are often unaware on potential algae uses ranging from animal feed 
to  compostable  or  edible  biopackaging,  to  algae-based  textiles,  tissues  and  pigments,  cosmetics,  or 
plant biostimulants to support the growth of organic agriculture practices. They are also often unaware 
on low environmental and carbon footprint of algae production and products. 

Besides social awareness and consumer acceptance to boost the demand, connections between suppliers 
and buyers need to be improved. For instance, harmonized prices and clear commercial channels to 
buy algae biomass could enable algae products to reach buyers who are willing to experiment with the 
products on untapped markets. 

2.5. Limited knowledge on risks and impacts of an expanded algae production 

To ensure that the algae sector develops sustainably, it is important to understand potential impacts of 
a developing algae industry (as supported by the results of the Open Public Consultation that ended 
August 2021, see Figure Nr. 8 below). Besides the Life Cycle Analysis, which provides comparative 
scenarios  indicating  the  process  with  highest  environmental  impact  and  steps  how  to  act  on  them 
(notably  used  for  microalgae  production),  more  detailed  and  consistent  measurements  need  to  be 
performed,  such  as  the  impact  on  local  biodiversity,  environmental  footprint  and  proposals  for 
compensation measures (notably used for seaweed production).  

17 

 
 
Figure 
8. 
Areas 
that 
should 
be 

governed at the EU level (number of responses to the OPC). 

There is also a need to increase knowledge on environmental benefits of seaweed aquaculture, such as 
carbon and nutrients capture and carbon sequestration. Harmful impacts on local ecosystems, such as 
reduced genetic diversity need to be considered (have already been reported in Chile, Tanzania). Also, 
potential darkening of ocean colour (e.g. due to eutrophication) leading to higher heat absorption and 
hence ocean warming68 needs to be assessed. Therefore, more studies and monitoring programs  are 
needed  to  better  understand  and  assess  potential  negative  effects  and  proposing  risk  mitigation 
strategies. The latter may help to increase the acceptance of algae products by consumers in the EU. 

2.6. Fragmented governance framework69   

Seaweed  aquaculture  at  sea  or  algae  cultivation  on  land  need  to  comply  with  different  national 
regulations (licensing, access to marine space, species to be farmed) depending on the EU Member 
States, EU rules (food safety, fertilising products etc), industry standards etc.  

Although scientists recommend not to shift species from one marine area to another or not to spread 
the same seedlings in different areas in order to prevent potential mono-clonal escapes replacing natural 
wild populations, such situations may happen. This may distort local genetic diversity.  

Access  to  marine  space  can  be  allocated  to  the  aquaculture  production,  provided  the  national  MSP 
allow  it  and  the  license  is  temporary  for  an  agreed  time  frame.  Licensing  processes,  including  the 
validity duration of the license and its renewal terms, are managed entirely by the national authorities 
and vary significantly from country to country. The licensing process can be intermittent, multi-step 
and resource-intensive, which makes it a barrier for setting up new investments. 

68 Testing the climate intervention potential of ocean afforestation using the Great Atlantic Sargassum Belt, Bach, L.T., Tamsitt, V., 
Gower, J. et al., 2021. Nat Commun 12, 2556. 
69 Governance framework (for the purpose of this document) reflects the interrelated relationships, factors, and other influences upon 
EU  public  sector  (national  authorities  and  European  Commission). Governance  frameworks  structure  and  delineate  power  and  the 
governing or management roles. They also set rules, procedures, and other informational guidelines. In addition, governance frameworks 
define, guide, and provide for enforcement of these processes. These frameworks are shaped by the goals, strategic mandates, financial 
incentives, and established power structures and processes of the EU public sector.  

18 

 
 
                                                 
Regarding more downstream legislation, there are differences between the EU Member States in terms 
of certain, non harmonised at EU level, food safety measures such as not exceeding iodine thresholds 
in  algae  biomass  before  commercialization.  Such  differences  between  countries  have  created 
discords between suppliers and buyers across borders and lead to commercial tensions. 

3.  Why should the EU act?  

3.1. Legal basis and context 

The Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU) provides for the following distribution 
of responsibilities between the EU and the Member States in areas relating to algae: 

1) The European Union has exclusive competence with regard to the conservation of marine biological 
resources within the framework of the common fisheries policy70  (see Article 3 (1d) TFEU)71; 

2)  The  European  Union  shared  competence  with 
in  matters  of 
agriculture72 and fisheries73  (including  aquaculture,  thus  covering  the  production  of  seaweed,  the 
common  organization  of  the  markets  in  fisheries)  to  the  exclusion  conservation  of  living  marine 
resources (see Article 4 (2d) TFEU)74, and Union policy will contribute to pursuing objectives in the 
main areas of: 

the  Member  States 

-  Common public health safety concerns for the aspects defined in the TFEU; 
-  Consumer protection (Article 4 (2k) TFEU); 
-  Environment (Article 191 TFEU)75. 

There is currently a lack of harmonized algae-related legislative framework between Member 
States. This section provides an overview of the EU regulatory framework applicable to algae from 
their production or collection to their processing into food, feed, pharmaceuticals, chemicals and other 
products. Some EU regulations are relevant for all types of algae, namely those that deal with aquatic 
resources,  renewable  biological  resources  and  anthropogenic  pressures  on  the  environment.  Other 
policies  and  regulations  are  only  applicable  to  one  phase  of  the  value  chain,  such  as  the  Common 
Fisheries Policy (cultivation or wild harvesting) or rules on food packaging, and various rules apply to 
specific products, e.g. additives in feed. Overall, algae industry needs to be aware of various rules and 
regulations (as outlined in this sub-heading and Annex 5).   

Product  safety  and  consumer  protection  are  the  priority  when  considering  bringing  new  algae 
products to the EU market. For organic algae, labelling and production, EU level rules are set up. In 
seafood,  producers  need  to  consider  maximum  allowed  levels  of  iodine,  heavy  metals  and  other 
contaminants.  In  algae  as  foods  also  high  concentrations  of  contaminants  may  occur,  but  so  far 
occurrence data have been lacking to allow the establishment of maximum levels in food, in order to 

70 Regulation (EU) No 1380/2013 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 11 December 2013 on the Common Fisheries Policy: 
includes rules on the capture of marine resources and aquaculture (including freshwater aquaculture), thereby covering the various types 
of algae production. 
71 Available at: Article 3 (1d) TFEU 
72 Available at: agriculture 
73 Available at: fisheries 
74 Available at: Article 4 (2d) TFEU 
75 Available at: article 191 TFEU 

19 

 
 
 
                                                 
protect  EU  consumers  against  the  health  risks  from  those  contaminants  (in  particular  high 
concentrations of heavy metals) in algae. Maximum allowed levels are available for contaminants in 
feed  and  fertilisers.  Obtaining  health  claims  for  algae-based  foods  may  be  an  extensive  process  as 
strong substantiation of any health benefits is needed. In addition to the rules on products, the algae 
business  is  strongly  impacted  by  the  elements  of  the  general  regulatory  environment  such  as 
agricultural/aquacultural  subsidies,  aquaculture  licensing,  public  procurement  criteria,  tax  schemes, 
and trade agreements. Needless to say, not every single rule will apply to every single algae producer 
or processor, depending on their production methods, final products and size of the operation76, 77.  

For the cultivation of algae for food and feed, various legal acts are in place. Compliance with EU food 
safety legislation78 sets out basic legislative principles for algae products to ensure safe human nutrition 
and to protect consumer interests. Furthermore, new algae food products entering the EU market might 
fall under the Novel Food Regulation79and would require authorisation by the European Commission,    
The Novel Food legislation applies to foods and ingredients that were not consumed significantly in 
the EU before May 15, 1997. As the algae industry is an emerging sector in the EU and demand for 
algae biomass is rising for a variety of products, new algae species will most probably need to get a 
Novel Food authorization before being allowed to enter the EU market and be included in the Union 
List of authorised novel foods. 

Macroalgae have a long history of usage in the production of thickening and gelling agents applied as 
additives in food, cosmetics, and pharmaceuticals. The Regulation on food additives80 regulates their 
use  and  contains  a  list  of  authorized  food  additives.  It  includes  eight  macroalgae-derived  additives 
under  codes  E401-E407a.  Commission  Regulation  on  specifications  for  food  additives81  further 
specifies the origin, composition, and usage of the accepted additives. Several novel or underutilized 
macroalgae species could be used for production of food additives, although they would not be accepted 
as food or food ingredients. In addition to the traditional macroalgae-derived thickening and gelling 
agents,  macroalgae  contain  pigments,  antioxidants,  and  bioactive  compounds,  the  properties  and 
potential applications of which are under active research82. However, any novel macroalgae-derived 
phytochemicals intended for use as food additives, require an authorization before their entry into the 
EU market.  

The EU has, furthermore, issued a Recommendation on the monitoring of metals and iodine83 in 
seaweed,  halophytes,  and  products  based  on  seaweed  (through  a  specific  list  of  species).  These 
monitoring data are needed to establish maximum levels on the basis of the ‘As Low As Reasonably 

76 European Union Legislation and Policies Relevant for Algae. Leinemann F., Mabilia V., 2019.  
77European Union legislation on macroalgae products.  Lähteenmäki-Uutela, A., Rahikainen, M., Camarena-Gómez, M.T. et al, 2021.    
78 Available at : EU food safety legislation 
79 Available at : Novel Food Regulation 
80 Available at: Regulation (EC) No 1333/2008 
81 Available at: Regulation (EU) No 231/2012 
82 Bioactive Compounds in Seaweed: Functional Food Applications and Legislation. Holdt, S.L. and Kraan, S., 2011.  
; Recovery and utilization of seaweed pigments in food processing. Current Opinion in Food Science. Aryee A, Agyei D, Akanbi T., 
2018. Current Opinion in Food Science 19:113–119. ; Source, extraction, characterization, and applications of novel antioxidants from 
seaweed. Jacobsen C, Sørensen AD, Holdt S, Akoh C, Hermund D., 2019. Annu Rev Food Sci Technol 10:541–568. Available at:  
83 Available at : recommendation on the monitoring of metals and iodine 

20 

 
 
 
                                                 
Achievable’ principle, in order to limit the adverse health effects for consumers. Algae used in animal 
feed/feed additives do not need pre-market authorization, but do have to comply with regulation on 
feed  hygiene84,  marketing  of  feed85,  undesirable  substances  in  feed86  and  feed  additives87.  As 
mentioned earlier, the Commission shares competence with Member States in this regard. 

When used in pharmaceuticals, algae need authorization through centralized procedures, under the 
EU Medicine Agency. Algae used as sources of fine chemicals, botanical extracts and active substances 
or for speciality high-value applications in pharmaceutics and medicine fall under the main legislation 
for  chemicals  in  the  EU:  the  Regulation  on  the  Registration,  Evaluation,  Authorisation  and 
Restriction of Chemicals)88. The Cosmetics Regulation (EC) No. 1223/2009 is addressing concerns 
for human health, and REACH - for environmental concerns of substances used in cosmetics. The EU 
Fertilising  Products  Regulation89  harmonises  the  rules  for  EU  fertilising  products,  giving  these 
products  access  to  the  EU  single  market.  However,  national  legislations  (with  different  rules)  may 
apply in parallel, and regulate "national" fertilising products in national markets.  

Algae cultivation itself falls within the area of aquaculture (Article 34 of the CFP regulation)90, where 
the Commission establishes non-binding Union strategic guidelines on common priorities and targets 
for the development  of sustainable aquaculture.  Therefore, the inclusion  of algae cultivation  within 
multiannual national strategic aquaculture plans falls to the responsibility of Member States, along 
with regulating algae licensing, marketing and production requirements. In order to obtain the ‘organic’ 
label,  algae  producers  need  to  comply  with  the  Organic  regulation91  and  additionally  require  an 
Environmental  Impact  Assessment  (EIA)92  with  thresholds  determined  by  each  Member  State 
individually.  Furthermore,  the  EU  encourages  Member  States  to  include  algae  objectives  in  their 
national/regional spatial  plans under the  Maritime Spatial Planning (MSP) Directive93 promoting 
sustainable development and encouraging coexistence of different sectors in the marine area.  

Finally, algae production can be integrated into other industrial activities, e.g. wastewater treatment 
and industrial CO2 capture. In this regard, relevant algae products can fall under the remit of the Waste 
Framework Directive (WFD) and specifically under End-of-waste criteria94. A revision of the WFD 
is underway for 2023. 

Some of the main legal references related to the seaweed aquaculture are laid down in Figure Nr. 6 
below. 

84 Available at : regulation on feed hygiene 
85 Available at : marketing of feed 
86 Available at : undesirable substances in feed 
87 Available at : feed additives 
88 Available at: REACH 
89 Available at : Fertilising Products Regulation 
90 Available at : Article 34 of the CFP regulation 
91 Available at : organic regulation 
92 Available at: Environmental Impact Assessment 
93 Available at: Maritime Spatial Planning Directive 
94 Available at: End-of-waste criteria.  

21 

 
 
                                                 
Figure 6. Overview of legal acts relevant to seaweed aquaculture95  

An elaborative overview of existing and forthcoming initiatives and explanation of their relevance to 
algae is provided in Annex 5.  

3.2. Is it necessary for EU to act?  

The European Union can only act in areas according to a division of responsibilities set in EU treaties 
(See  3.1  above).  The  EU  Blue  Bioeconomy,  including  the  algae  sector,  plays  an  important  role  in 
achieving European Green Deal objectives and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). A growing 
global  population,  exhaustion  of  resources,  environmental  pressures,  and  climate  change,  require  a 
modified approach to our food systems. To overcome these challenges, new sustainable ways to feed a 
rapidly growing global population are essential. The European Commission’s Group of Chief Scientific 
Advisors  elaborated  in  its  2017  “Food  from  the  Oceans”  advice96  how  the  ocean  offers  untapped 
potential  to  meet  global  food  demand  through  direct  food  production  or  biomass  harvest.  The 
production and processing of food from the ocean, such as algae and other new marine resources can 
help  provide  sustainable  food  products,  animal  feeds  and  non-food  products.  The  European 
Commission intends to play a key role in the development of a regenerative EU algae sector. 

As part of the  Farm to  Fork Strategy, the Commission  aims to  "launch a process  to  identify new 
innovative food and feed products, such as seafood based on algae"35. In addition, the Commission 
stresses the need for well-targeted support to the algae industry to develop its potential as a sustainable 
food system. 

Currently, the lack of harmonization between Member States poses obstacles to the rapid and successful 
development of an algae sector in the EU. These may be the licensing procedures, access to marine 

95 Design: Michèle Barbier, Institute for Science and Ethics 
96 Food from the oceans : how can more food and biomass be obtained from the oceans in a way that does not deprive future generations 
of  their  benefits?.  European  Commission,  Directorate-General  for  Research  and  Innovation,  Group  of  Chief  Scientific  Advisors, 
Publications Office, 2017,  

22 

 
 
 
                                                 
space  including  multi-use,  spatial  planning,  carrying  capacity  of  EU  marine  waters,  competition 
between  countries,  access  to  algae  seeds,  guidelines  around  algae-origin  biostimulants,  organic 
production  and  labelling,  traceability,  origins  control,  and  preserving,  protecting  and  improving  the 
quality of the environment, etc. 

Not taking action at this stage would mean a missed opportunity for Europe in terms of creating an 
algae industry sector creating new and quality jobs in coastal regions, helping to restore ocean health 
and  biodiversity,  making  low  carbon  footprint  products  etc.  Not  improving  the  traceability  of  bulk 
biomass and algae-based products can create consumer suspicion on the products origin and production 
methods, which will hinder the downstream market and confine the products to niche markets (as it is 
today).  Not  ensuring  environmental  sustainability  of  up  scaled  algae  production  systems,  through 
fundamental knowledge, is likely to lead to potential drawbacks on local ecosystems and create social 
controversy. By acting, the EU can seize the opportunity to address these potential drawbacks, 
and not only  respond to the increasing demand for algae, but also  provide a safe, sustainable 
(economic and environmental) and competitive resource for the growing EU and international 
market. 

3.3. Would there be an added value of an EU action? 
Coordinated action at EU level is necessary to unlock the algae potential and to enforce environmental, 
health, food, social and economic benefits that algae sector will provide. In respect of the subsidiarity 
mentioned, the EU must thus act in those areas and across EU maritime regions.  

The goal is to integrate algae into the national policies, be thoughtful of the algae sector’s complexities 
and specificities, and promote its integration into internal markets. It is essential that the homogeneous 
political approach does not replace national policies, but complements them and harmonizes the rules 
on  the  use  of  algae  as  food  and  non-food  products.  Similarly,  national  legislation  and  licensing 
requirements  necessary  to  carry  out  algae-related  activities  will  have  to  be  harmonized  to  facilitate 
intra-EU algae sector developments. Clear regulations in the sector would eliminate barriers to new 
investors  and  young  entrepreneurs  to  enter  the  sector,  and  will  increase  its  broader  visibility  and 
recognition. 

The  growth  of  the  sector  will  be  fostered  when  new  products  are  continuously  developed  and 
introduced into the market. This can be promoted through EU level actions by helping innovation and 
simplifying  the  authorization  procedures  for  new  foods.  The  improved  labelling  and  European 
standards of algae and algae products would certainly lead to a better competitive position for EU algae 
producers  and  processors,  compared  to  algae  producers  from  outside  the  EU,  and  would  push  the 
request for products of EU origin. This would also establish consumer confidence in the products, and 
make it easier for producers to adhere to standards when labelling is done in a coherent way. 

4. The EU Algae Initiative and its objectives 
One strong value added of a dedicated EU Algae Initiative lays in the coordinated supervision of the 
existing and additional actions listed in previous sections. The unlocking of the EU algae industry will 
indeed  emerge  from  this  system-level  approach  that  will  create  synergies  between  this  long  list  of 

23 

 
 
complementary actions. This integration and coordination is key to ensure smart economic stewardship 
of EU budget by avoiding duplication and maximising knowledge sharing across these actions.  

The set-up of the Algae Initiative can be done in a cost-efficient way given that many of these actions 
are already planned, budgeted or already being implemented. The Algae Initiative can indeed: 

-  Leverage existing programs and actions directly contributing to the algae agenda (cf section 5.1). 
EU4Algae can for instance be a powerful amplifying channel to engage the algae community and 
disseminate knowledge generated by the Algae Initiative.  

-  Collaborate with adjacent EU programs that can also contribute to the algae agenda, for instance 
collaborating with EU4Ocean and their literacy and awareness campaigns to promote algae, or with 
Blue Invest to present algae companies to investors. 

-  Officialise the “algae interest group” that exists across DGs and make it the network of focal points 

for the Algae Initiative 

-  Activate DG MARE budget already validated in the Work Programme and that could be allocated 

to funding new actions listed in section 5.2 

However, to make the EU Algae Initiative successful, some additional enablers will be required: 

1.  Clear allocation of Commission resources to play this coordination role across existing and new 
actions listed in this document, under the official mandate of the Algae Initiative, signalling to 
other DGs that the Algae Initiative will be in charge of creating synergies across them on algae-
related topics and programs. 

2.  Engage  with  Horizon  Europe  to  shape  proposals  aligned  with  the  new  actions  proposed  in 
section 5.2, as long as they are consistent with workstreams defined by Horizon Europe plan 
and roadmap. 

Assess possibility to unlock additional budget in 2023 and 2024 for additional actions from section 5.2 
that cannot be funded and resourced by all other mechanisms listed above. 

4.1. General objectives 
The main goal, and 10-year vision, is to unlock algae potential in the EU by increasing sustainable 
production97, safe consumption98 and innovative use of algae products in the EU.  

Unlocking  the  algae potential  in the  EU by  developing  a thriving, strong and sustainable EU algae 
sector would contribute  to  strengthening the EU  economy and limit  dependency on imports of  raw 
materials  and  nutrients  from  other  parts  of  the  world.  The  Covid-19  pandemic  and  recently  started 
Russia’s military aggression against Ukraine reinforce the case for diversifying the production of key 
raw materials in the EU and making this production sustainable. A thriving EU algae industry would 
also be a key contributor to the European Green Deal and a flagship and source of inspiration for other 

97Sustainable production and consumption can be defined as production and use of products and services in a manner that is socially 
beneficial, economically viable and environmentally benign over their whole life cycle Sciencedirect     
98 Algae products intended for consumption on the EU market shall correspond to the “safe products” definition laid down in the Directive 
2001/95/EC of 3 December 2001 on general product safety 

24 

 
 
                                                 
industries to become more regenerative, innovative and socially exemplary, with thousands of good 
jobs created, notably in coastal communities. 

Positive impacts  on the people, nature  and the economy  - described in  the next  chapter  - would  be 
unleashed  and  will  contribute  to  addressing  key  ocean  (acidification,  biodiversity  loss,  pollution, 
habitat  destruction)  and  socio-economic  (self-sufficiency,  unemployment,  obesity  and  malnutrition 
etc.) challenges of our time.  

4.2. Specific objectives 

Specific objectives to implement the general objective above are: 

1.  To upgrade99 and upscale regenerative algae cultivation and production throughout the EU  
2.  To develop and mainstream the markets for food and non-food algae applications.  

Algae food applications, for instance, algae sold in supermarkets and prepared in restaurants should 
become accessible to a wide variety of EU consumers. For non-food applications, EU-sourced algae 
should become a mainstream  sustainable raw material and feedstock across  various sectors ranging 
from animal feed, agriculture, textile, cosmetics, nutraceuticals, packaging, etc.  

Increasing the capacity of algae production (and hence the whole value chain) in the EU is essential for 
reaching  such  a  target.  Seaweed  for  Europe  estimated  (in  their  most  ambitious  scenario)  that  the 
European seaweed production capacity could reach 8 million tons fresh weight by 2030 (currently: 0.3 
million tons fresh weight per year) 34 to supply around a third of a EUR 9 billion European seaweed 
market. 

In this 2030 target vision, fundamental research in algae genetics, genomics and metabolomics has 
built the required knowledge for biodiscovery, strain selection and ability to stabilize the quality and 
increase the productivity of biomass, but also to increase the productivity of inherent compounds of 
interest  (e.g.  high  value  bioactives).  Research  and  long-term  monitoring  programs  deployed  within 
production  sites  at  sea  (seaweed)  have  improved  knowledge  on  environmental  services  of  algae 
production  regarding  nutrients  uptake,  ecosystem  services,  and  the  role  of  algae  as  a  nature-based 
climate  solution.  This  research  also  provided  conclusive  information  regarding  the  positive  and 
negative environmental impacts, essential for guiding aquaculture and hence ensuring environmental 
sustainability of seaweed cultivation. Improved and new algae cultivation and processing systems and 
methods have been tested, validated and scaled, leveraging technological breakthroughs, for instance 
regarding  biomass  stabilization,  full  value  transformation  (e.g.  via  biorefineries)  and  technology 
integration (e.g. industrial symbiosis) to guarantee economic viability of the produced algae. Public 
and  private  capital  would  have  been  raised  to  fuel  this  research  innovation  and  infrastructure 
development. 

 In this target 2030 vision, algae would not be any more a niche industry in the EU:  

-  Algae production would be siginificantly  scaled up, and would be environmentally friendly and 

economically viable and sustainable; 
Innovative products would be available on the market, in the broadest range of applications.  

- 

99 Upgrading is the process of replacing a product with a newer version of the same product 

25 

 
 
                                                 
-  Algae  products  placed  on  the  EU  market  would  be  safe  and  their  health  benefits  would  be 

substantiated, recognized and praised for (for food, feed and non-food applications); 

-  The industry would develop in a socially fair and resilient way and would leave no-one behind. 

