Restoring nature : for the benefit of people, nature and the climate.
Date: 2022-06-20
Institutions: Directorate-General for Environment
Subjects: EU environmental policy, EU strategy, agricultural land, biodiversity, climate change, ecosystem, environmental economics, environmental protection, forestry policy, protected area, quality of life, quality of the environment, social impact, sustainable development

Restoring nature

For the benefit of people, nature  
and the climate

Environment

Manuscript completed in June, 2022

1st edition

This document should not be considered as representative of the European Commission’s official position. 

© European Union, 2022 

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Contents 

Foreword  

Stepping up action to reverse the loss of biodiversity in Europe 

Climate change and biodiversity loss – two parts of the same challange 

What does restoration mean in practice? 

The end goal: healthy ecosystems in a good condition 

Where is restoration needed? 

Restoring farmland, forests and urban ecosystems 

What makes a successful restoration project? 

The costs and benefits of restoration 

Paving the way for EU-level action 

From national restoration to a global ambition 

Case studies 

Examples of restoration projects undertaken across the EU 

Case studies continued 

Further reading 

Photo credits 

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44

Key message

In 2020, the EU adopted a new Biodiversity Strategy 
for 2030 setting out a comprehensive package of 
commitments and actions to put Europe's biodiversity 
back on the path to recovery by 2030. The Strategy 
calls on the Commission to put forward a proposal for 
legally binding EU nature restoration targets to fill the 
gaps in the existing regulatory framework and promote 
the restoration of degraded and carbon-rich ecosystems. 
Doing so will also give a major boost to Europe’s other 
key environmental challenge, that of climate adaptation 
and mitigation as well as disaster prevention.

Loop of the Lech river, near Epfach, Upper Bavaria, Germany.

R e s t o r i n g   n a t u r e

5
5

Frans Timmermans, 
Executive Vice-President of the 
European Commission in charge 
of the European Green Deal, and 
Commissioner for Climate Action 
Policy

Virginijus Sinkevičius, 
European Commissioner for 
Environment, Oceans and  
Fisheries

Foreword

It’s easy to be fooled by nostalgia and think everything was 
better in the past.

natural disasters. That means benefits for people, nature AND 
the climate. 

But if someone tells you that birds and bugs were far more 
common when they were young, they’re probably telling 
the truth. The science is clear about declining trends for 
biodiversity, which have now reached crisis levels everywhere, 
including in Europe. Human activities are causing a massive 
transformation of natural landscapes. Agriculture and 
forestry practices are becoming more intensive, our cities and 
infrastructure keep spreading, and nature is pushed further 
out of our lives.

These are just a few of the main drivers behind the loss of 
the very foundation of life on our planet. Climate change is an 
additional pressure, threatening nature, society, and our own 
livelihoods.

The climate and biodiversity crises are closely interlinked, and 
we need to tackle them together. The only way to limit global 
heating to 1.5°C is reversing nature loss AND halving emissions 
– both in this decade. 

This is why the EU Biodiversity Strategy for 2030 commits 
to a range of actions that are good for nature, climate and 
people. It is an ambitious plan to protect and manage our 
natural heritage, while restoring a wide variety of degraded 
ecosystems across the Union. Nothing removes carbon more 
efficiently and cheaply from the atmosphere than nature 
itself – our forests, wetlands and seas. So we should focus 
our efforts on ecosystems with the greatest potential for 
removing and storing carbon and reducing the impact of 

After 30 years of international and EU biodiversity policy and 
legislation, we know very well how to protect and restore 
ecosystems on land and at sea. We know about the huge 
benefits of nature-based solutions in a time of climate change. 
Now, we must implement them. 

Much of our economy depends on nature. In fact, over half of 
global GDP does. Not tackling nature degradation now, even 
if it has a price, will only make the problems worse and costs 
higher. Investing in nature restoration is a smart investment 
for our society, nature and the climate, and it’s time to roll it 
out on a far larger scale. 

This brochure therefore illustrates how it can be achieved. 
It shows that restoration is already happening across our 
continent, that it is feasible, and that it works. 

The payback from restoration is many times higher than 
the costs, as healthy ecosystems bring benefits to multiple 
sectors. Farmers benefit from improved soil quality and more 
assured pollination, communities from better flood protection, 
clean water and cooler cities, fishermen from recovering fish 
stocks, and the forestry sector from more resilient forests. 

Nature restoration is not a luxury for good times – it’s a vital 
investment in a sustainable future. We hope that the examples 
and success stories presented here will inspire many more, 
because we will need many more for the future stability of our 
planet. 

 
 
 
6

Stepping up action to reverse the 
loss of biodiversity in Europe

Climate change and biodiversity loss 
– two parts of the same challenge

Thanks to coordinated Europe-wide action, legislation and 
funding, the EU has succeeded in slowing down the rate of 
biodiversity decline over the last 30 years and prevented 
many of its most threatened species and habitats from being 
lost forever. 

However, although it is proven that species and habitats 
are doing better in Natura 2000 sites and protected areas, 
the EU has not actually managed to halt or reverse the 
loss of its biodiversity. The latest assessments show that 
still more nature is deteriorating than improving. There are 
many reasons for this ranging from changing land uses 
to agricultural intensification, hydrological modifications, 
urbanisation and pollution.

The degradation of Europe’s ecosystems has major 
consequences not only for biodiversity but also for our own 
health and wellbeing. Healthy ecosystems provide us with 
a wealth of ecosystem goods and services such as water 
purification, crop pollination, flood protection, carbon storage 
and sequestration. Their monetary value is considerable and 
virtually irreplaceable. 

Peatlands and wetlands, for instance, can store and 
sequestrate carbon as well as mitigate the effects of extreme 
weather events, such as floods. However, if they are destroyed, 
the opposite happens and they release large quantities of 
greenhouse gasses, thereby contributing even further to a 
changing climate. 

The wider environment outside protected areas in particular 
is becoming increasingly hostile and uninhabitable for 
biodiversity. Protection alone – although crucial – is no longer 
enough to reverse the loss of biodiversity in Europe. Too much 
of our nature has already been destroyed or degraded over the 
years. Stepping up restoration efforts is therefore essential.

Biodiversity loss and climate change are two crises that 
are intrinsically linked and depend on each other for their 
successful resolution. The more biodiverse and healthy the 
ecosystems, the more resilient they will be to climate change 
and the more effective in preventing and reducing the risk of 
disasters.

A major concerted effort is now needed to bring nature back 
to good health across the EU, in protected areas and beyond. 
This should be done on a sufficiently large scale to ensure the 
sustained long-term recovery of biodiversity, for the benefit of 
nature, the climate and people. 

This has been acknowledged at the highest level. The latest 
IPCC report of February 2022 calls for the implementation of 
urgent actions for the restoration of degraded ecosystems to 
mitigate the impacts of climate change, notably by restoring 
degraded wetlands, rivers, forests and agricultural ecosystems.

