Europe's nature.
Date: 2022-01-10
Institutions: European Environment Agency
Subjects: Europe, biodiversity, bird, climate change, environmental law, environmental monitoring, environmental protection, forest, knowledge economy, water protection

2443-7662

EEA SIGNALS 2021

Europe′s nature

Cover design: Formato Verde

Publication design: Formato Verde

© Juerg Isler, REDISCOVER Nature/EEA

Legal notice 
The contents of this publication do not necessarily reflect the official opinions of 

the European Commission or other institutions of the European Union. Neither 

the European Environment Agency nor any person or company acting on behalf 

of the Agency is responsible for the use that may be made of the information 

contained in this report.

Copyright notice
© EEA, Copenhagen, 2021

Reproduction is authorised, provided the source is acknowledged, save where 

otherwise stated.

Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2021

ISBN: 978-92-9480-399-3
ISSN: 2443-7662
doi: 10.2800/134828

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2

Contents

Editorial — The value of nature 

Our nature needs urgent help 

Interview — Vital role of bird monitors 

What is harming Europe′s nature? 

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11

19

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Interview — Protecting nature in a changing 

climate: our actions must focus on resilience  35

Restoring the natural world 

Interview — Economics of biodiversity: can 

accounting help save nature? 

At a glance: EU legislation on nature 

References 

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© Marika Frapiccini, REDISCOVER Nature/EEA

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Hans Bruyninckx
EEA Executive Director

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© Sedat Tezgul, REDISCOVER Nature/EEA

The value of nature

The loss of biodiversity and natural ecosystems we are currently witnessing is just as 

catastrophic as climate change. In fact, the two are closely entwined, as climate change 

accelerates biodiversity loss and healthy ecosystems are a vital ally in the fight against 

climate change.

Europe continues to lose biodiversity at an 

ever on healthy and resilient ecosystems 

alarming rate, with many species, habitats 

to guarantee long-term wellbeing for a (still) 

and ecosystems in Europe threatened 

growing number of global citizens.

by intensive agriculture, urban sprawl, 

pollution, unsustainable forestry, invasive 

Our atmosphere, forests, rivers, oceans and 

alien species and climate change. Recent 

soils continue to provide us with the air we 

assessments by the European Environment 

breathe, the food we eat, the water we drink 

Agency show that most protected species 

and the raw materials we consume, as well 

and habitats do not currently have a good 

as spaces for recreation and recovery. This is 

conservation status.

often described as nature′s use value.

These losses are not limited to Europe 

In this context, efforts have been made 

either. Biodiversity loss and ecosystem 

to put a monetary value on this ′natural 

degradation are a global phenomenon. So, 

capital′, so that we can frame the 

as we observe this loss, and work to slow, 

′ecosystem services′ it provides within our 

stop and eventually reverse it, we are faced 

existing economic models. Indeed, the EU 

with the challenge of understanding and 

biodiversity strategy for 2030 states that 

even quantifying nature′s value. This will 

more than half of global gross domestic 

help not only to make the right personal, 

product — some EUR 40 trillion — depends 

business and policy decisions but also to 

on nature.

better understand our place as humans 

within nature. What is the value of nature?

The picture is complex, however. Some 

ecosystem services are more tangible and 

As human beings, nature is priceless to us. 

relatively easy to quantify, such as crops, 

After all, it was nature that provided the 

fisheries and timber; other services, less 

building blocks of life and the surroundings 

so. How does one accurately account for 

necessary to allow Homo sapiens to evolve 

the value of pollination for agriculture or 

at least 300 000 years ago. Fast-forward to 

flood protection by wetlands? Properly 

today and we still cannot live without nature. 

understanding and accounting for less 

In fact, we might be more dependent than 

visible ecosystem services is crucial.

