COMMISSION STAFF WORKING DOCUMENT Accompanying the document Proposal for a Council Recommendation on Pathways to School Success
Date: 2022-06-30
Institutions: Directorate-General for Education, Youth, Sport and Culture, European Commission
Subjects: access to education, cooperation in the field of education, digital literacy, dropout, education, organisation of teaching, school results, teacher training, teaching quality, violence at school, vocational training

EN 

  EN 

   EUROPEAN COMMISSION  Brussels, 30.6.2022  SWD(2022) 176 final  COMMISSION STAFF WORKING DOCUMENT   Accompanying the document Proposal for a Council Recommendation on Pathways to School Success         {COM(2022) 316 final}  
 
 
Commission Staff Working Document – April 2022 

Accompanying the Commission proposal for a Council 
Recommendation on  

Pathways to School Success 

Acknowledgments: 
This  Staff  Working  Document  was  compiled  by  the  European  Commission  services,  with  contributions 
from: Carmel Cefai (University of Malta), Helen Cowie (University of Surrey), Paul Downes (University of 
Dublin),  Kirstin  Kerr  (University  of  Manchester),  Cosmin  Ionut  Nada  (University  of  Porto),  Erna  Nairz-
Wirth  (Vienna  University  of  Economics  and  Business),  Teresa  Sordé  Martí  (Autonomous  University  of 
Barcelona), Zsuzsa Blaskó and Sylke Schnepf (European Commission, Joint Research Center). 

EUROPEAN COMMISSION  

Directorate-General for Education, Youth, Sport and Culture  
Directorate B — Youth, Education and Erasmus+  
Unit B.2 — Schools and Multilingualism  
E-mail: EAC-UNITE-B2@ec.europa.eu  
European Commission 
B-1049 Bruxelles 

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STAFF WORKING DOCUMENT 

ACCOMPANYING THE COMMISSION PROPOSAL FOR A  
COUNCIL RECOMMENDATION ON PATHWAYS TO SCHOOL SUCCESS 

Table of Contents 
About this document ................................................................................................................... 6 

1. Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 7 

1.1 What is Pathways to School Success? ........................................................................................... 7 

1.2 Key definitions and measurement .............................................................................................. 13 

2. Understanding underachievement and early leaving from education and training ........... 16 

2.1 Individual factors ......................................................................................................................... 16 

2.2 Institutional factors ..................................................................................................................... 21 

2.3 Education system factors ............................................................................................................ 23 

2.4 Other factors ............................................................................................................................... 26 

2.5 Impact of underachievement and early leaving from education and training in society ........... 28 

3. Main achievements and lessons learned from the past ....................................................... 33 

3.1 Main achievements ..................................................................................................................... 33 

3.2 Gaps and needs in policy development and implementation .................................................... 39 

4. 

The current context: remaining and new challenges ........................................................ 43 

4.1 Main trends and their possible impact on education ................................................................. 43 

4.2 Remaining challenges ................................................................................................................. 44 

4.2.1 Early leaving from education and training ................................................................. 44 

4.2.2 Underachievement in basic skills ............................................................................... 47 

4.3 New challenges ........................................................................................................................... 53 

4.3.1 Well-being and mental health at school .................................................................... 53 

Learners’ well-being ........................................................................................................ 53 

Teachers’ well-being ....................................................................................................... 61 

4.3.2 The impact of school disruptions due to the COVID-19 crisis on educational 
outcomes and well-being of learners ................................................................................. 62 

5.  Defining a new framework of action to school success .................................................... 68 

5.1 Key enablers ................................................................................................................................ 69 

5.1.1 

An integrated approach at all levels to reducing underachievement and ELET . 69 

An integrated and comprehensive strategy ................................................................... 69 

Differentiation: targeting policies and measures according to the level of need .......... 71 

Better use of funding ...................................................................................................... 74 

5.1.2 Enhanced data collection and monitoring systems ................................................... 78 

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5.2 A Whole-school approach to school success: core dimensions .................................................. 81 

5.2.1 Learners...................................................................................................................... 81 

Early detection ................................................................................................................ 81 

Curriculum ....................................................................................................................... 82 

Embedding socio-emotional education in curricula ....................................................... 84 

Pedagogical approaches ................................................................................................. 86 

Assessment ..................................................................................................................... 88 

Mastering the language of schooling and valuing linguistic diversity ............................ 90 

Supporting newly arrived migrants and refugees ........................................................... 93 

Career guidance and support .......................................................................................... 97 

Targeted and individualised support for learners at risk and learners facing specific 
difficulties ........................................................................................................................ 98 

Social and emotional support ....................................................................................... 102 

Extra-curricular and out-of-school activities ................................................................. 103 

5.2.2 School leaders, teachers, trainers and other staff ................................................... 104 

School leadership .......................................................................................................... 104 

Initial Teacher Education (ITE) and Continuing Professional Development (CPD) of 
teachers......................................................................................................................... 106 

Supporting new teachers .............................................................................................. 113 

Diversity in the teaching profession ............................................................................. 114 

Well-being of teachers .................................................................................................. 114 

5.2.3 Schools ..................................................................................................................... 115 

School governance ........................................................................................................ 115 

School autonomy ...................................................................................................... 116 

Quality assurance ...................................................................................................... 116 

Multidisciplinary teams, local community outreach and interagency collaboration 121 

Professional learning communities and networking between schools .................... 122 

Collaboration between schools and companies ....................................................... 123 

Creating a positive and supportive learning environment ........................................... 124 

Promoting mental health and well-being in school .................................................. 124 

School and classroom climate, bullying and violence ............................................... 127 

Participation in school life ......................................................................................... 130 

5.2.4 Parents and families ................................................................................................. 131 

Better communication and information ....................................................................... 132 

Involving parents in educational activities.................................................................... 134 

Offering opportunities for family learning .................................................................... 135 

Outreach to individuals, families and local communities ............................................. 136 

Increasing participation in school decision-making and school life .............................. 137 

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Promoting opportunities and motivation to read from an early age ........................... 138 

Promoting parental engagement in the early years for maths and science learning... 139 

5.2.5 Structural measures ................................................................................................. 139 

Early Childhood Education and Care ............................................................................. 141 

Active desegregation policies ....................................................................................... 143 

Alternatives to early tracking ........................................................................................ 145 

Avoiding grade repetition, suspensions and expulsions ............................................... 145 

Inclusion of learners with disabilities in mainstream education .................................. 147 

Addressing boys’ underperformance in education ....................................................... 148 

Attractive VET; flexibility and permeability of educational pathways .......................... 149 

Compensation measures: Effective second chance education .................................... 150 

Help for basic needs and targeted financial support .................................................... 152 

6. Opportunities for implementation ...................................................................................... 156 

6.1 The role of the EU: synergies with other EU (and international) initiatives ............................. 156 

6.1.1 Synergies with other Commission Initiatives ........................................................... 156 

6.1.2 Synergies at international level................................................................................ 160 

6.2 Use of EU opportunities, funds and investments and other platforms/tools in education ..... 161 

Annexes ..................................................................................................................................... 168 

Annex I – Synopsis of the results of the Open Public Consultation ................................................ 168 

Annex II - Glossary ........................................................................................................................... 168 

Annex III – Sources and bibliography .............................................................................................. 168 

Annex I - Synopsis of the results of the Open Public Consultation ........................................ 169 

Annex II – Glossary ................................................................................................................... 170 

Annex III – Sources and bibliography ...................................................................................... 175 

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About this document  

This  staff  working  document  is  intended  to  accompany  and  support  the  Commission 
proposal for a Council Recommendation Pathways to School Success, which will repeal  and 
replace  the  2011  Council  Recommendation  on  policies  to  reduce  early  school  leaving.  The 
staff  working  document  sets  out    in more  detail  and  depth  the  concepts  put  forward  in  the 
Commission  proposal  by  providing  research  evidence,  findings  from  consultation  activities, 
good  practice  examples  and  other  information  as  a  basis  for  both  the  text  of  the  proposed 
Recommendation and its accompanying actions. This document is also intended as a practical 
guide/handbook  to  help  policy  makers  and  stakeholders  to  fully  understand 
issues 
surrounding school success and to support positive change across systems and across Europe.  

Chapter  1  provides  an  introduction  to  the  topic,  outlining  a  vision  for  achieving  inclusive 
school success (success for all, regardless of their personal characteristics1, family, cultural or 
socio-economic  background),  describing  the  reasons,  scope  and  wider  policy  context  for  the 
Recommendation. 

Chapter 2 presents in more detail the concepts of early leaving from education and training 
and  of  underachievement  and  the  circumstances  contributing  to  their  persistence  in 
European  education  systems.  Understanding  these  is  key  to  understanding  the  need  for  a 
more holistic, multidimensional and systemic approach to school success.  

Chapter 3 gives an overview of the main achievements obtained at EU level through policy 
cooperation  and  Member  States’  measures/reforms  in  the  area  of  early  leaving  from 
education  and  training.  Chapter  4  describes  the  main  remaining  challenges  in  the  areas 
where  specific  policy  efforts  have  been  made  at  EU  and  national  level  and  introduces  new 
challenges  which  have  emerged  in  recent  years  and  affect  school  success  for  all,  but 
particularly  more  disadvantaged  learners.  It  is  based  on  research  and  evidence  from  studies 
and evaluations of past efforts. 

Chapter  5  then  outlines  key  measures  to  address  these  challenges  and  promote  better 
educational  outcomes.  It  describes  key  learnings  and  more  detailed  recommendations  on 
what  is  needed  with  regard  to  learners,  school  leaders,  teachers  and  trainers,  parents  and 
families, institutions and systems.  

Chapter 6 sets out a number of existing EU initiatives, frameworks and tools that can inspire 
and  help  affect  change  at  school,  at  regional,  national  and  EU-level  and  support  the 
implementation of the Recommendation. 

Findings and suggestions in this document are underpinned by a strong research base, but also 
by  input  received  from  European  ministry  representatives,  non-governmental  organisations, 
social partners, teachers, students, youth representatives and other stakeholders and experts 
in  the  field, obtained  through  a  number of  consultation  activities,  including  a 14 week  open 
public  consultation.  They  are  also  based  on  conclusions  of  extensive  work  carried  out  at 
European  and  national  level.  Annex  I  provides  the  link  to  the  Open  Public  Consultation 
synopsis report. 

Annex II consists of a glossary of certain important concepts for the purpose of this document.  

Annex III lists all sources and input referred to throughout the document. 

1   Personal characteristics include gender, racial or ethnic origin, disability, sexual orientation, religion 

or belief, 

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1. Introduction   

1.1 What is Pathways to School Success? 
Educational outcomes, in terms of knowledge, skills and attitudes developed during schooling, 
are strong predictors of a balanced, healthy and successful adult life and a key condition for 
social  fairness,  democracy  and  prosperity.  Measured  in  terms  of  ‘educational  achievements’ 
and ‘educational attainments’ (see below), they lay are fundamental for laying the foundations 
for adult life. The acquisition of basic skills (literacy, mathematics and science) is essential for 
students’  academic  and  personal  development,  while  the  skills  and  competences  gained  in 
upper secondary education are increasingly seen as the minimum credentials for employment 
or the basis further learning and a fulfilling life.  However, even today not all young European 
have  equal  opportunities  to  benefit  from  education.  Socio-economic  patterns  and 
stratification exert a strong influence on the educational experiences of individuals; students 
from  disadvantaged  backgrounds  are  overrepresented  among  underachievers  and  are  more 
likely to leave education and training without an upper secondary qualification.  

Promoting better educational outcomes for all, irrespective of personal characteristics, family, 
cultural  and  socio-economic  background,  etc.,  through  the  fostering  of  inclusive  and 
supportive  learning  environments  is  key  to  building  more  equitable and  flourishing  societies 
and economies. This is fully in line with Principle 1 of the European Pillar of Social Rights2 and 
lays  at  the  heart  of  the  Commission  Communication  on  achieving  the  European  Education 
Area by 20253.  

Tackling underachievement in basic skills and early leaving from education and training (ELET) 
have been EU political and strategic priorities for years and are recognised as an integral part 
of the political agenda to ensure good quality and more inclusive education, where all children 
and young people have equal opportunities to benefit from education.  

In  particular,  since  the  adoption  in  2011  of  the  Council  Recommendation  on  policies  to 
reduce  early  school  leaving4,  extensive  work  has  been  conducted  at  European  level  and  by 
Member States on this issue. In the attempt to promote a whole-school approach to counter 
early  leaving  from  education  and  training5,  transformation  has  been  encouraged  within 
educational  institutions  and  policies.  The  reduction  in  the  number  of  early  leavers  from 
education and training in the EU has been considerable, which points towards the potential 
of  EU-level  cooperation  and  Member  States’  capacity  to  affect  real  change  in  education 
systems through targeted policy reforms and measures. 

Nevertheless, despite sustained efforts and considerable improvements in regards to ELET in 
the  last  15  years,  ELET  rates  are  still  higher  than  what  would  be  acceptable  for  European 
countries. Moreover, significant differences still exist across countries and inequalities persist 

2   Principle  1  of  the  European  Pillar  of  Social  Rights  reads:  “Everyone  has  the  right  to  quality  and 
inclusive education, training and lifelong learning in order to maintain and acquire skills that enable 
them  to  participate  fully  in  society  and  manage  successfully  transitions  in  the  labour  market”, 
https://ec.europa.eu/info/strategy/priorities-2019-2024/economy-works-people/jobs-growth-and-
investment/european-pillar-social-rights/european-pillar-social-rights-20-principles_en. 

3   COM(2020)625 final 
4  OJ C 191, 1.7.2011, p. 1–6    
5  

Shortly after the adoption of the 2011 Council Recommendation on policies to reduce early school 
leaving, the previously used  concept  of early  school leaving (ESL)  was slowly phased out  and was 
substituted with the new and more inclusive concept of early leaving from education and training 
(ELET), which encompasses a broader group of learners, including those who take part in VET. 

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among  specific  population  groups  (e.g.  third-country  migrants  and  persons  with  migrant 
background, Roma, young men, persons with disabilities, learners living in rural and outermost 
areas). Today, early leavers still represent 9.9% of young people in the EU and only 84.3% of 
young people have completed upper secondary education6.  

At  the  same  time,  although  efforts  were  made  to  also  reduce  underachievement  in  basic 
skills7,  the  results  of  the  OECD’s  (Organization  for  Economic  Development  and  Cooperation) 
Programme  for  International  Student  Assessment  (PISA)  for  2018  actually  revealed  a 
deteriorating trend in the performance in basic skills in 2009-2018. Today still one in five 15-
year-old  Europeans  cannot  perform basic tasks in  reading,  maths  or  science. What is more, 
the  results  of  the  2018  International  Computer  and  Information  Literacy  Study  (ICILS) 8 also 
show that a fifth of young people in the EU do not possess basic digital skills. 

The  socio-economic background of a learner and their family  continues to be the strongest 
determinant  of  educational  outcomes.  Pupils  with  a  disadvantaged  background  are  much 
more likely to have poor education outcomes than their peers who have parents with higher 
salaries  and/or  a  higher  educational  attainment.  This  points  to  a  persistent  risk  of 
intergenerational transmission of disadvantage and reduced upwards social mobility. 

Looking  towards  the  future,  the  Council  Resolution  on  a  strategic  framework  for  European 
cooperation  in  education  and  training  towards  the  European  Education  Area  and  beyond 
(2021-2030)9 features  ELET  and  underachievement  prominently  and  has  set  new  EU-Level 
targets for 2030: the share of low-achieving 15-year-olds in reading, mathematics and science 
should  be  less  than  15%,  the  share  of  low-achieving    eighth  -graders  in  computer  and 
information literacy less than 15%, and the share of early leavers from education and training 
less than 910. 

Lessons  learnt  from  the  past  and  recent  political  commitments  point  towards  the  need  for 
renewed and sustained action at EU and national level towards promoting school success for 
all  learners  and  to  achieve  these  EU-level  targets.  Past  efforts  also  confirm  that  ELET  and 
underachievement are multi-faceted and complex issues that cannot be solved separately or 
without a comprehensive and holistic approach to success.  This means that other emerging 
challenges must also be addressed. Among these challenges, there is well-being. The results of 
PISA 2018 revealed shortcomings in the education systems which may have a strong influence 
is  declining  and 
on  educational  outcomes:  pupils’  sense  of  belonging  at  school 
bullying/cyberbullying  is  widespread.  Mental  health  in  children  and  young  people  has 
become  a  major  issue  in Europe,  with  around  20%  of  children  and  adolescents  experiencing 
mental  health  problems  during  their  school  years,  in  particular  anxiety  and  depression11. 

The data source is Eurostat, EU Labour Force Survey. 

6  
7   Basic  skills  are  to  be  understood  according  to  the  OECD's  Programme  for  International  Student 
Assessment  (PISA),  which  measures  15  year-olds’  ability  to  use  their  reading,  mathematics  and 
science knowledge and  skills  to meet  real-life challenges.  Underachievers are therefore those 15-
year-old  pupils,  still  in  education,  who  fail  to  reach  OECD  PISA  proficiency  level  2,  which  is 
considered to be the minimum level necessary to participate successfully in society 

8   https://www.iea.nl/studies/iea/icils/2018  
9   OJ C 66, 26.2.2021  
10   This EU-level target is accompanied by an upper secondary completion indicator, which measures 
the share of the young population aged between 20 and 24 years with, at least, an upper secondary 
qualification  (ISCED  level  3-8),  thus  successful  completion  of  formal  education  (ISCED  level  3-8), 
through data made available by Eurostat, EU Labour Force Survey.  

11   WHO  Regional  Office  for  Europe,  (2018),  Adolescent  mental  health  in  the  European  Region, 

Factsheet for World Mental Health Day 2018, Copenhagen. 

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Research  has  also  underlined  that  school  bullying  has  devastating  impacts  on  pupils’  health 
and  academic  achievements.  All  this,  of  course,  has  serious  consequences  for  students’ 
development  and  their  educational  performance;  it  increases  the  risk  of  students  leaving 
school prematurely and reduces their potential to live fulfilling lives. Again, the link between 
poverty  and  increased  risk  of  mental  health  difficulties,  disorders  and  suicide  is  well-
recognised.  

The  COVID-19  crisis  has  made  it  even  more  urgent  to  address  these  challenges.  Socio-
economically marginalised children who already had lower than average achievements before 
the  pandemic,  are  those  that  were  likely  to  have  suffered  most  during  the  lockdowns. 
Moreover,  children  and  young  people  with  no  or  limited  access  to  relevant  and  quality 
learning resources and school-based support structures, with difficult home/family situations, 
or  with  pre-existing  mental  health  difficulties  or  special  educational  needs,  have  also  been 
affected  disproportionately.  At  the  same  time,  an  increase  in  mental  health  difficulties  has 
been  observed,  particularly  amongst  those  already  at  risk12.  A  number  of  studies  actually 
suggest that this crisis and the prolonged physical school closures have hindered the learning 
progression  and  increased  the  likelihood  of  at-risk  for  learners  at  risk  of  dropping  out  from 
school  and  eventually,  drop  out 13 .  As  a  result,  there  are  fears  that  the  share  of 
underperforming  students  in  Europe  might  have  risen  considerably  during  the  pandemic, 
especially among those that come from more disadvantaged backgrounds14. Similarly, the rate 
of early leavers from education and training is expected to increase in the coming years, even 
though this will only be reflected in statistics in a few years.  

Analysis of these long-term and more recent trends and challenges, coupled with new insights 
from  research,  findings  from  peer  learning  and  cooperation  between  Member  States,  and  a 
detailed  assessment  of  the  policies  adopted  at  European  and  national  level  in  particular  to 
reduce  early  school  leaving 15 ,  have  highlighted  gaps  and  areas  in  which  new  and 
strengthened  interventions  are  needed.  In  simple  terms,  it  is  not  enough  to  ensure  that 
young  people  remain  in  education  if,  they  do  not  acquire  the  level  of  basic  skills  and key 
competences  necessary  to  thrive  in  work  and  in  life. It  is  also  not  enough  to  retain  young 
people in school if the  school environment is not safe  and supportive  enough, since  this can 
even  have  detrimental  effects  on  their  mental  health  and  well-being  and  ultimately  on 
educational outcomes. 

12   Cowie H, Myers C-A, (2020), “The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the mental health and well-

being of children and young people”, Child Soc. 2021, 35:62–74. 

13   European  Commission,  Joint  Research  Centre,  Vuorikari,  R.,  Velicu,  A.,  Chaudron,  S.,  Cachia,  R.Di 
Gioia,  R.,  (2020),  How  families  handled  emergency  remote  schooling  during  the  time  of  Covid 
lockdown  in  spring  2020:  Summary  of  key  findings  from  families  with  children  in  11  European 
countries,  EUR  30425  EN,  Publications  Office  of  the  European  Union,  Luxembourg.  For  an 
estimation  of  learning  time  lost  in  Italy,  France  and  Germany,  see:  European  Commission,  Joint 
Research Centre, Di Pietro, G., Biagi, F., Dinis Mota Da Costa, P., Karpinski, Z. and Mazza, J. (2020), 
The likely impact of COVID-19 on education: Reflections based on the existing literature and recent 
international datasets, EUR 30275 EN, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg. 
14   European Commission, Directorate-General for Education, Youth, Sport and Culture,  NESET-EENEE 
Report, Koehler, C., Psacharopoulos, G., and Van der Graaf, L., (2022), The impact of COVID-19 on 
the education of disadvantaged children and the socio-economic consequences thereof, Publications 
Office of the European Union, Luxembourg. 

15   European  Commission,  Directorate-General  for  Education,  Youth,  Sport  and  Culture,  Donlevy,  V., 
Day, L., Andriescu, M.,  Downes, P., (2019), Assessment of the implementation of the 2011 Council 
recommendation on policies to reduce early school leaving: final report, Publications Office of the 
European Union, Luxembourg. 

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It  is  in  this  context  that  Pathways  for  School  Success  emerges  as  a  key  initiative  of  the 
European Education Area action plan I16. The initiative calls for a renewed and strengthened 
commitment  towards  promoting  more  inclusive  education  and  better  educational  outcomes 
for all children and young people, taking into account their diverse situations and stories, and 
developing  more  inclusive,  caring  and  supportive  learning  environments.  Building  on  the 
experience  of  the  2011  Council  Recommendation  on  policies  to  reduce  early  school  leaving, 
the  new  initiative  combines  novelty  with  continuity,  proposing  new  solutions  as  well  as 
consolidating and updating measures which have proved successful.  

What is new in Pathways to School Success? 

First of all, as implied by the 2011 Council Recommendation on policies to reduce early school 
leaving17 focused  only  on  one  of  two  targets  agreed  in  the  EU  strategic  framework  for 
cooperation in education and training. Given the persistent challenges in performance in the 
OECD’s PISA surveys, it is time to address both the reduction of early leaving from education 
and training, and underachievement in basic skills, and in particular the strong impact of socio-
economic background on education outcomes, in a renewed Council recommendation and the 
work following from that.  

Secondly, we need  to  draw  lessons from the implementation of the 2011 Recommendation. 
One of the points to be addressed is that policies on reducing ELET, have often taken a rather 
individualistic and deficit view of students at risk18. Quite often, while educational institutions 
and  policymakers  alike,  whilst  they  verbally  recognise  the  complexity  of  factors  leading  to 
ELET, they end up disregarding institutional and systemic flaws at the root of disengagement. 
As a result,  measures  designed  to  tackle  ELET  often  focus  too much  on  learners’  supposed 
deficits and how these could be corrected, and not enough on the changes that educational 
systems and institutions must make in order to provide an education that inspires, motivates 
and  encourages  young  people  to  reach  their  full  potential.  More  attention  must  be  paid  to 
what needs to be done at the institutional and systemic level  to achieve school success for 
all.  

Thirdly,  we  see  a  shift  from  the  traditional  focus  which  is  overwhelmingly  on  academic 
performance,  to  a  more  holistic  view  of  education,  acknowledging  that  children  and 
adolescents  need  a  balanced  set  of  cognitive,  social  and  emotional  competences  to  achieve 
positive outcomes in school and in life more generally. Research and empirical evidence19 has 
shown  that  learning  is  a  relational  and  emotional  process  impacting  academic  achievement. 
Research  has  also  shown  that  better  academic  results  and  a  positive  school  climate  for  all 
students  can  be  achieved  without  any  adaptation  or  adjustment  "downwards"20.  Hence  the 
need  to  address  ‘school  success’  in  a  systemic  way,  including  –  along  with      academic 

16   https://op.europa.eu/webpub/empl/european-pillar-of-social-rights/en/#infographic-main 
17   OJ C 191, 1.7.2011, p. 1–6    
18   Nada,  C.  I.,  Santos,  S.  A.,  Macedo,  E.,  &  Araújo,  H.  C.  (2020).  Can  mainstream  and  alternative 
education learn from each other? An analysis of measures against school dropout and early school 
leaving in Portugal. Educational Review, 72(3), 365-385. 

19   Durlak, J.A., Weissberg, R.P., Dymnicki, A.B., Taylor, R.D. and Schellinger, K.B. (2011). The Impact of 
Enhancing  Students’  Social  and  Emotional  Learning:  A  Meta-Analysis  of  School-Based  Universal 
Interventions. Child Development, 82(1), 405–432;  

20   Lieberman, M.D. (2013). Social: Why our brains are wired to connect. New York: Crown Publishers; 
Liu, J.J.W., Ein, N., Gervasio, J., Battaion, M., Reed, M. and Vickers, K. (2020). Comprehensive meta-
analysis of resilience interventions. Clinical Psychology Review, 82(September), 101919. 

9 

 
 
                                                           
  
attainment  and  achievement,  well-being,  bullying  prevention  and  promotion  of  social  and 
emotional education.  

As  a  consequence,  Pathways  to  School  Success  is  concerned  not  only  with  reacting  to 
problems  such  as  underachievement  or  ELET,  but  also  with  preventing  them,  by  promoting 
positive  change  at  system-level  and  combining  universal,  targeted  and    individualised 
measures to promote success for all learners. The initiative sees three intertwined conditions - 
engagement, achievement and well-being at school – which, when improved simultaneously, 
promote  better  educational  outcomes  for  all  children  and  young  people  and  also  create 
favourable conditions for those in disadvantaged situations, thus increasing their chances of 
succeeding in education and in life.  

Figure 1. The three core issues tackled by ‘pathways to school success’

Source: European Commission (2021), DG EAC internal elaboration 

This  approach  is  supported  by  an  inclusive,  learner-centred  and  participatory  vision  of 
education,  which  considers  that  education  should  allow  all  children  and  young  people  to 
achieve  their  full  potential,  irrespective  of  gender,  racial  or  ethnic  origin,  disability,  sexual 
orientation  or  religion  or  belief,  or  migrant  background  or  their  personal,  family  or  socio-
economic  situation.  Countries  should  provide  good  quality  education  to  all  in  mainstream 
settings with special attention paid to learners at risk of exclusion and underachievement, by 
actively  seeking  out  to  support  learners  and  responding  flexibly  to  their  circumstances  and 
needs,  including  through  individualised  approaches,  targeted  support  and  cooperation  with 
the  families  and  local  communities”21.  There  is  evidence  of  the  positive  impact  on  learning 
outcomes  of  adopting  an  inclusive  approach  in  supporting  those  students  who  have 
traditionally been excluded from the classroom. 

The  proposals  stresses  that  inclusiveness  can  be  achieved  through  a  whole-system,  whole-
school  approach22,  which  the  Council  endorsed  in  its  2015  Conclusions  on  reducing  early 
school leaving and promoting success  in school23. A 'whole school approach' is an ecological 

21   Further guidance for fostering equity and inclusiveness in education and training has been set out 
in  Elements  of  a  policy  framework,  produced  by  the  ET2020  Working  Group  on  Promoting 
Citizenship  and  the  Common  Values  of  Freedom,  Tolerance  and  Non-Discrimination  through 
Education 2016-18. 

22   European  Commission,  Directorate-General  for  Education,  Youth,  Sport  and  Culture,  (2015),  A 
whole  school  approach  to  tackling  early  school  leaving  –  policy  messages,  final  report  of  the 
Education  and  Training  2020  Working  Group  on  Schools,  .  Publications  Office  of  the  European 
Union, 
https://education.ec.europa.eu/sites/default/files/document-library-
docs/early-school-leaving-group2015-policy-messages_en.pdf 

Luxembourg. 

23   OJ C 417, 15.12.2015, p. 36-40. 

10 

 
 
 
                                                           
way  of  viewing  a  school24,  which  acknowledges  the  role,  relationships  and  interactions 
between a whole range of players (schools, families, communities, authorities, etc.) that can 
have  an  impact  on  the  individual.  The  school  is  seen  as  a  multidimensional  and  interactive 
system  that  can  learn  and  change;  an  open  learning  hub  which  provides  support  to  its 
neighbourhood and receives support from the community.  

Figure 2. The school as a learning organisation 

Source: ET 2020 Working Group Schools25 

In  a  whole school  approach  to  school  success  all members  of  the  school  community  (school 
leaders, middle management, teaching and non-teaching staff, learners, parents and families, 
and  the  local  community)  feel  responsible  and  play  an  active  role  in  tackling  educational 
disadvantage and preventing underachievement and drop-out. The entire  school community 
engages in a cohesive, collective and collaborative action, based on multi-disciplinarity and 
aimed at supporting each learner in the most appropriate way. It also implies a cross-sectoral 
approach and stronger cooperation with a wide range of stakeholders (social services, youth 
services, outreach care workers, psychologists, nurses, speech and language therapists, career 
guidance  specialists,  local  authorities,  NGOs,  business,  unions,  volunteers,  etc.)  and  the 
community  at  large,  to  deal  with  complex  issues  that  schools  do  not  (and  cannot)  have  the 
relevant expertise for.  

24   The  underlying  model  is  that  which  is  presented  in  Bronfenbrenner,  U.,  (1979),  The  Ecology  of 
Human  Development:  Experiments  by  Nature  and  Design.  Harvard  University  Press.  His  ecological 
model of development takes account of development in a range of different contexts and does not 
only focus on the individual characteristics of the child or young person.   

25   https://www.schooleducationgateway.eu/en/pub/resources/governance-of-school-edu.htm  

11 

 
 
 
                                                           
1.2 Key definitions and measurement  

For  the  purpose  of  the  present  document,  we  propose  a  set  of  operational  definitions  and 
measurement  strategies,  which  are  set  out  in  the  glossary  (Annex  II).    Some  of  the  most 
important are outlined below. 

Educational outcomes: attainment and achievement 

The  literature  uses  educational  attainment  and  educational  achievement  as  proxies  to 
measure educational outcomes. Educational attainment  refers  to  the successful  completion 
of specific education levels, for example primary, lower or upper secondary education. In this 
definition, it is assumed that completion of a specific education level goes together with the 
acquisition of specific education level related competences26. The EU indicator on ELET clearly 
refers  to  a  measure  of  educational  attainment,  since  it  measures  the  proportion  of  18–24-
year-olds  with,  at  most,  lower  secondary  educational  attainment  (i.e.  UNESCO  ISCED  0-2 
levels) who are no longer in formal or non-formal education and training. 

While  the  focus  on  educational  attainment  is  helpful  for  understanding  how  children  and 
adults have progressed in their country’s specific education system, it is only partially helpful 
in  understanding  individuals’  actual  knowledge  and  skills.  Therefore,  any  focus  on  children’s 
learning  progress  or  achievement,  should  also  focus  on  their  actual  functional  literacy,,  i.e. 
their  reading,  writing  and  numeracy  abilities.  The  most  known  cross-national  educational 
achievement  survey,  the  OECD’s  Programme  for  International  Student  Assessment  (PISA) 
measures 15-year-olds’ ability to use their reading, mathematics and science knowledge and 
skills to meet real-life challenges.  PISA’s measurement of basic skills has been used for the EU 
benchmark  on  underachievement  under  the  ET  2020  strategic  framework  for  European 
cooperation 
is  the  basis  of  the  EU-level  target  on 
It 
underachievement  in  basic  skills  established  by  the  Council  Resolution  on  a  strategic 
framework  for  European  cooperation  in  education  and  training  towards  the  European 
Education Area and beyond (2021-2030). In this context, underachievers are those 15-year-old 
pupils, still in education, who fail to reach OECD PISA proficiency Level 2, which is considered 
to be the minimum level necessary to participate successfully in society.  

in  education  and  training.. 

Well-being and mental health promotion in schools 

Students’ well-being can be defined as a state of overall mental and physical health, strength, 
resilience  and fitness  that allows them to function well at school and in their personal lives. 
International research27 shows that the school environment is a fundamental determinant of 
good  or  poor  mental  health  in  children  and  adolescents.  The  World  Health  Organization 

26   Countries’ education systems differ in terms of what is required to complete a  specific education 
level.  For  example,  in  European  countries  the  duration  for  completing  primary  education  ranges 
between  4  and  6  years  of  schooling,  which  is  why  the  United  Nations  Educational,  Scientific  and 
Cultural  Organization  (UNESCO)  designed  the  International  Standard  Classification  of  Education 
(ISCED),  which,  while  having  some  limitations,  allows  educational  attainment  outcomes  to  be 
compared across countries. See: UNESCO (2012), International Standard Classification of Education 
– ISCED 2011. UNESCO Institute for Statistics. 

27   European Commission, Directorate-General for Education, Youth, Sport and Culture, NESET Report, 
Simões, C., Caravita, S., Cefai, C., (2021),  A systemic, whole-school approach to mental health and 
well-being in schools in the EU: analytical report. 

12 

 
 
 
                                                           
defines good mental health as a state of well-being, the realisation of one’s own abilities and 
the ability to cope with the  normal stresses of life28. A sense of well-being includes  having a 
positive  sense  of  identity  and  an  ability  to  manage  thoughts  and  emotions,  to  build  social 
relationships, and to acquire an education that allows active citizenship as an adult. 

The  concepts  of  well-being,  mental  health  and  other  interrelated  concepts  used  in  this 
document (such as social and emotional learning, bullying, school climate, etc.) are explained 
in the Glossary (Annex II). This document is based on a conceptual framework put forward in 
the  2021  report  from  the  Network of  Experts  working  on  the  Social  dimension  of  Education 
and Training (NESET) on “A systemic, whole school approach to mental health and well-being 
in schools in the EU”29. 

Concerning  data,  the  actual  measurement  of  well-being  is  a  challenge30.  Comparability  of 
cross-country data requires not only international surveys asking the same question in several 
countries,  but  also  selecting  the  most  ‘unbiased’  indicators,  i.e.  those  that  are  more 
independent  from  country-specific  cultural  contexts31.  Much  of  the  data  on  well-being 
reported  in  this  document  come  from  the  OECD  Programme  for  International  Student 
Assessment  (PISA)  for  2018  and  in  particular  from  Volume  III:  What  school  life  means  for 
students’  lives32.  The  OECD  has  developed  a  specific  framework  to  analyse  student  well-
being33 and  school  climate  which  includes  five  dimensions:  cognitive,  psychological,  physical, 
social and material. The main indicators refer to: students’ life satisfaction and meaning in life, 
students’  feelings,  students’  self-efficacy,  fear of  failure,  and  growth mind  set.  Indicators  for 
school climate refer to student behaviour (bullying, disciplinary climate, truancy and lateness), 
teaching  practices,  teachers’  enthusiasm  and  school  community  (student  cooperation  and 
competition, sense of belonging at school and parental involvement in school activities).  

Key takeaway 

  Reducing underachievement in basic skills and early leaving from education and 
training have been and continue to be key targets of European cooperation in 
education and training. 

  Extensive work has already taken place at European and national level to address early 

leaving from education and training. Lessons learnt from past activities and new 
findings from research point to the need for renewed and sustained action at EU and 
national level towards promoting school success for all. 

  Some gaps and areas to be further addressed have been identified: develop a more 
systemic approach, addressing in a coherent way all dimensions that can have an 

28   WHO,  Department  of  Mental  Health  and  Substance  Abuse,  (2004),  Promoting  mental  health: 

concepts, emerging evidence, practice: Summary Report. France. 

29   European Commission, Directorate-General for Education, Youth, Sport and Culture, NESET Report, 
Simões, C., Caravita, S., Cefai, C., (2021), A systemic, whole-school approach to mental health and 
well-being in schools in the EU: analytical report. 

30   Selwyn, J. and Wood, M. (2015), Measuring Well-Being: A Literature Review. University of Bristol. 
31   Life satisfaction is a clear example of an indicator potentially suffering from severe cultural biases, 
which makes it unsuitable for international analyses.  OECD (2019), PISA 2018 Results (Volume III): 
What School Life Means for Students’ Lives. OECD Publishing, Paris, p. 36. 

32   OECD  (2019),  PISA  2018  Results  (Volume  III):  What  School  Life  Means  for  Students’  Lives,  OECD 

Publishing, Paris 

33   Borgonovi, F. and Pál, J (2016), A framework for the analysis of student well-being in the PISA 2015 

study: Being 15 in 2015. OECD Education Working Papers, No. 140, OECD Publishing, Paris. 

13 

 
 
                                                           
impact on the quality of learners’ educational experience, including well-being at 
school; focus more on prevention and intervention; combine universal measures with 
more targeted interventions for groups more at risks; further promote cooperation 
and systematic dialogue with all relevant stakeholders at all levels.     

  The new initiative ‘Pathways to School Success’ relies on a broad and inclusive notion 

of school success and proposes to address it in a systematic and holistic way. 

14 

 
 
 
 
2. Understanding underachievement and early leaving from education 
and training  

There is not one reason behind underperformance nor a single factor which can explain why a 
young  person  leaves  education  prematurely.  Underachievement  and  early  leaving  from 
education and training are multi-faceted and complex issues, with multiple drivers which often 
interact with each other. The two phenomena are frequently intertwined: early leaving is the 
result  of  a  process  of  progressive  disengagement  from  education,  often  associated  with 
mediocre educational results, whose roots may lie in early years.  

Research has widely explored the academic success of pupils and paid particular attention to 
factors  that  can  contribute  to  poor  academic  performance  and  ELET34.  Many  of  these  are 
linked  to  the  effects  of  wider  societal  factors,  such  as  socio-economic  background,  migrant 
status,  parents’  educational  level,  etc.  It  is  widely  acknowledged  that  both  issues  are  most 
often  the  result  of  a  combination  of  individual,  family-related,  educational,  social  and 
economic 
leading  to  situations  of  cumulative 
disadvantage.  Their  triggers  are  not  purely  educational,  however  certain  features  of  the 
education systems (such as limited access to quality early childhood education and care, early 
tracking,  segregation,  grade  repetition,  etc.)35 can  further  aggravate  their  incidence,  with  a 
particularly negative impact on those belonging to more disadvantaged groups. People at risk, 
notably  those  of  lower  socio-economic  status,  often  suffer  from  multiple  disadvantages  and 
are affected by a complex mix of the dimensions identified above. 

interdependent  and 

factors,  strictly 

This  section  provides  an  insight  into  factors  that  contribute  to  the  educational  success  of 
children and young people and help understand the need for a comprehensive and systemic 
approach to school success and inclusion36. 

2.1 Individual factors 

The academic literature offers a range of explanations on education al success which relate to 
the  situation  of  the  persons  concerned,  in  particular  to  the  role  of  socio-economic  and 
migration  background,  gender,  disability,  family  background,  educational  expectations,  and 
peer groups. 

Socio-economic  background 
influencing 
to  be  a 
underachievement37.  Pupils  with  a  low  socio-economic  background  tend  to  be  slower  in 

fundamental  element 

seems 

34   For an overview of factors contributing to early school leaving see: Van der Graaf, A., Vroonhof, P., 
Roullis, G., and Velli, F., (2019), Research for CULT Committee – How to tackle early school leaving in 
the EU.  European Parliament,  Brussels; Cedefop (2016),  Tackling early leaving: putting VET centre 
stage.  Volume  I.  Investigating  causes  and  extent,  Publications  Office  of  the  European  Union, 
Luxembourg. 

35   European Commission, European Education and Culture Executive Agency, Eurydice, (2020), Equity 
in  school education in Europe: structures, policies and student  performance, Publications Office of 
the European Union, Luxembourg. 

36   European  Commission,  European  Education  and  Culture  Executive  Agency,  Eurydice, 
(2015), Tackling  early  leaving  from  education  and  training  in  Europe:  strategies,  policies  and 
measures, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg.  

37   Volante, L., Schnepf S., Jerrim J. and Klinger D. eds, (2019), Socio-economic Inequality and Student 
Outcomes:  Cross-national  Trends,  Policies  and  Practices.  London,  Springer;  Lavrijsen,  J,  Nicaise,  I., 

15 

 
 
 
                                                           
 
developing  academic  and  linguistic  skills.  They  display  learning-related  behaviour  problems 
more often, show lower motivation towards learning, leave education and training earlier, and 
leave with lower qualifications and insufficient competences for full participation in society38. 
This  is  confirmed  in  a  more  recent  study39 which  used  international  survey  data  on  student 
performance  and  characteristics  (PISA,  PIRLS40 and  TIMSS41),  and  statistical  data  collected  by 
Eurostat. The study finds a significant impact of socio-economic disadvantage on educational 
outcomes in most European education systems.  

Socio-economic  status  also  strongly  affects  pupils’  educational  expectations.  In  many  EU 
Member  States,  more  than  80%  of  pupils  from  advantaged  families  expect  to  complete 
tertiary  education, while  fewer  than 50% of disadvantaged pupils do42. Reduced educational 
expectations  and  aspirations  influence  educational  choices,  can  translate  into  a  low  level  of 
actual  achievements  and  increase  the  risk  of  intergenerational  transmission  of  poverty. 
Motivation and engagement are increasingly seen as essential factors for pupils’ educational 
success. Research indicates that positive academic self-expectations among high-risk students 
in 
(low  socio-economic  status 
mathematics43. 

immigrants)  are  associated  with  higher  achievement 

Pupils  from  more  socio-economically  disadvantaged  families  may  also  experience  a  lack  of 
positive  and supportive  home  environment44, with reduced access to educational resources 
at  home  (e.g.  no  quiet  space  for  studying  and  doing  homework45)  In  addition,  in  today’s 
increasingly  digital  society,  the  lack  of  access  to  a  computer,  ICT  resources  and  internet  at 
home also makes integration with peers and active participation in school much harder46. Low 

(2015),  Social  Inequalities  in  Early  School  Leaving:  The  Role  of  Educational  Institutions  and  the 
Socioeconomic Context, European Education, 47:4, pp. 295-310. 

38   European Commission, Directorate-General for Education, Youth, Sport and Culture, Budginaitė, I., 
Sternadel, D., Algirdas Spurga, S.,  et  al., (2016), Policies and practices for equality and inclusion in 
and  through  education:  evidence  and  policy  guidance  from  European  research  projects  funded 
under FP6 and FP7, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg; Lavrijsen, J, Nicaise, I., 
(2015)  Social  Inequalities  in  Early  School  Leaving:  The  Role  of  Educational  Institutions  and  the 
Socioeconomic Context. European Education, 47:4, pp. 295-310. 

39   European Commission, European Education and Culture Executive Agency, Eurydice, (2020) Equity 
in  school education in Europe: structures, policies and student  performance, Publications Office of 
the European Union, Luxembourg.  
 The 
in 
https://nces.ed.gov/surveys/pirls/pirls2006.asp 

International 

Available 

Progress 

Reading 

Literacy 

Study. 

at: 

40

41   The 

Trends 

in 

International  Mathematics 

and 

Science 

Study. 

Available 

at: 

https://nces.ed.gov/timss/.  

42   European  Commission,  Directorate-General  for  Education,  Youth,  Sport  and  Culture,  (2019),  PISA 
2018 and the EU: striving for social fairness through education, Publications Office of the European 
Union, Luxembourg. 

43   European  Commission,  Directorate-General  for  Education,  Youth,  Sport  and  Culture,  Spence,  C., 
Donlevy,  V.,  Cutmore,  M.,  et  al.,  (2019), Against  the  odds:  academically  resilient  students  with  a 
migrant background and how they succeed: final report, Publications Office of the European Union, 
Luxembourg. 

44   Banerjee,  P.  A.,  (2016),  A  systematic  review  of  factors  linked  to  poor  academic  performance  of 

disadvantaged students in science and maths in schools. Cogent Education, 3. 

45   Mullis,  I.  V.  S.,  Martin,  M.  O.,  Foy,  P.,  Kelly,  D.  L., &  Fishbein,  B.  (2020), TIMSS  2019  International 

Results in Mathematics and Science.  

46   European  Commission,  Directorate-General  for  Education,  Youth,  Sport  and  Culture,  Melstveit 
Roseme,  M.,  Day,  L.,  Fellows,  T.,  et  al.,  (2021), Enhancing  learning  through  digital  tools  and 
practices: how digital technology in compulsory education can help promote inclusion: final report, 
Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg. 

16 

 
 
                                                                                                                                                                          
income may also be accompanied by higher level of parental stress, tensions and violence in 
the  households  which,  in  turn,  negatively  impacts  educational  achievement.  Some  research 
also  shows  that  in  households  where  both  parents  work,  or  in  single  parent  households, 
children and young people may be asked to contribute to looking after other young (or elderly) 
family members, or need to contribute to the household finances by getting a job alongside to 
their  studies 47.  Therefore,  access  to  high-quality  education  is  of  great  importance  for 
disadvantaged  children  to  break  the  cycle  of  low  achievement  and  poverty  and  support 
measures    

Migrant  or  refugee  status  or  belonging  to  an  ethnic  minority  are  often  associated  with 
greater  educational  vulnerability.      In  fact,  evidence  shows  that  socio-economic  status  or 
family  background  are  more  strongly  associated  to  students’  performance  than  migrant 
background48.  Language  also  plays  an  important  role,  as  the  knowledge  of  the  host  country 
language can help to reduce the educational gap between immigrant and native learners. 

Parents  and  families  play  a  key  role  as  regards  children’s  and  young  people’s  learning  and 
well-being  related  outcomes.  If  parents’  positive  attitudes  towards  school  and  high 
educational expectations has an impact on pupils’ motivation, parental education remains one 
of the most important predictors of educational outcomes: children whose parents have lower 
education attainment are themselves more likely to underachieve and less  likely  to progress 
further in education49.  Abundant  research confirms the  importance of  parental  involvement 
in  education50 as  a  key  factor  for  educational  success.  In  addition  to  the  well-recognised 
positive effect on learner’s academic results51, parental involvement has a widely documented 
impact  on  reducing  school  absenteeism,  preventing  school  burnout,  improved  social  skills, 
behaviour at school and positive relations with schoolmates52. Parents and families also play a 

47   Van  der  Graaf,  A.,  Vroonhof,  P.,  Roullis,  G.,  and  Velli,  F.,  (2019),  Research  for  CULT  Committee  – 

How to tackle early school leaving in the EU. European Parliament, Brussels. 

48   European  commission,  Joint  Research  Centre,  Hippe,  R.  and  Jakubowski,  M.,  (2018),  Immigrant 
background  and  expected  early  school  leaving  in  Europe:  evidence  from  PISA.  EUR  28866  EN, 
Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg; OECD (2016), PISA 2015  Results (Volume 
I): Excellence and Equity in Education. PISA, OECD Publishing, Paris.  

49   European  Commission,  Joint  Research  Centre,  d'Hombres,  B.,  Neher  F.  (eds.),  (2020),  Beyond 
averages - Fairness in an economy that works for people. EUR 29995 EN, Publications Office of the 
European Union, Luxembourg. 

50   Parental involvement is a broad term that encompasses various types of parental behaviours and 
practices  that  support  school  learning  and  the  academic  progress  of  their  children.  Parental 
involvement can be further categorised into school-based and home-based activities. School-based 
activities  include  attending  teacher-parent  meetings  at  which  a  student’s  progress  is  discussed; 
participating in local structures, such as committees that contribute to school governance; as well 
as  volunteering  and  fundraising  for  extra-curricular  activities  and  events.  Home-based  activities 
include  communication  between  parents  and  children  about  their  school  progress,  cultivating 
academic aspirations (both of these activities are defined as  academic socialisation); providing an 
environment  conducive  to  learning  at  home,  helping  with  homework  and  following  the  child’s 
overall  learning  progress.  See  European  Commission,  Directorate-General  for  Education,  Youth, 
Sport  and  Culture,  NESET  Ad  hoc  report no.  1/2021,  Alieva,  A.  (2021),  Parental  involvement  in 
formal education, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg. 

51   Hill, N.E. & Tyson, D.F., (2009), Parental involvement in middle school: a meta-analytic assessment 
of  the  strategies  that  promote  achievement.  Developmental  Psychology,  45(3),  740–763;  Castro, 
M.,  Expósito-Casas,  E.,  López-Martín,  E.,  Lizasoain,  L.,  Navarro-Asencio,  E.  &  Gaviria,  J.L.,  (2015), 
Parental  involvement  on  student  academic  achievement:  A  meta-analysis.  Educational  Research 
Review, 14, 33-46.  

52   Virtanen, T.E., Lerkkanen, M.-K., Poikkeus A.-M. & Kuorelahti M., (2018), Student Engagement and 
School Burnout in Finnish Lower-Secondary Schools: Latent Profile Analysis. Scandinavian Journal of 

17 

 
 
                                                           
 
key  role  as  regards children  and  young  people’s  well-being.  Therefore,  policies  and  targeted 
measures that support and guide parents with regard to their child’s nutrition, physical fitness, 
mental health and resiliency, engagement in risky behaviour, and safe use of technology, will 
have  a positive effect on the  general well-being of learners and their educational  outcomes. 
However, the relationship between schools, parents and families may be challenging. A recent 
report has identified the following barriers53: 

  Barriers  linked  to  parental  and  family  situations.  Parents’  own  past  negative 
memories  and  experiences  may  lead  to  mistrust  and  overall  feeling  of  uneasiness 
when  confronted  to  their  children  education54.  Insufficient  knowledge  of  how  the 
education  system  works,  or  a  lack  of  language  skills  may  be  a  heavy  obstacle  for 
migrant  families  (especially  first-generation),  or  parents  with  a 
level  of 
education55. 

low 

  Education systems and potential systemic bias. Despite the existence of institutional 
settings  for  parent-school  cooperation,  the  actual  inclusion  of  parents  in  decision-
making  processes  may  still  be  challenging,  especially  for  families  from  more 
disadvantaged  backgrounds,  owing  to  inconsistencies  in  legislation,  inadequate  or 
insufficient  communication  between  school  and  parents,  poor  parent-teacher 
relationship, inflexible scheduling at school and unpreparedness of recently graduated 
teachers56.  

  Structural  and  socio-cultural  determinants:  Time  constraints  linked  to  professional 
engagements of working parents, declining family support in childcare (mainly offered 
by  grandparents),  and  growing  reliance  on  childcare  services  may  negatively  impact 
participation  to  both  home-based  and  school-based  activities,  particularly  for  single-
parent families.  

Parents  of  children  with  physical  and  learning  disabilities  also  face  very  specific  educational 
challenges, often linked to the exclusion of their children from mainstream education and the 
difficulty to mobilise adequate support around the child. 

Educational  Research, 62(4), 519-537;  Wang,  M.  &  Sheikh-Khalil  S.,  (2014),  Does  parental 
involvement matter for student achievement and mental health in high school?. Child Development, 
85(2), 610-625. 

53   European Commission, Directorate-General for Education, Youth, Sport and Culture, NESET Ad hoc 

report no. 1/2021, Alieva, A. (2021), Parental involvement in formal education. 

54   Harris,  A.  &  Goodall,  J., (2008), Do  parents  know  they  matter?  Engaging  all  parents  in  learning. 
Educational  Research, 50(3), 277-289;  Hedlin,  M., (2019). ‘They  only  see  their  own  child’:  an 
interview  study  of  preschool  teachers’  perceptions  about  parents. Early  Child  Development  and 
Care, 189(11), 1776-1785. 

55   Parental  stress  and  burnout  are  gaining  attention  in  research,  policy  and  the  media,  due  to  its 
potentially  highly  detrimental  consequences  on  the  well-being  and  safety  of  children;  increased 
stress level of families during the lockdown period are also documented. See Calvano, C., Engelke, 
L.,  Di  Bella,  J., et  al., (2021),  Families  in  the  COVID-19  pandemic:  parental  stress,  parent  mental 
health and the occurrence of adverse childhood experiences—results of a  representative survey in 
Germany, in European Child Adolescent Psychiatry, 2021 Mar 1; 1-13. 

56   For example, inconsistencies in, or a lack of formalisation of parent-teacher/school cooperation in 
legislation  and  in  national  education  policy,  as  well  as  a  lack  of  clearly  outlined  modalities  of 
cooperation  that  are  regularly  communicated  and  shared  with  parents,  can  amplify  the  risk  of 
parents  being  excluded  from  participation,  especially  among  vulnerable  families.  The  study 
proposes the following categorisation of schools found in US literature: “Fortress school”, “Come-if-
we-call  school”,  “Open-door  school”,  and  “Partnership  school”.  See:  European  Commission, 
Directorate-General  for  Education,  Youth,  Sport  and  Culture,  NESET  Ad  hoc  report no.  1/2021, 
Alieva, A. (2021), Parental involvement in formal education. 

18 

 
 
                                                                                                                                                                          
It  is  important  to  stress  that  parents  and  families  are  not  all  equally  well  equipped  to 
adequately support their children through their academic journey, especially when it comes to 
more  home-based,  learner-centred  approaches.  Lower-educated  parents,  families  with  low 
socio-economic status, migrant families, and single-parent families may be less able to provide 
support  for  their  children,  such  as  helping  with  homework  or  offering  advice  on  school 
matters57. While middle and upper-class families engage actively with their children’s learning, 
families with a more disadvantaged background may lack knowledge and tools from the start; 
they may  face  lack  of  support  from  educators,  not  consider  themselves  valuable  partners  in 
the process, or lack sufficient confidence to engage. As a result, they are often perceived by 
schools  as  not  interested  in  their  children’s  educational  experience  and  labelled  “hard  to 
reach”.  This  is  confirmed  by  recent  studies58 on  the  impact  of  the  COVID-19  crisis,  showing 
that parental participation in home-schooling, learning time and the types of activities carried 
out  during  the  lockdown  periods  in  Europe  in  2020  and  during  early  2021  was  highly 
dependent on the socio-economic situations of parents and families.  

Other  aspects  of  a  family  background  can  also  play  a  role.  The  geographical  location  of  a 
student’s  family  home  can  have  an  impact  on  the  likelihood  of  leaving  school  of  training 
earlier. This may relate  to the  quality of education in more rural  and outermost  areas, or to 
difficulties in  reaching  schools. Within urban areas, there  can also  be discrepancies  between 
areas.  Research  demonstrates  that  within  urban  areas,  early  leaving  from  education  and 
training rates tend to be higher in disadvantaged areas. 

Gender  plays  a  considerable  part  in  underachievement.  Though  the  difference  is  relatively 
small  in  mathematics  and  science,  it  remains  sizeable  in  reading,  where  girls  strongly 
outperform  boys  in  many  countries.  Boys  are  also  more  likely  to  be  early  leavers  from 
education and training compared to girls. The causes of boys’ underperformance at school are 
multidimensional and often mutually reinforcing. Research shows that a range of factors are at 
play,    ranging  from:  a)  individual  attitudes  and  behaviours,  such  as  reading  habits,  attitudes 
towards  school,  externalization  of  issues,  disruptive  behaviours;  b)  family  factors,  including 
parents’  socio-economic  resources  or  the  perpetuation  of  gender  stereotypes  at  home;  c) 
school  environment  and  wider  education  system  factors,  such  as  bullying,  peer  culture  and 
toxic  masculinity,  teacher  interaction  and  engagement  in  class  or  stereotyping  in  textbooks; 
and d) societal factors, related to how the wider society reflects back its gender stereotypes 
into education systems59. 

57   Davis-Kean,  P.E.,  (2005),  ‘The  Influence  of  Parent  Education  and  Family  Income  on  Child 
Achievement:  The  Indirect  Role  of  Parental  Expectations  and  the  Home  Environment’.  Journal  of 
Family Psychology, 19 (2), pp. 294-304. 

58   European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Carretero Gomez, S., Napierala, J., Bessios, A., Mägi, 
E., Pugacewicz, A., Ranieri, M., Triquet, K., Lombaerts, K., Robledo Bottcher, N., Montanari, M. and 
Gonzalez  Vazquez,  I.,  (2021),  What  did  we  learn  from  schooling  practices  during  the  COVID-19 
lockdown. EUR 30559 EN, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg. 

59   There is an apparent contradiction between the well-known trend of boy’s underachievement and 
remaining  gender  imbalances  in  terms  of  women’s  presence  in  the  labour  market,  especially  in 
STEM  fields.  In  fact,  evidence  shows,  for  instance,  that  while  boys’  lower  performance  in  school 
education  translates  into  lower  participation  rates  in  higher  education  and  lifelong  learning,  on 
average across the EU, men still hold a more favourable position on the labour market compared 
with  women  (e.g.  the  employment  rate  for  men  was  12%  higher  than  for  women  in  2019,  and 
women  earn  less  than  men,  with  gender employment gap as  high  as  11.7%  in 2019).  Tertiary 
education subject choices are also strongly influenced by social gender stereotypes, contributing to 
the  ongoing  masculinisation  and  feminisation  of  different  professions  and  sectors.  On  the  other 
hand,  there  is  an  important  sub-group  of  men  with  low  levels  of  education  in  low-paid  and  low-

19 

 
 
                                                           
 
Finally, access to inclusive, quality, accessible and mainstream education remains problematic 
for many children with disabilities60. Evidence shows significant gaps between the educational 
outcomes  of  learners  with  disabilities  and  those  without  disabilities.  In  2018,  19.9%  young 
people  with  disabilities  left  education  and  training  prematurely,  as  compared  to  10.6%  for 
pupils without disabilities (2018 data)61.  

A key concept in relation to inclusive education is the intersectionality, in order to identify the 
interaction  of  multiple  factors  that  lead  to  discriminatory  processes  in  schools  towards 
different student groups62. Intersectionality asserts that all aspects of one’s identity need to be 
examined as simultaneously interacting with each other and affecting one’s perception within 
a  society.  These  identities  intersect  to  create  a  whole  that  is  different  from  the  component 
identities.  Intersectionality  asserts  that  to  comprehend  truly  an  individual’s  identity  and 
experience, one first needs to recognize that each identity marker is connected with all other 
markers within that individual  

2.2 Institutional factors  

Institutional  factors,  such  as  the  school  structures,  school  environment  and  the  role  of 
teachers  can  also  have  a  great  impact  when  it  comes  to  students’  achievement  and 
engagement at school.  

A  study,  which  analyses  PISA  data  from  2000-2009  in  42  countries,  shows  that  increased 
school  autonomy  positively  affects  students  and  contributes  to  their  greater  academic 
achievements63. These effects seem to be the most pronounced when the increased autonomy 
affects decision-making related to academic content. Schools’ advanced knowledge on specific 
local  contexts  can  help  them  develop  more  effective  actions  towards  school  success  than 
those that could be developed centrally. Increased autonomy also allows the schools to decide 
how to target the problems they face in a more efficient way as they may know much better 
than the central authorities what measures could be most effective for their students and as 
they do not have to wait for approval from the central authorities, they can implement them 
in a timely manner64.  

The  literature  has  long  highlighted  that  the  quality  of  school  life  plays  a  crucial  role  in 
improving  students’  motivation  and  efforts,  their  emotional,  behavioural  and  cognitive 

skilled  work.  See:  European  Commission,  Directorate-General  for  Education,  Youth,  Sport  and 
Culture, Staring, F., Donlevy, V., Day, L., et al., (2021), Study on gender behaviour and its impact on 
education outcomes (with a special focus on the performance of boys and young men in education), 
Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union.  

60   The  EU  follows  the  approach  of  the  UN  Convention  on  the  Rights  of  Persons  with  Disabilities, 
according  to  which  persons  with  disabilities  “include  those  who  have  long-term  physical,  mental, 
intellectual or sensory impairments which in interaction with various barriers may hinder their full 
and effective participation in society on an equal basis with others”.  

61   SWD/2021/62 final 
62 

?” Bešić, E. (2020), ‘Intersectionality: A pathway towards inclusive education?’, Prospects, Vol. 49, 
pp. 111–122, doi: 10.1007/s11125-020-09461-6.  

63   Hanushek,  E.  A.,  Link,  S.,  &  Woessmann,  L.,  (2013),  “Does  school  autonomy  make  sense 
everywhere? Panel estimates from PISA”, in Journal of Development Economics, 104, 212-232.  
64   At  the  same  time,  evidence  suggests  that  a  very  high  degree  of  school  autonomy  may  lead  to 
differences  in  the  quality  of  provision  and  possibly  create  a  hierarchy  among  schools,  which  can 
have  a  negative  effect  on  equity.  See:  European  Commission,  European  Education  and  Culture 
Executive  Agency,  Eurydice,  (2020) Equity  in  school  education  in  Europe:  structures,  policies  and 
student performance, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg. 

20 

 
 
                                                                                                                                                                          
engagement,  performance  and  achievement.  Students’  perceptions  on  the  quality  of  school 
life  “may  influence  powerfully  their  motivation  to  learn,  improve  their  behaviour  and  self-
regulation,  develop  identity  and  positive  attitudes  towards  success,  enhance  empathy  and 
respect  for  diversity,  contribute  to  better  engagement  in  learning,  improve  academic 
performance  and  achievement,  and  prevent  dropout” 65.  School  and  classroom  practices, 
teachers’  and  staff’s  attitudes  and  teaching  and  learning  styles  affect  children  and  young 
people's  motivation  and  commitment  towards  education:  an  unfavourable  school  or 
classroom climate, a lack of learner centeredness, curricula and assessment that are perceived 
as irrelevant, inadequate awareness of educational disadvantage, violence and bullying, poor 
teachers-pupils  relationships  are  some  of  the  factors  that  can  contribute  to  disengagement 
from education.  

PISA  2018  shows  that  school’s  positive  learning  environment  is  directly  connected  to 
educational  success66.  Cohesion  and  cooperation  among  pupils,  positive  relationships  with 
peers  as  well  as  with  teaching  and  non-teaching  staff  have  been  shown  to  be  particularly 
influential in impacting pupils’ educational success. While a poor school climate can be linked 
to  disruptive  behaviour  such  as  bullying,  truancy  and  lateness,  it can  also  be  determined  by 
institutional aspects such as the overall preparedness of teachers, pupils-teacher ratio, school 
governance  and  ethos,  etc.  This  is  confirmed  by  a  recent  study  which,  building  on  PISA 
framework  on well-being, offers  a structured model for measuring  the  quality of  school  life, 
focusing on students’ sense of opportunity and achievement, the quality of their interpersonal 
relationships with their teachers, their exposure to a safe and cooperative learning, and their 
overall  sense  of  belonging  to  the  school  and  school  community.  The  study  shows  that  the 
quality  of  school  life  has  a  positive  impact  on  academic  results  of  EU  students  even  after 
controlling for student gender and socio-economic background67.  

A  key  element  which  can  affect  school  climate  and  lead  to  poor  education  outcomes  is 
bullying. Bullying is correlated with lower scores on all PISA subjects68. Peer culture can also 
have  a  strong  influence:  a  school-oriented,  study-oriented  culture  as  opposed  to  a  “non-
effort”  culture  will  favour  better  performances;  a  recent  study  shows  that  boys  feel  more 
pressure than girls to conform to dominant peer cultures, and that girls more easily conform 
to  a  school-oriented  study-oriented  culture69.  The  importance  of  well-being  at  school  and 
quality of school life is further explained in chapter 4.3.1. 

Teachers are also key actors for pupils’ educational success. They provide them with advice as 
well as emotional support for attaining positive academic outcomes. In this context, migrant 
students  or  students  from  disadvantaged  backgrounds  may  suffer  in  particular  as  their 
personal background and experiences are less likely to align with those of a teacher. Students 

65   European  Commission,  Directorate-General  for  Education,  Youth,  Sport  and  Culture,  Hristova,  A., 
Tosheva,  E.,  (2021)  Quality  of  School  Life  and  Student  Outcomes  in  Europe.  The  report  defines 
quality of school life (QSL) as reflecting “the attitudinal or emotional climate at school in terms of 
students’ perceptions of well-being and satisfaction, determined by school-related factors and their 
educational experiences.    

66   OECD  (2019),  PISA  2018  Results  (Volume  III):  What  School  Life  Means  for  Students’  Lives.  OECD 

Publishing, Paris. 
Ibid. 
Ibid. 

67  
68  
69   European  Commission,  Directorate-General  for  Education,  Youth,  Sport  and  Culture,  Staring,  F., 
Donlevy, V., Day, L., et al., (2021), Study on gender behaviour and its impact on education outcomes 
(with a special focus on the performance of boys and young men in education), Publications Office 
of the European Union, Luxembourg; RESL.eu, (2018),  Attitudes of School Personnel. University of 
Middlesex. 

21 

 
 
                                                           
who  do  not  feel  listened  to  nor  understood  by  teachers  face  higher  chances  of  disengaging 
and  leaving  school  prematurely.  On  the  contrary,  positive  relation  with  a  teacher  can  help 
academically at-risk  students  overcome  feelings of alienation or  disconnection70.  Analysis on 
PISA  data  indicates  that  teachers  providing  support  for  academically  at-risk  students  (in 
particular low socio-economic background migrants), such as help with their homework, were 
associated  with  higher  achievement  levels71.  Teaching  and  learning  practices,  teachers’ 
attitudes,  motivation  and  enthusiasm,  and  teachers’  support  can  thus  strongly  influence 
students’  educational  success.  Learning  approaches  and  practices  where  students  have  less 
opportunity to engage with their peers or teachers can lead to feelings of isolation and affect 
motivation72.  