Recognising this, the EU Biodiversity Strategy for 2030 
commits the Commission to propose legally binding targets to 
restore degraded EU ecosystems, in particular those with the 
most potential to remove and store carbon and to reduce the 
impact of natural disasters. 

The EU’s climate policies also emphasise the crucial 
importance of natural sinks to capture and store carbon 
and the need to restore ecosystems to good condition using 
nature based solutions to help Europe mitigate and adapt to 
climate change. 

Sunrise with fog over heather landscape, Kampina Nature Reserve, Oisterwijk, The Netherlands.

R e s t o r i n g   n a t u r e

7

Using nature-based solutions 

Floods: a high cost for society 

The European Climate Law binds the EU to become climate neutral 
by 2050 and to reduce net greenhouse gas emissions by at least 
55% by 2030, compared to 1990 levels. 

Both the Climate Law and the EU’s Strategy on Adaptation to 
Climate Change fully recognise that working with nature is one of 
the most cost-effective and efficient ways of adapting to climate 
change and reducing the risk of extreme weather events and 
natural disasters. 

Such solutions can also be used to address many other societal 
objectives, such as improving water quality and retention, 
reducing coastal erosion and nutrient runoffs, etc. In short, they 
not only help to reduce social and environmental vulnerabilities 
but can also bring multiple other co-benefits for society, human 
health and the economy. Moreover, because of their innovative 
nature, they have proven to be more cost-effective than traditional 
measures involving heavy ‘grey’ infrastructure. 

In July 2021, several European countries were affected by severe 
floods. At least 243 people died. The flooding also led to widespread 
power outages, forced evacuations and damage to infrastructure 
and agriculture in the affected areas. The floods are estimated 
to have cost up to €2.55 billion in insured losses, with the total 
damage costs being much higher at a minimum of €10 billion.

In the aftermath, scientists highlighted the direct link with climate 
change and the fact that many of these rivers had been so 
severely altered that they could no long absorb excess rain water. 

Recognising the high social and financial costs of flood events, 
several authorities are now investing millions in restoring their 
rivers and natural floodplains to re-establish their natural functions. 
The paradox is that the cost of protecting these areas in the first 
place would probably have amounted to only a fraction of the 
amount now required to repair them and could have saved lives. 

The ecosystems benefits of different ecosystems 

Ecosystem type

Types of benefits identified 

Peatlands and wetlands 

Flood alleviation; carbon storage and sequestration; water quality improvements; recreation and other 
cultural services; paludiculture production.

Coastal and other saline wetlands

Storm surge mitigation; protection against coastal erosion; carbon storage and sequestration; water 
filtration; recovery of fish stocks; recreation and other cultural services.

Forests

Timber and non-timber forest products; carbon storage and sequestration; water and soil quality; flood 
prevention; protection against natural disturbances (droughts, fires, pests, avalanches); recreation and 
other cultural services. 

Grasslands and agro-ecosystems 

Food and fibre; water quality; flood management; soil quality; erosion control; pollination; climate 
regulation; cultural services (recreation, landscape, aesthetic values).

Steppe, heath and scrubland

Erosion control; water quality; flood management; fire prevention; food and fibre; pollination, cultural 
services (recreation, landscape and existence values).

Rivers, lakes and alluvial habitats

Fresh water; fisheries; wastewater treatment; water quality; flood management; soil quality; cultural 
services (landscape, aesthetic, inspirational and recreational). 

Marine ecosystems

Urban ecosystems

Carbon storage and sequestration; climate regulation; erosion control; water quality; food and fibre; fish 
stock regeneration; recreational services. 

Health and wellbeing; cooling and insulation (e.g. against urban heat island effect); recreation; food and 
fibre; flood risk reduction; water quality; air quality, noise reduction, property value increase. 

8

What does restoration  
mean in practice? 

The end goal: healthy ecosystems  
in a good condition

Restoration is a process aimed at assisting the recovery of an 
ecosystem that has been degraded, damaged or destroyed. 
The types of restoration measures needed will necessarily 
vary from one ecosystem to another and in function of 
its current state of degradation, species composition and 
sensitivity to change.

In general, restoration can involve either passive or active 
measures. Passive restoration could, for instance, involve 
protecting an area from human pressures and allowing it to 
recover of its own accord. The act of removing the pressures 
and threats on the area is enough in itself to enable the 
ecosystems, and their habitats and species, to recover 
naturally over time.

Active restoration is more often needed where the ecosystems 
have been heavily degraded or where regular management 
is needed (e.g. for semi-natural habitats like hay meadows). 
In addition to eliminating the source of degradation, active 
restoration will kick start the recovery process. This could, for 
instance, involve restoring hydrological conditions, removing 
invading scrub, adapting management and land use practices, 
or reconnecting a river with its surrounding floodplain. 

In some cases, the habitat may not only need to be improved 
but also re-established, for instance in the case of areas 
that have been transformed into an entirely different type of 
land use. Re-establishment is especially important when the 
existing habitat or ecosystem is simply too small to be viable 
over the long term, where an important part of its original 
range has been lost, or where two areas can be reconnected 
to form a larger, more resilient, and robust whole. 

The ultimate objective is for the ecosystems to reach a good 
condition. Good condition is a general concept – just as if 
one were to restore the health of a person that has suffered 
illness and exhaustion. It simply means that all the elements 
that make an ecosystem function properly are restored to 
good working order, so allowing the ecosystem to reach its full 
potential. 

In the case of an ecosystem, this means restoring both its 
quantity and its quality, especially as regards its physical 
state, its chemical state, its species composition, its structure, 
and its ability to function as a complex interconnected habitat 
taking into account external influences. The restoration 
process begins as soon as the restoration measures have 
been put in place, but this does not immediately result in the 
ecosystems reaching a good condition. It could take some time 
before the ecosystem reaches that stage. 

This is because different habitats recover at different rates. 
Experience has shown that a river or floodplain, for instance, 
might take a few years to reach its full ecological potential. A 
natural forest, raised bog or dry grassland, on the other hand, 
could take several decades or more to regain the full complex 
mix of plant and animal species that characterise it. 

Restored sites should also be protected from degrading again 
to ensure they reach and are maintained in a good condition. 
The EU Biodiversity Strategy commits EU Member States to 
protect 30% of the EU territory for nature by 2030, of which 
10% should be strictly protected. Restoration should therefore 
work hand in hand with this protection target to maximise the 
benefits. 

Saltmarsh and tidal channel, St. Peter Ording, Schleswig-Holstein Wadden Sea National Park, Germany.

R e s t o r i n g   n a t u r e

9

Typical restoration measures

Ecosystem type

Examples of restoration measures

Peatlands and 
wetlands

●   Halt peat extraction; block drainage ditches; restore hydrological 

water levels; remove encroaching scrub and trees, resolve pollution.

Coastal and other 
saline wetlands

●   Change the coastal defence systems to allow salt marshes to  

re-establish themselves and act as buffers during storms; restore 
the natural dynamics of the dune ecosystems. 