5

6

© Mateusz Piesiak, REDISCOVER Nature/EEA

But the value of nature goes beyond the 

As we become more acutely aware of the 

direct services it provides to us. Nature has 

finite nature of natural resources, and 

cultural value too, forming the backdrop to 

the increasing demands we are placing 

our existence as humans and providing the 

on the natural world, we must find ways 

conditions necessary for good physical and 

to live within the means of our planet. 

mental health, as well as for emotional and 

Technological advances and population 

spiritual well-being.

growth, particularly over the last 100 years, 

mean that Homo sapiens has come to 

Even this is not the end of the story. 

dominate the food chain and nature′s 

Acknowledging nature′s use value and 

resources. The damage we have caused 

cultural value, we sound very egocentric, 

along the way is starting to dominate our 

in danger of focusing exclusively on the 

prospects for future wellbeing.

benefits to us as human beings in the here 

and now. Nature has intrinsic value in its 

Restoring nature — and more 

own right, in which human involvement 

fundamentally, restoring and re-imagining 

is limited to the role of custodian, with an 

our own relationship to it — are 

ethical responsibility towards nature itself, 

central and urgent challenges for the 

our own society and particularly that of 

next decades.

future generations.

This three-pronged approach is one way to 

understand the value of nature: use value, 

cultural value and intrinsic value.

Yet we tend to take nature for granted, 

seeing it as a ′free′ resource from which we 

can take not only what we need but also 

what we want. This makes understanding 

Hans Bruyninckx

and acknowledging the true value of 

EEA Executive Director

nature more important than ever. As 

counter-intuitive as it may seem to put a 

monetary value on nature, measurement 

and accounting is one way to appreciate 

the direct and indirect benefits we derive 

from nature. It may also help us choose the 

best approaches to tackling degradation, 

understanding, for example, that it is much 

cheaper to protect nature in the first place 

than to restore it later — if restoration is 

even an option.

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1

What are ecosystem services?

Nature provides us with many valuable services. Some of these services are relatively easy to quantify, 

such as crops, ﬁsheries and timber; other services, less so. How does one accurately account for the 

value of pollination for agriculture or ﬂood protection by wetlands?

Provisioning 
services

Regulating 
services

Cultural
services

Read more : https://www.eea.europa.eu/themes/biodiversity/intro

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Crops, soil fertility

Livestock

Timber

Fiber

Fisheries

Fresh water

Clean air

Wild foods (e.g. mushrooms, berries, etc.)

Genetic resources, medicines

Pollination

Temperature regulation

Carbon sequestration and storage

Pest regulation

Erosion regulation

Flood regulation

Water puriﬁcation

Air puriﬁcation

Recreation (e.g. swimming, hiking, 

skiing etc.)

Aesthetic (e.g. sceneries)

Cultural identity

What are ecosystem services?

Nature provides us with many valuable services. Some of these services are relatively easy to quantify, 

such as crops, ﬁsheries and timber; other services, less so. How does one accurately account for the 

value of pollination for agriculture or ﬂood protection by wetlands?

1

Provisioning 

services

Regulating 

services

Cultural

services

Crops, soil fertility

Livestock

Timber

Fiber

Wild foods (e.g. mushrooms, berries, etc.)

Fisheries

Genetic resources, medicines

Fresh water

Clean air

Pollination

Temperature regulation

Carbon sequestration and storage

Pest regulation

Erosion regulation

Flood regulation

Water puriﬁcation

Air puriﬁcation

Recreation (e.g. swimming, hiking, 
skiing etc.)

Aesthetic (e.g. sceneries)

Cultural identity

Read more : https://www.eea.europa.eu/themes/biodiversity/intro

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10

© Sebastian Škoić, REDISCOVER Nature/EEA

Our nature needs urgent help

Awareness of our nature has never been as high as it is today. In the wake of the 

COVID-19 pandemic restrictions many of us headed outside to our nearest green 

spaces for respite and solace — necessary breaks from our lockdown existence. It once 

again reminded us of the vital and valued role that our nature plays in our mental and 

physical well-being.

Unfortunately, centuries of exploitation 

However, overall progress has not been 

have taken a massive toll on Europe′s 

enough to achieve the aims of the old EU 

biodiversity. Our nature is in a poor 

biodiversity strategy to 2020. Most protected 

state, with the majority of Europe′s many 

habitats and species have either a poor 

animal species, such as the saker falcon 

or a bad conservation status and many 

and the Danube salmon, and habitats 

of them continue to decline. Of the three 

from grasslands to dunes across Europe 

main groups studied, habitats and birds lag 

facing an uncertain future unless urgent 

particularly far behind, while the group of 

action is taken to reverse the situation.

non-bird species nearly met its target.