2.3 Education system factors  

Specific aspects of the education systems can also explain the educational success of pupils, or 
lack thereof.  

Educational success  can be  heavily  impacted by the availability of and access to  high-quality 
early  childhood  education  and  care  (ECEC),  school-starting  age  and  the  number  of  contact 
hours in primary school. Participation in high quality ECEC is associated with later educational 
success  and  prevention  of  early  leaving  from  education  and  training73.  However,  the  2019 
Education  and  Training  Monitor74 notes  that  the  92.8%  participation  rate  in  ECEC  for  the 
general  population  (age  3)  decreases  to 77.8%  in  the  group of  children  at  risk  of  poverty or 
social exclusion; and the gap is even greater for children aged from birth to two. Participation 
is also weaker amongst children with disabilities, migrant children or children with a migrant 
background or Roma children75. 

According  to PISA 2018,  countries  with  high  levels  of  grade  repetition  generally  show  lower 
mean  performance  in  PISA76.  Grade  repetition  is  likely  to  have  a  negative  impact  on  pupils’ 
performance  (and  behaviour)  and  is  associated  with  drop-out  rates77.  Socio-economically 

70   Schnell,  P.,  Keskiner,  E.  and  Crul,  M.,  (2013),  Success  against  the  Odds.  Educational  Pathways  of 
Disadvantaged Second-Generation Turks in France and the Netherlands. Education Inquiry, 4 (1). 
71   European  Commission,  Directorate-General  for  Education,  Youth,  Sport  and  Culture,  Spence,  C., 
Donlevy,  V.,  Cutmore,  M.,  et  al.,  (2019), Against  the  odds:  academically  resilient  students  with  a 
migrant background and how they succeed: final report, Publications Office of the European Union, 
Luxembourg.   

72   Van  der  Graaf,  A.,  Vroonhof,  P.,  Roullis,  G.,  and  Velli,  F.,  (2019),  Research  for  CULT  Committee  – 

How to tackle early school leaving in the EU, European Parliament, Brussels.  

73    European Commission, Directorate-General for Education, Youth, Sport  and Culture, (2014),  Study 
on the effective use of early childhood education and care (ECEC) in preventing early school leaving 
(ESL): final report, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg.  

74   European  Commission,  Directorate-General  for  Education,  Youth,  Sport  and  Culture,  (2019), 
Education  and  training  Monitor  2019:  executive  summary.  Publications  Office  of  the  European 
Union, Luxembourg. 

75   European Commission, Directorate-General for Education, Youth, Sport and Culture, (2021), Toolkit 
for  inclusive  early  childhood  education  and  care:  providing  high  quality  education  and  care  to  all 
young children, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg.  

76   OECD  (2020),  PISA  2018  Results  (Volume  V):  Effective  Policies,  Successful  Schools,  PISA,  OECD 

Publishing, Paris, p. 55. 

77   European Commission, European Education and Culture Executive Agency, Eurydice, (2020) Equity 
in  school education in Europe: structures, policies and student  performance. Publications Office of 
the European Union, Luxembourg. 

22 

 
 
                                                           
disadvantaged  pupils  are  more  likely  to  repeat  a  year  then  their  affluent  peers,  leading  to 
increased chances of becoming early leavers from education and training.  

Early  selection  and  tracking  are  also  considered  by  many  to  have  a  negative  impact,  with  a 
disproportionate  effect on pupils from more disadvantaged backgrounds.  The earliest age at 
which  students  are  assigned  to  tracks  in  the  EU  is  10,  but  more  than  half  of  the  education 
systems start the process at or after 15. All education systems introduce some form of tracking 
by the age of 16 at the latest.  

Figure 3. De facto starting ages of tracking and total years of schooling covered in a 
differentiated setting, 2018/19 

Source: Eurydice78 

Many  studies  have  found that  the  earlier  tracking  is  introduced, the  wider  the  gap  between 
low  and  high  performers  gets,  and  the  bigger  the  impact  of  socio-economic  background  on 
performance79.  This  is  because  early  tracking  magnifies  early  achievement,  which  is  more 
influenced by socio-economic background than achievement in later years. Thus, there seems 
to be  an adverse relationship between equity and the  age  at which students  are channelled 
down different pathways. This is also related to the selection process on which the assigning of 
students to educational pathways is based.  

78  
79  

Ibid. 
Ibid. 

23 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
                                                           
Figure 4. Evaluation of academic attainment in assigning students to higher level tracks, 
2018/19 

Source: Eurydice80 

Almost  all  education  systems  rely  on  some  form  of  performance-based  selection  when 
assigning  students  to  different  tracks.  Although,  in  principle,  performance  based  selection 
should not increase the impact of socio-economic background (because the more advantaged 
groups  cannot  gain  access  to  the  more  academic  tracks  if  they  do  not  reach  the  required 
performance  level),  in  systems  where  socio-economic  inequality  already  exists  in  the  lower 
levels of schooling, academic selectivity is likely to reinforce socio-economic differences81.  

The evidence is mixed regarding the link between expenditure in education and educational 
outcomes. Analyses have pointed out  that  countries  with  a  comparable  level of expenditure 
on  education  perform  differently.  Across the PISA  rounds,  no  correlation  appeared  between 
cumulative  expenditure  per  pupil  and  pupil  performance  among  EU  countries82.  However, 
research  shows  that  higher  expenditure  is  associated  with  reduced  education  inequalities, 
even  though  the  relationship  is  not  linear.  A  recent  study  found  that  public  funding  is 
important  for  equity,  especially  in  primary  education;  a  higher  public  expenditure  per 
pupil/student  can  reduce  the  student  achievement  differences  between  schools  which,  in 
turn,  reduces  the  achievement  gap  between  low-  and  high-achieving  pupils/students  in 
primary  schools.    In  many  countries,  higher  funding  is  provided  for  schools  with  more 
disadvantaged  pupils.  However,  evidence  suggests  that  while  additional  support  for 
disadvantaged  schools  is  important,  it  is  not  sufficient  on  its  own  to  address  educational 
inequalities. This is especially true in comparison with the impact of major system-level factors 
such as early tracking, grade repetition and selective admission to schools83.  

At  the  systemic 
inadequate  professional 
development  opportunities  for  teaching  and  non-teaching  staff,  the  overall  status  of  the 

level,  teacher  shortages, 

insufficient  or 

80  
81  

Ibid. 
Ibid. 

82   European  Commission,  Directorate-General  for  Education,  Youth,  Sport  and  Culture,  (2019),  PISA 
2018 and the EU: striving for social fairness through education, Publications Office of the European 
Union, Luxembourg. 
Ibid. 

83  

24 

 
 
                                                           
teacher profession and the working conditions of teachers may have impact on the quality of 
teaching  and  ultimately  on  pupils’  outcomes84.  According  to  data  from  the  OECD’s  Teaching 
and Learning International Survey (TALIS) of  2018, only one in five lower secondary teachers 
feel that their profession is valued by society. Moreover, according to the same survey, 37.8% 
of  principals  report  shortage  of  teachers  competent  enough  to  teach  pupils  with  special 
educational  needs,  and  shortages  of  teachers  capable  of  teaching  in  multilingual  and 
multicultural  settings  (23,5%)  or  teaching  students  from  socio-economically  disadvantaged 
homes (24.2%). Moreover, due to the demographic structure of the European teaching force, 
waves of retirements in many countries will require massive recruitments of young teachers in 
the coming years. 

Academic  research  finds  that  the  ‘socio-economic  composition  of  schools’  can  influence 
individual educational performance. Disadvantaged schools – those enrolling high proportions 
of students from low socio-economic backgrounds – generally have below average educational 
performance. They also often lack resources and face greater problems with discipline, which 
makes learning difficult. The concentration of students from low socio-economic backgrounds 
in disadvantaged schools may occur as a result of residential segregation, or it may also be the 
unintended result of school policies, such as school choice, admissions and tracking85. 

Finally, PISA 2018 shows that the difference in reading performance between pupils attending 
schools  in  cities  and  those  enrolled  in  schools  in  rural  and  outermost  areas  is  statistically 
significant  and rather  large  in many Member States. In Hungary,  Bulgaria, Romania, Slovakia 
and Portugal it even exceeds 100 PISA score points, corresponding to approximately 3-4 years 
of schooling. Schools in rural and outermost areas often struggle to provide quality education 
due to their geographical isolation and small size, which increases the risks of suffering from 
insufficient  infrastructure,  a  limited  educational  offer  and  a  lack  of  experienced  teachers86. 
Learners living in rural and outermost  areas are also more  likely  to leave school earlier than 
their peers living in a city or more urban areas87. Within cities, there can also be discrepancies 
between areas, with ELET rates higher in more disadvantaged neighbourhoods88. 

2.4 Other factors 

National  contextual  factors,  such  as  economic  situation  and  labour  market  trends  can  also 
have an important impact, particularly when it comes to students in VET. The overall economic 
context  may  have  an  influence  on  students’  behaviour,  as  an  economically  disadvantaged 
family situation may mean that they have  to abandon their studies and find employment to 
sustain and support themselves and their families. On the other hand, some studies underline 

84   European Commission, European Education and Culture Executive Agency, Eurydice, Davydovskaia, 
O., De Coster, I., Vasiliou, N., et al., Birch, P.(ed.), (2021), Teachers in Europe: careers, development 
and well-being. Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg. 

85   European Commission, European Education and Culture Executive Agency, Eurydice, (2020) Equity 
in  school education in Europe: structures, policies and student  performance. Publications Office of 
the European Union, Luxembourg. 

86  European  Commission,  Directorate-General 

for  Education,  Youth,  Sport  and  Culture, 
(2020), Education  and  training  monitor  2020:  teaching  and  learning  in  a  digital  age.  Publications 
Office of the European Union, Luxembourg.  

87   Nikolaou,  S.  M.,  Papa,  M.,  &  Gogou,  L.,  (2018),  “Early  School  Leaving  in  Greece  and  Europe  and 
Educational Inequality: Actions and Policies against Educational and Social Exclusion”, in European 
Journal of Social Sciences Education and Research, 5(1):212-220. 

88   Van  der  Graaf,  A.,  Vroonhof,  P.,  Roullis,  G.,  and  Velli,  F.,  (2019),  Research  for  CULT  Committee  – 

How to tackle early school leaving in the EU, European Parliament, Brussels.  

25 

 
 
                                                           
the influence of the 2007 economic crisis on ELET in southern European States such as Spain89 
or Portugal90, where the labour market situation acted as a pull factor for reducing ELET rates 
during the crisis.  

A 2016 Cedefop study91 shows that an insufficient supply of apprenticeship placements is the 
most  frequent  factor  among  the  education  and  training  organisation  factors  stated  among 
early leavers from VET. If young people are not able to find an apprenticeship, they are more 
likely to choose another VET pathway which may not be in line with their aspirations. This may 
later lead them to drop out. In some countries, not finding an apprenticeship placement which 
is statutory for completing VET pathways may even mean that they will not start training at all, 
or they will not be able toto complete the training, qualify and get their diploma.  

In  addition,  the  attractiveness  of  the  labour  market,  especially  for  seasonal  jobs  and  in  the 
tourism  sector,  may  lead  young  people  to  leaving  education  and  training  early,  as  they  are 
more interested in directly starting a new job without finishing their studies. In contrast, the 
lack of positive prospects for finding a job after their studies may discourage young people to 
start  VET  in  the  first  place,  or  continuing  or  finishing  their  studies  (‘discouraged  student 
effect’).  In  opposition  to  this,  the  ‘encouraged  student  effect’  has  a  positive  impact  on 
students  remaining  in  education  and  training.  This  effect  is  related  to  labour  market 
regulations  that  require  jobs  to  have  specific  certifications  and  wages  for  qualified  workers 
differ significantly from those not qualified. This means that, to be able to obtain a job, young 
people need to graduate from VET, so that they have an incentive to successfully end their VET 
training. 

Other factors leading to drop related to the labour market are working conditions, of which 
students  become  aware  while  being  in  their  work-based  learning.  For  example,  the  timing, 
shifts, physical and emotional requirements of these jobs may deter students from remaining 
in the training, as they do not correspond to their own desires and needs.  

Finally,  an  additional  societal  factor  identified  in  the  literature  is  the  value  placed  on 
education. 
In  countries  where  the  national  appreciation  for  education  and  formal 
qualifications is higher, the levels of ELET tend to be lower. The reverse also holds true; when 
society demonstrates distrust or displeasure with the education system in a country, there is a 
higher likelihood of higher ELET rates92. In Greece for example, it has been noted that that the 
negative attitude to education in some communities or regions contributes to ELET93. 

The  analysis  above  was  largely  echoed  during  the  consultation  activities  supporting  the 
preparation of the Commission proposal on Pathways to School Success. The following figure 
shows  the  five  obstacles  to  school  success  considered  to  be  the  most  pressing  by  all 
respondents. 

89   Serrano  Martinez,  L.  and  Soler  Guillen,  A.,  (2015),  La  formación  y  el  empleo  de  los  jóvenes 
españoles.  Trayectoria  reciente  y  escenarios  futuros.  Fundación  BBVA.  Informe  2015.  Economía  y 
Sociedad.  
Instituto Nacional de Estadística, Oliveira, C., (2016),  Jovens no mercado de trabalho  – Módulo ad 
hoc de 2016 do Inquérito ao Emprego. INE 2016, p.1-21. 

90  

91   Cedefop (2016), Tackling early leaving: putting VET centre stage. Volume I. Investigating causes and 

extent. Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg. 

92   Van  der  Graaf,  A.,  Vroonhof,  P.,  Roullis,  G.,  and  Velli,  F.,  (2019),  Research  for  CULT  Committee  – 

How to tackle early school leaving in the EU, European Parliament, Brussels.  

93   Nikolaou,  S.  M.,  Papa,  M.,  &  Gogou,  L.,  (2018),  “Early  School  Leaving  in  Greece  and  Europe  and 
Educational Inequality: Actions and Policies against Educational and Social Exclusion”, in European 
Journal of Social Sciences Education and Research, 5(1):212-220. 

26 

 
 
                                                           
Figure 5. Top 5 obstacles to school success per respondent category 

Parents’ socio-economic, cultural and educational 
background

Teachers and trainers not adequately prepared to deal
with pupils with cumulative disadvantages

Individual characteristics of students (e.g., special
needs, social and emotional difficulties, etc.)

Insufficient parental engagement in their children’s 
education and in school life

Pupils do not feel involved in their learning and in
school life

33%

37%

25%

27%

20%

25%

25%

23%

22%

18%

27%

27%

29%

28%

28%

All respondents

Learners, parents or interested citizens

Teachers, trainers, or educators

Source: Open Public Consultation synopsis report 

2.5  Impact  of  underachievement  and  early  leaving  from  education  and 
training in society 

Children’s  and  young  people’s  success  in  learning  will  significantly  affect  their  future94.  It  is 
acknowledged that education plays a critical role in individual and societal prosperity and well-
being, fosters economic growth and social cohesion, and is essential for personal development 
and welfare. In short, its benefits have multiple dimensions.  

Investment in education provides substantial long-term gains for individuals, public finances 
and  the  economy  as  a  whole,  as  well  as  a  number  of  important  non-economic  benefits95. 
Looking  at  all  the  different  policies  in  the  past  half-century,  investment  in  education,  along 
with health policy, is associated with the highest rate of return96. Conversely, poor education 

94   A more in-depth review of the importance of learning and later lifetime outcomes can be found in 
Granato, S., Havari, E. and Schnepf, S.V. (forthcoming 2022), “Learning and Human Development”, 
in Choi, Álvaro (ed), Economic foundations of education, Bloomsbury. 

95   An  overview  of  economic  and  non-economic  benefits  can,  be  found  in  European  Commission, 
Directorate-General  for  Education,  Youth,  Sport  and  Culture,  European  Expert  Network  on 
Economics  of  Education,  Algan,  Y.,  Brunello,  G.,  Goreichy,  E.,  et  al.,  (2021), Boosting  social  and 
economic resilience in  Europe by investing in  education. ENEE Analytical Report  n.42,  Publications 
Office  of  the  European  Union,  Luxembourg;  European  Commission,  Directorate-General  for 
Education, Youth, Sport and Culture, European Expert Network on Economics of Education, Münich 
D.  and  Psacharopoulos G.,  (2018),  Education  externalities  –  What  they  are  and  what  we  know. 
EENEE Analytical Report  n. 34, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg; European 
Commission,  Directorate-General  for  Education,  Youth,  Sport  and  Culture,  European  Expert 
Network  on  Economics  of  Education,  Wossmann,  L.,  (2014),  The  economic  case  for  education. 
EENEE Analytical Report n. 20, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg.   

96   European  Commission,  Directorate-General  for  Education,  Youth,  Sport  and  Culture,  European 
Expert  Network  on  Economics  of  Education,  Algan,  Y.,  Brunello,  G.,  Goreichy,  E.,  et  al., 

27 

 
 
 
 
 
                                                           
 
outcomes can have serious consequences on the individual, on societies and on economies. 
Low-achievers  are  less  likely  to  continue  education,  i.e.  both  higher  education  and  lifelong 
learning,  and  more  likely  to  leave  school  prematurely.  Given  the  rapidly  evolving  skills 
requirements,  the  lack  of  upper  secondary  qualifications  or  non-participation  in  further 
learning  can  seriously  put  people  at  a  disadvantage  in  terms  of  employability:  it  can  create 
barriers  to  accessing  the  labour  market  and  contribute  to  a  more  limited  choice  of  work. 
Moreover,  research  consistently  shows  that  individuals  with  lower  educational  attainment97 
will  have  considerably  reduced  earnings  in  the  future,  meaning  that the  individual  will  most 
likely end up in low-paid and low-skilled jobs, with huge consequences for their overall quality 
of life as well as that of their families, and higher risk of falling into poverty98.  

Research  demonstrates  that  previous  policies  prolonging  compulsory  schooling  age  have 
improved children’s future earning potential considerably99. In addition, even among children 
with  equal educational  attainment,  i.e.  schooling  level,  it  is  those  with  poorer achievements 
who will face  lower  incomes  in their adult lives100. This indicates the importance of reaching 
higher  learning  outcomes  in  school  besides  simply  completing  compulsory  schooling  for 
progressing more successfully through adulthood.  

As a consequence of the above-mentioned relationship between education and labour market 
access,  underachievement  and  early  leaving  from  education  and  training  may  thus  hinder 
upwards social mobility and favour the intergenerational transmission of poverty (in 2019 50.8 
% of children whose parents’ level of education was low were at risk of poverty compared with 
7.5  %  of  children  whose  parents’  level of  education was  high101)  and  of  educational  poverty 
(among the socio-economic factors which can influence ELET, low parental education has the 
strongest impact102). In addition, people with low levels of education tend to contribute less in 
terms of tax revenues and rely more often on social assistance as compared to higher qualified 
people; they also tend to make less efficient consumer and financial choices.  

The  expected  benefits  of  education  go  beyond  earnings  and  employment,  however,  by 
affecting,  for  instance,  health  and  longevity,  happiness  and  pro-environmental  behaviour. 
Less educated people tend to take less informed decisions affecting marriage, parenthood and 
retirement. Low levels of education are also linked to higher risks of committing crimes103, to 

(2021), Boosting social and economic resilience in Europe by investing in education. ENEE Analytical 
Report n. 42, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg. 

97   Oreopoulos,  P.  (2006),  “The  compelling  effects  of  compulsory  schooling:  evidence  from  Canada”, 

Canadian Journal of Economics, 39(1): 22–52. 

98   European  Commission,  Directorate-General  for  Education,  Youth,  Sport  and  Culture,  European 
Expert  Network  on  Economics  of  Education,  Wossmann,  L.,  (2014),  The  economic  case  for 
education. EENEE Analytical Report n. 20, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg.   
99   Angrist,  Joshua  D.,  Krueger,  A.,  (2001),  “Instrumental  variables  and  the  search  for  identification: 
from  supply  and  demand  to  natural  experiments”,  Journal  of  Economic  Perspectives,  15:  69–85; 
Meghir, Costas, Palme M., (2005),  “Educational reform, ability, and family  background”, American 
Economic Review, vol. 95(1), 414–424. 

100   Brunello,  G.,  Fort,  M.,  Weber,  G.,  (2009),  “Changes  in  compulsory  schooling,  education,  and  the 

distribution of wages in Europe”, The Economic Journal, 119: 516–539. 

101   Eurostat.  Children  at  risk  of  poverty  or  social  exclusion.  https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-

explained/index.php/Children_at_risk_of_poverty_or_social_exclusion 

102  European  Commission,  Directorate-General 

for  Education,  Youth,  Sport  and  Culture, 
(2020), Education  and  training  monitor  2020:  teaching  and  learning  in  a  digital  age.  Publications 
Office of the European Union, Luxembourg. 

103   Heckman,  James,  Karapakula,  (2019),  Intergenerational  and  intragenerational  externalities  of  the 

Perry Preschool Project. NBER Working Paper n. 25889. 

28 

 
 
                                                                                                                                                                          
lower  health,  more  risky  behaviour,  less  use  of  preventive  services  and  overall  lower  well-
being104. Empirical research also documents that better educational outcomes enhance social 
cohesion and mutual trust within society, as well as democratic and civic engagement105. 

The gender dimension is worth mentioning: boys’ lower performance in education translates 
into lower participation rates in higher education (the gap in 2019 was 10% in favour of girls, 
and this continues to grow106) and lifelong learning (where the gap has been widening in the 
last  three  years).  A  number  of  more  ‘indirect’  implications  were  also  explored  and  some 
evidence was found showing that men with incomplete studies are at higher risk of ill-health 
and suicide. Men with lower levels of education may also have more difficulties forming stable 
intimate relationships, leading to demographic implications107.  

In addition, research shows that there may be a link between reading difficulties and antisocial 
behaviour,  and  that  having  a  low  level  of  education  is  one  of  the  risk  factors  for  joining 
extremist movements and criminal activities. 

Research  indicates  that  essential  learning  gaps  can  develop  as  early  as  during  primary  or 
even  pre-school  aged  children108 and  that  it  is  most  effective  and  efficient  to  combat 
inequalities  in  learning  outcomes  as  early  as  possible,  indicating  the  need  to  invest  more 
funding into pre and primary schooling109.  

The  cost  of  early  leaving  from  education  and  training  has  been  investigated  by  several 
studies110. Even though the measurement and size of the losses or gains found in these studies 

104   Brunello, G. Fort, M., Schneeweis, N, Winter-Ebner, R., (2016), “The Causal Effect of Education on 
Health: What is the Role of Health Behaviors?” vol. 25, issue 3, 314-336; Feinstein, L., Sabates, R., 
Tashweka,  M.  A.,  Sorhaindo,  A.  and  Hammond,  C.,  (2006),  What  are  the  effects  of  education  on 
health?  Measuring  the  Effects  of  Education  on  Health  and  Civic  Engagement.  Proceedings  of  the 
Copenhagen Symposium.  

105   European  Commission,  Directorate-General  for  Education,  Youth,  Sport  and  Culture,  European 
Expert  Network  on  Economics  of  Education,  Münich  D.  and  Psacharopoulos G.,  (2018),  Education 
externalities – What they are and what we know. EENEE Analytical Report n. 34, Publications Office 
of the European Union, Luxembourg; 

106   European Commission, Directorate-General for Education, Youth, Sport and Culture, Staring, F., 

Donlevy, V., Day, L., et al., (2021), Study on gender behaviour and its impact on education outcomes 
(with a special focus on the performance of boys and young men in education), Publications Office 
of the European Union, Luxembourg. 

107   European  Commission,  Directorate-General  for  Education,  Youth,  Sport  and  Culture,  Staring,  F., 
Donlevy, V., Day, L., et al., (2021), Study on gender behaviour and its impact on education outcomes 
(with a special focus on the performance of boys and young men in education), Publications Office 
of the European Union, Luxembourg. 

108   Almond, Douglas, Currie, (2011), “Human capital development before age five”, in Ashenfelter, Card 
(eds), Handbook of Labor Economics. Vol. 4B, Elsevier, pp. 1 315–1 486; Garcia E., Weiss, E., (2017), 
Education  inequalities  at  the  school  starting  gate,  Gaps,  trends,  and  strategies  to  address  them. 
Economic  Policy  Institute.;  Duckworth,  K.  et  al.,  (2009),  Influences  and  leverage  on  low  levels  of 
attainment: a review of literature and policy initiatives. Centre for Research on the Wider Benefits 
of Learning Research Report 31, London, DCSF. 

109   Heckman,  James,  (2006),  “Skill  formation  and  the  economics  of  investing  in  disadvantaged 
children”,  Science,  312(5782):  1  900–1  902.  On  efficiency  and  effectiveness,  see:  European 
Commission,  Joint  Research  Centre,  Agasisti,  T.,  Hippe,  R.  and  G.  Munda,  (2017),  Efficiency  of 
investment  in  compulsory  education:  empirical  analyses  in  Europe.  EUR  28607  EN.  Publications 
Office of the European Union, Luxembourg. 

110   For  an  overview  of  the  existing  empirical  literature  on  the  costs  of  early  school  leaving  see: 
European  Commission,  Directorate-General  for  Education,  Youth,  Sport  and  Culture,  European 
Expert  Network  on Economics  of  Education,  Brunello,  G., De  Paola,  M.,  (2013),  The  costs  of  early 

29 

 
 
                                                           
 
vary because of differences in the database and the methodology used, all studies agree that 
potential costs sum up to several hundred thousand EUR per early leaver: 

  The  European  Foundation  for  the  Improvement  of  Living  and  Working  Conditions 
study,  using  the  2005  to  2011  European  Survey  on  Income  and  Living  Conditions 
estimated that the resource costs of being a dropout to $7,000 per year in EU26111.  

  A  study  on  nine  European  countries  found  that  an  additional  year  of  schooling 
lifetime  earnings  by  5%  to  20%  depending  on  the  modelling 

increases  the 
specification112. 

  A  study  covering  Austria,  Czech  Republic,  Denmark,  England,  France,  Italy  and  the 
Netherlands, found that one additional year of schooling decreases the probability of 
being in poor health by 7 percentage points on average113. 

A  recent  report  has  provided  an  analysis  of  the  economic  benefits  of  educational 
improvement  for  each  EU  country114.  The  analysis  focuses  on  the  relationship  between 
educational achievement, as measured by scores in PISA, and the long-run growth of nations. 
Building  on  prior  research  that  shows  the  strong  historical  relationship  of  growth  and 
educational  achievement,  it  projects  the  aggregate  economic  results  of  improvements  in 
achievement. Four scenarios are identified: 

  The  first  scenario  considers  an  increase  in  student  achievement  of  25  PISA  points. 
This reform, shown possible by several EU countries (Portugal, Poland, and Germany), 
would add €71 trillion to EU GDP over the status quo. This amounts to an aggregate 
EU  gain  of  almost  3½  times  current  levels  of  GDP  and  an  average  GDP that  is seven 
percent higher for the remainder of the century.  

  The second scenario brings all low-performing students up to basic skill requirements 
(PISA level 2). Achieving this goal would boost average GDP over the 21st Century by 
nearly four percent. The more limited goal to reduce low achievement to 15 percent 
by country would have only about one-seventh the impact.  

  The third scenario matches the goal of ET 2020 calling for reductions in early leaving 
from  education  and  training.  Enhancing  the  skills  of  all  potential  early  leavers  from 
education and training is projected to raise average GDP by 0.7 percent. Just reaching 
the specific ET 2020 goal of no more than 10 percent early leavers in each EU country 
has significantly less impact (0.1 percent).  

school leaving in Europe. EENEE Analytical Report n. 17, Publications Office of the European Union, 
Luxembourg.; European Commission, Directorate-General for Education, Youth, Sport and Culture, 
European Expert Network on Economics of Education, Psacharopoulos, G. (2019), “Developments in 
the rates of early leavers from education and training (ELET)”, EENEE Ad-hoc question. 

111   EFILWC,  (2012),  NEETs  young  people  not  in  employment,  education  or  training:  Characteristics, 
costs and policy responses in Europe, Dublin, Ireland: European Foundation for the Improvement of 
Living and Working Conditions. 

112   Brunello  G,  Weber  G,  Weiss  C,  (2012a),  Books  are  Forever:  Early  Life  Conditions,  Education  and 

Lifetime Income. IZA Discussion Papers 6386. 

113   Brunello  G,  Fort  M,  Weber  G,  Weiss  C,  (2013),  Testing  the  Internal  Validity  of  Compulsory  School 

Reforms as Instrument for Years of Schooling.  IZA Discussion Papers 7533. 

114   European  Commission,  Directorate-General  for  Education,  Youth,  Sport  and  Culture,  European 
Expert Network on Economics of Education, Hanushek, E. A., Woessmann, L., (2019), The Economic 
Benefits  of  Improving  Educational  Achievement  in  the  European  Union:  An  Update and Extension. 
EENEE Analytical Report n. 39, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg.  

30 

 
 
                                                                                                                                                                          
  The  fourth  scenario  focuses  on  top  performers,  ensuring  that  at  least  15  percent  of 
students in each country achieve PISA level 5. While having minimal effect on currently 
high-achieving  countries,  average  GDP  across  EU  countries  would  be  0.5  percent 
higher over the remainder of the century. 

The analysis above points towards the need to intervene as early as possible, and to combat 
inequalities at the beginning or even before children’s school career115, especially considering 
the 
impact  of  educational  achievement  on  social  and  economic  progress.  Children’s 
underachievement  has  long  lasting  and  serious  consequences  on  their  adult  lives  and  on 
society at large. Consequently, it is vital to improve learning outcomes, not leaving any student 
behind.  

115   Heckman,  J.  (2006),  Skill  formation  and  the  economics  of  investing  in  disadvantaged  children, 

Science, 312(5782): 1 900–1 902. 

31 

 
 
 
 
 
                                                           
3. Main achievements and lessons learned from the past 

3.1 Main achievements 

Reducing  early  leaving  from  education  and  training  has  been  a  key  target  of  the  European 
cooperation  in  education  and  training  and  extensive  work  has  taken  place  at  the  European 
level and in Member States. This section briefly summarises the actions conducted so far, main 
achievements and lessons learnt from twenty years of policy cooperation at European level. 

At  a  European  level,  the  need  to  reduce  early  leaving  from  education  and  training  was  first 
highlighted in the Europe 2020 strategy116. One of its five headline targets was to reduce the 
early school leaving rate (later renamed early leaving from education and training) to less than 
10%  by  2020.  As  a  follow  up,  the  Commission  adopted,  on  31  January  2011,  a  set  of  policy 
documents  on  early  school  leaving 117 ,  leading  to  the  approval  by  the  Council  of  a 
Recommendation  on  policies  to  reduce  early  school  leaving.  The Recommendation  aims  to 
provide policy impetus and instruments to encourage efforts at a national level across the EU 
in moving towards the 10% headline target. It invites Member States to implement evidence-
based  and  comprehensive  strategies,  involving  all  relevant  policy  sectors  and  addressing  all 
levels of education and training (including VET)118. The Annex to the Recommendation sets out 
a  framework  for  comprehensive  policies,  based  on  strong  monitoring  and  data  collection, 
which  includes  a  set  of  measures  under  three  key  pillars  which  should  all  be  addressed  in 
national  strategies:  prevention, 
the 
implementation  of  the  2011  Council  Recommendation,  the  Commission  also  put  in  place  a 
number of policy tools, including:  

intervention  and  compensation.  To  support 

  Support for peer learning and policy cooperation between Member States. After a first 
Thematic  Working  Group  on  early  school  leaving  (2011-2013)119,  the  focus  on  early 
leaving from education and training  was integrated into the mandate of the ET 2020 
Working Group on Schools (2014-2015)120, which worked on ‘whole school approaches 
to reduce early school leaving’, publishing key messages121. Subsequent mandates of 
the  Working  Group  on  Schools  (2016-2018,  2018-2020)  have  not  placed  an  explicit 
focus on early leaving from education and training while continuing to look at it from 
different angles122. 

116   COM/2010/2020 final 
117   These comprised: a Commission  Communication, Tackling early school leaving: A key contribution 
to the Europe 2020 Agenda (COM (2011)18), a Staff Working Paper Reducing early school leaving, 
and the proposal for the Council Recommendation on policies to reduce early school leaving. 

118   The Council Recommendations includes recommendations to the Member States on implementing 
a policy framework, and invites the Commission to support national policy efforts through a variety 
of  actions  at  EU  level  including  monitoring,  facilitating  the  exchange  of  good  practice,  launching 
comparative studies and research, and integrating measures aimed at tackling ELET in all relevant 
EU policies addressing children and young people. 

119   European  Commission  (2013),  Final  report  of  the  Thematic  Working  Group  on  ELET,  November 
https://ec.europa.eu/education/sites/education/files/early-school-leaving-group2013-

2013, 
report_en.pdf  

120   https://ec.europa.eu/education/policies/european-policy-cooperation/et2020-working-groups_en 
121   European  Commission  (2015),  A  whole  school  approach  to  tackling  early  school  leaving  –  policy 

messages, final report of the Education and Training 2020 Working Group on Schools  

122   On  the  other  hand,  the  focus  of  the  2016-2018  Working  Group  on  common  values  and  inclusion 
was on fostering equity and inclusiveness in education and training by addressing the needs of all 

32 

 
 
 
                                                           
 
  A  strong  emphasis  on  early 

leaving  from  education  and  training  within  EU 
programmes,  in  particular  Erasmus+  and  the  2014-2020  European  Structural  and 
Investment  Funds  (ESIF,  whose  Regulation  included  the  introduction  of  ex  ante 
conditionalities  requiring  countries  to  demonstrate  the  existence  of  comprehensive 
strategy and tracking mechanisms as a precondition for the use of ESF for activities to 
tackle ELET)123; 

  Regular  monitoring  and  reporting  by  the  Commission  on  progress  towards  achieving 
the  target,  in  particular  through  the  European  Semester  and  the  ET2020  reporting 
mechanisms124;   

 

Investment in research and development125; 

  Development of dedicated online tools: the  ‘European Toolkit for Schools:  promoting 
inclusive education and tackling early school leaving’126 and Cedefop’s ‘VET toolkit for 
leaving’ 127 ;  both  platforms  provide  a  wealth  of  resources  and 
tackling  early 
instruments to support policy makers and practitioners. 

Other important initiatives from the EU include the 2015 Council conclusions on early school 
leaving128; the 2018 Council Recommendation on common values, inclusive education and the 
European  dimension  of  teaching129,  which  aims  at  strengthening  inclusive  education,  to 
promote quality education for all pupils and the European dimension of teaching, so children 
also  learn  about  Europe's  common  heritage  and  diversity  and  get  an  understanding  of  the 
functioning  of  the  EU;  the  2019  Council  Recommendations  on High  Quality  Early  Childhood 
Education and Care Systems130 to lay the foundations for later success in life; and the Council 
Recommendation on vocational education and training (VET) for sustainable competitiveness, 
social  fairness  and  resilience131,  which  emphases  that  VET  has  a  key  role  in  preventing  and 
leaving  from  education  and  training  and  promoting  equality  of 
counteracting  early 
opportunities  by  providing  programmes  that  are  inclusive  and  accessible  for  vulnerable 

learners, promoting understanding and ownership of shared values, and enhancing the acquisition 
of social and civic competences. 

123   European  Commission  (2016),  The  implementation  of  the  provisions  in  relation  to  the  ex-ante 
conditionalities  during  the  programming  phase  of  the  European  Structural  and  Investment  (ESI) 
Funds, 
http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/sources/policy/how/studies_integration/impl_exante_esif_re
port_en.pdf  

124   Since 2011 the Commission has been publishing the Education and Training Monitor. The Monitor 
gathers yearly a wide range of evidence on the evolution of national education and training systems 
across  the  European  Union.  It  measures  countries’  progress  towards  EU-level  targets  of  the 
strategic  framework  for  European  cooperation  in  education  and  training  towards  the  European 
Education Area and beyond (2021-2030) (until 2020, the ET2020 objectives). The Monitor analyses 
key education challenges and recent policy developments at the EU and national levels. It highlights 
policy measures that can make European education systems more responsive to societal and labour 
market needs. 

125   Within  the  EU  Framework  Programme  7,  the  RESL.eu  project  provided  new  evidence  for  what 
constitutes  effective  prevention,  intervention  and  compensation  measures  in  an  EU  context 
(https://www.uantwerpen.be/en/projects/rELET-eu/). 

126   http://www.schooleducationgateway.eu/en/pub/resources/toolkitsforschools.htm  
127   www.cedefop.europa.eu/TEL-toolkit 
128   OJ C 417, 15.12.2015, p. 36–40  
129   OJ C 195, 7.6.2018, p. 1–5 
130   OJ C 189, 5.6.2019, p. 4–14 
131   OJ C 417, 2.12.2020, p. 1–16 

33 

 
 
                                                                                                                                                                          
groups132.  Other  relevant  ongoing  initiatives  and  their  synergies  with  Pathways  to  School 
Success are described in chapter 5. 

In July 2019, the Commission published an independent assessment of the implementation of 
the Council Recommendation on policies to reduce early school leaving133. The study covered 
37 EU and non EU countries. It addressed: 

- 

situation and trends at European and national level and the national arrangements for 
monitoring and evaluating early leaving from education and training; 

-  overview and examples of the measures implemented at national level to reduce early 
leaving  from  education  and  training,  in  terms  of  prevention,  intervention  and 
compensation measures, as well as presenting evidence of effectiveness; 
an  analysis  of  the  role  and  influence  of  the  2011  Council  Recommendation  and 
associated  EU  policy  tools  in  terms  of  their  relevance,  effectiveness,  efficiency  and 
sustainability; 

- 

-  need for future EU level support, and the nature of the support envisaged. 

The  assessment  draws  an  overall  positive  picture  regarding  the  impact  and  influence  of  the 
2011 Council Recommendation and associated EU  policy.  It  provides  a strong indication that 
the  2011  Recommendation  is  regarded  as  relevant  and  effective  across  Europe,  especially 
within the EU27, but also to a varying degree among Candidate and EFTA countries.  

The  Recommendation  has  interacted  in  complex  ways  with  national  and  EU  policies  and 
programmes,  including  those  in  the  fields  of  youth,  labour  markets,  and  lifelong  learning; 
nonetheless, its ‘footprint’ can be traced in educational strategies and policies initiated across 
Europe during the period from 2011-2018. The Recommendation and associated tools clearly 
shone a light on the need to tackle early leaving from education and training  across Europe, 
keeping  this  issue  high  in  the  policy  agenda  at  EU  and  national  level  and  providing  a  policy 

132   Other initiatives include: supporting peer reviews of ELET policies in several EU countries including 
Germany,  Bulgaria,  Portugal  and  Malta;  developing  indicators  (European  Commission,  European 
Education and Culture Executive Agency, Eurydice, Noorani S. (2017), Structural Indicators on Early 
Leaving  from  Education  and  Training  in  Europe.  Publications  Office  of  the  European  Union, 
Luxembourg  of  the  European  Union,  https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2797/788496);  disseminating 
information;  supporting  studies  (e.g.  European  Parliament,  Directorate-General  for  Internal 
Policies,  Nevala,  A-M.,  Hawley,  J.,  et.al.  (2011),  Reducing  early  school  leaving  in  the  EU, 
IP/B/CULT/IC/2010-079,   
http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/etudes/join/2011/460048/IPOL-
CULT_ET%282011%29460048%28SUM01%29_EN.pdf),  on  second  chance  education  (European 
Commission,  Directorate-General  for  Education,  Youth,  Sport  and  Culture,  Redgrave,  K.,  Day,  L., 
Mozuraityte,  N.,  McCoshan,  A.  (2014),  Preventing  early  school  leaving  in  Europe  –  Lessons  learnt 
from  second  chance  education,  doi:  10.2766/61898,  Publications  Office  of  the  European  Union, 
leaving  (European  Commission,  Directorate-General  for 
Luxembourg)  and  on  early  school 
Education, Youth, Sport  and Culture, Dumcius, R. et.al.  (2014),  Study on the effective  use of early 
childhood  education  and  care  (ECEC)  in  preventing  early  school  leaving  (ESL):  final  report, 
Luxembourg, 
Publications 
https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2766/81384);  supporting  EPALE’s  (Electronic  Platform  for  Adult 
Learning 
leavers  and  second  chance  education  (e.g. 
https://ec.europa.eu/epale/en/themes/second-chance-schools) 

in  Europe)  focus  on  early  school 

European 

Union, 

Office 

the 

of 

133   European  Commission,  Directorate-General  for  Education,  Youth,  Sport  and  Culture,  Donlevy,  V., 
Day, L., Andriescu, M.,  Downes, P., (2019), Assessment of the implementation of the 2011 Council 
recommendation on policies to reduce early school leaving: final report, Publications Office of the 
European Union, Luxembourg. 

34 

 
 
                                                           
framework  for  doing  so,  which  countries  and  key  stakeholders  have  globally  responded  to, 
albeit  to  different  degrees  and  in  differing  manners.  Although  disentangling  the  formal  and 
informal  patterns  of  influence  into  national  policy  remains  a  complex  endeavour,  the 
assessment  has  identified  a  range  of  national  strategies  and  policies,  as  well  as  EU-funded 
projects  and  research,  which  either  directly  or  broadly  mirror  the  policy  framework  in  the 
Recommendation.  

The most direct evidence of influence of the 2011 Council Recommendation was for the eight 
Member States, which adopted a comprehensive strategy134 for tackling early school leaving 
after  2011,  reflecting  the  three  pillars  from  the  EU  policy  framework:  Austria,  Belgium 
(Flanders), Bulgaria, France, Greece, Hungary, Malta, and Romania. The Netherlands also has a 
strategy but this pre-dates the 2011 watershed. A further set of countries (CY, ES, FI, IE, IT, LV, 
LT,  LU,   PT,  SE,  SK,  as well  as  NO,  RS  and  TR)  took  the  decision  not  to  adopt  a  separate  ESL 
strategy,  but  have  nonetheless  transposed  elements  of  the  EU  policy  framework  within  a 
wider  set  of  policy  measures.  This  approach  has  typically  evolved  over  a  number  of  years, 
with  the  2011  Recommendation  providing  one  of  a  number  of  reference  points  for  policy 
formulation, alongside national statistical reviews and research, and other EU or international 
sources  such  as  OECD  reports  and  study  visits.  A  more  limited  influence  of  the  Council 
Recommendation  was  found  in  the  remaining  countries,  principally  due  either  to  having 
historically relatively low ESL rates (such as in Czech Republic and Slovenia), or long-standing 
early school leaving frameworks or policy measures in place before 2011 (such as in Denmark, 
Finland,  Poland,  and  the  UK).  Nonetheless,  the  diffusion  of  the  EU  policy  framework,  and 
changing circumstances at a country level have seen elements of the 2011 Recommendation 
adopted more widely in recent years even in these countries. 

The accompanying set of EU policy tools have procured complementary effects and supported 
the  sustainability  of  policy  attention  and  efforts,  through  the  provision  of  peer  learning 
opportunities  and  structured  dialogue,  funding  actions  and  research,  disseminating  research 
and good practice examples.  In particular: 

  The  EU  monitoring  and  reporting  mechanisms  were  widely  considered  to  be  an 
effective  tool,  in  particular  for  raising  the  profile  and  visibility  of  early  leaving  from 
education  and  training  at  national  level.  The  monitoring  of  the  headline  target  and 
the  European  Semester  reports  and  country-specific  recommendations  have  also 
often carried weight with national policymakers and provided challenge where efforts 
had stalled, as well as validating progress.  

  Targeted  funding  mechanisms  also  appear  to  have  played  a  valuable  role  in 
supporting national level implementation. There was considerable evidence that the 
ESIF ex-ante conditionalities played an important part in levering action at a national 
level, although challenges were raised in some cases around sustained engagement. 
EU-funded programmes have also been widely utilised to address  national priorities 
around  ELET.  However,  the  separation  of  EU  programmes  from  national  policy-
making and budgets was highlighted as a challenge in some countries, as well as the 

134   The  assessment  defines  a  national  strategy  “as  a  guiding  document  with  clear  objectives  that 
explicitly aims to reduce the early school leaving rate and has a comprehensive approach to doing 
so, with a combination of prevention, intervention and compensation measures and organisations 
responsible  for  tackling  them,  as  well  as  a  clear  division  of  responsibilities”.  The  extent  to  which 
such a strategy might be considered ‘comprehensive’ is also discussed in the assessment.  

35 

 
 
 
                                                           
risk  of  substitution  effects,  and  limitations  posed  by  having  too  many  disparate 
projects. 

  As  to  the  effectiveness  of  the  policy  cooperation  at  EU  level,  the  ET  2020  Working 
Groups  were  recognised  to  be  a  valuable  forum  for  dialogue  between  national 
stakeholders  and  the  European  Commission,  though  their  value  was  principally 
thought to reside in providing access to good practice examples. The greatest benefits 
were often reported from smaller scale and more direct exchanges between country 
representatives,  e.g.  peer  learning  activities.  The  written  outputs  and  European 
Toolkit for Schools were generally well regarded and used. 

The  evidence  for  the  efficiency  of  the  2011  Recommendation  and  policy  tools  is  complex  to 
ascertain with any strong degree of certainty. As budgets for early leaving from education and 
training  were  usually  neither  ring-fenced  nor  extensively  monitored,  the  causal  chains 
between financial inputs, activities, outputs nor results are difficult to define. 

As  regards  the  concrete  policies  and  measures  developed  at  national  level,  the  assessment 
portrays  a  picture  and  assess  the  coverage  of  prevention,  intervention  and  compensation 
measures. The following heat maps provides a visual representation of measures covered at a 
country level across Europe. 

In terms of prevention policies, although country coverage was overall quite comprehensive, 
most countries have some gaps, and around a quarter have more marked gaps. In particular, 
the  implementation  of  systemic  or  infrastructural  policies  such  as  anti-segregation  policies 
appears to be less prevalent than measures implemented within schools or other institutions. 
There  is  evidence  of  relatively  good  coverage  of  ‘targeted  prevention’  measures,  oriented 
towards  specific  groups  at  risk,  such  as  Roma,  migrant  children  or  children  with  migrant 
background, families experiencing socio-economic disadvantage. 

Figure 6. Coverage of ESL prevention measures at a national level across Europe 

36 

 
 
 
 
Source: Assessment of the implementation of the 2011 Council Recommendation   

There  is  relatively  good  national  coverage  of  intervention  policies,  although  with  more 
variation than for prevention policies. Coverage is highest for intervention measures focused 
on in-school support, including targeted support for learners experiencing personal, social or 
academic difficulties, as well as CPD for teachers and school leaders to help them to manage 
diversity  and  to  support  learners.  Over  half  of  the  countries  also  implement  measures  to 
promote  inclusive  school  environments,  anti-bullying  and  wellbeing,  as  well  as  policies  to 
engage child participation in decision-making. However, there are some clear gaps in certain 
countries  for  these  two  groups  of  measures.  Implementation  of  infrastructural  measures 
shows the weakest overall coverage. 

Figure 7. Intervention measures 1: school and system oriented 

 Source: Assessment of the implementation of the 2011 Council Recommendation  

Figure 8. Intervention measures 2: learner-oriented 

Source: Assessment of the implementation of the 2011 Council Recommendation  

Compensation  measures  are  comparatively  well-established  across  Europe.  Most  countries 
offer  ‘second  chance’  education  schemes  of  some  type,  often  combined  with  careers 

37 

 
 
 
 
 
guidance,  financial, childcare  and/or psychological support. The weakest overall focus in this 
area is on systems to support the recognition and validation of prior learning. 

Figure 9: Compensation measures 

Source: Assessment of the implementation of the 2011 Council Recommendation 

The  assessment  concludes  that  the  implementation  of  the  Council  Recommendation  has 
contributed to a decrease of the rate of early leavers from education and training at EU level 
and encouraged transformation within educational institutions and policies, while highlighting 
a number of gaps and areas in which further work is needed.  

3.2 Gaps and needs in policy development and implementation 

Policy  cooperation  at  EU  level  has  mainly  focused on  combating  ELET.  However,  despite  the 
successful  experience  of  the  2011  Council  Recommendation,  statistics  confirm  that  ELET 
remains a policy challenge in a number of countries and regions. In the meantime, the overall 
performance in basic skills has further deteriorated, while policy work at EU level to address 
this  challenge  has  been  much  less  effective  and  systematic.  For  both  challenges,  significant 
differences  exist  across  and  within  countries  and  certain  groups  seem  more  affected  than 
others (e.g. young men, migrants, learners living in rural areas and outermost regions).    

The independent assessment of the 2011 Council Recommendation has clearly indicated that 
more  needs  to  be  done  to  tackle  the  multi-faceted  and  evolving  range  of  challenges 
contributing  to  early  leaving  from  education  and  training,  with  underperformance  in  basic 
skills being closely related to it. It has identified a number of gaps and weaknesses, calling for a 
renewed action at EU level and hinting at the importance of  addressing  all  aspects  that  can 
have an impact on the educational experience of children and young people in a systematic 
way.  In  particular, the  following  areas  for  further work,  at EU  and  national  level,  have  been 
identified:  

 

 Further  strengthen  an  integrated  approach:  despite  the  2011  Recommendation  calling 
for  comprehensive  policies,  many  countries  still  adopt  fragmented,  project-based  and 
short-term  policies,  addressing  only  one  issue,  or  not  taking  into  account  all  school 
dimensions, thus resulting in a limited impact. More systemic and comprehensive policies 
are often missing, and consistency between actions is often challenging.    

  Ensure  that  strategies  or  measures  include  a  stronger  focus  on  prevention  and 
intervention, as well as compensation: Tackling problems proactively before – or as soon 
as  -  warning  signs  appear  prevents  them  from  escalating  and  can  avoid  complete 

38 

 
 
 
 
 
disengagement  from  the  education  system,  a  stage  after  which  it  is  much  harder  to 
incentivise  learners  to  return  to  school.  Not  only  are  prevention  policies more  effective, 
but all learners can also benefit from them (not only those more at risk of disengagement 
or  educational  failure).  In  addition,  many  countries  need  to  put  greater  focus  on 
implementing  anti-segregation  policies  in  schools  and  educational  districts,  as  well  as 
developing more flexible and individualised pathways and measures for well-being. 

  Enhance data collection and monitoring systems: Many countries have statistics on ELET, 
but  lack  systems  to  identify  those  who  should  be  reached  out  to  with  additional 
information  and  offers  for  a  solution  to  their  situation.  In  addition,  monitoring  and 
evaluation of policies and interventions are not sufficiently developed and there is limited 
evidence about their effectiveness and efficiency, which reduces the learning process both 
within the country and across countries;  

 

 

In  addition  to  more  universal  measures,  which  all  learners  can  benefit  from,  develop 
policies  to  address  the  specific  needs  of  particular  groups,  such  as  learners  with 
disabilities,  those  with  special  educational  needs,  High  Learning  Potential  or  Gifted 
children,  people  from  ethnic  minorities,  with  a  migrant  background  and  newly  arrived 
migrants, including refugees those living in rural or deprived areas and outermost regions, 
among others. There also needs to be a stronger focus on those with complex needs (e.g. 
children  with  mental  health  issues,  children  in  care,  children  with  a  parent  in  prison  or 
children who are victims or witnesses of domestic abuse).  

In  order  to  tackle  the  multi-faceted  dimensions  of  the  problem,  facilitate  and  promote 
more  strategic  and  cross-sectoral  cooperation  between  policymakers  across  different 
policy  fields  (e.g. education, health, employment,  housing,  justice,  inclusion of migrants, 
non-discrimination) and levels of government (European, national, regional and local), as 
well systematic dialogue with stakeholders. 

  Address the well-being dimension in schools. National, regional and local strategies and 
measures aimed at tackling educational failure should be further integrated with those on 
well-being,  in  particular  those  targeting  bullying  as  well  as  mental  health,  including 
trauma and adverse childhood experiences. 

  To be effective, policy-making must include the voices of other key stakeholders such as 
and  non-governmental 

learners,  migrant 

communities 

marginalised  parents, 
organisations. 

  Further  develop  a  systemic  approach  to  promoting  educational  success  at  school  level 
(‘whole school approach’), based on cross-sectoral partnership in and around schools and 
multi-disciplinarity. 
further 
consideration  at  policy,  practitioner  and  research  level,  including  promising  examples  of 
community  lifelong  learning  centres  combined  with  multidisciplinary  teams  as  one  stop 
shops. 

  A  whole  community,  area-based  approach  merits 

  More  –  and  more  effective  –  systems  need  to  be  established  to  facilitate  the  successful 
integration of newly-arrived  migrants,  including refugees.  There is an insufficient policy 
focus  on  the  validation/recognition  of  prior  learning,  which  has  a  particular  impact  for 
migrants.  

  There  is considerable  scope  to  better  strategically  exploit  the  potential  of  the  arts  and 
culture, as well as other extra-curricular activities, such as sports and access to nature.  

  Understanding  and  addressing  underachievement  and  early  leaving  from  education  and 
training – and social inclusion more widely – should be at the heart of the preparation of 

39 

 
 
school  leaders,  teachers,  trainers  and  other  educational  staff,  including  through 
increased  recognition  of  the  importance  of  practical  placements  of  student  teachers  in 
areas of high poverty, as well as teachers’ and trainers’ relational and cultural skills (e.g. 
conflict  resolution  skills,  integrating  diverse,  culturally  meaningful  materials  in  teachers, 
etc.). More focus should also be placed on the dimensions of teaching which can influence 
including  raising  awareness  of  the 
ELET 
phenomenon and spotting warning signs.     

in  continuing  professional  development, 

  More  research  on  early  leaving  from  education  and  training  is  needed,  with  research 

networks on the topics building on university connections.  

The assessment also provides recommendations for EU level tools: 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

To keep the policy spotlight on tackling early leaving from education and training, there is 
a  need  to  renew  and  relaunch  the  2011  Recommendation  and  associated  policy  tools, 
taking into account the policy learning from implementation and the contextual changes 
(e.g. migration related developments). 

The headline target provides a valuable and visible cross-country comparative point, and 
should be retained post-ET 2020. As well as reviewing the level at which to set the future 
target,  further  consideration  should  be  given  to  the  use  that  can  be  made  of 
disaggregated data (e.g. on migration background or gender)135. 

Translational  tools  (e.g.  a  grid  of  structural  indicators)  have  the  potential  to  synthesise 
key policy recommendations and minimise policy amnesia, ensuring that Member States 
are required to report on why different types of measures are not being implemented.  

Continue  the  inclusion  of  specific  country  specific  recommendations  on  the  remaining 
challenges in the European Semester; further scaffolding should however be provided not 
only to say what should be done, but how to achieve it, with clear signposting to different 
mechanisms such as EU funding sources, peer counselling or targeted peer learning. 

Consider  tougher  standards  to  ensure  that  project  activities  funded  by  the  European 
Social  Fund,  or  other  EU  funds  (e.g.  Erasmus+)  are  strategic  and  effectively  targeted  to 
address national priorities and needs, to avoid the piecemeal approach that was found in 
many countries.  

Ensure  that  the  longstanding  focus  on  educational  inclusion  is  retained  within  the 
mandate of the  ET 2020 Working Group on Schools, including an explicit focus on  early 
leaving from education and training.  

Expand  opportunities  for  peer  counselling  and  peer  review,  to  enable  more  focused 
country exchanges and visits, perhaps linked to country-specific recommendations. 

  Undertake further communications activities to raise the profile of the European Toolkit 
for  Schools,  capitalising  on  the  potential  of  the  Toolkit  to  disseminate  case  studies  and 
research in a format that is accessible to educationalists across Europe.  

  Develop  a  new  EU-level  ESL  Monitoring  and  Evaluation  Framework, 

including 
standardised  and  evidence-based  research  instruments  for  evaluating  policies  and 

135   As mentioned previously, this target has remained post-ET2020 as an EU-level target for the new 

strategic framework of European cooperation in Education and Training until 2030. 

40 

 
 
                                                           
programmes  in  the  field  of  early  leaving  from  education  and  training,  disseminated  via 
the European Toolkit for Schools.  

 

Consider setting-up an EU Monitoring and Evaluation Observatory for early leaving from 
education  and  training,  bringing  together  higher  education  institutions  from  across 
Europe to take the lead in high quality multi-disciplinary academic research in this field. 

This picture can be complemented by the Cedefop study conducted in 2016 on the role of VET 
in tackling early leaving 136, whose findings raise the need for countries to:  

  Develop more extensive national systems to be able to monitor early leaving from VET. 
The study identified only a few countries that have monitoring systems on ELET that are 
systematically  deployed  across  the  whole  country  and  used  to  offer  support  to  young 
people.  These  monitoring  systems  should  allow  identifying  (nearly)  every  young  person 
who  exits  prematurely  from  any  type  of  education  and  training  and  follow-up  to  offer 
them  an  alternative  programme  or  support.  Comprehensive  data  collection  and 
monitoring systems on early leaving may improve understanding of the phenomenon in 
each country to target measures better to prevent and address it. 

important  prevention  efforts  to 

  Strengthen  VET  policy  commitment  to  combat  early  leaving  from  education  and 
training. Cedefop’s research shows that rates of early leaving in VET vary from country to 
country, but also among different VET systems within the same country. On the one hand, 
in cases where vocational education and training is particularly exposed to early leaving, it 
requires 
increase  the  quality,  accessibility  and 
attractiveness  of  VET.  On  the  other  hand,  in  other  cases,  VET  can  also  bring  some 
answers:  VET programmes (particularly those more practical and oriented to work-based 
learning)  can  be  effective  in  motivating  discouraged  and  disengaged  young  people. 
Evidence  shows  (Cedefop,  2016)  that  the  majority  of  those  who  drop  out  from  school, 
when  decide  to  go  back,  opt  for  a  VET  programme  and  qualify  in  upper  secondary 
education.  School  education  can  therefore  benefit  from  incorporating  more  vocational 
pedagogies to make learning more meaningful for some. 

 

  Target activities and combine measures for  success. Effective strategies should address 
the specific cause of the problem and be adapted to the profile of the young person. It is 
crucial  to  collect  information  on  their  characteristics  and  needs  to  be  able  to  offer 
tailored support137.  
 Evaluate  progress  and  impact  to  inform  policy-making  and  funding.  Most  Member 
States have a multitude of activities, financed from local, regional, national or European 
sources  that  aim  to combat  ELET.  However,  evidence  about  which ones  are  making  the 
difference  and to whom, is often lacking. Understanding which measures  are successful 
and for which target group is a precondition for improving effectiveness and efficiency of 
national strategies to combat early leaving. 

While  these  assessments  clearly  indicate  that  more  work  is  needed  on  these  already  well-
known challenges, newer challenges are explained bellow. 

136   European  Commission,  Cedefop  (2016),  Cedefop  research  paper  No  57,  Leaving  education  early: 
putting vocational education and training centre stage. Volume I: investigating causes and extent. 
Luxembourg, Publications Office of the European Union, http://dx.doi.org/10.2801/893397 
137   The study identified six profiles of young people by level of disengagement and the type of 

challenges in education and training as well as in other spheres of life. The profiles are available 
here: https://www.cedefop.europa.eu/en/tools/vet-toolkit-tackling-early-leaving/identify 

41 

 
 
 
 
                                                           
4. 

The current context: remaining and new challenges  

4.1 Main trends and their possible impact on education 

Since  the  2011  Council  Recommendation  on  policies  to  reduce  early  school  leaving  was 
adopted,  European  countries  have  been  confronted  with  new  situations,  challenges  and 
opportunities, and with a set of conditions affecting policy innovation in the field of education 
which are not always favourable. While the rate of early leavers from education and training at 
EU  level  has  decreased  significantly,  considerable  differences  still  exist  across  and  within 
countries and inequalities persist among specific population groups (see 4.2.1). Faced with the 
deteriorating  trend  in  the  basic  skills  performance  as  identified  by  the  results  of  PISA  2018, 
concerns  have  emerged  prominently  in  policy  and  academic  discourses  at  national  and 
European  level  (see  4.2.2).  Educational  research  has  provided  new  insights  and  policy 
cooperation  between  European  countries,  although  it  has  allowed  Member  States  to  share 
promising  practices,  it  has  also  highlighted  gaps  and  areas  in  which  further  work  is  needed 
(see  4.2.3  and  4.3).  In  addition,  important  developments  and  shifts  in  European  and  world 
societies  and  economies  have  also  exerted  a  deep  influence  on  education  systems  over  the 
past ten years 

Europe’s  digital  transformation  is  accelerating  rapidly  and  digital  technologies  have  become 
part of our everyday life and of students’ learning experience. However, not all children and 
young people benefit equally from the digital transformation: a fifth of young people in the EU 
do not possess basic digital skills and the impact of socio-economic status on digital literacy is 
significant. The results of the International Computer and Information Literacy Study (ICILS)27 
2018 show that a fifth of young people in the EU do not possess basic digital skills and also 
reveal  the  impact  of  socio-economic  status  on  digital  literacy:  on  average,  students  from 
higher  socioeconomic  status  backgrounds  have  significantly  higher  computer  information 
literacy scores and students with a parent who had completed a Bachelor’s degree or higher 
also score higher than those whose parents do not hold a degree.  Additionally, increased time 
online has caused concern over the impact of digital media on children’s well-being. 

The increased mobility between EU countries and the rising number of third country migrants 
coming to the EU in recent years have contributed to greater linguistic and cultural diversity 
in European classrooms. According to data from PISA 2015, an average of around one in ten 
(9%)  of  15-year-old  learners  speak  a  different  language  at  home  than  the  language  of 
schooling  across  EU  Member  States138.  The  massive  influx  of  displaced  Ukrainian  children  in 
spring 2022 due to the war in Ukraine is contributing to an even further extent to enhancing 
the  linguistic  and  cultural  diversity  in  the  European  classrooms.  Addressing  the  diversity  of 
educational  needs  is  at  the  core of making  education  systems more  equitable and  inclusive, 
and will be instrumental for the successful integration of newcomers.  

Most  recently,  Europe  faced  significant  challenges  due  to  the  COVID-19  pandemic,  which 
aggravated  inequalities  in education,  and  revealed  gaps  and  challenges  in  current  education 
provision and education systems. Learning loss estimated as a consequence of the pandemic 
may enhance the share of underachieving children, may cause an increase in early leaving of 

138   European Commission, European Education and Culture Executive Agency, Eurydice (2017) Key 

data on teaching languages at school in Europe: 2017 edition, Publications Office of the European 
Union, Luxembourg, https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2797/04255  

42 

 
 
                                                           
school and training, and negatively affected children’s well-being (the impact of the pandemic 
will be presented more in-depth in 4.3.2). 

These trends have exacerbated or altered existing challenges or added new ones, contributing 
to making the concerns around ELET and underachievement in basic skills even more pressing. 
The following sections present more in detail main challenges which justify a new ‘Pathways to 
School Success.’ 

4.2 Remaining challenges 

4.2.1 Early leaving from education and training139 

Across the EU on average, the share of early leavers from education and training was 9.9% in 
2020.  The  share  has  steadily  decreased  since  2002,  when  it  was  16.9%.  A  decrease  of  3.9 
percentage points has been observed since 2010: a decrease of 2.7 percentage points over the 
period 2010 to 2014 was followed by a smaller reduction of 1.1 percentage point since 2015,  

Figure 10: Early leavers from education and training in the EU. 2002-2020 [%] 

Source: Eurostat. Online data code [edat_lfse_14] 

The  EU  average  masks  important  differences  between  and  within  countries.  In  some 
countries,  more  than  15%  of  the  young  population  are  early  leavers  from  education  and 
training140;  in  18  Member  States,  the  share  of  early  leavers  from  education  and  training  is 
currently less than 9% and Denmark is close to reaching the 9% target. Croatia has the smallest 
proportion  of  early  leavers  (2.2%).  Several  countries  with  a  high  share  of  early  leavers  from 
education and training have seen very marked reductions over time (Portugal and Greece as 

139   The source for the current and following section is the European Commission, Directorate-General 
for Education, Youth, Sport and Culture (2021) Education and training monitor 2021: education and 
well-being, https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2766/00614. Data on 2021 ELET rates has been released 
on  28/04/2022,  and  could  not  be  incorporated  in  this  document.  2021  ELET  data  are  available  a: 
https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/SDG_04_10/bookmark/table?lang=en&bookmar
kId=a7aaf0db-7026-45f8-889c-e555a3a87f12  

140   This is the case in Spain (16.0%) and Romania (15.6%). The share of early leavers is also well above 
the 9% target in Italy (13.1%), Bulgaria (12.8%), Malta (12.6%), Hungary (12.1%) and Cyprus (11.5%).  

43 

16.916.416.015.615.214.714.414.013.813.212.611.811.111.010.610.510.510.29.919.118.618.417.717.416.916.416.015.915.214.513.612.712.512.112.112.111.811.814.614.213.513.412.912.412.212.011.611.110.610.09.49.49.18.98.88.48.00%5%10%15%20%0%5%10%15%20%2002200320042005200620072008200920102011201220132014201520162017201820192020TotalMenWomenEU-level target for 2030 
 
 
                                                           
well  as  Latvia,  Spain  and  Ireland),  while  opposite  trends  have  been  recorded  in  other 
countries.  

Young  men  (11.8%)  are  more  likely  to  be  early  leavers  from  education  and  training 
compared  to  young  women  (8%).  National  data  also  shows  that  boys  are more  likely  to  be 
absent from school compared to girls. These findings confirm trends identified by the OECD in 
2015. According to 2008 and 2012 PISA data, compared to girls, boys across OECD countries 
were  more  likely  to  leave  school  or  training  early,  were  more  likely  to  arrive  late  or  miss 
school, and were more likely to repeat a grade141. 