To  deliver  this  ambitious  (and  sustainable)  growth  in  EU  algae  production  and  new  products 
development within the next decade, many structuring enablers need to be deployed across the theme 
of  research,  technology  innovation,  policy  reforms,  capital  mobilised,  improved  governance  and 
awareness and acceptance raising.  

4.3. Operational objectives 

To  reach  the  specific  objectives  presented  above,  the  following  operational  objectives  have  to  be 
achieved. 

4.3.1.  Improve and harmonize governance and legal frameworks. 

Algae sector would benefit from harmonized governance throughout the EU, involving common legal 
procedures, monitoring and quality thresholds with the final goal to deliver an EU label guaranteeing 
safe and traceable biomass or algae-based products.  

Among others this objective implies development of common guidelines regarding algae cultivation 
and  commercialization  as  well  as  integrate  algae-related  provisions  into  national  governance 
frameworks (e.g.  maritime spatial plans). For instance, development of centralized guidelines for 
new  algae  farmers  in  the  Member  States  to  be  performed.  Specific  actions  may  look  at  addressing 
access to algae cultivation sites at sea (these diverge between countries) as well as at safe concentration 
limits  of  certain  compounds  (e.g.  iodine)  required  before  commercialization  (also  differ  across  the 
countries). Another example would be to draw an intra-EU policy on organic production of microalgae. 
Improved  governance  also  implies  improved  licensing  and  access  to  space  procedures,  improved 
industry standards and necessary legal changes.  

4.3.2.  Support the improvement of business environment. 

Well-functioning and growing business landscape and environment are crucial for an effective growth 
of a regenerative algae sector. Some of the actions to implement under this objective are bringing more 
algae  species  to  the  EU  market  by  considering  industry  collaboration  for  preparing  novel  food 
dossiers  and  by  discovering  species  that  are  used  as  a  traditional  food  in  the  EU  Member  States. 
Reorientation  of  fishers  careers  to  regenerative  ocean  farmers  through  a  pilot  projects  could  be 
encouraged.  Support  could  be  provided  to  algae  producers  and  transformers  to  attain  existing  EU 
quality  labels,  which  can  provide  a  price  premium  to  their  respective  products  and  help  to  achieve 
economic  sustainability.  Implementation  of  the  EU4Algae  project  will  promote  partnerships  and 
knowledge exchange, will accelerate the development of a regenerative, equitable and climate-friendly 
algae industry in the EU by fostering stakeholder collaboration (for further details see sub-heading 5.1).  

4.3.3.  Increase social awareness and acceptance 

EU consumers and ordinary citizens often are not aware about the multiple benefits algae cultivation 
may  bring  ranging  from  marine  ecosystem  regeneration  until  creating  low-carbon  products  and 
generating blue economy jobs. Social awareness of algae and algae products needs to be increased to 
boost the demand and knowledge of the EU Blue Bioeconomy sector through, for example, educational 
26 

 
 
programmes  at  schools,  seaweed  cooking  shows  or  by  conducting  a  consumer  behaviour  and 
preferences analysis on algae products. 

4.3.4.  Closing knowledge, research, technological and innovation gaps 

Implementing this objective is key to succeed with implementing the general objective above. Algae 
sector in the EU has rather limited availability of algae-related data (production and socio-economic 
data)24,100. There is a need to develop innovative equipment able to increase and stabilise productivity 
and  quality  levels  such  as  large  scale  efficient  and  optimized  production  systems,  automation 
equipment, monitoring probes with control command systems, nutrient recycling, etc. which can reduce 
unpredictable  biomass  loss  but  can  also  reduce  labour  costs.  This  equipment  could  be  sound  for 
downstream processes like biorefineries able to treat algae biomasses of macro- and microalgae. There 
is also a need to remove systemic innovation barriers and accelerate algae innovation and market 
access etc. 

5.  Ongoing and proposed policy actions 
The algae sector is currently a niche sector in the EU on a development trajectory given the advantages 
of algae products and consumer demand, e.g. algae foods. However, as described in Chapter 1 to unlock 
the algae potential in the EU Blue Bioeconomy,  without compromising on sustainability and safety 
issues, a policy intervention to support and regulate the sector  needs to be considered. This chapter 
describes and explains (1) existing and ongoing algae-related actions and (2) proposes a range of 
new policy actions structured around 4 specific objectives described above.  

As indicated earlier, algae industry sector is at the early development stages therefore there is no or 
very minor  regulatory  measures. The existing ones are very  fragmented  and mentioning in  sectoral 
legal acts of “algae” is either minor or inexistent (see sub-heading 1.5 and Annex 5 for more details on 
the legal algae-related context). As the development of algae cultivation mostly falls within the remit 
of the aquaculture, which is  managed by the EU Member States, currently there is minor scope for 
further legislative changes to support the development of algae sector. After a careful review of the 
potential  legislative  changes  with  algae  sector  experts,  stakeholder  groups  (see  the  results  of  the 
stakeholder consultation in Annex 2 and 3) and based on collective knowledge of the Commission, a 
possible  future  amendment  of  the  scope  of  the  fertilising  products  regulation  (Regulation  (EU 
2019/1009) to allow more algae related materials could be considered. However, any proposal for such 
an amendment should be duly supported and justified by an in-depth technical assessment of the market 
potential, the agronomic efficiency and the safety of certain algae materials when used in fertilising 
products. Existing and ongoing algae-related actions 

This sub-heading describes the ongoing support to the algae sector, which is provided not in a targeted 
strategic way, but more as part of the wider Green Deal Strategy. By continuing “business as usual” 
algae-related calls could be still released, funded, contracted and implemented, while the regulatory 
framework could be improved e.g. as part of Sustainable Blue Economy Strategy. To understand how 
the algae-sector will look like in 3-5 years without the Algae initiative, we have to throw light on the 

100  Report  on  the  Community  of  Practice  Workshop:  Algae  production  in  Europe:  status,  challenges  and  future 
developments. European Commission’s Knowledge Centre for Bioeconomy. 

27 

 
 
                                                 
expected outcomes of the current algae-related initiatives that are in an implementation and planning 
phase. Consequently, in the following paragraphs, the most important initiatives that can influence the 
algae sector (2021-2022) are presented. These initiatives (non-exhaustive list) are: EU4Algae, current 
EU  funding  calls  (Horizon  2020,  Horizon  Europe,  BBI-JU,  EMFF,  ERDF,  etc.),  business  support 
mechanisms (Blue Invest, private financing, etc.), initiatives that contribute to the knowledge base, like 
the Commission’s Knowledge Centre for Bioeconomy, the JRC’s biomass study, as well as specific 
algae-related studies, ocean literacy and awareness raising initiatives etc. 

5.1.1.   European Algae Stakeholder Forum (EU4Algae) 
EU4Algae project was kicked off in February 2022 to run for three years. The project aims to support 
EU algae innovation and market access, contributing to increasingly sustainable production of algae, 
ensuring safe consumption and boosting innovative use of algae and algae-based products in the EU. 
EU4Algae consortium consists of some leading European algae organizations101 that already have a 
network of some 300 algae sector stakeholders. 

EU4Algae contractor will deliver the following (non-exhaustive list): 

  Create  an  EU-wide  collaborative  algae  sector  network  –  EU  Algae  stakeholder  forum 

(EU4Algae)  

  Review  and  compile  existing  national  incentives,  best  practices  and  procurement 
mechanisms facilitating the development of algae businesses and increasing demand for algae 
products  

  Examine current national policies and forward planning for potential introduction of financial 

incentives on the price of algae and algae-based products in the Member States 

  Compile information on business support actors, initiatives and mechanisms in the Member 

States to support collaboration and broader knowledge sharing at the EU level 

  Will  examine  future  EU  research  and  innovation  needs  to  enhance  the  potential  of  algae, 
including the nutritional benefits of algae, the development of new algae-based products, new 
business models and emerging algae applications at the initial phase of research  

  Consider setting up an online  Algae Intelligence and Innovation corner on the EU4Algae 

website with an updated periodic list of EU funding sources for algae-related projects  

  Support the addition of new algae species to the Novel Food Catalogue 
  Aggregate  actual  algae-related  funding  calls  to  make  them  available  for  the  algae  sector 

stakeholders 

  Review  and  analyse  state  of  the  art  knowledge  on  quantifying  ecosystem  services  of  algae-
based on bioremediation and carrying capacities of EU waters for seaweed aquaculture and 
marine  permaculture,  and  impacts  of  cultivation,  restoration  and  harvesting  on  marine 
ecosystems. 

101 EURA, European Algae Biomass Association (EABA), Seaweed for Europe, sPRO (Submariner network), Technopolis Group  

28 

 
 
                                                 
5.1.2.  Algae-related EU funding calls 

A number of existing funding calls are already supporting the development of algae sector. Among 
others, these are Horizon 2020, Horizon Europe, BBI-JU/CBE-JU calls, blue economy window calls 
(EMFF), ERDF and other EC funding calls already awarded or programmed. While EU4Algae project 
mentioned above will aggregate the actual funding calls and make them available to the stakeholders, 
below are few examples of recent calls.  

One of the 5 key action areas of the EU research framework program Horizon Europe is the mission 
“Restore our ocean and waters by 2030”. The objective of this Mission is to restore by 2030 the health 
of one of our most precious shared resources: our ocean and waters. Alongside Horizon Europe the 
Mission also mobilises the European Maritime Fisheries and Aquaculture Fund (EMFAF), InvestEU 
and other EU programmes. Together, they will provide around €500 million in seed funding during 
2021-2023.  Along  with  Member  State  contributions  and  private  funding,  this  will  create  a  big  and 
lasting impact. In a nutshell, this means to: (1) protect and restore marine and freshwater biodiversity 
and ecosystems, (2) eliminate pollution, and (3) make the blue economy carbon-neutral and circular. 
So  far  there  have  been  released  or  planned  following  funding  actions  where  algae  are  explicitly 
mentioned in the description or scope: 

 
 
 
 

 
 

 

Unlocking the potential of algae for a thriving European blue bioeconomy102   
Building alternative protein-friendly sustainable and healthy food environments103  
Innovative food from marine and freshwater ecosystems104  
Filling knowledge gaps on nutritional, safety, allergenicity and environmental assessment of 
alternative proteins and dietary shift105  
Novel, non-plant biomass feedstock for industrial applications106  
Photosynthesis  revisited:  climate  emergency,  “no  pollution  and  zero-emission”  challenge 
and industrial application107   
Environmental  services:  improved  bioremediation  and  revitalization  strategies  for  soil, 
sediments and water108  

Circular Bio-based Europe Joint Undertaking (CBE JU) – the successor of Bio-based industries 
Joint Undertaking (BBI JU) will launch the algae-related calls (Annual Work Programme 2021-22) on 
22  June  2022.  BBI-JU  has  funded  between  2014  and  2020  some  ten  algae-related  projects.  Some 
examples are provided below.  

SPIRALG was a successful aquatic biomass project, aiming to demonstrate the sustainable feasibility 
of biorefining of EU produced Spirulina biomass in the agro-food and health sectors. 

102 HORIZON-CL6-2021-CIRCBIO-01-09 – Total funding: 18 mio EUR, 9 Mio per project, 2 projects. Deadline: 01 Sep 2021 
103 HORIZON-CL6-2022-FARM2FORK-01-07: Total funding: 12 Mio EUR, 12 Mio per project, 1 project. Deadline: 15 Feb 2022 
104 HORIZON-CL6-2022-FARM2FORK-02-05-two-stage: Total funding: 18 mio EUR, 6 Mio per project, 3 project. Deadlines: 15 Feb 
2022 (First Stage), 06 Sep 2022 (Second Stage) 
105 HORIZON-CL6-2021-FARM2FORK-01-12: Total funding: 11 Mio EUR, 11 Mio per project, 1 project. Deadline: 01 Sep 2021 
106 HORIZON-CL6-2021-CIRCBIO-01-05: Total funding: 12 Mio EUR, 6 Mio per project, 2 projects. Deadline: 01 Sep 2021 
107HORIZON-CL6-2022-CIRCBIO-02-04-two-stage: Total funding: 6 Mio EUR, 6 Mio per project, 1 project. Deadlines: 15 Feb 2022 
(First Stage), 01 Sep 2022 (Second Stage) 
108 HORIZON-CL6-2021-ZEROPOLLUTION-01-10: Total funding: 11 mio EUR, 5,50 Mio per project, 2 projects. Deadline: 01 Sep 
2021 

29 

 
 
                                                 
The REDWine project will demonstrate the technical, economic and environmental feasibility of using 
the CO2 rich gas generated during the red wine fermentation and winery liquid effluent to support the 
production of Chlorella biomass and extracts. The SCALE project (2021-2025) will build and operate 
a  first-of-its-kind  flagship  plant  producing  ingredients  with  high  nutritional  value  derived  from  the 
untapped  microalgae  diversity,  for  food,  food  supplements,  feed  and  cosmetics  sectors,  through 
economically-sound  processes  and  in  an  environmentally  friendly  way.  ALEHOOP  project  (2020-
2024) will demonstrate  - at pilot scale  - the feasibility of recovering low-cost dietary proteins from 
algae-based and plant residual  biomass  sources, namely seaweed and the by-products  of vegetables 
production using biorefineries. MULTI-STR3AM project (2020-204) will develop a sustainable multi-
strain, multi-method, multi-product microalgae biorefinery integrating industrial sidestreams to create 
high-value products for food, feed and fragrance. NENU2PHAR project (2020-2024) will develop a 
viable sustainable and biodegradable alternative to the existing petrochemical-based plastic. 

European Maritime and Fisheries Fund (EMFAF) has funded a number of algae-related projects. 
These projects cover a range of different algae related topics and target different ways to promote the 
sustainable algae sector in the EU. For example, the AlgaeDemo109 project aims to demonstrate large-
scale seaweed cultivation at open sea and quantify the environmental effects of seaweed cultivation. 
The Biogears110 project supports the eco-friendly offshore aquaculture sector by developing prototypes 
of  biogears  for  use  in  the  mussel  and  seaweed  sector.  To  promote  the  sustainable  production  of 
biopesticides  for  agriculture  produced  from  microalgae  biomass,  EMFAF  funds  the  innovative 
ALGAENAUTS111  project.  The  objectives  of  the  KELP-EU112  project  are  to  enable  the  EU  blue 
circular economy through innovative, sector-leading seaweed biorefinery. EMFAF funded Algama113 
to  launch  a  project  named  ‘Seafood  Algternative’  aimed  at  producing  fish  substitute  from  algae  to 
develop the algae sector and to preserve marine life. Additionally, the ULVAFARM  114 project was 
funded to promote large scale sea cultivation of green seaweed. Besides, the AFRIMED  115 aims to 
develop, implement and promote a protocol to restore damaged pl forests in the Mediterranean Sea. 

EIT  Climate-KIC  is  a  Knowledge  and  Innovation  Community  (KIC),  working  to  accelerate  the 
transition to a zero-carbon, climate-resilient society. To achieve above Climate KIC features innovative 
algae start-ups (e.g. Swedish algae factory116), success stories (Microalgae biorefinery 2.0 project117) 
or innovations (MiAlgae project118) 

EIT Food accelerates innovation to build a future-fit food system that produces healthy and sustainable 
food for all. EIT Food invests in projects, organisations and individuals that contribute to the healthy 
and sustainable food system. It unlocks innovation potential in businesses and universities and create 

109 Available at: AlgaeDemo 
110 Available at: Biogears 
111 Available at: Algaenauts 
112 Available at: Kelp-EU 
113 Available at: Algama foods 
114 Available at: ULVAFARM 
115 Available at: AFRIMED 
116 Available at: Climate-KIC  
117 Available at: Microalgae Biorefinery project  
118 Available at: MiAlgae project  

30 

 
 
                                                 
and scale start-ups to bring new technologies and products to market. It also equips entrepreneurs and 
professionals  with  the  skills  needed  to  transform  the  food  system, and  educate  and  inspire  the  next 
generation. The forthcoming 2022 call, among others, includes the focus area Sustainable aquaculture 
aiming  to  promote  new  emerging  sustainable  production  systems  and  aquaculture  species  and  will 
cover adaptation of existing systems to new species or production of species in currently underexploited 
areas e.g. to scale up of systems for production, harvest, and processing of seaweed. 

 
 

 
 

 

Innovative food from marine and freshwater ecosystems119  
Filling knowledge gaps on nutritional, safety, allergenicity and environmental assessment of 
alternative proteins and dietary shift120  
Novel, non-plant biomass feedstock for industrial applications121  
Photosynthesis  revisited:  climate  emergency,  “no  pollution  and  zero-emission”  challenge 
and industrial application122   
Environmental  services:  improved  bioremediation  and  revitalization  strategies  for  soil, 
sediments and water123  

5.1.3.  Strategic guidelines for the sustainable development of EU aquaculture 

The  updated  “Strategic  guidelines  for  the  sustainable  development  of  EU  aquaculture”  (2021)124, 
include recommendations for the development of alternative aquaculture and food systems, incl. algae, 
in multi-annual national strategic aquaculture plans for the next period (2020-2030) and simplification 
of administrative procedures, mostly regarding permit application processes. The Strategic Guidelines 
have identified the challenges and obstacles for algae production in the EU due to complex and not 
harmonised legislation and propose solutions for national countries to overcome these. The EMFAF 
programmes  will  support  Member  State’s  efforts  to  develop  sustainable  aquaculture,  including 
alternative  aquaculture  sectors,  in  line  with  the  EU  strategic  guidelines  during  the  2021-27 
programming period. The programmes’ strategy and actions are assessed to ensure they address the 
specific  needs  of  the  sector  and  for  consistency  with  Member  states’  multiannual  national  strategic 
plan, as aligned with the EU strategic guidelines. 

The  suggested  solutions  include:  simplification,  streamlining  and  harmonising,  where  possible,  of 
legislation and administrative guidance on aquaculture for new licences or licence renewals; a ‘one-
stop-shop’  system  for  aquaculture  licences;  longer-term  licensing,  include  an  obligation  to  monitor 
report data, and sanctions for non-compliance, including licence revocation.  

Strategic guidelines have also stressed the importance of coordinated spatial planning principles and 
have listed a scope of topics the planning has to consider for algae aquaculture:  

119 HORIZON-CL6-2022-FARM2FORK-02-05-two-stage: Total funding: 18 mio EUR, 6 Mio per project, 3 project. Deadlines: 15 Feb 
2022 (First Stage), 06 Sep 2022 (Second Stage) 
120 HORIZON-CL6-2021-FARM2FORK-01-12: Total funding: 11 Mio EUR, 11 Mio per project, 1 project. Deadline: 01 Sep 2021 
121 HORIZON-CL6-2021-CIRCBIO-01-05: Total funding: 12 Mio EUR, 6 Mio per project, 2 projects. Deadline: 01 Sep 2021 
122HORIZON-CL6-2022-CIRCBIO-02-04-two-stage: Total funding: 6 Mio EUR, 6 Mio per project, 1 project. Deadlines: 15 Feb 2022 
(First Stage), 01 Sep 2022 (Second Stage) 
123 HORIZON-CL6-2021-ZEROPOLLUTION-01-10: Total funding: 11 mio EUR, 5,50 Mio per project, 2 projects. Deadline: 01 Sep 
2021 
124 Available at: Strategic guidelines for the sustainable development of EU aquaculture  

31 

 
 
                                                 
1.  The  development  of  offshore  algae  farming,  special  areas  for  organic  aquaculture  and  the 

integration of suitable aquaculture activities into protected areas, e.g. Natura2000; 

2.  The development of combined forms of aquaculture, algae with mussels and fish – IMTA, and 
seek  for  synergies  and  multi-use  of  space  at  sea,  e.g.,  combining  offshore  wind  parks  and 
seaweed. 

3.  Promote algae (micro- and macro-algae) ecosystem services including in ponds and wetlands; 
4.  The adaptation of algae cultivation to climate change and mitigation of climate change impacts 

(e.g. carbon capture) 

5.1.4.   Algae business support mechanisms 

The  Commission  have  developed  certain  business  support  mechanisms  where  algae  industry  could 
benefit from. Two of the existing ones are outlined below 

BlueInvest is up and running and aims to boost innovation and investments in sustainable technologies 
for the blue economy, by supporting readiness and access to finance for early-stage businesses, SMEs 
and scale-ups. It is enabled by the European Maritime and Fisheries Fund. Among other actions, Blue 
Invest has compiled a project pipeline that currently lists 12 micro- and macroalgae related projects125. 
BlueInvest organises regular pitching events for SMEs in front of investors to increase the chances of 
getting funding.  Algae projects have been featured quite remarkably e.g. the BlueInvest Info day 28 
March 2022126 includes pitches of 4 algae companies and annual the Algaeurope 2021 conference127 
included the BlueInvest session with pitches of 5 algae companies. 

Aquaculture  Assistance  Mechanism  (2022-2024)  will  support  in  the  implementation  of  the  EU 
strategic  aquaculture  guidelines  by  providing  logistic,  administrative  and  technical  support  and  by 
enhancing cooperation between Member States and stakeholders for the development of sustainable 
aquaculture in the EU (2021-2030). This includes the support to the seaweed aquaculture and to the 
promotion and development of the Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture in the EU Member States. 

5.1.5.  The European Commission’s Knowledge Centre for Bioeconomy 
The Knowledge Centre for Bioeconomy128 is a European Commission initiative on better knowledge 
management  for  policymaking  on  the  bioeconomy.  It  is  coordinated  by  the  Commission’s  Joint 
Research  Centre  (JRC).  It  pulls  together  knowledge  and  expertise  on  different  elements  of  the 
bioeconomy, including algae129 and from different sources in order to assess the status, progress and 
impact of the bioeconomy and support science-based policy making. 

5.1.6.  Algae related studies and projects 
Apart from the EU4Algae, mentioned above, some other studies contribute to the development of algae 
sector (non-exhaustive list): 

125 Available at : BlueInvest algae related projects 
126 Available at: BlueInvest info day pitches  
127 Available at: BlueInvest session pitches  
128 Available at: https://knowledge4policy.ec.europa.eu/bioeconomy  
129 Available at: https://knowledge4policy.ec.europa.eu/bioeconomy/topic/algae-biomass_en 

32 

 
 
                                                 
1.  Shellfish, Algae and Nutrients (2022-2023/4) will assess the potential of shellfish and algae 
to recycle nutrients and to estimate the greenhouse gas emissions generated by their production, 
will develop digital maps that must provide complete coverage of EU seas.  

2.  Algae & Climate (2022-2023) will estimate the nutritional yield of various algae species, the 
proportion  of  an  animal  feed  that  can  be  displaced  by  algae,  the  costs  and  greenhouse  gas 
emissions of algae production benchmarked against land-based crops, the land area that could 
be used for inland production of algae. 

3.  The JRC’s Biomass Mandate130 aims to provide data, models and analyses on EU and global 
biomass supply and demand and its environmental, social and economic sustainability. It covers 
all sources of biomass, including from algae and all uses. 

5.1.7.  Ocean literacy and awareness raising  

Supported by the European Commission,  the European Ocean  Coalition (EU4Ocean)131 connects 
diverse  organisations,  projects  and  people  that  contribute  to ocean  literacy and  the  sustainable 
management of the ocean. The coalition is made up of three components: a Platform for organisations 
and individuals engaged in Ocean Literacy initiatives, a European Youth Forum for the Ocean and 
a Network  of  European  Blue  Schools.  During  its  third  year  of  the  implementation,  EU4Ocean  is 
becoming a reference forum for Ocean Literacy in Europe. Public engagement in Ocean related themes 
e.g. in schools, exhibitions, conferences etc. have been existing for years, but now there is an umbrella 
for European Ocean Literacy. Gathering many actors in Europe (research organisations, youth, schools 
etc.), the benefit for the algae sector is tapping into a huge network of local “influencers”, and people 
working  with  the  end-users  of  algae  products.  Algae  offers  huge  opportunity  for  food,  feed, 
pharmaceuticals, biopackaging, etc. but these opportunities often are not known to civil society. Co-
developing awareness and dissemination projects with these local actors (translators) would benefit the 
algae sector in the long-term.” 