Forests

●   Diversify the age structure and tree species composition; protect 

Agro-ecosystems

large, old and senescent trees; progressively convert monocultures 
and replace fast growing exotics with native tree species better 
adapted to local conditions; increase amounts of dead / decaying 
wood, block drains, create open clearings; restrict large-scale 
clear-felling operations and introduce 'close to nature' forest 
management practices. 

●   Promote more extensive farming practices, such as grazing and 
mowing, compatible with farmland biodiversity. On arable land 
introduce biodiversity-rich landscape features such as flower strips, 
hedgerows, pockets of trees, fallow land, small ponds etc.; reduce 
fertiliser and pesticide use; convert to agro-ecological practices 
like organic production or agro-forestry; remove invading scrub; 
reintroduce extensive farming in newly restored grasslands; rewet 
peatlands under agricultural use.

Steppe, heath and 
scrubland

●   Remove invading scrub and alien species and re-introduce 

recurrent management practices that support the conservation of 
the habitats and species present; reconnect small sites with one 
another to create large healthier and more resilient ecosystem 
units; introduce erosion control measures.

Rivers, lakes and 
alluvial habitats

●   Remove lateral and longitudinal barriers to improve the flow of the 
river and improve its connectivity up and down stream; re-meander 
the river to allow more natural river flow; reconnect the river with 
the surrounding flood plains.

Marine ecosystems

Urban ecosystems

●   Restore marine habitats such as cold water reefs or Posidonia beds 
by prohibiting destructive practices such as bottom dredging or 
free mooring; use selective fishing gear and create no go zones 
to act as fish nurseries; replant seagrasses and rebuild cold water 
reefs in which marine biodiversity can shelter and develop.

●   Introduce green features into the urban landscape (shady tree 
lines, green roofs and walls); create sustainable urban drainage 
systems and reduce areas of impermeable concrete; increase green 
areas such as urban forests and parks and use natural vegetation 
to provide shelter for biodiversity; reduce use of fertilisers and 
pesticides; remove alien species.

10

Where is restoration  
needed? 

Restoring farmland, forests  
and urban ecosystems 

Due to its diverse climate, topography and soil conditions, 
the EU has a rich and diverse range of natural ecosystems. 
Amongst these, forests, croplands and grasslands are by far 
the most widespread, reflecting centuries of different land 
uses, especially farming, that have shaped our landscape and 
our biodiversity.

Within the eight broad ecosystem categories present in 
Europe, habitats exist that are particularly rich in biodiversity, 
or host rare or threatened species that are protected by 
existing conservation policies. It makes sense therefore to give 
them priority for restoration in order to improve their condition 
where they are still relatively intact or to re-establish them 
where they have been already lost. 

Obvious targets for restoration are those habitats capable of 
storing and sequestering large quantities of carbon – such as 
peatlands, old growth forests, or intact seagrass beds, or that 
can help mitigate extreme climate events – such as wetlands 
and free flowing rivers. 

More heavily modified ecosystems – such as cropland, 
intensive grassland, forest plantations and urban areas – 
should also be improved to achieve the Union’s climate and 
biodiversity objectives. Even if such modified ecosystems 
are not intrinsically rich in biodiversity, improving their 
health, resilience and biodiversity will render them more self 
sustaining and resilient to catastrophic events, such as floods, 
droughts, fires, disease. 

There are many benefits to be had from improving modified 
ecosystems. A shift from intensive farming for instance to 
more extensive agro-ecological farming practices will help 
to improve soil conditions, reduce nutrient pollution and the 
need for fertilisers. This will make agriculture more resilient to 
climate change and environmental risks, while also creating 
jobs, for example in organic farming, rural tourism and 
recreation. It will also increase the pollinator population. 

Because agriculture is also a major producer of greenhouse 
gasses, there is an urgent need to reduce such emissions. 
Carbon farming involves farming practices that not only 
sequester atmospheric carbon into the soil but also avoid 
the release of greenhouse gasses from organic soils. This is 
achieved by rewetting and improving soil conditions , leading to 
a more fertile agro-ecosystem harbouring a richer biodiversity.

A shift from commercial forest operations to more ‘close to 
nature’ forestry techniques and integrated forest management 
practices will help to stabilise the soil, purify the air and water 
and reduce the impact of natural disasters, such as wildfires 
and pest or diseases. They will also ensure Europe’s forests 
play a central role in climate mitigation since they will be 
better able to capture and store carbon. 

In the urban environment, biodiversity-rich green spaces – 
such as urban parks and forests, urban wetlands, community 
allotments, tree-lined avenues, green walls and roofs – can 
help render cities more sustainable, liveable and resilient. 

It will also help reduce the existing pressures on biodiversity by 
creating a less hostile environment which will in turn generate 
a whole range of other environmental, social and economic 
benefits that are currently not available. 

They can also offer solutions to major urban environmental 
problems, such as air and water pollution, noise, heatwaves 
and floods, and provide ample opportunities for recreation, 
relaxation, social interaction, education and discovery. 

Oulanka River, Finland. Woodland predominantly Spruce (Picea abies) and Silver Birch (Betula verrucosa).

R e s t o r i n g   n a t u r e

11

Share of terrestrial ecosystems

Carbon Farming

Inland wetlands (2.2%)

Sparse vegetation (1.6%)

Forest (36%)

Rivers and lakes (2.5%)

Heathland and scrub (4.2%)

Urban (5%)

Grassland (11%)

Cropland (36%)

Total (km2)
4,373,402

The figures are based on data for EU and the UK from 2018. 
The total EU + UK land area is almost 4.4 million km2. Marine 
ecosystems cover an even larger area estimated at 5.8 million km2.

Source: EU Ecosystem Assessment, European Environment Agency 2018

Examples of effective carbon farming practices include:

●  Restoration of drained peatlands and wetlands that reduces 
oxidation of the existing carbon stock and increases the 
potential for carbon sequestration; 

●  Targeted conversion of agricultural land to fallow or more 

extensive grasslands;

●  Use of catch crops, cover crops, conservation tillage and 

increasing landscape features: protecting soils, reducing soil 
loss by erosion and enhancing soil organic carbon on degraded 
arable land;

●  Agroforestry and other forms of mixed farming combining 
woody vegetation (trees or shrubs) with crop and/or animal 
production systems on the same land;

●  Afforestation and reforestation that respect ecological 

principles favourable to biodiversity and enhanced sustainable 
forest management, including biodiversity-friendly practices 
and adaptation of forests to climate change.

Restoration needs for habitats types listed in the EU Habitat Directive 

400,000

350,000

300,000

250,000

200,000

150,000

100,000

50,000

0

Wetlands (28)

Forests (69)

Grasslands (35)

Rivers and
lakes (32)

Heath and
scrub (21)

Rocky and
dunes (41)

Area to be re-established

Area to be restored

Area in good condition

Source: EEA: Restoration needs of habitats listed in Annex I of the Habitats Directive based on reporting by Member States (2013–2018). Romania is excluded because it reported Annex I areas 
exceeding the terrestrial area of the country. NB the figures are averages. They include habitats that have a poor or bad conservation status or an unknown status. 