On average in Europe, native-born people have lower ELET rates than foreign-born people. In 
2020, among the 17 Member States for which data are available, the highest shares of foreign-
born  early  leavers  from  education  and  training  were  in  Italy  (32.1%),  Spain  (29.0%),  Malta 
(28.5%), Greece (27.0%), Cyprus (26.8%) and Germany (25.5%). The proportion of early leavers 
from  education  and  training  among  the  foreign-born  young  people  was  below  9%  in  two 
countries: Luxembourg (8.7%) and Slovenia (7.4%). In all countries for which data for foreign-
born pupils disaggregated by sex is available, young men who are foreign-born are more likely 
to  be  early  leavers  than  young  women,  and  gender  gaps  are  often  wider  than  among  the 
young population born in the reporting country.  

As regards the urban/rural divide, the pattern is more nuanced. At EU level, the ELET rate is 
lower in cities (8.7%) than in rural areas (10.5%) or towns and suburbs (11.2%)142. The picture 
is, however, quite uneven across Member States. Regardless of the degree of urbanisation, the 
EU  average  share  of  early  leavers  from  education  and  training  among  young  men  is  higher 
than  among  young  women.  In  2020,  the  EU  average  gender  gap  was  widest  in  towns  and 
suburbs (4.8 percentage points), followed by cities (3.7) and rural areas (2.5).  

Wide  disparities  also  exist  across  regions  at  the  NUTS143 2  level.  Some  of  the  lowest  2020 
shares of early leavers from education and training were concentrated in Eastern Europe and 
in  capital  regions,  while  the  highest  shares  were  often  concentrated  in  island  and/or 
outermost  regions  of  the EU,  highlighting  a  particularly  difficult  situation.  The  share  of early 
leavers  from  education  and  training  was  also  relatively  high  in  most  regions  of  southern 
Europe and across most regions of Bulgaria and Romania. Some regions in Belgium or France 
also record relatively high shares. 

141   OECD (2015). The ABC of Gender Equality in Education. Aptitude, Behaviour, Confidence. PISA, OECD 

publishing. Available at: https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/docserver/9789264229945-
en.pdf?expires=1610634769&id=id&accname=guest&checksum=66B1763A84CB2A7C21B3829FBC7
B8E3B  

142   The rural disadvantage is very strong in Romania and Bulgaria, where the difference between the 
ELET  rate  in  rural  areas  and  in  cities  is  18.8 pps  and  19.9 pps,  respectively.  It  is  important  to  also 
consider  that  where  the  young  population  is  more  concentrated  in  cities,  the  number  of  early 
leavers may be largest in absolute terms. While comparable data on the distribution of the youth 
population by level of urbanisation are not  available, data from 2019 Eurobarometer poll suggest 
that the proportion of the young population reporting they live in rural area or village is 26%, while 
74% report living in a town (40% in small or middle-sized towns and 34% in a large town).  

143   NUTS - Nomenclature des Unités territoriales statistiques 

44 

 
 
 
 
 
                                                           
Figure 11: Early leavers from education and training by NUTS 2 regions. 2020 [ % ] 

Source: Eurostat. Online data code [edat_lfse_16] 

The  EU-level  target  is  complemented  by  an  indicator  measuring  the  share  of  people  aged 
between  20  and  24  years  with  at  least  an  upper  secondary  qualification  (ISCED  3  level)144. 
Across  the  EU  on  average,  84.3%  of  20-  to  24-year-olds  had  at  least  an  upper  secondary 
qualification in 2020. Young women (87.1%) have a clear advantage over young men (81.5%). 
The young population is increasingly likely to have completed upper secondary education, with 
only few countries seeing a decrease or limited change in the proportion. 

144   The aim of the complementary indicator is to measure the proportion of the young population that 
is likely to have the minimum necessary qualifications for their active participation in society. 

45 

 
 
 
 
 
                                                           
Figure 12: Population aged 20 to 24 who have attained at least upper secondary education. 
2010-2020 [ % ] 

Source: Eurostat. Online data code [edat_lfse_03] 

4.2.2 Underachievement in basic skills 

While  basic  skills  have  gained  increased  attention  in  the  policy  debate  at  the  EU  level,  the 
performance  in  basic  skills  shows  a  deteriorating  trend  over  the  2009-2018  period.  The  EU-
level  target  for  2030  is  to  ensure  that  the  total  average  underachievement  in  these  three 
domains  across  the  EU  is  below  15%.  On  average  across  the  EU,  this  target  has  not  been 
reached in any of the three areas tested by PISA 2018 and the majority of EU Member States 
perform  below  it.  Despite  progress  in  some  countries,  since  2009  the  EU  share  of 
underachievement  has  increased  in  both  science  and  reading,  while  remaining  stable  in 
mathematics.  More  than  one  in  five  pupils  in  the  EU  has  insufficient  proficiency  in  reading, 
mathematics or science: in 2018 the underachievement rate stands stood at 22.5% in reading, 
22.9%  in  mathematics  and  22.3%  in  science145.  However,  some  countries  have  been  able  to 
improve their performance over time.  

Major differences  in performance exist  between  the  Member States. The  underachievement 
rate in the three domains simultaneously ranges from 4.2% in Estonia to 31.9% in Bulgaria. It is 
below  10%  in  eight  countries  (Estonia,  Poland,  Finland,  Ireland,  Slovenia,  Denmark,  United 
Kingdom  and  Latvia)  while  it  exceeds  20%  in  four  countries  (Malta,  Cyprus,  Romania  and 
Bulgaria). 

The  PISA  2018  results,  like  previous  PISA  cycles,  clearly  indicate  that  performance  is  highly 
correlated across all three tested domains (reading, mathematics and science). Member States 
that show certain levels of basic skills in one area tend to perform similarly in the other areas. 
Countries such as Estonia, Finland, Ireland and Poland have low underachievement rates in all 
three  domains.  By  contrast,  in  Bulgaria,  Romania  Cyprus  and  Malta,  more  than  one  in  five 
pupils underachieve at the same time in all three domains.  

145   EU27 (without the UK). 

46 

97.294.994.992.890.189.989.789.789.188.488.087.787.486.185.785.785.485.385.184.383.383.183.183.079.276.175.975.481.587.10%10%20%30%40%50%60%70%80%90%100%0%10%20%30%40%50%60%70%80%90%100%HRIEELSILTPLFRSKFICYLVEECZATBEHUBGPTMTEU-27ITNLSERODEDKESLU20202010Men (2020)Women (2020) 
 
 
                                                           
Failing to meet the minimum standards required in all three subjects will likely translate into 
serious problems in further education, on the labour market and later in life146.  

Figure 13: Population age 16 to 65 at each proficiency level in literacy. PIAAC first cycle [%] 

Source: OECD. PIAAC first cycle. 
Note: Countries are ranked in descending order of the combined percentages of adults scoring at Level 3 
and at Level 4 or 5. The first cycle took place in 2011-2012 (first round) except in EL, LT and SI  (second 
round: 2014-2015). 

Reading 

In  2018  reading  performance  showed  a  large  variation  across  EU  Member  States.  Four 
countries  met  the  15%  ET2020  benchmark  for  underachievement:  Estonia  (11.1%),  Ireland 
(11.8%), Finland (13.5%) and Poland (14.7%). Denmark was just above the benchmark (16.0%). 
By contrast, the underachievement rate exceeded 30% in Malta (35.9%), Slovakia (31.4%) and 
Greece  (30.5%),  and  even  40%  in  Bulgaria  (47.1%),  Cyprus  (43.7%)  and  Romania  (40.8%). 
Performance  worsened  in  most  countries  compared  to  the  previous  2015  PISA  round, 
although  the change  was statistically  significant  only  in  Cyprus  (+8.1  percentage  points),  the 

146   Educational  attainment  plays  a  major  role  in  shaping  adult-learning  choices:  the  2016  Adult 
Education  Survey  found  that  1  in  5  low-qualified  people  and  2  in  3  people  with  a  tertiary 
qualification had participated in learning. Three times as many people in the highly qualified group 
looked  for  information  on  learning  opportunities  than  people  in  the  low-qualified  group.  See 
Eurostat, Adult Education Survey, Eurostat online data code: [TRNG_AES_195]. Low-qualified adults 
are also less likely to be aware of and find information on skills development opportunities and may 
have  a  negative  attitude  towards  organised  learning  owing  to  negative  experiences  of  initial 
schooling. 

47 

 
 
 
 
                                                           
Netherlands  (+6.0  percentage  points),  Latvia  (+4.8  percentage  points),  Germany  (+4.5 
percentage  points),  Luxembourg  (+3.6  percentage  points),  Slovenia  (+2.7  percentage  points) 
and Finland (+2.5 percentage points). No country achieved a statistically significant reduction 
in underachievement.  

Looking  at  reading  performance  over  a  longer  time  span,  performance  did  not  significantly 
change  in  most  countries  between  2009  and  2018.  In  eight  countries  (the  Netherlands, 
Slovakia,  Greece,  Hungary,  Finland,  Latvia,  Belgium  and  Luxembourg)  the  underachievement 
rate  increased  in  a  statistically  significant  way.  Only  Ireland  and  Slovenia  experienced  a 
statistically significant decline. Overall, EU reading performance deteriorated: the EU-average 
underachievement rate was 19.7% in 2009. 

Figure 14: Underachievement rate in reading. 2009, 2015 and 2018 [%] 

Source: OECD. Online data code [educ_outc_pisa] 
Note: Underachievement in 2009 is shown in brackets (data not available for AT and CY) 

Mathematics 

The  2018  pattern  of  underachievement  in  mathematics  is  similar  to  that  of  reading.  Four 
countries met the 15% ET2020 benchmark: Estonia (10.2%), Denmark (14.6%), Poland (14.7%) 
and Finland (15.0%). Ireland (15.7%), the Netherlands (15.8%) and Slovenia (16.4%) were just 
above  the  benchmark.  The  underachievement  rate  exceeded  30%  in  Romania  (46.6%), 
Bulgaria (44.4%), Cyprus (36.9%), Greece (35.8%), Croatia (31.2%) and Malta (30.2%).  

Performance remained rather stable in many Member States between 2015 and 2018. A slight 
majority  of  countries  experienced  a  decline  in  the  underachievement  rate,  but  it  was 
statistically  significant  only  in  Cyprus  (–5.7  percentage  points)  and  Latvia  (–4.1  percentage 
points).  The  only  statistically  significant  increases  took  place  in  Romania  (+6.6  percentage 
points)  and  Germany  (+3.9  percentage  points).  Consequently,  the  EU  average,  at  22.9%, 
remained stable compared to 2015, when it stood at 22.2%. The EU average performance in 
mathematics  remained  stable  also  over  2009-2018,  although  trends  differ  across  Member 
States147.  

Figure 15: Underachievement rate in mathematics. 2009, 2015 and 2018 [%] 

147   Three countries experienced a statistically significant increase of their share, namely Finland (+7.1 
percentage points), Slovakia (+4.1 percentage points) and Luxembourg (+3.3 percentage points). At 
the  same  time,  four  Member  States  registered  a  statistically  significant  decrease:  Poland  (–5.8 
percentage points), Latvia (-5.3 percentage points), Ireland (-5.2 percentage points) and Slovenia (-
4.0percentage points). 

48 

11.111.813.514.716.017.918.420.220.720.720.921.321.622.422.523.223.323.624.124.425.329.330.531.435.940.843.747.110.610.211.114.415.015.118.417.222.016.221.519.519.917.720.016.221.022.518.125.127.525.627.332.135.638.735.641.50%5%10%15%20%25%30%35%40%45%50%EE(13.3)IE(17.2)FI(8.1)PL(15.0)DK(15.2)SI(21.2)SE(17.4)PT(17.6)CZ(23.1)DE(18.5)FR(19.8)BE(17.7)HR(22.4)LV(17.6)EU(19.7)ES(19.6)IT(21.0)ATNL(14.3)LT(24.4)HU(17.6)LU(26.0)EL(21.3)SK(22.2)MT(36.3)RO(40.4)CYBG(41.0)20182015EU-level target for 2030 
 
 
 
                                                           
Source: OECD. Online data code [educ_outc_pisa] 
Note: Underachievement in 2009 is shown in brackets (data not available for AT and CY) 

Science 

Underachievement in science also shows a mixed picture across EU countries. Four countries 
met the 15% ET2020 benchmark in 2018: Estonia (8.8%), Finland (12.9%), Poland (13.8%) and 
Slovenia  (14.6%).  By  contrast,  the  underachievement  rate  was  higher  than  30%  in  Bulgaria 
(46.5%),  Romania  (43.9%),  Cyprus  (39.0%)  and  Greece  (31.7%).  In  a  few  Member  States  the 
underachievement  rate  increased  in  a  statistically  significant  way  between  2015  and  2018 
(+8.6 percentage points in Bulgaria, +3.0 percentage points in Spain, +2.8 percentage points in 
Denmark),  while  Cyprus  and  Poland  experienced  a  statistically  significant  decline  (-3.2 
percentage points and -2.4 percentage points, respectively). The EU average slightly increased, 
from 21.1% to 22.3%.  

Long-term trends (2009-2018) for science are more negative than for reading or mathematics. 
The  EU-average  underachievement  rate  increased  by  4.5  percentage  points  over  the  past 
decade. No EU country was able to reduce significantly its proportion of underachievers over 
the decade, whereas the rate increased significantly in several countries148. In many cases, the 
largest increase took place between 2012 and 2015. 

148   Hungary (+10.0 percentage points), Slovakia (+10.0 percentage points), Bulgaria (+7.7 percentage 

points), Croatia (+6.9 percentage points), Finland (+6.9 percentage points), Greece (+6.4 percentage 
points), Italy (+5.3 percentage points), Lithuania (+5.2 percentage points), Germany (+4.8 
percentage points) and Latvia (+3.8 percentage points). 

49 

10.214.614.715.015.715.816.417.318.819.720.421.121.121.322.923.323.824.725.125.625.627.230.231.235.836.944.446.611.213.617.213.615.016.716.121.420.820.121.717.221.823.522.223.823.322.227.725.428.025.829.132.035.842.642.139.90%5%10%15%20%25%30%35%40%45%50%EE(12.7)DK(17.1)PL(20.5)FI(7.9)IE(20.9)NL(13.4)SI(20.4)LV(22.6)SE(21.1)BE(19.1)CZ(22.4)DE(18.7)ATFR(22.5)EU(22.7)PT(23.8)IT(25.0)ES(23.8)SK(21.0)LT(26.4)HU(22.3)LU(23.9)MT(33.7)HR(33.2)EL(30.4)CYBG(47.1)RO(47.0)20182015EU-level target for 2030 
 
 
 
 
 
                                                           
Figure 16: Underachievement rate in science. 2009, 2015 and 2018 [%] 

Source: OECD. Online data code [educ_outc_pisa] 
Note: Underachievement in 2009 is shown in brackets (data not available for AT and CY) 

In  every  Member  State,  without  exception,  various  data  sources  (PISA,  PIRLS  and  national 
data) demonstrate a large and persistent gender gap in favour of girls in reading. According to 
PISA  2018,  girls  significantly  outperform  boys  in  reading  in  all  EU  countries149.  The  gap  in 
underachievement  between  boys  and  girls  ranges  from  6.6 percentage  points  (pps)  in  the 
Ireland  to  21.5 pps  in  Cyprus.  The  EU  average  is  27.3%  for  boys  and  1F7.4%  for  girls. 
Specifically, the  gender gap increased by 1.7 pps at EU level between 2015 and 2018150. The 
picture  for maths and science  is less  contrasted. The differences  between boys and girls are 
much  smaller  than  in  reading  and  vary  from  country  to  country.  PISA  2018  data  shows  that 
boys perform marginally better than girls in maths across the EU27 but boys’ performance in 
maths  declines  as  they  progress  through  compulsory  education.  As  regards  science,  girls 
generally outperformed boys in PISA 2018151.  

The 2018 PISA assessment152 also pointed out that the proportion of underachievers in reading 
among  pupils  with  a  migrant  background  is much  higher  than  for  pupils  with a  non-migrant 
background  in  many  EU  Member  States.  Language  barriers  can  play  a  negative  role  in  the 
reading  performance  of  pupils  with  a  migrant  background,  to  a  greater  extent  than  for  the 
other  two  tested  subjects.    The  situation  is  usually  worse  for  pupils  born  abroad  (their 
underachievement rate exceeds 50% in Greece, Germany, the Netherlands and Sweden) than 
for native-born pupils with parents born abroad153. Greece has the highest underachievement 
rate  in  the  EU  among  foreign-born  pupils  (58%),  while  Germany  has  the  widest  gap  in 
underachievement rates in reading between pupils born abroad and pupils without a migrant 
background (40 pps). 

Figure 17: Underachievement in reading by migrant background. 2018 [%] 

149   OECD (2019) PISA 2018 results (volume II) – Where all students can succeed. PISA, OECD publishing. 
Available at: https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/pisa-2018-results-volume-ii_b5fd1b8f-en 
150   European Commission, (2019). PISA 2018 and the EU: Striving for social fairness through education. 
151   While  these  trends  need  further  exploration,  boys  from  low  socio-economic  backgrounds,  rural 
communities and migrant families are generally at a ‘double disadvantage’ due to their gender and 
marginalised group status. For example, PISA 2018 data shows that first-generation immigrant boys 
performed 27.5 points worse than their female counterparts. 

152   European Commission, (2019). PISA 2018 and the EU: Striving for social fairness through education. 
153   The definition of pupils ‘born abroad’ and pupils ‘native-born with parents born abroad’ employed 
in  this  report  corresponds  to  what  the  OECD  defines  respectively  as  ‘first-generation  immigrant 
students’ and ‘second-generation immigrant student. 

50 

8.812.913.814.617.018.518.718.819.019.619.620.020.020.521.321.922.222.324.125.425.926.829.331.733.539.043.946.58.811.516.315.015.317.215.920.721.617.017.419.818.522.118.320.824.721.126.024.623.225.930.732.732.542.138.537.90%5%10%15%20%25%30%35%40%45%50%EE(8.3)FI(6.0)PL(13.1)SI(14.8)IE(15.2)LV(14.7)DK(16.6)CZ(17.3)SE(19.1)DE(14.8)PT(16.5)BE(18.0)NL(13.2)FR(19.3)ES(18.2)ATLT(17.0)EU(17.8)HU(14.1)HR(18.5)IT(20.6)LU(23.7)SK(19.3)EL(25.3)MT(32.5)CYRO(41.4)BG(38.8)20182015EU-level target for 2030 
 
 
 
                                                           
Source: OECD. PISA 2018. 
Note: The countries are sorted in the ascending order of the underachievement rate among the pupils 
born abroad. Data not available for ES. Countries where less than 5% of the pupils have a migrant 
background are not included in the chart. 

Socio-economic  background  remains  the  strongest  predictor  of  educational  performance154. 
According to PISA 2018 results, the proportion of underachievers in reading in most countries 
is  much  larger  in  the  bottom  quarter  of  the  ESCS  index  compared  with  pupils  in  the  top 
quarter  of  ESCS,  rising  to  more  than  40 pps  in  Romania  and  Bulgaria.    Moreover,  countries 
with  a  large  share  of  underachievers  in  reading  also  tend  to  have  large  performance  gaps 
between pupils from advantaged and disadvantaged socio-economic background. 

154   In PISA, pupils' socio-economic background is estimated by the PISA index of economic, social and 
cultural  status  (ESCS),  which  is  based  on  a  range  of  survey  information  about  pupils'  home  and 
background, namely: parents’ education, parents’ occupation, home possessions, number of books 
and educational resources available at home.   

51 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
                                                           
Figure 18: Underachievement in reading (%) by socio-economic status (ESCS), 2018 

The  significant  variations  in  basic  skills  results  and  the  inequalities  within  and  between 
Member States, which are likely  to increase further to the pandemic, call for a well thought 
out approach to improving school success universally, which could be suitable for all learners 
in all countries. 

4.3 New challenges 

4.3.1 Well-being and mental health at school 

 Learners’ well-being155  

Research  has  long  indicated  that  learners’  well-being  at  school,  as  well  as  good  mental  and 
physical  health  are  fundamental  factors  to  improve  academic  performance,  as  they  are 
directly linked to learners’ motivation at school, their focus, their capacity to learn, retain and 
apply  knowledge,  and  other  behavioural  and  cognitive  aspects.  The  latest  2017/2018  World 
Health  Organisation  (WHO)  study  ‘Health  Behaviour  on  school-aged  Children’  (HBSC)  shows 
that the positive gains in the various aspects of adolescent health and well-being over the last 
five  years  were  overshadowed  by  overall  declines  in  mental  and  social  well-being156.  It 
reported that since the previous HBSC study in 2013/2014, fewer adolescents like school and 

155   This section refers to well-being at school in general. Data refers to pre-Covid crisis. Specific aspects 

related to Covid impact on well-being are addressed in 4.3.2 

156   Inchley  J,  Currie  D,  Budisavljevic  S,  Torsheim  T,  Jåstad  A,  Cosma  A  et  al.,  editors.  Spotlight  on 
adolescent  health  and  well-being.  Findings  from  the  2017/2018  Health  Behaviour  in  School-aged 
Children  (HBSC)  survey  in  Europe  and  Canada.  International  report.  Volumes  1  &  2.  Key  findings. 
Copenhagen: WHO Regional Office for Europe; 2020. Licence: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO. 

52 

 
 
 
 
                                                           
more  experience  intense  pressure  to  do  well  academically.  Many  school-aged  children 
reported that they lacked supportive environments, especially as they get older. Such students 
are missing the academic, social and emotional benefits that attachment to school can bring, 
which  calls  on  schools  to  foster  more  positive  learning  environment  and  trusting  and  caring 
relationships for young adolescents. 

Around  twenty  percent  of  school  children  in  Europe  experience  mental  health  problems 
during their school years, wherein half of those mental health problems are developed before 
the  age  of  fourteen157.  Thirty-five  percent  of  13-year-old  and  40%  of  15-year-old  European 
children reported feeling low, nervous and experienced psychosomatic symptoms more than 
once  a  week158.  Moreover,  reports  from  a  study  with  28  160  adolescents  revealed  that  the 
scale  of  mental  health  problems  is  higher  than  previous  estimates,  with  two  in  five  young 
people scoring above thresholds for emotional problems or conduct problems159. 

Depression and anxiety disorders are among the top five causes of the overall disease burden, 
whilst suicide is the leading cause of death among adolescents (10–19 years old) in low- and 
middle-income  countries and the  second leading cause of death in high-income  countries160. 
Marginalised young people are particularly affected. The COVID-19 pandemic has exacerbated 
these difficulties, with an increase in mental health difficulties161, particularly  amongst  those 
already at risk for mental health162.  

Children  themselves  have  raised  their  concerns  around  mental  health  and  well-being  in 
education.  According  to  the  ‘Our  Europe,  Our  Rights,  Our  Future’163 consultation  with  more 
than 10,000 children aged 11-17, one in five children report growing up unhappy and anxious 
for the  future. Children reveal these alarming rates of mental ill-health as caused by anxiety 
about the future, bullying, challenges in coping with schoolwork and loneliness, and much of 
these  experiences  have  been  compounded  by  the  COVID-19  pandemic.  Moreover,  data 
collected by the OECD unfortunately concludes that schools and teachers are not sufficiently 
prepared to deal with these issues164. 

PISA  2018  data  revealed  that  nearly  one  in  two  students  in  the  EU  reported  feeling  sad 
sometimes or always. Some 32.2% of students in the EU reported being scared sometimes or 
always,  while  37.3%  reported  feeling  miserable.  Girls  are  disproportionately  affected  by 

157    WHO Regional Office  for Europe (2018).  Adolescent  mental health in  the European Region. WHO, 
at: 

Denmark. 
https://www.euro.who.int/__data/assets/pdf_file/0005/383891/adolescent-mh-fs-eng.pdf 

Available 

158   Inchley  J,  Currie  D,  Budisavljevic  S,  Torsheim  T,  Jåstad  A,  Cosma  A  et  al.,  editors.  Spotlight  on 
adolescent  health  and  well-being.  Findings  from  the  2017/2018  Health  Behaviour  in  School-aged 
Children (HBSC) survey in Europe and Canada. International report. 

159   Deighton, S., Lereya, T., Casey, P., Patalay, P. Humphrey, N. and Wolpert, M. (2019). Prevalence of 
mental  health  problems  in  schools:  poverty  and  other  risk  factors  among  28  000  adolescents. 
British Journal of Psychiatry, 215(3), 565-567. doi:10.1192/bjp.2019.19 

160   WHO Regional Office for Europe (2018). Adolescent mental health in the European Region.  
161   Cowie, H. and Myers, C. (2020). The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the mental  health and 

well-being of children and young people. Children and Society, 2021, 35:62–74. 

162   OECD (2020). PISA 2018 Results. Volumes 1-III. Retrieved from 

https://www.oecd.org/pisa/publications/pisa-2018-results.htm 

163   ChildFund Alliance, Eurochild, Save The Children, UNICEF, World Vision (2021).  Our Europe, Our 

Rights, Our Future. Retrieved from www.unicef.org/eu/reports/report-our-europe-our-rights-our-
future 

164   www.oecd-forum.org/posts/can-children-believe-in-us-to-invest-in-mental-health 

53 

 
 
                                                           
feelings  of  sadness.  On  average,  girls  reported  feeling  sad  “sometimes”  or  “always”  28 
percentage points more than boys in the EU. 

Figure 19. PISA data on negative feelings among students  

Source: PISA 2018 

Various  factors  seem  to  contribute to  these  negative  feelings,  including  the  phenomenon of 
bullying. A school’s socio-economic status also plays a role in students’ negative feelings. In 15 
Member  States,  student  sadness  in  socio-economically  disadvantaged  schools165 was  more 
than five percent bigger than that of socio-economically advantaged ones, with an EU average 
of  5.1%166.  An  important  moment  in  this  sense  is  the  transition  from  primary  to  secondary 
schools:  the  transition  of  less  advantaged  students  into  schools  with  higher  socio-economic 
status tends to have a detrimental effect on their well-being. 

Closely  connected  to  these  negative  feelings  and  mental  health  issues  are  children  and 
students’ sense of belonging167 and social contacts. Although the majority of students across 
the OECD countries reported they felt socially connected at their school, about one in four had 
problems in making friends easily at  school; about one  in five felt like an outsider at school; 
and  about  one  in  six  felt  lonely  at  school. On  average,  there  was  also  a  general  decrease  in 

165   The  socio-economic  profile  is  measured  by  the  PISA  index  of  economic,  social  and  cultural  status 
(ESCS).  A  socio-economically  disadvantaged  (advantaged)  school  is  a  school  in  the  bottom  (top) 
quarter of the index of ESCS in the relevant country/economy. 

166   OECD (2019) PISA 2018 results (volume II) – Where all students can succeed. 
167   In  PISA  2018,  responses  to  the  following  questions  were  used  to  build  a  composite  index  of  the 

I feel like an outsider (or left out of things) at school 
I make friends easily at school 
I feel like I belong at school 
I feel awkward and out of place in my school 

sense of school belonging: 
1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5.  Other students seem to like me 
6. 

I feel lonely at school 

54 

 
 
                                                           
sense of belonging in the last 15 years168. The latest WHO HBSC study also reported a decrease 
in students‘ liking for school and an increase in the intense pressure to do well academically, 
compared with the  previous study.  The share of 15-year olds feeling lonely in schools varies 
between  7  and  26%  across  23  European  countries,  and  the  school  environment  alone  can 
explain 22 percent of the total variation in loneliness indicating the importance of the school 
context for such negative feelings169. 

The risk of children experiencing lower well-being at school can be related to various personal 
and  contextual  factors,  including  their  gender,  deprivation,  poverty  and  ethnicity.  The 
language  children  speak  at  home  also  plays  a  role.  Findings  form  a  Eurydice  report170,  show 
that children who do not speak the language of instruction at home report a lower sense of 
belonging and more experiences of bullying at school than those who speak the language of 
instruction  at  home.  According  to  the  2018  PISA  results,  students  from  social-economically 
disadvantaged schools reported a weaker sense of belonging than their more affluent peers. 
This  difference  was  found  in  the  majority  of  European  countries  (27),  including  21  Member 
States, with the largest differences recorded in Bulgaria, Hungary and Luxembourg171. This is a 
particularly interesting finding, because sense of belonging normally moderates the negative 
impact  of  socio-economic  status  on  academic  achievement  and  well-being.  The  WHO  HBSC 
study similarly reported that adolescents from low socio-economic status received lower levels 
of support from school peers and friends172. 

Evidence from the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS)173 2019 and 
PISA  2018  shows  that  higher  levels  of  well-being (measured  as  pupils’  sense  of belonging  at 
school) are generally associated with higher educational aspiration174, lower absenteeism and 
better  learning  outcomes  in  mathematics.  The  following  figure  shows  differences  in  the 
average sense of belonging at school of boys and girls by performance at (PISA) mathematics 
test level 2 or above on the one hand and below level 2 on the other hand175. 

168   In  almost  all  countries,  students  were  more  likely  to  report  positive  feelings  when  they  had  a 
stronger  sense  of  belonging  at  school  and  greater  student  cooperation;  they  were  more  likely  to 
express sadness when they were bullied more frequently. OECD (2019) PISA 2018 results (volume II) 
– Where all students can succeed. 

169   Schnepf, S., Boldrini, M. and Blasko, Z., Can schools mitigate young people from feeling lonely?_An 

analysis across Europe, European Commission, 2022, JRC128731. Forthcoming. 

170   European  Commission,  European  Education  and  Culture  Executive  Agency,  Eurydice  (2019) 
Integrating  Students  from  Migrant  Backgrounds  into  Schools  in  Europe:  National  Policies  and 
Luxembourg, 
Publications 
Measures, 
https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2797/222073 

European 

Union, 

Office 

the 

of 

171   The  study  found  a  similar  relationship  between  life  satisfaction  and  socio-economic  status,  with 
students  from  low  socio-economic  background  being  less  satisfied  than  their  more  advantaged 
peers. On average across OECD countries, 67 % of students reported being satisfied with their lives, 
with  higher  values  being  observed  amongst  many  East  European  countries,  whilst  northern  and 
western European countries were close to the OECD average. 

172   Inchley  J,  Currie  D,  Budisavljevic  S,  Torsheim  T,  Jåstad  A,  Cosma  A  et  al.,  editors.  Spotlight  on 
adolescent  health  and  well-being.  Findings  from  the  2017/2018  Health  Behaviour  in  School-aged 
Children (HBSC) survey in Europe and Canada.  

173   TIMSS  is  carried  out  every  four  years  by  the  International  Association  for  the  Evaluation  of 
Educational  Achievement  (IEA).  It  is  an  international  assessment  of  student  achievement  in 
mathematics and science at fourth and eighth grades. 

174   Measured by the highest level of education they expect to complete. 
175   European Commission, Directorate-General for Education, Youth, Sport and Culture (2021) 

Education and training monitor 2021: education and well-being 

55 

 
 
                                                           
Figure 20. Average sense of belonging at school for girls and for boys  

Source: PISA 2018 data, calculated by JRC.  

The sense of belonging at school is lower, on average,  among low  performing students than 
among  students  at  level  2  or  higher.  This  applies  to  both  boys  and  girls,  although  the 
magnitude of the difference among girls appears to be slightly smaller than among boys and 
the magnitude of the differences varies significantly across countries. 

56 

 
 
 
 
An  important  and  common  phenomenon  affecting  well-being  in  school  is  bullying.  Bullying 
appears to be widespread in the EU, with more than 50% of students having suffered from it. 
In  19  EU  Member  States,  more  than  half  of  all  students  experience  bullying  at  least  a  few 
times a year. Being “frequently bullied” is reported at 6.9% in the EU176, as demonstrated by 
the following figure. 

176   OECD (2019), PISA 2018 Results (Volume III): What School Life Means for Students’ Lives. 

57 

 
 
 
 
                                                           
Figure 21. Frequency of reported bullying across the EU 

Source: Education and Training Monitor 2021  

In addition to the socio-economic gap, a gender gap is clearly discernible in the PISA data on 
bullying.  The  EU  average  for  bullied  boys  (at  least  a  few  times  a  month)  was  nearly  5 
percentage points higher than that of girls, at 24.4% to 19.7%. A recent report analysing the 
2018  PISA  data  confirms  the  increased  propensity  of  boys  to  being  bullied,  and  points  to 
further  characteristics  such  as  class  repeaters  and  students  prone  to  truancy  in  middle 
school177. Finally, there is a clear trend that low-achievers in reading are twice as likely to get 
bullied then high-achievers category178. 

Bullying  has  a  direct  impact  on  mental  health  and  well-being,  as  well  as  on  academic 
achievement. In a meta-analysis of 66 systematic reviews and meta-analyses it was found that 
bullying victimization is associated with: (high effect size) psychosomatic symptoms, sleeping 
problems,  psychotic  symptoms  currently  and  later  in  life,  suicidal  ideation,  depression, 
internalising  and  externalising  symptoms,  carrying  weapon,  lower  academic  achievement; 
(middle  effect  size)  loneliness,  general  and  social  anxiety,  suicidal  behaviour,  and  lower 
general and social self-esteem179. In the same meta-analysis, bullying perpetration emerged to 
be associated with: (high effect size) violence later in life, carrying weapon, drug use, suicidal 
ideation; (middle effect size) offending later in life, suicidal behaviour.  

Being  a  passive  bystander  in  bullying  situations  is  also  connected  with  potential  negative 
outcomes for youth’s mental health. Witnessing bullying or cyberbullying increases the levels 
of stress180and passive bystanders develop more negative pro-victim attitudes and attitudes of 
self-justification of bullying, which can favour active perpetration of bullying. In conclusion, the 

177   Yu,  S.,  &  Zhao,  X.  (2021).  The  negative  impact  of  bullying  victimization  on  academic  literacy  and 
social integration: Evidence from 51 countries in PISA. In: Social Sciences & Humanities Open, 4(1): 
11. 

178   OECD (2019) PISA 2018 results (volume II) – Where all students can succeed. 
179   Zych, I., Ortega-Ruiz, R. and Del Rey, R. (2015). Systematic review of theoretical studies on bullying 
and  cyberbullying:  Facts,  knowledge,  prevention,  and  intervention.  Aggression  and  violent 
Behavior, vol 23. DOI:10.1016/j.avb.2015.10.001 

180   Caravita,  S.  C.  S.,  Donghi,  E.,  Banfi,  A.,  &  Meneghini,  F.  (2016).  Essere  immigrati  come  fattore  di 
rischio  per  la  vittimizzazione  nel  bullismo:  Uno  studio  italiano  su  caratteristiche  individuali  e 
processi  di  gruppo.  Maltrattamento  e  Abuso  All'Infanzia:  Rivista  Interdisciplinare,  18(1),  59–87. 
https://doi.org/10.3280/MAL2016-001004 

58 

 
 
 
                                                           
occurrence of bullying has negative impact on the well-being of all those directly and indirectly 
involved. 

Besides bullying, there is growing concern on the use of digital tools and devices in relation to 
mental health. The amount of time children spend online is increasing rapidly. In 11 European 
countries,  the  amount  of  time  children  spend  online  almost  doubled  in  less  than  a  decade: 
from an hour and a half to almost three hours daily181.  

Despite  public  concern  about  this  issue,  the  link  between  mental  health  and  use  of  digital 
devices  appears  to  be  weak182.  Robust  studies  suggest  that  moderate  use  is  key183.  In  these 
studies, the highest mental well-being was observed not among those children who reported 
no screen use, but among those who used screens for less than 2 hours per day. Moderate use 
(between 30 minutes  and 3  hours  per  day,  depending  on  device  and timing)  was  associated 
with the highest mental well-being. Children who did not use technology, as well as those who 
were very intensive users, had lower well-being.  

 A  growing  body  of  research  confirms  the  key  role  of  social  and  emotional  skills184.  The 
OECD's  Survey  of  Social  and  Emotional  Skills  (SSES)185 results  show  that  students’  social  and 
emotional skills are closely related to students’ psychological well-being. This is particularly the 
case  for  stress  resistance,  optimism  and  emotional  control.  Stress  resistance  and  being 
optimistic  are  strongly  related  to  a  lower  level  of  test  anxiety.  Students  who  assessed 
themselves as being more stress-resistant, optimistic and in control of their emotions reported 
higher levels of psychological well-being. Another important finding is that students’ social and 
emotional skills differ by social background. Students from advantaged backgrounds reported 
higher  social  and  emotional  skills  than  their  disadvantaged  peers.  Potentially,  parents  from 
more  advantaged  backgrounds  make  greater  investments  in  their  children’s  social  and 
emotional skills. However, it also seems likely that students with less advantaged backgrounds 
have more challenges to overcome and fewer opportunities and less support to develop these 
skills. Investing in the mental health and well-being of children and young people has social 
and economic returns. Cost benefit ratios vary from 1 to 11 in the case of social and emotional 

181   Gromada,  A.,  Rees,  G.,  Chzhen,  Y.  (2020)  Worlds  of  Influence:  Understanding  what  shapes  child 
well-being  in  rich  countries.  Innocenti  Report  Card  16,  UNICEF  Office  of  Research  –  Innocenti, 
Florence. 

182   Orben,  A.,  and  Przybylski,  A.  (2019)  ‘The  Association  between  Adolescent  Well-being  and  Digital 

Technology Use’, Nature Human Behaviour, vol. 3, no. 2, pp. 173–182 

183   Przybylski,  A.,  and  Weinstein,  N.  (2017)  ‘A  Large-scale  Test  of  the  Goldilocks  Hypothesis: 
Quantifying  the  relations  between  digital-screen  use  and  the  mental  well-being  of  adolescents’, 
Psychological Science, vol. 28, no. 2. pp. 204–215 

184   “Social  and  emotional  learning  refers  to  the  educational  process  through  which  an  individual 
develops  social  and  emotional  competences  for  personal,  social  and  academic  growth  and 
development through curricular, embedded, relational and contextual approaches”. The definition 
implies developing and applying the attitudes, knowledge and skills required to understand oneself 
and others, express and regulate emotions, feel and show empathy for others, develop healthy and 
caring  relationships,  set  and  achieve  positive  goals,  make  good,  make  responsible  and  ethical 
decisions,  and  make  use  of  one’s  own  strengths  and  overcome  difficulties  in  social  and  academic 
tasks.  See  European  Commission,  Cefai,  C.;  Bartolo  P.  A.;  Cavioni.  V;  Downes,  P.  (2018), 
Strengthening Social and Emotional Education as a core curricular area across the EU. A review of 
the international evidence, NESET Report, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, 
doi: 10.2766/664439, p. 38. 

185   OECD (2021), Beyond Academic Learning: First Results from the Survey of Social and Emotional 

Skills, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/92a11084-en. 

59 

 
 
                                                           
education  programmes186 to  1:5  in  the  prevention  of  depression  and  anxiety  in  school 
children187. 

Various  studies  show  that  social  and  emotional  education  offers  strong  and  considerable 
economic and financial returns on investment188: One piece of research estimated a return of 
37  US  dollars  to  participants  and society  for every  dollar  invested  in  programmes  to  prevent 
substance  use  and  criminality189;  In  another  cost-benefit  analysis  of  six  social  and  emotional 
education  curricular  interventions,  including  one  in  Europe,  it  was  reported  that  in  all 
programmes,  measurable  benefits  exceeded  the  costs,  often  by  considerable  amounts 
(estimated average cost-benefit ratio of about 11 to 1). This same study calculated key savings 
of prevention of conduct problems and bullying, with the intervention cost being recouped in 
five years190; in a more recent study in Sweden 191 it was found that school students decreased 
their use of drugs over a five-year long Social and emotional education (SEE) intervention, the 
value  of  which  easily  outweighed  the  intervention  costs;  Finally,  additional  research  also 
reported that the cost-benefit ratio of various studies show positive returns on investment for 
school-based social emotional education programme in UK schools192. 

Teachers’ well-being  

There  is a symbiotic relationship between the mental health of the  teachers and that of the 
students: teachers need to enjoy positive mental health themselves in order to promote the 
well-being  and  mental  health  of  their  students.  In  fact,  classroom  and  school  climate  are 
strongly  mediated  by  the  relationships  between  staff  and  students  and  between  staff 
themselves. In turn, teachers’ well-being, self-efficacy and job satisfaction have been identified 
as  key  factors  mediating  the  teacher-students  relationship.  Socially  and  emotionally 
competent teachers report lower levels of stress and higher job satisfaction and confidence in 
their work, which reflects positively in student performance. This is consistent with research 
which  found  that  teacher well-being may  account  for  about  8%  of the  variance  in  student 
school  performance.  On  the  contrary,  teachers’  ill  mental  health  (such  as  depressive 
symptoms or burnout) has been associated with poorer student well-being and psychological 

186   Belfield,  C.,  Bowden,  B.,  Klapp,  A.,  et  al.  (2015)  The  Economic  Value  of  Social  and  Emotional 
Learning. Centre for Benefit-Cost Studies in Education. Teachers College, Columbia University, New 
York. 

187   Chisholm,  D.,  Sweeny,  K.,  Sheehan,  P.,  et  al.  (2016),  ‘Scaling-up  treatment  of  depression  and 

anxiety: A global return on investment analysis’, Lancet Psychiatry, 3, 415–424. 

188   Belfield,  C.,  Bowden,  B.,  Klapp,  A.,  et  al.  (2015)  The  Economic  Value  of  Social  and  Emotional 

Learning. Centre for Benefit-Cost Studies in Education.  

189   Lee,  S.,  Aos,  S.,  Drake,  E.,  Pennucci,  A.,  Miller,  M.,  Anderson,  L.  (2012),  Return  on  investment: 
Evidence-based  options  to  improve  statewide  outcomes.  Olympia:  Washington  State  Institute  for 
Public Policy 

190   Belfield,  C.,  Bowden,  B.,  Klapp,  A.,  et  al.  (2015),  The  Economic  Value  of  Social  and  Emotional 

Learning. Centre for Benefit-Cost Studies in Education.  

191   Klapp, A., Belfield, C., Bowden, B., Levin, H., Shand, R., Zande, S. (2017), ‘A benefit-cost analysis of a 
longterm intervention on social and emotional learning in compulsory school’, International Journal 
of Emotional Education, 9 (1) 

192   Clarke,  A.M.,  Morreale,  S.,  Field,  C.A.,  Hussein,  Y.,  Barry,  M.  M.  (2015),  What  works  in  enhancing 
social and emotional skills development during childhood and adolescence? A review of the evidence 
on the effectiveness of school-based and out-of-school programmes in the UK, A report produced by 
the  WHO  Collaborating  Centre  for  Health  Promotion  Research,  National  University  of  Ireland 
Galway. 

60 

 
 
                                                           
distress. It is then clear that supporting teachers in addressing their well-being consequently 
improves that of their students193. 

According to the recent 2021 Eurydice report on Teachers in Europe194, well-being of teachers 
is generally linked to their working conditions. Building on the TALIS 2018 survey195, the report 
indicates that, in the EU, almost 50% of teachers in lower secondary experience stress in their 
work. The variation between countries is significant, ranging from almost 90% to 20% in some 
other countries. Overall, in Europe, 24% of teachers report that their job has a negative impact 
on their mental health, and 22% of them consider the same in relation to their physical health. 
Generally, the main reasons for stress are not directly related to teaching itself: administrative 
work, excessive  marking  and  being  held  responsible  for  students' achievement  are  the most 
frequently  mentioned  factors  for  increased  stress.  Moreover,  maintaining  class  discipline, 
lesson  preparation,  addressing  parents  or  guardians’  concerns  and  the  overall  workload 
(number of lessons) are also linked to stress levels. Systemic elements matter, too: appraisal 
as  a  requirement  for  career  progression  tends  to  raise  stress  levels,  whilst  teachers  in 
countries  where  CPD  (Continuing  Professional  Development)  is  a  requirement  report  lower 
stress levels. Eurydice’s analysis also shows that teachers working in disruptive classes and/or 
in schools where collaboration between teachers is low report higher stress levels. 

Conversely,  a  collaborative  school  culture  and  teachers'  sense  of  autonomy  tend  to  lower 
levels  of  stress.  This  is  also  the  case  when  teachers  feel  confident  in  managing  students’ 
behaviour  and  are  able  to  motivate  students.  All  in  all,  the  report  concludes  that  creating 
conditions for collaborative work, increasing teacher autonomy and providing meaningful CPD 
can reduce stress levels and increase the well-being of teachers. 

Outside of research, the well-being of teachers has also been highlighted by the 2020 Council 
Conclusions on European teachers and trainers for the future196, which reflects on the key role 
of teachers for learners’ achievements, as well as on the importance of teachers’ well-being, 
showing  that  there  is  a  political  understanding  of  the  need  to  better  support  this  area  of 
teachers’ mental health and well-being. 

4.3.2 The impact of school disruptions due to the COVID-19 crisis on educational 
outcomes and well-being of learners 

The  Covid-19  pandemic  led  to  an  unprecedented  disruption  of  education.  Between  March 
2020 and May 2021, European countries implemented periods of physical school closures and 

193   European Commission, Directorate-General for Education, Youth, Sport and Culture, NESET Report, 
Simões, C., Caravita, S., Cefai, C., (2021),  A systemic, whole-school approach to mental health and 
well-being in schools in the EU : analytical report. https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2766/50546 
194   European  Commission,  European  Education  and  Culture  Executive  Agency,  Eurydice  (2021), 
Teachers  in  Europe.  Careers,  Development  and  Well-being.  Publication  Office  of  the  European 
Union, Luxembourg. 

195   Every five years, the OECD’s  Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS) collects the views 
of  teachers  and  school  principals  on  working  conditions  and  learning  environments.  TALIS  2018 
results are available at: https://www.oecd.org/education/talis/ 

196   OJ C 193, 9.6.2020, p. 11-19 

61 

 
 
 
                                                           
replaced face to face education with varying forms of distance teaching or extended academic 
breaks.197. 

Figure 22. Full and partial school closures in Europe between March 2020 and May 2021 due 
to COVID-19. Number of weeks. 

50

40

30

20

10

0

V
R
H

A
R
F

X
U
L

P
S
E

T
L
M

L
E
B

T
S
E

T
R
P

E
W
S

P
Y
C

L
R

I

D
L
N

K
N
D

N
I
F

T
U
A

U
E
D

R
G
B

C
R
G

A
T
I

N
U
H

U
T
L

L
O
P

N
V
S

A
V
L

K
V
S

E
Z
C

FULL + PARTIAL

FULL

 Source: UNESCO 
Note: Full school closures refer to situations where all schools were closed at the nation-wide level due to 
COVID-19. Partial school closures refer to school closures in some regions or for some grades, or with 
reduced in-person instruction.  

Schools’  responses  to  the  situation  varied  by  education  level  and  by  school,  based  on  the 
availability of  technologies,  teachers’  ICT  skills,  and  choices  made  by educational  authorities 
and schools. Online platforms were used both at the primary and the secondary schools in all 
participating  EU  countries,  often  supplemented  by  take-home  packages,  use  of  television 
programmes and sometimes by mobile phone and radio programmes .198 However, the uptake 
of  distance  education  varied  not  only  within  countries,  but  also  between  countries.  For 
example,  a  comparative  online  survey  found  that  online  classes  were  provided  to  65%  of 
primary school children in Italy, but only to 20% in France .199   

Distance  teaching  typically  involves  substantially  less  hours  spent  on  formal  lessons  than 
during in-person education, and students’ independent learning time did also not make up for 
the lost formal teaching hours200.  

Firstly, efficient distance learning requires obvious technical pre-conditions from the student’s 
side,  such  as  access  to  internet  and  to  ICT  devices,  as  well  as  also  the  ability  to  use  ICT. 
According to PISA data, the share of 15-year-olds that had no internet access at home varied 

197   OECD (2021)  The State of School Education: One Year into the COVID Pandemic. OECD Publishing, 

Paris. https://doi.org/10.1787/201dde84-en 

198   OECD (2021) The State of School Education: One Year into the COVID Pandemic. 
199   Champeaux,  H.,  Mangiavacchi,  L.,  Marchetta,  F.,  &  Piccoli,  L.  (2020),  ‘Learning  at  Home:  Distance 
Learning  Solutions  and  Child  Development  during  the  COVID-19  Lockdown’,  in  Distance  Learning, 
31  

200   For  an  estimation  of  learning  time  lost  in  Italy,  France  and  Germany,  see  European  Commission, 
Joint  Research  Centre,  Di  Pietro,  G.,  Biagi,  F.,  Dinis  Mota  Da  Costa,  P.,  Karpinski,  Z.  and  Mazza,  J. 
(2020), The likely impact of COVID-19 on education: Reflections based on the existing literature and 
recent  international  datasets,  EUR  30275  EN,  Publications  Office  of  the  European  Union, 
Luxembourg. 

62 

 
 
                                                           
between  1  and  5%  in  various  EU  countries201.  For  children  with  special  needs,  accessible  IT 
tools is a pre-requisite.  

Secondly, in the absence of teachers’ physical presence and easy availability, parental help and 
a  supportive  home-environment  are  other  key  elements  of  learning  success  –  especially  for 
younger children. According to TIMSS 2019 data, at home, between 1 and 11 % of 4th graders 
do not have access to more than 25 books and reading devices at home. Many more can rely 
on limited parental involvement, at least based on the parents’ earlier habits to read for their 
child202.  

Thirdly,  the  quality  of  students’  distance  learning  is  also  affected  by  teachers’  digital 
competences and their level of comfort with distance teaching and use of online tools. Finally, 
students’  learning  could  be  further  hindered  by  the  lack  of  motivation,  caused  by  isolation 
from their peers, mental distress related to the pandemic situation, as well as by the lack of 
assessment in several countries203. 

These  findings  are  reflected  in  the  consultation  activities  supporting  the  preparation  of  the 
Commission  proposal  on  Pathways  to  School  Success.  The  figure  below  illustrates  the  five 
factors that were identified as particularly problematic in the context of the Covid-19 crisis by 
all survey respondents. 

Figure 23. Top 5 problems in the context of the Covid-19 crisis 

Limited access to digital learning resources (IT
infrastructure and equipment, Internet connectivity)

Lack of individualised support during distance learning

Stress, depression, lack of motivation

Teachers not sufficiently prepared for distance learning

Lack of contacts with peers

55%
55%
55%

42%

36%

38%

39%

36%

45%

35%

52%

29%

28%

23%

32%

All respondents

Learners, parents, or interested citizens

Teachers, trainers, or educators

 Source: Open Public Consultation synopsis report 

201   OECD (2020), Learning remotely when schools close: How well are students and schools prepared? 
https://read.oecd-ilibrary.org/view/?ref=127_127063-

PISA, 

Insights 
iiwm328658&title=Learning-remotely-when-schools-close 

available 

from 

at 

202   Blaskó, Z., Schnepf, S., V., & Costa, P. (2021). Learning Loss and Educational Inequalities in Europe: 
Mapping the Potential Consequences of the COVID-19 Crisis, IZA Discussion Paper 14298, available 
at https://ftp.iza.org/dp14298.pdf 

203   European  Commission,  Joint  Research  Centre,  Di  Pietro,  G.,  Biagi,  F.,  Dinis  Mota  Da  Costa,  P., 
Karpinski, Z. and Mazza, J. (2020), The likely impact of COVID-19 on education: Reflections based on 
the existing literature and recent  international datasets, EUR 30275 EN, Publications Office of the 
European Union, Luxembourg. 

63 

 
 
 
 
                                                           
Recent  studies  further  suggest  that  students  from  disadvantaged  backgrounds  were 
disproportionately affected by school closures204. Children at risk spent less time on learning 
during the pandemic205 and received less support  from their parents206,  who  in turn also felt 
less capable to help their children in their homework207. Students from lower income families 
were also less confident about their own ICT skills in several European countries, as shown by 
a  cross-country  study  of  the  JRC208.  Lastly,  the  closure  of  education  institutions  also  caused 
disruptions in support services, such as language and learning support for migrant children209. 
All  these  differences  in  the  online  learning  experience  contribute  to  enhanced  gaps  in 
educational outcomes, which affects equal opportunities and equal participation in society 
later in life210. 

Besides  learning  loss  due  to  school  closures,  children’s  wellbeing211 has  been  negatively 
impacted by the pandemic in the past months, due to increasing stress and anxiety resulting 
from  school  closure,  social  distancing  from  friends  and  relatives,  increased  exposure  to 
domestic  violence,  decreased  access  to  essential  services,  increased  poverty  and  more 
exposure to online sexual exploitation and cyberbullying212.  

Most  of  the  studies  indicate  that  there  has  been  an  increase  in  anxiety  and  mental  health 
problems as a result of COVID-19 amongst children and young people in various parts of the 

204   European Commission, Directorate-General for Education, Youth, Sport and Culture, NESET Report, 
Koehler, C., Psacharopoulos, G., Van der Graaf, L. (2022), The impact of COVID-19 on the education 
of disadvantaged children and the socio-economic consequences thereof. Publications Office of the 
European Union, Luxembourg. doi: 10.2766/929570 

205   Andrew, A., Phimister, A., Krutikova, S., Kraftman, L., Farquharson, C., Costa Dias, M., Cattan, S., & 
Sevilla,  A.  (2020),  Learning  during  the  lockdown:  Real-time  data  on  children’s  experiences  during 
home learning. https://doi.org/10.1920/BN.IFS.2020.BN0288; Cullinane, C., & Montacute, R. (2020). 
COVID-19 and Social Mobility. Impact Brief #1: School Shutdown. Research Brief. The Sutton Trust. 
Available at: https://www.suttontrust.com/our-research/covid-19-and-social-mobility-impact-brief/ 
206   Boca,  D.  D.,  Oggero,  N.,  Profeta,  P.,  &  Rossi,  M.  C.  (2020),  Women’s  Work,  Housework  and 
Childcare, before and during COVID-19 (IZA Discussion Papers No. 13409; Discussion Paper Series, p. 
26). Accessible at: https://covid-19.iza.org/publications/dp13409/; Fodor, É., Gregor, A., Koltai, J., & 
Kováts,  E.  (2020),  ‘The  impact  of  COVID-19  on  the  gender  division  of  childcare  work  in  Hungary’, 
European Societies, 17. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616696.2020.1817522  

207   Bol, T. (2020). Inequality in homeschooling during the Corona crisis in the Netherlands. First results 
from  the  LISS  Panel.  [Preprint].  SocArXiv.  https://doi.org/10.31235/osf.io/hf32q;  Cullinane,  C.,  & 
Montacute, R. (2020). COVID-19 and Social Mobility. Impact Brief #1: School Shutdown. 

208   European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Vuorikari, R., Velicu, A., Chaudron, S., Cachia, R. and 
Di  Gioia,  R.,  (2020),  How  families  handled  emergency  remote  schooling  during  the  time  of  Covid 
lockdown  in  spring  2020:  Summary  of  key  findings  from  families  with  children  in  11  European 
countries,  EUR  30425  EN,  Publications  Office  of 
the  European  Union,  Luxembourg, 
https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2760/31977. 

209   European Commission, Directorate-General for Education, Youth, Sport and Culture, NESET Report, 
Koehler, C., Psacharopoulos, G., Van der Graaf, L. (2022), The impact of COVID-19 on the education 
of disadvantaged children and the socio-economic consequences thereof 

210   Ibid. 
211   OECD (2021) The State of School Education: One Year into the COVID Pandemic. 
212   Jiao,  W.  Y.,  Wang,  L.  N.,  Liu,  J.,  Fang,  S.  F.,  Jiao,  F.  Y.,  Pettoello-Mantovani,  M.,  et  al.  (2020), 
“Behavioral  and  emotional  disorders  in  children  during  the  COVID-19  epidemic”,  J.  Pediatr.  221, 
264–266.e1.  doi:  10.1016/j.jpeds.2020.03.013;  Lee,  J.  (2020),  “Mental  Health  Effects  of  School 
Closures  during  COVID-19”,  Lancet  Child.  Adolesc.  Health  4  (6),  421.  doi:10.1016/S2352-
4642(20)30109-7 

64 

 
 
                                                           
world213.  Children  with  special  (educational)  needs,  in  particular,  suffered  from  the  lack  of 
routine and stability provided by regular face-to-face education214.  

Research also indicates that  the longer the lockdown, the poorer the outcome  for children’s 
mental health, including heightened anxiety215. A study among girls in the UK found that 33% 
reported feeling sad and lonely most of the time, and 42% to 45 % felt worried and stressed 
most of the time216. Young people aged between 15-18 years felt most stressed with concerns 
about  their  future,  schooling,  and  relationships.  A  study  of  Italian  children,  found  that  they 
seemed  more  likely  to  manifest  symptoms  of  depression  and  anxiety  and  to  experience 
regression, fear, and mood change217.  

Owing  to  the  COVID-19  pandemic  and  the  related  move  to  online  teaching,  the  time  spent 
online  has  inevitable  increased:  according  to  the  “Kids’  Digital  lives  in  COVID-19  Times” 
(KiDiCoTi)  survey218,  students  spent  close  to  3.5  hours  per  day  on  digital  technologies  for 
school activities only. Many hours per day, close to 40% of their available time, were spent on 
the internet or using digital technologies (including digital games). This is somewhat expected, 
given the limitations to social activities during the lockdown, but it also signals a potential risk 
for the physical and mental well-being of students. Indeed, many students felt that they spent 
too  much  time  on  the  internet  or  using  digital  devices,  compared  to  pre-lockdown,  with 
potentially disruptive consequences on sleep and eating. Moreover, an average of 44% (across 
the 11 countries covered by the survey) reports a higher exposure to cyberbullying during the 
lockdown  whereas  only  22%  report  a  reduction  during  the  same  period;  in  five  countries 
(Germany, Italy, Spain, France and Ireland) around 50% of students have been more exposed 
to at least one form of cyberbullying during the lockdown than before219.  

to 

2020 

work: 

March 

February 

213   Shum,  A.;  Skripkauskaite,  S.;  Pearcey,  S.;  Walte,  P.;  Creswell,  C.  (2021)  Report  09:  Update  on 
children’s & parents/carers’  mental health; Changes in  parents/carers’ ability to balance childcare 
and 
study. 
https://cospaceoxford.org/findings/changes-in-parents-carersability-to-balance-childcare-and-
work-march-2020-to-february-2021/; OECD (2021) Tackling the mental health impact of the COVID-
at: 
19 
https://www.oecd.org/coronavirus/policy-responses/tackling-the-mental-health-impact-of-the-
covid-19-crisis-an-integrated-whole-of-society-response-0ccafa0b/;  Xie  X,  Xue  Q,  Zhou  Y,  et  al. 
‘Mental Health Status Among Children in Home Confinement During the Coronavirus Disease 2019 
2020;174(9):898–900. 
Province, 
Outbreak 
doi:10.1001/jamapediatrics.2020.1619 

whole-of-society 

integrated, 

Co-SPACE 

response. 

Available 

Pediatr. 

China’, 

Hubei 

JAMA 

2021. 

crisis: 

An 

in 

214   European Commission, Directorate-General for Education, Youth, Sport and Culture, NESET Report, 
Koehler, C., Psacharopoulos, G., Van der Graaf, L. (2022), The impact of COVID-19 on the education 
of disadvantaged children and the socio-economic consequences thereof. 

215   Imran,  N.,  Zeshan,  M.,  &  Pervaiz,  Z.  (2020),  ‘Mental  health  considerations  for  children  & 
adolescents  in  COVID-19  Pandemic’,  Pakistan  journal  of  medical  sciences,  36(COVID19-S4),  S67–
S72.  https://doi.org/10.12669/pjms.36.COVID19-S4.2759;  European  Commission,  Directorate-
General  for  Education,  Youth,  Sport  and  Culture,  NESET  Report,  Simões,  C.,  Caravita,  S.,  Cefai,  C., 
(2021),  A  systemic,  whole-school  approach  to mental  health  and  well-being  in  schools  in  the  EU  : 
analytical report. https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2766/50546 

216   Girlguiding (2020) Girlguiding research briefing: Early findings on the impact of Covid-19 on girls and 
young  women.  Girlguiding.  Available  at  https://www.girlguiding.org.uk/globalassets/docs-and-
resources/research-and-campaigns/girlguiding-covid19-research-briefing.pdf 

217   Ibid. 
218

Coordinated 
https://ec.europa.eu/jrc/en/science-update/kidicoti-kids-digital-lives-covid-19-times 

Commission’s 

European 

Research 

Joint 

the 

by 

Centre; 

see 

219   European  Commission,  Directorate-General  for  Education,  Youth,  Sport  and  Culture  (2021) 

Education and training monitor 2021: education and well-being. 

65 

 
 
                                                           
Key take-away 

  The ELET rate has steadily improved in the EU over past years reaching an average of 
9.9% in 2020, but considerable differences still exist across countries and inequalities 
persist  among  specific  population  groups  (e.g.  vulnerable  and  socially  disadvantaged 
children).  

  Performance in basic skills showed a deteriorating trend over the 2009-2018 period. 
More  than  one  in  five  pupils  in  the  EU  has  insufficient  proficiency  in  reading, 
mathematics  or  science:  the  underachievement  rate  stood  at  22.4%  in  mathematics 
and 21.6% in science.  

  A 

stronger 

focus  on  well-being  and  mental  health  while  addressing 
underachievement and early leaving from education and training is key. Higher levels 
of  well-being  (to  be  understood  in  a  broad  way,  as  linked  to  sense  of  belonging  at 
school, sense of connectedness, healthy relationships and other social and emotional 
competences, etc.) are generally associated with higher educational aspirations, lower 
absenteeism and better learning outcomes.  

  Current challenges in our societies have also led to increasing levels of mental health 
issues,  which  thus  also  needs  to  be  addressed  at  and  through  school  (e.g.  anxiety, 
depression, self-harm and suicide, violence and anti-social behaviour, delinquency and 
substance use)  

  The COVID-19 crisis has further exacerbated inequalities in education. If the learning 
progression of all learners and their well-being has been negatively affected, than the 
impact was stronger for vulnerable and socio-economically marginalised children and 
young people that already had lower average achievements before the pandemic. As a 
result,  the  share  of  underperforming  students  in  Europe  is  likely  to  have  risen 
considerably due to the pandemic. 

66 

 
 
 
 
 
 
5.  Defining a new framework of action to school success 

What  does  school  success  mean?  Several  different  definitions  present  themselves  for 
consideration. The most obvious one  equates  school success with high learner achievement. 
Others  may  emphasize  element  such  as  high  graduation  rates,  a  prosperous  economy  or 
fulfilling  careers,  citizenship  and  democratic  values,  a  socially  cohesive  society,  or  a 
combination of these  elements. Definitions of success  are inevitably related to beliefs about 
the purposes of education, and more broadly to the values, ideals and representations of each 
society.  

During  the  consultation  activities  supporting  the  preparation  of  the  Commission  proposal, 
several stakeholders called for a more holistic understanding of school success. According to 
several  organisations  representing  both  parents,  students  and  education  employers,  the 
concept should not only be linked with minimum standards for achievement of basic skills or 
the skills needed to enter the  labour market. More  focus should be placed on other aspects 
essentials  for  the  development  of  critical  thinking  or  civic  engagement,  such  as 
communication, collaboration, and problem-solving skills.   

In  its  position  paper,  the  European  Parents’  Association  (EPA)  criticised  that  educational 
success  continues  to  be  strongly  linked  to  obtaining  ‘good  grades’.  EPA  suggested  using  the 
concept  of  ‘maturity’  instead,  stating  that  all  young  people  at  the  end  of  their  school  time 
should be mature, meaning: 

“[able] to confront life and the future challenges in a responsible and autonomous way, 
to  make  independent  and  well-informed  decisions  and  to  continue  developing  their 
unique  full  potential  over  the  lifespan  –  consequences  that  can  hardly  be  expressed  in 
grades.” 

Source: OPC position paper   

School is indeed more than an academic context. It is a dynamic learning, social and emotional 
environment  in  which  students  live  and  develop  cognitively  and  affectively.    In  the  view  of 
Pathways to School Success, ‘school success’ occurs when a system provides fair and inclusive 
education  services  that  lead  to  successful  learning,  engagement,  wider  participation  in  the 
community  and  transition  to  a  stable  adulthood.  School  success  is  not  just  about 
achievements  and  academic  results,  but  it  also  encompasses  elements  such  as  personal, 
social and emotional development, students’ well-being and mental health. These elements 
are  not  just  a  precondition  for  the  educational  success  of  individuals  but  can  be  seen  as 
educational,  societal  and  policy  objectives  in  themselves.  In  line  with  the  results  of  the 
consultations  (see  annex  I),  a  successful  education  should  be  understood  as  encouraging 
lifelong  learning  and  accompanying  learners  on  their  journey  to  become  active  and  mature 
citizens  capable  of  confronting  life  and  future  challenges  in  a  responsible  and  autonomous 
way, and for whom lifelong learning can be an enriching and crucial part of their personal as 
well as professional development. 

Such  a  definition  acknowledges  that  educational  failure  is  not  simply  a  problem  of  the 
individual  but  rather  as  a  complex  phenomenon,  resulting  from  multiple  interconnected 
factors, and requiring actions at different levels. It conceptualises ‘success’ in a perspective of 
equity  and  inclusion  and  proposes  a  wider  view  of  learner  outcomes.  The  plural  ‘pathways’ 
suggests  that  school  success  is  a  relative  concept,  which  needs  to  be  defined  with  due 
attention to the personal development dimension and the situation of each individual learner. 
There  is  not  one  single  route  or  recipe  for  educational  success;  rather  many  different 

67 

 
 
 
approaches  and actions are  needed and should be  combined to help all learners reach their 
full potential.   