Taste the ocean132 is a campaign from the EU with top chefs across Europe to encourage consumers 
to buy and enjoy sustainable fish and seafood. Cooking with seaweed will be explored during the next 
episodes of the #TasteTheOcean campaign.  

Supported by the European Commission, Euronews have monthly ‘’Oceans’’ episodes featuring many 
Blue  economy  and  ocean  related  aspects.  Two  episodes133  so  far  have  already  featured  algae  as  a 
sustainable future alternative.  

5.1.8.  Algae related industry standards 
European Standards are needed to assure safety of algae products, to ensure that products and materials 
are tailored-made for their purpose,  promote the  interoperability of products  and services, facilitate 
trade by removing trade barriers, promote common understanding of a product etc. To develop algae-

130 Available at: https://knowledge4policy.ec.europa.eu/projects-activities/jrc-biomass-mandate_en 
131 Available at: | Maritime Forum (europa.eu) 
132 Available at: Taste The Ocean (europa.eu) 
133 Available at: Will seaweed save the world? | Euronews  

33 

 
 
                                                 
related standards the European Committee for Standardization (CEN)134 has established a dedicated 
technical  committee  CEN/TC  454  –  Algae  and  Algae  products135.  The  committee  has  a  work  in 
progress and so far has delivered a range of industry standards136 and technical reports137. Further 
development of necessary standards is important for successful development and scaling up of the algae 
industry  and in  particular a common harmonisation  with  International  Standardization Organization 
(ISO), FAO and other International associations (ABO, ISAP) on that matter. 

5.2. Coordinated additional enablers – new proposed policy actions 
Annex 1 lists additional proposed policy actions taking a systems approach, i.e. addressing in parallel 
different levers to boost a sustainable EU algae sector. These are cost-effective actions bucketed by 
themes  around  improvement  of  the  governance  framework,  improvement  of  business  environment, 
social  awareness  and  acceptance,  knowledge,  research,  technology  and  innovation  as  well  as 
technology transfer. 

These  actions  are  meant  to  be  performed  in  parallel.  They  will  require  additional  resourcing  to  be 
delivered and implemented successfully (funding and staffing), and most importantly to be piloted in a 
coordinated  fashion  so  the  compendium  of  algae  actions  contributes  to  a  meaningful,  integrated 
objective under the EU Algae initiative. 

6.  Conclusions and recommendations 

A thriving EU algae industry may become a key contributor to the European Green Deal and its flagship 
initiatives: decarbonisation, zero pollution, circularity, biodiversity, sustainable food. The sector may 
also become a source of inspiration for other industries to become more regenerative, innovative and 
socially exemplary, with thousands of high quality jobs created, for instance, in coastal communities. 
Recent Commission-led initiatives like the new approach for a Sustainable Blue Economy and the EU 
Strategic Aquaculture Guidelines recognize the potential of algae.  

According to the evidences provided in this document, algae sector has a huge potential in the EU. To 
unlock  the  algae  potential  there  is  a  need  to  upscale  regenerative  algae  cultivation  and  production 
throughout  the  EU,  and  to  develop  and  mainstream  the  markets  for  food  and  non-food  algae 
applications.  Once  the  above  is  achieved  the  EU  security  of  supply  of  algae  biomass,  strategic 
autonomy from imports and smooth functioning of the algae sector will be ensured. 

However,  the  broad  range  of  problems  (outlined  in  the  heading  2)  limits  development  of  EU  algae 
sector. 

134 CEN is an association that brings together the National Standardization Bodies of 34 European countries. CEN provides a platform 
for the development of European Standards and other technical documents in relation to various kinds of products, materials, services 
and processes. 
135 Available at: CEN/TC 454 - Algae and Algae Products  
136 Terms and definitions (EN 17339), Identification of the biomass of microalgae, macroalgae, cyanobacteria and  
Labyrinthulomycetes - Detection and identification with  morphological and/or molecular methods (EN 17477), Methods for the 
determination of productivity of algae growth sites (EN 17480) 
137 Specifications for chemicals and biofuels sector applications (CEN/TR 17739), - Food and feed applications: General overview of 
limits, procedures and analytical methods (CEN/TR 17559), Specifications for cosmetic sector applications (CEN/TR 17611), 
Specifications for pharmaceutical sector applications (CEN/TR  17612), Cosmetic applications (CEN/TR 17611:2021), Pharmaceutics 
applications (CEN/TR 17612:2021) 

34 

 
 
                                                 
A number of ongoing actions (listed  in sub-heading 5.1  above)  contribute to  a certain  extent to the 
development of the EU algae sector, but not in a coordinated manner. A coordinated approach is needed 
where existing actions are supplemented by additional policy actions taking a systemic approach.  

Specific  attention  should  be  devoted  to  proactively  addressing  potential  concerns  of  EU  citizens 
regarding  environmental  sustainability  of  large  scale-seaweed  cultivation  and  food  safety  of  algae 
products (contaminants, iodine, bromine, etc).  

Recommendation: 

Based on the evidences outlined above, it is recommended that the Commission elaborates and adopts 
a cross-cutting EU Algae Initiative that (1) takes into account and brings forward best available science, 
knowledge, data and practices; (2) considers and proposes realistic enablers for algae sector to take off, 
(3)  integrates  existing  algae-related  actions;  (4)  addresses  potential  environmental  and  food  safety 
concerns, (5) raises awareness and acceptance of algae products in the EU. 

35 

 
 
 
 
1.  ANNEX 1: Proposed policy actions with explanations 

Table below provides a list of the suggested policy actions structured around 4 action areas:  

Responsible 
body 

European 
Commission 
(MARE), 
Industry 

Responsible 
body 

Member  States, 
European 
Commission 

Action area 1: Governance framework and legislation  

Guidelines 

Policy actions proposed 

Implementation  

1.  The  Commission 

in 
close collaboration with 
stakeholders 
relevant 
will  develop  a  new 
algae farmers toolkit 

Why: a centralized toolkit set by the EU are useful for new 
algae  farmers  (those  who  start  new  business  or  intend  to 
change from e.g. fishing activities to algae cultivation) and to 
better  understand  development  of  new  regenerative  algae 
production farms. The toolkit will be a practical guide for the 
development of new regenerative algae farms throughout the 
including  cultivation,  harvesting, 
entire  value  chain, 
processing,  logistics,  labelling  of  algae  and  algae  based 
products as well as licensing and permits, existing standards, 
Best Available Technologies (BAT), good practices and other 
relevant aspects for seaweed, microalgae and cyanobacteria.  
How: 

1.  By  contracting  the  establishment  of  a  new  algae 
farmers toolkit  
2.  Tailoring the toolkit to each EU marine region 

National procedures and governance 

Policy actions proposed 

Implementation  

simplify 

The  Commission  will  call 
Member  States  authorities 
national 
to 
licensing  procedures  and 
governance 
algae 
cultivation 

for 

Why:  Current  licensing  procedures  often  are  fragmented, 
complex,  labour-intensive  and  lengthy.  Simplification  is 
needed to facilitate and speed up setting of algae cultivation, 
integrated  multi-trophic  aquaculture,  multi-use  or  marine 
sites and co-exploitation of farming sites by multiple entities. 
Besides,  improved  transparency  and  efficiency  of  the 
procedures is needed. 

How:  by  (1)  making  inventory  of  existing  national  and 
regional  algae  licensing  and  permits  procedures  across  the 
Member States; (2) setting a roadmap with recommendations 
for  necessary  governance  changes;  (3) 
implementing 
necessary  governance  (or  legal  changes)  tailored  to  the 
specific Member States and maritime regions. 

36 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
to 

2.  The  Commission  will 
work  with  Member 
states 
facilitate 
access to marine space, 
identify  optimal  sites 
for  seaweed  farming 
include  seaweed 
and 
farming  and  sea  multi-
use  in  the  Maritime 
Spatial Plans 

Commission  will  support  this  process  by  compiling  best 
practices138 and existing procedures across the Member States 
with 
to  streamline  and  harmonise  national 
regulations. 

the  aim 

Why: To identify gaps and enabling factors for seaweed farm 
development  in  multi-use  settings  and  to  consequently 
facilitate establishment of such farms in multi-use of marine 
space  settings,  which  is  currently  difficult.  Use  of  existing 
monitoring data to identify suitable sites for macroalgae and 
multi-use systems. 

European 
Commission 
(MARE) 

Member states 

How:  

1.  As  a  follow-up  to  the  current  study  of  the  EU  MSP 
Assistance Mechanism on how Member States have dealt 
with (low-trophic) aquaculture and sea multi-use in their 
Marine Spatial Plans to commission a follow-up analysis 
(study)  on  how/whether  seaweed  farming  is  considered 
and  supported  in  national  MSPs  (e.g.  via  the    Blue 
Forum139 activities). 

2.  Based  on  the  new  acquired  knowledge  e.g.  findings  of 
“Shellfish and Algae” study, analyse optimal conditions, 
develop criteria for optimal sites to include into national 
MSP plans. 

Standards 

Policy actions proposed 

Implementation  

3.  The  Commission  will 
work with the European 
Standardization 
organization  (CEN)  to 
develop  standard  test, 
quantification 
and 
extraction  methods  for 
algae 
ingredients  and 
contaminants 

Why: Algae contain a range of useful active elements in the 
biomass, but their detection, quantification (e.g. chlorophyll) 
and consequent extraction (e.g. lipids) is challenging due to 
large range of testing methods. Food safety are some of the 
key concerns of European consumers as regards algae related 
products.  A  European  standard  is  needed  to  establish  a 
unified  method  to  detect  contaminants  (incl.  biofouling), 
iodine and heavy metals. 

How:  By  developing  European  standards  with 
test, 
quantification and extraction methods for active ingredients 
acids, 
in 
polysaccharides, amino acids, proteins, lipids, vitamins, for 
detection and quantification of contaminants.  

as  phycobiliproteins, 

algae 

such 

fatty 

Responsible 
body 

European 
Commission 
(ENER, MARE) 

CEN 

138 E.g. Seaweed for Europe Licensing Toolkit  
139 In particular, via the one of the Blue Forum key themes - Blue Life (use of the ocean for sustainable farming, fishing, biomass 
production, ocean life protection, sustainable human activities at sea) 
37 

 
 
 
 
 
                                                 
Why:  Algae  contain  active  elements  in  the  biomass,  like 
lipids,  that  makes  them  feasible  for  producing  biofuels.  A 
European standard is needed to establish unified methods for 
extracting  biofuels  and  developing  relevant  certification 
methodology. 

European 
Commission 
(ENER,  RTD), 
CEN 

How: By developing relevant European standards within the 
CEN/TC 454 - Algae and algae products. 

and 

4.  The  Commission  will 
to 
work  with  CEN 
develop  algae  biofuel 
standards 
a 
certification 
methodology  for  algae-
biofuel  products  to  be 
used in various transport 
sectors, 
particularly 
heavy road, aviation and 
maritime transport; 

Responsible 
body 

European 
Commission 
(GROW) 

EU legislation 

Policy actions proposed 

Implementation  

5.  The  Commission  will 
assess 
the  market 
potential, efficiency and 
safety of algae materials 
when used in fertilising 
products  and  the  need 
for  amend  Regulation 
(EU)  2019/2009  on  EU 
Fertilising  products  to 
include algae materials 

Why: (1) to facilitate use of materials recovered from algae 
grown on waste140, or from algae which have themselves a 
waste status, in production of EU Fertilising Products141  
(2) to allow the use of certain cyanobacteria in the production 
of EU fertilising products  
How: 
1. 
To clarify status of waste-grown algae whether algae 
grown in wastewater, or with waste input (e.g. off gas CO2 
or ammonia) are considered to be a “waste” or “product” and 
identify “end of waste criteria” for algae with waste status       
2. 
Component material category (CMC) 2] in the regulation 
3. 
Clarify the status of algae collected from the sea and 
identify “end of waste criteria” for algae collected from the 
coastVI.  
Develop “end of waste” criteria for recovered materials used 
in the production of fertilising products. 

the  exclusion  of  cyanobacteria 

Review 

[in 

Action area 2: Supporting the improvement of business environment 

140 At present, mechanically processed algae (no chemical processing or extraction) can be used under CMC2. Algae material collected 
from nature and which have waste status, e.g. floating algae removed from a canal, algae filtered from eutrophic waters, seaweed 
collected from beaches for tourism could be considered CMC 2 if they are harvested in such conditions as to contain negligible 
impurities. Algae can be used as input material to compost CMC3 and digestate CMC5. Four taxa of algae are currently authorised 
under CMC7 (biostimulants), but only if not processed (other than drying, freeze-drying) and potentially other taxa of algae or micro-
algae could be added to this list. Materials processed from algae can be used in CMC1, but not if the algae is classified “waste”. 
However, the status under CMC1 of materials processed from algae which are grown on waste streams (fed by nutrients from sewage, 
manure, etc.) is unclear. 
141 ‘Fertilising product’ means a substance, mixture, micro- organism or any other material, applied or intended to be applied on plants 
or their rhizosphere or on mushrooms or their mycosphere, or intended to constitute the rhizosphere or mycosphere, either on its own or 
mixed with another material, for the purpose of providing the plants or mushrooms with nutrient or improving their nutrition efficiency 
38 

 
 
 
 
                                                 
Policy actions proposed 

Implementation  

Responsible 
body 

6.  The  Commission  will 
with 
algae 
to  examine 
and 
market 

work 
industry 
algae  market 
propose 
stimulating 
mechanisms to support 
and 
the 
promote 
technology 
transfer 
from research to market 

7.  The  Commission  will 
prepare 
specific 
guidance    to  promote 
replacing 
fish-based 
feed  with  algae-based 
feed 

8.  The  Commission  will 
work 
algae 
with 
industry  and  Member 
States to:  
to  identify  valid  and 
safe  alternatives  for 

 

to 

Why:  For  algae  sector  to  take  off,  a  targeted  support  is 
necessary 
tackle  existing  bottlenecks  and  facilitate 
procedures, access to funding, to obtain necessary knowledge, 
to develop technologies, boost innovation etc as well as support 
technology transfer from research to market 

How:  the  Commission  will  work  with  industry  (e.g.  via  the 
EU4Algae  platform)  to  identify  feasible  market  support 
mechanisms and promote their implementation   

Why: 18 mio tons of wild fish is processed into fish oil/meal 
for animal and fish feed, which algae may (partly) replace.  

European 
Commission,  

How:  The  following  actions  could  be  examined  as  part  of 
potential policy research/study: 
(1) Introduction of ambitious EU forage fish dependency ratio 
(FFDR)  for  aquaculture,  combined  with  requirements  to 
maintain the nutritional and health quality of the farmed fish, 
and  respect  the  environmental  objectives  of  the  EU’s  2030 
Biodiversity Strategy and Farm-to-Fork Strategy.  
(2) Introduction of financial incentives for the uptake of algae-
based fish feed142.  
(3)  Make  the  “ALARA  (as  low  as  reasonably  achievable)” 
principle more ambitious, which is essential to further lower the 
EU  limit  values  for  dioxins  and  Polychlorinated  biphenyls 
(PCBs). 
(4) Introduction of minimum blend-in targets for sustainably-
sourced, non-fish-derived EPA + DHA143 in fish feed.  
(5)  Introduction  of  algae-based  fish  feed  as  a  sustainable 
activity  in  the  future  Sustainable  Finance  Taxonomy  for 
sustainable fisheries and aquaculture (in future revisions).  
Why: use of algae for cleaning wastewater from nutrients and 
recycling of nutrients from algae has big potential but is not 
well-explored in the EU.  

Industry 

Industry,  
European 
Commission 
(AGRI, 
MARE, 

142 This can, for example, be done through; a) Introduction of differentiated import duties for imported salmon that is sustainably-sourced 
(e.g.  with  an  FFDR  <  1);  b)  Removal  of  tariffs  for  algae  oil;  c)  Phasing  out  of  subsidies  for  European  forage  fisheries  while  also 
maintaining a level playing field. 

143 Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) are omega-3 fatty acids.  

39 

 
 
 
 
 
                                                 
use  of  nutrients  and 
from  various 
CO2 
sources  for  microalgae 
cultivation and organic  
certification 

  promote  extraction  of 
nutrients  from  algae 
biomass  
  support 

life 

impact 

cycle 
of 
assessment 
and 
environmental 
climate 
of 
algae  cultivation  and 
by 
production 
the 
considering 
development 
of  
monitoring 
methodologies 
and 
indicators  to  measure 
environmental 
impact 
and  sustainability  from 
seaweed cultivation   

Why:  There  is  currently  limited  options  of  using  different 
sources of nitrogen, phosphorus and CO2 to use as fertilisers in 
closed microalgae cultivation processes. 

SANTE), EM
ODNET 

impact  of  seaweed  cultivation  on 

Why: A quality accounting of the marine ecosystem services144 
and  potential 
these 
ecosystems  will  help  to  track  the  performance  of  the  sector 
towards achieving its sustainability goals145. Algae cultivation, 
if done properly, has a regenerative impact on the surrounding 
ecosystems.   

to 

related 

regulatory  questions 

the 
How:  To  clarify 
“waste” status  of  inputs  that  are  used  to  feed  algae.  Algae 
production can ensure synergy between wastewater treatment 
and nutrient removal, carbon capture and use of waste heat, and 
production of valuable materials and biomass energy. But only 
if  regulatory  questions  are  clarified  (especially  relating  to 
waste-status  of  inputs  used  to  “feed”  algae)59.  Consider  the 
opportunities to develop test sites for removal of nutrient from 
side-streams.  Demonstrate  industrial  symbiosis  concepts  to 
pilot  phase,  exchanging  and  recycling  carbon,  nutrients  and 
energy  among  industrial  activities  (to  consider  existing  best 
practices e.g. Kalundborg and Sötenas Symbiosis centres). To 
consider floating technologies for the cultivation of emergent 
macrophytes and halophytes as one option to remove nutrient 
from  eutrophicated  waters.  Study  the  impact  of  floating 
wetlands  not  only  on  nutrient  removal  but  also  on  other 
pollutants such as the bacterium Escherichia coli146.   

How: Based on the current work in progress (EGTOP, EABA 
working  groups)  and  in  close  collaboration  with  relevant 
stakeholders 
to  prepare 
(e.g.  DG  AGRI),  EU4Algae 
recommendations for economically and legally viable nutrients 
and CO2 alternatives for organic microalgae cultivation 

144 Ecosystem services are defined as the gains acquired by humankind from surroundings ecosystems 

145  The  Commission  is  going  to propose  the  revision  of  the  Regulation on European  Environmental  Economic  Accounts  (EEEA)  to 
expand its coverage to include a new module on natural capital accounting, fully consistent with the UN framework. This is in line with 
the recommendation of the European Court of Auditors and the recent mid-term review of European Strategy for environmental accounts 
(ESEA) 2019-2023 
146 To consider exisiting studies such as innovation on the integration of a microalgae photobioreactor with macrophytes floating wetlands 
for waste water treatment  (https://patents.google.com/patent/WO2015092093A1/en) and  the bioenergy use of the biomass from floating 
wetlands for wastewater treatment has been also investigated (https://biomasscarbonpositive.eu/). 

40 

 
 
                                                 
How147:  

1.  To contract a study compiling existing monitoring good 
practices,  methodologies  and  indicators  of  potential 
environmental impact from seaweed cultivation.  

Develop a system to ensure environmental monitoring practices 
and setup standards for obligatory monitoring and data for new 
farms 

Why: Steady decline of fishing opportunities and degradation 
of marine aquatic habitats could be turned around, when fishers 
could  switch  from  extracting  marine  activities  to  marine 
farming and marine habitat regeneration. This  would provide 
new  career  and  employment  opportunities  in  coastal  regions 
and  contribute  to  regeneration  of  coastal  marine  habitats  and 
fish resources. 

How:  To  contract  pilot  projects  and  to  provide  financial, 
training  and  infrastructural  advice  mechanisms  to  aid  in  the 
organization of the pilot projects through the existing funding 
mechanisms, such as EMFAF and Horizon Europe.  

Why: Many algae start-ups and SME would benefit from public 
financing  to  de-risk  their  operations  and  attract  private 
investors.  Also,  algae  entrepreneurs  would  benefit  from 
mentoring  and  acceleration/  incubation  services  to  stress  test 
their  business  models  and  help  them  professionalise  their 
fundraising and access networks of private investors. 

How: This may include the delivery of market intelligence and 
strengthening  capacities  of  investors  to  mobilise  capital  for 
high potential businesses/technologies, new coaching packages 
on  sustainability  for  SMEs,  and  technical  assistance  to 
accelerate the closing of deals. 

European 
Commission 
(MARE) 

European 
Commission 
(MARE) 

Why: Algae cultivation is currently negligent in the EU and its 
development  needs  to  be  supported.  Growing  conditions, 
species,  national  procedures  etc  are  different  across  EU 
maritime regions and countries. Improved collaboration at the 

European 
Commission 
(MARE) 

9.  The  Commission  will 
fund  pilot  project(s) 
supporting 
reorientation 
fisher’s 
regenerative 
farming 

of 
to  
ocean 

careers 

10. The  Commission  will 
enhance 
targeted 
the 
support  to  innovative 
SMEs  and  projects  in 
the algae sector through 
the  scaled-up  activities 
of 
the  BlueInvest 
platform 

11. The  Commission  will 
facilitate cooperation at 
sea 
and 
basin 
macroregional 
scale 
promoting 
by 
innovative interregional 

147 Improving Microalgae Research and Marketing in the European Atlantic Area: Analysis of Major Gaps and Barriers Limiting Sector 
Development. Judith Rumin, Raimundo Gonçalves de Oliveira Junior, Jean-Baptiste Bérard, and Laurent Picot ; Summary of results 
and policy recommendations for cultivation of algae in North West Europe for energy production (and potentially other non-energy 
products) - Arvaniti, Efthalia., 2016. Summary of Results and Policy Recommendations for Cultivation of Algae in North West Europe 
for Energy Production (and Potentially Other Non-Energy Products. EnAlgae. Available at: https://edepot.wur.nl/424045 

41 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
                                                 
macroregional  scale  would  help  to  better  coordinate  algae 
sector development efforts.  

How: By developing Smart Specialisation Strategies 

partnerships  (e.g.  Blue 
Bioeconomy with focus 
algae/shellfish), 
on 
the 
through 
of 
implementation 
Smart  Specialisation 
Strategies  and 
the 
dedicated 3S platform 
on  Sustainable  Blue 
Economy 

Action area 3: Closing knowledge, research, technological and innovation gaps 

Knowledge 

Policy actions proposed 

Implementation  

12. The  Commission  will 
integrate  algae  sector 
knowledge into the EU 
aquaculture 
assistance mechanism  

13. The  Commission  and 
stakeholders 
relevant 
will perform a study to 
better 
gather 
knowledge 
the 
climate 
seaweed 
change 
mitigation 
opportunities  (e.g.  via 
seaweed cultivation and 
seaweed 
forest 
restoration)  and  role  of 

on 

Why:  As  part  of  the  proposed  dedicated  EU  Aquaculture 
Assistance  Mechanism,  it  is  important  to  distinguish  algae 
sector  knowledge  to  facilitate  easy  access  to  information  for 
relevant stakeholders, including Member States authorities. 