Over 230 different habitat types have been included in the Habitats 
Directive because of their high biodiversity value. Together, they cover 
almost a quarter – 24% – of the EU land area, and 4.8% of the EU seas. 

In the marine environment, the area hosting habitats protected 
under the Habitats Directive and in need of restoration represents an 
average total of around 121.537 km2 representing less than 2% of the 
European marine area.

The European Environment Agency has made an estimate of the 
extent to which EU protected habitats need to be restored, in order 
that they reach a favourable conservation status across their natural 
range within the EU. The figures indicate that around a third of the 
total area is in need of restoration, or even re-establishment. This 
represents an average total of around 360,000 km2, or around 10% 
of the total EU land. 

However, the need for restoration clearly goes beyond Annex I habitat 
types. Additional restoration measures will also have to be taken, 
among others, for marine areas, for habitats of species and for heavily 
modified ecosystems to make them more biodiversity friendly. Rough 
estimations point to a need for restoration measures on about 20% 
of the land and sea by 2030.

12

What makes a successful  
restoration project? 

The costs and benefits  
of restoration 

For a restoration programme or project to be successful, 
several factors have to be considered. The first is the scale 
of the restoration works: the greater the area over which 
restoration is done, the more impact this will have on 
the ecosystem as a whole. Strategic large-scale projects 
may require significantly more preparation and planning, 
underpinned by sound science and monitoring, but are also 
much more effective at reversing biodiversity decline. 

Small-scale initiatives, on the other hand, have been shown 
to have only a limited impact on biodiversity beyond the local 
area. They are also less sustainable over the long term. 

Another essential factor for success is early dialogue between 
all sectors and stakeholders from the outset. This will help to 
define common goals and identify potential wins-wins as well 
as co-benefits for all concerned. It will also make it easier to 
find acceptable solutions that can achieve the same goal but 
with fewer trade-offs. 

The cost of restoring natural ecosystems will be necessarily 
significant considering the large areas over which restoration 
is needed. But the benefits that will be derived from healthy 
restored ecosystems are expected to be even greater.

Several detailed economic analyses have demonstrated that 
the monetary value of the benefits derived from restoration 
are on average 8–10 times greater than the initial investment 
costs, and this is consistent across all types of ecosystems. 

In the case of the biodiversity-rich habitats protected under 
the Habitats Directive, restoring them to a good condition over 
10% of the total EU territory, is estimated to cost in total 154 
billion. 

By comparison the projected benefits are expected to reach 
1,860 billion € – a cost benefit ratio of 1:12 in favour of 
benefits. The cost of inaction is also much higher than the 
restoration costs, estimated at 1,700 billion €. 

The restoration of natural ecosystems is often a complex 
operation. Not everything can be predicted in advance, but 
again the larger the area targeted and the more strategic 
the restoration project, the more room there is to adapt the 
approach in function of first results so as to maximise the 
recovery success. 

Another important consideration is that, typically, the cost of 
nature-based solutions is significantly lower than the cost of 
man-made solutions. Studies have shown that reconnecting 
a river to its floodplains to absorb excess flood water is 
far cheaper than building a concrete storm basin further 
upstream.

Not everything can be restored either, hence the need for 
strategic long-term planning and strong policy integration 
to prioritise ecosystems that are in most urgent need of 
restoration and to ensure that the policy response is coherent, 
providing co-benefits for several sectors at once. 

The EU has agreed to commit 10% of its budget to biodiversity 
by the end of 2026 and 30% to climate change over the 
period 2022-2027. Many opportunities therefore exist under 
the whole range of EU funding programmes to support large-
scale ecosystem restoration projects across the EU. 

Pastureland carpeted with Dandelions (Taraxacum officinale) after the retreat of spring floods, Biebrza National Park, Podlaskie, Poland.

R e s t o r i n g   n a t u r e

13

Key elements of a successful 
restoration project 

Converting to paludiculture: an 
alternative to farming on peatlands 

●  Use of sound science (e.g. knowledge of site, pressures, existing 

land uses and restoration requirements); 

●  Strategic long-term programming to prioritise ecosystems in 

most urgent need of restoration; 

●  Large-scale restoration initiatives over a significant area, or 

even a region; 

●  Solid cross-sector partnerships to ensure better policy 

integration that maximise co-benefits and win-win opportunities;

●  Active engagement and involvement of all sectors and 

stakeholders from the outset (including sufficient rewards and 
compensation opportunities where needed);

●  SMART restoration measures based on past practical 

experience and careful planning; 

●  Sufficient and sustainable funding over the long term to match 

the restoration programme;

●  Regular monitoring and adaptive management to maximise the 

impacts, speed of recovery and the chance of success; 

●  Take the necessary measures to ensure the long-term 
maintenance in good condition of the restored area.

Restoring urban biodiversity

Drained peatlands under intensive agricultural use make up only 
3% of the EU’s utilised agricultural area but are responsible for 
25% of the greenhouse gas emissions from the EU’s agricultural 
sector. Recognising this, the new CAP Regulation for 2022–2027 
has banned the further conversion of peatlands and wetlands to 
agricultural land. 

But, in order to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from these areas, 
it will also be important to restore existing drained peatlands that are 
being used for arable or intensive grassland farming. This will turn 
them into net carbon sinks. This does not necessarily mean taking the 
area out of agricultural production. Paludiculture is a form of farming 
on wet or rewetted peatlands that cultivates crops adapted to high 
water levels, such as reed, black alder and peat moss and berries. 

These crops can have a higher value both financially and 
ecologically. They can be processed for use as insulation and 
construction materials, as bio-refinery products as well as for 
livestock fodder and fuel, amongst others. Paludiculture is also 
excellent for biodiversity, allowing the co-existence of typical 
wetland birds and other species.

Urban ecosystems represent only a small proportion of the EU’s total 
land area, yet this is where the majority of Europeans live and work. 
Contrary to popular belief, many European cities harbour a surprisingly 
rich biodiversity, including endangered species, and can play an 
important role in their conservation.  A recent study found that 82% of 
the EU cities with a population of over 50,000 inhabitants have one or 
more Natura 2000 sites within their boundaries. In total, 2842 Natura 
2000 sites are located at least partly within cities, representing around 
10% of the Natura 2000 network.

Until now urban development has been seen mainly as a threat to 
nature due to its appetite for land. Whilst this remains true, it ignores 
the important role that cities can play in safeguarding biodiversity and 
the vital contribution urban areas can make in improving the quality 
of life and sustainability of the cities themselves. In addition to the 
ecosystem services they provide, biodiversity-rich green spaces, such 
as Natura 2000 sites, offer attractive areas for recreation, relaxation 
and social interaction as well as education and discovery. In the city, 
nature is ‘up close and personal’ rather than distant and abstract.