In  this  context,  and  based  on  lessons  learnt  from  the  past,  as  well  as  the  extensive 
consultations and the research gathered to prepare the Commission’s proposal for a Council 
Recommendation, a new framework for action is proposed to Member States, which should 
inspire them when developing their strategies towards school success. The framework outlines 
some overarching conditions for effective action (5.1) and proposes a set of policy measures, 
to  be  implemented  at  school  and education  system level  to  promote  a whole  school, whole 
system  approach  (5.2).  The  framework  is  underpinned  by  the  principles  and  values  that  are 
the backbone of the EU rights and values and builds strong synergies with other Commission 
initiatives and policies (see chapter 6). 

5.1 Key enablers  

5.1.1  An integrated approach at all levels to reducing underachievement 

and ELET 

An integrated and comprehensive strategy 

Addressing school success requires educational policies to be articulated with a broader set of 
policies  (such  as  health,  employment,  housing,  justice,  migration),  including  measures 
addressing the structural roots of inequalities and social exclusion. Improving the quality and 
inclusiveness  of  education,  both  at  the  level  of  each  individual  school  as  well  as  at  system 
level,  are  expected  to  have  a  strong  impact  and  improve  overall  educational  performance. 
Effective  cooperation  between  policy  areas  as  well  as  between  relevant  public  and  private 
actors is essential, at all levels (national, regional, local, school). Reducing underachievement 
and  ELET  and  promoting  supportive  learning  environments  require  whole-system,  whole-
school  and  whole  community  approaches  and  strong  coordination  mechanisms  across  the 
different layers, linking local, regional and national authorities.   

The 2011 Council Recommendation called for comprehensive strategies against early leaving 
from  education  and  training.  Its  assessment  confirms  the  pertinence  of  holistic  approaches, 
while revealing that implementation is still challenging in many countries.  

Therefore, the Commission proposal invite Member States to develop and further strengthen 
by 2025 an integrated and comprehensive strategy towards school success, to be adopted at 
the appropriate level according to the structure of the education and training system. Such a 
strategy  should  include  a  balanced  and  coordinated  set  of  policy  measures,  combining 
monitoring,  prevention,  intervention  and  compensation.  It  can  ensure  coherence,  continuity 
lines  of 
and  effectiveness  of  actions,  help  formalise  commitments  and  draw  clear 
accountability for implementation. To be successful, such strategies require:   

  Sustained political support and agreement on the essential objectives and measures. 

  Stronger focus on prevention and intervention. The assessment of the 2011 Council 
Recommendation has confirmed that integrated strategies against underachievement 
and  ELET  should  focus  mainly  on  prevention  and  intervention,  which  are  much  less 
established  in  comparison  with  compensation  measures.  During  the  consultation 
several  stakeholders  stressed  that  prevention  measures  should  be  prioritised  in  the 
strategies developed by Member States. Tackling problems proactively before – or as 

68 

 
 
soon  as  -  warning  signs  appear  avoids  problems  escalating  and  can  avoid  complete 
disengagement with the education system, which is much harder to return from.   

  Strong  stakeholder  involvement  from the design phase  and all the way  through the 
implementation  process.  Developing  effective  policies  requires  dialogue  and 
engagement,  input  and  active  involvement  from  a  range  of  stakeholders,  such  as 
school  leaders,  teachers  and  trainers,  learners,  parents  and  families  (including  from 
marginalised groups) and companies, as well as in order to generate useful feedback 
and  ideas  for  policy  reform,  create  ownership  and  develop  solutions  which  reflect 
stakeholders’ needs.  

  Establishing  clear  lines  of  responsibilities, including horizontal cooperation between 
different ministries or sectors and vertical coordination between the different levels of 
government (national, regional, local).  Effective cooperation between policy sectors, 
as well as stronger collaborations between ministries and other national/regional/local 
agencies are essential. 

  A  clear  implementation  plan,  with  measurable  targets  and  milestones.  For  more 
complex and ambitious measures and reforms, a piloting phase in a limited number of 
schools provides the opportunity to gather early feedback on what is working well and 
what may need to be adjusted and allow adaptation at the design stage.  

  Systematic  and  adequate  monitoring,  evaluation  and  feed-back  mechanisms,  at 
national,  regional  and  local  level  as  appropriate,  to  assess  the  effectiveness  and 
efficiency of adopted measures. Evaluation plans need to be built in the early stages of 
policy design and implementation process and to be sure that these are coherent with 
the  policy  logic  and  capture  essential  aims.  Both  qualitative  and  quantitative 
monitoring data need to be gathered regularly at national, regional and local level (see 
4.3.2). 

 

Including  only  evidence-based  measures.  Strategies  should  include  actions  and 
measures  that  have  demonstrated  to  have  a  positive  impact  to  achieve  educational 
success and well-being, based on latest quantitative and qualitative research220. Policy 
needs  to  build  not  only  on  problem  identification,  but  on  scientific  evidence  of 
concrete  social  impact,  showing  which  practices  improve  learners’  results  and which 
do  not221.  Evidence  needs  to  include  academic  studies and  policy  reviews,  as  well  as 
the  contextualised  insights  of  school  leaders,  teachers,  parents  and  carers,  and 

220   Many countries continue implementing measures which, according to abundant research, not only 
do  not  have  any  positive  impact  but  could  also  be  detrimental  for  school  success,  such  as 
segregation,  grade  repetition,  ability  grouping,  etc.  On  the  contrary,  many  European  schools 
situated  in  the  poorest  socio-economic  areas  within  their  country,  with  children  of  very  different 
origins  or  from  disadvantaged  background,  manage  to  obtain  the  same  results  in  mathematics, 
literacy and other subjects as the average of their country and even better than school located in 
more affluent neighborhoods, also achieving notable improvements in the living together and well-
being.  These  schools  are  not  miracles,  exceptions  or  by  chance,  but  the  result  of  implementing 
successful educational actions with a proven evidence of social impact. See: Flecha, R., & Soler, M., 
(2013),  ‘Turning  difficulties  into  possibilities:  engaging  Roma  families  and  students  in  school 
through  dialogic 
Journal  of  Education,  43(4),  451–465.  doi: 
10.1080/305764X.2013.819068. 

learning’,  Cambridge 

221   Scientific evidence also allows the identification of limitations of measures, and tell us which ones 
work well in a certain type of context and which ones obtain improvements in any context in which 
they are rigorously implemented. 

69 

 
 
                                                           
students.  University-school  partnerships  may  support  development  of  the  evidence 
base. EU-funded research222 and policy cooperation at EU level has allowed to identify 
numerous  good  practices  and  examples,  currently  available  through  the  European 
Toolkit for Schools and Cedefop VET toolkit for tackling early leaving, which include 
selected  resources  that  can  inspire  policy-makers  and  practitioners  at  national, 
regional, local and school level.  

  Proportionate resources allocated to its implementation, including by making optimal 

use of EU and national funds to achieve economies of scale. 

  Effective  and  timely  communication  with  all  relevant  stakeholders.  Clear  and 
consistent  communication  on  the  purposes  and  processes  of  the  strategy  will  be 
important not only in the early stages of policy design and  stakeholder engagement, 
but  throughout  the  processes  of  implementation,  adaptation  and  evaluation.  This 
includes  vertical  communication  between  central  policy 
levels,  and  horizontal 
communication  between  local  governments  and  schools,  within  schools  and  across 
school networks. 

Strategic  commitment  requires  a  corresponding  structure  at  national/regional 
level 
(depending on the structure of the education system) as a driving force to ensure that policies 
and  practices  for  school  success  are  kept  as  a  priority  for  schools  and  at  policy  level. 
Establishing  a  coordination  mechanism  or  structure,  at  the  appropriate  level,  would  ease 
implementation of an integrated strategy, allow better monitoring and evaluation, as well as 
identifying areas for further work.  

Differentiation: targeting policies and measures according to the level of need  

Given  the  plurality  of  factors  contributing  to  underachievement  and  ELET,  including  socio-
economic status and specific individual characteristics, and the strongest propensity of certain 

222  For  example,  the  INCLUD-ED  project  has  analysed  educational  strategies  that  contribute  to 
overcome inequalities and promote social cohesion, and educational strategies that generate social 
exclusion. The project has identiﬁed the elements that can inﬂuence school failure or success and 
their relationship with other areas of society, namely, housing, health, employment, and social and 
political participation. A speciﬁc focus has been placed on social groups that are vulnerable to social 
exclusion:  youths,  migrants,  cultural  minorities,  e.g.,  Roma  minorities,  women,  and  persons  with 
disabilities.    The  project  has  identified  Successful  Educational  Actions  with  universal  components, 
which are effective regardless of the context and therefore are transferrable to other schools and 
communities to improve school success and social cohesion. The implementation of these actions is 
leading to the improvement not only of the educational results but also of the inclusion and well-
being of all members of the community in the more of 9000 schools that are implementing them in 
14 countries of Europe and Latin America  
See:  https://comunidades-aprendizagem.dge.mec.pt/;  comunidaddeaprendizaje.com.es);  Soler-
Gallart, M., & Rodrigues de Mello, R. (2020). Schools as Learning Communities. Dio Press Inc.  
The  EU-funded  ISOTIS  project  aims  at  contributing  to  the  development  of  effective  practices  and 
policies  for  increasing  educational  equality  and  social  inclusion  for  those  who  face  persistent 
disadvantages  and  risk  of  marginalization.  To  combat  inequalities  and  increase  inclusiveness, 
researchers set their sight on early childhood and primary education, along with family support and 
health  services,  and  community  programmes.  The  project  developed  effective  interventions  for 
tackling  the  mechanisms  of  inequality.  One  such  intervention  is  the  online  Virtual  Learning 
Environment  (VLE).  The  VLE  includes  over  100  multimedia  learning  activities  on  such  topics  as 
identity,  language  awareness,  bridges  between  home  and  school,  cultural  differences  and  social 
justice. 

70 

 
 
                                                           
 
 
groups to be affected, an integrated policy approach should acknowledge that different levels 
of  need  require  different  measures  and  should  include  differentiated  approaches.  Building 
on the public health models223, differentiation implies distinguishing different levels of action: 
universal (school wide for all learners), selected (for some learners, some groups, or for those 
at moderate risk) and more indicated (for few, for individuals, for those in chronic need and at 
higher  risk).  A  principle  of  differentiated  need,  recognising  that  there  are  different  layers  of 
complexity, is gaining fuller recognition in domains such as mental health224,  school violence 
and bullying225, early leaving from education and training226 and social work227. 

Figure 24. Differentiated Levels of Need for Prevention 

Legend: 
Universal – All 
Selected – Some, Groups, Moderate Risk 
Indicated – Individual, Intensive, Chronic Need 
Source: Downes, P., Nairz-Wirth, E., Rusinaitė, V.228  

BOX 1. Finland - Right to Learn programme 

In 2020, the government launched the ‘Right to Learn’ programme (2020−2022) 229, which has 
a budget of EUR 180 million to fund projects aimed at improving the quality of education and 

223   European Commission, Directorate-General for Education, Youth, Sport and Culture, NESET Report, 
Downes, P., Nairz-Wirth, E., Rusinaitė, V., (2017), Structural indicators for inclusive systems in  and 
around school: analytical report. Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg. 

224   Suldo,  S.  M.,  Friedrich,  A.  & Michalowski,  J.,  (2010),  ‘Personal  and  systems-level  factors  that  limit 
and facilitate school psychologists' involvement in school-based mental health services’, Psychology 
in the Schools 47 (4), 354-373. 

225   Downes,  P.  &  Cefai,  C.,  (2019),  ‘Strategic  Clarity  on  Different  Prevention  Levels  of  School  Bullying 
and Violence: Rethinking Peer Defenders and Selected Prevention’, Journal of School Violence, 18 
(4) 510-521 

226   European Commission, Directorate-General for Education, Youth, Sport and Culture, NESET Report, 
Downes, P., Nairz-Wirth, E., Rusinaitė, V., (2017), Structural indicators for inclusive systems in  and 
around school: analytical report. Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg. 

227   Hood, R., (2018), Complexity in social work. SAGE Publications Ltd: Sage, London. 
228   European Commission, Directorate-General for Education, Youth, Sport and Culture, NESET Report, 
Downes, P., Nairz-Wirth, E., Rusinaitė, V., (2017),  Structural indicators for inclusive systems in and 
around school: analytical report. 

229   European  Commission,  Directorate-General  for  Education,  Youth,  Sport  and  Culture,  Staring,  F., 
Donlevy, V., Day, L., et al., (2021), Study on gender behaviour and its impact on education outcomes 

71 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
                                                           
 
reduce educational performance differences between children based on their socio-economic 
background, migrant background, gender, or special needs. 

An  important  characteristic  of  the  Finnish  education  system  is  its  effective  special  needs 
policy. As part of this policy, teachers are encouraged not to treat their classes as ‘one entity’, 
but to adjust their pedagogical approach to the individual needs of each student. Since boys 
are over-represented in special needs classes, this policy is likely to be particularly beneficial 
for boys. This is possible thanks to the high level of decentralization in the Finnish education 
system. 

Source: European Commission, 2021  
Study on gender behaviour and its impact on education outcomes230 

BOX  2.  Cyprus  -  Commission  supported  Cyprus  to  address  students'  disengagement  and 
school dropout through the Technical Support Instrument (TSI) 

The aim of the project was to support Cyprus in improving the engagement of students at risk 
of dropout and to offer new opportunities for those who already dropped out, but wish to re-
engage  in  schools  and  gain  necessary  qualifications  and  skills  to  improve  job  prospects.  The 
support provided consisted of:  

i. 

ii. 

iii. 

An  analysis  of  the  root  causes  for  students  disengaging  and  dropping  out  from 
secondary education, and of the policies in place to address these causes in Cyprus;  
Policy  recommendations  to  improve  the  engagement  of  students  encountering 
difficulties  in  the  secondary  education  in  Cyprus  and  to  reengage  those  who  left 
education and training prematurely; and 
An Action Plan for effective implementation of these policy recommendations. 

The  set  of  recommendations  and  the  Action  Plan 
implementation  of  these 
recommendations  should  inform  the  Cypriot  authorities  on  providing  tailored  and  equitable 
educational  opportunities  to  the  students  struggling  at  schools,  and  to  those  who  already 
dropped  out.  Over  the  longer-term,  it  would  contribute  to  reducing  the  numbers  of  early 
school leavers in Cyprus. 

for 

Source: European Commission  

In  addition  to  more  general  measures,  an  integrated  strategy  should  therefore  incorporate 
actions  that  address  the  needs  of  particular  groups,  such  as  people  with  disabilities,  those 
with special educational needs, High Learning Potential or Gifted children, migrants or people 
with a migrant background, belonging to a minority, and victims of bullying within and outside 
the  school  context.  A  stronger  focus  would  also  be  necessary  on  those  with  complex  needs 
(e.g.  children  and  young  people  in care, with  a  parent  in  prison,  with  caring  responsibilities, 
victims of domestic  abuse or violence,  people with a history of substance misuse,  as well as 
children with serious mental health issues). Policies should also be  adjusted for children and 
young people of different age-groups.  

(with a special focus on the performance of boys and young men in education).  Publications Office 
of the European Union, Luxembourg. 

230   Ibid. 

72 

 
 
 
 
                                                                                                                                                                          
BOX 3. Estonia - Establishment of support centres for students with special needs 

In  2013,  several  new  amendments  to  Basic  Schools  and  Upper  Secondary  Schools  act  were 
adopted. One of the goals was to improve availability of support services in schools, such as 
social  pedagogy,  psychology,  speech  therapy  and  special  education  guidance.    In  2014,  the 
state  established  a  nationwide  specialist  network  called  “Pathfinder”  (Rajaleidja)  where 
students  with  learning,  psychological  or  behavioural  difficulties  can  get  support.  This  was 
funded  through  the  European  Social  Fund  and  co-funded  by  the  Ministry  of  Education  and 
Research.  The  goal  of  this  national  intervention  was  to  support  students  in  need,  to  reduce 
and prevent  ELET  and reduce  dropout  in lower-secondary  education. The  Pathfinder  centres 
support  local  municipalities  and  specialists  working  in  schools  and  kindergartens.  They  also 
provide additional psychological and medical research and appoint a counselling committee to 
propose  a learning curriculum for students where state-provided service has not  yielded the 
expected results. All schools can get additional support from these regional services for their 
students who need them. 

However,  Estonia  currently  experiences  an  acute  shortage  of  support  specialists.  Rajaleidja 
also  contributes  to  rationalise  the  support  given  to  pupils  and  teachers  in  a  context  of  an 
ageing and shrinking special support workforce. 

Source: Foundation Innove, Pathfinder centres231   

Better use of funding 

Long-term interventions linked to comprehensive strategies need time to produce results, but 
generate more effective and lasting effects than short-term, fragmented initiatives. This may 
be challenging for some countries especially under the current circumstances, with the COVID-
19 pandemic putting pressure on national budgets. Yet, the financial mechanisms created to 
support Member  States  recover  from the impact of the pandemic offer many opportunities. 
Addressing  educational  inequalities  and  improving  school  success  for  all  should  remain  a 
strategic priority within national implementation plans. 

The  assessment  of  the  2011  Council  recommendation  indicates  that  targeted  funding 
mechanisms (e.g. the European Structural and Investment Funds - ESIF, Erasmus+) appear to 
have  played  a  valuable  role  in  supporting  national  level  implementation  of  comprehensive 
strategies. There was considerable evidence that the ESIF “ex-ante conditionalities” played an 
important part in levering action at a national level, although challenges were raised in some 
cases around sustained engagement232. EU-funded programmes have also been widely utilised 
to address  national ELET priorities; in the most  impactful examples, ESF has been utilised to 

231   https://www.cedefop.europa.eu/en/toolkits/vet-toolkit-tackling-early-
leaving/resources/foundation-innove-pathfinder-centres-estonian 

232   Ex-ante  conditionalities  were  introduced  in  the  regulatory  framework  for  the  ESI  Funds  for  the 
2014-2020 period to ensure that the effectiveness of EU investment is not undermined by unsound 
policies or regulatory, administrative or institutional bottlenecks (see Article 19 of Regulation (EU) 
No 1303/2013 establishing Common Provisions for the European Structural and Investment). An ex-
ante conditionality is “a concrete and precisely pre-defined critical factor, which is a prerequisite for 
and has a direct and genuine link to, and direct impact on, the effective and efficient achievement 
of a specific objective for an investment priority or a Union priority”. One of these was related to 
early school leaving: Member States had to demonstrate the existence of a comprehensive strategy 
and monitoring systems as a precondition for the use of ESIF financing for activities to tackle early 
leaving from education and training.    

73 

 
 
                                                           
support strategic projects with a close alignment to the 2011 Recommendation. However, the 
separation of EU programmes from national policy-making and budgets was highlighted as a 
challenge in some countries, as well as the risk of substitution effects, and limitations posed by 
having too many disparate projects.  

BOX 4.  Latvia, Slovakia, Sweden – ESF funded projects to support national implementation 

In Latvia, the large-scale project ‘PuMPuRS’, was able to reach over 300 schools and to engage 
municipalities with substantial ESF funding support. Latvia has also benefited from synergies 
between  a  range  of  smaller  ESF  supported  initiatives  (including  a  focus  on  VET  and  school 
environment)233.  

In  Slovakia,  an  ESF  supported  project  on  pre-primary  education  provided  a  test  bed  for  the 
subsequent  2018  educational  reforms,  which  include  obligatory  pre-primary  education  one 
year before entering primary school, among other measures.  

In Sweden, ESF funding enabled the Plug In project to develop at scale, covering 8 regions and 
59  local  sub-projects  between  2015-18  with  the  aim  of  improving  mentoring,  outreach  and 
other ESL prevention measures in secondary schools234. 

Source: Assessment of the implementation of the 2011 Council Recommendation235 

The  Technical  Support  Instrument  (TSI)  offers  Member  States  the  possibility  to  receive 
support,  upon  demand,  for  tailor  made  reforms  in  a  variety  of  areas.  This  includes,  for 
example,  reforms  to  improve  educational  outcomes  for  all  learners,  to  raise  quality  in  early 
childhood  education  and  care,  to  develop  national  strategies  on  digital  education,  to  create 
tools to support teacher recruitment and professional development, or to prepare the piloting 
and roll-out of curriculum reforms. 

BOX 5. Addressing school failure and school drop-out in Portugal through the TSI  

The aim of the  project was to support  Portugal  in addressing school failure  and school drop 
out in Educational Areas of Priority Intervention (TEIP schools). This approach was tested in a 
limited  pilot  experience  in  2017-2018,  and  was  later  on  expanded  to  a  wider  group  of  TEIP 
schools.  The  project  led  to  issuing  a  set  of  recommendations  which  inform  a  review  and 
upgrade of the national strategy to address education gaps linked to socio-economic causes. 
The ultimate goal is to contribute to reducing educational attainment disparities over the long-
term.  

BOX 6. Improving cooperation and monitoring of early leavers from education and training 
(ELET) in Spain through the TSI 

233   http://www.pumpurs.lv/    
234   https://skr.se/skr/tjanster/englishpages.411.html  
235   European  Commission,  Directorate-General  for  Education,  Youth,  Sport  and  Culture,  Donlevy,  V., 
Day, L., Andriescu, M., Downes, P., (2019), Assessment of the implementation of the 2011 Council 
recommendation on policies to reduce early school leaving: final report, Publications Office of the 
European Union, Luxembourg. 

74 

 
 
 
 
 
 
                                                           
Spain  has  the  highest  rate  of  early  leavers  from  education  and  training  (ELET)  in  the  EU. 
Despite  having  fallen  steadily  over  the  past  decade,  progress  has  slowed  down  significantly. 
The  reason  for  this  stagnation  lies  on  the  difficulty  to  address  the  different  social  and 
economic contexts of the critical populations, but also on the poor coordination mechanisms 
and the lack of a consistent monitoring system to assess the relevant policies and measures.  
The  project  aimed  at  steering  a  consultative  process  to  design  a  proposal  for a  Cooperation 
Framework and an Action Plan to ensure the effective implementation and monitoring of the 
ELET dedicated policy included in the new law on Education across the territory. 

BOX  7:  Increasing  the  effectiveness  of  public  spending  for  professional  development  of 
teachers and school leaders through the Structural Reform Support Programme in Estonia 

The project,  supported by the  European Commission through the Structural Reform Support 
Programme  (the  predecessor  of  the  TSI),  developed  tools  and  recommendations  that  would 
help policymakers,  school leaders  and  teachers increase  learners’ chances to have  a teacher 
that  is  both  confident  and  effective.  As  an  alternative  to  large-scale  external  training 
programmes,  the  project  piloted 
instructional  coaching  methods,  as  a  school-based, 
collaborative  way  for  teachers  to  improve  their  practice,  both  for  their  own  professional 
development and well-being, and, importantly, for the benefit of learners.  

The  Recovery  and  Resilience  Facility  (RRF)  is  offering  an  unprecedented  opportunity  for 
Member States for structured action to facilitate the recovery, reverse the negative trends and 
improve  the  labour  market  relevance  of  education  and  training.  In  this  context,  Member 
States  included in their recovery and resilience  plans a range  of reforms and investments  to 
support quality, inclusion and effectiveness of education. Member States have chosen to use 
the Facility primarily to improve the resilience of their education systems with a strong focus 
on digital education. Some Member States will also use the Facility for targeted measures to 
compensate for the learning loss resulting from the pandemic. The investments and reforms 
address all levels of education and training (i.e. pre-primary, primary, secondary, and tertiary 
education  and  training)  with  country-specific  variations  linked  to  national  priorities  and 
challenges236. 

F 

236   European Commission (2021), Recovery and Resilience Scoreboard – Thematic Analysis: Education.  

75 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
                                                           
igure 25. Total expenditure on education and ECEC per EU MS 

Source: European Commission (2021), Recovery and Resilience Scoreboard – Thematic analysis:  
Education  

Of  the  22  recovery  and  resilience  plans  currently  covered  by  the  Scoreboard,  investments 
relevant  for  education  add  up  to  EUR  45.55  billion  and  represent  approximately  10%  of  the 
total  budget  foreseen  for  these  plans.  Investments  and  reforms  cover  early  childhood 
education  and  care,  general  primary  and  secondary  school  education,  initial  vocational  and 
training,  and  higher  education.  Among  these,  investments  and  reforms  in  general  school 
education will support improvements in quality and inclusiveness.  To support this ambition, in 
May 2021, the Commission launched an expert group on quality investment in education and 
training to identify policies that have the potential to boost educational outcomes and equity, 
while improving efficiency of spending. Policies related to teachers and trainers are one of the 
focus areas for this expert group. 

Member  States  will  offer  individualised  support  to  disadvantaged  schools  and  to  students, 
including  mentoring,  working  to  overcome  learning  gaps  and  prevent  potential  school 
dropouts caused by the partial school closure. Other measures include investments to increase 
the  number  of  instruction  hours  and  enable  whole-day  schooling.  Several measures  address 
topics such as implementing curricular reforms, reforming teachers’ recruitment mechanisms, 
fighting  ELET,  improving  special  needs  education,  supporting  low  performing  students, 
improving  external  evaluation  of  schools or  supporting  desegregation.  Adequate  funding  for 
the  school  infrastructure  should  also  be  available  (eg:  schools  and  classrooms  should  be 
adapted  to  learners  with  disabilities,  equipped  with  appropriate  material  and  facilities, 
canteen, etc).    

BOX 8.  Romania - A national programme will be rolled out to reduce the high rate of early 
school leaving. 

In  2020, the  proportion  of  early  leavers  from  education  and  training  among  18-24 year-olds 
was  15.6%.  Although  the  rate  has  decreased  in  recent  years,  it  remains  significantly  higher 
than the EU average of 9.9% and represents a structural challenge for the school system. Early 
school leaving is higher in rural areas (23%) and among disadvantaged groups, including Roma. 
These are also the groups that were disproportionately affected by the impact of COVID-19 in 
education and the school closures. To avoid a worsening of the situation and to reduce early 
school leaving, a grant programme for schools will be implemented between 2022 and 2026 
with funding from the Recovery and Resilience Facility. With a budget of EUR 400 million, the 
scheme  will  enable  the  development  of  various  educational  support  measures  and  social 

76 

 
 
 
programmes  to  prevent  and  reduce  drop-out.  More  than  2  500  schools  will  be  eligible  for 
funding.  In  addition,  an  early  warning  tool  developed  in  cooperation  with  the  European 
Commission  through  the  Structural  Reform  Support  Programme  (the  predecessor  of  the 
Technical  Support  Instrument)  and  currently  being  piloted  will  be  scaled  up  and  rolled  out 
across the country. 

Source: European Commission, Education and Training Monitor 2021237 

BOX 9. Slovakia – Recovery and Resilience plan 

The Slovak recovery and resilience plan includes a component dedicated to curricular reform 
in  primary  and  lower  secondary  education.  The  aim  is  to  create  new  learning  content, 
including  textbooks,  to  develop  pupils’  key  competences,  cognitive  and  soft  skills,  and  to 
improve teachers’ skills. The implementation of the reform will be supported by the creation 
of  40  regional  centres  for  mentoring  and  counselling  for  schools,  as  well  as  by  setting  up  a 
favourable  digital  ecosystem.  This  will 
include  a  network  of  digital  methodological 
coordinators  in  schools,  to  improve  digitalisation  in  education  and  to  enable  the  upper 
secondary  school  leaving  exam  (‘baccalaureate’)  to  move  online.  To  complete  the  curricular 
reform, changes in initial teacher education and CPD are planned. By the end of 2023, at least 
60% of teachers in primary and lower secondary education are expected to receive training. At 
the same time, complementary investments are planned to increase the percentage of schools 
with  highly  equipped  and  connected  classrooms  from  30%  to  at  least  90%  and  to  improve 
school infrastructure, including establishing or renovating school libraries. Slovakia also plans 
to  improve  the  inclusiveness  of  education,  including  via  relevant  legislative  changes,  a 
catalogue  of  mainstream  and  targeted  inclusive  measures  in  education,  training  of  teaching 
and non-teaching staff, as well as making school buildings barrier-free. 

Source: European Commission, Recovery and Resilience Scoreboard238 

5.1.2 Enhanced data collection and monitoring systems 

The 2011 Council Recommendation strongly supports the development of evidence-informed 
and cost-effective policies which are  based on gathering and maintaining data on why early 
leaving from education and training occurs and how it manifests at local, regional and national 
levels.  Subsequent  work  at  EU  level  has  confirmed  that  an  accurate  understanding  of  the 
scope and reasons behind underachievement and early leaving from education and training is 
necessary to design and implement targeted policies. Data collection and monitoring systems 
should: 

 

cover all levels and types of education and training, including private schools; 

  allow analyses at local, regional and national levels; 

 

facilitate the availability of data and information at different policy levels and their use 
in  steering,  monitoring  and  evaluating  policy  development  (data  to  be  available  in 
time  and  in  formats  that  support  policy  design,  setting  targets,  prioritising  and 
allocating funds and monitoring developments); 

237   https://op.europa.eu/webpub/eac/education-and-training-monitor-2021/en/romania.html  
238   European Commission (2021), Recovery and Resilience Scoreboard – Thematic Analysis: Education. 

77 

 
 
                                                           
  enable the regular monitoring of pupils’ educational progress with a view to the early 
detection  and  identification  of  learners  at  risk  and  allow  for  timely  provision  of 
appropriate support, as well as help assess the effectiveness of measures;  

  help  understand  the  reasons  for  underachievement  and  early  leaving,  especially  by 

collecting the views of learners;  

  allow  for  disaggregated  analysis,  for  example  by  gender,  racial  or  ethnic  origin, 
disability,  religion  or  belief,  in  order  to  identify  key  factors  impacting  the  learners’ 
performance; 

  provide the basis for developing effective guidance and support to schools as well as 
left  education  and  training 

follow-up  measures  for  young  people  who  have 
prematurely. 

Data collection on young people who have never enrolled in school may also be relevant for 
some countries and regions.  

BOX 10.  Spain – Data collection on school enrolment 

In 2015, Catalonia created a unique identifier to develop a register of students. The aim of the 
identifier  is to allow  schools  and  public  administrations  to track  students  once  they  have  left 
compulsory education to help them re-enter education or enter employment. This measure is 
intended to provide longitudinal data following students from their entrance at the education 
system (at age 3) until they join the labour market239. Through this system, the Department for 
Education  will  be  able  to  follow  students  participating  in  upper  secondary  education  and 
several pathways within VET, as well as knowing when students drop out. Although the follow-
up system does not include all educational pathways, it aims to broaden its scope over time. 

Source: Assessment of the implementation of the 2011 Council Recommendation240 

BOX 11. Estonia – Collecting data on student absenteeism 

In Estonia, schools register all absences in the Estonian Education Information System (EHIS). If 
a pupil is absent two days in a row, and the parents did not inform the school, the school has to 
notify  the  local  government,  which  has  the  responsibility  to  enforce  compulsory  school 
attendance. 

Source: Assessment of the implementation of the 2011 Council Recommendation241 

The assessment of the 2011 Council Recommendation confirms the continued importance of 
systematic  and  robust  data  collection,  research  into  the  ELET  phenomenon,  as  well  as  the 
evaluation of the policies and initiatives that have been implemented. The study reveals that 
data  collection  and  monitoring  is  implemented  in  different  ways  and  to  variable  degrees  of 

239   http://ensenyament.gencat.cat/ca/departament/estadistiques/itineraris-educatius/  
240   European  Commission,  Directorate-General  for  Education,  Youth,  Sport  and  Culture,  Donlevy,  V., 
Day, L., Andriescu, M., Downes, P., (2019), Assessment of the implementation of the 2011 Council 
recommendation on policies to reduce early school leaving: final report, Publications Office of the 
European Union, Luxembourg. 

241   Ibid. 

78 

 
 
 
 
                                                           
effectiveness  across  the  different  countries  covered.  Some  countries  delegate  monitoring 
and/or evaluation to an independent public authority. In Greece, for example, monitoring of 
factors  influencing  ELET  is  operated  by  the  Observatory  for  Monitoring  and  Tackling  Early 
School Leaving under the Institute for Educational Policy, now part of the Institute’s Office for 
Research  and  Evaluation242.  Others  delegate  to  national  statistical  agencies,  which  then 
manage the main collection tools.  

Different  countries  also  use  a  wide  array  of  monitoring  tools.  In  Finland,  the  Ministry  of 
Education  monitors  the  constitution  of  multi-stakeholder  committees,  working  groups  and 
steering groups of external experts.  In Ireland, the Department for Education and Skills (DES) 
produces  annual  statistics  on  ELET,  including  background  information  on  early  leavers  from 
education  and  training;  the  School  Completion  Programme,  external  evaluators  and  school 
self-evaluation (SSE) allow for an additional collection of data243.  

BOX 12. France – Identifying early leavers from education and training 

In  France,  the  Inter-ministerial  Exchange  of  Information  System  (Système  interministériel 
d’échange d’informations, SIEI) was created in 2011. It aimes at identifying early leavers from 
education and training by combining datasets from the Ministry of Education and its partners 
(Ministry of Agriculture, Apprenticeship Training Centres, employment data) twice a year. The 
availability of this data led to the establishment of the Monitoring and Support Platforms for 
Early  School  Leavers  (plates-formes  de  suivi  et  d'appui  aux  décrocheurs,  PSAD).  These 
platforms are in charge of contacting young people who were identified by the SIEI  and those 
who approach the PSAD proactively. The scope of the SIEI was widened in 2014 to improve the 
relevance, comprehensiveness and reliability of the data, in particular by taking into account 
apprentices  who  have  dropped  out  of  the  vocational  education  and  training  system,  and 
promoting closer cooperation with all potential partners. 

Source: Assessment of the implementation of the 2011 Council Recommendation244 

The study also highlights that most countries do not systematically evaluate the effectiveness 
of ELET-related policies at national level, due to the national (lack of) tradition of monitoring 
and  evaluation  of  education  policy,  an  absence  of  specific  ELET  policies  or  the  existence  of 
decentralised models.  

Stakeholders  have  emphasised  the  need  for  higher  standards  of  data  disaggregation  to 
understand  educational  disadvantage  and  underperformance  and  addressing  the  barriers  to 
school  success.  For  instance,  the  needs  of  migrant  students  and  students  with  a  migrant 
background  differ  depending  on  whether  they  are  first  generation,  or  second  generation 
migrants, or newly-arrived and this information may be relevant in terms of targeting policies. 
Some stakeholders have also proposed to reflect on an EU-wide mechanism for exchange of 
data between Member States on the movement of pupils within the EU. The cooperation of 

242   This organisation has published numerous studies on ELET in Greece and, in parallel, the Ministry of 
Education has conducted some studies at local level. Countries often use a wide array of monitoring 
tools. 

243   European  Commission,  Directorate-General  for  Education,  Youth,  Sport  and  Culture,  Donlevy,  V., 
Day, L., Andriescu, M.,  Downes, P., (2019), Assessment of the implementation of the 2011 Council 
recommendation on policies to reduce early school leaving: final report, Publications Office of the 
European Union, Luxembourg. 

244   Ibid. 

79 

 
 
 
                                                           
different  stakeholders  is  also  considered  advisable  to  establish  a  common  understanding  of 
the  type  of  data  and  information  required,  the  possible  indicators  and  data  collection 
methods. 

5.2 A Whole-school approach to school success: core dimensions  

The consultation activities (64 % of all survey respondents) and research gathered to prepare 
the Commission proposal clearly identified the need for promoting a ‘whole school approach’ 
to  school  success.  The  importance  of  dialogue  and  collaboration  between  schools,  parents, 
civil organisations and other relevant stakeholders at the local, regional and national level was 
considered essential to create supportive learning environments for students. The concept of 
‘whole school approach’ allows for the entire system of actors and their inter-relationships in 
and around schools to be considered, acknowledging that each stakeholder has a part to play 
in  supporting  the  learners'  educational  journey  and  nurturing  their  learning  experience.  The 
next sections presents its main dimensions. 

 5.2.1 Learners  

“We focus on knowledge, forgetting that a pupil is above all a child, a young person with his 
story, his life, his feelings and that this too can be worked on” 

Source: Open Public Consultation position papers 

Learners’ needs should be at the centre of education. All learners are entitled to high-quality 
education,  a  relevant  curriculum,  appropriate  assessment,  equitable  and  valued  learning 
opportunities. Schools should provide an environment that accommodates learners’ diversity, 
including  varied  learning  and  linguistic  needs,  to  maximise  each  young  person’s  potential. 
Quality education should be designed to fit the diversity of learners rather than requiring them 
to fit into an existing system. This should ensure that they engage with the learning process, 
and see a clear purpose for their education. 

Early detection  

Early  identification  of  development  problems,  language  competences  and  special  education 
needs,  as  well  as  early  detection  of  learners  at  risk  of  underachievement  and  drop  out  is 
essential,  in order  to  define  and organise  the  appropriate support.  It  is  important,  however, 
that screening avoid labelling and stigmatisation; this could be achieved, for example, through 
more  formative forms of screening based on formative evaluation of children' strengths and 
needs. New technologies can be very helpful in this respect. 

BOX 13. Sweden - Using Artificial Intelligence to detect reading difficulties 

The  digital  tool  Lexplore  uses  eye  tracking  AI  to  determine  students’  reading  levels.  This 
unique  evidence-based technology is based on an extensive 30-year research project  carried 
out  at  the  Karolinska  Institute  in  Sweden.  Lexplore’s  machine  learning  algorithms  recognise 
correlations  and  patterns  in  eye  movement  data.  More  specifically, tools  like Lexplore make 
their  analysis  by  tracing  how  a  reader’s  eyes  follow  words  in  sequential  (or  non-sequential) 
order  to  identify  patterns.  Readers  at  low  risk  for  dyslexia  tend  to  make  more  progressive 
movements—from left to right—as they scan words. Dyslexic readers on the other hand make 

80 

 
 
 
 
 
more  regressive movements—right  to left movements—and do not make  regular pauses  (or 
fixations)  during  reading  in  the  same  way  non-dyslexic  readers  do.  This  unique  high-tech 
process  provides  teachers  with  real-time  data  for  intervention  that  directly  correlates  to  a 
student’s  reading 
level  (as  well  as  detecting  dyslexia).  The  methodology  for  this 
comprehensive research project entitled “the Dyslexia project”, has since been evaluated and 
refined.  Over  two  years,  more  than  3,000  students  in  grades  1-3  in  Järfälla  and  Trosa 
municipalities  were  screened.  The  evaluation  reported  high  overall  accuracy  with  a  good 
balance between sensitivity and specificity. 

Source: https://www.lexplore.com/ 

Curriculum  

Making learning relevant to learners' lives is crucial. In recent years, education systems have 
shifted  from  a  traditional  content-based  paradigm  towards  a  more  comprehensive 
competence-based  approach  of  education  and  training,  based  on  a  vision  of  learner 
development, in which each learner develops his or her own abilities and is able to mobilise 
and critically reflect on his and her knowledge245. At EU level, the Council Recommendation on 
the Key Competences for Lifelong Learning describes the eight competences (defined in terms 
of knowledge, skills and attitudes) that individuals need to develop to deal with problems and 
complex demands of contemporary societies. Many European countries have made significant 
progress  towards 
introducing  reforms  to 
strengthen  key  competences,  including  basic  skills  and  establishing  standards  for  learning 
outcomes.     

into  national  curricula, 

incorporating  these 

BOX 14. Norway: values and principles for primary and secondary education 

Norway  put  into  effect  a  new  core  curriculum  and  new  subject  curricula  in  the  autumn  of 
2020. One of the main aims of the reform is to stress key elements of the core curriculum in 
each subject, thus improving the links between them. 

The most noteworthy changes include: 

  The  introduction  of  three  interdisciplinary  topics  to  flag  up  important  social  challenges: 

health and life skills, democracy and citizenship, and sustainable development 

  More hands-on practice and exploration in several subjects 
  Renewed emphasis on critical thinking and a critical approach to sources 
  Play-based learning for the youngest children 
  Expansion of digital skills, programming and technology 
  Reduction of the number of subject competences, allowing for more in-depth learning 

Source: National Reforms in School Education | Eurydice (europa.eu) 

Relevant  and  stimulating  curricula  are  key  to  assist  teachers  to  create  motivating  lessons. 
Curricula  should  allow  flexible  approaches  and  more  personalised  forms  of  teaching  and 
learning, to facilitate the acquisition of knowledge and development of competences and skills 
to the best ability of each child. They should allow more participatory methods in learning and 

245  

European Commission, Directorate-General for Education, Youth, Sport and Culture, NESET Report, 
Siarova, H.; Sternadel, D.; Mašidlauskaitė, R., (2017), Assessment practices for 21st century learning: 
review of evidence. Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg. 

81 

 
 
 
                                                           
make  children  and  young  people  actively  involved  in  the  learning  process.  Curricula  at  each 
stage should be aligned with subsequent levels of education or alternative training pathways. 

Curricula  should  allow  a  variety  of  teaching  methods,  including  collaborative  teaching  and 
learning,  on-the-job  learning  and  coaching,  which  have  proven  to  be  beneficial  in  (re-) 
engaging  and  motivating  learners  to  continue  in  education  and  training.  These  teaching 
methods should maintain high quality standards for all learners. 

BOX 15. Portugal - curricular flexibility and autonomy 

Portugal began the process of education reform by analysing which values and competences 
this  generation  of  pupils  should  have  in  order  to  thrive  in  a  global  society.  These  were  then 
codified in the 2017 document Students’ Profile by the End of Compulsory Schooling. 

After  establishing  this  educational  vision,  the  government  launched  the  new  Essential  Core 
curriculum  to  address  curriculum  overload  and  support  deeper  learning.  It  also  invited 
professional societies such as the Maths Teachers Association and the Portuguese Association 
of  English  Teachers  to  determine  a  common  foundation  of  competences  that  all  students 
should develop. 

A particular feature of the Portuguese approach is the Project for Autonomy and Curriculum 
Flexibility  (PACF).  This  project  tackled  the  implementation  and  evaluation  of  the  curriculum 
and  sought  to  give  stakeholders  a  sense  of  ownership.  For  example,  PACF  granted  schools 
voluntary  autonomy  over  certain  curricular  and  pedagogical  areas,  so  they  could  design 
learning experiences in line with the aims of the student profile. This might mean, for instance, 
tailoring  lessons  and  practices  to  non-native  Portuguese  speakers  or  students  at  risk  of 
dropping out. It remains to be seen how this approach can coexist with the existing centralised 
governance  of  the  education  system,  but  the  outlook  is  positive,  according  to  OECD.  

Source: OECD246   

Some  adaptation  to  the  local  social  and  cultural  context  may  be  necessary  to  ensure  that 
curriculum implementation is responsive to local needs; some regions or schools may need to 
focus more attention on particular competences and issues than others. In this case, a careful 
balance is needed between curriculum integrity, to ensure effectiveness, and evaluation and 
adaptation  to  the  context’s  particular  circumstances.  The  active  involvement  of  staff, 
students  (particularly  the  older  ones)  and  parents,  through  participatory  and  democratic 
processes, in the design and development of new programmes and content is key especially as 
regards  social  and  emotional  education  materials  and  resources,  in  order  to  ensure  cultural 
responsiveness. 

BOX 16. Estonia, Finland, Malta – Active involvement of students through participatory and 
democratic processes 

In Estonia, ‘health councils’ in schools — established to develop competences such as problem 

246   OECD  (2018)  Curriculum  Flexibility  and  Autonomy  in  Portugal  –  an  OECD  Review.  Paris,  OECD. 
https://www.oecd.org/education/2030/Curriculum-Flexibility-and-Autonomy-in-Portugal-an-OECD-
Review.pdf  

82 

 
 
 
 
 
                                                           
solving,  decision  making,  peer  and  media  pressure,  self-regulation,  self-esteem,  and  coping 
with  stress  —  also  include  student  representatives.  In  Finland,  following  suggestions  by 
children  and  young  people  themselves,  student  associations  were  set  up  in  all  schools  to 
contribute  to  decisions  affecting  them,  including  opportunities  to  participate  in  preparing 
curriculum and school rules. In Malta, each school has a student council made up of students 
elected by their peers themselves and some members of staff; it provides students with the 
opportunity to voice their opinions and take a more active role in the life of their schools. 

Source: Cefai, C., et.al. (2018)247 

Embedding socio-emotional education in curricula 

Social and emotional learning is part of one of the eight key competencies for lifelong learning 
(personal, social and learning to learn competence) as in the 2018 Council Recommendation. 
Well-implemented  socio-emotional  education  enhances  social  and  emotional  competences, 
improves pro-social behaviour and positive attitudes towards oneself and others and reduces 
behavioural  and emotional  problems,  including  bullying  and  violence,  substance  use, mental 
health  problems,  anxiety  and  depression.  Social  and  emotional  education  programmes  can 
help learners develop a positive attitude towards school and increase academic achievement 
substantially.  

BOX 17.  LifeComp 

Self-regulation, 

The Joint Research Center developed in 2020 an European framework for Personal, Social and 
Learning  to  Learn  Key  competence  (LifeComp).  LifeComp  is  made  up  of  three  intertwined 
competence  areas:  ‘Personal’,  ‘Social’,  and  ‘Learning  to  Learn’.  Each  area  includes  three 
competences: 
Empathy, 
Flexibility,  Well-being 
Communication, Collaboration (Social Area), Growth mindset, Critical thinking, and Managing 
learning  (Learning  to  learn  Area).  Each  competence  has,  in  turn,  three  descriptors  which 
generally correspond to the ‘awareness, understanding, action’ model. LifeComp can be used 
as a basis for the development of curricula and learning activities fostering personal, and social 
development, and learning to learn. 

(Personal  Area), 

Source: Sala, A., et.al.  (2020)248 

Curricula  are  at  the  heart  of  any  process  to  promote  social  and  emotional  education  in 
schools. Social and emotional education needs to be  structured and fully integrated into the 
curriculum,  from the early years to  secondary  school.  Fragmented one-off initiatives are not 
likely to work in the long run. Moreover, curriculum should also include mental health literacy 

247   European Commission, Directorate-General for Education, Youth, Sport and Culture, NESET Report, 
Cefai, C., Bartolo, P., Cavioni, V., et al., (2018), Strengthening social and emotional education as a 
core curricular area across the EU : a review of the international evidence : analytical report. 
Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg. 
https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2766/664439 

248   European commission, Joint Research Centre , Sala, A., Punie, Y., Garkov, V. and Cabrera Giraldez, 
M.,  (2020),  LifeComp:  The  European  Framework  for  Personal,  Social  and  Learning  to  Learn  Key 
Competence.  Publications  Office  of  the  European  Union,  Luxembourg.  doi:10.2760/922681, 
JRC120911 

83 

 
 
 
 
 
 
                                                           
(including  addressing  stigma  and  prejudice)  adapted  to  the  schools’  context  and  needs.  The 
following conditions have been identified for effective social and emotional education249:  

  A  balanced  curriculum,  focusing  on  both  interpersonal  and  intrapersonal  domains 
(self-awareness and self-management, and social awareness and social management) 
and including resilience skills and success-oriented learners engagement skills; 

  A  curriculum  which  employs  a  SAFE  strategy:  Sequence  (a  structure,  sequential 
approach);  Active  (implemented  as  experiential,  skills-based  form  of  learning)  ; 
Focused; and Explicit (with specific learning goals and outcomes); 

  Adequate  training  for  teachers  and  other  school  personnel.  In  this  context, 
programmes  delivered  by  teachers  are  as  effective  or  more  effective  then  when 
delivered by external practitioners; 

  Embedding  social and  emotional  education  in  other  existing  related  curricular  areas, 
utilising  existing  practices,  expertise,  resources  and content  and  fully  integrating  SEE  
in the daily life of the class. 

BOX 18.  Malta, Ireland – Embedding social and emotional education in curricula 

The National Curriculum Framework in Malta emphasises the crucial importance of developing 
children’s well-being and self-esteem as part of the mainstream educational process from the 
early years onwards. Personal, social and careers education forms part of Health and Physical 
Education, one of the eight learning areas in both primary and secondary education, and is a 
mandatory  subject  area  in  secondary  school  and  more  recently  in  late  primary  school. 
Personal,  Social  and  Careers  Education  (PSCD)  was  introduced  about  thirty  years  ago  as  a 
compulsory  subject  in  the  secondary  school  curriculum  of  Maltese  state  schools.  Through  a 
skills-based,  experiential  approach,  students  (aged  12-16  years  old)  have  the  opportunity  to 
develop  intra-  and  interpersonal  competencies  such  as  self-awareness,  self-expression, 
healthy  living,  responsible  behaviour  and  decision  making,  critical  thinking  skills,  problem 
solving,  conflict  resolution,  dealing  with  peer  pressure,  respect  for  others,  healthy 
relationships,  and  celebration  of  diversity.  More  recently,  PSCD  has  also  been  introduced  in 
the last three years of primary school, addressing such topics as developing a sense of well-
being, use of social and communication skills, and good decision-making skills. Since 2014, the 
subject has been restructured as personal, social and career education (PSCD), adding career 
education  as  part  of  the  curriculum.  The  2017  Learning  Outcomes  Framework  includes 
competences in well-being and resilience, which were identified as mainly coming under the 
curriculum for the subject ‘personal, social and career development’ and are assessed through 
a formative approach. 

The teaching of social and emotional aspects of education is considered a core aspect of the 
school curriculum for primary and secondary students in Ireland. The promotion of social and 
emotional competence is embedded within the comprehensive programme of Social, Personal 
and  Health  education  (SPHE)  in  both  primary  and  secondary  schools.  One  of  the  8  key 
principles of the junior cycle well-being programme is that the student experience contributes 
directly  to  their  physical,  mental,  emotional,  and  social  well-being  and  resilience.  In  2012,  a 
new curriculum for lower secondary school students was introduced, placing greater emphasis 
on  students’  social  and  emotional  development  across  all  subjects,  with  classroom  teachers 

249   European Commission, Directorate-General for Education, Youth, Sport and Culture, NESET Report, 
Cefai, C., Bartolo, P., Cavioni, V., et al., (2018),  Strengthening social and emotional education as a 
core  curricular  area  across  the  EU:  a  review  of  the  international  evidence:  analytical  report. 
Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg. 

84 

 
 
                                                           
encouraged  to  embed  social  and  emotional  competences  into  their  planning,  pedagogy  and 
assessment. The curriculum consisted of six ‘key skills’, namely, self-management, staying well, 
effective  communication,  creativity,  working  with  others,  and  managing  information  and 
thinking.  The  upper  secondary  SPHE  programme  aims  to  support  learners  in making  choices 
for  health  and  well-being.  The  relationships  and  sexuality  programme  (RSP)  is  a  key 
component of the SPHE programme (Government, 1999), and a single, integrated curriculum 
for RSP and SPHE spanning both primary and secondary is planned. 

Source: Cefai, C., et.al. (2018)250 

Pedagogical approaches  

The  literature  on  dropout  and  retention widely  recognises  that  poor  quality of  teaching and 
learning  is  one  among  a  number  of  other  institutional  and  individual  factors  that  explain 
retention and dropout251. Teachers should be prepared to adapt and personalise teaching to 
meet  learners'  diverse  needs.  Learner-centred  approaches,  including  more  active  and 
interactive techniques, such as enquiry, project-based and cooperative teaching and learning 
have  proven  to  be  beneficial.  School  and  class  organisation,  including  the  use  of  space  and 
time, should support the variety of student needs and teaching methods. 

Findings  from  a  Cedefop’s  survey  of  learners  in  initial  VET252 show  that  learner-centred 
approaches  and  certain  pedagogic  dimensions  are  associated  with:  higher  motivation  and 
engagement  of  students;  higher  satisfaction;  prevention  of  dropout;  achievement;  and 
progression  within  the  education  and  training  system253.  The  quality  and  character  of  the 
learning  environment  (including  classrooms,  workshops  in  schools,  polyvalent  workshops, 
hybrid environments, workplace learning environments, and virtual learning environments) is 
reported  as  critical  in  terms  of  supporting  learner-centred  pedagogies  and  successfully 
delivering the written curriculum254. 

250   European Commission, Directorate-General for Education, Youth, Sport and Culture, NESET Report, 
Cefai, C., Bartolo, P., Cavioni, V., et al., (2018),  Strengthening social and emotional education as a 
core  curricular  area  across  the  EU  :  a  review  of  the  international  evidence  :  analytical  report. 
Publications 
Luxembourg. 
Office 
https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2766/664439 

European 

Union, 

the 

of 

251   European  Commission,  European  Education  and  Culture  Executive  Agency,  Eurydice, 
(2015), Tackling  early  leaving  from  education  and  training  in  Europe:  strategies,  policies  and 
measures.  Publications  Office  of  the  European  Union,  Luxembourg;  Cedefop,  (2015),  Vocational 
pedagogies  and  benefits  for  learners:  practices  and  challenges  in  Europe,  Research  paper  No  47, 
Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg. 

252   Cedefop,  (2015),  Vocational  pedagogies  and  benefits  for  learners:  practices  and  challenges  in 

Europe, Research paper No 47. Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg. 
253   The  research  has  found  promising  associations  between  particular  teaching  and 

learning 
approaches with these five indicators examined, but these do not demonstrate causality. It shows 
that  learner  attentiveness,  engagement,  striving  for  success,  aspirations  and  assertiveness  are 
associated with key outcomes such as achievement, satisfaction and lower risk of dropout. 

254   Cedefop  (2010).  Learning  outcomes  approaches  in  VET  curricula:  a  comparative  analysis  of  nine 
European countries, Research paper No 6, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg; 
Cedefop (2012), Curriculum reform in Europe: the impact of learning outcomes, Research paper No 
29, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg; Cedefop (2015), Vocational pedagogies 
and benefits for learners: practices and challenges in Europe. 

85 

 
 
 
                                                           
BOX 19. Finland - Flexible Basic Education with JOPO 

In  its  quest  to  reduce  school  dropout,  the  Finnish  Ministry  of  Education  introduced  Flexible 
Basic Education (JOPO). As its name suggests, JOPO develops flexible, varied teaching methods 
to  cater  for  students’  individual  needs.  A  model  of  action-based  learning  has  proven  very 
effective  with  some  pupils;  others  find  more  use  in  non-traditional  activities  like  on-the-job 
learning and school camps; still others might benefit from small group teaching. 

JOPO has been shown to improve the situation of nearly 90% of participating pupils, so that 
most  of  them  received  their  final  certificate,  improved  their  attendance  and/or  gained 
motivation. 

The project was introduced in 2006 and has since  been written into the Basic Education Act 
and  Government  Decree.  Under  the  Basic  education  act,  a  local  authority  may  provide 
activities  within  flexible  basic  education  (JOPO)  to  the  extent  it  chooses  in  conjunction  with 
grades 7-9. The aim of flexible basic education is  to reduce  dropping out of basic education, 
prevent marginalisation and strengthen students’ study motivation and life management. 

In  flexible  basic  education,  the  education  is  provided  at  school  and  as  guided  learning  at 
workplaces and other learning environments. Studying outside the school is an important part 
of the studies. 

Source: School Education Gateway255 

Blending learning environments and tools support broad competence development and help 
cater for the  different needs and abilities of all students by creating more  engaging learning 
experiences.  According  to the  Council  Recommendation  on  blended  learning  approaches  for 
high-quality  and  inclusive  primary  and  secondary  education256,  blended  learning  in  formal 
education happens when a school, educator or learner takes more than one approach to the 
learning process: blending school sites and other  physical environments (companies, training 
centres, distance learning, outdoor, cultural  sites, etc.),  and blending different learning tools 
that can be digital (including online) and non-digital.  

BOX 20. Germany - Dannewerkschule Schleswig 

Dannewerkschule is a comprehensive  lower secondary  school offering grades 5-10 (students 
aged  10-17),  located  in  a socio-economically  disadvantaged  area  in  Schleswig.  Learners with 
special education needs are integrated in mainstream classes, with extra support provided by 
specialist teachers from a local services for special needs children (Förderzentrum Schleswig-
Kropp  )  who  work  fully  integrated  into  the  school.  Aspecial  “Campus-class”  has  been 
developed for mentally and physically disabled students, in cooperation project with the local 
support center. The school also offers “Flex-Classes” from grade 8 onwards (allowing one more 
year of schooling combined with work-based learning), as well as temporary “DaZ-classes” for 
students with a migrant background, including a majority of refugee children, learning German 
as  a  second  language.  Gifted  students  are  also  supported  and  one  of  them  attends  the 
university two days a week. 

Teachers systematically combines different learning environments: 

255   https://www.schooleducationgateway.eu/en/pub/resources/toolkitsforschools/detail.cfm?n=417 
256   COM/2021/455 final 

86 

 
 
 
 
 
 
                                                           
  School  garden  as  a  student  research  center,  as  an  open  stage,  as  an  outdoor 

learning space, or as a place to rest 
  School kitchen for “consumer education” 
  Technical room for handicraft activities 
  MINT-point  (mathematics,  engineering,  science,  technology)  for  peer-to-peer 

learning services, or MINT-career orientation 

  Music room for special music training for DaZ-students, or the “music break“ 
  Coaching space for an individual learning training 
  Space for school social work 

All  rooms  and  places  are  equipped  with  presentation  media  and  have  Wi-Fi.  Teachers  also 
combine  a  whole  range  of  different  teaching  tools  and  opportunities  to  support  students 
individually  (tablets,  laptops,  bring-your-own  devices,  also  non-digital  such  as  the  classical 
books,  analog  work  equipment,  work  materials  for  art  lessons…).  In  order  to  achieve  equal 
educational  opportunities,  all  materials  and  work  equipment  are  provided  free  of  charge  by 
the school. 

Source: https://www.dannewerkschule-schleswig.de/ 

Within  a  blended  learning  approach,  digital  solutions  can  prove  very  effective  to  reach 
students who are not able to integrate ordinary schooling.   

BOX 21. Belgium - Bednet: Distance Learning for Sick Children 

With the help of Bednet, chronically sick pupils can continue to receive education during their 
illness  and treatment. Bednet connects the sick student to their class group via computer: it 
creates  a  live  connection  between  them  and  their  classmates,  whereby  the  absent  child  is 
visible on a flat screen at the back of the classroom. Not only does the student keep up with 
the  curriculum,  they  also  keep  in  touch  with  the  class.  Bednet  is  available  for  pre-school 
children from the age of 5, as well as primary and secondary school pupils in all certified state-
subsidised  schools  in  Flanders  and  Brussels.  Equipment  and  counselling  are  free  for  schools 
and  families  for  as  long  as  they  are  needed.  Since  2005  when  Bednet  was  launched,  6,209 
children with a long-term or chronic illness have used it in 2,600 Flemish schools. 

Source: https://www.bednet.be/  

Assessment 

The  key  role  of  assessment  for  providing  information  about  learners’  progress  towards 
expected  learning  outcomes  has  been  highlighted  in  Commission’s  Staff  Working  Document 
“Assessment of Key Competences”257. Assessment helps to adapt teaching and learning more 
effectively  to  learners'  needs.  Research  has  shown  that  timely  and  specific  feedback  helps 
close  learning  gaps  and  has  a  significant  impact  on  learning,  including  for  marginalised 
learners. Moreover, the feedback given through assessment has an important impact on the 
learner's  motivation,  self-esteem  and  awareness  of  their  own  learning  process  –  thus 
impacting  also  their  well-being.  Different  visions  of  assessment  exist,  corresponding  to 
different  functions/purposes  and  practices  (assessment  of  learning/summative  assessment; 
assessment for learning/formative assessment; assessment as learning). However, there is no 
single method that can fully assess key competences nor serve as a best practices for student 

257   COM/2012/669 final 

87 

 
 
 
 
 
                                                           
assessment.  The  different  functions  of  assessment  must  be  seen  in  an  integrated  way  and 
several methods, tools and types of assessment need to be combined to assess various skills in 
a comprehensive way258.   

Regardless  of  the  methods,  active  involvement  of  learners  is  crucial.    When  they  are  fully 
involved in the assessment process, learners are able to track their progress over time and to 
build their confidence in their ability to succeed.  

Standardised  assessments  have  proved  to  be  effective  in  assessing  a  number  of  key 
competences.  However,  if  narrowly  focused  solely  on  the  content  of  the  subject  being 
assessed,  they  are  not  always  suitable  for  evaluating  non-traditional  competences  and 
transversal  skills.  New  technology  has  the  potential  to  enhance  the  functionality  of 
standardised assessments and their effectiveness in assessing cross-curricular competences.  

Performance-based assessment can serve both summative and formative purposes. It is seen 
as  more  effective  in  capturing  more  complex  performances  and  processes.  By  employing  a 
variety of techniques, such as holistic scoring rubrics, project-based assessment and portfolios, 
this approach can help assess a larger variety of competences and skills and better respond to 
individual learners’ needs evaluating a learner’s progress from his or her starting position.  

Finally,  peer  and  self-assessment  is  considered  to  be  a  powerful  tool  to  engage  students  in 
active  learning,  reflection  and  raise  their  motivation  and  academic  standards.  However,  for 
these methods to be effective, there is a need for careful planning and for teachers to deliver 
accurate feedback to enhance students’ self-regulated skills for them to meaningfully engage 
into assessment practices259. 

From the various ways of assessing student progress,  formative assessment is recognised as 
very effective to improve educational achievements, alongside the continuing feedback (“feed 
forward”) to increase awareness of the learning process, both for the student and the teacher.  
It ensures effective learning and awareness of the learning process and it creates trust in the 
relationship between the teacher and the learner. Formative assessment is particularly suited 
for  social  and  emotional  education,  because  it  actively  involves  students  in  the  learning 
process  thus  promoting  the  development  of  competences  such  as  collaboration,  self-
regulation, and responsible decision-making. These competences are crucial components of a 
social  and  emotional  curriculum260.  The  social  and  emotional  competences,  in  turn,  help 
learners  to  get  involved  and  take  the  best  out  of  the  formative  (and  other  forms)  of 
assessment. 

BOX 22. “Rethinking assessments: Prioritising learners’ well-being” Position Paper LifeLong 
Learning Platform December 2021 

Some of the recommendations of the LLL Platform include: 

Assessments as a catalyst for well-being - not for stress!  

Recognising  and  monitoring  well-being  in  education  and  training  as  wholeness  of  mental, 

258   European Commission, Directorate-General for Education, Youth, Sport and Culture, NESET Report, 
Siarova, H.; Sternadel, D.; Mašidlauskaitė, R., (2017), Assessment practices for 21st century learning: 
review of evidence. Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg. 

259   Ibid. 
260   Cefai, C.; Bartolo P. A.; Cavioni.  V; Downes, P.; Strengthening Social and Emotional Education as a 

core curricular area across the EU. A review of the international evidence.  

88 

 
 
                                                           
emotional  and  physical  aspects  takes  into  account  the  interdependence,  complexity  and 
integrity  of  living  systems  on  well-being.  The  stress  related  to  assessments  can  create  a 
fragmentation  between  learners’  physical,  emotional,  mental  health  aspects.  What’s  more, 
mental health problems created by the pressure of assessment have spillover effects such as 
costs in children’s and adults’ healthcare. 

Enjoy learning to keep learning!  

Addressing  early  leaving  from  education  and  training  through  better  assessment  practices. 
Learners  who  suffer  from  the  impacts  of  assessment  methods  that  hamper  well-being  are 
likely  to  leave  education  and  training  early,  particularly  disadvantaged  learners.  Adjusting 
assessment  practices  in  education  could  help  to  significantly  reduce  the  number  of  early 
leavers.  

Making the shoe fit - aligning the curriculum!  

Shifting to competences-oriented and outcomes-based approaches to assessment to consider 
the  impact  on  the  well-being  of  both  learners  and  educators  alike.  Curriculum  design, 
pedagogies  and  andragogies  used  should  seek  to  positively  impact  learners’  well-being,  and 
educators should understand and know how to support learners in this context. 

Source: LLL Platform (2021)261  

Mastering the language of schooling and valuing linguistic diversity 

The Recommendation on a comprehensive approach to the teaching and learning of languages 
underlines the importance of fully mastering the language of schooling as a basis for learning 
and educational achievement, especially for learners from migrant, minority or disadvantaged 
backgrounds. It also recommends that teachers of all subjects should be supported to be able 
to support the acquisition of the language of schooling. 

BOX 23.  Germany – Supporting students in mastering the language of schooling 

In 2018, the Standing Conference of the Ministers of Education and Cultural Affairs of the Länder 
in  Germany  (KMK)  adopted  a  10-point  Recommendation  on  the  Language  of  Schooling.  This 
includes a specific focus on supporting pupils whose first language is not German. In the state of 
Hesse, one of the most diverse states in Germany, more than 50% of children in the first year of 
primary school have a migration background, and this rises to more than 70% among new-borns. 
To support  these  pupils in mastering German as the language  of schooling and to help them to 
succeed at school, Hesse’s support system is based on the principle that ‘every lesson is a German 
lesson’ (‘jede Stunde ist eine Deutschstunde’). In addition to this, pupils receive intensive German 
classes, either as preparatory courses before compulsory school age, over the summer holidays, 
or as part the school curriculum. 

Source: Education begins with language - Publications Office of the EU (europa.eu)  

If  extra  language  support  in  the  language  of  instruction  is  necessary  for  certain  pupils,  it  is 
essential  that  their  competences  in  their  native  language(s)  are  also  adequately  recognised 

261   LLL Platform (2021), Rethinking assessments: Prioritising learners’ wellbeing. LLLP  – Position Paper 

2021. Available at: https://lllplatform.eu/lll/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/PP21.pdf 

89 

 
 
 
                                                           
and valued. Research findings suggest that a positive attitude towards diversity and valuing 
the  unique  linguistic  background  of  each  child  promotes  academic  success  and  boosts  self-
confidence262. In addition, failing to value or even devaluing pupils‘ culture and language can 
have a negative impact on their overall learning achievement, motivation and well-being263.  