How: By implementing  algae as an important aspect of the EU 
aquaculture assistance mechanism, to be, for example, included 
under: 

  Pillar 1 (website development): include a chapter dedicated 

to algae; 

  Pillar  3  (knowledge  base  development):  consider  a 

prominent place for algae; 

  Pillar 4 (technical expertise): consider a short background 

paper on algae; 

  Pillar 5 (trainings, conferences and workshops): algae topic 
(e.g. IMTA) to be included at one of the planned events 

Why:  Algae’s  potential  to  sequester  carbon  can  potentially 
benefit  the  business  case  for  algae  production  if  carbon 
sequestration can be rewarded financially or otherwise. 

Why:  algae  use  soluble  carbon,  phosphorus  and  nitrogen  to 
grow,  thus  removing  them  from  natural  environments  and 
consequently reducing ocean eutrophication and acidification. 
But  the  development  of  environmental  services  and  market-
based  instruments  is  limited  by  the  lack  of  solid  data  and 
knowledge as well as monetarization methods for services  in 
relation to eutrophication and acidification. 

42 

Responsible 
body 

European 
Commission 

Aquaculture 
Assistance 
Mechanism 

European 
Commission, 

Member States 

 
 
 
 
seaweed as blue carbon 
sinks 

How: By contracting a study to examine the following: 

● 

improving policy and legal arrangements to incorporate 
blue carbon as natural climate solution 

●  reviewing  and  investigating  financial  approaches  and 
accounting  tools  for  emissions  and  sequestration  of 
greenhouse  gases  by  algae  and  how  it  is  affected  by 
cultivation and use 

● 

improving  stewardship  by  incorporating  indigenous 
knowledge and values;  

●  clarifying property rights; developing technologies (e.g. 
tools  (e.g.  artificial 
sensors)  and  computational 
intelligence,  block-chain)  for  measuring  blue  carbon 
sequestration  at 
improving  our 
low  cost;  and 
understanding  of  lesser-known  aspects  of  the  blue 
carbon cycle (e.g. seaweed contributions). 

How148:  

To contract a study, preferably accompanied with real life data 
gathering from  algae production systems, to  

1. Obtain data on how much carbon and nutrients are taken up 
by  seaweed  during  their  growth  process.  Study  shall  gather 
information  on  available  carbon  sequestration  projects149  and 
data  on  exact  carbon  amounts  sequestered  in  seaweed 
aquaculture and make scenarios based on life-cycle approach 
to showcase impacts. 

2.  Explore  strategies  for  recycling  industrial  side-streams 
like  nitrogen  and 
containing  soluble  mineral  nutrients, 
phosphorus  e.g. 
food  production, 
fermentation, 
aquaculture, or anaerobic digestion activities, and also reusing 
captured    CO2  produced  by  industrial  activities,  e.g.  power 
plants, CHP, cement industry, food fermentation etc., to “feed” 
/ ”fertilise” algae production.  

from 

3.  Explore  the  possibility  to  create  a  CO2  framework  that 
contains  mandates  and  economic  and  other 
incentives 
supporting  development  and  deployment  of  algae-based 
technologies  that  upcycle  industrial  CO2  for  production  of 

148 Based on the existing EU initiatives on Sustainable carbon cycles and Certification of carbon removals. Available at: Sustainable 
carbon cycles (europa.eu) 
149 Oceans2050 and Pilot projects like LIFE BIORest to establish norms to use algae for bioremediation; create regulatory framework 
to encourage the same across the EU 

43 

 
 
 
                                                 
 
14. The  Commission, 

in 
collaboration 
with 
research  and  academia 
will  prepare  guidance  
for a EU-wide approach 
for conserving seaweed 
by 
biodiversity 
maintaining 
and 
documenting  European 
seaweed  strains  in  a 
centralized  biobank’s 
network or databank 

energy, materials and food. Examples for better regulation of 
CO2  emissions  include  introduction  of  a  carbon  tax  and  a 
functional EU ETS. 

4. Explore the potential to develop nutrient trading systems that 
include  nutrient  uptake  by  algae  by  commissioning  a  review 
study, examining practices such as the NutriTrade platform. 

5.  Develop  a  study  to  analyse  existing  and  proposed  (if  any) 
compensation mechanisms and possible business models, and 
also assess the role of private sector and NGOs and get them 
involved, e.g. municipalities, industry, foundations. 

Why: Transition from decentralized, often poorly documented      
algae stock cultures to a centralized, easily accessible and open 
access  databank  will  help  promote  food  security  and 
biosecurity,  conserve  biodiversity  under  the  threat  of  climate 
change and prevent the extinction of local strains. 

European 
Commission 

Academia 

How: By launching a study or project 
1.  To  identify  main  organization(s)150  able  and  willing  to 
become  centralized 
seaweed  biobank  organization 
(including  IT  capacity  plus  a  seaweed  scientists  working 
together) 

2.  To elaborate a pathway of setting up a centralized network 
made up of regional biobanks, connected in  a network to 
the centralized databank. The biobanks could be organized 
by regions (e.g. Baltic, North Sea, Iberian Sea, Norwegian 
Sea, Irish / British, Arctic, Mediterranean). 

3.  To follow two related objectives:  

(1) biobanking for applied purposes e.g.  cultivation (at sea, 

in tanks), research, 

(2) Restocking,  biodiversity  conservation  –  identifying 
species  and  areas  of  high  risk  and  major  ecological 
importance151 

150 To consider the existing ones e.g. Alfred Wagner Helmholtz Institute, Microbial Resource Research Infrastructure 
151 Other specific tasks in establishing centralized biobanks may include:  

➢  To consider establishing new biobanks that specifically address the following: 

       i.      Taxa that are particularly difficult to cultivate and need specialized cultivation/cryopreservation methods (biodiversity aspect)  
       ii.      Taxa that are under threat of climate change or have been identified as highly important for ensuring food security 

➢  To consider establishing specific experts working groups on 

       i.      identifying taxa of commercial interest 
       ii.      On establishing a conservation plan of seaweed species and regions of high (e.g. due to climate change) and major ecological 
importance (eg by identifying regions of enhanced genetic diversity or species richness) and to promote isolation and preservation of 
strains in regional biobanks instead of local culture collections. 

➢  To elaborate methods to follow in order to standardize and promote biobanking of seaweed strains. 
➢ 

Identify EU Regulations and national governance frameworks to implement the Nagoya Protocol provisions into the database 
(requires legal advice) 

➢  To identify possible incentives for  scientists to contribute to the seaweed biobanks 
➢  To identify potential educational, youth engagement and awareness raising initiatives 

44 

 
 
 
 
  
                                                 
Why: currently no maximum levels of contaminants and iodine 
and algae are set as well as no unified monitoring procedures 
are  in  place.  This  leads  to  very  fragmented  situation  due  to 
insufficient occurrence data in the Member states. 

European 
Commission, 
Member States 

How:  when  better  monitoring  data  are  available,  proper 
examination  and  discussions  with  engagement  of  appropriate 
stakeholders  will  help  to  establish  maximum  levels  and 
possibly adopt a new monitoring regulation 

15. subject 

to  European 
Food  Safety  Authority 
advice start discussions 
on the establishment of 
maximum 
levels  of 
and 
contaminants 
iodine  in  algae  and/or 
the  adoption  of  a  new 
monitoring 
Recommendation 
for 
algae species for which 
insufficient  occurrence 
data  for  contaminants 
are available, in order to 
allow the establishment 
of maximum levels152. 

16. The  Commission  and 
Member  States  will 
existing 
study 
monitoring 
schemes 
and  available  data  of 
seaweed 
harvesting 
and 
wild 
from 
beachcast  on  the  EU 
coasts 

Why: Wild harvesting of seaweed and beach-cast collection are 
important business activities which will remain a good source 
of biomass and economic opportunity for various applications, 
knowledge  development,  economic  activities  e.g.  combined 
with  coastal  tourism,  stewardship  for  native  species  and 
biodiscovery. However, wild  harvesting needs to  be properly 
monitored  to  remain  sustainable  and  even  regenerative  for 
natural ecosystems. 

European 
Commission 

How: To study and evaluate existing wild seaweed harvesting 
and  beached  seaweed  collection  practices,  species,  marine 
regions, data monitoring schemes, etc. The study should foster 
a joint  interpretation  of targets  set  by relevant  EU Directives 
(Natura 2000, WFD, MFSD etc.) with regard to “harvesting” 
marine resources (e.g. macroalgae, beach cast). The study will 
provide  conclusions  and  recommendations  for  sustainable 
harvesting and beachcast collection of seaweed, broken down 
by species, marine regions, collection/harvesting methods and 
valid mechanisms to gather real data on harvested and collected 
seaweed amounts. 

Research 

152 In view of the health risks related to the possible occurrence of high concentrations of heavy  metals in certain algae  species, the 
discussions on maximum levels  and monitoring will also be linked to discussions on the need for consumption advice regarding  the 
consumption of certain seaweed species 

45 

 
 
 
                                                 
Responsible 
body 

European 
Commission  

Policy actions proposed 

Implementation  

17. The  Commission  will 
support  via  Horizon 
Europe  and  other  EU 
research programs the 
development 
and 
innovations  on  new 
and  improved  algae 
systems 
processing 
and 
novel 
production  methods 
for 
high-value 
compounds 
traditionally sourced 
(e.g. 
algae 
from 
biorefineries, 
precision 
fermentation, cell-free 
systems),  processing 
algae 
into  circular 
biobased  products  for 
multiple applications 

Why:  The  potential  of  biorefinery  to  process  the  algae  in 
(multiple)  valuable  products  is  not  fully  used.  Lab-scale 
experiments with biorefineries are often not up scaled and never 
realize full transition from experimental research to commercial 
uptake.  Microalgae  cultivation  in  photobioreactors  has  high 
potential but to scale up the production, further costs reduction 
and energy saving technologies are needed. 

How:  By  taking  stock  of  existing  R&I  projects  to  identify 
specific development and innovation needs in algae processing  
that include for instance: 

1.  Logistics, pre-processing/pre-treatment 
2.  Lessons 

learned 

from  cross-cutting  macro-  and 

microalgae value chains. 

3.  Develop  concepts  to  scale  up  biorefineries  on  boats  on 

de-centralised/centralised processing. 

4.  Robust systems that can handle seasonal fluctuations and 

multiple seasonal streams of biomass. 

5.  Processing of seaweed beach-cast and other microalgae 
for production of biogas and digestate through anaerobic 
digestion. 

6.  Promote  open  access  pilot-sites  for  prototyping  and 
testing  at  scale  and  couple  them  with  SME  innovation 
vouchers  and  mentoring  services  e.g.  Smart  Pilots, 
Alliance etc. 

7.  To look at the energy-saving technologies and strategies, 
as well as scale up and cost reduction of photoautotrophic 
production systems in photobioreactors. 

18. The 

Commission 
together  with 
the 
Member  states  will 
support  via  Horizon 
Europe  and  other  EU 
research programs the 
development 
of 
scalable 
improved 
algae 
cultivation 
systems  (e.g.  IMTA, 
multi-use, 
offshore 
cultivation, 
photobioreactors  and 

Why:  Various 
innovative  algae  cultivation  systems  are 
considered  by  the  sector  but  lack  of  evidence  on  functionality 
and feasibility (for example high costs and technical adaptability 
to off shore conditions) hamper use of these. 

European 
Commission 

Member States 

How: By examining national policies and by identifying specific 
research and development needs, for instance, to be funded via 
Horizon Europe, with specific attention for 

1.  Development of scalable technical solutions for cultivation 
and  harvesting  of  macroalgae  incl.  elevator  farming, 
harvesting, automation and digital solutions, that improve 
operational  management,  reduce  cost,  increase  safety 
(occupational) and quality. 

46 

 
 
 
 
 
algaeponics) 
or 
methods  (e.g.  cellular 
mariculture, 
and 
macroalgae  in  tanks) 
contributing 
to 
current 
solving 
technical  constraints 
of  macroalgae  and 
microalgae 
production systems 

2. 

3. 

4. 

Innovation Actions focusing on development of large-scale 
offshore  cultivation  systems  and  multi-use  systems, 
building  on  results  of  the  H2020  multi-use  projects, 
UNITED153, MUSICA154.  
Innovation actions to investigate site-specific solutions with 
varying combinations of fish, algae and mussel farming at 
one site in order to find optimal technical and economical 
solutions 
Innovations  Actions  to  support  and  bring  IMTA  to  the 
market,  building  upon  projects  such  as  IMPAQT,  and 
algaeponics on land. 

19. The  Commission  will 
address algae biofuel-
specific  technological 
systemic 
and 
challenges 
and 
identify  market  take 
up  measures 
in 
Horizon Europe. 

5.  Research,  Development  and  Innovation  actions  exploring 
the  concept  of  cellular  mariculture  and  macroalgae 
production in tanks. 
Improvement  of  microalgae  production  systems  and 
development of new systems.  

6. 

7.  Promote open access pilot-sites for prototyping and testing 
at scale and couple them with SME innovation vouchers in 
exchange  of  mentoring  services  concepts  that  have  been 
implemented  in  e.g.  Smart  Pilots155,  Blue  Bio  Value 
Accelerator156 etc. 

Why: 

For  algae  biofuels  specific  challenges  occur  based  on  specific 
product and market characteristics 

How:  Research  and  Innovation  actions  to  address  specific 
challenges and opportunities for algae biofuels exist e.g. in the 
following areas: 

Carbon  fixation  and  conversion  efficiency,  harvesting  and 
logistics, cost effectiveness, energy efficiency, socio-economic 
and  environmental  sustainability  of  cyanobacteria/microalgae 
and macroalgae production systems.  

This can be supported by market uptake measures and a systemic 
analysis of challenges and opportunities for algae biofuel uptake 
in  specific  transport  sectors  (e.g.  aviation/maritime),  and 
evaluation of necessary financing schemes. 

Data 

Policy actions proposed 

Implementation  

Responsible body 

153 H2020 UNITED project: https://www.h2020united.eu/ 
154 H2020 MUSICA project: https://musica-project.eu/ 
155 Available at: SmartPilots | Interreg Europe 
156 Available at: Acceleration 2021 - Blue Bio Value 

47 

 
 
 
 
 
                                                 
20. The  Commission  will 
prepare  an  overview 
of  the  availability  of 
data 
algae-related 
(e.g. 
production, 
employment, turnover 
and 
socio-
economic  data)  and 
issue recommendation 
regarding 
centralising 
source for such data 

other 

the 

European 
Commission, 
Member States  

Why: The availability of good quality data for the algae sector 
in the EU (production and socio-economic data) is currently 
limited157. A centralized data source consisting of all algae-
related data would be useful while conducting research in the 
field, and is critical in monitoring and evaluating the impact 
of various measures implemented by the Member States and 
the European Union to support the development of the algae 
sector.  

How:  (1)  Contract  a  feasibility  study  for  improving  the 
availability  of,  and  establishing  a  central  source  for  algae 
related data (input/output data algae cultivation, production, 
turnover and employment); (2) Liaise with JRC to leverage 
current  efforts  on  improving  the  data  for  algae  and  related 
products  across  member  states  collected  so  far,  (3)  ensure 
coordination  with  the  activities  undertaken  under  the  Data 
Collection Framework. 

Action area 4: Increasing social awareness and acceptance  

Towards consumers 

Policy actions proposed 

Implementation  

21. The  Commission  will 
raising  
awareness 

support 
consumer 
by: 
A.  doing  a  consumer 
and 

behaviour 
preference 
analysis158  of  the 
perceptions 
of 
algae-based 
products; 
B.  launching  a 

fact-
EU-wide 
based 
and/or, 
where 
relevant,  regional 
local 
or 

Why:  Awareness  around  application,  use,  qualities, 
benefits,  potential  risks,  and  potential  of  algae  products 
among buyers and consumers in the sector is lacking. Action 
could  help  in  the  development  of  markets  for  algae  food 
products. 

How:  

-  To compile an overview of algae and seafood related 
communication  campaigns  funded/led  by  the  EU  by 
hosting  the  information  on  an  EU  hosted  online 
environment where local and EU-wide communication 
campaigns are shown; 

-  To  support  the  development  and  launch  multi-media 
(internet, TV, radio) and multi-lingual campaigns across 

Responsible body 

European 
Commission 

157  European  Market  Observatory  for  fisheries  and  aquaculture  products  (EUMOFA),  Data  Collection  Framework,  report  on  the 
Community of Practice Workshop: Algae production in Europe: status, challenges and future developments, European Commission’s 
Knowledge Centre for Bioeconomy, JRC Data catalogue (https://data.jrc.ec.europa.eu/collection/id-00363), EUROSTAT’s Fisheries and 
Aquaculture data  
158  E.g.  using  the  Eurobarometer  -  a  collection  of  cross-country  public  opinion  surveys  conducted  regularly  on  behalf  of  the  EU 
Institutions since 1974. 

48 

 
 
      
 
                                                 
communication 
to 
campaign(s) 
promote the variety 
of  applications  and 
benefits  of  algae-
based products159;  

22. Raise  the  sustainability 
profile  of  algae-based 
the  EU 
products 
in 
sustainable 
food 
labelling 
framework, 
including  in  marketing 
standards  for  fisheries 
aquaculture 
and 
products 
and  green 
procurement 
public 
initiatives  envisaged  as 
part of the Farm to Fork 
Strategy. 

European 
Commission 
(MARE), 
Member States 

the  member  states  to  increase  outreach  towards  EU 
consumers 

Why:  Algae  cultivation  processes  and  algae  products  are 
having  low  or  even  negative  carbon  footprint.  To  move 
towards  zero-carbon  EU,  there  is  a  need  to  establish 
financial support mechanisms to low carbon production as 
comparing  to  carbon-intensive  production.  To  establish 
such mechanisms (e.g. green procurement) there is a need 
to  map  good  practices  in  the  EU  and  beyond  to  inspire 
national authorities for change. 

Consumer  attitudes  towards  algae  products,  how  they 
choose their option from the available possibilities and their 
level of awareness  about the various applications of algae 
are  unknown.  Understanding  consumer  perceptions  of 
seaweed  products  in  order  for  companies  in  the  sector  to 
respond to these preferences would be key. 

How: To contract a study to investigate green procurement 
support mechanisms in the Member States to invest in algae 
farming  projects  or  subsidize  algae  products  taking  into 
account  the  regenerative  nature  of  the  algae  cultivation 
(reduction  of  excess  nutrients,  carbon,  improved  water 
quality  etc.).  To  consider  also  potential  of  public-private 
partnerships. 

To  collect  consumer  data  and  preference  trends160  and 
publish the insights on an EU hosted platform (Ex: Potential 
candidates for hosting include the page on consumer market 
demands161  or  the  page  on  consumer  outcomes162).  To 
explore  designing  and  implementing  a  simulated  online 
store  for  the  purpose  of  testing  consumer  preferences  for 
algae  and algae-based products.  This  tool will collect  and 
provide  data  on  user  choices  regarding  the  variety  of 
product types, origin, presentation, packaging and flavour.   

159  Could  be  combined  with  targeted  awareness-raising  actions,  such  as  setting  up  an  algae  cooking  contest  to  increase  consumers’ 
engagement and awareness. 
160 Could be a separate study or collaboration with existing consumer behaviour analysis organisations e.g. Eurobarometer 
161 Available at: Market studies | European Commission (europa.eu) 
162 Available at: Consumer scoreboards | European Commission (europa.eu) 

49 

 
 
 
                                                 
23. The 

Commission, 
the 
together  with 
EU4Ocean 
platform 
and Member States will 
promote 
awareness 
raising  actions  with 
schools and universities 
in  the  area  of  Blue 
and 
Bioeconomy 
innovative solutions for 
regenerative 
aquaculture 

Why: Presenting fact-based information related to algae to 
pupils and young students can help in raising awareness and 
sparking  vocational  interest  at  an  early  age  (15-23  years 
old).  

Member  States, 
European 
Commission  

How: For school levels:  

EU4Ocean 

the  Handbook  for 

  organize science symposia (like the European Schools 
Science  Symposium163)  with  focus  on  algae  and  related 
topics; 
  promote 
the  European  Blue 
Schools164 to encourage students to pursue projects in algae 
and related topics; 
Link  blue  schools  with  blue  Universities,  Zoos,  Aquarius 
etc. and promote algae farming and blue biotechnology, and 
algaepreneurship as upcoming career sectors. (ERASMUS+ 
funding  on  algae  and  blue  bioeconomy?).  For  university 
levels: 
 
production, 
algaepreneurship can be given at university165 

In-depth programs focusing on innovations around algae 
bio-entrepreneurship/ 
and 

processing 

163 Available at: European Schools Science Symposium  
164 Available at: Handbook for the European Blue Schools.  
165 An initiative in the Mediterranean region that could be supported is BlueSkills initiative from Italy Algeria Maritime Cluster which 
focuses on capacity building on blue economy topics by collaborating with universities https://ufmsecretariat.org/wp-
content/uploads/2019/03/Project-Snapshot-BlueSkills-1.pdf  

50 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
                                                 
2.  ANNEX 2: STAKEHOLDER CONSULTATION SUMMARY 

 Introduction and overview of the consultation strategy 

Stakeholder  consultation  to  support  EU  Algae  initiative  included  public  consultations166  and  open 
public consultation (12 weeks), targeted interviews, stakeholder surveys and 5 webinars to support the 
EU Algae Initiative.  

2.1.1.  Consultation scope and objectives 

The objectives of the stakeholder consultation were to:  
•  Collect facts, views and opinions on current challenges in algae production and consumption and 

options and preferences for resolving them;  

•  Ensure all voices are heard with adequate representation of all stakeholder groups – industry, public 

authorities, civil society, research; academia, NGOs, EU citizen etc. 

•  Gather  further  information,  including  roadmaps,  policy  briefs,  studies  and  analysis  of  policies, 

actions and technologies. 

•  Various consultation stages and actions aimed to obtain a comprehensive stakeholder view on the 

different policy options and necessary actions to unlock EU algae potential. 

For the targeted stakeholder interviews and surveys, the balanced set of stakeholders was established 
in  terms  of  algae  value  sectors,  types  of  organizations  and  geographical  regions.  The  consultation 
strategy  aimed  to  target  different  relevant  algae  sector  representatives  e.g.  suppliers,  producers, 
processors, end-users, research, academia, sector organisations, non-governmental organisations and 
MS authorities, all major sea-basins e.g. Atlantic, Mediterranean Sea, North Sea, Baltic Sea, Black Sea 
and  main  producing  Member  States  e.g.  France,  Spain,  Portugal,  Ireland,  Germany,  Netherlands, 
Denmark, Belgium etc. 

2.1.2.  Selection of consultation activities & their accessibility  

Consultation activities were structured in a way to have a cascading effect and a possibility to validate 
the results of previous consultations with the consecutive ones.  

Policy actions (laid down in Annex 1) were drafted according to the results of all consultation activities.  

A comprehensive consultation of citizens and stakeholders took place as follows:  

(1) Feedback on the inception impact  assessment of the initiative (21 December 2020  - 18 January 

2021)  Link 

(2) A 12-week public consultation via the Commission's Have Your Say Portal took place 19 May 2021 

- 11 August 2021 

(3) Various targeted stakeholder consultations (first half of 2021) as follows: 

 

Interviews  (19) 
processors, end-users, research, sector organisations and MS authorities) 

targeting  different  sectorial  representatives  (suppliers,  producers, 

166 Have Your Say Portal 

51 

 
 
 
 
                                                 
  Surveys targeting mostly  umbrella/business organisations;  
  Webinars/virtual discussion (5) on various intervention areas (provisional topics: improving 
governance  framework,  supporting  the  functioning  of  the  market,  improving  business 
environment,  increasing  social  awareness  and  acceptance,  closing  knowledge,  research 
and technological and innovation gaps).  