14

Paving the way for  
EU-level action 

From national restoration  
to a global ambition 

The European Green Deal has set out an ambitious roadmap 
to transform the Union into a fair and prosperous society, with 
a modern, resource-efficient and competitive economy, aiming 
to protect, conserve and enhance the Union’s natural capital, 
and to protect the health and well-being of citizens from 
environment-related risks and impacts. 

As part of the European Green Deal, the Commission has 
adopted an EU Biodiversity Strategy for 2030 which aims to 
ensure that Europe’s biodiversity will be put on the path to 
recovery by 2030 for the benefit of people, the planet, the 
climate and our economy. 

The Strategy sets out an ambitious EU nature restoration plan 
with a number of key commitments, including a commitment 
to put forward a proposal for legally binding EU nature 
restoration targets to restore degraded ecosystems.

In order to ensure a strategic and coordinated approach across 
the EU, Member States will be asked to draw up National 
Restoration Plans to demonstrate how the EU level targets will 
be met over the coming decades. 

This should be done in a similar way to the ten-year national 
energy and climate plans being developed under the Clean 
Energy for all Europeans Package, so that priorities and 
co-benefits can be identified and a strategic long-term 
programme set up that is based on sound science and 
extensive stakeholder dialogue. 

This will enable the EU to act with urgency and start restoring 
ecosystems as soon as possible. It should also pave the way 
for a broad range of ecosystems in the EU to be restored and 
maintained by 2050, with measurable results by 2030 and 
2040. 

The previous Biodiversity Strategy to 2020 had set a voluntary 
target of restoring 15% of degraded ecosystems by 2020, but 
this target was not met, principally due to the voluntary nature 
of the commitment. Hence the intention now of creating an 
EU wide restoration framework with legally binding EU nature 
restoration targets.

Having legally binding EU restoration targets will also facilitate 
the integration of this restoration objective into all other EU 
sector policies, including the EU’s climate objectives, and 
so ensure a more coherent policy response that is capable 
of generating co-benefits for all. EU level targets will also 
facilitate the financing of large-scale restoration projects from 
various EU funding sources. 

The new nature restoration law will also demonstrate global 
leadership and help to mobilise the international community 
to take action to reverse the loss of biodiversity worldwide. 
Later in 2022, the Conference of the Parties (COP15) of the 
Convention on Biological Diversity is expected to conclude a 
new global biodiversity framework that includes ambitious 
restoration targets. 

The EU’s Biodiversity Strategy for 2030 and forthcoming 
proposal for nature restoration legislation will send a strong 
signal to the global community that the EU is taking its 
commitment seriously. It could also serve as inspiration for 
other countries to adopt similar ambitious policies on nature 
restoration.

Meadowland, near Talsi, Latvia.

R e s t o r i n g   n a t u r e

15

Majority of Europeans are in favour 
of EU level restoration targets 

The UN Decade for Restoration –  
10 years to restore our planet

European public support for nature restoration has been 
consistently strong over the years and the engagement to protect 
and restore nature among citizens, especially among the young, is 
on the rise. 

According to the Eurobarometer survey on biodiversity (2018–
2019), over three quarters of Europeans totally agreed that we have 
a responsibility to look after nature and that doing so is essential in 
tackling climate change. Respondents also ranked the restoration 
of nature as one of the most important actions that the EU should 
take to protect biodiversity. 

The call to restore nature is 
not just a European initiative. 
It is a global ambition. To 
draw attention to the urgent 

need to restore natural all around the world, the UN General 
Assembly declared 2020 the ‘Decade of Ecological Restoration'. 
Led by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and 
the Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO), the Decade aims to 
build a strong, broad-based global movement to ramp up and build 
political momentum for restoration. 
https://www.decadeonrestoration.org/strategy

This public interest is also apparent in the replies to recent public 
consultation on the forthcoming restoration initiative under the 
EU Biodiversity Strategy to 2030. Of the 104,471 replies received, 
95% fully agreed that the EU should set legally binding targets for 
Member States to restore degraded ecosystems.

To further support the Decade, a consortium of organisations led 
by The UNEP’s World Conservation Monitoring Centre has compiled 
a database of over 4000 ecosystem restoration projects within 
Europe which is available on: 
www.restorationfunders.com

Restoring Europe’s rivers over at least 25,000 km by 2030

Europe’s rivers, lakes and alluvial habitats are subjected to a wide 
range of pressures including hydromorphological changes, such 
as canalisation, building of dams and bank reinforcements. The 
Biodiversity Strategy to 2030 calls for greater efforts to restore the 
natural functions of rivers and step up efforts to achieve the Water 
Framework Directive objectives. 

The Strategy, in particular, sets the target of making at least 25 
000 km of rivers free-flowing again by 2030, primarily by removing 
obsolete barriers and restoring floodplains and wetlands. Such 
measures will not only help Europe’s freshwater ecosystems thrive 

again but will also improve their capacity to deliver other valuable 
ecosystem services, such as flood protection, water purification and 
recreational opportunities. 

In December 2021, The Commission issued guidance to help Member 
States identify and prioritise the barriers to be removed, highlighting 
possible EU funding sources for such works. Particular attention is 
also paid to restoring the biodiversity value of the rivers and their 
surrounding floodplains, and so making the rivers passable again for 
rare iconic species such as the Danube salmon, Atlantic sturgeon or 
European eel. 

16
16

Case studies

a

B

PEatland: 
Restoring Ireland’s peatlands

RivERs: 
Skjern River Restoration – Denmark 

Peatlands are a unique habitat that have formed over millions 
of years. They host an exceptional array of species of plants, 
birds and other animals that are often found nowhere else. 
Peatlands also store huge amounts of carbon within its peat 
layer which can be 20 metres deep in places, giving it that 
characteristic spongy feel underfoot. 

Ireland hosts a significant proportion of Europe’s peatlands. 
For centuries, this was also the country’s main source of 
energy. Extraction was done on an industrial scale resulting in 
the loss of most of Ireland’s peatlands. But mounting pressure 
to protect biodiversity, reduce GHG emissions and revert to 
more efficient energy sources lead the Irish government to 
announce the phasing out of peat for electricity in 2020. The 
last peat-fuelled power plant was closed down that same year. 

In 2017, the EU LIFE Funded ‘Living Bog’ project was launched 
to restore 3000 ha of raised bog in 12 Natura 2000 sites 
across seven counties. Drains were blocked, water levels raised 
and invading trees and scrub removed in order to restore the 
original hydrological and ecological conditions that would allow 
the bog to recover fully over time. 

A key to the success of the project was the extensive 
engagement with stakeholders which has ensured the 
acceptance of restoration across the project sites and beyond. 

Buoyed by the success of the project, the Irish government, in 
cooperation with the electricity company Bord na Mona, is  
now embarking on an even more ambitious peatland 
restoration programme for the entire country, called the 
“Peatlands and People” project. It will receive a further 10€ 
million through a climate action initiative funded by the EU’s 
new Recovery Fund. 