As mentioned by the Canadian linguist Professor Jim Cummins: “to reject a child’s language in 
the school is to reject the child”264. If children are asked, implicitly or explicitly, by their school, 
their teachers or even by their parents, to limit the use of their home language(s) to settings 
outside the school, then they are forced to leave behind a central part of their identity, which 
will have a detrimental impact on their self-confidence, motivation and active participation at 
school and educational achievement.  

A positive attitude towards linguistic diversity is indispensable for creating a language-friendly 
and language-aware school environment. The Council Recommendation on a comprehensive 
approach  to  the  teaching  and  learning  of  languages  introduced  the  concept  of  ‘language 
awareness’ as an element that can be embedded in the school culture.  

Language awareness in schools implies embracing an overarching approach to languages:  

  Teaching the language of schooling and supporting literacy and language development 

across the curricula;  

  Taking  into  account  learners’  personal  linguistic  abilities  and  interests:  language 
awareness is based on an analysis of all languages existing at school and starting with 
all the other languages and prior knowledge that children bring to school which may 
be  different  from  the  language  of  schooling  and  /  or  the  official  language(s)  of  the 
region / country;  

  Ensuring  that  teachers  and  school  leaders  have  knowledge  about  languages  and  are 
aware  of  how  children’s  use  of  language  and  the  school’s  attitudes  to  language 
interact  to  affect  learning.  It  equally  implies  awareness  on  how  these  elements 
interact and interlink in schools. 

It  is  important  that  schools  create  physical  and  symbolic  spaces  for  the  different  languages 
that  children  use  and  learn;  languages  should  not  only  be  reflected  in  the  curriculum  and 
teaching practices, but also be ‘heard and seen’ in schools.  

BOX 24. Ireland, the Netherlands and Italy – Linguistic diversity in schools 

In Ireland, Scoil Bhríde primary school shows how a school can manage linguistic diversity in 
practice through adopting an inclusive language policy. The school’s policy is based on three 
principles: (1) pupils can use their home language during pair or group work in the classroom; 
(2) learners are allowed to use their home languages to scaffold their learning of English and 
Irish; and (3) pupils are encouraged to explain concepts in their home language to enrich the 
curriculum and learning for all other pupils. The approach of Scoil Bhríde primary school and 

262   Sierens,  S.  van  Avermaet,  P.  (2013),  ‘Language  diversity  in  education:  evolving  from  multilingual 
education to functional multilingual learning’. In: Little, D.; Leung, C.; Van Avermaet, P.,  Managing 
diversity in Education: languages, policies and pedagogies. Bristol, Buffalo, Toronto 

263   Benson,  C;  Elorza,  I.  (2015),  Multilingual  education  for  all  (MEFA):  Empowering  non-dominant 
languages  and  cultures  through  multilingual  curricular  development.  The  Sage  handbook  of 
curriculum, pedagogy and assessment 

264   Cummins,  J.  (2001),  ‘Bilingual  Children’s  Mother  Tongue:  Why  is  it  important  for  education?’  In: 
Srpogforum 19, p. 19. Available at: https:// www.lavplu.eu/central/bibliografie/cummins_eng.pdf 

90 

 
 
                                                           
its positive impact on pupils’ educational outcomes and well-being was recently evaluated265. 
The  evaluation  found  that,  by  allowing  pupils  to  use  their  home  language  at  school  and 
supporting  them  to  develop  literacy  in  their  home  language,  pupils  acquire  English  as  the 
language of schooling more quickly, have increased motivation to learn other languages and 
have earlier emergence of language awareness (as early as the age of 6). Minority-language 
pupils  also  understand  subject  knowledge  more  easily  as  they  can  make  cross-linguistic 
semantic  references  and  their  parents  –  many  of  whom  do  not  speak  the  language  of 
schooling  –  can  get  more  systematically  involved  in  helping  them  with  their  homework. 
Another important impact is that allowing pupils to use and develop their home language at 
school promotes their overall well-being and self-esteem and encourages them to undertake 
autonomous learning activities. Autonomy also plays an important role in the development of 
‘executive  function’  skills, i.e.  a  set of cognitive  skills,  which  enables  children  to  be  focused 
and  ignore  distractions.  Evidence  shows  that  multilingualism  has  a  positive  impact  on  the 
development of executive function skills, as well as working memory. 

Source: European Commission 

The Dutch Language Friendly School is a network of schools that have developed a language 
plan  involving  all  members  of  the  school:  students,  teachers  and  staff.  It  is  a  plan  that  is 
adapted to the school’s own needs and aims at creating and inclusive and language friendly 
learning environment for all students. The Language friendly school is an initiative of the Rutu 
Foundation  for  Intercultural  Multilinugal  Education,  a  non-profit  organisation  based  in  the 
Netherlands. The Language Friendly School is endorsed by leading experts in the field of the 
mother tongue and multilingual education and the right to education of the child. 

Source: https://languagefriendlyschool.org 

"L'AltRoparlante," is an Italian action-research project started in 2016 within an inter-regional 
network  of  multilingual  schools.  The  name  of  the  project  "L'AltRoparlante"  is  the  result  of 
putting  together  two  Italian  words:  "altro,"  which  means  "the  other"  (understanding  the 
"otherness"  as  a  resource  and  as  an  added  value),  and  "altoparlante,"  which  means 
"loudspeaker." The main goal of the project, is in fact, to give high voice to all the languages 
and  varieties  spoken  in  Italian  schools,  besides  standard  Italian.  "L'AltRoparlante,"  aims  at 
legitimizing  the  multilingual  repertoires  of  the  students,  trying  to  activate  dynamics  of 
language  hierarchization 
empowerment  and  to  prevent  youth  marginalization  and 
phenomena.  

Activities included: seminars and workshops for professional development about bilingualism 
and  its  advantages,  multilingual  education  and  translanguaging  as  a  pedagogical  praxis; 
meetings  with  the  parents  of  the  pupils  involved,  in  order  to  explain  the  purposes  of  the 
project and to investigate microlevel family language policies; ethnolinguistic investigations in 
the different classes, aimed at collecting detailed information about collective and individual 
multilingual  repertoires,  as  well  as  specific  perceptual  and  emotional  patterns  toward 
language  plurality;  translanguaging-based  pedagogical  activities  (designed  with  teachers); 
involvement of parents in moments of bi/multilingual storytelling; oral, written or multimodal 
translinguistic work; and dissemination activities.  

The project has involved more than 700 pupils and 70 teachers, mainly belonging to primary 
schools, but also to kindergartens and middle schools. In 2018 L'AltRoparlante was awarded 

265  

Little, D. and Deirdre, K. (2019), Engaging with Linguistic Diversity: A Study of Educational Inclusion 
in an Irish Primary School, Bloomsbury Academic. 

91 

 
 
                                                           
the European Language Label.  

Source: http://altroparlante.unistrasi.it/ 

Encouraging learners to make use of and develop their full linguistic repertoire, i.e. their home 
language(s),  language  of schooling and any other language(s)  they might speak,  has  benefits 
beyond  communication  alone.  Several  clinical  studies  have  shown  positive  effects  of 
multilingualism  on  cognitive  control  of  behaviour,  attention  control  and  social  cognition266. 
These health benefits of language learning exist not only for bilinguals from birth, but also for 
people who become bilingual later in life267. 

Examples  of  adopting  effective  and  evidence-based  techniques  for  language  instruction 
within multilingual classrooms include the use of ICT, offering language education across the 
curriculum  through  language-sensitive  teaching  and  Content  and  Language  Integrated 
Learning  (CLIL),  and  whole  school  approaches.  Furthermore,  translanguaging  offers  a  means 
for learners to share their linguistic repertoire reflectively with their peers.  

More in general, intercultural education helps build a school climate that expresses a positive 
appreciation  toward  the  learners’  migrant  and  ethnic  minority  cultural  background  and 
facilitates communication among learners, between school and their parents through bilingual 
coordinators and intercultural advisors and mediators.  

In order for schools and teachers to be aware of educational and social benefits of multilingual 
teaching  and  learning,  there  is  a  need  for  increased  awareness-raising  and  promoting  inter-
cultural and inter-linguistic dialogue within classrooms and schools and to make research on 
the subject more widely accessible and understandable.  

Supporting newly arrived migrants and refugees  

There  is  a  diversity  in  schools  throughout  Europe  in  terms  of  linguistic  and  cultural 
backgrounds as well as educational experience. This diversity is reinforced by the welcoming a 
high number of people fleeing the war in Ukraine in 2022. Supporting newly arrived migrant 
and refugee children to integrate into schools is key for their successful participation in society 
and a powerful tool for building more inclusive societies. Schools have the potential to be real 
hubs of integration for children and their families268. 

To cope with the situation, many Member States set up immediate programmes and adopted 
measures  guiding  education  institutions  on  the  inclusion  of  young  refugees  (especially  in 
schools  and  higher  education  institutions).  They  do  not  start  from  scratch.  Indeed,  with  the 
substantial  rise  in  numbers  of  refugees  between  2014  and  2016,  Member  States  have 
increasingly  been  concerned  with  developing  strategies  for  effectively  integrating  young 
refugees  into  education  and  expertise  can  be  drawn  from  this  experience.  The  influx  of 
displaced  Ukrainian  children  is  nevertheless  much  larger  than  what  the  education  systems 

266   Kovacs, A.M, Mehler, J. (2009), Cognition gains in 7-month-old bilingual infants. Proceedings of the 
National Academy of Sciences, 106 (16):6556-6560; Bialystock, E. (1999), ‘Cognitive complexity and 
attentional control in the bilingual mind’, in Child Development, 70(3) 

267   Vega-Mendoza,  M.,  West,  H.,  Sorace,  A.,  Bak,  T.H.  (2015),  ‘The  impact  of  late,  non-balanced 

bilingualism on cognitive performance’, in Cognition, 137 

268   Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European 

Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions ‘Action plan on Integration and 
Inclusion 2021-2027’, COM(2020) 758 final 

92 

 
 
 
                                                           
experienced before. This adds to the already intense pressure that schools and their support 
agencies  have  in  coping  with  the  ongoing  disruption  to  education  caused  by  the  Covid-19 
pandemic. 

The  holistic  education  model  developed  by  Cerna269 identifies  the  relationship  between 
student  needs,  factors,  policies,  and  educational  integration.  It  assumes  that  educational 
integration of refugee students can take place when education practices address their:  

 

 

learning needs (e.g. learning of the language of instruction, catching up on schooling, and 
adjusting to the new education system)  
social  needs (e.g. communication with others, including non-refugees, feeling a sense of 
belonging and bonding, and developing a strong personal identity)  

  emotional needs (e.g. feeling safe, copying with separation, loss, grief, and trauma). 

Each  of  these  three  pillars  carries  a  different  weight,  depending  on  the  personal  and 
educational background of the student and resulting individual needs. The prevalence of these 
needs is shaped by:  

 

 

 

individual factors, such as (host country) language proficiency, mother-tongue proficiency, 
physical and mental health  
interpersonal factors, such as friendships and connections with peers, family support and 
social networks  
school-level  factors,  such as  learning  environment, school  engagement,  teacher/student 
interactions, assessment at school level, extra-curricular activities, parental involvement in 
the school community.  

These  individual,  interpersonal  and  school-level  factors  should  be  analysed  and  inform 
practices.  The  factors  are  shaped  by  policies  and  practices.  At  the  same  time,  the  factors 
influence policies and practices for integration. This means that policies determine the context 
in  which  the  practices  operate.  Hence,  depending  on  their  design,  policies  can  support  or 
hinder  holistic  refugee  education  practices.  Additionally,  addressing  the  complex  needs  of 
students requires collaborations of educational institutions with multiple stakeholders, such as 
policy  makers,  social  work,  health  organisations,  community  organisations,  migrant  and 
refugee organisations, private companies, and other support services270. 

In addition to the measures proposed in the section above, key recommendations at a policy 
and  practical  level  to  integrate  newly  arrived  migrants  and  refugees,  include  embedding 
effective  practices  at  each  stage  of  the  ‘language  learning  pathway’  for  newly  arrived 
migrants. There are distinct stages within the arrival and engagement of migrant learners with 
the  host  country’s  education  system,  and  key  learning  points  corresponding  with  each  of 
them. Documented good practices271 in this respect relate to the following:  

269   Cerna,  L.  (2019),  Refugee  education:  Integration  models  and  practices  in  OECD  countries,  OECD 
Education Working Papers, No. 203, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/a3251a00-en. 
270   Koehler,  C., N.  Palaiologou and O.  Brussino  (2022),  Holistic  refugee  and  newcomer  education  in 
Europe: Mapping,  upscaling  and  institutionalising  promising  practices  from  Germany,  Greece  and 
the Netherlands, OECD Education Working Papers, No. 264, OECD Publishing, Paris, 

271   European Commission (2020), Inclusion of young refugees and migrants through education - 

Publications Office of the EU (europa.eu) and European Commission (2018), Migrants in European 
schools - Publications Office of the EU (europa.eu)  

93 

 
 
                                                           
 
  Reception  and  assessment:  a  comprehensive  and  multi-dimensional  assessment  of 
migrant  learners  upon  reception,  encompassing  literacy,  language  and  other  key 
competencies. Based on the assessment, individual goals and expectations should be 
determined  for  each  student  and  individualized  learning  plans  should  be  followed 
through differentiated learning and teaching to respond to the diverse preconditions 
and needs of students. Support the acquisition of the language of schooling of newly 
arrived  migrants  through  early  immersion  within  mainstream  classes  and  curricula, 
with  additional  one-to-one  support  provided  at  an  appropriate  level  to  accelerate 
social and academic learning is key. 

  Placement  and  admission:  ensuring  that  initial  preparatory  classes  are  time  limited, 
where they are deemed necessary, and setting in place welfare and academic supports 
to  facilitate  a  smooth  transition  into  mainstream  education.  Monitoring  is  also 
important, to prevent the geographical segregation of migrant learners through school 
entry and admissions criteria.  

  Acquisition of  the  language  of  schooling:  early  immersion  within  mainstream  classes 
and curricula, with additional one-to-one support provided at an appropriate level to 
accelerate social and academic learning. Continued  access to linguistic and academic 
support  measures  and  career  guidance,  along  with  parental  engagement  and 
intercultural education, also plays a key role.  

  Maintaining  existing 

to  home 

languages:  access 

instruction,  and 
encouragement to speak existing languages on a day-to-day basis at school, including 
structured opportunities to do so. The use of mother tongue and multiple languages 
as  well  as  the  involvement  of  parents  and  community  facilitate  communication. 
Additionally,  these  elements  foster  students’  sense  of  belonging  and  bonding, 
personal identity and bridges the gap between home and the school 

language 

  Diverse learning approaches: this includes pedagogies applied by teachers, as well as 
support  from  peers.  Appropriate  non-formal  measures  are  peer-to-peer  mentoring 
schemes  (or  buddy  and  Ambassador  programmes)  for  refugee  and  newcomer 
students, both as beneficiaries and mentors, to empower and encourage them to use 
their experience to support their peers 

  Psycho-social support for strengthening resilience: refugee students often suffer from 
poor mental health conditions and trauma caused by experiences in their countries of 
origin and during flight. They may also face difficult conditions in reception centres or 
be  affected by  administrative and procedural challenges  related to their legal status. 
This  requires  professional  responses  and  continued  psycho-social  support  to 
strengthen their resilience and social inclusion.  

Several  Horizon  2020  research  projects  and  Erasmus+  projects  developed  interventions  and 
tools for supporting  the integration of refugee children in schools272. 

272  

-  REFUGE-ED:  Effective  practices  in  education,  mental  health  and  psychosocial  support  for  the 
integration of refugee children https://www.refuge-ed.eu 
-  RefugeesWellSchool  -  Psychosocial  support  for  adolescent  refugees  and  migrants  in  schools 
https://refugeeswellschool.org 
- Immerse - Integration mapping of refugee and migrant children https://www.immerse-h2020.eu/ 
-  CHILD-UP  -  Children  Hybrid  Integration:  Learning  Dialogue  as  a  way  of  Upgrading  Policies  of 
Participation  http://www.child-up.eu/       
-  MiCREATE 
http://www.micreate.eu/ 
LifeLongLearning https://kids4alll.eu/ 

in  a  Transforming  Europe 
for 

-  Migrant  Children  and  Communities 

Inclusive  Development  Strategies 

-  KIDS4ALLL 

-  Key 

94 

 
 
                                                           
 
 
 
 
 
 
Identifying  and  implementing  the  necessary  system-level  supports  is  another  measure  to 
support integration of pupils with migrant or refugee background. Collaboration between the 
implementing  educational  organisation,  Ministries  of  Education  or  other 
relevant 
governmental  bodies,  and  external  stakeholders  is  key.  The  financial  basis  for  the  practices 
must be secured on a long-term basis to enable long-term planning. To meet the diverse needs 
that migrant students may have, the staff must include a sufficient number of teachers as well 
as. While the proportion of learners speaking a language at home other than the language of 
their  schooling  is  increasing  in  Europe,  rates  vary  at  a  country  level  and  strategies  must  be 
tailored accordingly. The pace and scale of new migration, the range of languages spoken and 
the capacity within education systems to respond are all key considerations. In any scenario, 
schools  cannot  tackle  the  challenge  alone.  Action  at  a  national or  regional  policy  level,  and 
coordinated efforts between schools are needed, which include the following:  

  Creation  of  specialist  resource  centres  or  advisory  teams  (eg:  teaching  assistants, 
social  pedagogues,  psychotherapists  and  other  specialised  support  staff),  to  equip 
schools with the necessary tools and pedagogies for supporting newly arrived migrant 
learners  and  working  across  multiple  localities  and  schools.  Volunteers  can  also 
assume relevant roles in the practices.  

 

  Review of funding arrangements for newly arrived migrant learners, including the use 
of  targeted  funds  or  entitlements  to  ensure  access  to  tuition  or  preparatory  classes 
where these are needed, and to accommodate learners who first enter the education 
system  at  ECEC,  primary,  or  secondary  stage,  alongside  non-formal  or  informal 
learning by volunteers outside the school.  
Investment in Initial Teacher Training (ITT) and Continuing Professional Development 
(CPD)  programmes,  so  that  teachers  are  equipped  with  the  necessary  skills  for 
multilingual  learning.  This  is  further  described  in  the  measures  to  support  teachers, 
trainers and school leaders (chapter 5.5.2).  
Investment  in  curriculum  development  in  language  education,  to  reflect  a  stronger 
multi-linguistic dimension. Such curriculum development must attend to the different 
cultural  and  linguistic  contexts  across  Europe.  Furthermore,  it  must  draw  upon  the 
experiences of migrant children and reflect their aspirations.  

 

Monitoring  and  evaluating  success,  and  striving  for  accountability  for  migrant  learners’ 
outcomes  would  be  needed  to  account  for  the  effectiveness  of  the  measures  and  to 
demonstrate that they help to narrow the attainment gap between migrant learners and their 

-  NEW  ABC  -  Networking  the  Educational  World:  Across  Boundaries  for  Community-building   
https://newabc.eu/ 
- IMMERSE - Integration Mapping of refugee and Migrant Children in Schools and Other Experiential 
Environments in Europe https://www.immerse-h2020.eu/ 
- UPPER – Systemic Upscaling of Peace Education Practices http://eiplab.eu/upper-project 
- SHARMED – Shared Memories and Dialogues https://www.sharmed.eu/ 
- TRAMIG – Training newly arrived migrants for community interpreting an intercultural mediation 
http://tramig.eu/ 
- CIRCLE – Inclusion of refugee children in education https://circle-project.eu/  
- REIs2 – Refugee education Initiatives https://www.refugeeeducationinitiatives.org/ 
- TIEREF – Toward inclusive education for refugee children https://teachref.eu/en 
- MigratED – Media Education for Human Rights https://www.migrated.eu/#  
- MEDIS – Mediterranean inclusive schools https://medisinclusiveschools.eu/  
- SEDIN – Creative methods for successful inclusion in multicultural schools  https://sedin-
project.eu/  

95 

 
 
                                                                                                                                                                          
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
peers. This requires the monitoring and evaluation of learning, personal and social outcomes, 
and  mechanisms  for  reporting  and  holding  schools  and  policy  makers  accountable.  National 
school inspectorates also have a potential role to play in this regard. 

These  key  considerations,  principles  and  practices  have  been  gathered  together  by  the 
European  Commission  in  consultation  with  representatives  of  ministries  of  education  and 
stakeholder  organizations  in  the  paper  “Policy  guidance  on  supporting  the  inclusion  of 
Ukrainian refugees in education: considerations, key principles, and practices”273.  

BOX 25.  Cyprus - ESF+ project DRASE+ 

During the 2021-2027 programming period of the European Structural and Investment Funds 
(ESIF), Cyprus will continue to use ESF+ funding to implement the ‘DRASE+, actions for school 
and  social  inclusion  +’  project.  The  word  DRASE,  which  means  ‘act’,  has  also  inspired  the 
project’s motto: ‘DRoume, Agkaliazoume, Stirizoume, Entasoume’, which translates to ‘we act, 
we  embrace,  we  support,  we  include’.  The  project  will  expand  and  build  upon  the  DRASE 
project, which was implemented during the previous programming period. 

The DRASE+ project  has been expanded due to increasing migration flows  in recent years in 
Cyprus and is being built upon the results of a peer counselling programme coordinated by the 
European  Commission,  entitled  ‘Integration  of  students  with  a  migrant  background  into 
schools in Cyprus’ (2019). The integration of migrant pupils into schools is a complex process, 
and  should  give  children  access  to  quality  education  and  provide  any  necessary  language, 
learning and socio-emotional support. 

DRASE+  aims  to  support  social  inclusion,  reduce  early  school  leaving,  improve  learning 
outcomes  and  tackle  delinquency  among  disadvantaged  students,  including  students  with  a 
migrant  background.  It  is  a  comprehensive  programme  comprising  morning  and  afternoon 
activities, to develop skills in various subjects and provide multilevel support to students and 
their families. The programme offers additional classes and access to socio-emotional support 
centres, new school equipment and educational material for developing social skills. As part of 
the  programme,  students  from  migrant  backgrounds  will  be  provided  with  extra  tuition  in 
Greek. 

DRASE+  will  be  implemented  in  more  than  100  pre-primary  and  primary  schools,  lower  and 
upper secondary schools and technical schools, which have been selected based on objective 
and  measurable  criteria  related  to  the  composition  and  characteristics  of  their  student 
population. 

The programme's total budget for the 2021-2027 programming period is EUR 60 million. 

Source: Education and Training Monitor 2021 

Career guidance and support 

In order to empower learners and gradually develop their career management competence, all 
learners  should  be  entitled  to  career  education  programmes  and  career  guidance  from  the 

273   “Policy guidance on supporting the inclusion of Ukrainian refugees in education: considerations, key 
principles and practices” available at Policy guidance on supporting the inclusion of Ukrainian 
refugees in education: considerations, key principles and practices (schooleducationgateway.eu) 

96 

 
 
 
                                                           
earliest  stages  of  education.  As  a  lifelong  process  that  begins  during  early  schooling,  career 
management  skills  and  competences  should  enable  learners  to  become  aware  of  their 
strengths  and  needs,  talents  and  interests,  inspire  and  motivate  them  to  advocate  for 
themselves,  participate  in  learning  lifelong  and  increase  their  knowledge  about  careers, 
occupations  and  the  labour  market,  raising  aspirations  in  particular  among  students  facing 
barriers.  

is  directed  toward  career 

Career  education  and  guidance 
learning  and  competence 
development,  including  quality  career  advice  and  information  and  learning  how  to  seek, 
critically  evaluate  and  make  use  of  labour  market  and  career  related  information.    Students 
with a career plan are more likely to remain in school and engage more with their education, 
while improving the decision-making in their careers, in employment and in further education 
throughout their lives.  

Career  guidance  should  be  promoted  as  a  transversal  cross-curricular  area  and  service 
integrated  as  part  of  the  whole-school  approach.  It  should  be  intensified  at  key  transition 
points  (for  example:  for  a  smooth  transition  from  primary  school  to  the  initial  years  of 
secondary  education;  within  upper  secondary  general  education  towards  the  work 
environment  or  tertiary  education;  or  for  students  close  to  graduating  from    vocational 
education). In addition to dedicated courses, effective approaches could combine a wide range 
of  curricular  and  non-curricular  activities.  These  may  include  work  experience  programmes, 
job  shadowing,  career  games,  or  taster  courses  also  delivered  online.  This  can  also  include 
counselling designed to enable learners to develop the knowledge, skills and competence they 
need  to  manage  their  lives  and  careers  and  to  advocate  for  themselves,  including  the  role 
played  by  digital  mediation  and  tools  for  networking,  self-help  services  and  age-appropriate 
labour  market  information,  and  to  understand  the  connection  between  schooling  and  their 
careers.  Career  education  and  guidance  could  be  effectively  complemented  by  career 
exposure journals or other reflective tools, and portfolio building.  

Effective  career  education  and  career  guidance  require  trained  and  qualified  professionals, 
such  as  career  educators,  who  work  with  teachers  and  school  leaders  in  planning  and 
executing the career-related programmes. While teachers and trainers have an important role 
to  play  in  encouraging  learners  to  pursue  their  interests  and  to  acquire  the  skills  and 
competences  relevant  to  their  career  aspirations,  a  range  of  stakeholders  also  need  to  be 
involved274 This  includes  qualified  career  guidance  practitioners  within  school  or  cooperating 
across  sectors  and  settings,  such  as  career  guidance  centres  or  public  employment  services 
who serve school students or offer career activities, particularly those which adapt to students 
with  disabilities  or  who  have  additional  barriers.  Such  multi-disciplinary,  collaborative 
practices can help develop tailored-made strategies to improve learning environment, sense of 
purpose and well-being at school. 

Targeted  and  individualised  support  for  learners  at  risk  and  learners  facing  specific 
difficulties 

Inclusive  education  implies  building  the  capacity  of  schools  to  support  all  learners  through 
differentiated  approaches.  ‘Differentiation’  refers  to  the  process  of  tailoring  teaching  and 
learning  approaches  to  the  specific  needs  of  individuals  or  groups  of  learners,  and/or  to 
specific  circumstances.  It  requires  educators  to  be  able  to  select  from  a  wide  variety  of 

274   Cedefop  (2021),  Briefing  note:  A  fresh  look  at  guidance  practitioner  professionalism.  Available  at: 

https://www.cedefop.europa.eu/en/publications/9161 

97 

 
 
                                                           
teaching and learning techniques and lesson adaptations in order to work with a diverse group 
of  students,  with  diverse  learning  needs,  in  the  same  course,  classroom  of  learning 
environments275.  

Certain students or groups of students may require enhanced and targeted support - schools 
need  to  pay  specific  attention  to  children  and  young  people  from  socio-economically 
marginalised groups, those with disabilities or with special educational needs (including High 
Learning Potential or Gifted Children), learners from a migrant background and newly-arrived 
migrants, belonging to a disadvantaged racial or ethnic minority  (Roma), those living in rural, 
or  other  disadvantaged  areas  or  outermost  regions,  learners  more  at  risk  of  discrimination, 
and other groups at risk, as well as to those with complex  and multiple needs (e.g. refugees, 
children and young people in care, with a parent in prison, with caring responsibilities, victims 
of domestic abuse or violence, people with a history of substance misuse, as well as children 
with  serious mental  health  needs,  etc.).  A  holistic  approach with  a mix of  support measures 
combined and adapted to the specific needs of the targeted population is recommended. 

Learners  facing  learning  difficulties  (including  learners  with  dyslexia,  dysgraphia  etc.)  or 
underachieving in basic skills should also be offered targeted support.  Intervention needs to 
be provided timely, in an inclusive way and through a multi-disciplinary team-based approach 
in  and  around  schools,  involving  external  professionals  as  appropriate,  and  all  those 
interacting with the learners. This could include, for example: 

- 

- 

- 

additional  teaching  time  and  support,  through  one-to-one  approaches  (mentoring, 
including  peer  mentoring)  or  small  group  teaching;  team  teaching  or  co-operative 
teaching  (pairing  a  mainstream  subject  teacher  with  a  teacher  who  has  expertise  in 
special needs education); interactive groups to enhance in-class support for learners; 
-  making  use  of  flexible  and  heterogeneous  learner  groupings  (eg:  flexibility  in  the 
amount  of  time  spent  in  the  regular  classroom;  flexibility  in  organisation  of  the 
classroom  environment)  to  increase  and  diversify  meaningful  interactions  among 
different types of learners; 
group based after-school supports including through the arts, outdoor education and 
sport; 
extending the school day or offering extra learning time and opportunities during the 
school year and/or holiday period;  
access  to  blended  learning  environments,  which  can  blend  school  site  and  other 
physical  environments  away  from  the  school  site  (either  with  the  presence  of  a 
teacher/ trainer, or separated by space and/or time in distance learning); or blending 
different  learning  tools,  either  digital  (including  online  learning)  and  non-digital276. 
Other  physical  environments  may  include,  for  example:  the  home;  hospitals  (in  the 
case  of  sick  or  injured children);  cultural  and memory  institutions;  farms,  companies 
and other workplaces; nature  sites and outdoors; sports and youth spaces.  Research 
shows  that  outdoor  education  and  engagement  with  spaces  in  the  local  community 
are  particularly  key  to  promoting  students’  engagement  and  sense  of  belonging  in 
schools and in the larger community. 

- 

275 

 European  Commission  (2015),  A  whole  school  approach  to  tackling  early  school  leaving  –  policy 
messages, final report of the Education and Training 2020 Working Group on Schools. 

276   Council Recommendation of 29 November 2021 on blended learning approaches for high-quality 

and inclusive primary and secondary education, OJ C 504, 14.12.2021, p. 21–29 

98 

 
 
 
                                                           
BOX 26. Projects to support specific groups of learners 

RESCUR Surfing the Waves was a three-year Lifelong Learning Programme Comenius project 
that  developed  a  resilience  curriculum  for  early  and  primary  education  in  Europe  through 
intercultural and transnational collaboration. 

The  RESCUR  project  ran  from  2012  to 2015  and  was  coordinated  by  the  University  of  Malta 
and  the  partner  universities  of  Crete  (Greece),  Lisbon  (Portugal),  Orebro  (Sweden),  Pavia 
(Italy),  and  Zagreb  (Croatia).  The  project  developed  a  specialised  curriculum  in  resilience  for 
marginalised groups such as Roma children, children with disability and individual educational 
needs and children with a migrant background. 

  Developing a growth mindset 
  Building strengths 
  Developing self determination 
  Enhancing communication skills 
  Building healthy relationships 
  Turning challenges into opportunities 

The  RESCUR  curriculum  has  been  translated  into  other  languages  and  implemented  in other 
countries  including  Australia,  Bulgaria,  Ireland,  Lithuania,  Romania,  Russia  and  Turkey.  The 
second  edition  of  the  English  international  version  will  be  published  in  2022  and  training  is 
organised by the University of Malta. 

Source: https://www.rescur.eu/about-the-project/ 
https://www.schooleducationgateway.eu/files/esl/uploads/ac170fc4.pdf 

The  project  EDINA  -  EDucation  of  International  Newly  Arrived  migrant  pupils  -  has  been 
developed by policymakers, schools and researchers from Finland (Helsinki), Belgium (Ghent) 
and  The  Netherlands  (Rotterdam  and  Utrecht).  The  main  objective  of  EDINA  is  to  provide 
support  to  municipalities,  schools  and  teachers  in  the  reception  and  the  integration  of 
newcomer pupils into primary and secondary school education. There are tools for reception, 
observation, differentiation, assessment and communication. 

Source: https://edinaplatform.eu/en 

For  those  with  multifaceted  needs,  enhanced  individualised  support  and  personal  tutoring 
may  be  necessary,  as well  as specific  interventions to enhance  the  learning of students with 
extreme emotional and behavioural difficulties who find it hard to settle in mainstream classes 
and  who  may  disrupt  the  learning  of  other children.  This  could  include  individual  learning 
plans  as  well  as  specific  interventions  through  multidisciplinary  teams  and  different  services 
and professionals.   

99 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
BOX 27. NURTURE GROUPS 

A  Nurture  Group  is a focused, short-term intervention for early years, primary or secondary 
school pupils with social, emotional and behavioural difficulties which make it harder for them 
to  learn  in  a  mainstream  class.  A  nurture  group  is  a  school-based  intervention  run  by  two 
members of staff with up to twelve pupils. The aim is to replace missing early experiences by 
developing  positive  pupil  relationships  with  both  teachers  and  peers  in  a  supportive 
environment. 

Source: https://www.nurtureuk.org/ 

For  learners  who  are  truly  struggling  with  mainstream  curriculum,  individualised  learning 
paths or alternative education programmes (with teaching methods adapted to facilitate the 
learning) could help achieve equivalent learning objectives and (re-)integration into education 
and/or training.  

BOX 28. Ireland - iScoil: Empowering Young People to Re-engage in Learning 

iScoil is  a non-profit  online  learning  service addressing  the  problem  of  early  school  leaving 
and educational disadvantage in Ireland, so that young people can achieve their full potential. 
In partnership with local services and agencies, iScoil has created a safe place to learn, where 
young  people  receive personalised  learning  programmes based  on  their  unique  needs, 
interests  and  abilities.  Each  day,  online  tutors  and  mentors review  the  student’s  work, 
provide feedback  on  it,  and  adapt the  next  day’s  learning  plan  as  needed.  Apart  from  re-
engaging  students  with  education,  this  service  also  offers employment  opportunities by 
building  a  portfolio  of  work  for  students.  Since  its  launch,  iScoil  has  awarded  1146  QQI 
certificates to 437 young people. 

Source: https://iscoil.ie/  

Article  24  of  the  UN  Convention  on  the  Rights  of  Persons  with  Disabilities  declares  that 
inclusive  education  offers  the  best  opportunities  for  learners  with  disabilities.  To  support 
disability  rights,  countries  need  to  shift  from  medical  models,  which  define  disabilities  as 
impairments, to social models, which emphasise the importance of providing opportunities for 
inclusion. 

Effective support for learners with disabilities and learning difficulties relies on a whole school 
approach,  including:  a  clear  focus  on  learning  for  all;  recognition  of  different  kinds  of 
achievement  (not  only  academic  success);  effective  and  distributed  school  leadership; 
collaboration  of  schools  with  the  local  community;  and  participation  of  learners  and  their 
families in decisions about their own learning. 

It  is  also  important  to  consider  that  children  and  young  people  with  disabilities  are  more 
exposed to bullying, violence  and harassment277. They have  an increased risk to face  mental 
health problems, which may sometimes not be recognised as such. Consequently, information 
provision  to  educators,  early  identification  of  signs  of  mental  health  difficulties  and  early 

277   European Commission, Directorate-General for Education, Youth, Sport and Culture, NESET Report, 
Downes P.; Cefai, C., (2016), How to Prevent and Tackle Bullying and School Violence: Evidence and 
Practices  for  Strategies  for  Inclusive  and  Safe  Schools,  Publications  Office  of  the  European  Union, 
Luxembourg. doi: 10.2766/0799 

100 

 
 
 
 
                                                           
intervention,  are  key  recommendations  to  address  the  mental  health  of  these  students278, 
meaning that schools should invest also in targeted interventions for mental health promotion 
for  students  with  disability  and  not  solely  depend  on  universal  interventions  that  may  not 
answer the specific needs of these groups279. 

Research  has  underlined  the  importance  of  a  multidisciplinary  approach  to  provide  a 
multidimensional  solution  to  complex  problems,  in  order  to  coordinate  a  common  strategic 
response among professionals to the complex needs of learners and their families280. 

When  discussing  targeted  measures  to  support  disadvantaged  children  and  young  people, 
however,  it  is  crucial  to  consider  the  heterogeneity  of  all  these  groups  and  how  best  to 
address  their  needs.  Narrow  group  interventions  can  facilitate  cultural  adaptations  and 
community engagement, but  promote fixed identities, stressing the differences and distance 
between students. In turn, broader programmes risk not properly addressing different groups' 
needs. One possible solution for this dilemma seems to be an approach where universal and 
targeted interventions coexist to take advantage of the benefits of both interventions. 

Social and emotional support 

Over the past decade especially, there  is increasing recognition of the educational impact of 
students’ mental health difficulties (such as anxiety disorders or depression) on  engagement 
and achievement (see chapter 4.3.1), especially when coupled with chronic complex needs281.  
A stronger focus on policies directed to those with complex needs is therefore recognised as 
an aspect without which no approach to preventing underachievement and early leaving from 
education and training can succeed282. 

Children and young people  exposed to risk, disadvantage and marginalisation, such as those 
coming from a poor and low socio-economic background, from a migrant background, children 
exposed to abuse, family dysfunction, violence and bullying, children in care or with a parent 
in prison and children who experienced other forms of trauma, including refugees, are more at 
risk  of  developing  mental  health  problems.  Students  attending  high  achieving,  competitive 
schools  may  also  be  at  risk  of  mental  health  difficulties  due  to  the  academic  pressure,  high 
expectations, and fear of failure.  

Schools are in a unique position to prevent the onset of mental health issues and address the 
mental health needs of vulnerable students at a critical time - before problems become more 
complex  and  chronic.  To  do  this,  they  must  focus  their  efforts  in  preventive  and  resilience 
building  interventions.  Such  interventions  need  to  be  implemented  within  an  inclusive 

278   McMillan, J.; Jarvis, J. (2013), ‘Mental Health and Students with Disabilities: A Review of Literature’, 

Australian Journal of Guidance and Counselling 23(02), 2013, DOI:10.1017/jgc.2013.14 
279   McMillan, J.; Jarvis, J., Mental Health and Students with Disabilities: A Review of Literature. 
280   European Commission, Directorate-General for Education, Youth, Sport and Culture, NESET Report, 
Downes, P., Nairz-Wirth, E., Rusinaite, V. (2017), Structural Indicators for Inclusive Systems in  and 
around Schools in Europe. 

281   Quiroga,C.  V.,  Janosz,  M  &  Bisset,  S.  (2013),  ‘Early  adolescent  depression  symptoms  and  school 
dropout:  Mediating  processes  involving  self-reported  academic  competence  and  achievement’, 
Journal of Educational Psychology, 105(2), 552–560. 

282   European  Commission,  Directorate-General  for  Education,  Youth,  Sport  and  Culture,  Donlevy,  V., 
Day,  L.,  Andriescu,  M.,  Downes,  P.  (2019),  Assessment  of  the  implementation  of  the  2011  Council 
recommendation on policies to reduce early school leaving: final report, Publications Office of the 
European Union, Luxembourg. 

101 

 
 
                                                           
setting  to  avoid  labelling  and  stigmatization.  This  strategic  focus  will  be  instrumental  in 
strengthening the role of schools in promoting equity and equality. 

Social and emotional support should be available and easily accessible. This could include: a) 
strengthening  the  role of staff  responsible  for the  pastoral  care  of  students  (such  as advisor 
and  mentor  figures)  in  identifying,  monitoring  and  measuring  emotional  and  behavioural 
difficulties in learners and providing support; b) facilitating pupils’ access to qualified mental-
health  and  support  professionals  and  services  in  an  around  schools  (such  as  emotional 
counsellors/therapists to support students in one to one sessions), including early intervention 
for victims and perpetrators of bullying to prevent problems from accelerating; c) developing 
multidisciplinary  teams  in  and  around  schools  to  offer  multifaceted  supports  for  complex 
multifaceted needs, including a family support outreach dimension.   

Specific support should also be available to refugees and newly arrived migrants, to help them 
overcome  challenges  related  to  fleeing  war,  migration  or  integration  experience.  For  them, 
social  and  emotional  support  has  to  be  embedded  in  a  broader  and  cross-sectorial  support 
scheme to take into account all their specific needs when they arrive and on a longer term. 

As mental health is a multifaceted phenomenon, schools need to work with other sectors and 
agencies  to  provide  targeted  interventions  for  students  at  risk  or  experiencing  difficulties, 
starting  as  early  as  possible.  Close  cross-sectoral  collaboration  with  the  health  services, 
mental  health  agencies,  social  services  and  other  related  services  and  agencies,  will  ensure 
schools will be able to address the mental health needs of students within a transdisciplinary 
approach,  including  parents  and  students  themselves  in  the  decision-making  process.  It  is 
essential that these intersectorial interventions are as accessible, responsive, appropriate and 
equitable as possible. The key role of schools in mobilizing and coordinating the support for 
students and families also ensures that services  are more accessible and destigmatizing, and 
can be linked with other support services available at the school. Interventions could include, 
for example,  opening  up  pathways  for  all schools  and  communities  to  have  access to  sports 
facilities,  creative  arts  and  nature,  which  are  known to  be  resources  conductive  to  the  well-
being of young people who have been diagnosed with mental health issues. 

Research also calls attention to important behavioural and psychological factors that make it 
hard  for  the  socially  disadvantaged  children  –  especially  those  in  the  state  of  poverty  and 
social  exclusion  –  to  succeed  in  school.  To  reinforce  their  resilience  and  support  them  in 
setting  aspirations  that  are  also  matched  by  their  achievements,  they  often  need  additional 
support that goes beyond the necessary structural changes. A wide range of more specific and 
flexible  programmes  and  interventions  may  help  build  their  resilience,  support  executive 
functions  and  hope.  Beside  others,  these  include  training  teachers  and  educators  to 
understand emotional and behavioural responses, helping children to acquire important socio-
emotional  competences  in  schools  and  care  for  their  well-being  with  an  attention  to 
inclusiveness283. 

Extra-curricular and out-of-school activities 

The concept of extracurricular and out-of-school activities can be applied to a wide range of 
activities,  from  sport  and  the  arts  to  volunteering  or  youth  work,  community  projects 

283   European  Commission,  Joint  Research  Center,  Cassio,  L.;  Blasko,  Z;  Szczepanikova,  A.  (2021), 
Poverty  and  mindsets.  How  poverty  and  exclusion  over  generations  affect  aspirations,  hope  and 
decisions,  and  how  to  address  it.  EUR  30673  EN,  Publisher  City,  2021,  ISBN  978-92-79-35968-5, 
doi:10.2760/472292, JRC124759 

102 

 
 
                                                           
regarding green spaces in local environments, as well as homework clubs. Research confirms 
that  art  projects  in  particular  can  make  certain  students’  abilities  and  multiple  intelligences 
more apparent, can reengage the disengaged, reduce antisocial behaviour and improve social 
climate284.  Activities  after  and  outside  the  school  can  provide  opportunities  to  value  and 
recognise  the  students’  strengths  and  hence  boost  their  self-esteem  and  motivation  and 
support their learning process. They can offer spaces to improve children’s relationship with 
their  peers  and  with  adults,  opportunities  for  active  citizenship  and  to  develop  a  sense  of 
belonging, identity and connection with the broader community and their school. For students 
whose families cannot afford extra private tuition, homework support schemes with university 
students or retired teachers volunteers can provide them with the additional support needed.   

Financial and non-financial barriers should be addressed to ensure that all children and young 
people  can  have  access  to  and  benefit  from  such  activities.  Participation  in  such  activities 
should  be  adequately  valued,  and  the  documentation  and  validation  of  their  learning 
outcomes  be  enhanced.  Partnerships  between  schools,  local  authorities  and  actors  can  help 
create better afterschool activities and facilities and facilitate recognition. 

5.2.2 School leaders, teachers, trainers and other staff  

School  leaders,  teachers,  trainers  and  other  staff  need  to  be  recognised  and  valued  as 
fundamental  actors  of  learners’  educational  success  and  key  “change-makers”  for  inclusion. 
They  need  the  knowledge,  skills  and  competences  necessary  to  understand  and  tackle 
educational inequality, underachievement and disengagement, and to be empowered to work 
with learners at risk. They need to have time, space and adequate support to design and adopt 
engaging teaching and learning and create supportive and positive learning environments.  

School leadership  

Effective school leadership has a positive impact on student achievement, teaching quality and 
staff  motivation 285,  creating  a  safe,  positive  environment  based  on  democratic  values. 
Dedicated,  value-led,  competent  and  highly  motivated  school  leaders  are  crucial  to  help 
establish a clear and shared vision; to encourage reflective practices and foster dialogue and 
cooperation among all school actors around shared goals and responsibilities; to build trustful 
relationships  with  parents  and  families;  to  create  partnerships  and  collaborations  with 
external stakeholders, local services, other schools,  and the rest of the education system; to 
support  school  development  projects.  School  heads  are  also  in  the  position  to  facilitate  a 
supportive environment for teachers, where peer learning, time for feedback, reflection, and 
networking within and between schools is encouraged. They have an essential role to play in 
providing  the  time  and  space  necessary  to  support  professional  communities,  as  well  as 
opportunities and environments for initial teacher education (ITE) and continuing professional 
development (CPD) which must include a focus on underachievement and early leaving from 
education and training286. 

284   European Commission, Directorate-General for Education, Youth, Sport and Culture, NESET Report, 
Downes, P., Nairz-Wirth, E., Rusinaite, V.  (2017), Structural Indicators for Inclusive Systems in  and 
around Schools in Europe. 

285   OECD (2016), School Leadership for Learning. 
286   European  Commission  (2017),  School development  and  excellent  teaching  for  a great  start  in  life, 
Communication  from  the  Commission  top  the  European  Parliament,  the  Council,  the  European 
Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions, COM/2017/0248 final 

103 

 
 
                                                           
 According to research, successful school leaders are ones which are able to sustain a sense a 
commitment  and  personal  accountability  towards  their  work,  maintain  an  intense  moral 
purpose, create trusting relationship with others, focusing on learning and self-development, 
create  learning  opportunities  for  deeper  understanding  and  seek  to  be  rational  in  their 
decisions287. 

To  be  effective,  school  leaders  need  to  be  appropriately  selected,  prepared  and  supported. 
Initial and continued professional development for new, established and aspiring school heads 
should, in particular, raise awareness on underachievement and early leaving mechanisms and 
on the importance of leadership and of collaboration.  

BOX 29.  The Czech National Pedagogical Institute's project SYPO (systematic support). 

The  SYPO  project  aims  to  create,  verify  and  implement  a  system  of  modular  support  for 
practitioners  in  education,  helping  their  professional  development  through  a  community  of 
practise and peer learning. The project helps teachers and school directors at the beginning of 
their teaching career as well as those who have been in the profession for a long time through 
the transfer of experiences and best practices. The support is channelled through professional 
communities which make use of a wide range of collegial support and continuous professional 
development  with  defined  quality  standards.  As  the  majority  of  the  activities  of  the  project 
takes  place  online,  the  project  became  especially  relevant  in  the  context  of  the  coronavirus 
crisis when it provided webinars to teachers on distance learning. The European Social Fund is 
financing the SYPO project with €10 million.' 

Source: https://www.projektsypo.cz/ 

School leaders should be able to share authority and responsibilities by distributing leadership 
roles  within  the  school.  In  a  'distributed  leadership'  model,  the  school  leader,  teaching  and 
non-teaching staff, learners, as well as parents and families are encouraged to take on leading 
roles  in  a  particular  area  of  expertise,  to  assume  responsibility  individually  or  as  part  of  a 
group,  and  to  take  initiative.  Distributed  leadership  providers  can  create  opportunities  for 
more  flexible  working  relationships  and  multi-disciplinary  projects  and  collaborations.  This 
may  require  developing  institutional  structures:  creating  new  procedures  and  working 
arrangements  (such  as  formal  and  informal  committees,  teams,  working  groups,  etc.); 
organising  time  and  allocating  resources  to  enable  collaborative  working  and  testing  of 
innovative  ideas,  among  others.  Adopting  a  distributed  leadership  model  also  requires 
enhancing  learners'  and  families'  participation  in  school  life  and  in  formal  and  informal 
decision-making  processes.  Successful  initiatives  include  appointing  some  members  of  the 
staff  as  middle  managers/coordinators  and allowing flexibility for the formation of  teaching 
teams. Past initiatives have also shown that it is important to have the appropriate selection 
of support staff (experts, mentors, coaches) who can guide the process of change and support 
school heads and teachers as appropriate288. 

287   Day,  C.  and  Leithwood,  K.  (eds.)  (2007),  Successful  Principal  Leadership  in  Times  of  Change, 
Springer.;  Kaser,  L.,  and  Halbert,  J.  (2007),  Leadership  Mindesets.  Innovation  and  Learning  in  the 
Transformation of Schools, New York, Routledge. 

288   See: European Commission, European Education and Culture Executive Agency, Eurydice, Șerban, V. 
(2015) The teaching profession in Europe: practices, perceptions, and policies, Publications Office of 
the  European  Union,  Luxembourg,  https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2797/63946.  European  Policy 
Network on School Leadership (EPNoSL): online platform with case studies on good practices in the 

104 

 
 
 
                                                           
 
Initial Teacher Education (ITE) and Continuing Professional Development (CPD) of teachers 

Teachers  and  trainers  are  increasingly  expected  to  become  facilitators of  learning  with  their 
role  becoming  broader  and  more  demanding289.  They  are  expected  to  use  a  wide  variety  of 
methods, tools, and approaches and to adapt them to the different needs and learning styles 
of learners, especially with regard to those needing additional support. They are expected to 
create  a  positive  and  inclusive  learning  environment,  to  be  able  to  respond  to  a  variety  of 
challenges  in  and  outside the  classroom,  and  collaborate  with other teachers,  professionals, 
and stakeholders within and around the school in order to provide timely support to learners. 
Teachers’  skills  and  competences  are  the  base  for  the  teaching  profession  and  can  only  be 
achieved through excellent teacher professionalization, which includes shared and specialized 
knowledge  based  on  national  standards  for  access  to  the  teaching  profession,  practice-
Initial  Teacher  Education  (ITE)  and  research-based  Continuing  Professional 
oriented 
Development (CPD).  

The  results of  the  Open  Public  Consultation  called  for  strong  support  towards  improving  ITE 
and CPD. More than one-quarter of all respondents emphasised that educators (teachers and 
trainers)  are  not  adequately  prepared  to  support  learners  with  cumulative  disadvantages 
(27 %)  and  almost  half  of  all  respondents  (49%)  consider  that  investing  in  training  of 
educational staff to address ELET and underachievement is the measure which should be given 
the  greatest  priority.  Respondents  emphasised  that  teacher  training  should  be  based  on 
scientific evidence,  for example  in  relation  to  social  impacts  and  which  teaching  approaches 
have  proven  most  successful  to  promote  achievement  and  well-being  of  learners  as  well  as 
preventing ELET (see, for example, the Successful Educational Actions developed as part of the 
EU-funded  INCLUD-ED  project290.  OPC  respondents  also  emphasised  that  teacher  training 
should  take  knowledge  from  neuroscience  and  developmental  educational  psychology  into 
account to enhance the quality of education provided at educational institutions. 

Preparing teachers and future teachers to include all children in their classes should be seen as 
a core part of teacher education and should be included in all aspects of the teacher training 
curriculum and professional learning. 

At the same time, however, it is important to acknowledge that the whole set of competences 
that teaching professionals require throughout their careers cannot be fully mastered by any 

of 

school 

at: 
policy 
field 
https://issuu.com/epnosl/docs/deliverable_3-3_epnosl_case_studies/93;  OECD  (2014)  TALIS  2013 
results:  An 
learning,  TALIS,  OECD  Publishing. 
Http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264196261-en 

international  perspective  on  teaching  and 

leadership 

available 

Europe, 

in 

289   Caena,  F.  (2014),  ‘Teacher  Competence  Frameworks  in  Europe:  policy-as-discourse  and  policy-as-
practice’,  European  Journal  of  Education,  vol  49,  issue  3.  https://doi.org/10.1111/ejed.12088.; 
Feiman-Nemser,  S.  (2008).  ‘Teacher  learning:  How  do  teachers  learn  to  teach?’,  in  M.  Cochran-
Smith  ,  S.  Feiman-Nemser  ,  &  D.  J.  McIntyre  (Eds.),  Handbook  of  research  on  teacher  education: 
Enduring  questions  in  changing  contexts  (3rd  ed.,  pp.  697-705).  New  York,  NY:  Routledge.; 
Williamson  McDiarmid,  W.  and  Clevenger-Bright,  M.  (2008)  ‘Rethinking  teacher  capacity’,  in  M. 
Cochran-Smit,  S.  Feiman-Nemser  ,  &  D.  J.  McIntyre  (Eds.),  Handbook  of  research  on  teacher 
education:  Enduring  questions  in  changing  contexts  (3rd  ed.,  pp.  697-705).  New  York,  NY: 
Routledge.; and Epale: https://epale.ec.europa.eu/en/blog/21st-century-teacher-skills  

290   Flecha,  R.  (2015),  Successful  Educational  Actions  for  Inclusion  and  Social  Cohesion  in  Europe. 

Springer. 

105 

 
 
                                                                                                                                                                          
individual,  and  especially  not  at  the  very  beginning  of  their  career291.  Teacher  education 
should thus be viewed instead from an incremental perspective (competences to develop over 
one’s career), and within a teaching team and a system (not every member of a teaching team 
will need all the competences to the same degree). In fact, several studies emphasize the role 
of trust and the importance of integrating the whole school community into a creative learning 
culture292. Teaching and learning should be linked to research and to formative, inclusive and 
non-comparative  evaluation293.  A  continuum  perspective  on  teacher  education  should  take 
into  account  all  key  actors  and  their  responsibilities:  the  education  ministry,  ITE  providers, 
school leaders, teaching professionals and other education stakeholder groups.  

Initial teacher’s education (ITE) 

ITE is the first  and crucial stage of teachers’ career-long professional development.  It should 
lay the foundations of a professional mind set and provide new teachers with a first essential 
toolbox to make meaningful learning happen in the classroom.  ITE is generally characterised 
by a combination of courses in subject matter, pedagogy and psychology, methodological and 
didactical  preparation,  and  practice  in  schools294 and  it  aims  to  provide  future  teachers  with 
competences supporting “their capacity to lead and facilitate successful student learning”295.  

Research  suggests  that  a  number  of  factors  should  be  ensured  for  effective  initial  teacher 
education296: 

(a)  an  extensive,  structured  teaching  practice,  with  different  learning  opportunities 
(including informal work-based learning) and incremental levels of difficulty, to fit 
student teachers’ development;  

(b)  effective  partnerships  between  ITE  providers/universities  and  schools,  with  joint 
responsibilities  and  structured  roles  for  planning,  management,  monitoring  and 
assessment; 

(c)  sustained,  structured  mentoring,  with  set  time  and  opportunities  for  modelling, 
practice,  assessment,  support  and  feedback  by  school  professionals  who  are 
trained for the task;  

291   European  Commission,  Directorate-General  for  Education,  Youth,  Sport  and  Culture  (2019), 

Education and training Monitor 2019. 

292   Bryk, A. S., Sebring, P. B., Allensworth, E., Luppescu, S., Easton, J. Q. (2010), Organizing schools for 

improvement: Lessons from Chicago. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. 

293   European Commission, Directorate-General for Education, Youth, Sport and Culture, NESET Report, 
Simões, C., Caravita, S., Cefai, C., (2021),  A systemic, whole-school approach to mental health and 
well-being in schools in the EU : analytical report. https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2766/50546 
294   European  Commission,  European  Education  and  Culture  Executive  Agency,  Eurydice,  Șerban,  V. 
(2015) The teaching profession in Europe : practices, perceptions, and policies, Publications Office of 
the  European  Union,  Luxembourg,  https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2797/63946;  Musset,  P.  (2010), 
Initial  Teacher  Education  and  Continuing  Training  Policies  in  a  Comparative  Perspective:  Current 
Practices in OECD Countries and a Literature Review on Potential Effects, OECD Education Working 
Papers, No. 48, OECD Publishing, Paris. 

295   European  Commission,  ET  2020  Working  Group  on  Schools  Policy  (2015),  Shaping  career-long 
perspectives  on  teaching.  A  guide  on  policies  to  improve  Initial  Teacher  Education,  Publications 
Office of the European Union, Luxembourg. 

296   Darling-Hammond, L. (2006), Securing the right to learn: Policy and practice for powerful teaching 
and  learning.  Educational  Researcher,  35(7),  pp.  13-24.;  Hagger,  H.  and  McIntyre,  D.  (2006), 
Learning  Teaching  From  Teachers:  Realising  The  Potential  Of  School-Based  Teacher  Education. 
McGraw-Hill Education. 

106 

 
 
                                                           
(d)  opportunities for student teachers’ ‘reflective practice’ – critically examining their 
own  ideas  about  teaching  by  observation  of  teaching,  practice  in  class,  debate 
with  expert  teachers  and  peers,  research,  dialogue  with  teacher  educators  and 
mentors;  

(e)  an individualized focus on student teachers as reflective learners – whose beliefs, 
experiences  and  concerns  should  be  taken  into  account  and  discussed  in  ITE,  in 
order to allow for successful learning;  

(f)  an  integrated  ITE  curriculum  that  can  support  student  teachers’  critical  thinking, 
teaching and learning with relevant knowledge, understanding and research. 

Teachers require specific abilities  to  affect  positive  learning outcomes  for all learners and to 
ensure no learner is discriminated against. This ability, known as adaptive expertise, enables 
teachers to adapt plans and practices to the needs of different contexts and students. In fact, 
teachers should be capable  of  selecting  and  using  different  teaching  techniques  and  active 
learning  strategies  (including  enquiry-based  and  project-based  teaching,  collaborative 
learning,  etc.)  in  order  to  effectively  tailor  learning  for  all  learners  in  a  diverse  group  of 
students who, although in the same learning environment, may have different learning needs 
and preferences. These may  include  learners with disabilities, those with special educational 
needs,  High  Learning  Potential  or  Gifted  children,  people  from  ethnic  minorities,  with  a 
migrant background and newly arrived migrants, as well as learners with more complex needs.  

In  addition  to  this,  during  initial  teacher  education  programmes,  teachers  also  need  to  be 
equipped  with  the  knowledge,  competences,  attitudes,  and  positive  mind-set  needed  to 
cater  for  specific learners with learning  difficulties.  The development of basic literacy skills 
for all, for example, requires ITE and CPD programmes to put a stronger emphasis on teachers’ 
skills to supporting students with dyslexia and dysgraphia.  

As  part  of  their  initial  education,  it  is  important  that  all  students  and  new  teachers  have 
opportunities  to  enhance  their  understanding  of  the  nature,  causes,  and  extent  of  ELET, 
underachievement  and  educational  disadvantage.  All  teachers  should  understand  their  key 
role  in  supporting  the  continuity  of  children's  development  and  learning  and  should  be 
equipped  to  recognise  students’  early  signs  of  learning  difficulties  or  disengagement.  This 
includes  the  need  for  teachers  to  collaborate  effectively  among  themselves,  with  other 
professionals inside and outside the school, and with parents and families. 

 BOX 30.  Austria – European Toolkit For Schools as Part of ITE 

The  European  Toolkit  for  Schools  is  part  of  the  ITE  programme  proposed  by  the  WU  - 
Wirtschaftsuniversität  Wien  -  Vienna  University  of  Economics  and  Business  -  Abteilung  für 
Bildungswissenschaft. The programme proposes a seminar which aims are, firstly, to introduce 
students  to  the  importance,  as  a  future  teacher,  of  confronting  the  problem  of  ELET  and  to 
broaden, through their own individual research the toolkit for best practice. 

In  a  first  step  the  lecturer  presents  the  students  with  a  basic  knowledge  of  ELET,  its  causes, 
consequences  and  implications  for  the  society.  The  students  learn  the  different  dimensions 
which are also covered in the toolkit. After this  each student chooses one of the dimensions 
which particularly interests them and where they would like to engage in further research. 

Students present their best practice research on their chosen topic. This includes a review of 
the academic literature.   

In this way: 

107 

 
 
1.  the students are engaged in academic research and increase their knowledge of best 

practice in the field of ELET. 

2.  They enrich the toolkit for schools with further examples, whereby strengthening their 

integration in and commitment to improving the education system. 

Source: https://www.schooleducationgateway.eu/en/pub/resources/toolkitsforschools.htm  297  

There is also an increasing need to prepare future teachers to use the benefits of diversity in 
the  classroom, shifting from compensatory to inclusive learning processes. A comprehensive 
system  of  teacher  education  is  crucial  to  equip  teachers  with  the  intercultural  competences 
necessary  to  respond,  manage  and  make  the  most  out  of  the  evolving  and  diverse  school 
environment. This includes preparing all teachers, regardless of their teaching subject, to deal 
with linguistic diversity and non-native language students298.  

BOX 31.  Listiac - Linguistically Sensitive Teaching in all classrooms 

The Erasmus+  KA3  funded  Listiac  project  (Linguistically Sensitive Teaching in all Classrooms) 
seeks  to  encourage  (future)  teachers  to  adopt  linguistically  sensitive  beliefs,  attitudes  and 
teaching practices in mainstream classrooms. It does so by developing and experimenting with 
a  theoretically  informed  reflection  tool  aimed  at  pre-service  and  in-service  teachers.  The 
overall  objective  of  the  project  is  to  make  subject  teachers  realise  that  supporting  pupils  to 
develop  the  language  of  schooling  is  important  to  give  all  students  –  not  only  those  with  a 
migrant  background,  but  all  students  with  learning  difficulties  –  equal  opportunities  to 
succeed at school. 

 The project’s results include: 

- 

- 

- 

a reflection tool to make teachers more linguistically sensitive in their beliefs, attitudes 
and actions; 
a  model  for  a  new  ITE  curriculum,  which  will  be  more  supportive  of  multilingual 
pedagogies; 
a  report  and  a  set  of  recommendations  for  policymakers,  teacher  trainers  and 
pedagogical counsellors 

The project was coordinated by Åbo Akademi University, Finland, with partners from various 
universities  from  Belgium,  Spain,  France,  Portugal,  Lithuania  and  Education  Ministries  in 
Slovenia and Portugal.  

Source: https://listiac.org/  

Preparing student teachers for diversity also implies a better understanding of the world and 
its cultures. Teachers should learn how to effectively address issues of tolerance, fairness, and 
equity, notably by understanding the historical, structural, and political contexts that can lead 
to structural inequality, prejudice and discrimination in education.  

297   Implemented by WU - Wirtschaftsuniversität Wien - Vienna University of Economics and Business - 

Abteilung für Bildungswissenschaft/Educational Sciences 

298   De Araujo, Z., Roberts, S.A., Willey, C.,  Zahner, W. (2018), ‘English Learners in K–12 Mathematics 

Education: A Review of the Literature’, Review of Educational Research, 88(6), 879–919 

108 

 
 
 
 
 
                                                           
Figure 265. Framework of teacher competences for engaging with diversity 

Source: Arnesen, A.L., Allan, J. & Simonsen, E. (eds.)(2010)299  

Teachers  who  specialise  in  dealing  with  low-achieving  students  can  be  of  use  in  reducing 
differences  between  schools  in  terms of  student  achievement,  especially  at  secondary  level, 
but they are rarely available300. 

BOX 32. Hungary – Recruiting teachers specialized in teaching for disadvantaged students 

In  Hungary,  the  availability  of  teachers  specialised  in  dealing  with  low-achieving  and 
disadvantaged students is part of a project reaching about 300 primary and secondary level 
schools. Schools meeting certain criteria (scoring high a on a segregation index, having many 
disadvantaged or low-achieving students etc.) have to apply to participate in this project301. 

Source:  Horváth, A., et.al. (2020)302 

Continuing Professional Development (CPD) 

Considering  that  teaching  is  demanding  and  that  expectations  of  staff  evolve  with  time,  a 
lifelong  learning  approach  to  teacher  development  is  essential.  The  growing  diversity  of 
learners,  the  greater  integration  of  children  and  students  with  special  needs  and  the 
increasing  use of  information  and  communication  technology  (ICT)  all  demand  new  skills  for 
teachers. In TALIS 2018 results, teachers report a high level of need for training in advanced 

299   Arnesen, A.L., Allan, J. & Simonsen, E. (eds.)(2010), Policies and practices for teaching socio-cultural 
diversity: a framework  of teacher competences for engaging with diversity,  Strasbourg, Council of 
Europe Publishing, 2010. 

300   European Commission, European Education and Culture Executive Agency, Eurydice (2020) Equity in 

school education in Europe: structures, policies and student performance. 

301  https://www.oktatas.hu/kozneveles/projektek/efop315    and  www.palyazat.gov.hu/efop-315-16-a-
tanuli-lemorzsoldssalveszlyeztetett-intzmnyek-tmogatsa#  .  The  methodology  of  the  segregation 
index is described in http://www.econ.core.hu/file/download/bwp/bwp1407.pdf . 

302   European Commission, European Education and Culture Executive Agency, Eurydice, (2020) Equity 

in school education in Europe: structures, policies and student performance. 

109 

 
 
 
 
                                                           
ICT  skills,  teaching  methods  for  multicultural/multilingual  settings  and  teaching  methods  for 
learners  with  special  needs.  Both  the  participation  rate  and  the  need  for  training  in  these 
areas  have  increased  over  the  last  five  years.  Other  areas  where  teachers  seem  to  have 
moderate or high need for CPD: 

  Competence to identify learners at risk 
  Underachievement  and  ELET:  causes,  consequences,  prevention,  intervention  and 

compensation measures 

  Ways to communicate and collaborate with parents 
  Teaching cross-curricular skills 
  Student career guidance and counselling 
 
  Approaches to individualised teaching and learning 
  Conducting classroom-based individual and collaborative research 
  Socio-emotional learning, well-being, and mental health 

Innovative technology in the workplace, including schools 

There is a considerable amount of CPD provision for teachers being delivered in many forms 
and covering most subjects and many aspects of school life.  For this reason, it is particularly 
important for policy makers to agree on funding needs-based and sustainable conditions for 
CPD that avoid inequities in CPD access at both teacher and school level. For example, schools 
with many disadvantaged learners should get additional resources, since these often have less 
experienced teachers who have greater needs for professional development. 