As a result of the consultations, the following reports were prepared:  

(1) A factual summary of the public consultation that is published at the Commission’s Have Your Say 

Portal website and  

(2) A consultation summary report that is an analysis of all consultation activities corresponding to the 

Algae initiative (this Annex).  

2.1.3.  Summary /overview on consultation activities by stakeholder groups and indicative 

timing 

Feedback 
period on 
IIA 

12-weeks 
public 
consultati
on 

Targeted 
interviews 

Written 
surveys 

5 
webinars 

Post-study 
consultations 

1st 
2021 

Q 

2nd 
2021 

Q 

2-3 Q 2021  2-3  Q 

2021 

Q 

2-3 
2021 

Consultation 
activity 

Indicative 
planning 

Stakeholders 

EU citizens 

x 

Algae industry  x 

Business 
organizations 

Public 
authorities 

Research 

Academia 

NGOs 

x 

x 

x 

x 

x 

x 

x 

x 

x 

x 

x 

x 

x 

x 

x 

x 

x 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

x 

x 

x 

x 

x 

x 

2.1.4.  Consultation webpage & communication activities 

 The general description of the EU Algae initiative together with the inception impact assessment (IIA) 
and  public  consultation  results  is  published  at  the  Commission’s  Have  Your  Say  Portal.  The 

52 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
communication  about  the  consultation  activities,  key  deliverables  and  actions  was  performed  via 
Europa website167 and various social media tools e.g. LinkedIn, Facebook, Twitter. 

 Consultation Activities and Tools 

To  gather input for refining the policy  actions,  an online public  consultation  was launched, several 
stakeholders  throughout  the  value  chain  were  interviewed  and  three  webinars  were  organised.  The 
summary of the responses to the public consultation, the interviews and the key outcomes from the 
webinars are elaborated below. First,  the responses from  the public consultations,  together with  the 
input generated from the interviews are discussed, whereafter an overview of the webinars is shown. A 
more detailed description of the responses from the stakeholders is available in Annex 3 – Stakeholder 
consultation results. 

2.2.1.  Characteristics of the respondents 

108 respondents provided their input to the online public consultation (PC) published on the EU Survey 
portal which took place from 19th of May to 11th of August 2021. Out of the 108 respondents in the PC, 
56%  of  them  were  written  in  English,  14%  in  Spanish,  16%  in  French,  and  6%  in  Dutch. 
Additionally,  there  were  contributions  in  the  following  languages:  Croatian,  Estonian,  Greek, 
Italian, Romanian, and German. 

As visualised in  Figure  1, 31 out  of 108 participants indicated that they  participated on behalf of a 
company/business organisation and 26 participants on behalf of an academic/research institution.  

Figure 1 Distribution of respondents among affiliation with organisation 

This public consultation received a balanced number of responses, in terms of the organisation sizes of 
respondents and brought together 30% of large organisations (250 employees and more), 30% of micro 

167 News item on the public consultation results on the inception impact assessment (IIA).  

53 

 
 
 
  
                                                 
(1 to 9 employees) organisations, 17% of small and 9% of medium sizes organisations. 16 respondents 
indicated as ‘other’. 

The  distribution  of  the  respondent's  country  of  origin  is  balanced  throughout  the  European  Union. 
Respondents originate from in total 24 countries: sixteen countries within the EU, four in Europe, but 
not in the EU, and four countries outside continental Europe. Out of the 108 respondents, 23 originate 
from France, 19 from Spain, and 11 from Belgium. The other respondents were spread over 21 different 
countries.  

To gain insights on the spread of respondents within the value chain of the algae sector, respondents 
indicated  their  organisation's  role  in  the  value  chain.  As  visible  in  figure  2  below,  40  out  of  108 
participants are active in algae production, and 43 out of 108 are active in R&D organisations (please 
see Annex 3 for more details).  

Figure 2 Organisation’s role/relevance in the algae industry 

For the stakeholder interviews, in total 19 stakeholders were interviewed from seven different EU 
Member  States.  Seven  stakeholders  originate  from  France,  six  stakeholders  originate  from  the 
Netherlands, and the others from Italy, Spain, Portugal, Ireland, or Greece. The stakeholders are active 
in all parts of the European algae value chain. Suppliers, producers, end-users as well as authorities, 
business organisations, and universities were interviewed for this stakeholder consultation. Some of 
the stakeholders are part of large organisations, where others are active in smaller businesses. In terms 
of their focus on micro- or macroalgae, the stakeholders were evenly spread. 

  Webinar on Novel Foods regulation for algae and algae-based products 

As part of the stakeholder consultation,  three webinars were organised where multiple stakeholders 
with different views were invited to participate. The first webinar took place on the 22nd of June 2021. 
The topic of this webinar was “Novel Foods regulation for algae and algae-based products.”  

The objective of this webinar was, among others, to share information on relevant topics to the industry 
and engage stakeholders by providing room for discussion in the webinar. Above all, the webinar was 
held  to  gather  input  from  different  stakeholders  within  the  sector  to  use  as  input  for  the  impact 
assessment 

54 

 
 
 
The webinar was organized with expert presentations followed by break-out sessions with participants 
(see  the  agenda  in  figure  3  below).  The  webinar  started  with  an  opening  by  DG  MARE  and  an 
introduction to the objectives by Deloitte. The webinar ended with a Q&A session. 

Figure 3 Agenda webinar on Novel Foods regulation for algae and algae-based products 

In the first webinar, ~90 people participated from all over Europe. Participants originated from all parts 
of the value chain, from algae producers to processors to business organisations.  

The first session was presented by DG SANTE. An overview of the Novel Foods regulation and its 
authorisation process was presented. Also, a short introduction to the Novel food catalogue was given. 
The topic of the first breakout was “challenges for Novel Foods regulation. The challenges that were 
discussed were the high cost of the Novel Foods approval process and the lengthy duration it takes to 
get a new species allowed on the market. Consensus between the participants to the webinar existed 
about the importance of regulations for food safety throughout the EU. 

The second session was presented by the Joint Research Centre (JRC) and titled “JRC’s document on 
algae in the context of Novel Foods”. In the session, participants were informed about the work the 
JRC is doing in the algae domain, including identifying algae that are currently listed in the Novel Food 
Catalogue168 and algae species that may have a history of consumption in the EU before 15 May 1997 
and  could  therefore  be  potentially  added  to  the  Novel  Food  Catalogue.  In  the  second  breakout, 
participants indicated which species they would like to see added to the Novel Foods catalogue and if 
this is not possible, to be authorised as Novel Foods.  

  Webinar on Support the functioning of the EU algae markets 

The  second  webinar  took  place  on  the  28th  of  June.  The  topic  of  this  webinar  was  “Support  the 
functioning of the EU algae markets” 

168 Latest report on Algae as food and food supplements in Europe available at: 
https://publications.jrc.ec.europa.eu/repository/handle/JRC125913. 

55 

 
 
 
                                                 
The objective of this  webinar was, as well as the first  one, to  share information  on relevant  topics, 
engage stakeholders by providing room for discussion, and gather input from different stakeholders 
within the sector to use as input for the impact assessment. The focus of this webinar, in particular, was 
on the business side of the algae sector.  

The webinar consisted from an expert presentation of the topic, followed by a breakout session where 
participants  were  given  the  opportunity  to  discuss  the  topic  at  hand.  The  webinar  started  with  an 
opening by DG MARE and an introduction to the objectives by Deloitte. The webinar ended with a 
Q&A session (see the agenda in Figure 4 below). 

Figure 4 Agenda webinar on Support the functioning of the EU algae markets 

In the second webinar, ~100 people participated from all over Europe. Participants originated, as well 
as in the first webinar, from all parts of the value chain. 

The first session was presented by the European Algae Biomass Association (EABA). EABA presented 
their view on the EU algae market – starting with an overview of the European micro-and macroalgae 
market, among others, the number of companies, total turnover, total biomass production, direct jobs, 
and research groups. This was followed by an insight into EABA’s work. The topic of the first breakout 
was challenges and solutions in consumer acceptance of algae and algae-based products. Some of the 
challenges  that  were  discussed:  the  taste,  high  price,  and  smell.  Some  of  the  solutions  that  were 
discussed: targeted communication, a hero product that can be used to show how great algae are, and 
administration support. 

The second session was presented by João Navalho – President of Necton. The session was titled “An 
entrepreneur view of the European algae market”. In the session, Mr. Navalho gave an insight into the 
state of affairs of his company. He then gave an overview of what he believed to be the bottlenecks in 
the  sector.  In  the  second  breakout,  participants  indicated  what  entrepreneurs  in  the  European  algae 
sector  need  to  succeed  and  grow  their  business.  Some  of  the  input  gathered:  clear  and  simple 

56 

 
 
 
administrative procedures for facilities and products, reduction of the regulatory burden, subsidising 
the Novel Foods application process, and novel technologies to reduce production costs. 

  Webinar on Algae in Europe – Data collection and market information initiatives 

The third webinar took place on the 8th of July. The objective of this webinar was, as well as the first 
two  webinars,  to  share  information  on  relevant  topics,  engage  stakeholders  by  providing  room  for 
discussion, and gather input from different stakeholders within the sector to use as input for the impact 
assessment. The focus of this webinar, in particular, was on data collection of algae and algae-based 
products. 

The  webinar  consisted  of  two  parts.  Each  part  included  one  session,  where  one  or  two  expert(s) 
presented their topic, followed by a breakout where participants were given the opportunity to discuss 
the  topic  at  hand.  The  webinar  started  with  an  opening  by  DG  MARE  and  an  introduction  to  the 
objectives by Deloitte. The webinar ended with a Q&A session (See the webinar agenda in Figure 5 
below). 

Figure 5 Agenda webinar on Algae in Europe – Data collection and market information initiatives 

In the third webinar, ~60 people participated from all over Europe. Participants originated, as well as 
in the first two webinars, from all parts of the value chain. 

The first session was presented by Eurostat and titled “European statistical data collection on aquatic 
plants”. An overview of data which is collected throughout the years was given within three topics: 
catches  &  landings,  aquaculture  production,  and  trade  data.  The  topic  of  the  first  breakout  was  the 
potential role of the European algae sector in data collection. Potential roles that were discussed were: 
reporting on reliable data and conduct research on consumer preference and perceptions of algae. 

57 

 
 
 
The second session was presented by JRC. The session was titled “Key challenges in data collection 
for algae and algae-based products”169. In the session, JRC gave an overview of the data which they 
collected over time and touched upon some of the key challenges in the process of data gathering. In 
the second breakout, participants indicated what the benefits could be of high-quality data towards the 
European  algae  sector.  Some  of  the  input  gathered:  Better  data  could  provide  higher  income, 
diversification of activities and products, it could create a deeper understanding of the real value and 
impact of this sector, and it could provide better information to potential investors. 

  Validation webinars  of the environmental impact screening and the economic and 

social impact  

As  part  of  environmental  impact  screening  and  the  economic  and  social  impact,  two  validation 
webinars were organised. In these webinars, multiple stakeholders with different views were invited to 
participate. The first webinar took place on the 22nd and the second webinar on the 24th of September 
2021. Both webinars had a duration of 1.5 hours and in each, approximately 40 people participated. 
The objective of the webinars was to collect input from the participants on the performed environmental 
impact screening and the economic and social impact.  

The webinar consisted of two parts. The first part included an introduction to the initiative, and  to the 
impact screening and was followed up by a breakout session where participants could choose to discuss 
the microalgae or macroalgae-related measures. The webinars ended with final remarks. 

Figure 6 Agenda validation webinar 

In the breakouts, the participants were presented with a selection of the proposed policy measures. Per 
measure, the different impacts were presented. For the environmental impact screening, these were the 
impacts  of  the  thirteen  indicators.  For  the  economic  and  social  impact,  this  was  the  qualitatively 
economic and social impact and the impact on the growth of the revenue and employment of the sector.  

169  Some  more  insights  on  the  status,  challenges  and  future  developments  of  algae  production  data  can  be  found  at 
https://knowledge4policy.ec.europa.eu/publication/report-community-practice-workshop-algae-production-europe-status-challenges-
future_en.  

58 

 
 
 
                                                 
Input gathered during the webinars demonstrated that the methodology in general and impact of specific 
proposed measures is sometimes confusing. In particular:  

1.  Participants  indicated  that  several  measures  are  not  clear  and  should  be  formulated  more 

specifically.  

2.  Specific impacts assigned to measures are not reliable if measures are not clear. 
3.  Estimation of the quantitative impact per each measure does not make much sense, as each measure 

wouldn’t develop in isolation but in a complex and interlinked environment   

59 

 
 
 
 
3.  ANNEX 3: STAKEHOLDER CONSULTATION RESULTS 

 Main stakeholder feedback 

3.1.1.  General responses regarding the algae sector  

Respondents  indicated  the  policy  areas  that  should,  according  to  them,  be  prioritized  within  the 
sustainable growth of the EU algae sector in the future. Of the ten available options to select, the area 
which  was  rated  the  highest  –  with  a  4,6  –  was  potential  contribution  of  algae  towards 
environmental sustainability. Access to space and water was rated the lowest, on average 3,6, by 
the  respondents.  In  the  interviews,  several  stakeholders  mentioned  that  the  increasing  of  consumer 
awareness and acceptance is one of the most important developments in the EU algae sector in the near 
future. Additionally, several  of the interviewees  mentioned that  consumer awareness is  one of the 
challenges their respective organisations face nowadays. This is in line with the high rating, of a 4,4, 
of  this  area  of  prioritisation  in  the  PC.  Only  one  stakeholder,  a  Portuguese  microalgae  producer, 
mentioned that currently awareness is growing faster than production. Several interviewees mentioned 
access to funding/financing as a game-changer to benefit the development of the sector – which is in 
line with the rating of a 4,4 of ‘availability of funding’ in the PC.  

Figure 7. Areas that should be prioritized in the EU algae sector 

Thereafter, the respondents indicated the application of algae perceived as the most promising for the 
growth  of  the  sector.  Respondents  could  indicate  multiple  applications.  74  out  of  108  respondents 
indicated that algae as human food and food ingredients are for them the most promising potential. 
50  out  of  108  participants  indicated  that  animal/fish  feed  and  ingredients  are  most  promising. 
Bioremediation  as  promising  potential  was  indicated  by  44  respondents.  Also,  eight  respondents 
indicated that for them the most promising potential was something not listed in the options, namely 
nutraceuticals,  bio-  or  biobased  materials,  biofuels,  bioplastic,  and/or  bioenergy.  The  interviewees 
agreed on food and feed presenting the most promising potential for algae use. 

60 

 
 
 
 
3.1.2.  Responses on the five objectives and potential regulatory measures 

For  each  objective  that  respondents  indicated  as  being  important  several  potential  measures  were 
presented to them as part of a subsequent set of consultation questions. Participants then indicated, on 
a scale from 1 to 5 (1 = not important, 5 = very important) the perceived importance of each of the 
measures associated with the objectives. In figure 8 the average rating of respondents’ answers to this 
question is shown.  

Figure 8. Importance of the objectives to unlock the EU algae sector’s potential 

The  responses  gathered  per  objective  are  provided  below  along  with  the  responses  on  regulatory 
measures.  The  participants  rated  (on  a  1  to  5  scale)  all  presented  measures  and  were  given  the 
opportunity  to  propose  additional  measures.  The  participants  indicated  the  measures  that  would 
generate  the  highest  economic  social  and  environmental  impact,  per  objective  and  could  choose 
multiple  measures  per  objective.  The  output  resulting  from  these  questions  is  also  displayed  per 
objective.  The  summary  of  the  responses  also  distinguishes  micro-and  macroalgae  affiliated 
respondents. Input from respondents who are affiliated with both micro- as well as macroalgae is spread 
evenly between micro-and macroalgae output – 50% for each. 

3.1.3.  Objective 1. Improving governance framework 

For objective 1, five potential measures were proposed to the participants. These were: 

  Guidelines for sustainable production of algae, and sustainable harvesting of seaweed  
  Guidance  on  large  scale  cultivation  of  algae  in  multi-use  settings  (e.g.  combination  with 

windfarms, include in local Maritime Spatial Planning, etc.)  

  Standardisation of algae product specifications (built on existing standards and standards under 

development) 

  Recommendations for harmonised licensing of seaweed farms 
  Recommendations for labelling of sustainable, safe, and/or organic algae products  

61 

 
 
 
Standardisation of specifications for algae production methods was perceived as being the most 
important to the microalgae sector with a rating of 4,4. By the macroalgae sector, recommendations for 
labelling of sustainable, safe, and/or organic algae products are seen as most important, with a rating 
of 4,5.  

Additional measures mentioned by participants were reviewed and one topic recurred several times; 
seven of the 35 respondents that indicated the need of additional measures suggest that there should be 
equal conditions and opportunities for algae products from the EU and imported ones. Therefore, the 
following measure was added: implement a mechanism to ensure a fair market. 

Figure 9. Importance of proposed measures for improving the governance framework (microalgae) 

Figure 10. Importance of proposed measures for improving the governance framework (macroalgae) 

Then, participants indicated which topics, in their opinion, should be managed at the EU level. The list 
of proposed topics include:  

62 

 
 
 
 
 
  Safety standards (e.g. level of heavy metals or arsenic in seaweed) 
  Status of algae products (organic/inorganic) 
  The ecological footprint from algae production 
  Bioremediation by algae 
  Any others  

The number of times participants picked one of the topics, is displayed in figure 11. As can be seen, 
participants picked the topic of safety standards the most – 61 times (over 56% of the participants 
picked this topic). Fourteen participants suggested additional topics that should be governed at the EU 
level.  

Figure 11. Topics that respondents consider to best be governed at EU level 

Furthermore, the participants identified the proposed measures that would potentially have the highest 
impact. 66 out of 108 (=61%) participants indicated this objective (improving governance framework) 
as  an  important  objective  and  therefore  provided  further  elaboration  on  the  potential  impact  of  the 
measures.  Most  of  the  microalgae  affiliated  respondents  (36)  indicated  that  standardisation  of 
specifications for algae products and production methods would have the highest impact (see figure 12 

63 

 
 
 
below). Most of the macroalgae affiliated respondents perceived guidelines for sustainable cultivation 
and production of algae as the measure with the highest impact (see figure 13 below).  

Figure 12. Highest impact from proposed governance framework changes (microalgae) 

Figure 13. Highest impact from proposed governance framework changes (macroalgae) 

In the interviews, a recurring theme was that algae are classified differently in several Member States. 
In some Member States (micro)algae belong to the group of aquaculture and related activities whereas 
in some Member States algae is added to agriculture and related activities. This classification creates 
unclarity as the regulations needed for algae may not align fully with other aquaculture and agriculture 
activities. The interviewed stakeholders indicate that harmonising industry standards throughout the 
EU would be beneficial for the sector, including a separate classification for algae and algae-related 
activities. This corresponds to the high rating of the standardisation measures as visualised in figures 
10, 12, and 14. 

3.1.4.  Objective 2. Supporting the functioning of the market 

For the second objective, eight different measures were proposed to the participants. These measures 
were: 

 

Introduce  well-targeted  and  easy  accessible  financial  support  that  will  accelerate  the 
development of the EU's blue bioeconomy and algae sector 

64 

 
 
 
 
 
  Support the development of market-based instruments to monetize bioremediation and other 

ecosystem services based on algae production 

  Develop European standards for safety and environmental sustainability to use throughout the 

EU algae sector 
Increased government procurement of algae-based products 

 
  Support/assist  the  industry  to  bring  new  algae  species  to  the  market  under  the  Novel  Food 

Regulation 
Increase in demand by raising awareness on the benefits of seaweed 

 
  Support technological developments 
  An EU innovation prize for the macroalgae and microalgae industry 

On average, the participants affiliated with microalgae rated the measures about the introduction of 
well-targeted  and  easy  accessible  financial  support  and  to  support  the  industry  to  bring  new  algae 
species to the market under the Novel Foods Regulation the highest – both with a scoring of 4,5 (see 
Figure  14  below).  The  participants  affiliated  with  macroalgae  rated  the  measures  about  support 
technological development and support the industry to bring new algae species to the market under the 
Novel Foods Regulation the highest – both with a scoring of 4,4 (see Figure 15 below).  

19 respondents mentioned that overly restrictive regulations on EU level and unclear and/or lacking 
legislation  on  a  national  level  is  the  most  striking  barrier  that  prevents  the  EU  algae  sector  from 
sustainable  growth.  Also,  numerous  respondents,  16  in  total,  believe  the  lack  of  awareness  –  and 
therefore ignorance of the potential of algae and low market acceptance – is the most striking barrier 
preventing the EU algae sector from sustainable growth.  

Figure 14. Importance of proposed measures for supporting the functioning of the markets (microalgae) 

65 

 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 15. Importance of proposed measures for supporting the functioning of the market (macroalgae) 

76 out of 108 (70%) respondents indicated supporting the functioning of the market as an important 
objective and therefore provided further elaboration on the potential impact of the measures. 32 of the 
microalgae affiliated participants indicated that they thought that the introduction of well-targeted and 
easy  accessible  financial  support  would  have  the  highest  impact.  Most  of  the  macroalgae  affiliated 
respondents  (17)  indicated  that  the  measure  to  develop  European  standards  for  safety  and 
environmental sustainability would have the highest impact (see Figures 16 and 17 below).  

Figure 16.Highest impact from Supporting the functioning of the market (microalgae) 

Figure 17. Highest impact from Supporting the functioning of the market (macroalgae) 

66 

 
 
 
 
 
 
The Novel Foods process and associated costs were a much-discussed topic in the interviews. Several 
of the interviewees mentioned that, for the rather small companies they represent, it is impossible to 
bear the costs and the risks of going through the Novel Foods process. Therefore, these stakeholders 
suggested  that  the  EU  should  support  them  in  obtaining  Novel  Food  authorizations.  This  finding 
corresponds to the high rating of the measure ‘support/assist the industry to bring new algae species to 
the market under the Novel Food Regulation’ visualised in figures 15 to 18. Also, the high rating of the 
measure ‘increase demand by raising awareness on the benefits of seaweed’ visualised in figures 15 to 
17 corresponds well to the findings from the interviews.  

3.1.5.  Objective 3. Ensuring sustainable development of the EU algae sector 

For the objective of ensuring sustainable development of the EU algae sector, the PC proposed the 
participants six different measures. These were: 

  Create an EU wide sector organisation/network  
  Create and maintain a web-based one-stop-shop for EU algae stakeholders for knowledge, good 

practices sharing, mapping of funding, algae project results, etc 

  Create and maintain an assistance mechanism for EU algae stakeholders 
 

Identify  and  assess  specific  needs  and  availability  of  investment  funding  for  innovation, 
technology, infrastructure, knowledge and skills development  

  Mapping and keeping an up-to-date EU funding sources overview for EU algae sector 
  Support to start-ups in the algae sector in accessing the value chain, including contacts with 

others companies, knowledge institutes and/or regulators  

The measures were rated, on average, from a 3,7 to a 4,4. The measure with the highest rating, for the 
microalgae (scoring of 4,4) and macroalgae (scoring of 4,2) industry respectively, is to identify and 
assess specific needs and availability of investment funding for the sector and to give support to start-
ups in the algae sector (see Figures 18 and 19 below).  