Skjern River in western Jutland is one of the largest rivers 
in Denmark. At its mouth there was once a huge expanse of 
meadows, reed-swamps, meandering watercourses, fens and 
shallow lakes, which were a prime habitat for thousands of 
migrating birds and other wildlife. 

In the 1960s, a major land reclamation project was 
undertaken to straighten and embank the river and turn the 
surrounding marshland into agricultural land. At first, the crops 
were fairly successful. But, as time went on, their productivity 
diminished drastically despite the application of increasing 
large quantities of fertiliser. The high nutrient levels also led 
to the silting up and eutrophication of the Ringkøbing fjord 
further downstream. 

In 1987, faced with all this farmland of low quality, the 
government decided to launch a major restoration project for the 
Skjern River and surrounding land. This was to become the largest 
restoration project of its kind in northern Europe, costing some 
costing 35 million €  to which LIFE contributed a part. The river 
was re-excavated and placed into a more natural meandering 
river bed over 26 km and some 2200 ha were reconverted to 
marshland. The water quality quickly improved both here and 
in the neighbouring Fjord. Wildlife came back in significant 
numbers almost as soon as the construction works ended.

But the story does not end there. The site also quickly became 
a magnet for visitors in search of nature. By the end of the 
project some 350,000–400,000 people were using the new 
created nature trails. The farmers were also given support to 
adopt more extensive nature friendly farming practices. A cost 
benefit analysis of the restoration project concluded that the 
overall cost of the project will be more than compensated for 
by the local economic opportunities it is generating.

 R e s t o r i n g   n a t u r e

17
17

C

d

MaRinE:
Restoring Posidonia beds in Spain 

FoREst:
Restoring Finland’s Forests 

Posidonia oceanica is a type of seagrass endemic to the 
Mediterranean Sea. It grows in waters up to 40 m deep where 
it forms large underwater meadows that act as important 
refuges and feeding grounds for hundreds of different marine 
species. Yet, despite their value, over half of Europe’s Posidonia 
beds have been damaged or degraded over the years.

In southern and western Finland, natural boreal forests, bog 
woodlands and esker forests were once extensive, providing 
vitally important refuges for wild plants and animals. The 
majority of these forests have since been converted to 
commercial operations which are generally dense and uniform, 
and as a consequence, relatively uninhabitable for wildlife. 

Posidonia beds are not just rich biodiversity hubs, they are also 
vitally important for other reasons. They protect the coastline 
from erosion by diminishing the energy of the waves and 
stabilising sediments. They provide a spawning ground and 
nursery for juvenile fish, which helps to replenish commercial 
fish stocks. They also store and sequestrate vast quantities of 
carbon, estimated at half a million tonnes a year. 

The waters around Andalusia host around 6,700 ha of seagrass 
meadows, 90% of which is now protected in 12 Natura 2000 
sites. In 2010, a first EU LIFE project was launched to map and 
study the conservation needs of Posidonia beds in the region. 
Measures were also taken to reduce on-going threats in order 
to allow the habitat to recover naturally. 

Several initiatives have also been launched since to restore 
already damaged Posidonia beds. This includes pioneering 
work by IMEDEA (Instituto Mediterraneo de Estudios 
Avanzados) which has been investigating the restoration of 
Posidonia beds since 2008. Building on this expertise the 
Red Eléctrica de España transplanted seagrass fragments 
and seeds grown under laboratory conditions into degraded 
meadows, using, for example, trenches used to lay submarine 
electricity cables. 

In 2003, a large-scale forest restoration project was launched 
under the EU LIFE Fund to improve the conservation status 
of these three forest habitats within 33 Natura 2000 sites 
in Southern Finland. At the time, it was the largest forest 
restoration project of its kind in Finland. The project undertook 
a series of measures to re-naturalise the forest structure and 
reconnect isolated patches. This included diversifying the age 
and size of the trees, increasing the amount dead or decaying 
wood, and opening up forest clearings.

The project proved to be so successful that it was transformed 
into a major national restoration programme – the Forest 
Biodiversity Programme METSO 2008–2025 – with a budget 
of 30 million € a year. METSO is based on a voluntary 
approach which encourages private owners to offer their 
forests up for temporary or permanent conservation. In 
exchange they receive full financial compensation equivalent 
to the value of timber. 

The METSO objectives are to have 96,000 hectares of forest 
established as permanently protected areas and to safeguard 
biodiversity on 82,000 hectares in commercially managed 
forests by means of fixed-term environmental forestry subsidy 
agreements and nature management projects. 

The experiment proved to be a success with 90% of the 
meadows surviving until the 2nd year. But, the restoration 
costs remain high. Ultimately, the most effective solution is to 
protect the remaining healthy seagrass beds so that they can 
recover naturally on their own. 

The programme has been warmly welcomed by forest 
owners, NGOs, forest companies and authorities alike. It 
has also prompted the government to launch a second 
major programme – HELMI – to restore biodiversity in other 
ecosystems as well.

 Examples of restoration projects 
undertaken across the EU 

2

5

7

Dune ecosystem revival, 
Netherlands
Restoring dune complexes and salt 
marshes along the North Sea coast 
to enhance biodiversity and mitigate 
coastal erosion
https://bit.ly/3QoSnl8

Restoring Hortobagy’s salt 
steppes, Hungary
Restoring the salt steppes and 
marshes of the Hortobágy Puszta 
and re-introducing extensive 
farming. 
https://bit.ly/3JB0aIO

3

8

Krkonoše grassland restoration, 
Czechia
Restoring species rich grasslands 
and hay meadows in the Krkonoše 
Mountains and promoting their farm 
products to tourists.
https://bit.ly/37JiQYG

a

2

E

14

1

18
18

La Bassée wetlands restoration, 
France
Providing newly created biodiverse 
wetlands and flood protection for 
Paris through the restoration of 
disused gravel pits. 
https://bit.ly/36AkeMN

Restoring karst grasslands, 
Croatia
Reintroducing extensive farming 
in the Dinaric Karst mountains to 
restore biodiversity and protect water 
supplies from underground aquifers. 
https://bit.ly/3L7KRaL

1

4

6

9

Lake Cerknica restoration, 
Slovenia
Restoring Europe’s largest 
intermittent lake to protect local 
aquafers and promote nature 
friendly land uses
https://bit.ly/3wvX2dC

Restoration of Natura 2000 sites 
around Bratislava, Slovakia
Re-establishing a functional network 
of Natura 2000 sites around the 
city and promoting sustainable 
recreational activities.
https://bit.ly/36AlM9z

Restoration of Laurel forests on  
la Gomera, the Canaries, Spain
Ecological restoration of ancient 
laurel forests following a 
devastating forest fire in 2012.
https://bit.ly/3wzVqxH

10

Boreal Baltic Coastal meadow 
restoration, Estonia 
Supporting farmers to restore and 
manage thier coastal meadows and 
market their products.
https://bit.ly/3qtq8q0

Restoring the Vindel river,  
Sweden
Renaturalising Vindel river and its 
tributaries to improve biodiversity, 
water quality and fish spawning 
grounds.
https://bit.ly/3Nh5OSw

Canary & Selvagens Is.