CDP  can  take  various  formats  and  approaches,  such  as  training  courses  and  workshops, 
studying  for  a  qualification  or  accreditation,  online  courses  and  webinars,  observation  and 
shadowing,  mentoring,  peer  group  exchanges,  attending  conferences, 
international 
exchanges,  among  others.  Interest  is  also  growing  in  approaches  that  encourage  more 
informal  ways  of  learning among  staff,  through  reflection,  joint  problem-solving,  networking 
and  sharing  of  expertise  and  experience.  These  ideas  are  reflected  in  concepts  such  as 
"learning organisations" and "professional learning communities".  

Over the last decade, technological innovations have also provided new avenues for teachers’ 
professional learning. A broad range of digital, online and open educational resources (OERs) 
are now freely available to support teachers’ work and massive open online courses (MOOCs) 
offer new modes of delivering education. Certain European Commission tools also offer direct 
support to teachers, trainers and different stakeholders, such as eTwinning, School Education 
Gateway and the European Toolkit for Schools.  

Cross-institutional  sharing  of  CPD-resources  and  the  support  of  professional  communities 
fosters professional exchange and development. Online professional learning communities (in 
which all teachers should be involved), online student working and peer groups for adapting to 
the  new  COVID-19  situation  need  to  be  supported.  This  implies  that  all  schools  and  teacher 
training institutions need to be equipped with sufficient and appropriate digital resources. For 
example, a recent OECD Education Working paper proposes working in tandem with internal 
specialists  to  engage  in  modelling,  to  provide  observation  and  feedback,  or  to  act  as 
instructional coaches303. 

303   Boeskens, L., Nusche, D., and Makito, Y. (2020). Policies to Support Teachers’ Continuing 

Professional Learning: A Conceptual Framework and Mapping of OECD Data. OECD Education 
Working Papers 235. Paris: OECD Publishing. 

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BOX  33.  Slovenia  –  professional  development  programmes  on  inclusive  education, 
emotional and social skills and well-being 

In recent years, practitioners  have received training and information on how to ensure well-
being in education. Emotional and social skills, inclusive education, well-being and approaches 
to  create  a  good  atmosphere  at  school  are  part  of  ongoing  professional  development 
programmes that are financially supported by EU funds. Slovenian network of healthy schools, 
which  includes  60%  of  educational  institutions,  focuses  on  strengthening  mental  health, 
preventing  addiction  and  developing  social  and  emotional  skills.  In  schools  and  in  early 
childhood education and care, particular attention is paid to nutrition on the basis of national 
healthy eating guidelines and sports activities are promoted (e.g. Youth Sport programme). In 
primary  schools,  an  experimental  expanded  programme  is  being  carried  out  to  test  various 
activities that could contribute to the well-being of pupils through two content strands:  

1. Physical and mental health, which includes sub-strands of physical movement (emphasis on 
sport, relaxation and creativity),  diet  (healthy  eating habits, hygiene,  etc.),  health and safety 
(physical  and  mental  health,  healthy  environment,  safety,  prevention  of  addiction  and 
violence, quality leisure time) 

2.  Culture  and  tradition  with  a  sub-strand  called  Culture  of  Coexistence  (culture  of 
conversation, social learning, development of school and civic culture).  

The Slovenian Centre for a Safer Internet provides information, support and training on how to 
use the Internet safely.  

Source: Education and Training Monitor 2021304 

BOX 34. Project EUROPE – Ensuring Unity and Respect as Outcomes for People in Europe 

in  12  schools 

Carried  out 
in  three  European  countries  (Portugal,  Sweden,  and  the 
Netherlands), the EUROPE project aimed to prevent violence and promote inclusive education. 
The  project  targeted  schools  with  a  high  proportion  of  students  from  socio-economically 
disadvantaged  backgrounds,  newly  arrived  migrants,  or  students  who  had  dropped  out  of 
schools.  One  of  the  key  outcomes  of  the  projects  was  the  creation  of  five  regional  teacher 
training  centres,  which  offer  short  courses  on  how  to  deal  with  disruptive  behaviour  and 
promote better social inclusion at school in general.  

Source: See https://europe-project.org/ 

On  one  hand,  it  is  important  to  compensate  and  recognize  the  participation  of  teachers  in 
CPD,  if  this  takes  place  outside  their  teaching  commitment.  On  the  other  hand,  during  the 
consultation, one position paper stressed that continuing professional development should be 
available  for  all  levels  of  education  during  working  hours  and  free  of  charge.  All  teachers 
should  have  free  access  to  resources  from  officially  recognized  providers  of  CPD  offers.  
Successful CPD generates a high level of perceived professional status for participants, raises 
their sense of self-efficacy and satisfaction with their profession and their work environment. 
It  can  contribute  to  making  the  teacher  profession  more  attractive  and  relevant  as  it  can 
increase both competences and motivation of the workforce. 

304   https://op.europa.eu/webpub/eac/education-and-training-monitor-2021/sl/slovenia.html  

111 

 
 
 
                                                           
BOX 35. Spain – Opportunities for CPD 

In  Spain,  Dialogic  Pedagogical  Gatherings  are  supported  and  promoted  by  the  Spanish 
Government  and  regional  Governments.  Dialogic  pedagogical  gatherings  among  teachers’ 
groups  have  been  organized  for  years  now  in  Valencia,  Catalonia,  Madrid,  Andalucia,  the 
Basque  Country  and  more  recently  in  Cantabria  and  Asturias.  Participants  in  this  voluntary 
training program read first-hand the scientific articles, research reports or theoretical sources 
relevant for their teaching experience. Teachers, and other professionals as well as family and 
community  members  get  together  regularly  (i.e.  once  a  month,  bimonthly)  to  share  their 
reflections and discuss  the selected texts, based on sharing arguments supported by validity 
claims that means not by the opinion of the participant holding the strongest power position 
within  the  group  of  participants  in  the  gathering  but  making  literal  references  to  the  text 
discussed305.  For instance, in the region of Valencia there are six “On the shoulders of giants 
seminars”  which  gather  more  than  500  participants,  mostly  teachers,  every  month  from 
dozens  of  schools.  These  seminars  worked  collaboratively  with  the  authorities  from  the 
Centers for Teachers’ Training and Support (Valencian’ Educational Administration) to create 
them. The positive impacts in terms of promoting educational achievement and improvements 
in school climate have been reported by different studies. 

Source: Rodriguez, J. A., et.al. (2020) and Roca-Campos, E., et.al. (2021)306 

Supporting new teachers  

New teachers are especially prone to feeling stressed, disillusioned and emotionally exhausted 
during  their  first  year  of  teaching  and  show  a  significant  decrease  in  pedagogical  beliefs307. 
Some  teachers  describe  the  entrance  into  the  profession  as  “reality”  or  “practice  shock”.  In 
view of this, student teachers should be offered practical exposure to the everyday reality of 
educational  disadvantage  and  multicultural  environments  during  their  initial  education,  for 
example, through participation in work placements in schools with high early leaving rates or 
high levels of socio-economic disadvantage, or in activities with vulnerable families. 

All  newly  appointed  teachers  should  attend  a  systematic  induction  programme  which  is 
coherent  with  their  needs  and  participate  in  training,  including  through  a  professional 
community  and  additional  support  by  a  well-qualified  mentor.  Working  in  schools  that  are 
learning organizations and which have an effective leadership that fosters a creative learning 
culture  can  also  mitigate  emotional  exhaustion  and  reduce  the  stress  that  new  teachers 
experience.  Moreover,  teachers  who  receive  induction  support  at  the  beginning  of  their 
careers show less strain and are less inclined to leave. This can be provided by mentors who 

305   Campos,  E.  R.,  Gómez,  A.,  &  Burgués,  A.  (2015),  ‘Luisa,  transforming  personal  visions  to  ensure 

better education for all children’, Qualitative Inquiry, 21(10), 843-850. 

306   Rodriguez,  J.  A.,  Condom-Bosch,  J.  L.,  Ruiz,  L.,  &  Oliver,  E.  (2020),  ‘On  the  shoulders  of  giants: 
benefits  of  participating  in  a  dialogic  professional  development  program  for  in-service  teachers’, 
Frontiers in psychology, 11, 5; Roca-Campos, E., Renta-Davids, A. I., Marhuenda-Fluixá, F., & Flecha, 
R. (2021), ‘Educational Impact Evaluation of Professional Development of In-Service Teachers: The 
Case  of  the  Dialogic  Pedagogical  Gatherings  at  Valencia  “On  Giants’  Shoulders”’,  Sustainability, 
13(8), 4275. 

307   Voss,  T.  and  Kunter,  M.  (2020),  ‘Reality  Shock  of  Beginning  Teachers?  Changes  in  Teacher 
Candidates’  Emotional  Exhaustion  and  Constructivist-Oriented  Beliefs’,  Journal  of  Teacher 
Education 7(3):292–306 

112 

 
 
  
                                                           
have  completed  a  special,  research-related  training  which  enables  them  to  support  new 
teachers.    

BOX 36.  Project ENTREE 

The project ENhancing Teacher REsilience in Europe (ENTREE) aims to enable young European 
teachers  to  improve  their  resilience  in  the  face  of  increasing  demands  of  rapidly  changing 
school contexts. It was launched in 2014 and provides diverse learning opportunities and tools 
for teachers, both online and face-to face; it is supported by a team of international experts 
from  five  European  countries  (CZ,  DE,  IRL,  MT,  PT)  and  from  Australia.  The  ENTREE  project 
refers to teacher resilience as “the process of, capacity for, or outcome of positive adaptation 
and ongoing professional commitment and growth in the face of challenging circumstances”. 
Teachers are assisted to draw on personal, professional and social resources, to “bounce back” 
and  to  also  thrive  professionally  and  personally,  and  to  experience  job  satisfaction,  positive 
self-beliefs, personal wellbeing and an ongoing commitment to the profession. 

Source: http://www.entree-online.eu/ 

Diversity in the teaching profession 

The consultation activities highlighted that there is a lack of diversity among the educational 
staff  in  many  schools,  for  example  in  terms  of  different  personal,  professional  and  socio-
cultural backgrounds. This was stated to mean that the value of inclusion in education systems 
is  not  always  reflected  by  the  composition  of  teachers  and  educators  at  schools  (or  other 
educational  institutions)  and  that  perhaps  not  all  students  can  identify  themselves  with  a 
teacher  or  trainer  as  a  role  model.  Some  position  papers  likewise  recommended  promoting 
diversity in the teaching force, for example by allowing more interested outside professionals 
and individuals with a migrant or minority background into the teaching profession, or people 
with  disabilities.  One  position  paper  also  recommended  increasing  the  number  of  female 
science,  technology,  engineering,  and  mathematics  (STEM)  teachers  to  overcome  skill 
stigmatisation and motivate more girls to acquire STEM skills.  

Access  to  the  teaching  profession  for  diverse  groups  and  more  diversity  in  the  teaching 
community may in fact boost motivation and sense of belonging among learners with similar 
backgrounds  or  situations.  It  also  increases  the  ability  of  school  to  take  into  account  the 
specific  situations  of  certain  learnersthus  contributing  to  addressing  all  forms  of  diversity  in 
school. A more diverse teaching force would also contribute to increased attractiveness of the 
profession and help address the teacher shortages faced by various European countries. 

 To  improve  the  diversity  of  the  teaching  profession  in  Europe,  specific  national-level 
incentives  to  ITE  institutions,  as  well  as  alternative  pathways  to  the  teaching  profession, 
should be considered.   

Well-being of teachers 

Many  respondents  of  the  Open  Public  Consultation  underlined  the  importance  of  ensuring 
that  teachers  can  fulfil  their  educational  duties  in  enabling  and  constructive  environments. 
Some  respondents  pointed  out  that  there  is  need  for  an  improved  social  recognition  of 
teachers,  arguing  that  it  must  be  ensured  teachers  receive  decent  salaries.  It  was  further 
recommended  to  protect  them  from  psychosocial  risks  and  excessive  workloads  which  may 

113 

 
 
  
 
 
cause stress. Teachers’ well-being is indeed  of important concern in many EU Member States. 
Any  solution  to  this  challenge  involves  a  long-term  process  and  the  interaction  of  several 
factors: 

 

Increasing  the  value  and  prestige  of  the  teaching  profession  in  EU  member-states, 
including the recognition that teachers play a central role in preparing the students for 
the challenges of the future. 

  Adequate  remuneration,  including  safety  of  contracts  and  possibilities  for  career 

progression. 

  Creating  and  enabling  a  framework  for  opportunities  to  engage  in  professional 
communities, self-assessment and autonomy in the choice of teaching practices. 
  Fostering a supportive school culture and positive school environments. It is important 
to  provide  teachers  with  adequate  time  and  space  for  collaborative  work.  A 
collaborative culture involves mutual support, the possibility to actively participate in 
school decisions and a culture of trust based on shared values. Furthermore, a positive 
school climate for teachers is characterised by appraisal, autonomy, encouragement, 
collegiality,  trust,  encouragement  and  administrative  leadership.  Being  part  of  a 
professional learning community that is shaped both by collaborations within schools 
and  networks  with  other  schools  and  the  community  is  vital  for  teacher  motivation 
and retention.  

  School  principals  and  their  styles  of  leadership,  values,  personality  and  actions  also 

 

play a major role in promoting teacher well-being. 
Initial teacher education provides a sound basis for teacher well-being and is relevant 
for retaining teachers in the profession. CPD plays a crucial role in enhancing teacher 
performance,  commitment  and 
job  satisfaction.  Since  collaborative  mentoring 
relationships  are  strongly  related  to  work  enjoyment,  motivation,  self-efficacy,  well-
being  and  teacher  retention,  experienced  mentors  have  to  be  carefully  selected. 
Teacher peer networks also support well-being. Teacher education (both ITE and CPD) 
in  mental  health  promotion  as  well  as  in  relational,  child  centred  and  collaborative 
pedagogy,  is  crucial  for  the  success  of  mental  health  promotion  in  school.  Areas  for 
education include mental health promotion, implementing mental health programmes 
in  the  classroom,  creating  a  positive  classroom  climate,  constructivist  and 
collaborative pedagogy, dealing effectively with bullying, working collaboratively with 
colleagues,  parents  and  professionals, 
identifying  symptoms  of  mental  health 
difficulties in students, developing their own social and emotional competences, and 
taking care of their own health and well-being. 

  Positive  teacher-learner  relationships.  Positive  relationships  between  teachers  and 
learners are a necessary precondition not only for learner success, but also for teacher 
well-being.  Positive 
intrinsic 
motivation.  Such  relationships  can  intrinsically  reward  teachers  and  increase  their 
motivation. Furthermore, good relations with learners not only help to avoid distress, 
but also increase teacher well-being. 

relationships  support 

teacher-learner 

teachers’ 

5.2.3 Schools 

School governance  

Effective  school  governance  processes  and mechanisms are  necessary  to  promote  a  positive 
and  collaborative  culture  and  environment,  striving  for  educational  success  of  all  learners. 
Since the adoption of the 2011 Council Recommendation, work at European level has explored 

114 

 
 
school governance  and has highlighted the  importance  of processes which involve  all school 
actors  and  establish  strong  bonds  with  the  community  around  the  school.  The  following 
dimensions should be considered:   

School autonomy 

School  autonomy  is  largely  recognised  as  a  way  of  improving  student  achievement308.  The 
complex  nature  of  educational  failure  requires  more  flexible  and  innovative  approaches  in 
teaching  and  learning  practices  and  curriculum  implementation,  with  enhanced  scope  for 
experimentation.  Schools  need  to  be  able  to  plan  effectively  and  manage  their  own 
development,  while  remaining  accountable  to  parents,  local  communities  and  education 
authorities.  They  need  to  build  effective  cooperation  with  local  services,  professionals, 
businesses  and  the  community  at  large  (such  as  libraries,  arts,  youth  and  sports  clubs,  local 
NGOs  and  other  community-based  centers  and  organisations).  A  strong  degree  of  school 
autonomy, coupled with effective non-judgemental, non-punitive, accountability mechanisms, 
allow schools to be more responsive to pupils’ needs and adjust to more complex situations. 
This  is  largely  confirmed  by  the  results  of  the  consultation  activities:  stakeholders  consider 
that the inclusion of all learners in education requires school leaders to be able to take more 
autonomous  decisions  (e.g.  on  curricula,  funding,  or  the  hiring  of  teachers)  and  devise  their 
own  strategies  to  preventing  underachievement  and  early  leaving,  adjusted  to  the  local 
context and the specific profile of their school population.  

Research confirm that, overall, student performance could benefit from the combined use of 
school  autonomy  and  accountability  policies 309 ,  such  as  clear  national  standards  and 
monitoring  through  nationally  standardised  tests  and  external  school  evaluationPISA  results 
show that, in general, school autonomy and accountability have  a positive impact on overall 
student performance, leading to higher achievement of basic skills 310. However, some analysis 
suggest that a too high degree of school autonomy could also lead to differences in the quality 
of  education  provision  and  thus  to  aggravation  of  the  existing  imbalances  within  students, 
particularly with those from disadvantaged backgrounds. This could be linked to the fact that a 
high degree of school autonomy may lead to a lack of coherence in the education system and 
to competition between schools, which can have a negative effect on equity311. 

Quality assurance  

The interplay between school autonomy and accountability calls for strong but flexible quality 
assurance  systems312.  As  compared  to  the  2011  Council  Recommendation,  the  Commission 
proposal  for  a  Council  Recommendation  on  Pathways  to  School  Success  places  a  stronger 
focus on the need to ensure internal and external quality assurance mechanisms. 

308   Schnepf,  S.V.,  Klinger,  D.A.,  Volante,  L.  and  Jerrim,  J.  (2019),  ‘Cross-national  trends  in  addressing 
socioeconomic  inequality  in  education’,  in  Volante,  L.,  Schnepf,  S.V.,  Jerrim,  J,  Klinger,  D.A.  (eds) 
Socioeconomic  Inequality  and  Student  Outcomes.  Cross-National  Trends,  Policies  and  Practices, 
Singapore, Springer. 

309   European Commission, Joint  Research  Centre, Hippe,  R., Araújo, L, and Costa, P.  (2016), Equity in 

education in Europe, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg.  

310   OECD (2016). PISA 2015 Results (Volume II). Policies and Practices for Successful Schools. PISA, OECD 

Publishing, Paris. https://doi.org/10.1787/19963777. 

311   European  Commission,  Joint  Research  Centre,  Hippe,  R.,  Araújo,  L,  and  Costa,  P.  (2016)  Equity  in 

education in Europe, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg. 

312   European  Commission  (2017),  School development  and  excellent  teaching  for  a great  start  in  life, 
Communication  from  the  Commission  top  the  European  Parliament,  the  Council,  the  European 
Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions, COM/2017/0248 final 

115 

 
 
                                                           
Quality  assurance  mechanisms  vary  greatly  across  Europe  and  encompass  a  broad  range  of 
tools,  processes  and  actors,  at  different  levels.  However,  it  is  essential  that  coherence  and 
balance is ensured across different mechanisms and support improvement at all levels: school, 
local,  regional  and  national313.  The  Commission’s  report  on  quality  assurance  strategies  for 
school education314 suggests that it is vital to have a climate of quality enhancement and trust 
as  well  as  a  shared  and  balanced  understanding  on  learner  development  as  a  basis  for 
effective  school  environment.  This  includes,  inter  alia,  a  balanced  system  of  school’s  self-
evaluation  and  external  reviews  and  assessment  that  systematically  focuses  on  improving 
learning outcomes.  

During the consultation activities, almost half of the consulted practitioners and organisations 
in  the  field  of  education  and  training  (46%)  recommended  the  implementation  of  quality 
assurance mechanisms focusing on inclusion, well-being and addressing underachievement, 
with  clear  targets  and  indicators,  as  a  key  element  to  ensure  school  success,  raise 
achievements and avoid ELET. 

Within  such  mechanisms,  school  self-evaluation  is  now  widespread and  an expectation that 
schools  will  engage  in  some  form  of  self-evaluation  activity  has  become  established  as  an 
element  of  the  national  quality  assurance  strategy  in  most  if  not  all  European  education 
systems315. At the same time, it is essential that self-evaluation is designed in a way to drive a 
cycle of continuous improvement in school, focusing not just on learner outcomes but also on 
the overall quality of the learning and teaching processes in the classrooms or other learning 
environments.  Whole  school  improvement  processes  and  planning  (school  development 
plans,  mission  statements,  annual  or  multi-annual  pedagogical  plans,  etc.)  should  consider 
learner competence development and the promotion of educational success for all pupils, as 
well  as  learning  climate  and  learners’  well-being  (including  bullying  prevention,  anti-
discrimination, gender sensitivity and health issues). National sets of indicators, developed in 
consultation with teachers and supported by training and development in their use, can play a 
role in this regard.  

BOX 37.  Ireland - Delivering Equality of Opportunity in Schools (DEIS) 

This  is  Ireland‘s  Department  of  Education’s  policy  platform  to  tackle  social  and  educational 
disadvantage.  All  schools are  required  to engage  in a  self-evaluation  process  which  seeks  to 
identify both the strengths of the school and the areas in which it faces challenge. Introduced 
formally  in  2012,  schools  have  been  provided  with  comprehensive  guidance  and  support  to 
assist  them  in  their  work.  More  recently,  in  2016,  the  Department  published  a  quality 
framework for schools in which, for the first time, statements of effective and highly effective 
practice  were  provided  for  schools  in  two  key  dimensions  of  school  life:  management  and 
leadership as well as teaching and learning. The quality framework (Looking at Our School) is 
designed  to  ensure  complementarity  between  schools’  self-evaluation  work  and  external 
inspection conducted by the Department of Education’s Inspectorate. 

313   European  Commission,  ET  2020  Working  Group  on  Schools  (2017),  Quality  assurance  for  school 
development.  Guiding  principles  for  policy  development  on  quality  assurance  in  school  education, 
Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg. 

314   European  Commission,  Directorate-General  for  Education,  Youth,  Sport  and  Culture,  Staring,  F., 
Maxwell,  B.  (2018),  Better  learning  for  Europe's  young  people:  developing  coherent  quality 
assurance strategies for school education: report from an expert assignment, Publications Office of 
the European Union, Luxembourg, https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2766/86303 

315   Ibid. 

116 

 
 
                                                           
More  specifically,  the  School  Self-Evaluation  (SSE)  process  in  Ireland  enables  schools  to 
identify their own areas for development, set targets and monitor progress through a six-step 
action research process. Schools monitor their progress in selected areas, including wellbeing, 
and  are engaged  in  ongoing  monitoring  and  evaluation  of  learning.  Schools  are  required  to 
develop  targeted  learning  plans,  for  all  children  with additional  needs  as  per  the  official 
guidelines  and  the  continuum  of  support  framework. They  must  monitor  and  revise  these 
plans on an ongoing basis.  

The  Inclusive  Education  framework  2011  (updated  2016  and  2020)  provides  schools  with 
a framework  through  which  they  can  reflect  on  inclusive  practices  in  the  school.  The  basic 
criteria  for  supporting  inclusive  education  in  schools have  been  developed  and  established 
through ministry policy and circulars and published guidelines and frameworks. 

The Inspectorate  engages regularly with a range of stakeholders: management bodies, teach 
unions,  national  parents’  association, and  others 
to  most  aspects  of 
education provision.  The  embedding  of  inclusive  practices  in  schools  is  an  ongoing process. 
The  Inspectorate  is  committed  to  improving  its  processes  and there  is  regular  review  and 
revision as required. 

in  relation 

Source: https://www.gov.ie/en/policy-information/4018ea-deis-delivering-equality-of-opportunity-in-
schools/ and http://schoolself-evaluation.ie/primary/sse-2016-2020/  

At the school level, school improvement processes should be developed and implemented in a 
participatory  way  and  involve  the  input  and  perspectives  of  all  relevant  stakeholders, 
including  public  authorities  (as  appropriate  depending  on  the  national  context),  parents, 
families and community groups, as well as external partners, such as for example, social care 
and  support  services;  and,  of  course,  members  of  the  school  community,  including  the 
learners316.  Openness  and  transparency  of  these  processes  is  of  utmost  importance.  School 
development  plans  should  be  based  on  common  goals  and  clearly  defined  roles  and 
responsibilities,  and  clear  indicators,  based  on  risk  and  protective  factors,  should  be 
established  to  monitor  improvements.  Support  measures  for  school  staff,  including  for 
example structured induction programmes  and continuing professional development, should 
also  be  fully  embedded  in  school  development  plans.  Moving  from  a  'checklist'  approach 
focused on formal compliance with rules and procedures, to a supportive approach focused on 
school development raises standards and improves learning outcomes317. 

BOX 38.  Cyprus and Malta – School improvement plans 

In  Cyprus  a  new  system  of  Teacher  Professional  Learning  was  first  implemented  by  the 
Ministry  of  Education  and  Culture  in  2015.  Teachers  are  engaged  in  the  development, 
implementation  and  evaluation  of their  school’s  annual  action  plan  for  improvement.  Based 
on this action plan, each school develops its overall professional learning action plan and every 
teacher develops an individual plan. These plans include incorporate teacher self-assessment 
and data on school successes as well as areas for improvement. These elements are regularly 
compiled, and reviewed, and a new action plan is developed based on findings. 

316   Ibid.  
317   ouncil  conclusions  of  20  May  2014  on  quality  assurance  supporting  education  and  training,  OJ  C 

183/30 of 14.06.2014. 

117 

 
 
                                                           
Source: European Commission (2018)318 

In Malta, standards were developed for use in school external reviews with indicative success 
criteria’ of the Quality Assurance Department of the Ministry of Education. The internal review 
and support unit within the Ministry for Education supports schools and their learning 
community in engaging in an ongoing, cyclical reflective process which is directed at improving 
educational outcomes for all their learners. One standard requires that in schools there are 
internal evaluation processes, which are referred to for school development planning. ‘The 
school development planning documentation (SDP) has appropriate structure, content and 
format facilitating effective implementation, monitoring and evaluation.’  

Source: Malta Quality Assurance Department, 2016.  

External  quality  assurance  mechanisms  may  include  national  or  regional  school  evaluations 
and/or large-scale student assessments. It is important that external mechanisms complement 
internal  processes,  promoting  school  self-evaluation  and  a  culture  of  self-reflection  and 
improvement. They should address school success for all learners and well-being at school and 
include targets and indicators also on issues such as learning climate, bullying and well-being. 
External evaluation/inspection should be based on quantitative and qualitative measures that 
reflect the diversity of activities for which schools are responsible, and take into account the 
different  starting  points  and  contexts  in  which  schools  operate  (e.g.  trying  to  measure  the 
school's  'added  value').  They  should  play  an  advisory  and  supportive  role  to  schools  in 
implementing  their  strategies  to  improve  educational  performance  and  well-being,  and 
promote  collaboration  within  schools  and  school  networks,  and  cooperation  with  wider 
communities. The main purpose is not to compare schools in a 'league table' but to highlight 
and  further  promote  successful  change  and  development  processes  within  schools. 
Qualitative surveys, covering a broad range of topics, offer the possibility to collect views on 
areas that are difficult to measure through traditional assessment methods, such as learners’ 
well-being, and may help to identify areas where policy interventions may be appropriate. 

BOX 39. Scotland and Greece – National-level strategies for school improvement 

In Scotland (United Kingdom) the Government has a National Improvement Framework which 
is  designed  to  focus  schools’  improvement  activities  around  a  small  set  of  key  shared 
priorities,  whilst  allowing  them  scope  to  shape  their  own  agendas  to  meet  local  needs.  In 
particular  there  is  a  strong  focus  on  taking  action  to  close  the  ‘attainment  gap’  between 
students from more affluent backgrounds and those experiencing social disadvantage, in order 
to  secure  ‘excellence  with  equity’  for  all  learners.  The  Scottish  Attainment  Challenge 
programme  is  providing  a  major  injection  of  additional  resources  to  schools  to  address  this 
issue. 

The  National  Improvement  Framework  focuses  schools’  attention  on  six  key  drivers  of 
improvement.  It  is  supported  by  a  National  Improvement  Plan  and  a  new  national  progress 
report which is now being published annually. The progress report reflects the full breadth of 
Scotland’s ‘Curriculum for Excellence’, bringing together analysis of a wide range of qualitative 
and  quantitative  evidence  to  track  how  well  Scottish  students  are  developing  across  the 
Curriculum  competences  of  ‘successful  learners,  confident  individuals,  effective  contributors 

318   European  Commission,  ET  2020  Working  Group  on  Schools  (2017),  Quality  assurance  for  school 
development.  Guiding  principles  for  policy  development  on  quality  assurance  in  school  education, 
Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg 

118 

 
 
 
                                                           
and  responsible  citizens'.  It  draws  on  statistical  data  and  inspection  evidence  and  includes 
information on well-being as well as academic achievement. 

Source: https://www.gov.scot/publications/2018-national-improvement-framework-improvement-plan/ 
and European Commission (2018)319 

With the support of the Commission’s Technical Support Instrument (TSI), the Greek Ministry 
of  Education,  Research  and  Religious  Affairs  (MERRA)  aims  to  develop  and  implement  a 
broader  and  more  contemporary  understanding  of  what  inclusion  entails  in  the  national 
context. This transition is the core of the recently introduced law 4547/2018 and the national 
policy  on  inclusive  education:  encouraging  forms  of  teaching  and  learning  that  enable  all 
learners  to  participate  fully  in  the  learning  in  mainstream setting,  having  the opportunity  to 
achieve, not only in academic subjects, but also in wider terms that impact on social inclusion. 

The law promotes the decentralisation of the educational system by supporting planning and 
self-reflection  of  schools’  educational  work  at  regional  level.  It  focuses  on  empowerment  of 
mainstream  schools,  enabling  them  to  respond  to  the  diversity  of  needs  of  all  learners  by 
reorganising the support structures of primary and secondary education: the Regional Centres 
of Educational Planning (PEKES) and Centres for Educational and Counselling Support (KESY).  

The main focus of the action is to support the implementation of the new law by: (i) clarifying 
the  mission  and  roles  of  the  newly  created  support  structures;  (ii)  strengthening  the 
qualification  of  professionals  involved;  and  (iii)  building  a  strong  collaboration  among  the 
support structures and mainstream schools. 

Source: European Commission (2018)320   

Schools as learning communities  

Schools as learning communities mean that the shared goal of achieving the best education for 
all students is the guiding principle around which all the participation of families, community 
members  and  other  stakeholders  revolve.  In  doing  so,  the  entire  community  commits  to 
implement  only  those  educational  actions  that  have  showed  to  obtain  the  best  results  in 
learning but  also in the  living together  and the well-being321.  By  including all stakeholders in 
defining the school vision, purpose and dream, these interactions reach and impact the entire 
community.  

This is achieved by opening the school to the engagement of all stakeholders in dialogues that 
reach  higher  levels  of  thinking,  reasoning,  and  understanding  which  lead  them  to  make 
decisions based on scientific evidence with social impact322. For this purpose, it is essential that 

319   European  Commission,  Directorate-General  for  Education,  Youth,  Sport  and  Culture,  Staring,  F., 
Maxwell,  B.  (2018).  Better  learning  for  Europe's  young  people:  developing  coherent  quality 
assurance strategies for school education: report from an expert assignment. Publications Office of 
the European Union, Luxembourg, https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2766/86303 

320   European  Commission,  Directorate-General  for  Education,  Youth,  Sport  and  Culture,  Staring,  F., 
Maxwell,  B.  (2018),  Better  learning  for  Europe's  young  people:  developing  coherent  quality 
assurance strategies for school education: report from an expert assignment, Publications Office of 
the European Union, Luxembourg, https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2766/86303 

321   Gatt, S., Ojala, M., & Soler, M. (2011), ‘Promoting social inclusion counting with everyone: Learning 

Communities and INCLUD-ED’, International Studies in Sociology of Education, 21(1), 37–47. 

322   Padrós,  M.,  García,  R.,  de  Mello,  R.,  &  Molina,  S.  (2011),  ‘Contrasting  scientific  knowledge  with 

knowledge from the lifeworld: The Dialogic Inclusion Contract’, Qualitative Inquiry, 17(3), 304–312 

119 

 
 
 
                                                           
researchers  and  stakeholders  co-create  new  knowledge  which  will  benefit  the  schools  and 
communities  themselves.  In  doing  so,  teachers,  families  and  other  relevant  stakeholders 
increase  the  actual  praxis  of  dialogic  spaces  and  interactions  with  diverse  adults  that  have 
shown to achieve best learning opportunities for all.  

BOX 40. Interactive Groups 

An example of how Schools as Learning Communities establish Pathways to School Success by 
engaging  all  the  community  in  student  learning  is the  Interactive  Groups  (IG).  IG  consists of 
grouping students in a class into small heterogeneous groups, each of them supported by non-
teacher adults volunteering. The teacher manages and orchestrates the class whereas the role 
of the volunteer is to facilitate and promote quality interactions among them. Volunteers are 
often  family  and  community  members  –  including  illiterate  persons  or  those  with  very  low 
educational levels, former students, volunteer university students and adults from community 
organisations. During the IG children are required to interact to help each other, to explain the 
activity to those  who have not  understood it. This overarching goal of IG builds dynamics of 
mutual  support  among  participants:  boosts  cognitive  gains,  inclusion  and  democratic  values 
such as solidarity, support, and friendship among the students, teachers, families or those who 
volunteer323. 

Source: García-Carrión, R., & Díez-Palomar, J. (2015)324 

Multidisciplinary teams, local community outreach and interagency collaboration  

Cross-sectoral  multidisciplinary  working  is  part  of  a  systemic  conception  of  a  whole  school 
approach.  This  includes  stronger  cooperation  with  a  wide  range  of  stakeholders  (social 
services,  youth  services,  outreach  care  workers,  psychologists,  nurses,  speech  and  language 
therapists, guidance specialists, local authorities, NGOs, business, unions, volunteers, etc.) and 
the community at large, to deal with issues that schools cannot face alone. 

Multidisciplinary  teams  are  needed  to  provide  a  multidimensional  response  to  multifaceted 
problems,  to  coordinate  a  common  strategic  response  to  address  the  complex  needs  of 
children, young people and their families. While the precise range of professionals on such a 
team may vary due to local circumstances, key issues that need to be addressed include family 
support outreach, emotional support services, and school attendance services.  

Cooperation among multidisciplinary teams requires a common strategy or action plan, based 
on clear and shared goals and a common understanding of the challenges. The strategy/plan 
needs  to  be  focused  on  the  needs  of  the  learner,  and  be  based  on  a  truly  multi-agency 
approach,  respecting  the  differing  perspectives  and  missions  of  each  stakeholder:  “It  is 
important  that  roles,  responsibilities  and  structures are  clearly  defined  and  agreed  from  the 

323   Zubiri-Esnaola,  H.;  Vidu,  A.;  Rios-Gonzalez,  O.  &  Morla-Folch,  T.  (2020),  “Inclusivity,  participation 
and collaboration: Learning in interactive groups, Educational Research; Valero, D., Redondo-Sama, 
G. & Elboj, C. (2018), “Interactive groups for immigrant students: a factor for success in the path of 
immigrant students”, International Journal of Inclusive Education, 22(7), 787-802 

324   García-Carrión,  R.,  &  Díez-Palomar,  J.  (2015),  ‘Learning  communities:  Pathways  for  educational 
in  mathematics’,  European 

interactive  groups 

success  and  social  transformation  through 
Educational Research Journal, 14(2), 151–166 

120 

 
 
 
                                                           
start, possibly through contractual arrangements, in accordance with local circumstances”325. 
Cooperation  should  be  centered  around  the  schools,  while  limiting  any  boundaries  to  the 
involvement of other professionals. 

In addition,  Cedefop (2019)326 advocates the need to reinforce or set up  community  lifelong 
learning centres (offering learning opportunities from cradle to grave) that act as a gateway to 
more  specialised  services/multidisciplinary  teams.  The  community  lifelong  learning  centre 
dimension  can  act  as  a  gateway  service  within  co-located  teams, where  some attending  the 
lifelong  learning  sessions  may  receive  additional  supports  if  needed,  such  as  emotional 
counselling, family support, etc. Such community based lifelong learning centres also offer an 
opportunity  to  engage  marginalised  parents  in  education  initiatives,  such  as  shared-paired 
reading and family literacy, and early maths support initiatives.  

BOX 41. Italy – Strengthening the educational offer of schools to combat early school leaving 
in Campania 

"Scuola Viva" is a project launched by the Campania Region in the 2016/2017 school year and 
financed through resources from the European Social Fund (ESF). The project aims to structure 
and  enhance  the  educational  offer  of  schools  and  related  networks  as  well  as  to  promote 
social  innovation  and  inclusiveness  to  combat  early  school  leaving,  also  by  expanding, 
diversifying  and  enriching  cultural  experiences  within  training  courses.  The  activity  is 
structured in the form of thematic modules, chosen by each school, lasting at least 30 hours 
each:  for  example,  didactic  and  technical  /  professional  workshops  for  the  development  of 
basic  skills;  artistic,  theatrical  and  musical  workshops,  recreational  activities,  psychological 
counseling courses or initiatives for the direct involvement of families and businesses. Around 
450  schools  have  been  funded  each  year.  About  420,000  students  from  different  types  of 
schools  were  involved,  with  an  average  of  26  pupils  enrolled  per  laboratory.  The  didactic 
laboratories  activated  every  year  amounted  to  4,000,  for  a  total  of  over  150,000  hours  of 
activity for the school population and the territory of the region as a whole.  

"Scuola Viva"  project duration: 2016-2021 Budget  (total cost): EUR 25 million per year (total 
awarded: EUR 100 million) 

Source: www.scuolavivacampania.it 

Professional learning communities and networking between schools  

Networking  should  be  encouraged  at  regional,  national  and  international  levels  to  promote 
mutual learning and circulation of practices. Within education systems, this can take different 
forms – from networking and professional learning communities to more formalised clustering 
of  schools.  'Networking'  includes  teachers  and  other  school  staff  coming  together  to  discuss 
ideas and share good practices on certain topics, or reciprocal sharing of resources to benefit 
the  individual  schools  and  communities.  'Clustering'  is  usually  a  more  formal  grouping  of  a 
number  of  schools  in  the  same  city  or  local  region,  with  joint  vision  and  development 

325   European  Commission,  Directorate-General  for  Education,  Youth,  Sport  and  Culture,  (2015),  A 
whole  school  approach  to  tackling  early  school  leaving  –  policy  messages,  final  report  of  the 
Education and Training 2020 Working Group on Schools.  

326   Xhomaqi, B., Downes, P. & Psifidou, I. (2019), Implementing a holistic approach to lifelong learning: 
Community  Lifelong  Learning  Centres  as  a  gateway  to  multidisciplinary  support  teams.  Cedefop, 
Lifelong  Learning  Platform  &  Educational  Disadvantage  Centre  Briefing  Paper  for  Romanian  EU 
Presidency Forum, Brussels. 

121 

 
 
 
                                                           
processes  as  well  as  decision-making.  Representatives  from  schools  come  together  to  share 
resources or work on larger initiatives together that contribute to schools and the region as a 
whole.  

Based on successful initiatives in Members States, this way of working has been shown to have 
excellent benefits for: 

 

  easing transitions between educational levels (e.g. from early childhood education and 
care  to  primary,  from  primary  to  secondary,  including  vocational  education  and  
training); 
the  continuity  of  learner  support  across  schools/region  and  throughout  a  pupil's 
education; 
the provision of learner support (e.g. multidisciplinary teams able to take a variety of 
approaches but in a coordinated way); 

 

  parental involvement; and, 
 

teacher  training  and,  in  particular,  continuing  professional  development  of  teachers 
(CPD). 

BOX 42.  Portugal – Addressing geographical discrepancies in the school system 

In  Portugal,  a  major  reorganisation  of  the  school  system  aimed  to  address  geographical 
discrepancies  both  in  rural  areas  (where  many  schools  are  small  and  isolated)  and  in  towns 
(were schools are often overcrowded). The reorganisation was to improve upon results of PISA 
2000 and to address issues that contribute to high levels of pupil drop-out. The re-organisation 
led to the introduction of a network of ‘school clusters’ that bring together several schools (of 
different  levels  –  from  early  childhood  education  and  care  to  secondary)  in  a  single 
educational project and under one main school leader. A typical cluster may consist of 5 to 10 
pre-school units and primary schools feeding into lower secondary schools and a single higher 
secondary school. 

Source: European Commission 

Collaboration between schools and companies  

A close collaboration between education providers and businesses can ensure that education 
content and skills training align with the needs of the labour market, and therefore enhance 
future  employability  of  learners.  Teachers  and  trainers  in  VET  and  general  school  education 
can  play  a  pivotal  role  in  building  trust  between  educational  institutions  and  the  labour 
market.  To  achieve  this,  these  sectors  must  collaborate  closely  together,  primarily  at  local 
level. Strong partnerships, networks and co-creation of knowledge and expertise facilitated by 
schools can be  effective ways for teachers and trainers to address new tasks  and challenges 
and develop new learning pathways, environments and formats.  

Sustainable  school-business  cooperation  can  be  organised  through  a  variety  of  methods, 
including  the  creation  of  special  centres  or  through  tandem  trainings,  where  teachers  and 
trainers are trained together327, so far as the requirements for the successful implementation 

327   European  Commission,  Directorate-General  for  Employment,  Social  Affairs  and  Inclusion  (2019), 
Teachers and trainers matter: how to support them in high-performance apprenticeships and work-
based  learning:  12  policy  pointers.  Publications  Office  of  the  European  Union,  Luxembourg, 
https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2767/129296.  

122 

 
 
 
                                                           
of  school-business  partnership  are  fulfilled,  such  as  the  need  for  structural  changes  and 
financial and non-financial incentives to be in place. 

Creating a positive and supportive learning environment  

Promoting mental health and well-being in school  

Incorporating  programs of  mental  health  and  well-being  promotion  programs in  schools  has 
been  found  as  one  of  the  most  effective  strategies  to  support  the  mental  health  and 
psychological well-being in children and young people, including vulnerable and marginalized 
children328.  Schools  themselves  are  key  contexts,  as  most  of  the  children  and  young  people 
spend a considerable part of the day there, during a vital time as their personality and social 
emotional  competences  are  still  developing.  This  resonates  with  the  rights  of  children  and 
young people for physical and mental health, quality education, protection and participation. 
The conceptualization of mental health and well-being has moved away from the  traditional 
model of mental ill health to a broader and more focused approach to positive mental health 
and  well-being,  with  the  school  system  itself  operating  as  a  health  promoting  context.  The 
WHO  framework  for  health  promotion  in  schools329 stresses  the  importance  of  supporting 
teaching  and  learning  within  a  school  ethos  and  environment  and  family  and  community 
partnership.  

BOX 43.  Project: The Health Promoting Schools 

The  HPS  initiative  seeks  to  promote  classroom  and  whole  school  activities  which  enhance 
knowledge about health and facilitates health behaviours (physical, mental, social) through a 
whole  school  approach.  It  uses  six  strategies  to  promote  health  and  well-being  in  school, 
namely  school  policies,  the  physical  environment,  the  social  environment,  the  health 
curriculum, and links to community and health services. Recently there has been an effort to 
encourage  schools  to  adopt  the  HPS  model  through  the  Making  Every  School  a  Health 
Promoting  School  initiative  and  development  of  global  standards  for  health-promoting 
is  focused  on  creating  a  safe  social-emotional 
schools, 
environment for students. HPS has been adopted in numerous schools across Europe. 

including  one  standard  that 

Source: WHO and UNESCO – Making Every School a Health Promoting School330  

Mental health and well-being interventions in school are more likely to have an impact when 
they adopt a systemic whole school approach on building individual competences, developing 
school policies, and improving social relationships331. 

328   Goldberg,  J.M., Sklad, M., Elfrink, T.R., Schreurs, K.M.G., Bohlmeijer, E.T. and Clarke, A.M.  (2019). 
‘Effectiveness  of  interventions  adopting  a  whole  school  approach  to  enhancing  social  and 
emotional development: a meta-analysis, European Journal of Psychology of Education, 34(4), 755–
782. 

329   What  is  a  health  promoting  school?  Retrieved  from  https://www.who.int/health-promoting-

schools/overview/en/ 

330   https://www.who.int/initiatives/making-every-school-a-health-promoting-school  
331   European Commission, Directorate-General for Education, Youth, Sport and Culture, NESET Report, 
Cefai,  C.  Bartolo,  P.,  Cavioni,  V.  and  Downes,  P.  (2018).  Strengthening  Social  and  Emotional 

123 

 
 
 
 
                                                           
 
 In line with European schools’ culture of autonomy, empowerment democracy and ownership 
a  whole  school  approach  to  mental  health  and  well-being  needs  to  adopt  a  bottom  up, 
participatory and flexible approach fitting of the ecology of the school and local community. 
A  bottom-up  approach  also  helps  to  ensure  that  any  initiative  is  culturally  appropriate,  it 
addresses  the  diverse  needs  of  the  school  population  and  fits  better  into  the  local  context. 
Teachers, students, parents and local community need to be actively involved in the planning 
and implementation of programmes and initiatives. The active involvement of parents and the 
local community will ensure that interventions are relevant and adapted to the local context, 
and  that  parents  and  the  community  will  be  more  likely  to  adopt  the  appropriate 
interventions. A strong and meaningful student voice is vital for students to identify with and 
‘own’  the  interventions.  This  includes  co-design  of  material,  participation  in  delivery  and 
implementation  of  interventions,  participation  in  decision  making,  and  contributing  to  peer 
interventions. It is important that student voice is representative and incorporates the voices 
of marginalised and vulnerable children. 

Including  students’  mental  health  and  well-being  as  a  common  indicator  of  school 
effectiveness and success will ensure these will feature prominently on the schools’ agenda. 
Evaluation,  however,  needs  to  be  formative,  inclusive  and  systemic  and  avoids  labelling, 
ranking and comparisons. This shift in educational priorities also requires the development of 
educational evaluation systems that are endorsed by governments in Member States. 

BOX 44. ERASMUS+ project - Promoting Mental Health in Schools (PROMEHS) 

PROMEHS  is  an  Erasmus  +  Key  Actions  3  project  co-funded  by  the  European  Commission 
(2019-2022)  designed  to  develop,  implement  and  evaluate  a  mental  health  promotion 
curriculum in schools, serving to create a bridge between evidence-based school programs and 
educational institutions, thus linking research, practice and policies. The project is coordinated 
by the University of Milano Bicocca, Italy and includes 8 other European partners. The partners 
developed a mental health curriculum spanning the early years to secondary schools with four 
manuals  comprising  activities  in  social  and  emotional  education,  resilience  building  and 
prevention  of  risk  behaviour  and  mental  health  difficulties.  The  curriculum  has  been 
implemented  by  trained  teachers  with  6000  students  in  schools  in  Croatia  Greece,  Italy, 
Lithuania,  Portugal  and  Romania  and  evaluated  using  a  randomized  control  trial.  The 
curriculum  is  being  evaluated  for  its  outcome  on  both  students’  and  classroom  teachers’ 
mental health and well-being. The multi-lingual curriculum will be published in 2022. 

Source: www.promehs.org 

BOX 45. Ireland and Estonia – System level integration 

The Well-being Policy Statement and Framework for Practice sets out the ambition and vision 
of the Department of Education that, by 2025, the promotion of well-being will be at the core 
of the ethos of every school and centre for education in Ireland, that all schools will provide 
evidence-informed approaches and support, appropriate to need, to promote the well-being 
of  their  students  and  that  Ireland  will  be  recognised  as  a  leader  in  this  area.  The  policy 
describes how schools can best promote well-being. The Well-being Policy Statement indicates 

Education  as  a  key  curricular  area  across  the  EU.  A  review  of  the  international  evidence, 
Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg. 

124 

 
 
 
                                                                                                                                                                          
that  schools  should  adopt  a  whole-school,  multi-component,  preventative  approach  to  well-
being promotion that includes both universal and targeted interventions. 

To implement this policy every school and centre for education is required by 2023 to use the 
School  Self-Evaluation  (SSE)  process  to 
initiate  a  well-being  promotion  review  and 
development  cycle.  Schools  and  centres  for  education  will  be  supported  in  this  process 
through using the Well-being Practice Framework and online Well-being Resources, and by the 
Department of Education Support Services. 

Example of implementation measure in Ireland:  

At upper secondary level, the Social, Personal and Health Education (SPHE) programme332 aims 
to  support  learners  in  making  choices  for  health  and  well-being  now  and  in  the  future.  The 
framework supports the recently launched Action Plan on Bullying through the exploration of 
different types of bullying and strategies for dealing with abusive behaviour. SPHE is designed 
as  a  ninety-hour  course  in  senior-cycle  education.  In  SPHE,  health  is  understood  as  a  multi-
dimensional concept; it includes not only physical well-being but also mental, emotional, social 
and  spiritual  well-being.  The  curriculum  framework  for  SPHE  in  senior  cycle  is  an  enabling 
curriculum and is built around five areas of learning.  These areas of learning focus on what is 
important for learners in senior cycle to know, understand and be able to do in order to make 
and maintain healthy lifestyle decisions. The five areas of learning are:  

• 
• 
• 
• 
• 

Mental health 
Gender studies 
Substance use 
Relationships and sexuality education 
Physical activity and nutrition 

Source: Irish Wellbeing Policy Statement and Framework for Practice 2018 – 2023333 and the Irish 
Personal Health Education Curriculum334 

learner’s  self-efficacy  and  self-esteem,  the  development  of 

In  Estonia’s  education  strategy  for  2021-2035,  a  well-being-focused  learning  environment  is 
defined as “a combination of mental, social and physical conditions for learning that support 
the 
life  skills  and  social 
competences,  and  mental  and  physical  health  in  general”.  Since  2018,  the  well-being  of 
students  and  teachers  is  regularly  monitored  through  a  satisfaction  survey  targeted  at 
students, teachers and parents. Each school receives feedback on areas for improvement. The 
2021 well-being survey focused on distance learning and self-management. 

    Source: European Commission – Education and Training Monitor 2021335 

332   https://curriculumonline.ie/Primary/Curriculum-Areas/Social,-Personal-and-Health-Education/  
333   https://assets.gov.ie/24725/07cc07626f6a426eb6eab4c523fb2ee2.pdf  
334   https://curriculumonline.ie/Primary/Curriculum-Areas/Social,-Personal-and-Health-Education/  
335   https://op.europa.eu/webpub/eac/education-and-training-monitor-

2021/en/chapters/chapter1.html#:~:text=In%20Estonia%E2%80%99s%20education%20strategy%2
0for%202021-2035%2C%20a%20well-being-
focused,competences%2C%20and%20mental%20and%20physical%20health%20in%20general%E2
%80%9D.  

125 

 
 
 
 
                                                           
School and classroom climate, bullying and violence 

A  positive  school  and  classroom  climate  with  a  focus  on  caring  relationships,  collaboration, 
equality  and  inclusion  is  essential  for  student  learning  and  well-being,  decreasing  mental 
health issues as well as violence, bullying and substance use, enhancing academic motivation, 
improving achievement and preventing ELET as explained in chapter 4.3.1.  

Foundational processes of a positive school climate thus include supportive peer relationships, 
inclusive practices, caring teacher-student relationships and pedagogical strategies promoting 
student autonomy and active engagement in meaningful activities and collaborative learning.  

The  school  and  classroom  climate  becomes  a  laboratory  for  students  to  experience  care, 
support,  empathy,  respect,  connectedness,  inclusion,  sense  of  belonging,  and  practice  their 
skills in emotional regulation, set goals, problem solve, overcome challenges, give and receive 
support,  work  and  solve  problems  collaboratively.  On  the  contrary,  peer  bullying,  coercive 
classroom  management,  unequal  treatment,  exclusion,  and  undue  academic  pressure  and 
stress on students (potential causes of mental health issue themselves) have no place in such a 
climate336. 

BOX 46. A formative Assessment Tool of the Classroom Climate 

A  tool  has  been  developed  in  the  frame  of  the  report  A  formative,  inclusive,  whole  school 
approach to the assessment of social and emotional education in the EU. The tool consists of 9 
indicators assessing the quality of the classroom climate, namely: 

  Cultural responsiveness and inclusion 
  Sense of safety, including prevention and protection from bullying 
  Positive classroom management 
  Caring teacher-students relationship  
  Supportive peer relationships 
  Collaboration, including collaborative learning 
  Active student engagement in meaningful learning activities 
  Challenge and high expectations for all learners in the classroom 
  Student voice, including student participation in classroom decisions 

Each  of  the  nine  indicator  includes  a  number  of  statements  illustrating  the  manifestation  of 
the  respective  indicator  in  the  classroom  context.  This  is  translated  in  a  questionnaire  and 
helps the teachers and students to identify the strengths and targets for improvement in each 
area.  

The data collected from both the teacher/s and the students can then be integrated to provide 
a more comprehensive and holistic evaluation of the classroom climate, and serve as a guide 
for a collaborative effort by the teacher/s and students to transform the classroom climate 
into a more socially and emotionally enabling one.  

The tool may be adjusted by the classroom teachers according to the nature of their group so 
that it would be culturally meaningful and developmentally appropriate.  

336   European Commission, Directorate-General for Education, Youth, Sport and Culture, NESET Report, 
Simões,  C.,  Caravita,  S.,  Cefai,  C.  (2021), A  systemic,  whole-school  approach  to  mental health  and 
well-being  in  schools  in  the  EU  :  analytical  report,  Publications  Office  of  the  European  Union, 
Luxembourg, https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2766/50546 

126 

 
 
                                                           
In line with the collaborative nature of the formative assessment, the student version may be 
developed from this tool by the students themselves in collaboration with the classroom 
teachers according to the students’ developmental level. The tool is available in the European 
Toolkit for School.  

Source: Cefai, C., Downes, P., Cavioni, V. (2021) 337 

The  development  of  a  positive  school  climate  has  to  go  hand  in  hand  with  an  effective 
prevention of bullying and violence in school.  

“We  believe  that  schools  could  design  activities  to  raise  awareness  on  the  consequences  of 
bullying,  as  well  as  set  up mechanisms  for  the  early tracking  of  bullying  practices  within  the 
school  community.  Schools  could,  for  example,  appoint  and  train  resource  persons  that  are 
accessible and to whom learners being victims of bullying could refer to. The school should also 
provide free psychological and legal support”  

Source: Source: Open Public Consultation, OBESSU position paper  

Effective bullying prevention requires a whole-school anti-bullying policy, with priority actions 
targeting all learners coupled with more targeted actions, addressing specific risk groups and 
individuals,  to 
interventions.  The  selection  and  the 
implementation of the interventions and their components (e.g., peer education) need to be 
tailored to the specific needs of individuals (e.g., adolescents, minority groups), schools, and 
community and geographical area.  

increase  the  effectiveness  of 

This  process  requests  an  assessment  of  the  bullying  phenomenon  in  the  school/area,  a 
constant  monitoring  of  programme  implementation  and  the  work  of  the  large  network 
connecting  the  school  to  the  experts,  political  leaders  and  all  members  of  the  community. 
School  staff  and  parents  should  be  also  targeted  in  the  intervention  and  their  roles 
strengthened  in  programmes.  Students’  voice  also  needs  to  be  listened  to,  and  their  active 
involvement valued according to their age. Furthermore, since prejudices often result from a 
lack of direct contact with different groups and can lead to bullying and violence in and around 
schools,  a  school  violence  prevention  and  non-discrimination  strategy  should  also  promote 
contact between groups from diverse backgrounds on structured cooperative tasks during and 
after school activities. 

A  whole-school  anti-bullying  policy  should  foresee  at  least  some  of  the  following  structures 
and  actions:  a  coordinating  committee  to 
implement  the  whole-school  approach;  a 
questionnaire  survey  to  assess  the  scale  of  bullying  in  a  specific  school;  school  yard 
supervision; a school conference day for bullying prevention; concrete plan for supporting the 
transition  from  primary  to  post-primary  for  students;  concrete  and  professionally  prepared 
materials for students, teachers, and parents; explicit focus on bullying prevention in a social 
and  emotional  education  curriculum;  input  of  children  and  young  people  into  developing 

337   European Commission, Directorate-General for Education, Youth, Sport and Culture, NESET Report,  
Cefai,  C.,  Downes,  P.,  Cavioni,  V.  (2021)  A  formative,  inclusive,  whole  school  approach  to  the 
assessment of social and emotional education in the EU, Publications Office of the European Union, 
https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-
Luxembourg, 
/publication/91eca43d-61e2-11eb-aeb5-01aa75ed71a1. The indicators have been developed by the 
authors on the basis of existing literature and instruments.  

doi:102766/905981 

127 

 
 
 
 
                                                           
curricular  resources  for  bullying  prevention,  conflict  resolution  and  overcoming  prejudice; 
input from ethnically or culturally diverse students; cooperative group work in class; language 
learning 
literacy  for  younger  students;  explicit  focus  on 
homophobic bullying prevention; cross-curricular integration of conflict resolution and bullying 
issues, including arts-based approaches. 

integrated  with  emotional 

BOX 47.  Bulgaria, Lithuania and Poland – Safe school environments 

In  Bulgaria  the  project  “Key  to  School  Free  of  Fear”  supports  the  creation  of  a  school 
environment  in  which  the  values  of  good  communication,  mature  conflict  resolution  and 
tolerance  towards  differences  are  promoted.  It  supports  teachers  in  applying  the  teaching 
prevention  programmes  in  all  grades  of  school.  This  project  was  launched  by  the  Animus 
Association  Foundation,  in  cooperation  with  NGOs  and  co-founded  by  Switzerland  (OAK 
Foundation).  The  objective  was  to  promote  healthy  communication,  non-violent  conflict 
resolution  and  tolerance  to  prevent  violence,  harassment  and  humiliation  among  students. 
The duration of this project was foreseen for 5 years (2016-2021).  

Source: http://endviolence.bg/ 

In Lithuania “Saugios aplinkos mokykloje kūrimas II” (Creating a safe environment at school II) 
has  been  funded  by  the  European  Social  fund.  The  aim  of  this  project  was  to  create  and 
maintain  a  safe  school  environment  by:  creating  favourable  conditions  for  the  personal 
development  of  students;  improving  academic  achievements;  reducing  social  exclusion;  and 
preventing pupils from dropping out of school.  

The  project  planned  targeted  prevention  programmes  that  had  already  been  evaluated  and 
the effectiveness of which had already been confirmed. The programmes aimed at: preventing 
violence and bullying at school, substance use, sexual abuse; and developing social skills.  

Between  2017  and  mid-2021,  the  project  addressed  2 071  students  from  grade  1  to  12  in 
order to start prevention as early as possible. About 13 500 teachers and other school staff in 
822 schools were also offered training in this period.  

Source: https://www.nsa.smm.lt/svietimo-pagalbos-departamentas/projektai/saugios-aplinkos-
mokykloje-kurimas-ii-nr-09-2-2-esfa-v-729-03-0001/ 

The  Polish  RESQL  is  an  innovative,  research-based  system  that  supports schools  in  resolving 
problems  of  peer  violence.  It  was  created  in  collaboration  with  the  school  community  itself 
(students,  teachers,  principals  and  parents)  and  its  measures  were  piloted  in  primary  and 
secondary  schools  before  being  rolled  out  further.  For  example,  in  2019-2020,  a  team  of 
psychologists and educators from the University of Social Sciences and Humanities in Warsaw 
piloted  lessons  on  peer  violence,  leading  to  the  development  of  a  set  of  lessons  on: 
relationship violence, cyberbullying, response to violence and the role of witnesses, resolving 
conflicts, and socio-moral thinking. The system allows heads of schools to monitor, report on 
and analyse the problems, and give appropriate pedagogical advice. The system consists of: 

1.  A mobile application enabling students to anonymously report incidents to teachers. 

2.  Materials on how to respond in crisis situations and in various peer violence scenarios, 

to help school staff take appropriate decisions and actions. 

3.  Tested scenarios for lessons on violence-related issues. 

Source: https://www.resql.pl 

128 

 
 
 
Participation in school life 

Learners need to feel ownership of their learning and be given the opportunity to voice their 
views. Being active in decisions and activities of the school increases a sense of belonging and 
may  help  learners  to  develop  leadership  and  social  skills.  Proactive  efforts  to  engage 
marginalised learners and ensure their voices are heard are essential. 

All Member States include some degree of provision for child participation within their general 
Education Act or Code. In many countries, children’s participation is promoted within schools 
through  formal  mechanisms,  such  as  school  councils,  or  targeted  programmes.  There  is 
however  a  gap  between  legislation  and  practice  and  learners  do  not  always  have  a  real 
influence in decisions regarding fundamental aspects of their school experience and learning. 

There should be sufficient time for classroom dialogue, as well as for discussions in the context 
of  student  councils  or  consultations  on  issues  related  to  school  life  and  to  the  learning 
experience.  Learner  contributions  should  be  fully  considered  in  subsequent  decisions. 
Successful practices include: 

- 

- 

- 

interactive  and  dialogic  teaching  and  learning  (for  example  in  small  groups),  which 
increases opportunities  for  learners  to  talk with  greater ease  about  issues  impacting 
their learning; 
school  projects  that  involve  the  entire  school  community  (such  as  ‘green  school’ 
projects), and give learners leading roles in key aspects. 
surveys,  questionnaires  and  other  methods  of  consultation  to  collect  the  views  of 
learners. 

-  meaningful  participation  of  learners  in  school  decision-making  processes  through 
representation  on  school  boards/council  and  in  school  evaluation  and  improvement 
processes. 

Furthermore,  a  more  differentiated  approach  to  learners’  voices  and  participation  is 
needed  for  education,  distinguishing  learners  as  individuals,  groups  of  learners  and 
learners as a group, giving particular attention to ensuring representativeness of the ones 
with  more  limited  opportunities  to  participate  (such  as  Roma  and  migrants,  LGBTQ, 
Muslim, Jewish populations and other minorities)338. 

BOX 48. Belgium – The Democratic School 

In  Belgium,  Wallonie-Bruxelles  federation,  the  collège  Matteo  Ricci  is  implementing  the 
principles  of  “école  citoyenne”  (democratic  school),  with  a  view  to  help  students  develop 
empathy  and  respect  for  everyone’s  beliefs  and  culture,  become  capable  to  listen  to  others 
and  overcome  stereotypes,  and  engage  in  society.  The  “école  citoyenne”  approach  includes 
several steps:  

1.  Building the “school law”. At the beginning of the year, all classes are invited to discuss 
common  questions: how will we  live together, with respect, this year? What do I do 
not want to experience/make other people experience? Each class will propose rules, 
which  will  then  be  discussed  by  class  representatives  and  summarised  in  a  “school 

338   European Commission, Day, L., Percy-Smith, B., Ruxton, S., McKenna, K., Redgrave, K., Ronicle, J. & 
Young, T. (2015). Evaluation of legislation, policy and practice on child participation in the European 
Union (EU), Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, p.235. 

129 

 
 
 
                                                           
law”.  The  chart  is  formulated  in  a  clear  language  and  all  students  and  actors  in  the 
school are informed about it.  

2.  Living  with  the  law.  A  celebration  is  organised  during  which  the  rules  are  read, 
approved and applauded, in the presence of all  school actors; posters describing the 
law are produced, valid for the school year. A Citizenship Board is then elected, with 
representatives  from  all members of the  school  community  (school leader, teachers, 
educators, students). The Board meets every two weeks to discuss issues proposed by 
pupils or staff.  

Source: https://collegematteoricci.be/ 
https://www.ecolecitoyenne.org/  

5.2.4 Parents and families 

Parents  and  families  have  the  most  direct  and  lasting  impact  on  children’s  learning  and 
development.  As  the  first  educators,  they  play  a  crucial  role  in  their  children's  educational 
journey.  A  stimulating  home  environment  that  encourages  learning  as  well  as  parental 
engagement  in  in-school  activities  are  crucial  for  a  child’s  cognitive,  social  and  emotional 
development. Building family-school partnerships and engaging parents as learning partners 
from  the  early  years  is  therefore  essential  to  improving  children’s  and  young  people’s 
development. 

However, the relationship between schools, parents and families may be challenging. On the 
one  hand, this may be  due  to parents' previous education experiences,  educational, cultural 
and socio-economic background, different  parenting styles and a sense of distance  from the 
school 'culture' and 'language'. On the other hand, teachers may perceive parents as passive, 
opportunistic or intrusive, or may lack time and experience to communicate, reach out to or 
engage with parents from diverse backgrounds.  

family-school  partnerships  need 

Effective 
respect  and 
acknowledgement of each party's values, assets and expertise. Parents and families from all 
backgrounds  and  educational  levels  need  to  feel welcome  at  school and  be  considered 
as resources.  They  need  to  be  recognised  and  adequately  supported  as  co-educators 
throughout their children’s learning, starting from an early age339.  

to  be  based  on mutual 

BOX 49.  Ireland: the Home-School Community Liaison (HSCL) 

The HSCL initiative aims to establish collaboration between parents and teachers for children's 

339   The  final  report  of  the  Thematic  Working  Group  on  early  school  leaving  (2013,  p.  18)  recognises 
that ‘Parents, as the primary educators of their children, should also be represented in the decision 
making process of the school’. The final report of the Education and Training 2020 Working Group 
on  Schools  (2015,  p.  16)  expands  on  this  point:  ‘A  proactive  focus  on  supporting  all  parents’ 
participation in school activities and governance is needed. Marginalised parents in particular, need 
to  be  helped  to  take  part  in  school  decision  making  processes.  The  role  of  parents  in  the  school 
organisation  should  be  clearly  laid  out.  Parental  involvement  should  be  fully  embedded  in  school 
evaluation and monitoring processes’. The need to engage marginalised voices of parents is further 
amplified in the 2016 UNESCO report on supporting inclusive education: ‘… representation tends to 
be  dominated  by  the  most  outspoken  and  articulate  groups.  This  can  result  in  consultation 
exercises,  which,  although  intended  to  be  inclusive,  actually  reinforce  a  sense  of  exclusion  and 
disaffection among some of the school community’ (UNESCO (2016). Reaching out to all learners: A 
resource  pack  for  supporting  inclusive  education.  Geneva:  UNESCO  International  Bureau  of 
Education, p.81). 