Figure 18. Proposed measures to ensure sustainable development of the EU algae sector (microalgae) 

67 

 
 
 
 
Figure 19. Proposed measures to ensure sustainable development of the EU algae sector (macroalgae) 

92 out of 108 (=85%) participants indicated the sustainable development of the EU algae sector as an 
important objective and therefore provided further elaboration on the potential impact of the measures. 
38 microalgae-related respondents identified the measure about the needs and availability of investment 
funding  as  having  the  potential  highest  impact.  18  macroalgae-related  participants  identified  the 
measure about the needs and availability of investment funding as having the potential highest impact. 
Not many participants think of creating an EU-wide sector organisation/network as something which 
can create potentially high impact. This measure received also the lowest average rating. 

Figure 20. Highest impact from Ensuring sustainable development of the EU algae sector (microalgae) 

Figure 21. Highest impact from ensuring sustainable development of the EU algae sector (macroalgae) 

68 

 
 
 
 
 
3.1.6.  Objective 4. Increasing social awareness and acceptance 

For this objective, participants were given the possibility to rate seven different measures. These were: 

  EU wide communication campaign(s) of benefits on human health of algae food products  
  EU wide communication campaign on environmental, social and commercial benefits of algae 

products 

  Support and promote eco-labelling of sustainable, safe and/or organic algae products  
  Publication of guidance for stakeholder consultations 
 
  Support Member States and their Nutrition Centres to provide attractive information on algae 
  Support  the  algae  sector  at  European  and  global  conferences  such  as  UN  Climate  Change 

Inclusion of algae production into maritime spatial planning processes 

Conference (COP26) and World Economic Forum 

The  measures  were  on  average  rated  from  a  3,8  for  the  lowest  score  to  at  4,5  for  the  highest.  The 
measure with the highest rating, from microalgae-related respondents, is about setting up an EU-wide 
communication  campaign  to  highlight  the  benefits  on  human  health  of  algae-based  products.  For 
macroalgae-related  respondents,  the  measure  to  create  EU-wide  communication  campaigns  on  the 
environmental,  social,  and  commercial  benefits  of  algae  products  received  the  highest  rating.  The 
measure  of  which  the  participants  thought  as  being  the  least  important  is  about  the  publication  of 
guidance for stakeholders on awareness and acceptance of algae, for microalgae-related respondents. 
For macroalgae-related respondents, this was the measure to support Member States and their nutrition 
centres to provide attractive information on algae (see Figures 22 to 25 below).  

Out of the respondents that believe additional measures should be incorporated for this objective (17), 
six mentioned they believe that training courses on algae, especially education in school for younger 
generations should be incorporated. This observation is assimilated in refining the policy options of the 
objective on closing knowledge, research, technological and innovation gaps. 

Figure 22. Proposed measures to increase social awareness and acceptance (microalgae) 

69 

 
 
 
 
 
Figure 23. Proposed measures to increase social awareness and acceptance (macroalgae) 

81 out of 108 (75%) participants indicated increasing social awareness and acceptance as an important 
objective and therefore provided further elaboration on the potential impact of the measures. Both the 
measures about the EU-wide communication campaign of benefits on human health and environmental, 
social, and commercial benefits of algae products were perceived as having the highest potential impact 
by the micro-and macroalgae-related respondents. 

Figure 24. Highest impact from Increasing social awareness and acceptance (microalgae) 

Figure 25. Highest impact from Increasing social awareness and acceptance (macroalgae) 

As mentioned before, several interviewees mentioned that it is important to increase social awareness 
and  acceptance  of  algae  throughout  the  EU.  Although  many  agree  on  the  importance  of  social 
awareness, not all agree on the execution of it. Three out of the six interviewees who talked about this 
subject believe that the sector itself should undertake action to improve awareness and acceptance of 
70 

 
 
 
 
 
algae. The other three interviewees think that the EU should support marketing to improve societal 
awareness and acceptance. Interviewees agree, however, on the point that campaigns should focus on 
classifying algae as a healthy product.  

3.1.7.  Objective 5. Closing knowledge, research and innovation gaps 

For the objective around closing the knowledge,  research and innovation  gaps, nine measures were 
proposed in the PC. These were: 

  Developing improved algae cultivation systems (integrated multi-trophic aquaculture, offshore 
cultivation) or methods (e.g. cellular mariculture) contributing to fighting the current technical 
constraints in the production systems and consequently upscaling production volumes  

  Developing improved algae processing systems (biorefineries), processing algae into multiple 

products and for multiple applications  

  Establishing a monitoring framework, targets and methodologies for (1) quantifying ecosystem 
services  (e.g.  carbon  sequestration,  blue  carbon  credits,  nutrients  uptake),  (2)  carrying 
capacities of EU waters for seaweed aquaculture and marine permaculture and (3) impacts of 
cultivation, restoration and harvesting on marine ecosystems 
  Research to strengthen the potential nutritional benefits of algae 
  Research to deliver new innovative algae-based products  
  Targeted support to industry helping to move from research/demonstration stage to the market 
  To  support  higher  education  programs  in  the  area  of  blue  biotechnology  and  innovative 

solutions for algae cultivation 

  Fund doctoral theses in the area of innovative solutions, knowledge, data or good practices on 

the blue bioeconomy and algae 

Participants rated these measures, on average, from a 3,7 to a 4,6 as shown in figures 26 and 27. The 
measure about support to move from research/demonstration stage to the market, for microalgae-related 
respondents,  and  the  measure  about  developing  algae  processing  systems,  for  macroalgae-related 
respondents, received the highest ratings – a 4,6 and 4,4 respectively.  

36 out of 64 (=56%) participants who answered the question about what specific actions could help to 
improve the collaboration among academia, research, and industry, indicated that networking events 
and hubs for ideas exchange could help improve collaboration. Therefore the measure “initiate network 
events, to connect stakeholders, and hubs to exchange ideas between industry and academia” was added 
to the policy measures for this objective.  

93 out of 108 (=86%) participants indicated closing the knowledge, research, and innovation gaps as 
an  important  objective  and  therefore  provided  further  elaboration  on  the  potential  impacts  of  the 
measures.  Most  of  the  microalgae-related  participants  thought  that  the  measure  about  research  to 
deliver new innovative algae-based products would generate the highest impact. Of the macroalgae-
related  participants,  the  measure  of  developing  improved  algae  cultivation  systems  or  methods, 
contributing  to  fighting  the  current  technological  constraints  in  the  production  systems  and 
consequently upscaling production volumes is perceived as the one with the highest potential impact. 

71 

 
 
 
 
None of the participants indicated that research on safe and secure algae production methods in closed 
systems would have the highest impact. 

Figure 26. Proposed measures for closing knowledge, research and innovation gaps (microalgae) 

Figure 27. Proposed measures for closing knowledge, research and innovation gaps (macroalgae) 

72 

 
 
 
 
Figure 28. Highest impact from closing the knowledge, research and innovation gaps (microalgae) 

Figure 29. Highest impact from closing the knowledge, research and innovation gaps (macroalgae) 

One of the recurring themes in the interviews was that there should be going more funds to research 
into the application of algae, the production of algae, domestication of foreign species, and nutritional 
benefits  of  algae.  Although  the  measure  ‘Research  to  strengthen  the  potential  nutritional  benefit  of 
algae’  was  not  perceived  as  creating  the  highest  impact  by  a  lot  of  respondents  to  the  PC  –  14  in 
microalgae  and  6  in  macroalgae,  the  measures  about  developing  improved  cultivation  systems  and 
processing systems and the measure ‘Research to deliver new innovative algae-based products’ were 
perceived as generating the highest impact by a lot of respondents to the PC.  

73 

 
 
 
 
4.  ANNEX 4: OVERVIEW OF EU LEGAL REFERENCES PERTAINING TO ALGAE 

Legislation / 
Initiative 

Objective 

Relevance to algae 

A.  Overarching Legal Frameworks  

Treaty on the 
Functioning of 
the European 
Union (TFEU)  

This Treaty organizes the functioning of the 
Union and determines the areas of, delimitation 
of, and arrangements for exercising its 
competence.  

Common 
Fisheries Policy 

The  CFP  ensures  that  fishing  and  aquaculture 
activities are environmentally sustainable in the 
long-term,  and  are  managed  in  a  way  that  is 
consistent  with  the  objectives  of  achieving 
economic, social and employment benefits, and 
of  contributing  to  the  availability  of  food 
supplies. 

Specifies that the European Union:  
1. has exclusive competence in the 
conservation of marine biological 
resources under the common 
fisheries policy;  

2. and shares competence with 

Member States on agriculture and 
fisheries (including aquaculture, 
common fisheries market 
organization), thereby covering 
the various types of algae 
production, excluding the 
conservation of marine biological 
resources, in the principal areas 
of:  

-  Common safety concerns in 

public health matters;  
-  Consumer protection; 
-  Environment (TFEU, Article 

191).170 

in 

the 

area 

Under the CFP, Member States share 
competence 
of 
aquaculture  and  fisheries,  including 
the cultivation and wild harvesting of 
algae.  In  line  with  the  CFP,  the  EU 
delivered  strategic  guidelines  for  a 
more sustainable and competitive EU 
aquaculture, which aims to boost the 
development and competitiveness of 
The 
the 
and 
include 
guidelines 
guidance for the use of aquatic plants 
in aquaculture.     

sector. 
plans 

aquaculture 

B.  Algae for food and feed  

170Article 191 on the Environment states that Union policy on the environment shall contribute to pursuit of the following 
objectives: 
- preserving, protecting and improving quality of the environment.  
- Protecting human health.  
- Prudent and rational utilisation of natural resources.  
- Promoting measures at international level to deal with regional or worldwide environmental problems and in particular combating 
climate change.  
- Union policy shall aim a t high level protection – precautionary principle – preventive action should be taken and environmental 
damage should as a priority be rectified at source and that the polluter should pay.  
- Harmonisation measures answering environmental protection requirements shall include a safeguard clause allowing Member 
States to take provisional measures. 

74 

 
 
 
 
                                                 
 
Algae harvested or cultivated for 
human consumption must comply 
with the specifications set out under 
the food safety regulation. Algae are 
exempted to take regard of rules on 
food labelling unless algae are sold 
unprocessed.  

(Araujo 

supplements 

The  regulation  is  applicable  to  all 
foods  classified  as  ‘novel  food’, 
which applies to a variety of micro- 
and macroalgae produced for food or 
and 
food 
Peteiro, 2021) for which a history of 
consumption  before  15  May  1997 
cannot  or  has  not  been  documented 
New algae substances are required to 
the 
request  authorisation  under 
regulation  before 
the 
entering 
market.     

Any  algae  species  categorised  as 
novel  need  to  be  authorized  in 
correspondence with the Novel Food 
Regulation. If an algae is listed in the 
NFC as being not novel or not novel 
in  Food  Supplements,  it  can  be 
placed  on 
the 
corresponding  application  (either  as 
food or in Food Supplements).    

the  market 

for 

Food safety 
regulation 

Novel food 
Regulation 
(NFR) / 
Regulation (EU) 
2015/2283   

Novel Food 
Catalogue (NFC)  

Food safety regulation sets out basic principles 
to protect safe human nutrition and consumer 
interests. Within the EU, food regulation 
envelops specific regulations under the 
following topics:  
 Rules on food hygiene which set standards to 
be met for the premises, transport conditions, 
waste, water supply, personal hygiene of 
workers and heat treatment processes 

 Rules on safe food packaging including those 

on plastic, cellulose and recycled plastic 
packaging where relevant 
 Rules on food labelling.  
 Rules on contaminants in foods which set the 

maximum levels of metal toxins and 
contaminants allowed in food 

 Rules on nutritional and health claims which 
any claim made on a food label in the EU is 
clear, accurate and substantiated, enabling 
consumers to make informed and meaningful 
choices 

The  NFR  requires  a  pre-market  authorisation 
before novel foods (foods for which a history of 
consumption  before  15  May  1997  cannot  be 
documented) can be placed on the EU market.  
Business  operators  wanting  to  place  a food  on 
the EU must assess and determine its novel food 
status of their foods. In case of doubt they shall 
consult  with  the  Member  State  on  which  they 
first  intend  to  place  the  food  on  the  market. 
Applications for the authorization of novel foods 
must be submitted to the European Commission 
and authorisation is granted by the Commission 
on  the  basis of a  positive safety  assessment  of 
the  novel  food  by  the  European  Food  Safety 
Authority .   
The  NFC  is  a  non-legally  binding  data  base 
reflecting  the  views  of  Member  States  on  the 
novel  food  status  of  foods  that  have  been 
considered  and  discussed  over  the  years.  This 
list is non-exhaustive, and serves as orientation 
whether a product will need authorisation under 
the Novel Food Regulation. A food item listed 
in  the  NFC  may  have  one  of  the  following 
statuses:  novel,  not  novel,  not  novel  in  food 
supplements or subject to an ongoing novel food 
status consultation. If a product is not included, 
it should not necessarily be considered as novel 
but  as  an  item  whose  status  was  either  not 
previously discussed or to which a consultation 
request has not been launched yet (Araujo and 
Peteiro, 2021)12.   

75 

 
 
 
EU 
Recommendation 
2018/464   

Regulation (EC) 
No 1924/2006   

Regulation (EU) 
No 68/2013 / 
Regulation (EC) 
No 1831/2003 

Under the EU recommendation, concentrations 
of arsenic, cadmium, iodine, lead and mercury 
in  seaweeds  and  halophytes  are  monitored  to 
establish  maximum 
food/food 
supplements  in  which  no  harmful  effects  for 
human health are indicated.    

levels 

for 

that 

and  verify 

This  regulation,  also  known  as  the  claims 
regulation,  sets  out  the  framework  for  using 
nutrition and health claims in the EU. The claims 
regulation requires that only permitted nutrition 
and  health  claims  may  be  used  on  the  EU 
market,  which  are  listed  in  the  Annex  of  the 
Claim regulation and are in conformity with the 
conditions  of  use  accompanying  them  and 
concerning health claims. Member States carry 
the  responsibility  to  enforce  food  law  and 
monitor 
relevant  EU 
requirements  are  fulfilled  by  food  business 
operators.  
In the EU, products used for animal nutrition are 
classified  either  as  feed  materials  or  feed 
additives.  Feed  materials  do  not  require  a  pre-
market  authorisation,  but  do  need  to  comply 
with  regulation  on  feed  hygiene,  rules  on  the 
marketing  of  feed,  undesirable  substances  in 
feed (under Directive 2002/32/EC) and rules on 
feed additives. Feed additives are products used 
in  animal  nutrition  with 
the  purpose  of 
improving the quality of feed and the quality of 
food  from  animal  origin,  or  to  improve  the 
animals’ performance and health, e.g. providing 
enhanced  digestibility  of  the  feed  materials. 
Feed  additives  may  not  enter  the  EU  market 
unless  authorization 
is  given  following  a 
scientific  evaluation  showing  that  the  additive 
has  no  harmful  effects  on  human  and  animal 
health and on the environment. Therefore, feed 
additives  regulation  provides  rules  on  the 
supervision  and  labelling  of  feed  additives  to 
ensure good practices and effective functioning 
of the internal market. 

the  presence  of 

To  set  the  maximum  allowed  levels 
of  iodine,  heavy  metals  and  other 
contaminants in seaweed, halophytes 
and products based on algae, Member 
States  in  cooperation  with  food  and 
feed business operators are asked to 
monitor 
these 
substances over the years 2018, 2019 
and 2020.171 
Algae may be used in food products 
due  to  their  high  nutritional  profile, 
and should therefore conform to the 
claims regulation regarding vitamins, 
minerals and fatty acids (there are no 
authorised  health  claims  regarding 
amino acids) if any reference is made 
to  nutritional  and  health  claims  of 
algae use in a product. 

in 

not 

feed  additives 

Algae  are  used  as  fish  and  animal 
feed  and 
in 
aquaculture, agriculture and for pets 
due to their nutritional profile (amino 
acids, 
and 
vitamins,  minerals 
essential fatty acids). The cultivation 
or harvesting of algae for animal feed 
pre-market 
need 
does 
authorisation, but do need to comply 
with 
regulations.  The 
Commission shares competence with 
regard. 
Member  States 
Regulation  (EU)  No  68/2013,  the 
Catalogue on feed materials, lists the 
various  types  of  algae  and  good 
practice  principles  on  the  use  of 
chemical  impurities  and  processing 
aids. 

specified 

this 

in 

171 -For mercury in seaweed already an MRL is set under the pesticides legislation (Reg. (EC) No 396/2005) (with possibility of revision).   
-For  cadmium  in  food  supplements,  which  contain  dried  seaweed,  in  regulation  (EC)  No  1881/2006  a  maximum  level  is  set  (with 
possibility of revision).  

76 

 
 
                                                 
 
 
Regulation 
(OJ 
1832/2021 
L385, 29/10/2021)  

Establishes a good nomenclature to meet, at one 
and  the  same  time,  the  requirements  of  the 
Common  Customs  Tariff,  the  external  trade 
statistics of the Union, and other Union policies 
concerning  the  importation  or  exportation  of 
good.  

Algae-products  that  are  imported 
from  countries (outside  the  EU)  fall 
under specific trade tariffs.  

-  Under the regulation, seaweeds 
and other algae, fresh, chilled, 
frozen or dried, whether or not 
ground, fall under HS172 heading 
1212 of the nomenclature and 
have 0% MFN173 tariff.  
-  Seaweeds and other algae 

products prepared or preserved 
by processes such as cooking, 
roasting, seasoning or adding 
sugar fall under Chapter 20 – 
classified as preparations of 
other parts of plants, and various 
MFN tariff may apply to algae-
related products.  

Directive 
2001/83/EC  
/ Regulation (EC) 
No 726/2004 

Regulation on 
the Registration, 
Evaluation, 
Authorisation 
and Restriction 
of Chemicals 
(REACH)174 

C.  Algae for non-food uses  

The directive gives the provisions laid down by 
law, regulation or administrative action relating 
to medicinal products for human use, including 
use of specific substances, labelling and 
advertising for different types of medicine. In 
the EU, medicinal products may be authorised 
by a centralised procedure, run by the EU 
Medicine Agency or through a mutual 
recognition procedure with the medicinal 
product authorised in a single Member State at 
first and then starting a process of recognition 
of that authorisation in other Member States. 
Clinical trials are regulated by EU legislation 
under Regulation (EU) No 536/2014. 
the  main  regulation  regarding 
REACH  is 
legislation for chemicals in the EU. It provides a 
comprehensive  set  of  rules  applicable 
to 
chemical substances and compounds, and places 
the  responsibility  of  managing  the  associated 
risks  onto  the  industry.  Under  the  regulation, 
any  company  manufacturing  or  importing  one 
ton or more of a substance needs to register with 
the  European  Chemicals  Agency  (REACH, 

Algae  are  used  within  the  field  of 
pharmaceuticals,  given  their  wide 
range  of  bioactive 
compounds 
(Dmytryk  et  al.,  2017).  Therefore, 
algae  use  in  medicinal  products  are 
regulated 
specified 
directive and regulation, and need to 
be authorised for use.  

through 

the 

in 

substances 

Algae can be used as sources of fine 
chemicals,  botanical  extracts  and 
active 
several 
applications (e.g. astaxanthin, phyco-
cyanin,  fucoxanthin  and  numerous 
speciality  high-value  applications  in 
pharmaceutics, 
and 
cosmetics), wherefore their use may 
fall under the REACH regulation.  

medicine 

172 Harmonized System (HS): standardized numerical classification of trade products. The system is  used to assess which duties and 
tariffs apply to specific types of products when imported (EC HS).  
173 The Most Favoured Nation (MFN): principle under the WTO specifies that under the WTO agreements, countries cannot normally 
discriminate between their trading partners. Grant someone a special favour (such as a lower customs duty rate for one of their products) 
and you have to do the same for all other WTO members (WTO). 
174 In relation, there is Directive 1223/2009/EC, which gives the provisions related to cosmetics regulation, setting rules for the substances 
and mixtures intended for cosmetic use, to ensure that cosmetic products shall be safe for human health.  

77 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
                                                 
Article 6). Substances manufactured or imported 
for the purposes of research and development do 
not  need  to  be  registered  for  5  years.  On  the 
contrary, substances that pose high risks cannot 
be used until an authorisation is issued and the 
applicants are asked to analyse the feasibility of 
substitution (REACH, article 55).  
Harmonises the requirements for EU fertilising 
products  produced  from  primary  or  secondary 
raw materials, opening up new possibilities for 
production and marketing on the single market. 
The  regulation  sets  harmonised  limits  for  a 
range  of  contaminants,  such  as  cadmium 
fertilisers.  The 
contained 
regulation  provides  provisions  only  for  EU 
fertilising  products,  and  allows  Member  States 
to  maintain  national  legislations    to  regulate 
fertilising  products  marketed  on  national 
markets.   
This directive gives the provisions related to the 
use  of  energy  from  renewable  sources.  It  set 
binding targets on the share of renewable energy 
in  energy  consumption  and  in  the  transport 
sector. 

in  phosphate 

Algae cultivation and multi-use of space 

EU  fertilising  products  may  only 
contain  materials  that  comply  with 
the  Component  Material  Categories 
(CMC).  There  are  various  CMCs 
covering  algae:  CMC1,  CMC2, 
CMC3, CMC4, CMC5.175 Therefore, 
algae,  algae  parts  or  algae  extracts 
may be used in fertilising products if 
they comply with the requirements of 
the 
the 
respective  CMCs,  and 
resulting fertilising product complies 
with all relevant provisions.   
Algae can be used as sources for the 
production  of  biogas  for  transport 
and advanced biofuels. 

Application  of  an  ecosystem-based  integrated 
approach  to  spatial  planning  of  the  maritime 
environment, ensuring the sustainable economic 
development  and  ecological  protection  of 
maritime and coastal areas. 
(repealing  and 
The  Organic  Regulation 
replacing  Council Regulation 
(EC)  No 
834/2007 and applicable since January 1st 2021) 
provides 
sustainable 
development  of  organic  production  and  its 
positive  effects  on  the  environment,  while 
ensuring the effective functioning of the internal 
market in organic products and fair competition, 

the  basis 

the 

for 

of 

usage 

The  use  of  maritime  space  for 
multiple  purposes,  including  algae 
integrated 
requires 
cultivation, 
by 
space 
planning 
potentially competing activities.  
Algae producers aiming to obtain the 
‘organic’  label  need  to  comply  with 
in 
production 
Regulation  (EU)  2018/848.  Within 
the  rules,  a  distinction  is  made 
between 
and 
cultivation  of  algae.  The  Organic 
Regulation  signifies  that  harvesting 

collection 

specified 

rules 

the 

Fertilising 
Products 
Regulation / 
Regulation (EU) 
2019/1009  

Directive 
2018/2001 

Marine Spatial 
Planning 
Directive  

Organic 
Regulation / 
Regulation (EU) 
2018/848176 

175 - CMC 1: all algal extracts ; REACH registration of such extracts is mandatory. Extracts originating from waste are excluded 
  - CMC 2: algae, algae parts and algal extracts having undergone no other processing than cutting, grinding, milling, sieving, sifting, 
centrifugation, pressing, drying, frost treatment, freeze-drying or extraction with water or supercritical CO2 extraction. Blue-green algae 
are excluded. 
  -  CMC  3:  compost  generated  by  the  aerobic  composition  of  algae  or  algae  parts  (waste  or  non-waste).  Algae  materials   shall  be 
unprocessed or processed only by manual, mechanical or gravitational means, by dissolution in water, by flotation, by extraction with 
water, by steam distillation or by heating solely to remove water, or which are extracted from air by any means. 
 - CMC 4: digestate generated by the anaerobic digestion of algae or algae parts grown for the production of biogas. Blue-green algae are 
excluded. 
 -  CMC  5:  digestate  generated  by  the  anaerobic  digestion  of  algae  or  algae  parts  (waste  or  non-waste).  Algae  materials   shall  be 
unprocessed or processed only by manual, mechanical or gravitational means, by dissolution in water, by flotation, by extraction with 
water, by steam distillation or by heating solely to remove water, or which are extracted from air by any means. 
176  Regulation  (EC)  710/2009:  lays  down  rules  for  the  implementation  of  organic  regulation  (organic  aquaculture  and  seaweed 
production).  