Azores Is.

H

C

8

Madeira Is.

Sites on Map

0

110

220

330 km

0

200

400

600 km

0

75

150

225 km

a

1

Case studies

Projects

0

500

1000

1500 km

Examples of restoration projects 

undertaken across the EU 

10

3

13

6

B

F

R e s t o r i n g   n a t u r e

19
19

11

12

Regenerating the Appenine beech 
forests, Italy
Enhancing the biodiversity of 
ancient beech forests whilst 
maintaining a revenue for the local 
population. 
https://bit.ly/3LdTcKl

Revitalising the Salt pans of 
Atanasovsko lake, Bulgaria 
Restoring natural processes for the 
benefit of biodiversity, the local 
economy and inhabitants.
https://bit.ly/3JyErB3

13

14

Integrated river solutions, Austria
Integrative planning approaches 
for the ecological remediation of 
rivers while also improving flood 
protection.
https://bit.ly/3JEtbTQ

River Alzette renaturalisation, 
Luxembourg 
Renaturalisation works along a  
20 km stretch to reduce flood risk, 
benefit biodiversity and improve 
water quality.
https://bit.ly/3qwsSDe

d

9

G

15

16

15

16

Restoring the mires and fens of 
Amalvas Lithuania
Restoring the hydrological and 
ecological functions of the wetlands 
to reverse their degradation and 
improve their capacity to store CO2.
https://bit.ly/3JIcBT9

Coordination action for restoring 
bogs, Poland
Working in 5 countries to rewet 
degraded 5300 ha of peatlands to 
restore their natural function as 
carbon sinks.
https://bit.ly/3qx2SaV

17

18

Restoring endemic Juniperus 
forests, Cyprus
Restoration methods were tried and 
tested for this rare habitat, resulting 
in a tripling of its surface area in 
Cyprus.
https://bit.ly/3uoM6vJ

Re-establishing Mahmudia 
wetlands, Romania 
Restoring dune complexes and salt 
marshes along the North Sea coast 
to enhance biodiversity and mitigate 
coastal erosion
https://bit.ly/3wvDBBt

19

20

18

12

20

17

Restoring valuable maquis and 
woodlands in Malta
Planting of trees and shrubs to 
restore the biodiversity of the island 
of Comino to counter drought and 
climate change.
https://bit.ly/3qxRMSS

Integrated marine restoration, 
Northern Cyclades, Greece 
Restoring Posidonia beds, reefs and 
partially submerged marine caves 
for the benefit of marine biodiversity 
in cooperation with local fishermen.
https://bit.ly/3JBzUOA

7

5

4

11

19

0

500

1000

1500 km

20
20

Case studies continued

E

F

FloodPlains:
Schelde Sigma Plan II – Belgium 

URBan:
Emscher Industrial Park – Germany 

The Sigma Plan II is a long-term strategy to manage flood 
protection and nature restoration within the Scheldt estuary, a 
highly urbanised area on the edge of Antwerp in Belgium. The 
Plan includes a list of 50 projects to be carried out between 
2006 and 2030, covering 5,000 hectares. 

The projects have a dual purpose: to provide flood protection 
and to restore nature and biodiveristy along the Scheldt river 
and its tributaries. Ecological rehabilitation targets were 
defined through scientific research in order to ensure the 
re-establishment of the estuary’s ecological processes and to 
improve their organisation, vigour and resistance. 

Every five years, a new batch of Sigma Plan II projects 
are set in motion. The first step is to identify and select a 
location for flood control. Next, the project is developed by a 
multidisciplinary team of scientists, economists, sociologists, 
landscape architects and ecologists, with the participation 
of local government administrations, nature associations, 
hunters, fishermen. 

The selection of projects is also based on a social cost-benefit 
analysis (SCBA). The SCBA has shown that an approach based 
on improving the natural infrastructure is cheaper than the 
construction and maintenance of a storm surge barrier near 
Antwerp, which was one of the hypotheses that was taken into 
consideration when preparing the Plan. 

The SCBA also valued the flood protection benefits at €740 
million, the recreational benefits at €22 million and the 
ecological benefits/ecosystem services at €130 million 
(actualised benefits for the period 2010–2100) which 
demonstrated that the benefits of the Sigma Plan II are higher 
than the costs. The total cost of the Sigma Plan II over the period 
2006–2030 is €469 million (i.e. about €100,000 per hectare). 

In a bid to revitalise the derelict Emscher area in the Rhurgebiet 
(Germany’s industrial heartland), a major urban renewal and 
ecological enhancement programme was launched in the 
1990s over 800 km2 within a highly contaminated former 
industrial and coal mining area. The programme was done 
in close co-operation with 17 cities of the Emscher region, 
representing collectively over 2 million inhabitants. 

The process was led by the ‘IBA Emscher Park Planning 
Company Ltd’ who sought the active participation of public 
authorities, construction and development companies, 
architects, ecologists, historians and the general public. 
Ecological concerns were included in the development process 
right from the outset. The restoration of the region’s  
remaining natural areas was also one of the programme’s  
five key objectives. 

Particular attention was paid to restoring the Emscher river 
and its tributaries, and to developing a modern sewage and 
drainage system for the entire area. A unique green corridor 
was also created connecting all 17 cities using existing water-
courses and green spaces. The resulting Emscher Landscape 
Park is 70 km long and incorporates a wide range of newly 
restored natural habitats, regenerated brown field sites and 
recreational areas. 

Recognising the historical value of the old industrial buildings 
and mines, the programme also restored and preserved 
the remaining relicts of the industrial era, and turned some 
into useful public space. Overall, this large-scale urban 
regeneration scheme has not only succeeded in turning 
a depressed industrial zone into an economically active 
region again, but, by building ecological concepts into the 
development process at the outset, it has also created a very 
attractive area in which to live and work. 

 R e s t o r i n g   n a t u r e

21
21

G

H

GRassland:
Restoration of Grasslands in Latvia 

aGRiCUltURE :
Restoring cork oak forests in Portugal 

As elsewhere in Europe, semi-natural grasslands in 
Latvia have been disappearing from the landscape at an 
unprecedented rate. This results not only in a significant loss of 
biodiversity, but also removes an important part of our cultural 
identity and heritage. Yet, semi natural grasslands remain an 
integral part of Europe’s agriculture policies. Their products 
are also gaining more and more appreciation due to their high 
quality, low environmental impact and enhanced taste.