130 

 
 
                                                           
learning,  targeting, 
neighbourhoods and children at risk of underachievement and school drop-out. 

in  particular, 

from  disadvantaged  backgrounds  and/or 

families 

In  order  to  overcome  parents'  own  negative  experiences  with  school,  the  initiative  tries  to 
recover trust by recognising parents as belonging to the school (e.g. parents’ rooms), offering 
adult  education  courses,  involving  parents  in  teaching  mathematics  and  reading  for  primary 
school children, and involving parents of children with special needs in helping their own child 
in  class.  Parents  thus  gain  knowledge  and  understanding  of  learning  and  can  better  support 
their  children  at  home.  Another  key  feature  of  the  programme  is  the  'home-school 
coordinator',  who  acts  as  a  mediator  and  contact  person.  The  coordinator  regularly  visits 
families  and  can  intervene  in  particular  in  crisis  situations,  after  absences  from  school  or  in 
cases of disruptive behaviour. 

In  recent  years,  the  HSCL  scheme  has  been  included  as  part  of  a  major  education  policy 
programme  aimed  at  reducing  socio-economic 
inequalities  –  Delivering  Equality  of 
Opportunity in Schools (DEIS). 

Source: https://www.education.ie/en/Schools-Colleges/Services/DEIS-Delivering-Equality-of-
Opportunity-in-Schools-/des_hscl.pdf  

The following dimensions are essential to enhance parental involvement: 

Better communication and information 

Schools  have  a  responsibility  to  develop  and  maintain  communication  and  information  flow 
with parents. In most European countries the role of parents within schools is recognised by 
law  and  their  rights  are  guaranteed  by  regulatory  provisions  detailing  the  nature  of  these 
rights, including the right of parents to be informed about their children's schooling.  

Whilst formal arrangements for communication can be enough to involve some parents, a set 
of  complementary  measures  are  needed  to  reach  different  groups  of  parents  and  families, 
including those with different parenting styles and levels of 'distance' from the school. 

Communication needs be mutual, balanced and ongoing. On the one hand, it is important to 
make  sure  that  parents  and  families  understand  what  is  expected  of  them  and  how  they 
contribute  to  their  children's  learning.   On  the  other  hand,  schools  need  to be  attentive  to 
involving  and  listening  to  the  views  of  all  parents,  including  those  who  are  less  engaged  in 
their children’s schooling. 

Evidence  from  the  COVID-19  pandemic  demonstrates  exactly  how  important  regular  and 
direct communication with parents is. In fact, during this period, parents often felt unable to 
reach schools and teachers or felt that they did not receive sufficient information to support 
and guide their children340. 

Communication  and  information  must  be  clear  and  take  into  account  the  different  cultural 
(notably linguistic) and economic backgrounds of each family. Communication channels need 
to  be  diversified  and  cater  to  heterogeneous  groups  of  parents,  allowing  for  a  mutual 
exchange  of  information  and  experiences.  This  might  include  formal  approaches  such  as 

340   European Commission, Directorate-General for Education, Youth, Sport and Culture, NESET Ad hoc 
report no. 1/2021, Alieva, A. (2021). Parental involvement in formal education. Publications Office 
of the European Union, Luxembourg. 

131 

 
 
 
                                                           
inviting parents to meet teachers and involving them in career guidance and career education 
related opportunities, or more informal initiatives, such as welcome sessions at the beginning 
of the school year, open days (to explain the curriculum, the values and mission of the school) 
or even optional or festive activities. 

ICT  tools can  support  communication  with  parents  (e.g.  use  of  e-diaries,  text  messages, 
newsletters,  interactive  websites,  etc.),  provided  that  a  clear  language  is  used,  that  it  is 
accessible  and  that  it  is  accompanied  by  other  measures  and  training  on  how  to  use  it  for 
school purposes. Evidence from evaluations of the use of digital communication for parental 
involvement suggests that it has positive learning and behavioural outcomes among students.  

BOX 50. Bristol University and Harvard University - Texting Parents 

This  project  involved  the  sending  of  text  messages  to  parents  using  school  communications 
systems,  such  as  Schoolcomms.  These  texts  informed  parents  about  the  dates  of  upcoming 
tests,  whether  or  not  their  children  had  submitted  their  homework  on  time  and  what  their 
children  were  learning  at  school.  A  total  of  34  schools  took  part  in  the  evaluation  phase 
between  2013  and  2016,  incorporating  15,697  pupils.  The  results  show  that  children  whose 
parents  were  involved  in  the  intervention:  experienced  roughly  one  month  of  additional 
progress  in  Maths  and  English  compared  with  other  children  and  showed  reduced 
absenteeism compared with other children. No data supports that there was any impact in the 
learning of sciences, for example. 

Results also showed that schools embraced the programme and appreciated its immediacy 
and low cost. The vast majority of parents were accepting of the programme, including the 
content, frequency, and timing of texts. Many respondents, however, felt that the presence of 
a dedicated coordinator would be valuable to monitor the accuracy and frequency of texts and 
that schools should consider whether they would be able to provide this additional resource. 

Source: https://educationendowmentfoundation.org.uk/projects-and-evaluation/projects/texting-
parents/  

Inviting parents to observe classrooms for a limited time can also be beneficial. Parents may 
feel reassured to see what happens in class and be inspired as to how to support their children 
at home; teachers can use these opportunities to establish dialogue with parents; and learners 
often take a more active role in class when parents are present. 

Targeted efforts, such as personalised invitations, may be needed to reach out to more distant 
parents  and  families  and  to  promote  mutual  aid  between  parents,  regardless  of  the  child’s 
performance in school.  

Communication with migrant or marginalised parents should also be facilitated, but requires 
the  use  of  additional  tools,  such  as  outreach  activities,  cultural  mediators,  translators  or 
interpretors, mentors and support from local NGOs.  

BOX 51.  Luxembourg - cultural mediators 

Such  resources  were  introduced  into  the  education  system  in  Luxembourg  back  in  2009. 
Parents  can  access  support  from  mediators  not  only  in  the  specific  context  of  parental 
involvement,  but  in  relation  to  all  education-related  questions:  the  overall  structure  of  the 
education  system,  school  enrolment,  the  health  and  well-being  of  their  child  at  school, 
translation  of  documents,  etc.  At  present,  such  support  is  offered  in  37  languages.  Other 

132 

 
 
 
languages not included in this list may also be requested.  

Source: https://men.public.lu/content/dam/men/catalogue-publications/scolarisation-des-eleves-
etrangers/informations-generales/mediateurs-interculturels.pdf  

In order to build effective and positive communication with parents and families, it is essential 
for school leaders and teachers to develop relational and communication skills.  The teacher 
training  curriculum  should  thus  help  teachers  reflect  on  the  importance  of  parental 
involvement and the need to acquire relational and communication expertise. 

Involving parents in educational activities 

An  effective  way  to  create  a  positive  family-school  partnership  and  engage  parents  is  to 
provide welcoming and safe opportunities for parents to be present at the school, share their 
expertise,  build  their  confidence  and  their  leadership  capacities  and  expand  their  social 
networks  and  learning.  Parents  and  families  may  have  designated  time  and  spaces  at  the 
school such as a ‘parents’ room’, where informal activities may be organised at their request 
and/or  with  the  help  of  other  professionals  (e.g.  social  workers)  or  school  staff.  The  room 
could be used during school hours to organise talks on school and parenting issues, meetings 
with external specialists and professionals, workshops and other informal activities.   

Opening up school facilities outside school hours for programmes and classes for parents (e.g. 
language classes for parents with migrant background) can help increase parental involvement 
and  break  down  barriers  between  schools  and  families.  However,  for  parents  with  very 
negative past experiences of school, opportunities for lifelong learning in different locations, 
such as community-based centres, could be created in partnership with NGOs.  

Parents also serve as valuable  resources  to schools and could be invited to share their skills 
and  expertise.  Family members  could  be  invited to volunteer  in  educational  activities  within 
the  classroom  (e.g.  reading  to  the  class,  teacher’s  support),  or  in  other  in-school  activities 
(both curricular and extra-curricular, such as homework clubs and after-school programmes). 
Participation of parents in educational activities, including  parents  from different  cultures or 
with different educational experiences, makes it possible to increase the number and diversity 
of  interactions,  which  in  turn  accelerates  the  learning  process.  Such  interactions  can  help 
learners  overcome  cultural  stereotypes  and  generate  more  motivation.  Parents  and  family 
members  could  also  be  involved  in  activities  linked  to  career  education  and  guidance,  for 
example by talking about their profession and work experience. 

BOX 52. Belgium/Flanders - the ‘KAAP project’ for Dutch language acquisition 

Together  with  local  schools,  adult  education  centres  and  the  city  administration,  the  NGO 
‘Schoolbridge’  has 
initiated  a  project  with  the  aim  of  strengthening  parent-school 
cooperation  in  the  city  of  Antwerp.  The  project  is  aimed  at  non-Dutch-speaking  parents  of 
primary and secondary  school students,  who are invited to enroll in language  classes. Each 
group  consists  of  15  parents,  who  attend  language  classes  twice  a  week  in  the  school 
premises.  In  addition,  the  NGO  supports  the  schools  by  offering  advice  on  better 
communication strategies with parents. An important aspect of the project is its emphasis on 
equal  relationships  between  parents,  educators  and  schools.  Parents  reported  that  their 
communication with the schools had improved following their participation in the project. In 
addition,  their  knowledge  and  understanding  of  the  education  system  in  Flanders  had 

133 

 
 
 
deepened.  

Source: https://www.deschoolbrug.be  

Offering opportunities for family learning 

‘Family  learning’  refers  to  any  activity  that  involves both  children  and  adult  family members 
(with  all  working  toward  their  own  learning  outcomes)  and  that  contributes  to  a  culture  of 
learning  in  the  family.  Research  shows  that,  for  example,  involving  families  in  literacy 
programmes is essential for increasing the literacy and numeracy levels of children and adults. 
Such family literacy programmes are highly cost-effective, both in improving child literacy and 
in improving parental support skills. It is important that they are in line with and complement 
classroom literacy activities. 

 BOX 53. Germany - Family Literacy (FLY) 

The  Family  Literacy  (FLY)  project  based  in  Hamburg,  Germany,  promotes  a  family  learning 
approach  which  encourages  parents  to  anticipate  and  engage  in  schoolwork  in  order  to 
improve  their  children’s  literacy.  The  programme  has  been  lauded  for  addressing  the 
insecurity  of  parents  about  using  different  languages  at  home  for  fear  that  it  might 
disadvantage  their  children  at  school.  The  FLY  programme  is  also  acknowledged  for 
celebrating cultural diversity and recognising multilingualism as an asset in child development. 
The FLY programme has been awarded the 2010 King Sejong literacy prize by UNESCO. 

The FLY programme 'Enjoying language together' book contains working sheets that have been 
tested in practice and can be applied in other programmes. 

Source:  https://li.hamburg.de/family-literacy/4552940/artikel-family-literacy/  

Through  family  learning,  parents  build  their  self-efficacy,  are  empowered  to  become  active 
agents at the school, and are more involved in their children’s schooling.  

There  should  also be  a range  of complementary programmes targeting the  needs of specific 
groups,  including  low-income  families  and  ethnically  diverse  groups.  These  programmes 
should seek to improve child literacy and socio-emotional development, while also developing 
the parents' capacity to support their child's learning. Enhancing general parenting skills is also 
an essential part of family learning. Such programmes should therefore be provided as early as 
possible  in  a  child's  development.  Funding,  quality  of  the  programme  and  partnerships 
between  key  individuals  are  considered  key  to  the  long-term  success  of  family  learning 
programmes. 

BOX 54. Latvia – Uzdevumi, Digital learning tool to support parents 

The Latvian learning portal Uzdevumi recognises the importance of parental involvement to 
maximise the educational outcomes of their children, particularly in low-income families and 
families with low levels of educational attainment. Uzdevumi.lv thus supports parents in 
helping their children with their homework and tests (i.e. by helping them explain various 
subject-specific concepts), and also supports parents in keeping up with their children’s 
achievements and progress in school subjects. 

134 

 
 
 
 
Source: https://www.uzdevumi.lv/  

It is also important to help parents to learn the right forms of support to give their children341. 
This  could  be  achieved  through  specialised  workshops  and  short  thematic  courses  with  a 
strong practical element. Regular opportunities should be offered for parents to bolster their 
skills and supporting strategies, if possible, in the main languages spoken by parents within a 
particular  school  or  school  district,  or  using  the  support  of  cultural  mediators.  In  addition, 
national  and  local  educational  authorities  need  to  take  into  account  the  time  constraints 
under which parents operate, and should be flexible with regard to the timing of such events 
(e.g. by offering evening courses, weekend courses). 

Outreach to individuals, families and local communities  

Besides  offering  support  upon  request,  schools  should  also  develop  specific  outreach 
programmes  to  encourage  the  active  participation  and  representation  of  vulnerable  parents 
and  families.  Where  necessary,  other  services,  NGOs  and  professionals  (cultural  mediators, 
mentors,  social  workers,  etc.)  can  be  involved342.  For  example,  key  family  and  community 
outreach aspects include: 

  Establishing  an  individual  family  outreach  strategy  at  the  school  level  to  foster 

engagement with families, especially those of highest needs  

  Develop  specific  community  outreach  strategies  relying  on  structured  cooperation 
and communal spaces to allow different groups to meet, thus also helping overcome 
prejudice between groups343 

These  are  also  of  strong  relevance  for  the  prevention  of  early  leaving  from  education  and 
training and well-being in school, as part of an integrated strategy with bullying prevention. 

BOX 55. Luxembourg - Participation in after-school educational activities as a way to 
enhance and equalize opportunities for students to learn 

In  Luxembourg,  the  municipalities  are  responsible  for  providing  additional  activities  after 
school  at  primary  education  level.  The  municipality  itself  or  private  non-profit  non-formal 
education providers run the activities, which are funded by the State, and parents have to pay 
a  small  contribution  depending  on  their  income.  The  ministry  responsible  for  education  has 
established  a  quality  assurance  system  for  non-formal  education,  which  comprises  an 
educational  framework,  a  network  of  regional  advisors  and  continuing  professional 

341   Research  confirms  that  certain  strategies,  such  as  controlling  homework  and  placing  too  much 
pressure  on  children,  are  frequently  detrimental  to  their  learning  outcomes.  However,  parents 
frequently  have  no  other  tools  at  their  disposal.  They  should  instead  be  encouraged  to  adopt 
strategies that nurture children’s motivation, autonomy and self-efficacy, in order to offer the most 
beneficial and long-lasting effect. European Commission, Directorate-General for Education, Youth, 
Sport  and  Culture,  NESET  Ad  hoc  report  no.  1/2021,  Alieva,  A.  (2021).  Parental  involvement  in 
formal education, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg. 

342   European Commission, ET 2020 Working Group on Schools Policy (2015). A whole school approach 

to tackling early school leaving - policy messages, final report of the Education and Training 2020 
Working Group on Schools. 

343   European Commission, Directorate-General for Education, Youth, Sport and Culture, NESET Report, 
Downes,  P.  &  Cefai,  C.  (2016).  How  to  tackle  bullying  and  prevent  school  violence  in  Europe: 
Evidence  and  practices  for  strategies  for  inclusive  and  safe  schools,  Publications  Office  of  the 
European Union, Luxembourg.  

135 

 
 
 
                                                           
development for staff. 

Source:  Horváth, A., et.al. (2020)344 

Assertive  outreach  recognises  the  need  to  move  beyond  the  idea  that  leaflets,  websites, 
posters  and  other  forms  of  information  will  suffice  to  engage  ‘hard-to-reach’  groups. 
Information-based  communication  approaches  focus  on  the  “what”  question.  It  is  other 
questions that deserve attention. The “where”  question, which reflects on  the location from 
which the marginalised student or family is engaged with. The “who” question, which not only 
reflects  on  the  specific  needs  of  the  person  being  reached  out  to,  but  also  inquires  who  is 
communicating to that marginalised student or family. Finally, the “how” question, about the 
way  the  person  is  being  communicated  with,  needs  to  be  focused  upon  as  part  of outreach 
approaches, as it emphasizes the dialogue process between the learner and the school.  

Within  discussions  around  outreach,  the  issue  of  system  fragmentation  of  multiple,  diffuse 
services and territories has also been raised. In fact, 10 European city municipalities observed 
a  need  for clarity of  responsibility  regarding  supporting  services,  to  ensure  that  families  and 
young people do not fall through the  gaps, as many vulnerable populations may not be  in a 
position to access available supports. It is then key that there a lead agency is put in place to 
guide families and learners to become acquainted and access the services available for them in 
a  given  municipality  and  to  ensure  the  educational  and  more  holistic  needs  of  children  and 
young people from ethnic minorities and migrant families are being met.  

Increasing participation in school decision-making and school life 

Enhancing  family-school  partnerships  and  increasing  parent  participation  in  educational 
decision-making  can  be  highly  effective  for  promoting  better  educational  outcomes.  Wide 
parental  participation  in  decisions  related  to  learning,  as  well  as  to  the  organisation  of  the 
school and its activities, promotes transparency and better adjustment to actual family needs 
and creates a greater sense  of shared responsibility around education.  A significant  share of 
respondents to the consultation activities (35 %) considered engaging families in the school’s 
daily life and decision making to be among the most important measures to be prioritised at 
school level. 

There  are  formal  procedures  in  place  to  ensure  the  rights  of  parents  to  participate  in  some 
forms  of  school  decision-making  processes,  e.g.  through  representation  of  parents  in  school 
boards  and  councils.  Parents  are  therefore  encouraged  to  participate,  via  their  elected 
representatives, in the different school bodies, notably school councils and class councils. 

In practice, however, as mentioned previously, different starting points and levels of parental 
involvement  influence  these  processes.  Formal  approaches  to  parent  participation,  such  as 
parents’  associations,  parent  councils  and  parent  consultations  need  to  be  accompanied  by 
less formal approaches to ensure that all parents are taken into account and that parents and 
families  from  more  disadvantaged  backgrounds  are  adequately  represented  in  school 
decision-making.  

BOX 56.  France - ‘Parents’ briefcase’ (La mallette des parents) 

344   European Commission, European Education and Culture Executive Agency, Eurydice, (2020) Equity 

in school education in Europe: structures, policies and student performance. 

136 

 
 
 
                                                           
This  programme  was  launched  in  2008,  initially  across  40  lower-level  secondary  schools 
(‘collèges’) in disadvantaged areas by inviting 400 parents to participate in several rounds of 
discussions  with  educational  stakeholders.  By  2012,  the  programme  had  been  extended  to 
1,300 secondary schools, and by 2018, it had become available to parents with children in pre-
school, primary and secondary school.  

There  are  spaces  devoted  to  parents  and  to  teachers.  Parents  are  offered  supporting  tools, 
materials and guidance in understanding and navigating each stage of education and meetings 
are organised for them. Today, the programme covers a wide range of topics, from children’s 
well-being to pedagogical tools for learning, language development, and so on.  

An evaluation carried out by the Paris School of Economics found that the programme had a 
positive  effect  on  parental  knowledge  of  the  education  system  as  well  as  on  parental 
involvement and on decreased rates of student absenteeism and behavioural problems.  

Source: https://mallettedesparents.education.gouv.fr  

Promoting opportunities and motivation to read from an early age 

Abundant  research  demonstrates  positive  impact  of  daily  reading  to  children  from  an  early 
age345.  More  sophisticated  language  models  are  provided  by  parents  during  story  time  than 
during other activities and helps stimulate brain activity346. However, this may be challenging 
for  children  from  more  disadvantaged  socio-economic  background  who  may  not  have  easy 
access  to  age-appropriate  books.  Book  giveaway  programmes  are  a  relatively  low  cost  and 
effective  solution347.  They  help  entice  or  nudge  parents  to  initiate  and  sustain  regular  book 
reading routines.  

BOX 57.  Book giveaway programmes 

is  well-established  research 

literature  on  the  benefits  for  children’s 

literacy 
There 
development  of  distributing  books  to their  homes  in  the  early years  to  develop  a  routine  of 
parents’  reading  to  their  children.    A  recent  meta-analysis  of  44  studies  on  book  giveaway 
programmes reported in English, Dutch, German or Italian confirmed that these programmes 
promote  children’s  home  literacy  environment,  resulting  in  more  interest  in  reading  and 
children scoring higher on literacy related skills prior to and during the early years of school. 
Studies  with  low  socio-economic  status  samples  were  found  to  have  stronger  effects  than 
mixed-SES samples. This study review concludes that in comparison with other family literacy 
programs,  the  effects  of  book  giveaway  programs  on  literacy  skills  reported  here  are 

345   Children  who  had  greater  home  reading  exposure  (a  composite  index  including  access  to  books, 
frequency of shared reading, and variety of books read) show greater brain activation during story 
listening. The areas of the brain showing higher levels of activity were those that support narrative 
comprehension  and  visual  imagery,  key  elements  of  both  language  and  reading  .  Hutton,  J., 
Horowitz-Kraus,  T.,  Mendelsohn,  A.,  DeWitt,  T.,  Holland,  S.;  the  C-MIND  Authorship  Consortium. 
(2015), “Home reading environment and brain activation in preschool children listening to stories”, 
Pediatrics, 136, 466–478. 

346   Hutton, J. S., Dudley, J., Horowitz-Kraus, T., DeWitt, T., Holland, S. K. (2019), “Associations between 
home  literacy  environment,  brain  white  matter  integrity  and  cognitive  abilities  in  preschool-age 
children”, Acta Paediatrica. https://doi.org/10.1111/apa.15124 

347   Dickinson,  D.  K.,  Morse,  A.  B.  (2019).  Connecting  through  talk:  Nurturing  children’s  development 

with language. Paul Brookes. 

137 

 
 
 
                                                           
impressive.  

A specific feature of book giveaway programmes which appears to strengthen impact is where 
parents  receive  advice  on  shared  book  reading  in  the  context  of  a  health  care  consultation, 
which may give special significance and weight to caregiving advice348. This finding highlights 
the importance of integrated strategic approaches between health and education. 

Source: De Bondt, M., et.al. (2020)349. 

Promoting parental engagement in the early years for maths and science learning 

Parental engagement during early years in informal and formal home numeracy activities or in 
home  science  activity  sessions  may  have  persistent  effects  on  the  growth  of  children’s 
mathematical and scientific  outcomes.  Evidence  demonstrates that informal and operational 
numeracy activities at home are longitudinally related to children’s acquisition of fundamental 
mathematical  skills  and  knowledge  at  school350.  Access  to  science-education  centres,  mobile 
science laboratories, competitions and festivals should be promoted from an early age. 

5.2.5 Structural measures 

As indicated above, the design and quality of education systems may have a strong impact on 
learners' participation and performance, and certain systemic factors may negatively influence 
learning progress.  

Eurydice published a Report in 2021 about: Equity in school education in Europe: structures, 
policies  and  student  performance351.  The  key  findings  point  to  several  policies  that  are 
associated  with  higher  levels  of  equity.  These  policies  include  increased  public  spending, 
especially  in  primary  education,  assigning  students  to  different  educational  programmes  or 
tracks at a later stage, limiting differentiation in school choice and admissions policies as well 
as reducing grade repetition and other measures. The report shows large differences between 
countries  as  to  how  these  and  other  policies  are  implemented,  and  how  well  they  work  in 
reducing inequality in education. 

348   A  review  found  that  models  whereby  book  gifts  are  presented  by  a  pediatrician  or  nurse 
practitioner in a health care context is by far the most effective (Dowdall, N., Melendez-Torres, G. 
J.,  Murray,  L.,  Gardner,  F.,  Hartford,  L.,  Cooper,  P.  J.  (2020).  “Shared  picture  book  reading 
interventions  for  child  language  development:  A  systematic  review  and  meta-analysis”,  Child 
Development, 91(2), e383–e399). Providing an information brochure to families had no effect.  
349   De Bondt, M., Ingrid A. Willenberg, I.A., & Bus, A.G. (2020), “Do Book Giveaway Programs promote 
the  Home  Literacy  Environment  and  Children’s  Literacy-Related  Behavior  and  Skills?”,    Review  of 
Educational Research, 90(3), 349-375. 

350   Susperreguy, M. I., Di Lonardo Burr, S., Xu, C., Douglas, H & LeFevre, J.   (2020), “Children’s Home 
Numeracy  Environment  Predicts  Growth  of  their  Early  Mathematical  Skills  in  Kindergarten”,  Child 
Development, 91(5), 1663–1680 

351   European Commission, European Education and Culture Executive Agency, Eurydice, (2020)  Equity 
in  school education in Europe: structures, policies and student  performance. Publications Office of 
the European Union, Luxembourg. https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2797/880217  

138 

 
 
 
 
 
                                                           
Figure 27. Education policies and structures that may influence equity in education 

Source: Eurydice352 

During  the  consultation  activities  supporting  the  preparation  of  the  Commission  proposal,  a 
number of measures at system level were emphasised as particularly important.  

352   Ibid. 

139 

 
 
 
 
 
 
                                                           
Figure 28 - Measures to be prioritised according to at least one-fifth of all respondents 

Investing in training of educational staff to address ELET as well
as underachievement

Ensuring access for all children to high-quality, affordable and
adequately staffed early childhood education and care

Developing targeted measures to address the needs of more
vulnerable pupils

Ensuring that inclusion is a strong component of the
curriculum, assessments, and all learning activities/materials

Promoting non-formal learning opportunities, including out of
school activities

Fighting all forms of school segregation (concentration of at-
risk pupils in some schools or classes)

Ensuring appropriate IT infrastructure, devices and Internet
connectivity to all pupils

14%

39%

46%

49%

45%

48%

38%
39%

39%

43%

32%

37%

38%

31%

31%

36%

27%

25%
24%

32%

32%

All respondents

Learners, parents, or interested citizens

Teachers, trainers, or educators

Source: Open Public Consultation synopsis report 

Some of the aspects identified in the Eurydice report and during the consultation have already 
been  addressed  in  previous  sections.  This  section  focuses  on  the  remaining  key  features  of 
education  systems  that  can  have  an  impact  on  equity  and  inclusion  and  become  barriers  to 
school success. 

Early Childhood Education and Care  

There  is  compelling  evidence,  including  longitudinal  studies,  that  Early  Childhood  Education 
and Care (ECEC) mitigates educational inequalities and improves pupils’ average performance, 
since  it  increases  cognitive  and  non-cognitive  skills  of  children  and  prepares  them  for  pre-
school. PISA results suggest that 15-year-olds with less than a year ECEC enrollment compared 
to those with one or more years of enrollment are 3.1 times more likely to lack basic skills in 
science353.  The  provision  of  good  quality  universal  and  free  or  affordable  pre-schooling  is 
therefore  an  important  means  for  improving  the  cognitive,  physical,  emotional  and  social 
development  of  younger  children  and  their  chances  to  succeed  once  they  are  in  school, 
especially for children from disadvantaged families who benefit most from ECEC354.  

A significant share of OPC respondents (45 %) recommended a greater focus on access for all 
children  to  high-quality,  affordable  and  adequately  staffed  early  childhood  education  and 

353   OECD  (2018).  Engaging  Young  Children.  Lessons  from  research  about  quality  in  early  childhood 
education  and  care’  Available  online  https://www.oecd.org/education/engaging-young-children-
9789264085145-en.htm. 

354   UNICEF 

(2018),  An  Unfair  Start: 

rich  countries 
https://www.unicef.org/reports/unfair-start;  Blossfeld,  H.,  Kulic,  N.,  Skopek,  J.  and  Triventi,  M. 
(2017), Childcare, Early Education and Social Inequality: An international perspective, Edward Elgar 
Publishing, Cheltenham, United Kingdom. 

in  children’s  education 

Inequality 

in 

140 

 
 
                                                           
care (ECEC). To make ECEC more accessible and inclusive for individuals from all backgrounds, 
respondents  called  for  a  workforce  prepared  for  addressing  the  specific  needs  of  different 
learners  and  greater  diversity  among  education  personnel.  At  the  same  time,  several 
organisations  flagged  that  learners  from  some  disadvantaged  groups,  such  as  children  with 
special  needs  or  from  lower  socio-economic  groups,  tend  to  have  lower  enrolment  rates  in 
ECEC  than  their  peers.  This  was  linked  to  a  growing  educational  gap  between  vulnerable 
learners and their peers at the start of school education. 

BOX 58.  Sweden – Increasing accessibility to ECEC 

Considering  equity  of  education  system  in  Sweden,  policy  makers  have  been  focusing  on 
increasing accessibility to ECEC activities. More specifically, pre-school classes for six-year-olds, 
which were introduced in 1998, became compulsory in 2018. Since the school year 2001-2002 
the  municipalities  are  obliged  to  ensure  that  parents,  who  are  unemployed  or  on  parental 
leave, have access to ECEC activities for their children. Since 2002 pre-school institutions also 
cannot charge a fee higher than a maximum tariff.  

Source: European Commission 

Under  the  Recovery  and  Resilience  Facility  (RRF)  EUR  7.29  billion  will  be  devoted  to  early 
childhood  education  and  care355.  Investments  in  early  childhood  education  and  care  are 
expected  to  increase  participation  rates,  in  particular  among  disadvantaged  groups,  hence 
reducing inequalities.  About  half of Member States’ Recovery  and Resilience  plans proposed 
measures to improve access to high-quality ECEC by expanding its capacities.  

Some  of  the  investments  in  ECEC  are  also  supported  by  reforms  aiming  to  improve  access, 
inclusiveness  and  quality.  Some  Member  States  plan  to  lower  the  age  of  compulsory  pre-
school education, review the financing model, reduce early childhood education and care fees, 
improve early diagnosis and support for children with disability and special needs, review the 
recruitment  system  for  early  childhood  education  and  care  staff  and  to  adopt  a  legal 
framework that facilitates access to training and opportunities for further professionalisation 
of staff, including by introducing a legal entitlement.  

BOX 59.  Croatia – Increasing participation in ECEC through the Recovery and Resilience plan 

One of the objectives of the Croatian recovery and resilience plan is to increase participation 
in ECEC, which is among the lowest in the EU, largely stemming from a lack of infrastructure 
and shortage of teachers, with wide regional disparities exacerbating inequalities. Croatia has 
taken a comprehensive approach towards ECEC in its recovery and resilience plan, combining 
both reforms and investments. The aim of one of the reforms is to improve access for children 
aged 3 or more and support participation, especially for children from disadvantaged groups. 
In  this context,  the  number  of  teachers  specifically  trained  for  ECEC  is expected  to  increase, 
while affordability is expected to improve through the introduction of a new funding model. 
The  reform  will  further  increase  the  number  of  hours  in  the  last  year  of  ECEC  and  will 
introduce  a  guaranteed  place  for  children  older  than  4  in  an  early  childhood  education  and 
care facility. These reform efforts will be complemented by investments in the construction of 
new ECEC facilities and the renovation of existing ones. The objective is to create 22 500 new 
places, thus reducing regional inequalities in the availability of early childhood education and 

355   European Commission (2021), Recovery and Resilience Scoreboard – Thematic Analysis: Education.  

141 

 
 
  
                                                           
care. 

Active desegregation policies 

Source: European Commission, Recovery and Resilience Scoreboard356 

Decreasing school segregation along socio-economic or ethnic criteria is generally regarded as 
inequalities 357 .  The 
a  key  factor  for  combatting  underachievement  and  educational 
accumulation  of  students  from  disadvantaged  backgrounds  in  certain  schools  has  been 
identified  as  a  systemic  cause  for  consistent  high  ratios  of  educational  failure  and  ELET. 
Despite  differences  between  Member  States,  socio-economic  background  appears  to  be  the 
main segregation factor in European school systems and few countries/regions have recent or 
on-going  policies  in  place  to  restrict  socio-economic  segregation  in  schools.358.  Segregation 
often  interplays  with  other  socio-cultural  factors  such  as  migrant  background  or  minority 
status.  Multiple  disadvantages  can  result  in  particularly  severe  forms  of  intersectional 
segregation,  to  the  point of  referral  to special education, which  in  turn  increases  the  risk of 
educational failure. 

Several position papers highlighted the lack of diversity and inclusion in some ECEC and school 
settings.  The  stakeholder  organisation  Eurodiaconia  stated  in  its  position  paper  that 
segregated schooling is an issue negatively affecting Roma children: 

“Segregated  schools  are  still  a  reality  for  many  Roma  children,  which  not  only 
hinders social cohesion, but also their present and future civic engagement, and 
democratic  participation.  Both  physical  segregation  and  social  marginalisation 
result in a disproportionate number of early school leavers among Roma pupils.” 

The First Years First Priority campaign criticised ethnic segregation in ECEC settings, stating a 
lack  of  inclusiveness  and  differences  in  the  quality  of  care  provided  as  direct  obstacles  to 
school success. Further, the campaign’s position paper argued that many families from ethnic 
minorities  or  migrant  backgrounds  are  frequently  exposed  to  such  issues,  making  them  feel 
unwelcome in relevant ECEC settings. 

Source: Open Public Consultation position papers  

Even though  most EU countries  have legislative regulations  that aim to avoid discrimination, 
ethnic minorities are still disproportionally affected by it. According to the EU Roma strategic 
framework  for  equality,  inclusion  and  participation  for  2020-2030,  cases  of  segregation  of 
Roma  pupils  in  education  have  increased  in  recent  years;  based  on  the  Racial  Equality 
Directive, the Commission has initiated infringement procedures over the school segregation 

356   European Commission (2021), Recovery and Resilience Scoreboard – Thematic Analysis: Education 
357   UNICEF (2018), An Unfair Start: Inequality in children’s education in rich countries. 
358   European Commission, EACEA, Eurydice, Cedefop (2014). Tackling early leaving from education and 
training  in  Europe:  strategies,  policies  and  measures.  Eurydice  and  Cedefop  Report.  Publications 
Office of the European Union, Luxembourg. 

142 

 
 
 
 
 
                                                           
of Roma children against Czech Republic, Slovakia and Hungary359.Desegregation policies aim 
to change the social composition of 'disadvantaged' schools and to provide better access for 
children  from  low  socio-economic  backgrounds  to  schools  with  higher  socio-economic 
composition.  A  more  balanced  social  composition  of  schools  can  improve  the  educational 
attainment  of  children  from  socially  disadvantaged  and  low-education  backgrounds  without 
lowering  attainment  levels  of  the  class  as  a  whole.  It  also  reduces  the  level  of  behavioural 
problems which are often concentrated in disadvantaged schools. This may entail controlling 
the  conditions  of  entrance  to  individual  schools  as  a  mean  of  ensuring  a  broader  socio-
economic  'balance'  in  their  population360,  especially  since  families  with  more  information 
regarding the education system tend to choose “better” schools for their children. 

BOX 60.  Belgium (Flanders)  and Portugal - Diversification of school population in terms of 
socio-economic status 

In  Belgium  (Flemish  Community),  a  double  quota  system  must  be  applied  by  schools  in 
primary and secondary education: a quota for socio-economically disadvantaged students and 
a quota for non-disadvantaged students, which means that both types of students are  given 
equal  priority.  The  quotas  are  based  on  the  percentage  of  disadvantaged  students  in  the 
municipality  (i.e.  the  ratio  between  the  number  of  disadvantaged  students  and  the  total 
number of pupils in primary or secondary education located in the municipality)361. The double 
quota  system  will  be  abolished  from  school  year  2023/2024.  Schools  will  be  allowed  to  set 
quotas  for  underrepresented  groups  in  compulsory  education  (primary  and  secondary 
education), subject to the agreement of the local authorities. 

Portugal  has  launched  a  public  website  with  alternative  school  indicators  that  highlight 
positive educational results in schools with a large disadvantaged population. These are value-
added  indicators  that  compare  student  progress,  rather  than  absolute  levels  of  attainment, 
and contribute to improve the public reputation of good performing disadvantaged schools. 

Source:  Horváth, A., et.al. (2020)362 

BOX 61. The INSCHOOL Project 

Inclusive Schools: Making a Difference for Roma children" (INSCHOOL) is a joint project of the 
European Union and Council of Europe focusing on inclusive education for Roma children. The 
project is based on the assumption that it is not enough to draw up policies of change. Change 
needs to be reflected at school level and in the environment of the children. There is often a 
gap between the statements  and requirements in policy documents and the reality in which 
these need to be  implemented. Practice  has proven that for schools to overcome  the  rift  of 
exclusive  teaching  and  learning  approaches,  they  have  to  re-examine  what  they  teach,  how 

359   COM/2020/620 final. 
360   European  Education  and  Culture  Executive  Agency,  Eurydice  (2020)  Equity  in  school  education  in 
Europe:  structures,  policies  and  student  performance,  Publications  Office  of  the  European  Union, 
Luxembourg;  European  Commission  (2011),  Reducing  early  school  leaving,  Commission  Staff 
Working  Document  accompanying  the  Proposal  for  a  Council  Recommendation  on  policies  to 
reduce early school leaving.  

361   European  Education  and  Culture  Executive  Agency,  Eurydice  (2020)  Equity  in  school  education  in 
Europe:  structures,  policies  and  student  performance,  Publications  Office  of  the  European  Union, 
Luxembourg  

362   Ibid. 

143 

 
 
 
                                                           
they teach and how they assess learners’ performances. A real link with non-formal education 
and the support for families and communities is necessary to create a shift in education - for 
the benefit of all learners. 

Source: https://pjp-eu.coe.int/en/web/inclusive-education-for-roma-children/about-the-project  

Alternatives to early tracking 

The  most  imminent  education  policy  increasing  school  segregation  is  ‘tracking  of  children’ 
which  refers  to  selecting  students  by  ability  into  different  schools  and  programs  offering 
different curriculum or learning outcomes. Research generally agrees that the earlier children 
are divided by ability into different school tracks, the greater are the resulting educational 
inequalities  and,  with  that,  the  share  of  students  lacking  basic  skills363. In addition, studies 
such as the comparative analysis of policies in Austria, Belgium, Hungary, Netherlands, Poland, 
UK,  Sweden,  Portugal,  Spain364 confirm  the  observation  that  learners  who  are  tracked  into 
vocational education early in their educational path have a higher probability of coming from a 
lower  socio-economic  background,  perform  lower  academically,  and  are  being  restricted  in 
their choice of further education paths. 

BOX 62. Netherlands – Increasing mobility between education pathways 

In  the  Netherlands,  the  2016  strategy  Equality  Alliance  aims  at  increasing  mobility  between 
education pathways and deferring pathway selection until students are older. In this respect, a 
pilot  programme  of  twelve  Teenage  Schools  is  currently  underway.  Students  aged  10  to  14 
study  in  these  schools  which  cover  the  later  years  of  primary  and  early  years  of  secondary 
education. Thus, the students can wait until they are 14 (instead of 12, which is the usual cut-
off  point)  to  decide  which  type  of  secondary  education  suits  them  best.  The  strategy  also 
envisages financial support for schools with disadvantaged students or schools with a higher 
number  of  students  more  likely  to  underperform.  The  schools  can  decide  how  to  spend  the 
additional financial support to help these students365.  

Source: Horváth, A., et.al. (2020)366 

Avoiding grade repetition, suspensions and expulsions 

Across  the  OECD  countries,  as  many  as  13%  of  15-year-old  pupils  experienced  at  least  one 
grade  repetition  in  primary  or  secondary  school  with  country  variations.  In  Finland  and 
Norway,  retention  of  children  is  very  rare  and  grading  of  children  receives  less  attention 

363   Strietholt, R., Gustafsson, J., Hogrebe, N., Rolfe, V., Rosen, M., Steinmann, I., Hansen, K. (2019), The 
impact  of  education  policies  on  socioeconomic  inequality  in  student  achievement:  a  review  of 
comparative studies. Socioeconomic Inequality and Student  Outcomes, vol 4.; Volante, L., Schnepf, 
S.,  Jerrim,  J.,  Klinger,  D.  (2019)  Socioeconomic  Inequality  and  Student  Outcomes.  Cross-national 
trends, policies and practices, Springer, Singapore.; Hanushek, E. and Woessmann, L. (2006),  ‘Does 
education  tracking  affect  performance  and  inequality?  Differences-in-differences  evidence  across 
countries’, The Economic Journal, 116(510):C63-C76 

364   Szalai, J. et. Al. (2014) Policies on Early School Leaving in Nine European Countries: A Comparative 
Analysis. RESLEU Working Paper. https://cps.ceu.edu/projects/reducing-early-school-leaving-in-the-
eu/comparative-analysis  

365   www.gelijke-kansen.nl 
366   European  Education  and  Culture  Executive  Agency,  Eurydice  (2020) Equity  in  school  education  in 

Europe: structures, policies and student performance. 

144 

 
 
                                                           
overall at least  during primary school years. In contrast, about one third of pupils in France, 
Portugal and Spain repeat a grade367. Grade retention is generally higher among students from 
lower socio-economic background.  

Grade  retention  is  generally  associated  with  lower  average  achievement  and  higher  school 
dropout. Research shows  that  repeating a year  is likely  to undermine  pupils’ confidence  and 
trigger  ELET.  The  demotivating  effects  of  removing  children  from  their  own  age  cohort  by 
placing  them  with  younger  students  can  strongly  affect  the  successful  inclusion  of  migrant 
children, who should be placed within the same age group as their native peers.  

Accordingly,  a  number  of  countries  have  started  to  invest  in  individualised  and  targeted 
learning  support.  This  shows  the  need  to  avoid  grading  within  educational  systems  and  to 
replace  it  by  instruments  that  monitor  and  early  flag  learning  needs  of  children  and  by 
offering individualised and targeted support, in order to support them positively with more 
flexible teaching practices during their learning pathways.  

 BOX 63.  Approaches to grade repetition 

Some  countries  allow  underperforming  students  to  progress  to  the  next  grade  subject  to 
certain  conditions  being  met  during  the  following  school  year.  In  primary  education,  this 
happens  in  seven  education  systems  and  in  lower  secondary  in  eight.  Belgium  (German-
speaking  Community),  Spain,  Austria  and  Switzerland  allow  this  practice  also  in  upper 
secondary,  while  Slovenia  only  at  this  level.  For  example:  In  some  Länder  of  Germany, 
students may be granted a probationary promotion to the next school year during which some 
conditions  have  to  be  met  (possibly  including  taking  exams).  Primary  education  students  in 
grades  1-3  in  Croatia  can  progress  to  the  third  grade  if  they  have  underperformed  in  one 
subject, as long as the student is expected to achieve the prescribed learning outcomes in the 
next school year. In Latvia, progression to the next grade is combined with support both in the 
current and in the next year. Having undertaken additional schoolwork in the current year, the 
school also provides the student with an individual support plan for the next year. In Austria, 
the  teachers’  ‘class  conference’  may  decide  to  allow  a  student  who  has  failed a  compulsory 
subject to progress to the next grade, taking into account their performance in other subjects 
and provided they are deemed likely to meet the prerequisites of the higher grade. A student 
can progress to the next grade in Finland, even if they have failed a subject, provided they are 
deemed to be able to cope with the demands of the next year’s study. 

Source:  Horváth, A., et.al. (2020)368 

Experience  of  exclusion  also  tends  to  be  higher  for  those  experiencing  socio-economic 
deprivation and both suspension and expulsion from school are associated with higher risk of 
homelessness and ELET369. Since high-quality positive student-teacher relationships can lead to 

367   OECD (2016), Trends Shaping Education 2016, Paris: OECD Publishing. 
368   European  Education  and  Culture  Executive  Agency,  Eurydice  (2020) Equity  in  school  education  in 

Europe: structures, policies and student performance. 

369   American  Academy  of Pediatrics  (2013), 
expulsion’, Pediatrics, 131, 1000-1007.  

‘Policy  statement:  Out-of-School  suspension  and 

145 

 
 
 
                                                           
reductions  in  problematic  behaviour  during  school  years 370 ,  potentially  reducing  the 
probability  of  a  students’  suspension  from  school 371,  the  overrepresentation  of  ethnic 
minorities  in discipline  sanctions requires more scrutin372.  In fact,  aalthough low-income  and 
minority students experience suspensions and expulsions at higher rates, it is likely that these 
disparities also result from the policies, practices, and perspectives of teachers and principals 
regarding learners or certain groups of learners373, meaning that there is still work to be done 
in terms of destigmatisation and in promoting fair and equal treatment of all students.  

Inclusion of learners with disabilities in mainstream education 

Persons with disabilities have the right to participate in all educational levels and forms on an 
equal basis with others. Children with disabilities and special educational needs include both 
children with a physical disability and children with learning disorders (e.g. dyslexia) or mental 
disorders (e.g. ADHD, autism spectrum conditions).  

There  is  still  a  considerable  need  for  action  in  this  area,  as  demonstrated  by  the  gaps  in 
educational  outcomes  between  learners  with  and  without  disabilities:  more  young  persons 
with  disabilities  leave  school  early;  fewer  learners  with  disabilities  complete  a  university 
degree; and many children and young persons with disabilities are enrolled in special schools 
which  do  not  always offer  effective  bridges  to  the mainstream  education  system,  continued 
training, or to the labour market374. 

Inclusive  education  for  children  with  disabilities  or  special  educational  needs  includes  their 
enrolment  in  mainstream  education  to  the  extent  possible,  while  ensuring  that  adaptations 
are made  that facilitate their individual needs. During the consultation activities,  there were 
strong  calls  for  enabling  all  learners  with  disabilities  to  attend  mainstream  educational 
settings,  removing  barriers  affecting  their  achievement  of  basic  skills  as  well  as  promoting 
enrolment  in  higher  education.  This  may  involve  the  removal  of  obstacles  in  the  physical 
school  environment  or  the  provision  of  access  to  learning  materials  available  in  appropriate 
formats accessible to this group (such as materials in Braille and easy-to-read format, or sign 
language interpretation, subtitling in video contents, among other things), as well as offering 
diversified  teaching  and  learning  approaches.  This  also  includes  individualised  learning  plans 
and  learning  support,  with  effective  support  provided  by  trained  educators  and  other 
educational staff/counsellors, or health professionals.  

More  recently,  during  COVID-19  school  closures,  children  with  disabilities  or  special 
educational  needs  did  not  have  access  to  special  facilities  present  at  schools  and  teachers 
were not able to provide the same individualised and personalised support. 

BOX 64. Greece – Inclusive education for children with disabilities 

370   Pakarinen,  E.,  Silinskas,  G.,  Hamre,  B.  K.,  Metsäpelto,  R.  L.,  Lerkkanen,  M.  K.,  Poikkeus,  A.  M.,  & 
Nurmi,  J.  E.  (2017),  ‘Cross-lagged  associations  between  problem  behaviors  and  teacher-student 
relationships in early adolescence’, Journal of Early Adolescence, 38(8), 1100–1141. 

371   Quin,  D.  (2016),  ‘Longitudinal  and  contextual  associations  between  teacher-student  relationships 
and student engagement: A systematic review’, Review of Educational Research, 87(2), 345–387. 
372   Gregory, A., Skiba, R. J & Noguera, P. A. (2010), ‘The achievement gap and the discipline gap: Two 

sides of the same coin?’, Educational Researcher, 39, 59-68.  

373    Welsh, R.O. Little, S. (2018), ‘The School Discipline Dilemma: A Comprehensive Review of Disparities 

and Alternative Approaches’, Review of Educational Research 88  5,  752-794 

374   European Commission (2021), Union of Equality - Strategy for the Rights of Persons with Disabilities 

2021-2030. https://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=1484  

146 

 
 
                                                           
The Greek government sent out various circulars on the education of children with disabilities, 
including  detailed  instructions  on  where  accessible  digital  material  is  provided,  adapted 
according to different types of disability and educational needs. 

Source: See, for example, the website of the Project: "Development of Accessible Digital educational 
Material" here: http://prosvasimo.iep.edu.gr/en/ 

Education  policies  will  continue  to  be  supported  by  the  European  Agency  for  Special  Needs 
and Inclusive Education375.  

Addressing boys’ underperformance in education 

There  are  considerable  differences  across  the  EU  on  whether  or  not  underperformance  of 
boys  is  recognized  as  an  issue  at  all  or  in  which  way  the  issue  is  addressed  in  policy  and 
practice. In fact, not all Member States and key stakeholders’ acknowledge the phenomenon 
as a gender issue, preferring to focus on other individual factors for underperformance, such 
as socio-economic status, migrant background or minority status. In this sense, although there 
are policy measures which directly or indirectly attempt to address boys’ underachievement, 
they  are  currently  somewhat  underdeveloped,  and  more  research  needs  to  be  done  on  the 
subject to support better policy making.  

At  the  level  of  EU  stakeholders,  there  is  a  need  to  reinforce  awareness  of  this  issue  at  a 
national  and  regional  level  and  make  a  long-term  political  commitment  to  improving  the 
situation.  In  parallel,  national  and  regional  policymakers  must  support  this  political 
commitment and monitor progress.  

To further address gender disparities, specific actions and strategies could be implemented at 
national level, starting from the earliest years of schooling. These strategies should take into 
account  all  of  the  factors  which  may  contribute  to  boys’  underperformance  and  all  the 
features of education systems which impact their achievement, while never scaling down the 
efforts  towards  supporting  girls’  achievements  in  education  (especially  in  STEM  fields)  and 
beyond.  Challenging  the  low  societal  expectations  for  boys’  achievement  in  education  also 
requires  better  teacher  education  and  training  with a  specific  gender  focus  (both  in  ITE  and 
CPD), active school leaders and a whole school approach to the issue376. 

BOX 65. Examples of targeted actions addressing boys’ underperformance 

The  Erasmus+  project,  “Training  Sports  Students  as  Mentors  to  Improve  the  Educational 
Attainment  of  Boys  and  Young  Men”,  which  received  EUR  171,123.9  of  Erasmus+  funding, 
involved  training  sports  mentors  to  improve  the  educational  attainment  of  boys  and  young 
men. The rationale behind this was that many sports coaches are already providing mentoring 
to boys around health and social issues but lack training to do so effectively. The project aimed 
to  assist  in  reducing  male  ELET  by  developing  a  higher  education  course  to  enhance  the 
knowledge and skills of undergraduate sports students. These students would then apply their 

375   The European Agency for Special Needs and Inclusive Education is an independent organisation that 

acts as a platform for collaboration for the ministries of education in its member countries 

376   European  Commission,  Directorate-General  for  Education,  Youth,  Sport  and  Culture,  Staring,  F., 
Donlevy, V., Day, L., et al., (2021), Study on gender behaviour and its impact on education outcomes 
(with a special focus on the performance of boys and young men in education). Publications Office 
of the European Union, Luxembourg. https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2766/509505 

147 

 
 
 
                                                           
learning in vocational settings to provide effective mentoring support to young males who are 
underachieving  at  school and  at  risk  of ELET.  This  approach  aims  to  motivate  young  men  to 
stay at school and improve their educational attainment/outcomes.  

Source: https://ec.europa.eu/programmes/erasmus-plus/projects/eplusproject-details/#project/2017-1-
UK01-KA203-036698 

In  2018,  the  Czech  government  published  a  policy  paper  focused  on  boys  and  men  in 
education.  The  paper  outlines  the  discrimination  and  disadvantageous  situation  of  boys  and 
young  men  in  the  education  system,  highlighting  issues  such  as  the  lack  of  male  teachers, 
gender stereotyping by parents and teachers towards boys, and the advantageous position of 
men  in  a  society  which  is  not  determined  by  the  level  of  their  education  as  much  as  for 
women.  One  chapter  focuses  on  stereotypes  and  teachers’  expectations  of,  and  attitudes 
towards, boys in schools.  

Source: Staring, F., et.al. (2021)377 

Attractive VET; flexibility and permeability of educational pathways  

As noted above, segregation can be enforced by rigid tracking pathways and parental choice of 
“better” schools378. Facilitating flexible schooling pathways (by modularising courses, offering 
vocationally  oriented  courses,  alternating  school  and  work  or  by  promoting  flexibility  in 
duration and entry points of study courses) and avoiding ability-grouping into schools is likely 
to  counteract  rising  inequalities  and  underachievement,  providing  avenues  for  better 
accessibility of new types of learners, including from disadvantaged groups. In addition, school 
funding  linked  to  the  share  of  children  with  disadvantaged  background  attending  the  school 
has  been  shown  to  combat  inequalities  and  help  schools  to  support  underprivileged 
learners379. 

High-quality Vocational Education and Training, in addition to its vocational focus, fosters the 
acquisition  of  basic  skills  and  of  key  lifelong  relevant  competences,  and  increases  its 
attractiveness and flexibility.   

Research  conducted  by  Cedefop  shows  that  high  quality  and  effective  VET  offers  students 
more  variety  and  choices  to  suit  their  needs  and  may  prevent  and  counteract  early  leaving 
from education and training. In fact, a majority of those at risk of dropping out from general 
education and who opted for a VET pathway have managed to complete their studies380. 

Some education systems show that facilitating the permeability of educational pathways is an 
explicit aim of top-level authorities. The introduction of regulations in this area may ease these 
transitions.  First,  they  can  create  transparency  by  prescribing  in  detail  the  conditions  for 
changing between all possible educational tracks. Second, curricular harmonisation across the 

377   Ibid. 
378   Fjellman,  A-M,  Yang  Hansen,  K.,  Beach,  D.  (2019),  ‘School  choice  and  implications  for  equity:  the 
new political geography of the Swedish upper secondary school market’, Educational Review, 71(4): 
518–539. 

379   Volante, L., Schnepf S., Jerrim J. and Klinger D. eds, (2019).  Socio-economic Inequality and Student 

Outcomes: Cross-national Trends, Policies and Practices. London, Springer. 

380   European Commission, Cedefop (2016).  Leaving education early: putting vocational education and 
training  centre  stage.  Volume  I:  investigating  causes  and  extent. Cedefop research  paper  No  57, 
Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, http://dx.doi.org/10.2801/893397    

148 

 
 
 
                                                           
different  educational  pathways  can  be  introduced  to  facilitate  transitions.  Thirdly,  creating, 
developing  and  promoting  validation  arrangements,  as  well  as  reinforcing  quality  career 
guidance  and career  education provisions is essential for smoothing these transitions and to 
empower learners with the skills necessary to shape their life. 

BOX 66. Norway – Pathways in VET  

In  Norway,  students  in  vocational  pathways  wishing  to  transfer  to  general  education  can 
take supplementary courses in the main curriculum subjects where they had fewer teaching 
hours in their original track. 

Source: Horváth, A., et.al. (2020)381 

However,  while  a  small  proportion  of  students  who  start  general  education  tracks  end  up 
completing a vocational track, the proportion moving in the opposite direction is close to zero 
in  almost  all  systems  with  data.  This  points  towards  very  low  levels  of  permeability  from 
vocational to general tracks in European countries382. 

Following the principles layed out in the 2012 Council Recommendation on validation, various 
routes back into mainstream education and training should be offered by creating, developing 
and  promoting  validation  arrangements.  Reinforcing  quality  career  guidance  and  career 
education  provisions  is  essential  for  smoothing  these  pathways  by  enabling  development  of 
career  management  skills  so  students  are  empowered  to  shape  their  life-course  and  find 
available support and resources. 

Compensation measures: Effective second chance education 

While preventive measures can help to improve the risk for early leaving from education and 
training, second chance programmes can be a way to re-engage early leavers in the education 
system. Across  Europe,  second chance  programmes are in place in most  countries and offer 
educational  schemes  in  several  ways.  A  key  feature  in  most  second  chance  programmes  is, 
however,  the  distinctiveness  from  mainstream  education,  as  second  chance  programmes 
needs to take into account the learners’ previous negative experiences with the mainstream 
education system.  

Furthermore, effective second chance programmes have to recognize the individual student’s 
needs and reasons for leaving the mainstream education. For most students this is a complex 
matter with multiple interconnected factors, including previous negative school experiences, 
personal  or  social  issues,  family  situation  or  health  issues.  In  addition,  students  from 
disadvantaged  socio-economic  backgrounds,  vulnerable  or  at-risk  groups  and  students  with 
disabilities  are  more  likely  to  leave  school  early.  In  order  to  re-engange  the  learners  in  the 
education system, the second chance programmes need to address these challenging factors 
in a holistic way. 

381   European  Education  and  Culture  Executive  Agency,  Eurydice,  (2020) Equity  in  school  education  in 

Europe: structures, policies and student performance. 

382    Ibid.  

149 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
                                                           
The  2013  study  “Preventing  Early  School  Leaving  in  Europe  –  Lessons  Learned  from  Second 
Chance  Education”383 undertaken  for  the  European  Commission  points  towards a  number  of 
key features of effective second chance schemes. Among others, these key features include: 

 

 

Learner-centred  approaches  that  take  into  account  the  individual  needs  of  the 
learners. This can be realised by conducting individual assessments of the student’s 
skills  and  competencies  when  starting  in  the  programme,  developing  personal 
learning  objectives  that  address  both  the  personal,  social  and  professional 
development, smaller class sizes and consideration of different learning styles. 

Integrated  approaches  where  schools,  social  services,  healthcare  practitioners, 
career guidance, etc. work together to ensure a holistic approach on the learners’ 
development. These can also include collaboration with parents etc. 

  Working with the students’ individual motivation for learning. As there often is no 
obligation for the students to participate in second chance education, the teachers 
must work with the students’ individual motivation for learning. 

 

Learning  opportunities  outside  the  classroom  and  work  placements  as  these 
contribute  to  a  contextualization  of  competencies  and  skills  acquired  in  the 
education system.  The  relevance  of  learning  for  the  local  labour market can  be  a 
motivational factor for many students. 

  Flexible organisation of the school day that allows learners to catch up on missed 
classes,  gives  the  possibility  for  distance  learning  or  give  learners  the  chance  to 
adapt  the  workload  to  their  current  circumstances  and  other  commitments.  This 
can  be  achieve  by  ensuring  flexibility 
learning  opportunities  and 
modularization  of  the  curriculum  where  the  modules  can  be  completed  in  more 
than one order. 

in  the 

  Encouraging active participation of students in the daily school life as well as the 

decision-making on school rules, curriculum and teaching methods.  

BOX 67. Denmark – Preparatory Basic Education and Training  

In  August  2019,  the  new  Preparatory  Basic  Education  and  Training  (Forberedende 
Grunduddannelse  -  FGU)  was  launched  in  Denmark.  The  FGU  is  a  new  educational 
programme for 18 – 25 year olds and the programme lasts up to two years. The programme 
was  a result of an education reform with the intention to reduce the percentage  of youths 
who are not in association to either education or labour market and included the merging of 
existing  preparatory  educational  programmes.  The  reform  drew  upon  the  good  results  of 
existing programmes combing them into a flexible scheme consisting of three entities: 

  General  basic  education:  Education 

language, 
mathematics,  English,  sciences  etc.  The  general  basic  education  gives  the  students 
the possibility to qualify for further vocational or general upper secondary education. 

in  basic  subjects 

like  Danish 

  Basic  production  education:  Workshop-based  education  with  high  level  of  practical 
learning.  The  target  group  is  young  people  who  want  to  proceed  to  vocational 

383   European Commission, Directorate-General for Education, Youth, Sport and Culture, Redgrave, K., 
Day, L., Mozuraityte, N., McCoshan, A. (2014), Preventing early school leaving in  Europe  – Lessons 
learnt  from  second  chance  education,  doi:  10.2766/61898,  Publications  Office  of  the  European 
Union, Luxembourg  

150 

 
 
  
                                                           
education and training or the labor market. 

  Basic  vocational  education:  Internship-based  education  that  helps  the  students  to 

proceed directly to employment. 

Source: Danish Ministry of Children and Education, https://eng.uvm.dk/upper-secondary-
education/preparatory-basic-education-and-training--fgu-  

BOX 68. Erasmus+ Project - ‘Bring young mothers back to education (BYMBE) 

The Erasmus+ project ‘Bring young mothers back to education’ (BYMBE) aimed to provide 
support for young mothers to re-enter into education or training. The project developed a set 
of training tools and materials, which were piloted with groups of young mothers in each 
project partner country (training including peer-group activities, counselling, motivational 
activities). In addition, the project held trainings for professionals such as trainers or social 
workers, helping them to deepen their competences and skills needed for working with this 
target group. 

Overall, the project aimed to improve the social inclusion of young mothers that are not in 
employment, education, or training – (NEETs) by bringing them back to school education or 
training. For this, BYMBE focused on awareness-raising among young mothers on the risks of 
dropping out of education early and on motivational efforts for them to re-enter education. 

Source: https://epale.ec.europa.eu/en/resource-centre/content/bymbe-bringing-young-mothers-back-
education-project-results-tools-an 

BOX 69. Austria -  ‘resp@ct’ – Raum für Jugendliche (resp@ct – space for young people) 

resp@ct  is  a  2017-2019  project  run  in  Linz  for  young  people  aged  15-24  who  are  not  in 
employment, education or training. The easy access set of services help young people expand 
their  educational  and  professional  prospects  by  offering  counselling,  employment 
opportunities, joint activities, advice, mentoring and mediation, including follow-up meetings. 

The project encourages young people to explore their practical and cognitive skills, train and 
identify  their  individual  strengths.  They  can  come  to  resp@ct  during  opening  hours,  receive 
individual support in line with their concerns and discover job opportunities. Participants can 
access this service free of charge. 

Source: Education and Training Monitor 2021384 

Help for basic needs and targeted financial support  

In  its  position  paper  for the  Open  Public  Consultation,  Eurochild385 identified  poverty  and 
social exclusion as key obstacles for the school success of some learners: 

 “Many children living in poverty or social exclusion do not receive a healthy meal every 

384   https://op.europa.eu/webpub/eac/education-and-training-monitor-2021/en/austria.html  
385   Eurochild  is  a  network  of  organisations  and  individuals  working  with  and  for  children  in  Europe. 
Their  position  paper  is  submitted  on  behalf  of  the  Including  Children  Affected  by  Migration 
Programme. 

151 

 
 
 
 
                                                           
day, cannot afford to attend school trips, buy the required books or school equipment, 
participate  in  after-school  activities,  or  access  online  learning.  Education  is  often 
assumed to be free for children, but for children growing up in poverty these extra costs 
are everyday barriers to their access and success in learning.” 

Source: Source: Open Public Consultation, Eurochild position paper 

The need to combat geographical, social and educational inequalities is well established in the 
Paris Declaration of 2015. Although the risk of poverty or social exclusion for children in the EU 
decreased  between  2014  and  2019,  nearly  one  in  four  children  are  still  exposed.  Poverty-
related factors such as lack of educational resources, digital and non-digital (i.e. a quiet place 
to  study,  reading  opportunities,  internet  access,  etc.)  hinder  equal  access  to  education. 
Moreover, there is also a need to consider the specific impact of poverty on students’ overall 
education,  well-being  and  mental  health,  as  well  as  its  connection  with  preventing  early 
leaving  from  education  and  training386.  Severe  material  deprivation  and  hunger  can  have 
serious  consequences  on  concentration,  performance,  memory,  motivation,  behaviour  and 
relation  with  peers 387.  While  tuition-free  primary  and  secondary  schools  are  available 
everywhere  in  the  EU,  indirect  school-related  costs  (textbooks,  school  meals,  school  trips, 
uniforms,  equipment  including  digital  tools,  etc.)  remain  a  significant  expense  for  many 
families388. 

According to Open Public Consultation respondents, further factors hindering schools’ success 
include  oversized  classes  that  do  not  enable  teachers  to  provide  an  appropriate  individual 
attention  to  learners  lagging  behind,  poorly  equipped  classrooms,  as  well  as  a  high 
concentration  of  disadvantaged 
institutions.  As  one 
stakeholders’  workshop  participant  pointed  out,  disadvantaged  learners  may  be  further 
challenged when attending schools that need additional funding and/or feature relatively large 
classroom  sizes.  These  schools  are  likely  to  lack  the  resources  and  support  staff  required  to 
ensure that all students in need of individual support receive adequate help. 

in  some  educational 

learners 

Source: Source: Open Public Consultation synopsis report 

It is important that  solutions  are identified at national, local and  school level,  in partnership 
with other actors, for learners who have difficulties in satisfying basic needs due to their socio-
economic background (for example lack of educational resources and materials, difficulties in 
transportation,  hunger,  nutritional  deficiencies,  etc.).  In  fact,  focusing  on  removing  poverty-
related  barriers  is  essential,  both  in  terms  of  school  infrastructure,  resources  available  to 
schools  and  services  available.  This  type  of  support  should  be  seen  as  a  strategic  feature  of 
inclusive education systems. 