78 

 
 
 
 
                                                 
ensuring 

consumer 

thereby  helping  farmers  to  achieve  a  fair 
confidence, 
income, 
protecting  consumer  interest  and  encouraging 
short distribution channels and local production. 
Those  objectives  should  be  achieved  through 
compliance with general and specific principles 
and  general  and  detailed  production  rules 
applicable to organic production 

Regulation (EC) 
No 1893/2006  

the 

regulation  establishes 

statistical 
The 
classification  of  economic  activities  to  reflect 
the  technological  development  and  structural 
changes  of  the  EU  economy  to  inform  and 
relevant 
contribute  more  comparable  and 
economic  data  to  establish  better  economic 
governance  at  both  Community  and  national 
level.  The  different  economic  activities  are 
categorised under NACE codes.  

to 

shall 

chain 

ensure 

fertilizers 

cultivation 

of wild algae should not significantly 
affect  the  natural  stability  of  the 
ecosystem  in  the  collection  area. 
Algae 
use 
sustainable  practices  throughout  the 
the 
supply 
maintenance of a wide gene pool and 
no  use  of 
in  open 
cultivation processes.177 Algae can be 
harvested  wild  and  cultivated  in 
accordance  with  those  provisions, 
and  can  be  labelled  organic  when 
respecting such rules. 
in 
Algae  cultivation  can  occur 
practices,  macroalgae 
different 
cultivation 
open  marine 
environment or closed systems), and 
cyanobacteria 
microalgae 
cultivation  in  closed  systems.  These 
different practices fall under various 
NACE  codes,  which  specifies  the 
licensing  requirement  under  which 
the  producers  are 
to 
operate.178 

required 

and 

(in 

1772.2. Production rules for algae  
2.2.1. The collection of wild algae and parts thereof is considered as organic production provided that:  
(a) the growing areas are suitable from a health point of view and are of high ecological status as defined by Directive 2000/60/EC, or 
are of equivalent quality to: 
— the production zones classed as A and B in Regulation (EC) No 854/2004 of the European Parliament and of the Council (1), until 13 
December 2019, or  
— the corresponding classification areas set out in the implementing acts adopted by the Commission in accordance with Article 18(8) 
of Regulation (EU) 2017/625, from 14 December 2019;  
(b) the collection does not affect significantly the stability of the natural ecosystem or the maintenance of the species in the collection 
area  
2.2.2. The cultivation of algae shall take place in areas with environmental and health characteristics at least equivalent to those outlined 
in point 2.2.1(a) in order to be considered organic.  
In addition the following n rules shall apply:  
(a) sustainable practices shall be used in all stages of production, from the collection of juvenile algae to harvesting;  
(b) to ensure that a wide gene-pool is maintained, the collection of juvenile algae in the wild shall take place on a regular basis so as to 
maintain and increase the diversity of indoor culture stock; 
(c) fertilisers shall not be used, except in indoor facilities, and only if they have been authorised pursuant to Article 24 for use in organic 
production for this purpose 
178  

Activity 

Seaweed cultivation at sea 

Seaweed cultivation in ponds 

Microalgae cultivation with salt water 
of 
open 
in 
(in 
photobioreactors) 
Microalgae cultivation with freshwater 
(in open raceways of photobioreactors) 

raceways 

NACE 
section 
A 

A 

A  

A 

NACE division 

NACE group 

NACE class 

03 

03 

03 

03 

(Fishing 

03.2 
aquaculture) 

and 

03.21 (Marine aquaculture) 

and 

and 

03.22 
aquaculture). 
03.21 (Marine aquaculture) 

(Freshwater 

and 

03.22 (Freshwater aquaculture)  

(Fishing 

03.2 
aquaculture) 
03.2 
aquaculture) 

(Fishing 

(Fishing 

03.2 
aquaculture) 

79 

 
 
 
                                                 
D.  Conservation and preservation of the marine environment 

Habitats 
Directive  

Promote biodiversity by protecting natural 
habitats and species, contributing to the 
sustainable development of ecosystems at the 
EU level.  

Marine Strategy 
Framework 
Directive  

Achieve Good Environmental Status of the 
EU’s marine (open) waters (by 2020) and to 
protect the resource base upon which marine-
related economic and social activities depend. 

Water 
Framework 
Directive 179 

Achieve good environmental status for all 
ground and surface waters (rivers, lochs, 
transitional waters, coastal waters and 
groundwater) in the EU.  

Environmental 
Impact 
Assessment 
Regulation / 
Directive 2011/92 
EU and 
amendment 
2014/52/EU  
Waste 
Framework 
Directive 

Establish and harmonise procedures for the 
environmental impact assessment (EIA) of 
private and public projects, which are likely to 
have significant effects on the environment 
(principles, minimum requirements, assessment 
content).  

The Directive sets out basic waste management 
principles to manage waste’s impact on human 
health and the environment and comply with 
re-use and recycling objectives. It explains 
basic concepts and definitions of waste, 
recycling and recovery.  

Safeguard natural habitat types, 
including various algae species that 
are present in coastal and halophytic 
habitats. In particular seas and tidal 
areas with reefs. The development of 
aquaculture, and thus algae, should 
be compatible with the 
environmental protection stipulated 
in this Directive.    
The cultivation and harvesting of 
algae should not affect in a negative 
impact on the biodiversity and 
intertidal ecosystems and sea-floor 
integrity, should not contribute to 
the introduction of invasive species, 
and should not contribute to 
eutrophication in marine waters.   
Aquaculture, including algae, 
development should not negatively 
affect the biodiversity of 
macrophytes and phytobenthos or 
increase eutrophication in ground 
and surface waters.  

When regarded as having a 
significant impact, algae related 
project, both in marine ecosystems 
and on-land), are subject to an EIA. 
All new algae farms producing over 
20tonnes a year, and wishing to 
acquire an ‘organic’ label are also 
subject to an EIA. 
Algae related materials may be 
categorised as ‘’waste’’ or ‘’non-
waste’’. The status of algae related 
materials does not fall under the EU, 
but is determined the Member States 
along with the implementation of 

fresh 
and 

and  preserving 

Processing 
seaweed 
microalgae/cyanobacteria 
Retailer or wholesaler buying seaweed 
or microalgae biomass to manufacture 
products 
Importing  algae  products  from  3rd 
countries? 

C 

G 

G 

10 

10.2 

(wholesale) 

46 
or 47 (retail) 

46.3 (wholesale) 
47.2 (retail) 

and 
(Processing 
10.20 
preserving  of  fish,  crustaceans 
and molluscs). 
46.38 (wholesale) 
47.29 (retail) 

Depends  on  the 
product 

Depends 
product 

on 

the 

Depends on the product 

179 Collectively, the HB, MSFD, WFD specify that the collective pressure of human activity, including algae cultivation or harvesting, 
does not compromise the good environmental status (GES) or capacity of marine ecosystems to respond to change.  

80 

 
 
 
 
 
 
                                                 
 
provisions in the Waste Framework 
Directive. Therefore, algal material 
considered ‘’waste’’ in one Member 
State might be considered as ‘’by-
product’’ in another.  

The  cultivation  of  algae  species  in 
open marine environments may result 
in  the  introduction  of  alien  species, 
which  can  become  invasive  species. 
Examples  show  that  introduction  of 
algae  species  can  have  a  negative 
impact  on 
ecosystems. 
coastal 
Therefore,  algae  cultivation  sites 
should  consider  potentially  invasive 
species in the production process, as 
they  may  have  negative  impacts  on 
native species and ecosystems overall 
(Barbier et al., 2019).  

Currently, the Union List does not 
include any marine species. National 
lists of invasive alien species of 
Member States do include several 
seaweed (macro algae) species, 
which need to be followed by algae 
producers. Furthermore, 
harmonisation between EU Member 
States on alien invasive species 
would help manage/monitor/prevent 
impacts due to the open-nature of 
marine environments.  

Algae cultivation carries the 
potential for carbon removal from 
marine ecosystems, and therefore the 
development of the algae industry 
can contribute to the goal to capture, 
recycle and store CO2.  

Currently, the European 
Commission is conducting several 
studies (one of these is an Algae and 
Climate Study) to assess the 
potential of algae to contribute to 
carbon uptake, removal and 
sequestration to quantify algae’s 
ability to contribute to EU objectives 
under the European Green Deal. 

Invasive Alien 
Species 
Regulation 
/ Regulation on 
alien and locally 
absent species in 
aquaculture 

List of Invasive 
Alien Species of 
Union Concern  

Certification of 
carbon removals 

The Invasive Alien Species Regulation sets 
measures on the prevention and management of 
the introduction and spread of non-indigenous 
and invasive alien species into the environment. 
Related is the Regulation on alien and locally 
absent species in aquaculture, which establishes 
a framework governing aquaculture practices in 
relation to alien and locally absent species to 
asses and minimise the possible impact of these 
and any associated non-target species on 
aquatic habitats – contributing to sustainable 
development of the sector.  

Core of the Alien Species Regulation is the List 
of Invasive Alien Species of Union Concern, 
which includes species that are subject to 
restrictions and measures (on keeping, 
importing, selling, breeding and growing) set 
out in the Regulation. Member States are 
required to take action on pathways of 
unintentional introduction, to take measures for 
early detection and rapid eradication of these 
species, and to manage species that are already 
widely spread in their territory. Member States 
can also propose additional species for 
inclusion in the Union List.  

E.  Algae-related policy initiatives 

This initiative is in the pipeline and proposes EU 
rules  on  certifying  carbon  removals.  It  will 
develop  the  necessary  rules  to  monitor,  report 
and verify the authenticity of these removals.  

The aim is to expand sustainable carbon 
removals and encourage the use of innovative 
solutions to capture, recycle and store CO2 by 
farmers, foresters and industries. This 
represents a necessary and significant step 
towards integrating carbon removals into EU 
climate policies.  
(Feedback period from 7th February 2022 – 2nd 
May 2022) 

81 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Nature 
restoration 
targets (impact 
assessment 
approved by 
regulatory 
scrutiny board) 

Sustainable 
Carbon Cycles - 
carbon farming 
(communication 
adopted) 

A New Approach 
for a Sustainable 
Blue Economy 

The initiative proposes legally binding EU 
nature restoration targets to reverse biodiversity 
loss and restore degraded ecosystems (i.e. with 
high importance for biodiversity), in particular 
those areas with most potential to remove and 
store carbon and to prevent and reduce the 
impact of natural disasters. Legislative 
proposals towards restoration targets should 
include ecosystem-, habitat- and species 
specific targets, and restoration should 
contribute to biodiversity as well as to climate 
change mitigation and adaptation, and stressing 
the importance of ensuring non-deterioration of 
restoration ecosystems.   

carbon 

To  achieve  carbon  objectives  set  on  an 
international  and  EU  level,  sustainable  and 
cycles  must  be 
climate-resilient 
established through three key actions:  
1.Reduce  the  reliance  on  carbon:  switch  to 
circular economy and renewable energy.  
2.Recycle  carbon  from  waste  streams,  from 
sustainable sources of biomass or directly from 
the atmosphere.  
3.Upscale carbon removal solutions that capture 
CO2  from  the  atmosphere  and  store  it  for  the 
long term, either in ecosystems through nature 
protection  and  carbon  farming  solutions  or  in 
other storage forms through industrial solutions 
impact  on 
while  ensuring  no  negative 
biodiversity or ecosystem deterioration 

Proposes carbon farming as a business model 
for healthier ecosystems, in which farming will 
be a green business model that rewards land 
managers for taking up improved land 
management practices resulting in increased 
carbon sequestration, dead organic 

This communication takes a systematic view 
that integrates ocean policy into our Europe’s 
new economic policy. Our ocean, and the ‘blue 
economy’ it supports, is indispensable to 
achieving the transformation set out in the 
European Green Deal. Therefore, the 
communication sets out a detailed and realistic 
agenda for the blue economy to play a major 
role in achieving EGD objectives, and aims to 
connect the green and blue policies, while 
extending the approach beyond EU borders into 
international ocean governance. 

82 

Algae cultivation has the potential to 
contribute  to  goals  set  under  the 
nature  restoration  targets,  as  it  can 
support  various  ecosystem  services 
when  managed 
appropriately: 
absorption  of  excess  nutrients  and 
organic  matter, 
improvement  of 
water quality, CO2 uptake. 

As  specified  under  the  initiative 
Certification  of  carbon  removals, 
algae have the potential to contribute 
to nutrient removal and CO2 uptake 
in their production cycle. In addition, 
algae  cultivation  is  perceived  as  a 
traditional 
viable  alternative 
is 
fishing  and  aquaculture,  and 
farming 
highlighted  as  a  blue 
alternative. 
algae 
Therefore, 
cultivation  can  help  the  transition 
into  new  forms  of  low  trophic  food 
systems 
Sustainable 
Aquaculture Guidelines).  

(EU 

to 

-  New algae-based food and feed 
products in the EU market – a 
major opportunity for the 
development of a sustainable 
food sector.  

-  Algae-based food can alleviate 

environmental pressures exerted 
by agriculture, aquaculture, and 
fisheries.  

-  Algae production at sea removes 
excess carbon, nitrogen and 
phosphorus from water. 

-  Commission will also explore the 
potential of cell-based seafood as 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Strategic 
guidelines for a 
more sustainable 
and competitive 
EU aquaculture 

These guidelines form the main pillar of 
strategic coordination of aquaculture policy in 
the EU. In line with the European Green Deal 
and Farm to Fork Strategy, the guidelines offer 
a common vision for EU Member States and all 
relevant stakeholders to contribute to an 
aquaculture sector that is: 1) competitive and 
resilient; 2) ensures the supply chain of 
nutritious and healthy food; 3) reduces the EU 
dependency on seafood imports; 4) creates 
economic opportunities and jobs; 5) becomes a 
global reference for sustainability. 

an innovative and sustainable 
alternative. 

The  aquaculture  guidelines  refer  to 
the algae sector in multiple ways:  
-  Refers to the EU Algae Initiative 
to address the challenges and 
opportunities of algae farming 
and propose concrete action.   
-  Refers to Farm to Fork Strategy: 
the Commission will ‘set out 
well-targeted support for the 
algae industry, as algae should 
become an important source of 
alternative protein for a 
sustainable food system.  

-  Algae as an alternative protein 
for sustainable feed systems.  
-  Promoting other aquaculture 

systems with lower 
environmental impact, such as: 
IMTA and lower trophic species 
(e.g. algae farming).   

83 

 
 
 
 
5.  Annex 5: Expected impacts of a strong and sustainable EU Algae sector 

In a keynote speech at European Maritime day, 20 May, 2021, Commissioner Sinkevičius announced 
that a new algae initiative to be launched in 2022 will “unlock the potential of the EU algae sector, 
which provides cheap, nutrient-rich proteins from the oceans and can be grown in combination with 
other activities, such as offshore wind.”180  This  official  recognition  and  support  of  the  EU  algae 
sector as a regenerative industry spearheading the European Green Deal builds on a growing collection 
of evidence that algae can generate multiple positive benefits for people, nature and the economy. This 
chapter hence first presents in more details the types of impacts that would be generated from a strong 
and sustainable EU algae sector if its potential was to be unlocked in the next decade, based on the 
current best available knowledge.  

A strong and sustainable EU Algae sector is expected to generate multiple positive impacts on nature, 
people and the economy in the next 5 to 10 years if its potential is to be unlocked. The overview of  
potential impacts presented below builds on latest scientific knowledge to date. 

 Potential environmental impacts.  

Given the characteristics of algae cultivation and its versatility of use cases, algae is a powerful ally to 
address  simultaneously  multiple  environmental  challenges,  ranging  from  climate  change,  marine 
biodiversity loss and eutrophication, overfishing, coastal habitats degradation, plastic pollution or soil 
erosion.  This  sub-heading  evaluates  potential  environmental  impacts  of  algae  production  and  algae 
products. 

5.1.1.  Environmental impacts of algae production. 

Macroalgae (seaweed) production 

Current macroalgae production in the EU predominantly takes place by harvesting of wild stocks. The 
sustainability  of  this  practice  is  under  debate  and  increasingly  subject  to  strict  management  plans. 
Aquaculture production of seaweed is presently ongoing in 13 EU countries and is still at an early stage 
of development181 but growing. In the future, the development of sustainable seaweed aquaculture is 
seen as the preferred pathway to scale up  the EU production. Macroalgae cultivation is expected to 
occur  in  near-shore  or  offshore  locations  using  line  systems  or  alternative  production  systems. 
Cultivation may be combined with wind turbine parks in multi-use systems182 or integrated with other 
types of aquaculture incl. cultivation of fish in so-called Integrated Multi Trophic Aquaculture (IMTA) 
systems (see Figure 30. below). 

180 European Commission. “Commissioner Sinkevičius Keynote Speech at European Maritime Day, 20 May, 2021, Den Helder, 
Netherlands – European Commission.”  
181 Current Status of the Algae Production Industry in Europe: An Emerging Sector of the Blue Bioeconomy. Araújo Rita, Vázquez 
Calderón Fatima, Sánchez López Javier, Azevedo Isabel Costa, Bruhn Annette, Fluch Silvia, Garcia Tasende Manuel, Ghaderiardakani 
Fatemeh, Ilmjärv Tanel, Laurans Martial, Mac Monagail Micheal, Mangini Silvio, Peteiro César, Rebours Céline, Stefansson Tryggvi, 
Ullmann Jörg., 2021. Frontiers in Marine Science, 7. 
182Mussel and Seaweed Cultivation in Offshore Wind Farms: An Opinion Survey. Michler-Cieluch, Tanja, and Silvia Kodeih., 2008. 
Coastal Management, vol. 36, no. 4, pp. 392–411.  

84 

 
 
 
                                                 
Figure 30. Main Seaweed aquaculture and microalgae production methods 

Sustainable  scale-up  of  the  EU  macroalgae  production  would  have  multiple  benefits  on  the 
environment. Indeed, unlike for equivalent land-based food or materials, seaweed production generally 
does not require any freshwater, fertiliser or other external inputs. There is also no need to repurpose 
or  clear  land  –  a  necessary  practice  for  terrestrial  crops  which  often  results  in  the  disruption  and 
displacement  of  biodiversity  or,  in  the  worst  cases,  its  complete  loss  (for  example  through 
deforestation).  In  addition,  seaweed  plays  a  central  role  in  providing  critical  ecosystem  services.  It 
forms an integral part of a complex ocean food web and offers habitat, nursery grounds and shelter for 
different ocean species, contributing to restoring marine biodiversity. Seaweed supplies oxygen to and 
increases  the  pH  of  the  water  it  grows  in,  and  so  reduces  both  the  hypoxia  that  occurs  with 
eutrophication,  and  ocean  acidification  –  a  problem  that  is  becoming  ever  more  acute  with  current 
global warming trajectory. Seaweed also dissipates wave energy and prevents coastal erosion. Besides, 
seaweed absorbs a range of inorganic nutrients  from the ocean, including nitrogen and phosphorus, 
often found in excess in coastal areas due to agriculture run-offs. Lastly, seaweed is expected to have 
a  beneficial  carbon  footprint,  where  emissions  due  to  production  are  likely  to  be  at  least  offset  by 
sequestration of carbon from the sinking of detached seaweed fragments to the bottom of the ocean, 
creating a carbon sink. 

In  spite  of  all  these  proven  environmental  benefits,  some  impacts  of  seaweed  farming  (including 
negative ones) still need to be further evaluated by rigorous scientific studies in collaboration with the 
industry and policy makers to prevent any unintended effects while scaling up the production. This 
includes  for  instance  a  better  quantification  of  the  fluxes  between  carbon  sequestered  and  carbon 
emitted by production processes; a better assessment and mitigation plans of potential risks associated 
with  large  scale  seaweed  farming  in  terms  of  nutrients  uptake  or  impact  on  seabed  and  local 
biodiversity; or the analysis of the net impact of seaweed onshore farming (in land-based tanks) given 
the high energy consumption and land-use. Below are given 3 macroalgae use-cases to have a more 
complete picture of macroalgae processing into the products 

85 

 
 
  
 
Use-case 1: Macroalgae being used for food 

With a more developed macroalgae industry, it is suggested that protein from fish might be replaced to 
some  extend  by  macroalgae  protein.  This  will  translate  in  a  reduction  of  pressure  on  fish  and  may 
support  the  fish  stock  recovery.  If  macroalgae  products  are  used  to  replace  terrestrial  crops  for 
consumption,  like  soy,  it  will  also  reduce  the  pressure  on  terrestrial  areas  and  thus  have  a  positive 
environmental  impact.183  Whereas  the  savings  in  carbon  emissions  from  replacing  animal-based 
proteins with seaweed have been proven, it gets more complicated with other vegetables, like soy or 
palm oil. Here, life cycle analysis for each product will give insight into the net carbon balance, taking 
into consideration the currently high fuel consumption for macroalgae cultivation. However it needs to 
be  ensured  that  an  increased  consumption  of  algae  would  not  adversely  affect  the  health  of  EU 
consumers, possibly related to the presence of high concentrations of contaminants (in particular heavy 
metals) in algae. 

Use-case 2: Macroalgae being used for animal feed  

It has been widely criticised, that with a declining fish stock available in our oceans, wild fish is being 
caught  only  to  be transformed to  fishmeal  and  fed  to farmed  fish. Another  source  of  feed  for  these 
farms is soybeans which also have a high carbon footprint whose production is sometimes driving to 
deforestation. Yet, the first results of studies show that it is possible to replace soy- or fish protein in 
animal feed with macroalgae depending on the protein content, the fatty acids, and the aminoacidic 
profile.184 Similar to use-case 4, if macroalgae replaces terrestrial crops for animal feed it has the same 
positive  impact  on  the  environment  by  a  possible  increase  in  terrestrial  biodiversity,  reduction  of 
pressure on terrestrial land. Comparisons of LCA for each product need to be made to determine the 
net carbon balance of each product and thus its impact on the environment.  

Various studies confirm that the addition of macroalgae to ruminants' diets can reduce CH4 emissions, 
with a reported reduction of over 80%.185 While some studies show a negative impact on animal health, 
product  quality,  and  residues186,  some  other  evidence  demonstrates  that  animal  health  and  product 
quality is not compromised at the minimum effective feed inclusion levels of certain seaweeds187, thus 
further research and in vivo studies are required to strengthen the evidence base of the effectiveness of 
using seaweed as feedstuffs to reduce enteric emissions. 