To redress the losses of the past and increase the economic 
viability of farming on semi-natural grasslands, the GrassLIFE 
project was launched in 2017 to restore priority grasslands 
over more than 1320 ha within 14 Natura 2000 sites. Twelve 
farms were involved in restoration and a demonstration farm 
has been set up to showcase different restoration techniques 
and develop best practices that can be applied on a wider 
scale.

Mobile grazing units have also been set up to bring the 
cattle to long-abandoned grasslands and to kick start their 
restoration. They have received tremendous interest from 
landowners willing to welcome mobile grazing units to their 
grasslands. 

Recognising that extensive farming practices often struggle 
to compete with larger more intensive agricultural holders, 
the project has paid particular attention to finding ways 
of improving the economic value of sustainable grassland 
management. A detailed study was undertaken to explore 
ways of improving the potential added value of grassland 
products including meat, dairy, honey, grass products, as well 
as wild medicinal plants and textile. This is now being used to 
help Latvian farmers improve their economic viability and to 
showcase products and businesses with high added value that 
are based on semi-natural grasslands. 

The southern region of Portugal between the Tagus and Sado 
rivers hosts the largest continuous area of cork oak landscape 
in the country, covering around half a million hectares. This is
also the heartland of cork oak production which has sustained 
the local economy for centuries and provided farmers with  
a steady income from both cork and extensive livestock 
farming. 

Well managed cork oak areas are also major biodiversity 
hotspots and provide many important ecosystem services 
such as carbon storage, wildfire inhibition and water storage. 
The main aquifer in the area provides water to 1 million 
inhabitants living south of Lisbon.

However, over the years significant areas have been degraded 
or lost through the combined effects of bad management, 
conversion to fast growing Eucalyptus plantations and land 
abandonment. This has had major social, economic and 
environmental consequences. 

In 2011, WWF launched the Green Heart of Cork project to 
protect, manage and restore the cork oak landscapes in 
southern Portugal in close collaboration with the farmers. 
Major areas were restored with the help of EU Rural 
Development Funds and a new ‘Payment for Ecosystem 
Services’ (PES) Scheme was set up to support farmers within 
the watershed who managed their FSC certified forests in 
accordance with ecological principles. 

The PES scheme is still ongoing and receives significant 
financial support from a major international bottling company 
that is dependent upon clean water from the aquifer for its 
production process. The farmers also now receive support 
from an EU agri-environmental scheme to manage their 
forests in a more sustainable and nature friendly way. 

 22
22

Further reading 

European Commission's nature restoration webpage:
https://ec.europa.eu/environment/strategy/biodiversity-strategy-2030/eu-nature-restoration-
targets_en 

The EU Biodiversity Strategy to 2030: 
https://ec.europa.eu/environment/strategy/biodiversity-strategy-2030_en 

EU Biodiversity Strategy Actions tracker: https://bit.ly/3pXGWWr 
Targets dashboard: https://bit.ly/3pY8Ykr 

European Commission’s report on State of Nature (2013–2018): 
https://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/knowledge/rep_habitats/index_en.htm 

Brochure on State of Nature in the EU 
https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/911cf28a-5ad1-11eb-b59f-
01aa75ed71a1/language-en/format-PDF/source-191495597

The EU Green deal: 
https://ec.europa.eu/info/strategy/priorities-2019-2024/european-green-deal_en 

EU Climate Law: 
https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32021R1119

EU Climate Adaptation Strategy: 
https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=COM:2021:82:FIN

Nature Based solutions in Europe: Policy, knowledge and practice for climate change 
adaptation and disaster risk reduction:
https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/nature-based-solutions-in-europe

Carbon farming in the EU: 
https://ec.europa.eu/clima/eu-action/forests-and-agriculture/sustainable-carbon-cycles/
carbon-farming_en

IPCC Nature Leaders Pledge: 
https://ukcop26.org/nature/

IPCC 2022 report:
https://www.ipcc.ch/report/sixth-assessment-report-working-group-ii/

IPBES report “Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services” 2019: 
https://ipbes.net/global-assessment

R e s t o r i n g   n a t u r e

23

Photo credits

Cover: © Tim Graham / Alamy Stock Photo

Pages 4, 7, 9, 11, 15: © bavariaimages / Alamy Stock Photo

Page 5: © European Union

Page 6: © David Pattyn / naturepl.com

Page 7: © dpa picture alliance archive / Alamy Stock Photo; © Imageplotter / Alamy Stock Photo

Page 8: © Sandra Bartocha / naturepl.com

Page 9: © Robert Thompson / naturepl.com; © David Woodfall / naturepl.com;  
© Staffan Widstrand / naturepl.com; © Paul Harcourt Davies / naturepl.com;  
© David Pattyn / naturepl.com; © Wild Wonders of Europe / Widstrand / naturepl.com;  
© Shane Gross / naturepl.com; © Sternenfrollein / Alamy Stock Photo

Page 10: © Wild Wonders of Europe / Widstrand / naturepl.com

Page 12: © Nick Upton / naturepl.com

Page 13: © IPGGutenbergUKLtd / iStock

Page 14: © Niall Benvie / naturepl.com

Page 15: © Bob Gibbons / Alamy Stock Photo; © Marina Vol / iStock;  
© Juan Carlos Munoz / naturepl.com

Page 16: © Wild Wonders of Europe / Hermansen / naturepl.com;  
© Lars S. Madsen / Alamy Stock Photo

Page 17: © Shane Gross / naturepl.com; © Wild Wonders of Europe / Widstrand / naturepl.com

Page 18: © Luis Quinta /naturepl.com; © EPTB Seine Grands Lacs; © CreativeNature_nl / iStock;  
© Marcin Jozwiak / iStock; © Goran Šafarek / Alamy Stock Photo; © evryka23 / iStock;  
© Pavliha / iStock; © TomasSereda / iStock; © peangdao / iStock;  
© Remo Savisaar / Alamy Stock Photo; © Imagebroker / Alamy Stock Photo

Page 19: © Staffan Widstrand /naturepl.com; © Cristina Annibali / Alamy Stock Photo;  
© www.saltoflife.biodiversity.bg; © DMPalino / iStock; © JacobH / iStock;  
© blickwinkel / Alamy Stock Photo; © Studio Barcelona / Alamy Stock Photo;  
© christophe cappelli / Alamy Stock Photo; © EyeEm / Alamy Stock Photo;  
© Oleg Upalyuk / Alamy Stock Photo; ©  imageBROKER / Alamy Stock Photo

Page 20: © Geerthuysman.be / Alamy Stock Photo; © mauritius images GmbH / Alamy Stock Photo

Page 21: © GrassLIFE / Latvian Fund for Nature; © Adrian Davies / naturepl.com;  
© Sven Zacek / naturepl.com

Production credits

Author: Kerstin Sundseth, Ecosystems LTD, Brussels 

Coordinators: Angelika Rubin and Iva Obretenova, European Commission Natura 2000 unit, D.3 
1049 Bruxelles/Brussel, Belgique/Belgie 

Design: NatureBureau, United Kingdom. www.naturebureau.co.uk

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