One common measure to counter the effects of poverty in education is offering extra financial 
support,  which  can  take  different  forms.  Many  Member  States  have  introduced  measures 

386   OJ L 59, 2.3.2013 
387   European Commission, Directorate-General for Education, Youth, Sport and Culture, NESET Report, 
Downes, P., Nairz-Wirth, E., Rusinaitė, V., (2017),  Structural indicators for inclusive systems in and 
around  school:  analytical  report.  Publications  Office  of  the  European  Union,  Luxembourg. 
https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2766/200506 

388   COM (2021) 137 final. 

152 

 
 
 
 
                                                           
allocating  additional  resources  to  schools  with  a  high  concentration  of  pupils  from 
disadvantaged  background.  These  schools  can  improve  their  educational  offer,  provide 
additional  support  to  their  pupils  and  create  innovative  learning  environments  adapted  to 
their specific needs.  

BOX 70. Portugal - the TEIP Programme 

The TEIP programme (Territórios Educativos de Intervenção Prioritária - Educational Territories 
of  Priority  Intervention)389,  firstly  introduced  in  1996,  focuses  on  inclusive  education  and 
better-quality education for the most disadvantaged students. The TEIP programme is aimed 
at combating school and social exclusion by granting the local actors more autonomy to find 
the  most  effective  measures  to  address 
local  context. 
Discontinued  in  1999,  the  programme  was  reinstated  in  2006  (TEIP2).  The  reinstated 
programme  focused  on  improving  educational  outcomes  and  academic  achievements  of 
students, tackling ELET, improving school-to-work pathways, and increasing the importance of 
schools in cultural life of communities they belong to. There are currently 136 school clusters 
in total involved in the programme. 

in  their  specific 

inequalities 

The programme schools can get additional financial and human resources and enjoy increased 
autonomy.  At  the  same  time,  schools  can  always  consult  education  experts  and  the  school 
staff can participate in various workshops. During the second phase of the programme, a new 
role of external expert consultant was introduced. A role of an expert was to provide support 
for  schools  participating  in  the  TEIP  project  as  well  as  to  supervise  and  assess  the  school’s 
progress.  The  regional  bodies  of  the  Ministry  of  Education,  together  with  the  commission 
supervising TEIP programme, could appoint these consultants. However, it was not obligatory 
for schools to have such expert consultant. 

Source: https://www.dge.mec.pt/teip 

Targeted  financial  support  schemes  such  as  individual  study  allowances  for  learners  from 
socio-economic disadvantaged backgrounds can also facilitate their progression to secondary 
and  tertiary  levels  of  education  and  their  successful  completion  of  upper-secondary  level 
studies  leading  to  relevant  qualifications.  In  parallel,  other  types  of  support,  such  as  the 
provision of hot meals to combat  hunger  in schools  or the provision of  afterschool activities 
and  facilities  for  children  whose  parents  work  beyond  school  hours  can  relieve  some  of  the 
pressure of more disadvantaged families.  

 Key takeaways 

A  new  framework  of  action  toward  school  success  is  proposed  to  Member  States  taking  into 
account effective approaches based on evidence and extended consultations with stakeholders.  

Overarching conditions for an effective framework include: 

-  An integrated and comprehensive strategy:  coordination with different policy areas (such 
as  health,  social  services,  employment,  housing,  justice,  inclusion  of  migrants  (including 
those  seeking  or  benefiting  from  protection  in  the  EU)  ,  non-discrimination)  and 
cooperation between different levels of governance of the education system, as well as 

389   Diário da República. Law no. 147/B/ME/96. 1 August 1996 

153 

 
 
 
 
                                                           
systematic  dialogue  with  all  relevant  stakeholders  from  the  design  phase  all  the  way 
through to implementation, and evaluation. 

-  Differentiation:  targeting  policies  and  measures  according  to  the  level  of  need,  i.e.  
combining  universal  school-wide  for  all  learners  measures  with  targeted  measures  for 
some learners or groups of learners sharing similar needs or at moderate risk, and more 
individualised ones for those with complex or chronic needs and at highest risk. 

-  Combination  of  prevention,  intervention  and  compensation,  with  a  strong  focus  on 
preventive  and  intervention  actions.  -  Data collection  and  monitoring  systems  to  design 
and  steer  policy  development,  monitor  implementation  and  evaluate  effectiveness  and 
efficiency of the measures adopted. 

The  framework  proposes a  set  of  policy  measures, to  be  implemented  at  school  and education 
system level to promote a whole school, whole system approach. Measures address  - learners, - 
school leaders, teachers, trainers and others staff, – schools, and – system level features: 

- 

- 

Learners’  interests  and  needs  are  at  the  center  of  the  strategy.  Measures  to  support 
learners include: early identification of development problems, competence in languages, 
learner-centred  curricula,  diversified  pedagogical  approaches,  diversified  assessment 
practices,  socio-emotional  education,  targeted  and  individualized  support,  education 
guidance, extracurricular and out-of-school activities 

School leader, teachers, trainers and other staff are key change-makers for inclusion and 
school  success.  Measures  to  support  them  include:  Initial  Teacher  Education  and 
Continuing  Professional  Development  to  provide  skills  and  competences  to  understand 
inequality,  underachievement,  disengagement,  and  to  be 
and  tackle  educational 
empowered to work with learners at risk; support to new teachers, support the well-being 
of staff. 

-  All  members  of  the  school  community  (school  leaders,  teachers,  trainers  and  other 
educational staff, learners, parents and families) as well as a wide range of stakeholders 
(social services, youth services, outreach care workers, psychologists, nurses, speech and 
language  therapists,  guidance  specialists,  local  authorities,  NGOs,  business,  unions, 
volunteers,  etc.)  and  the  community  can  engage  actively  and  in  a  collaborative  way  to 
address underachievement, disengagement and ELET. To be able to implement a “whole 
school  approach”  schools  should  be  supported  with  measures  addressing:  governance, 
autonomy,  quality  assurance,  participatory  school  environment,  cooperation  with  local 
services, professionals, community, parents and families, as well as measures to support 
schools in socio-economically disadvantaged areas. 

-  A strategy to promote educational success for all learners needs to address  system-level 
features  that  can  affect  equity  and  inclusion  in  education.  Structural  measures  include: 
access  to  quality  ECEC,  active  desegregation  policies,  alternatives  to  early  tracking, 
avoiding  grade  repetition,  suspensions  and  expulsions,  inclusion  of  learners  with 
disabilities  in  mainstream  education,  attractive  VET;  flexibility  and  permeability  of 
educational  pathways,  effective  second  chance  education,  help  for  basic  needs  and 
targeted financial support. 

154 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
6. Opportunities for implementation 

6.1 The role of the EU: synergies with other EU (and international) 
initiatives 

6.1.1 Synergies with other Commission Initiatives 

Pathways  to  School  Success  is  one  of  the  flagship  initiatives  proposed  by  the  Commission 
Communication  on  Achieving  a  European  Education  Area  by  2025,  as  part  of  the  political 
agenda to ensure good quality and more inclusive education. The Commission Communication 
foresees another closely interconnected key initiative for school education, i.e. the creation of 
an  Expert  Group  to  develop  proposals  on  strategies  for  creating  supportive  learning 
environments for groups at risk of underachievement and for supporting well-being at school. 
The expert group will outline policy guidance on developing supportive learning environments, 
promoting mental health and physical and emotional well-being, and for preventing bullying 
and  violence  at  school,  as  well  as  proposals  for  effective  up-take  of  successful  practices  in 
schools and recommendations for awareness raising activities at EU and national level. 

As part of the policy agenda to ensure high quality and more inclusive education, set out by 
the  Commission  Communication  on  Achieving  a  European  Education  Area  by  2025,  the 
Pathways to School Success initiative will contribute to implementing a number of Commission 
initiatives:  

The  European  Pillar  of  Social  Rights390,  with  inclusion  and  access  to  education  forming  the 
cornerstone of the 1st principle ( “Everyone  has the right  to quality and inclusive education, 
training  and  life-long  learning  in  order  to  maintain  and  acquire  skills  that  enable  them  to 
participate  fully  in  society  and  manage  successfully  transitions  in  the  labour  market”).  In 
addition, he 11th principle recalls children’s “right to affordable early childhood education and 
care  of  good  quality”.  This  call  to  action  is  further  underlined  in  President  Von  der  Leyen’s 
Political  Guidelines  in  which  the  significance  of  “breaking  down  the  barriers  to  learning  and 
improving access to quality education” is highlighted. 

The EU Strategy on the Rights of the Child391, which pools existing and future initiatives of the 
Commission  on  children’s  rights  under  one  coherent  policy  framework,  both  in  internal  and 
external action. The strategy will ensure further mainstreaming of children’s rights throughout 
all Commission portfolios. It will strengthen the Commission’s work in the following fields: (i) 
child participation in the EU’s political democratic life; (ii) socio-economic inclusion, education 
and  health;  (iii)  combating  violence  against  children  and  ensuring  child  protection;  (iv)  child 
friendly justice; (v) digital and information society; and (vi) the global dimension. The strategy 
aims  to  bring  together  all  new  and  existing  EU  legislative,  policy  and  funding  instruments 
within  one  comprehensive  framework.  Concerning  education,  the  Strategy  states  that:  all 
children  have  the  right  to  develop  their  key  competences  and  talents,  starting  in  early 
childhood and throughout their schooling and vocational training, also in non-formal learning 
settings.  Access  to  inclusive,  non-segregated,  quality  education  should  be  guaranteed, 
amongst others, through a non-discriminatory treatment regardless of racial and ethnic origin, 
religion or belief, disability, nationality, residence status, sex and sexual orientation. 

The  European  Child  Guarantee392 aims  at  breaking  the  cycle  of  poverty  and  social  exclusion 
across generations by guaranteeing the access of children in need – persons under the age of 
18  years  who  are  at  risk  of  poverty  or  social  exclusion  –  to  a  set  of  key  services:  early 

390   COM/2017/0250 final 
391   COM/2021/142 final 
392   COM (2021) 137 final. 

155 

 
 
                                                           
childhood  education  and  care,  education,  healthcare,  nutrition  and  housing.  The  European 
Child  Guarantee  recommendation  calls  upon  Member  States  to  provide  effective  and  free 
access  to  education  and  school-based  activities,  as  well  to  at  least  one  healthy  meal  each 
school day. 

The  Strategy  for  the  Rights  of  Persons  with  Disabilities  2021-2030393.  The  strategy  aims  at 
fostering social and economic inclusion of persons with disabilities in society and full respect 
of  their  rights,  encompassing  also  the  needs  of  children  with  disabilities.  The  initiative 
Pathways to School Success is explicitly mentioned. More in particular, opportunities to build 
synergies  in  “Enhancing  teachers’  agency  in  tackling  educational  disadvantage”  could  be 
identified,  as  in  the  Disability  Strategy’s  chapter  on  accessible  and  inclusive  education  the 
Commission has committed to support Member States in addressing shortages of teachers in 
Special  Needs  Education  and  developing  competences  of  all  education  professionals  to 
manage diversity. 

The  Gender  Equality  Strategy  2020-2025394 which,  among  other  things,  strategy  aims  to 
counter gender stereotypes affecting the well-being and opportunities of girls and boys in all 
their diversity from an early age.  

The  LGBTIQ  Equality  Strategy  2020-  2025395,  which  presents  measures  to  promote  inclusion 
and combat discrimination against LGBTIQ persons and their families, including children.  

The  EU  anti-racism  action  plan  2020  -  2025396,  which  envisages  combating  racism  through 
policy and funding programmes in the areas of employment, housing and access to healthcare 
and  education.  As  regards  education,  the  action  plan  promotes  actions  to  ensure  that:  (i) 
children with a minority racial or ethnic background have equal access to education; and (ii) 
teachers  are  trained  to  work  with  all  children  and  be  sensitive  to  the  needs  of  pupils  from 
different  backgrounds.  It  also  envisages  a  Commission  report  on  the  application  of  the  EU 
Racial  Equality  Directive,  which  prohibits  discrimination  based  on  ethnic  or  racial  origin, 
including  discrimination  of  Roma  children,  in  different  areas  such  as  education  and  social 
protection. 

The  EU  Roma  strategic  framework  for  equality,  inclusion  and  participation397,  comprising  a 
Commission Communication and a proposal for a Council Recommendation on Roma equality, 
inclusion  and  participation,  which  was  adopted  by  the  Council  on  12  March  2021398.  The 
Recommendation  calls  on  Member  States  to  fight  multiple  and  structural  discrimination 
against Roma, in particular against Roma children, and to take stronger measures that support 
Roma  children  and  their  families  in  the  interrelated  fields  of  employment,  social  services, 
quality,  inclusive  mainstream  education  and  early  childhood  education  and  care,  health, 
housing and access to essential services, nutrition and access to leisure activities.  

The  Action  plan  on  integration  and  inclusion  2021-2027399,  which  covers  migrants  and  EU 
citizens with a migrant background and sets out a policy framework as well as concrete actions 
for the  Commission, Member  States  and  other stakeholders. The  action  plan  focuses on  the 
enabling factors essential for a successful integration and inclusion in four areas: (i) education 
and  training;  (ii)  employment  and  skills;  (iii)  health;  and  (iv)  housing.  The  action  plan  pays 
particular attention to children of migrants and EU citizens with a migrant background.  With 
regard  to  school  education,  the  action  plan  aims  to  achieve  that  (i)  teachers  are  better 
equipped  with  the  necessary  skills,  and  are  given  the  resources  and  support  to  manage 

393   COM (2021) 101 final 
394   COM (2020) 152 final. 
395   COM (2020) 698 final. 
396   COM (2020) 565 final. 
397   COM (2020) 620 final. 
398   COM (2020) 620 final. 
399   COM (2020) 758 final. 

156 

 
 
                                                           
multicultural and multilingual classrooms for the benefit of both migrant and native children 
and (ii) multi-stakeholder learning communities are created with the involvement of schools, 
health and social services and parents. 

The European Year of Youth (2022)400, which will propose a range of activities and engagement 
opportunitites  for  young  Europeans  to  support  their  personal,  social  and  professional 
development, as well as opportunities to voice their views on the EU project.  

The  European  Skills  Agenda  for  sustainable competitiveness,  social  fairness  and  resilience401, 
which  sets  ambitious,  quantitative  objectives  for  upskilling  (improving  existing  skills)  and 
reskilling (training in new skills) to be achieved until 2025. 

The  reinforced  Youth  Guarantee,  based  on  the  Commission  Communication 
‘Youth 
Employment  Support:  a  Bridge  to  Jobs  for  the  Next  Generation’ 402  and  the  Council 
Jobs  –  Reinforcing  the  Youth  Guarantee 403 .  The 
Recommendation  A  Bridge  to 
Recommendation seeks  to  ensure  that  all young  people  under the  age  of 30  receive  a  good 
quality offer of employment,  continued education, an apprenticeship or a traineeship within 
four months of becoming unemployed or leaving formal education.  

The  new  European  Strategy  for  a  Better  Internet  for  Children404,  (May  2022),  addresses 
cyberbullying, supports digital skills and children’s participation in digital matters concerning 
them. It also addresses the digital divide with a focus on children in vulnerable situations who 
need support to acquire the necessary skills to stay safe online. Key to implementing the BIK+ 
strategy are the BIK platform and the EU co-funded  network of Safer Internet Centres in the 
Member States  who assist children, parents and teachers on all things digital, including digital 
skills  and  cyberbullying  through  awareness  activities,  helplines  for  support  and  hotlines  to 
report child sexual abuse material405. 

EU Code Week aims to get children more acquainted with computational thinking, coding and 
to improve related digital skills. It mainly targets teachers and the initiative has proven to be 
particularly successful in reaching schools in vulnerable areas across the European Union and 
thus helps to address the digital divide. 

Pathways  to  School  Success  complements  other  EU  actions  in  the  area  of  education  and 
training under the European Education Area, such as:  

The Council Recommendation on blended learning for high quality and inclusive primary and 
secondary  education406,  adopted  on  29  November  2021,  aims  to  create  a  shared  vision  and 
understanding at EU level of how school education can support the use of a blend of learning 
tools (both digital, including online, and non-digital) and environments (including school sites, 
museums, parks, sports centres and the workplace) that is effective, inclusive and engaging. It 
aims to support Member States in adapting their school education systems to be more flexible 
and  inclusive  of  a  broad  range  of  learner  needs,  changing  circumstances,  and  pedagogical 
approaches. 

The  Council  Recommendation  on  High-Quality  Early  Childhood  Education  and  Care  Systems, 
adopted  on  22  May  2019407,  highlights  the  benefits  of  participation  in  such  programmes  for 

400   COM (2021) 634  
401   COM (2020) 274 final 
402   COM (2020) 276 final. 
403   2020/C 372/01’, 2020/C 372/01 
404   https://www.betterinternetforkids.eu/en/home and COM/2012/196 final 
405   This  network  is  coordinated  at  the  EU  level  by  betterinternetforkids.eu  platform,  which  offers  a 

wide range of resources, with cyberbullying the most reported concern. 

406   OJ C 504, 14.12.2021, p. 21–29 
407   2019/C 189/02 

157 

 
 
                                                           
children  with  personal  or  social  difficulties;  it  also  offers  a  European  Quality  Framework  to 
guide Member States action in setting up more efficient and more inclusive systems. 

The  2018  Council  Recommendation  on  promoting  common  values,  inclusive  education,  and 
the European dimension of teaching408 confirms the EU’s commitment to supporting Member 
States make effective use of funding mechanisms to provide inclusive education that responds 
to  the  diverse  needs  of  all  learners,  including  those  with  special  needs.  It  invites  Member 
States to implement and monitor successful inclusive approaches towards equitable education 
systems  that  prevent  marginalisation  and  transmit  a  sense  of  belonging, 
laying  the 
foundations for tolerance and critical thinking.  

The Council Recommendation on Key Competences for Lifelong Learning409,  adopted in May 
2018,  sets  out  a  common  European  reference  framework  for  the  provision  of  high  quality, 
inclusive  education.  It  presents  eight  key  competences  as  the  curricular  foundation  for  the 
acquisition  of  basic  skills  and  attitudes  needed  by  all  for  effective  lifelong  learning, 
employability  and  integration.  It  encourages  Member  States  to  implement  a  variety  of 
innovative  learning  approaches  and  assessment  methods  that  nurture  personal  fulfilment,  a 
healthy  and  sustainable  lifestyle,  employability,  active  citizenship  and  social  inclusion  for  all 
learners.  

The  Council Recommendation on a comprehensive approach to the teaching and learning of 
languages410,  which  sets  the  goal  of  ensuring  that,  by  the  time  young  people  leave  upper 
secondary  education,  they  can  speak  at  least  three  languages.  In  addition  to  this,  by 
introducing the concepts of ‘literacy’ and ‘language awareness’, the Recommendation aims to 
change  the  mindset  of  policymakers  and  teachers,  inspiring  them  to  adopt  comprehensive 
language  education  policies,  as  well  as  innovative  and  inclusive  language  teaching  methods, 
ultimately  strengthening  proficiency  in  the  language  of  schooling  among  pupils  with  diverse 
backgrounds. 

The ‘Digital Education Action Plan 2021-2027: Resetting education and training for the digital 
age’411,  presents  an  ambitious  vision  for  digital  education  in  a  lifelong  learning  perspective 
with  the  inclusion  of  all  learners  across  all  ages  at  its  core.  Within  this  action  plan,  the 
Commission also foresees the Strategic Dialogue on the enabling factors for successful digital 
education, the development of common guidelines for teachers and educational staff to foster 
digital  literacy  and  to  tackle  disinformation,  a  proposal  for  a  Council  recommendation  on 
improving  digital  skills  in  education  and  training  and  the  setting  up  of  the  European  Digital 
Education Hub, strengthening cooperation and exchange in digital education at the EU level. 

The  Digital  Decade  communication412 which  presents  the  European  Commission’s  vision  for 
Europe’s  digital  transformation  by  2030.  It  sets  out  targets  on  government,  infrastructure, 
business and on digital skills i.e. having at least 80% of the population with basic digital skills 
by 2030. 

The  Council  Recommendation  on  vocational  education  and  training  (VET)  for  sustainable 
competitiveness, social fairness and resilience413  and proposes a modernised EU policy vision 
of VET including its digitalisation and use of blended learning.  

Following the Tartu Call for a Healthy Lifestyle, HealthyLifeStyle4All414, launched in September 
2021, is a two-year campaign which showcases the Commission’s commitment to promoting a 

408   2018/C 195/01 
409   2018/C 189/01 
410   OJ C 189, 5.6.2019 
411   COM (2020) 624 final. 
412   Europe's Digital Decade: Digitally empowered Europe by 2030 (europa.eu) 
413   OJ C 417, 2.12.2020, p. 1–16 

158 

 
 
                                                           
healthy lifestyle across generations and social groups. Representatives of sport organisations, 
civil society, international, national, regional and local authorities, are invited to join in the co-
creation of the initiative to promote healthy lifestyles amongst generations and across social 
groups.  There  are  three  pillars  to  the  HealthyLifestyle4All  initiative:  Awareness -  improved 
awareness of healthy lifestyles across all generations; Access - easier access to sport, physical 
activity  and  healthy  diets.  HL4A  has  a  special  focus  on  inclusion  and  non-discrimination  to 
reach  disadvantaged  groups;  Holistic  approach -  HL4A  is  about  teaming  up  in  a  holistic 
approach to food, health, well-being and sport. 

6.1.2 Synergies at international level  

Pathways to School Success complements work at international level. It is fully consistent with 
the UN 2030 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)415  and contributes to actions supporting 
in particular SDG 4: ‘Quality education’: 

  Target 4.1:  Ensure that  all  girls  and  boys  complete  free,  equitable  and  quality  
primary    and    secondary    education    leading    to    relevant    and  effective  learning 
outcomes. 

  Target  4.4:    Substantially  increase    the    number    of    youth    and    adults    who  have 
relevant  skills,  including  technical  and  vocational  skills,  for  employment,  decent  jobs 
and entrepreneurship. 

  Target 4.5:  Eliminate gender  disparities  in  education  and  ensure  equal access to all 
levels of education and vocational training for the vulnerable,  including  persons  with  
disabilities,  indigenous  peoples  and children in vulnerable situations. 

  Target 4.6: Ensure that all youth (...) achieve literacy and numeracy 

Pathways  to  School  Success  is  consistent  with  the  UN  Convention  on  the  Rights  of  Persons 
with  Disabilities416,  whose  Article  24  provides  for  inclusive  education  systems.  It  resonates 
with  the  UN  Global  Education  Monitoring  2020  Report  on  Inclusion.  It  is  aligned  with  the 
UNESCO  activities  on  School  violence  and  bullying 417  and 
in  particular  with  the 
Recommendations by the Scientific Committee on preventing and addressing school bullying 
and cyberbullying418. It is in line with the OECD Learning Compass 2030 framework419 .  

The results of the OECD ‘Programme for International Student Assessment’ (PISA) inform the 
initiative and will continue to allow international comparisons.   

414   Tartu Call for a Healthy Lifestyle, https://sport.ec.europa.eu/sites/default/files/ewos-tartu-

call_en.pdf  

415   https://sdgs.un.org/  
416   UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities 2006. 

https://www.un.org/development/desa/disabilities/convention-on-the-rights-of-persons-with-
disabilities.html  

417   UNESCO’s actions against school violence and bullying can be found here: 
https://en.unesco.org/themes/school-violence-and-bullying/action  

418   UNESCO  (2020)  International  Conference  on  School  Bullying:  recommendations  by  the  Scientific 
cyberbullying. 
addressing 

Committee 
https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000374794?posInSet=4&queryId=N-EXPLORE-
c62a920d-2b9e-49c7-92cd-fb700d28f564  

preventing 

bullying 

school 

and 

and 

on 

419   OECD Learning Compass 2030 is an evolving learning framework that sets out an aspirational vision 
for the future of education. It offers a broad vision of the types of competencies students will need 
to  thrive  in  2030  and  beyond.  It  also  develops  a  common  language  and  understanding  that  is 
globally  relevant  and 
informed.  https://www.oecd.org/education/2030-project/teaching-and-
learning/learning/learning-compass-2030/  

159 

 
 
                                                                                                                                                                          
6.2  Use  of  EU  opportunities, 
platforms/tools in education 

funds  and 

investments  and  other 

Pathways  to  School  Success  ‘Pathways  to  School  Success’  has  the  ambition  to  set  in  motion 
processes of reflection and change, provide guidance on possible policy solutions addressing 
the above challenges, launch collaborations and dialogue with policy-makers and stakeholders 
and support concrete action by relevant stakeholders. In addition to the Commission proposal 
for  a  Council  Recommendation  on  Pathways  to  School  Success,  the  initiative  combines 
different instruments: 

a)  regular monitoring and reporting by the Commission, on progress achieved against the 
EU-level  targets  and  on  the  implementation  of  the  Council  Recommendation,  in 
particular  in  the  framework  of  the  European  Semester  and  of  the  EEA  Strategic 
Framework;  

b)  peer  learning,  exchanges  of  information  and  experience  between Member  States,  in 
particular through the new EEA Strategic Framework Working Group on Schools; 

c) 

funding and support to policy reforms, notably through the European Social Fund+, 
the Recovery and Resilience Facility, Erasmus+, the Technical Support Instrument, the 
Asylum, Migration and Integration Fund, as well as the School Scheme, the EU4Health 
programme, the Citizens, Equality, Rights and Values programme; 

d)  supporting EU-wide research and surveys through Horizon Europe. 

e)  sharing  successful  practices,  guidelines  and  practical  tools  using  the  EU  online 
platforms  and  communities  for  education  and  training,  in  particular  the  updated 
practical  European  Toolkit  for  Schools420,  eTwinning,  the  new  European  Platform  for 
School Education, Erasmus+ Alumni, Cedefop’s ambassadors for tackling early leaving 
and Cedefop’s VET toolkit for tackling early leaving.  

Monitoring and reporting 

While the  responsibility  for  education and  training systems  lies  with Member States,  the  EU 
has a key role in supporting efforts to improve and modernise national education systems.  

The Commission carries out  country analyses across a range  of policy areas, including in the 
fields of education and training, as part of the  European  Semester421. The monitoring of the 
implementation  of  the  European  Pillar  of  Social  Rights422,  supported  by  the  revised  Social 
Scoreboard,  forms  an  integral  part  of  the  European  Semester.  The  indicator  tracking  early 
leaving  from  education  and  training  is  a  headline  indicator  of  the  Social  Scoreboard,  while 
basic and digital skills form part of the complementary indicators. These analyses support EU 
Member States to address social challenges identified at EU, national, and regional level. They 
also help national governments to assess progress on implementing necessary reforms, as well 
as  areas  in  need  of  further  investment. A  series  of  country-specific  recommendations  are 
issued  in  the  first  half  of  the  year  as  part  of  the  European  Semester to  help Member  States 
tackle the most urgent challenges.  

420   https://www.schooleducationgateway.eu/en/pub/resources/toolkitsforschools.htm 
421  

The European Semester provides a framework for the coordination of economic policies across the 
European  Union.  It  allows  EU  countries  to  discuss  their  economic  and  budget  plans  and  monitor 
progress  at  specific  times  throughout  the  year.  https://ec.europa.eu/info/business-economy-
euro/economic-and-fiscal-policy-coordination/eu-economic-governance-monitoring-prevention-
correction/european-semester_en  

422   https://op.europa.eu/webpub/empl/european-pillar-of-social-rights/en/  

160 

 
 
 
                                                           
Each year he European Commission’s Education and Training Monitor423  provides an updated 
analysis on the challenges, and gathers a wide range of evidence to indicate the evolution of 
national  education  and  training  systems  across  the  European  Union.  The  report  measures 
countries’  progress  towards  agreed  targets  and  European  cooperation  in  education  and 
training. It also provides insights  into measures  taken to address education-related issues  as 
part of the European Semester process. The Monitor offers suggestions for policy reforms that 
can  help  to  make  national  education  and  training  systems  more  responsive  to  societal  and 
labour  market  needs.  Furthermore,  the  report  helps  to  identify  where  EU  funding  for 
education, training and skills should be targeted through the EU's next long-term budget, the 
Multiannual Financial Framework. The Monitor comprises a cross-country comparison and 27 
in-depth country reports. 

Policy cooperation and peer learning 

The European Education Area strategic framework was put in place to promote and structure 
collaboration  between  European  Union  Member  States  and  key  stakeholders  to  achieve  a 
series of common goals. The framework does so by 

 

strengthening  means  of  policy  cooperation  and  reaching  out  to  stakeholders  to 
encourage their engagement with the initiative 

  enhancing  synergies  with other  relevant  initiatives,  including  the  European  Research 

Area and the Bologna Process 

 

 

identifying  targets  and  indicators  to  guide  work  and  monitor  progress  towards 
achieving the EEA 

fostering  the  integration  of  education  and  training  into  the  European  Semester 
process 

In this framework, countries and stakeholders may share experiences, challenges and lessons 
learnt  from  their  own  initiatives,  policies,  mechanisms  and  complementary  research  via 
European peer learning and peer counselling. Policy cooperation include a whole range of peer 
learning  methods,  including  Working  Groups  composed  of  experts  nominated  by  Member 
States and key stakeholders;  peer  learning activities hosted by a Member State  to showcase 
existing best practices at the national level or to explore a particular issue with other Member 
States;  peer  reviews  involving  a  group  of  Member  States  providing  guidance  to  another 
Member State on a specific national challenge; peer counselling bringing together experienced 
peers  from  a  small  number  of  national  administrations  to  provide  advice  on  designing  or 
implementing  a  policy  as a  response  to  a  specific  national  challenge;  as  well as  conferences 
and seminars, workshops, high level fora or expert groups, panels, studies and analyses, web-
based cooperation424.  

European Funding 

Erasmus+425 is  the  EU's  programme  to  support  education,  training,  youth  and  sport.  It  has  a 
budget of €26.2 billion, compared with €14.7 billion for 2014-2020. This will be complemented 
by  about  €2.2  billion  from  the  EU’s  external  instruments.  Inclusion  -  ensuring  equal 
opportunities and reaching out to participants with fewer opportunities, including people with 
disabilities and migrants, people living in remote areas or facing socio-economic difficulties - is 
one  of  the  overarching  priorities  of  the  Erasmus+  2021-2027.  In  order  to  implement  the 

423   https://ec.europa.eu/education/policy/strategic-framework/et-monitor_en  
424   See https://education.ec.europa.eu/about/strategic-framework 
425    https://ec.europa.eu/programmes/erasmus-plus/node_en  

161 

 
 
 
 
                                                           
inclusion  principles,  an  ‘Inclusion  and  Diversity  Strategy’426 covering  all  programme  fields  is 
devised  to  support  an  easier  access  to  funding  for  a  wider  range  of  organisations,  and  to 
better reach out to more participants with fewer opportunities. It also sets up a framework for 
those  projects,  supported  through  the  programme,  which  intend  to  work  on  inclusion  and 
diversity  related  issues.  At  the  same  time,  the  SALTO  Resource  Centres  supporting  the 
implementation of the programme are also key players in promoting and rolling out inclusion 
and diversity measures, in particular as regards to gather knowledge and to conceive and run 
capacity-building activities for National Agency staff and programme beneficiaries. In addition, 
in  the  school  education field,  Erasmus+  includes  as  a  policy  priority  for  cooperation  projects 
reducing early leaving from education and training and helping all pupils reach a certain level 
of  proficiency  in  basic  skills.  Stakeholders  will  be  able  to  make  use  of  Erasmus+  funding  to 
bring recommended policy practices in place. 

The Recovery and Resilience Facility427 will make €672.5 billion in loans and grants available to 
support  reforms  and  investments  undertaken  by  Member  States.  The  aim  is  to  mitigate  the 
economic and social impact of the coronavirus pandemic and make European economies and 
societies more sustainable, resilient and better prepared for the challenges and opportunities 
of  the  green  and  digital  transitions.  Member  States  have  prepared  recovery  and  resilience 
plans that set out  a coherent  package of reforms and public investment  projects. To benefit 
from  the  support  of  the  Facility,  these  reforms  and  investments  should  be  implemented  by 
2026. 

The  European  Social  Fund+  (ESF+)428 is  Europe’s  main  instrument  (10  billion  euros  per year) 
for supporting jobs, helping people get better jobs and ensuring fairer job opportunities for all 
EU citizens. It works by investing in Europe’s human capital – its workers, its young people and 
all those seeking a job. There is a great variety in the nature, size and aims of ESF projects, and 
they address a wide variety of target groups. There are projects aimed at education systems, 
teachers and schoolchildren; end at young and older job-seekers; People are the focus of the 
ESF. 

The  European  Regional  Development  Fund  (ERDF)429 invests in education infrastructure and 
equipment and creates incentives for educational reforms in the Member States. Nearly EUR 7 
billion of ERDF resources have been invested in education, training and lifelong learning in the 
2014-2020 programming period. This includes mainly infrastructure  support, for example for 
early childhood education and care, primary and general secondary education, and vocational 
and adult education, but also e-learning equipment. This type of support will continue in the 
2021-2027  period,  with  an  ERDF  specific  objective  aiming  at  improving  equal  access  to 
inclusive  and  quality  services  in  education,  training  and  lifelong  learning  through  developing 
accessible  infrastructure,  including  by  fostering  resilience  for  distance  and  on-line  education 
and  training.  In  this  context,  ERDF  could  support,  for  example,  school  and  out-of-school 
infrastructure  and/or  equipment  to  build  inclusive  and  quality  education  and  training, 
including  through  the  provision  of  accessible  remote  learning  opportunities.  It  could  also  be 
used  for  providing  conditions  for  digital  education,  including  access  to  internet,  purchase  of 
digital  equipment  and  e-learning  applications  and  platforms  for  schools,  with  a  particular 
attention to marginalized students, including those living in rural and remote areas including 
the outermost regions and island communities. 

426   European Commission (2021) Implementation guidelines - Erasmus+ and European Solidarity Corps 
Inclusion and Diversity Strategy,  https://erasmus-plus.ec.europa.eu/document/implementation-
guidelines-erasmus-and-european-solidarity-corps-inclusion-and-diversity-strategy  

427    https://ec.europa.eu/info/business-economy-euro/recovery-coronavirus/recovery-and-resilience-

facility_en  

428    Home | European Social Fund Plus (europa.eu)  
429    https://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/index_en.cfm  

162 

 
 
                                                           
The  Technical  Support  Instrument  (TSI)430 is the EU programme  (€864 million for the period 
2021-2027) on the basis of which the Commission provides tailor-made technical expertise to 
EU Member States to design and implement reforms. The support is demand driven and does 
not require co-financing from Member States. It is an important pillar of the EU’s initiative to 
help  Member  States  recover  from  the  COVID-19  crisis  in  a  way  that  embraces  the  digital 
transformation.  The  Commission  stands  ready  to  provide  Member  States  expert  support  for 
reforms  in  digital  education,  reskilling  and  upskilling  educators,  including  through  cross-
country technical support projects, whenever Member States deem it suitable. The TSI enables 
Member  States  to  enhance  the  structural  transformation  of their  education  systems  so that 
education systems adapt and thrive.  

In 2018 the Commission proposed an ambitious research and innovation programme - Horizon 
Europe431 -  to  succeed  Horizon  2020.  It  has  a  budget  of  €95.5  billion.  In  Cluster  2  Culture, 
creativity and inclusive society432, research related to children will focus on inclusive education 
and training, tackling inequalities, social fairness, social inclusion and migration. Current topics 
directly  related  to  education  are:  HORIZON-CL2-2021-TRANSFORMATIONS-01-05:  Integration 
of emerging new technologies into education and training; HORIZON-CL2-2022-DEMOCRACY-
01-04:  Education  for  democracy;  HORIZON-CL2-2022-TRANSFORMATIONS-01-07:  Conditions 
for the successful development of skills matched to needs. 

Several  topics  of  the  2021-2022  work  programmes  continue  to  be  earmarked  for  COVID-
related  research.  A  series  of  these  have  also  been  highlighted  for  youth  mental  health  in 
school  or  home  settings,  and  education.  For  example,  in  Cluster  Health433:  HORIZON-HLTH-
2022-STAYHLTH-01-01-two-stage:    Boosting    mental    health    in Europe in times of change 
and  HORIZON-HLTH-2022-DISEASE-07-03:  Non-communicable  diseases  risk  reduction 
in 
adolescence and youth (Global Alliance for Chronic Diseases -GACD). 

 Horizon  2020  research  projects  funded  under  Societal  Challenge  1  (Health)  and  Societal 
Challenge  6  (Inclusive,  innovative  and  reflective  societies)  are  supporting  many  of  the 
proposed  thematic  areas  of  the  Pathways  to  School  Success  Initiative  such  as  educational 
inequalities434, well-being and mental health435. 

430   https://ec.europa.eu/info/funding-tenders/funding-opportunities/funding-programmes/overview-

funding-programmes/technical-support-instrument-tsi_en 

431   https://ec.europa.eu/info/horizon-europe_en 
432   https://ec.europa.eu/info/research-and-innovation/funding/funding-opportunities/funding-

programmes-and-open-calls/horizon-europe/cluster-2-culture-creativity-and-inclusive-society_en 
433   https://ec.europa.eu/info/funding-tenders/opportunities/docs/2021-2027/horizon/wp-call/2021-

2022/wp-4-health_horizon-2021-2022_en.pdf 

434   ISOTIS - Inclusive Education and Social Support to Tackle Inequalities in Society 

Inclusion4Schools - School-Community Partnership for Reversing Inequality and Exclusion 
SMOOTH - Educational Common Spaces. Passing through enclosures and reversing inequalities 
PIONEERED - Pioneering policies and practices tackling educational inequalities in Europe 
KIDS4ALLL  - Key Inclusive Development Strategies for LifeLongLearning 
RefugeesWellSchool - Preventive school-based interventions to promote the mental well-being of 
refugee and migrant adolescents 
NEW ABC - Networking the Educational World: Across Boundaries for Community-building 
REFUGE-ED  -  Effective  practices  in  education,  mental  health  and  psychosocial  support  for  the 
integration of refugee children   

  ME-WE  -  Psychosocial  Support  for  Promoting  Mental  Health  and  Well-being  among  Adolescent 

Young Carers in Europe 
CHILD-UP  -  Children  Hybrid  Integration:  Learning  Dialogue  as  a  way  of  Upgrading  Policies  of 
Participation        
IMMERSE - Integration Mapping of refugee and Migrant Children in Schools and Other Experiential 
Environments in Europe 

163 

 
 
                                                           
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Research  efforts  to  counter  the  profound  mental  health  crisis  related  to  COVID-19  have 
increased  during  the  outbreak  of  the  virus  and  in  May  2020  the  European  Commission 
launched its second COVID-19 call for Expressions of Interest436 addressing the immediate and 
long-term mental/behavioural, social and economic impacts of the pandemic437.  

The  Asylum,  Migration  and  Integration  Fund438 is  the  EU  fund  that  aims  to  further  boost 
national capacities and improve procedures for migration management, as well as to enhance 
solidarity and responsibility sharing between Member States, in particular through emergency 
assistance  and  the  relocation  mechanism.  It  supports  in  particular  legal  migration  to  the 
Member  States  and  integration  of  third-country  migrants,  through  support  to  measures 
tailored  to  the  needs  of  migrants  and  early  integration  programmes  focusing  on  education, 
language  and  other  training  (such  as  civic  orientation  courses  and  professional  guidance)  to 
prepare their active participation in and their acceptance by the receiving society.  

The Citizens, Equality, Rights and Values programme439 is the EU fund to protect and promote 
the  rights  and  values  as  enshrined  in  the  Treaties,  the  Charter  and  in  the  applicable 
international  human  rights  conventions.  This  will  be  achieved  by  supporting  civil  society 
organisations and other stakeholders active at local, regional, national and transnational level.  

With  the EU  programme  EU4Health  2021-2027440 –  a vision  for  a  healthier  European  Union, 
the EU will invest €5.3 billion in actions with an EU added value, complementing EU countries’ 
policies,  to  improve  and  foster  health  in  the  Union  and  strengthen  health  systems.  Its  first 
Work  Programme  includes  actions  addressing  also  mental  health  in  schools  and  healthy 
lifestyles in schools. 

The Connecting European Facilities is aimed, amongst others, at supporting investment in key 
projects in the area of digital infrastructure (budget of €2.07 billion for the period 2021-2027). 
The CEF2 Digital should supports access to very high capacity networks, including 5G systems 
and  other  state-of-the  art  connectivity  capable  of  providing  Gigabit  connectivity  for 
socioeconomic  drivers  (including  schools,  universities,  libraries).  Priority  should  therefore  be 
given to education and research centres, in the context of the efforts to facilitate the use, inter 
alia,  of  high-speed  computing,  cloud  applications  and  big  data,  close  digital  divides  and  to 

  MiCREATE - Migrant Children and Communities in a Transforming Europe 

DIAL - Dynamics of inequality across the life-course: structures and processes 

435   BOOST  -  Building  social  and  emotional  skills  to  BOOST  mental  health  resilience  in  children  and 
young  people  in  Europe  and  UPRIGHT  -  Universal  Preventive  Resilience  Intervention  Globally 
implemented in schools to improve and promote mental Health for Teenagers 
RISE, Prevention of child mental health problems in South-Eastern Europe - Adapt, Optimize, Test, 
and Extend Parenting for Lifelong Health; 
PROSOCIAL, The neural basis of prosocial development in adolescence. 
GUIDE (Growing Up In Digital Europe: EuroCohort) will be Europe’s first comparative birth cohort 
survey providing longitudinal statistical evidence to support the development of social policies on 
well-being of children, young people and their families across Europe. 

436   SC1-PHE-CORONAVIRUS-2020-2, topic: “Behavioural, social, economic and mental health impacts of 

the outbreak responses” 

437   Among  the  projects  funded,  RESPOND    aims  to  improve  the  resilience,  well-being  and  mental 
health of frontline health and care workers and other high-risk groups like youth, and to optimise 
public mental health preparedness in face of future (other) pandemics and mitigate mental health 
inequalities across the affected populations. 

438   https://ec.europa.eu/home-affairs/funding/asylum-migration-and-integration-funds/asylum-

migration-and-integration-fund-2021-2027_en  

439   https://ec.europa.eu/info/funding-tenders/opportunities/portal/screen/programmes/cerv  
440   https://ec.europa.eu/health/funding/eu4health_en  

164 

 
 
                                                                                                                                                                          
 
 
 
 
innovate  in  education  systems,  to  improve  learning  outcomes,  enhance  equity  and  improve 
efficiency. 

European Tools for dissemination and networking 

eTwinning441 is the community for schools in Europe, offering teachers and school staff a safe 
platform  for  collaboration  and  professional  development  free  of  charge.  Teachers  from  34 
Erasmus+  programme  countries  and  10  Erasmus+  partner  countries  are  able  to  develop 
projects and take part in thematic discussion groups, webinars and other learning events, both 
online  and on-site. Due  to its  range  of online  tools and services, eTwinning is well-placed to 
support a blended learning approach. 

In the "eTwinning Live" restricted area, teachers can search for other registered eTwinners and 
schools,  connect  with  them  and  follow  their  activities.  Teachers  can  access  all  of  the  online 
and on-site events created by eTwinners, and can also create their own. Teachers can create 
their  own  projects  and  activities  on  different  topics  by  collaborating  with  two  or  more 
teachers and their students. In the "TwinSpace", visible only to those participating in a specific 
project, teacher and students can meet and collaborate with peers from their partner schools. 

The  European  Commission’s  School  Education  Gateway442 platform,  offers  Massive  Open 
Online Courses (MOOCs) developed by a team of online learning experts with the support of a 
Professional  Development  Advisory  Board.  It  has  now  further  developed  its  professional 
development offer to include both long (4-6 week) and short (1-2 week) courses for teachers, 
school leaders and other education staff from across Europe, plus regular webinars featuring 
guest experts and collaborative project leaders on different topics. 

In  2022,  the  two  platforms  –  eTwinning  and  School  Education  Gateway  –  will  be  integrated 
into a single European online platform offering a vast array of resources, tools and events to 
support professional, school and system development. 

The  online  European  Toolkit  for  Schools443 offers  concrete  ideas  for  improving  collaboration 
within, between and beyond schools with a view to enabling all children and young people to 
succeed  in  school.  School  leaders,  teachers,  parents  and  other  people  involved  in  different 
aspects  of  school  life  can  find  helpful  information,  examples  of  measures  and  resource 
material to inspire their efforts in providing inclusive school education. The Toolkit features a 
self-assessment  questionnaire444 to  help  schools  evaluate  their  current  capacity  and  identify 
areas  for  improvement  and  contains  a  variety  of  resources,  ranging  from  research  studies, 
project  reports,  to  specific  examples  of  school  practices,  describing  how  each  measure  was 
successfully implemented. It has a particular focus on measures to prevent early leaving from 
education and training, which can have a broader application to improving the school climate 
and community.  A new  section on well-being at school is under development. Following the 
adoption of the Council Recommendation, the Toolkit will be thoroughly updated to align with 
the new initiative. 

The  CEDEFOP  VET  toolkit  for  tackling  early  leaving 445  The  toolkit  aims  to  help  VET 
practitioners and policy-makers to tackle early leaving at every stage, from identifying learners 
at risk and monitoring early leavers from education and training, throughout the development 

441   https://www.etwinning.net/en/pub/index.htm 
442   www.schooleducationgateway.eu  
443   https://www.schooleducationgateway.eu/en/pub/resources/toolkitsforschools.htm  
444   https://www.schooleducationgateway.eu/en/pub/resources/toolkitsforschools/self-

assessment.htm  

445   https://www.cedefop.europa.eu/en/toolkits/vet-toolkit-tackling-early-leaving  

165 

 
 
 
 
                                                           
and implementation of measures to support them, to evaluation of measures to help improve 
provision. 

Erasmus  Teacher  Academies446 is  a  new  action  in  the  Erasmus+  Programme.  It  will  finance 
projects  of  creating  networks  of  initial  teacher  education  and  Continuing  professional 
development  providers  and  other  relevant  stakeholders  to  enhance  cooperation  on  key  EU 
priorities  such  as  digital  learning,  sustainability,  equity  and  inclusion.  The  networks  will 
develop joint learning offer, learning mobility and contribute to policy development. 

SELFIE  (Self-reflection  on  Effective  Learning  by  Fostering  the  use  of  Innovative  Educational 
Technologies)447 is  a  tool  designed  to  help  schools  embed  digital  technologies  into  teaching, 
learning and student assessment. It can highlight what is working well, where improvement is 
needed  and  what  the  priorities  should  be.  The  tool  was  launched  in  2018  and  is  currently 
available in more than 30 languages. 

A new tool, SELFIE for Teachers448], aims to support educators’ leadership competence as well 
their  role  as  innovation  and  change  agents  in  their  school.    Through  their  self-reflection, 
teachers can identify their strengths and gaps to further develop their competences.  Through, 
the  tool  proficiency  levels,  educators  are  prompted  to  a  progression  from  awareness  to 
exploration,  integration  to  expertise  and  leadership  to  innovation.    Educators’  proficiency  is 
also extending from teacher’s individual capacity to the school collective capacity, contributing 
to the school collaborative learning culture.   

SELFIE  for  Work-Based  Learning  (WBL)449 was  piloted  between  September  and  December 
2020  involving around 35,000 participants from around 150 VET schools and 300 companies 
in 9 countries (Germany, France, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Georgia, Montenegro, Republic of 
Serbia, Turkey). This was undertaken by the Joint Research Centre in partnership with EfVET 
and the European Training Foundation and national coordinators in each country. Responses 
gathered  so  far  show  that  many  schools  also  intend  to  use  SELFIE  WBL  once  it  is  officially 
released. After further improvements, SELFIE WBL is planned to be available by autumn 2021. 

the  2017  Tartu  Call 

Following 
initiative, 
“HealthyLifestyle4All”  has  been  launched  in  July  2021  and  will  focus  on  the  promotion  of 
sport, physical activity and healthy diets. The campaign will invite Member States, regional and 
local governments, and civil society representatives to work together. 

for  a  Healthy  Lifestyle 450 , 

the  new 

The initiative “Learning Lab on Investing in Quality Education and Training” will be launched 
on  December  1st  2022.  It  will  enhance  evaluation  and  monitoring  of  education  policies  and 
investments at European level.  It will address the currently limited evidence on the impact of 
specific education policies and the lack of data related to the costs of specific interventions in 
education and support the design of effective education policies in European countries451. 

“Learning Corner website”452 is a rich repository of learning materials and games focusing on 
the EU, its values, how it works and what it does. Available in all EU languages, it is targeted 
mainly at primary and secondary school pupils and their teachers. 

446   https://ec.europa.eu/programmes/erasmus-plus/programme-guide/part-b/key-action-2/erasmus-

teacher-academies_en 

447   https://ec.europa.eu/education/schools-go-digital_en  
448  https://digcompedu.jrc.es  
449   https://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?langId=en&catId=89&newsId=9761&furtherNews=yes  
450   Tartu Call for a Healthy Lifestyle, https://sport.ec.europa.eu/sites/default/files/ewos-tartu-

call_en.pdf 

451   https://education.ec.europa.eu/news/quality-investment-in-education-and-training-commission-

publishes-first-findings-of-expert-group 

452   Espace Apprentissage (europa.eu) 

166 

 
 
 
                                                           
Annexes 
Annex I – Synopsis of the results of the Open Public Consultation 
Annex II - Glossary 
Annex III – Sources and bibliography 

167 

 
 
 
 
Annex I - Synopsis of the results of the Open Public Consultation 

Proposal for a Council 
Recommendation on Pathways to 
School Success 

S
yn
o
ps
is 
re
p
or
t 
of 
th

e public consultation activities 

168 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Available at: https://education.ec.europa.eu/news/results-public-consultation-pathways-
school-success 

Annex II – Glossary453 

(Educational) attainment 

It refers to the successful completion of specific education levels, for 
example primary, lower or upper secondary education. In this definition, it is 
assumed that completion of a specific education level goes together with the 
acquisition of specific education level related competences.  

(Educational) 
achievement  

Basic skills 

Bullying  

The  concept  refers  to  children’s  learning  progress  and  takes  into  account 
their  actual  functional  literacy,  like  reading,  writing  and  numeracy  abilities. 
The most known cross-national educational achievement survey, the OECD’s 
Programme  for  International  Student  Assessment  (PISA)  measures  15-year-
olds’  ability  to  use  their  reading,  mathematics  and  science  knowledge  and 
skills to meet real-life challenges.  
Basic  skills  are  to  be  understood  according  to  the  OECD's  Programme  for 
International Student Assessment (PISA), which measures 15 year-olds’ ability 
to use their  reading, mathematics and science  knowledge  and skills to meet 
real-life challenges. Underachievers in basic skills are therefore those 15-year-
old pupils, still in education, who fail to reach OECD PISA proficiency Level 2, 
which  is  considered  to  be  the  minimum  level  necessary  to  participate 
successfully in society. 

Traditional  definitions  of  bullying  involve  3  pillars:  power  imbalance,  intent 
and  repetition.  Bullying  refers  to  physical,  verbal  and  relational  behaviours, 
which  involve  one  party  having  the  intention  to  repeatedly  hurt  or  harm 
another, within an uneven power  relationship  where the victim is unable to 
defend  him/herself.  It  is  a  repeated,  aggressive  behaviour  intended  to  hurt 
another individual, physically, mentally, or emotionally. It usually involves the 
victim/s, perpetrator and bystanders, and perpetrator may be one individual 
or  group  (mobbing).  However,  children  and  young  people  often  define 

453   Clarification on common terms related to mental health and well-being is mainly based on: 

European Commission, Directorate-General for Education, Youth, Sport and Culture, Simões, C., 
Caravita, S., Cefai, C., A systemic, whole-school approach to mental health and well-being in schools 
in the EU : analytical report, 2021, https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2766/50546 

169 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
                                                           
Cyberbullying (online 
bullying) 

Classroom climate 

bullying differently from adults, for example, by omitting “power imbalance” 
and claiming that the behaviour was not intended to harm but was “fun” or 
“a joke”. 

The  use  of  technology  to  bully  (harass,  threaten,  embarrass,  or  target) 
another person. It takes 4 main forms: i)  written/verbal  though phone-calls, 
texts,  email,  chats,  blogs,  posts  on  social  media;  ii)  visual  through  posting 
compromising or  humiliating  photos or videos;  iii)  exclusion  by  intentionally 
excluding a person from a group; iv) impersonation by using another person’s 
account details to cause harm. While there is general acceptance of the three 
pillars –  intent to harm, a power differential, repetition over time  –  there  is 
continuing  debate  over  how  these  are  expressed  online,  mainly  because 
cyberbullying operates 24/7, resulting in potential multiplication of the effect 
on victims, with a consequent heightened risk to their mental health.  

Classroom  climate  refers  to  the  cognitive,  social,  emotional,  and  physical 
environments  in  which  students  learn.  The  creation  of  a  positive  classroom 
climate  involves  the  intent  i)  to  establish  and  maintain  a  context  that 
facilitates  classroom  learning,  ii)  to  enhance  the  quality  of  life  in  the 
classroom for students and staff, iii) to pursue a curriculum that promotes not 
only academic, but also social and emotional learning, iv) to enable teachers 
to  be  effective  with  a  diverse  range  of  students,  and  v)  to  foster  intrinsic 
motivation  in  learning  and  teaching.  Key  aspects  of  a  positive  classroom 
climate  include  sense  of  safety  and  security,  sense  of  belonging  and 
connectedness,  healthy  and  caring  relationships,  inclusion  and  culturally 
responsive education, active and meaningful participation, and individualised 
learning support. A negative classroom climate would happen when none of 
the above conditions was addressed. 

Early leaving from 
education and training  

The EU indicator on ELET measures the proportion of 18–24-year-olds with, at 
most, lower secondary educational attainment (i.e. ISCED 0-2 levels) and who 
are no longer in formal or non-formal education and training. The data source 
is Eurostat, EU Labour Force Survey. 

(Positive) Mental health 

Shortly after the adoption of the 2011 Council Recommendation on policies 
to reduce early school leaving, the previously used concept of early school 
leaving (ESL) slowly phased out and was substituted with the more inclusive 
concept of early leaving from education and training, which encompasses a 
broader group of learners, including those who take part in VET. 

A  state  of  well-being  in  which  every  individual  realizes  his  or  her  own 
potential,  can  cope  with  the  normal  stresses  of  life,  can  work  productively 
and  fruitfully,  and  is  able  to  make  a  contribution  to  her  or  his  community. 
Health is a state of physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the 
absence  of  disease  or  infirmity.  “It  is  a  positive  sense  of  well-being  and  an 
underlying belief in our own and others’ worth”. A mentally healthy child or 
young  person  is  one  who  has  the  ability  to:  develop  psychologically, 
emotionally,  socially,  intellectually  and  spiritually;  initiate,  develop  and 
sustain  mutually  satisfying  relationships;  use  and  enjoy  solitude;  become 
aware of others and empathise with them; play and learn; develop a sense of 
right and wrong; resolve problems and setbacks satisfactorily and learn from 
them; understanding that at times  it is quite  usual to experience  feelings of 

170 

 
 
 
 
Mental ill health 

Mental health literacy 

Mental health promotion 
(in school) 

Resilience 

School autonomy 

loneliness, sadness, anxiety, stress at times.   

Mental  health  difficulties  such  as  anxiety,  depression,  self-harm,  substance 
misuse,  conduct  disorders  and  eating  disorders.  The  two  most  common 
mental  health  difficulties  among  children  and  young  people  are  depression 
and anxiety. Depression: two of the  first  three symptoms (depressed mood, 
loss of interest in everyday activities, reduction in energy) plus at least two of 
the remaining seven symptoms (loss of confidence/self-esteem, unreasonable 
feelings  of  self-reproach  or  guilt,  recurrent  thoughts  of  death/suicide, 
diminished ability to think/concentrate, change in psychomotor activity with 
agitation  or  lack  of  activity,  sleep  disturbance,  change  in  appetite/weight). 
Anxiety:  excessive  anxiety  and  worry  (apprehensive  expectation),  occurring 
on  more  days  than  not  for  at  least  six  months,  about  experiences  (such  as 
popularity  or  school  performance)  (International  Classification  of  Diseases-
10).  NB:  It  is  important  to  take  account  of  the  fact  that  professionals 
illness.  
themselves  disagree  on 
Destigmatising  campaigns  have  inadvertently  led  to  misinformation  about 
mental  illness  so  that  many  perfectly  understandable  emotions  are  now 
viewed  in  terms  of  mental  illness.  In  reality,  as  Lucy  Foulkes  (2020)  argues, 
sadness, stress and worry are part of the human condition.  

the  precise  definitions  of  mental 

“Mental  health  literacy  is  defined  as  understanding  how  to  obtain  and 
maintain positive mental health; understanding mental health problems and 
their treatments; decreasing stigma related to mental health problems; and, 
enhancing  help-seeking  efficacy”.  It  provides  knowledge  on  mental  health 
such as recognition of mental health problems, their management as well as 
preventing  and  promoting  mental  health  through  social  and  emotional 
learning,  resilience,  sports  and  physical  activity,  creativity  and  arts, 
mindfulness and nature based activities.  

Creating  an  environment  that  promotes  and  sustains  positive mental  health 
for all school members, with policies, activities and interventions designed to 
enhance  protective  factors  and  minimize  risk  factors  (individual,  systems, 
environmental  and  economic).  Effective  MHP  is  comprehensive  and  targets 
multiple health outcomes, involves the whole school, focuses on personal skill 
development  (SEL  and  resilience),  and  includes  parents  and  the  wider 
community.  Interventions  include  educating  staff,  parents,  and  students  on 
symptoms  of  and  help  for  mental  health  problems,  promoting  social  and 
emotional  competence,  building  resilience,  and  helping  ensure  a  positive, 
safe school environment. 

Positive growth and thriving (including wellbeing and mental health) despite 
the presence of adversity/disadvantage. Usually refers to positive adaption of 
children  at  risk  (abuse,  poverty,  migrant  background,  linguistic,  ethnic 
minorities, etc), but sometimes refers to the universal competence of coping 
effectively with diverse challenges in life (eg COVID-19) 

School autonomy refers to the degree of freedom individual schools have to 
make  financial  and  operational  decisions;  the  manner  in  which  these 
decisions are made  is also important. The management of human resources 
and finances, as well as various aspects of teaching and learning such as the 
curriculum,  assessment,  and  teaching  methods  are  all  areas  where  schools 

171 

 
 
School climate 

School violence 
/aggression 

Social and emotional 
learning (SEL) 

Well-being 

commonly  have  a  degree  of  autonomy,  although  this  varies  between 
education systems454  
School  climate  refers to  psycho-social  characteristics  of  a  school  in  terms of 
relationships  among  students  and  staff/teachers,  learning  and  teaching 
processes  values  and  norms,  and  shared  approaches  and  practices.  Key 
include  positive  teacher-student 
aspects  of  a  positive  school  climate 
interactions,  safe  social  and  physical  spaces,  a  culture  promoting  inclusion 
and celebration of diversity, policies promoting social, emotional, ethical, civic 
and  intellectual  competences  and  engagement,  parental  and  community 
involvement, collaborative relationships amongst staff.  

School violence refers to aggressive acts that take place inside schools, when 
travelling  to  and  from  school  or  a  school-related  event.  It  includes  physical 
violence, sexual violence, bullying, and corporal punishment, and may be peer 
(student) or teacher mediated. There is widespread agreement that bullying 
is  a  subset  of  violence/aggression  while  subsets  of  bullying  include  sexual 
harassment,  discrimination,  hate  crime,  homophobia,  and  other  types  of 
social exclusion. 

Refers  to  the  process  through  which  children  and  adults  acquire  and 
effectively apply the knowledge, attitudes, and skills necessary to understand 
and manage emotions, set and achieve positive goals, feel and show empathy 
for others, establish and maintain positive relationships, build resilience, and 
make responsible decisions. Other terms used interchangeably include social 
and  emotional  education,  and  soft  skills.  The  EU  Lifelong  Learning 
Competence  Personal,  Social  and  Learning  to  Learn,  incudes  a  cognitive 
dimension  (Learning  to  learn)  besides  the  usual  intra  (Personal)  and  inter 
(Social) domains  

A dynamic  state in which students are  able to develop their potential, learn 
and play creatively, and productively, build positive relationships with others, 
and belong and contribute to their community. Definitions of wellbeing refer 
to two dimensions of wellbeing, namely subjective wellbeing (the individual’s 
experience  of  their  life)  and  objective  wellbeing  (the  comparison  of  life 
circumstances  with  social  norms  and  values).  The  latter  includes  health, 
education,  family,  socio-economic  status,  social  relationships,  safety  and 
security,  and  civic  participation/rights.  Subjective  wellbeing  refers  to 
children’s overall sense  of wellbeing, psychological functioning and affective 
states, namely their cognitive and affective evaluations of their lives, i.e. what 
they  think  about  life  satisfaction  as  a  whole  and  in  specific  areas  (home, 
school, friends, etc) and how they feel (happy, sad, bored, etc). 

The terms is used interchangeably with positive mental health 

  Emotional well-

being 

Presence of positive feelings (eg happiness) and absence of negative feelings 
(eg sadness, anger).  

  Psychological well-

Positive  self-esteem,  sense  of  autonomy,  satisfaction  with  life,  sense  of 

454   European Commission, European Education and Culture Executive Agency, Directorate-General for 
Education, Youth, Sport and Culture, Eurydice, Desurmont, A., Coghlan, M., School autonomy in 
Europe : policies and measures, Eurydice, 2008, https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2766/34099 

172 

 
 
                                                           
being 

control, hope for the future, the ability to develop relationships with others; 
ability to participate in the community. 

  Social well-being 

Healthy relationships, sense of belonging. 

Whole school approach 

A  'whole  school  approach'  is  an  ecological  way  of  viewing  a  school455.  This 
approach acknowledges that schools, families, communities, authorities, etc. 
are  distinct  but  connected  systems,  each  having  a  set  of  relationships  and 
mutual  influences  that  impact  the  individual.  The  school  is  seen  as  a 
multidimensional and interactive system that can learn and change; an open 
learning  hub  which  provides  support  to  its  neighbourhood  and  receives 
support  from the  community.  In a whole school approach to school success 
all members of the  school community (school leaders, middle management, 
teaching and non-teaching staff, learners, parents and families, and the local 
community)  feel  responsible  and  play  an  active  role  in  tackling  educational 
disadvantage  and  preventing  underachievement  and  drop-out,  as  well  as 
developing  a  safe,  inclusive  and  health  promoting  environment.  The  entire 
school community engages in a cohesive, collective and collaborative action, 
based  on  multi-disciplinarity  and  aimed  at  supporting  each  learner  in  the 
most appropriate way. It also implies a cross-sectoral approach and stronger 
cooperation  with  a  wide  range  of  stakeholders  (social  services,  youth 
services,  outreach care  workers,  psychologists,  nurses,  speech  and  language 
therapists,  career  guidance  specialists,  local  authorities,  NGOs,  business, 
unions,  volunteers,  etc.)  and  the  community  at  large,  to  deal  with  complex 
issues that schools do not (and cannot) have the relevant expertise for.  

A  whole  school  approach  to  well-being  includes  three  main  interrelated 
pillars,  namely  curriculum,  teaching,  and 
learning;  school  ethos  and 
environment; and family and community partnerships. Besides the curricular 
and  cross  curricular  approach  at  universal  level  (eg  Social  and  Emotional 
Learning  curriculum  for  all  students),  it  includes  adequate  support  for 
students  with  social  and  emotional  needs  (targeted  interventions),  positive 
classroom and whole school climates, the voice of the students in decisions at 
the  school,  the  education and  wellbeing of  school  staff  (including  their own 
social and emotional competence and wellbeing), and the active engagement 
and collaboration of parents, the community, and external agencies. 

455   The  underlying  model  is  that  which  is  presented  in  Bronfenbrenner,  U.,  (1979),  The  Ecology  of 
Human  Development:  Experiments  by  Nature  and  Design.  Harvard  University  Press.  His  ecological 
model of development takes account of development in a range of different contexts and does not 
only focus on the individual characteristics of the child or young person.   

173 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
                                                           
 
174 

 
 
 
 
 
Annex III – Sources and bibliography  

OFFICIAL EU POLICY DOCUMENTS  

Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic 
and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions on achieving the European Education Area by 
2025. COM(2020) 625 final. EUR-Lex - 52020DC0625 - EN - EUR-Lex (europa.eu) 

Council Recommendation of 28 June 2011 on policies to reduce early school leaving. Official Journal of 
the European Union C 191, 1.7.2011, pp. 1-6 https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/EN/TXT/?uri=OJ:C:2011:191:TOC   

Council Resolution on a strategic framework for European cooperation in education and training 
towards the European Education Area and beyond (2021-2030). Official Journal of the European Union 
(C 66, 26.2.2021, pp 1-21). EUR-Lex - C:2021:066:TOC - EN - EUR-Lex (europa.eu) 

Council conclusions on reducing early school leaving and promoting success in school. Official Journal of 
the European Union (C 417, 15.12.2015, pp. 36-40). EUR-Lex - C:2015:417:TOC - EN - EUR-Lex 
(europa.eu).  

Council Recommendation of 24 November 2020 on vocational education and training (VET) for 
sustainable competitiveness, social fairness and resilience (C 417, 2.12.2020, pp. 1-16). EUR-Lex - 
C:2020:417:TOC - EN - EUR-Lex (europa.eu).  

Commission Recommendation of 20 February 2013, Investing in children: breaking the cycle of 
disadvantage (2013/112/EU), Official Journal of the European Union (L 59/5, 2.3.2013). https://eur-
lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32013H0112&from=RO 

Commission Staff Working Document accompanying the document Proposal for a Council 
Recommendation establishing a European Child Guarantee, (SWD/2021/62 final). EUR-Lex - 
52021SC0062 - EN - EUR-Lex (europa.eu).  

Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic 
and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions on the EU strategy on the rights of the child, 
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 
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