Use-case 3: Macroalgae being used for bioremediation  

183 Environmental impacts of protein-production from farmed seaweed: comparison of possible scenarios in Norway. Koesling Matthias, 
Pvadsheim Nina P, Halfdanarson Jon, Emblemsvag Jan, Rebours Celine. 2021. Journal of Cleaner Production volume 307.  
184  Strategic  considerations  for  establishing  a  large-scale  seaweed  industry  based  on  fish  feed  application:  a  Norwegian  case  study 
Emblemsvåg, J., Kvadsheim, N.P., Halfdanarson, J. 2020. Appl Phycol 32. 
185  Red  seaweed  (Asparagopsis  taxiformis)  supplementation  reduces  enteric  methane  by  over  80  percent  in  beef  steers.    Roque BM, 
Venegas M, Kinley RD, de Nys R, Duarte TL. 2021. PLOS ONE 16(3) 
186 Safety and Transfer Study: Transfer of Bromoform Present in Asparagopsis taxiformis to Milk and Urine of Lactating Dairy Cows.  
Muizelaar W, Groot M, van Duinkerken G, Peters R, Dijkstra J. 2021. Foods 10(3). 
187 Benefits and risks of including the bromoform containing seaweed Asparagopsis in feed for the reduction of methane production from 
ruminants. Glasson, C.R.K., Kinley, R.D., de Nyys, R et al. (2022). Algal Research (64) 102673. 

86 

 
 
                                                 
This use-case reiterates the generic impacts of cultivation that were already stated above, the capacity 
to take up nitrogen and phosphorus and to capture CO2. It is still important to focus on these “generic 
impacts”  here  once  again,  since  according  to  the  online  public  consultation  of  this  document,  the 
bioremediation quality of macroalgae was the third important use for them. This shows the growing 
awareness  about  the  importance  of  circularity  in  our  economy  and  the  regeneration  of  our 
ecosystems.188 The nutrient uptake (N,P), can play a role in a circular economy approach189, by closing 
the gap between ocean and land industries with using feeding on the nutrients from the wastewater and 
growing consumable goods.  

Microalgae (and cyanobacteria) production 

In  the  EU,  PhotoBioReactors  (PBRs)  are  the  most  common  type  of  system  used  for  microalgae 
production (71%) while open ponds and fermenters represent 19% and 10% of the total production 
units respectively190. For Spirulina the predominant technology used is open ponds (sometimes placed 
in a greenhouse). Thus, in the future use-cases for the EU, the closed systems including PBRs as well 
as fermenters are most likely to  remain dominant  (>70%) since most development  can be expected 
there. Some growth may occur of open systems (e.g. for Spirulina) or hybrid systems combining PBR 
or fermentation technology to produce inoculum coupled to a photoautotrophic system (open or closed) 
for the grow-out phase of production. Important to acknowledge, that PBRs don’t require much space 
for biomass production, which reduces the overall pressure on land and sea space. Overall, the energy 
consumption in PBR's is a point for consideration in the environmental assessment. In the microalgae 
sector considerable attention is aimed at energy-saving technologies and strategies, as well as scale up 
and cost reduction of photoautotrophic production systems. Furthermore, we can expect an expansion 
of  commercial  heterotrophic  algae  production  seeing  the  technical  advantages  and  the  potential  for 
scale  up  while  reducing  production  costs  and  the  expected  environmental  benefits.  Microalgae 
production  can  also  have  other  environmental  benefits  if  using  agricultural  by-products  or  agro-
industrial effluents as a source of nutrients, helping valorising waste and recycling nutrients from other 
bio-industries (e.g., dairy industry, brewery effluents, sugar cane, etc.). In addition, the closed systems 
allow a clear monitoring of the CO2 consumption. In the future, the issue will be scrutinized and will 
impact LCA as well as services costs calculation. Below are given 3 microalgae use-cases to have a 
more complete picture of microalgae processing into the products. 

Use-case 4: Microalgae being used in food and food ingredients 

According  to  Araujo  et  al.  food  supplements  and  nutraceuticals  (24%),  cosmetics  (24%),  and  feed 
(19%)  are  the  main  current  application  areas  of  microalgae  biomass.  The  use  of  microalgae  and 
Spirulina in food and as food ingredients is a major application area. This refers particularly to the use 
of whole algae biomass (e.g. Spirulina, Chlorella) as a food supplement / nutraceutical. Furthermore, 
other species are produced and used for their content of valuable, functional food components including 

188 Habitat value of bivalve shellfish and seaweed aquaculture for fish and invertebrates: Pathways, synthesis and next steps. Theuerkauf, 
SJ, Barrett, LT, Alleway, HK, Costa-Pierce, BA, St. Gelais, A, Jones, RC. 2021. Aquac 14. 
189 Opportunities and limitations for the introduction of circular economy principles in EU aquaculture based on the regulatory framework. 
Regueiro, L, Newton, R, Soula, M, et al. 2021. J ind Ecol. 
190  Current  Status  of  the  Algae  Production  Industry  in  Europe:  An  Emerging  Sector  of  the  Blue  Bioeconomy.  Araújo,  R.,  Vázquez 
Calderón, F., Sánchez López, J., et al. (2021). Front. Mar. Sci., 27. 

87 

 
 
                                                 
Dunaliella (beta-carotene), Haematococcus (astaxanthin), Nannochloropsis (omega fatty acid EPA). 
Algae may be produced via fermentation or photoautotrophically. Developments are ongoing to expand 
the use of microalgae in human food as a source of proteins and oils. It is expected that the use of 
microalgae as a source of food ingredients will grow considerably in the coming decades (data from 
OPC this study). In the EU, any novel microalgae species or product needs to undergo a pre-market 
authorisation through the Novel Food regulation before it can be placed in the food market. The use of 
microalgae in human food as an alternative source of omega oils and proteins may reduce the amount 
of fish used for human consumption and reduce the terrestrial area in use e.g., for production of edible 
oils including palm oil 191,192,193. The achieved reduction of carbon emissions by using algae products 
instead of conventional products is dependent on the production process and on the actual products that 
are  replaced. At the current  stage of development  microalgae products  may  or may not  have lower 
environmental impacts than conventional products, unless we can make more efficient systems, reduce 
energy use, and increase productivity194. Seeing the current stage of fermentative production, we can 
expect that fermentative production of food ingredients will strongly increase in the future.  

Use-case 5: Microalgae being used in feed and feed ingredients 

Today a range of microalgae species are used as an ingredient in aquaculture feeds and animal feed195. 
The application of microalgae as a functional ingredient in aquafeeds is considered a potential growth 
area.  This  refers  in  particular  to  algae  as  an  alternative  source  of  omega  oils  EPA  and  DHA  as  an 
alternative for fish oils or krill oil and for bioactive components that enhance the immune system of 
cultivated fish196. Microalgae are used as a component in formulations for larvae and juvenile feeds. 
Besides aquafeed, potential microalgae applications in the feed industry are considered for pets, horses, 
poultry, pigs and other animals. 

Microalgae have a suitable amino acid profile for this application area and good digestibility as well as 
an interesting lipid profile including long chain omega fatty acids. Currently limitations exist regarding 
the present production scale and costs197. Another interesting application area is the use of algae as an 
ingredient in pet food. Sustainability of algae products in feed must be documented. For example a 
study  comparing  algal  meal  with  soybean  meal  showed  that  large-scale  soy  meal  production  was 
significantly lower, mainly as a result of the energy-intensive algae cultivation stages. A sensitivity 
analysis showed that the resource footprint of  algal  meal  production could  be comparable with  soy 

191 Food commodities from microalgae. Current Opinion in Biotechnology. Draaisma et al, 2013. Volume 24, Issue 2, April 2013, Pages 
169-177.  
192 Commercial application of microalgae other than as biofuels: a brief review. J.J. Milledge. Rev Environ Sci Bio-Technol, 10 (2011), 
pp. 31-41 
193 Micro-algae as a source of protein. E. Becker. 2007. Biotechnol Adv, 25, pp. 207-210 
194 Comments from validation webinar #4 this project. 
195 The role of microalgae in the bioeconomy. F. Gabriel Acien Fernandez, et al, 2021. New Biotechnology 61 (2021) 99-107. 
196 Magnificient - Algae project  
197Food and feed products from micro-algae: Market opportunities and challenges for the EU. Vigani, M., Parisi, C., Rodríguez-Cerezo, 
E., Barbosa, M. J., Sijtsma, L., and Ploeg, M. 2015. Food Sci. Tech. 42, 81–92.  

88 

 
 
                                                 
meal  when,  overall,  the  areal  biomass  productivity  increases,  electricity  production  is  based  on 
renewable sources and the energy consumption of the cultivation is reduced198. 

Use-case 6: Microalgae being used in non-food applications 

Today  a  major  non-food  application  area  of  microalgae  extracts  is  in  the  area  of  cosmetics.  The 
cosmetic  industry  is  applying  microalgae  for  skincare  and  regeneration  products,  anti-aging,  and 
protection from UV radiation199.  

Several  other  non-food  applications  have  been  suggested  for  microalgae  and/or  are  under 
development200.  A  major  emerging  application  of  microalgae  is  for  use  as  biofertiliser  or  plant 
biostimulants to enhance the productivity of agriculture and horticulture crops and reduce the use of 
synthetic  fertilisers201.  Other  emerging  applications  include  microalgae  based  bio-materials,  waste 
water treatment and CO2 biofixation and the production of bioenergy. The potential application of oil-
enriched  microalgae  for  biofuels  has  been  researched  extensively.  However  stand-alone  biofuel 
production is to date not feasible due to an unfavourable energy balance and high production costs. 
Yet, for certain biofuels e.g. kerosene for aviation, algae represent a better bio-based solution than other 
traditional  biomass  feedstocks  in  terms  of  energy  balance  and  GHG  savings,  as  long  as  certain 
conditions  for  their  cultivation,  such  as  high  process  optimisation,  nutrient  recycling  and  use  of 
renewable energy to meet input demand, are met202. An option to improve this could also be to develop 
algae biorefineries producing multiple products next to biofuels203.  

Application  of  microalgae  systems  for  bioremediation  has  been  developed  e.g.  for  the  removal  of 
nutrients  from  municipal  wastewater  (effluent  polishing).  Recently,  the  project  AlgaeLinkages  was 
conducted in Mexico aimed at the purification of effluent from greenhouses coupled to the use of the 
produced microalgae biomass in poultry feed204. 

Overall, we can conclude that a proper assessment of environmental impacts requires the performance 
of  Life  Cycle  Assessment  (LCA)  studies  using  appropriate  (ISO)  methodology  comparing  specific 
applications / reference products with input from real data gathered with standardised metrics obtained 
at least pilot scale production level or full-size plant level205.  

198 Environmental sustainability analysis of a protein-rich livestock feed ingredient in The Netherlands: Microalgae production versus 
soybean import. Sue EllenTaelma, Steven De Meester, WimVan Dijk Vamilsond Silva, Jo Dewulf. 2015. Resources, Conservation and 
Recycling, Volume 101, Pages 61-72.  
199  The role of microalgae in the bioeconomy.  F. Gabriel Acien Fernandez, et al, 2021. New Biotechnology 61, 99-107. 
200 The promising future of microalgae: current status,challenges, and optimization of a sustainable and renewable industry for biofuels, 
feed, and other products. Khan, M.I., Shin, J.H. & Kim, J.D. 2018.. Microbial Cell Factories, 17: 36. 
201Microalgae: New Source of Plant Biostimulants. Colla, G., Rouphael, Y. (2020). Agronomy, 10(9), 1240;  
202 Are algae ready to take off? GHG emission savings of algae-to-kerosene production. Prussi et al., 2021. Applied Energy (304), 15.  
203 The role of microalgae in the bioeconomy. F. Gabriel Acien Fernandez, et al, 2021. New Biotechnology 61 (2021) 99-107. 
204 Stimulating the circular economy for food production in central Mexico: integration of greenhouse cultivation, land-based aquaculture 
and  microalgae  production  systems.    Sijtsma,  L.;  Boedijn,  A.;  Kals,  J.;  Muizelaar,  W.;  Appelman,  W.  2020,  Wageningen  Food  & 
Biobased research.  
205 Comments from validation webinar #4 this project. 

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5.1.2.  Environmental impacts of algae products.  

Algae  products  can  generate  multiple  environmental  benefits,  especially  when  they  are  providing 
substitutes to  conventional  products  associated with a high  ecological  footprint, as long as they are 
produced  sustainably  and  with  a  minimised  carbon  footprint.  This  applies  to  the  current  main 
applications of algae: food and food supplements, animal feed, cosmetics or fertilising  products; as 
well as to emerging applications e.g., bio-packaging.  

Algae as food and food supplements  

Developments are under way to expand the use of microalgae in human food as a source of proteins 
and oils. The use of microalgae in human food as an alternative source of omega oils and proteins could 
drastically reduce the amount of fish used for fish aquaculture and human consumption and reduce the 
terrestrial area in use e.g. for production of edible oils including palm oil206. Besides, macroalgae is 
increasingly becoming popular as a food product, providing alternative (local) vegetables or being used 
in vegetarian or vegan meat alternative (e.g. seaweed-based burgers, fake tuna, etc.). 

The  reduction  in  carbon  emissions  achieved  by  using  algae  products  instead  of  conventional  food 
products will of course depend on the production process and on the actual products to be replaced. For 
meat  or  fish  species  under  overfishing  pressures,  the  benefit  is  quite  clear;  for  vegetables,  detailed 
LCAs will need to be conducted (e.g. to assess the origin and cultivation methods ). 

Algae as animal feed 

Algae  is  historically  implemented  in  the  aquaculture  industry  as  the  indispensable  feed  for  aquatic 
larvae. The major research and development  in  microalgae rearing was  intended to  provide feed  to 
these shrimp and fish larvae. More recently, the use of micro and macroalgae has been investigated to 
reduce the environmental footprint of finfish aquaculture, where one of the major ecological impacts 
comes from the fish meal and the fish oil industry to feed the farmed fishes. Fish meal is also often 
prepared from soybeans, which in many cases is imported and associated with deforestation. Fish oil 
(and some of the fish meal) is currently mostly coming from forage fisheries, increasingly challenged 
on the sustainable management of the stocks being fished. First results of studies show that it is possible 
to replace soy or fish protein in animal feed with micro-macroalgae depending on the protein content, 
the fatty acids, and the aminoacidic profile83. The application of microalgae as a functional ingredient 
in aquafeed is also part of this strategy. This refers in particular to algae as an alternative source of long 
chain polyunsaturated fatty acids like EPA and DHA to replace fish oils or krill oil, and for bioactive 
components that enhance the immune system of farmed fish or as probiotics84.   

In addition to aquafeed, micro- and macroalgae are increasingly used in animal feed as raw material 
and in feed additive mixes to improve gut health, stimulate the immune system of pets, horses, poultry, 
pigs, cows and other animals. More recently, various studies confirm that the addition of macroalgae 

206Food commodities from microalgae. Draaisma et al., 2013. Current Opinion in Biotechnology, Volume 24, Issue 2, pp. 169-177.; 
Commercial application of microalgae other than as biofuels: a brief reviewJ.J. Milledge., 2011. Rev Environ Sci Bio-Technol, 10, pp. 
31-41. ;Microalgae as a source of protein’ E. Becker., 2007. Biotechnol Adv, 25, pp. 207-210 

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to ruminants' diets can reduce methane emissions, with a reported reduction of over 80%207. Impact on 
animal health, product quality and residues, however need to be furthered researched.  

Algae as fertilising products 

Seaweed has been used in the EU to fertilise land for centuries. A whole new generation of fertilising 
products exists out of algae and support the development of organic agriculture and the transition out 
of chemical fertilisers. There are companies208 in the EU that are selling these products since 30 years. 
Green microalgae and certain seaweed species are for instance be used as biostimulants to enhance soil 
fertility  and  plant  growth.  Research  on  the  use  of  cyanobacteria  as  a  plant  biostimulant  and  soil 
conditioner  has  also  proven  the  potential  of  these  organisms  for  sustainable  agriculture  and  several 
European companies are ahead on this field.  

Algae as cosmetics 

In  adapting  themselves  to  new  environments,  macro  and  microalgae  produce  a  wide  variety  of 
secondary (biologically active) metabolites which cannot be found in other organisms. Several of them 
have been studied for their antiaging effects on skin, including antiphotoaging, antifree radical activity, 
moisturisation,  and  collagen  biosynthesis.  In  fact,  algae  are  rich  sources  of  biologically  active 
metabolites such as polysaccharides, carotenoids, phlorotannins present in green, red, brown algae, or 
in microalgae, and represent attractive source to fight against the skin aging process. They have the 
potential to decrease oxidative stress and increase skin cellular longevity in human skin, the examples 
are numerous209. 

Innovative applications 

Other  emerging  applications  for  microalgae  include  microalgae-based  biomaterials,  waste  water 
treatment and CO2 biofixation, and the production of bioenergy. Bioremediation services, especially 
uptake of nitrogen and phosphates in areas affected by eutrophication, is also a promising use case for 
seaweed,  and  was  therefore  ranked  third  in  importance  as  a  use  case  during  the  Online  Public 
Consultation.  A  whole  new  range  of  material  applications  out  of  seaweed  are  being  explored  by  a 
growing number of innovative start-ups and could generate substantial environmental benefits. Proof 
of concepts and demonstration products are now widely available for seaweed based bio packaging, 
either edible or home compostable, and could contribute to reducing plastic leakage into the ocean and 
reduce the packaging CO2 footprint. In the same spirit, several start-ups are developing seaweed-based 
textiles and yarn to reduce the micro plastics leakage associated with synthetic garments.  

 Potential social impacts 

A strong and sustainable EU algae sector is expected to have a strong positive social impact, in terms 
of job creation, quality of jobs and health benefits.  

207Red Seaweed (Asparagopsis Taxiformis) Supplementation Reduces Enteric Methane by over 80 Percent in Beef Steers. Roque, 
Breanna M., et al., 2021. PLOS ONE, vol. 16, no. 3.  
208 E.g. Goëmar  
209 Marine algae as attractive source to skin care, Free Radical Research. Jean-Yves Berthon, Rachida Nachat-Kappes, Mathieu Bey, 
Jean-Paul Cadoret, Isabelle Renimel & Edith Filaire., 2017., 51:6, 555-567. 

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5.2.1.  Job creation.  

According to the latest data available, the algae industry in the EU-27 employs 5,380 people, with the 
entreprises  involved  in  algae-related  services  (including  technology  providers,  R&D  entreprises, 
consultancy  entreprises,  and  traders/exporters)  being  the  largest  contributors  to  this  employment210. 
The  first  social  benefit  of  the  EU  algae  initiative  will  be  mechanical:  the  growth  of  the  EU  algae 
production and the development of new product applications will create new jobs all along the value 
chain. Numerous jobs requiring a multitude of skillsets will need to be created, from technical experts 
in  hatchery,  production  or  harvesting,  to  manufacturing  jobs  in  processing  and  supply  chains. 
Development of the algae sector will also create job opportunities in sales and in technology companies. 

5.2.2.  Quality of jobs  

The algae industry in the EU predominantly generates full time jobs (81%) rather than seasonal (19%) 
while in terms of gender, the sector is quite balanced: male employees dominate (62%) over female 
employees (38%)55.With the right level of ambition, the EU algae sector can aspire to not only create 
employment opportunities, but actually foster high quality jobs, that give back to employees and their 
local  communities.  This  aspiration  might  manifest  through  the  creation  of  jobs  for  young  people 
struggling  in  the  job  market,  the  ongoing  upskilling  of  employees,  and  investments  in  the  local 
community. The localisation of jobs created is also important for the EU context, where a considerable 
share of the employment opportunity is likely to manifest in coastal and rural areas, often facing higher 
levels of unemployment. Seaweed farming can also become a part time job for existing ocean users 
like oysters or mussel farmers, or fishers, and help them generate additional income streams making 
them less exposed to unexpected shocks (e.g., oyster disease, oil price increase, etc.). When integrated 
into the agricultural system in a circular manner, microalgae production also represents an alternative 
of new value chains for agricultural farmers to obtain low-volume and high added-value products.211 

Strengthening the supply chain for the EU algae industry could in itself deliver further social benefits. 
Today, a significant share of algae used in the EU is imported, leaving the supply chain vulnerable to 
unexpected shocks – the COVID crisis has demonstrated how significant this can be for many different 
industries. As the EU domestic sector grows however, distances within the seaweed value chain will 
shorten and supply sources will diversify, making the supply chain more resilient. This trend will better 
protect downstream players in the seaweed value chain and ancillary industries from volatility in the 
global algae market and could therefore enhance job security. 

 Health benefits.  

Algae have multiple health benefits through food and pharmaceuticals applications.  

210An overview of the algae industry in Europe. Producers, production systems, species and socio-economic data. Vazquez Calderon et 
al., 2022. JRC Technical Report (forthcoming). 
211 Algae and their potential for a future bioeconomy, landless food production, and the socio-economic impact of an algae industry. 
Ullmann, J. and Grimm. D. (2021). Organic Agriculture volume 11, pages 261–267 (2021). 

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5.3.1.  Food  

Nutrient-dense and low in fat, algae are often portrayed as healthy and low-calorie food. Spirulina, has 
already  entered  the  category  of  superfoods  in  the  early  90s,  when  the  World  Health  Organization 
designated it as the "best food of the future" to fight malnutrition worldwide. Most seaweed species are 
characterised by elevated levels of dietary fibres and minerals, and low lipid levels. Seaweed are also 
characterised by their antioxidant activities and their content of polyphenolic compounds. In addition 
to their nutritional benefits, edible seaweed species found on the coasts of the EU are used for enhancing 
the flavours of a variety of products. Development of consumption of algae food products in the EU 
will therefore contribute to healthier dietary habits as regards calory, nutrients and fibre intake, and can 
eventually help in limiting non-communicable diseases like diabetes, often associated with unhealthy 
diets. However, due to the possible presence of high concentrations of contaminants (in particular heavy 
metals), which are known to cause serious adverse health effects  it needs to be ensured that the health 
risks of algae consumption are not higher than the benefits. In any case consumption advice would be 
needed  to  limit  the  consumption  of  the  algae  species,  which  contain  the  highest  concentrations  of 
contaminants. 

5.3.2.  Pharmaceuticals  

Macroalgae  are  increasingly  being  explored  as  sources  of  bioactive  compounds  for  pharmaceutical 
applications. There is growing research leveraging neuroprotective effects of certain algae compounds, 
useful  in  the  treatment  of  neuro-degenerative  diseases  such  as  Alzheimer’s  and  Parkinson’s.  Other 
compounds  displayed  anti-ulcer  and  anti-viral  properties.  Anti-cancer  or  anti-inflammatory  and 
immunomodulatory activities are also being actively researched.  

 Potential economic impacts  

According  to  the  latest  data  available,  the  algae  industry  in  the  EU-27  a  total  turnover  (2016-2020 
average)  of  EUR  1,211  million55  (i.e.  <0.01%  of  EU  economy’s  total  Gross  Domestic  Product).  A 
thriving  EU  Algae  sector  will  without  doubt  have  a  positive  impact  on  the  EU  economy,  with  a 
contribution to EU GDP that could amount to several billion euros in the next decade. Most importantly 
the EU algae sector could become the success story that embodies the ambition of the European Green 
Deal  to  reinvent  the  EU  economy  with  more  sustainable,  climate  friendly  and  resilient  industries. 
Recent international crisis like the Covid-19 pandemic or the war in Ukraine have demonstrated that 
globalized value chains can be put at risk, resulting in shortages of raw materials or food, or massive 
increase  in  commodity  prices.  The  development  of  the  EU  Algae  industry  will  bring  solutions  and 
resilience to  the EU  economy by diversifying production of vital  raw materials within EU borders, 
increasing EU self-sufficiency of raw materials and high added-value products and limiting the need 
for imports. 

Besides, even though the EU algae industry is still small compared to Asia competition, there is in the 
EU a solid basis of academic networks, industry knowledge, and innovative start-ups that can develop 
an edge in terms of algae technologies (precision farming, bio-refinery and extraction of high value 

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compounds, digital platforms, etc.), that could eventually lead to export opportunities for the EU algae 
companies.  

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