This is the dire conclusion of the EEA′s 

latest State of nature in the EU1 report, 

which is the most comprehensive health 

Pollinators in decline, marine 
environment threatened...

check ever conducted by the EU.

Insects, and especially bees, are also 

in decline, according to EEA and other 

The good news is that awareness of the 

research. What is certain is that about 9 % of 

importance of nature and biodiversity 

is growing and steps to remedy the 

bees are threatened with extinction within 
the EU, according to the European Red List2. 

situation are already in motion. The EEA′s 

However, for most bee species, there is not 

State of nature report does show positive 

enough scientific information to evaluate 

developments in conservation efforts.

their risk of extinction.

Both the number and area of sites 

The EEA′s State of nature in the EU report 

protected under the EU′s Natura 2000 

identified that pollinators′ most important 

network have increased over the last 

habitats — grasslands, scrublands, bogs, 

6 years, and the EU met the global 

mires, fens and forests — often have poor 

targets, with around 18 % of its land 

conservation status. The main reason for this 

area and nearly 10 % of its marine 

situation is the abandonment of grassland, 

area protected.

farmland expansion and the use of fertilisers.

11

The situation in Europe′s coastal waters —

rich in biodiversity, and deliver the range 

from the Baltic to the Mediterranean — is 

of services essential for citizens′ prosperity 

just as alarming. Urgent action is needed 

and well-being.

to bring Europe′s marine ecosystems back 

to good condition, after years of severe 

Extra efforts will also be needed to improve 

overexploitation and neglect, according to 

monitoring capacities in Member States 

the latest EEA report looking into Europe′s 

to support the EU targets. More data are 

marine environment3.

also needed to better evaluate the role 

of the Natura 2000 network, and the 

The impact of human activities on land 

implementation of EU legislation must be 

and use of our seas has resulted in changes 

significantly improved.

in the number and distribution of marine 

species and habitats and changes in the 

overall physical and chemical make-up 

of seas. Adding to this, problems caused 

Are we facing a sixth 
mass extinction?

by climate change are worsening the 

Despite these efforts, concerns remain over 

impacts of the other threats, and are set 

whether this action comes too late. Is our 

to change marine ecosystems irreversibly. 

nature in Europe and elsewhere around the 

However, there are signs of recovery in 

world already facing a new, so-called sixth 

some areas because of ongoing efforts 

mass extinction wave that will threaten our 

to reduce certain impacts, such as those 

own human existence as well?

caused by contaminants, eutrophication 

and overfishing.

While scientists and experts are divided, 

concerns are growing that such a mass event 

Measures to tackle challenges

has been under way for some years already. 

The loss of the West African black rhinoceros 

Overall, there are now more ambitious plans 

in the wild received global headlines a decade 

in place to address the challenges, including 

ago, but many more species, including in 

the new EU biodiversity strategy for 20304, 

Europe8, have mostly disappeared.

the farm to fork strategy5 and the EU 

strategy on adaptation to climate change6, 

These include the houting, a freshwater 

which are all core elements of the European 

whitefish, which used to be found in 

Green Deal7.

Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany and the 

Netherlands, and which those countries are 

The biodiversity strategy is meant to reverse 

now trying to reintroduce. A further six bird 

the decline in biodiversity over the next 

species, including the desert warbler and the 

decade. It aims to strengthen and enlarge 

northern bald ibis, are considered regionally 

the network of protected areas, set up a 

or totally extinct. Europe′s Red List of species 

restoration plan and ensure that ecosystems 

believed to be extinct also includes several 

are healthy, resilient to climate change and 

species of butterflies, mollusks and plants.

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The EEA′s European environment — state 

and outlook 20209 report (SOER 2020) 

notes that decades of accelerated social 

and economic activity have transformed 

humanity′s relationship with the 

environment. While delivering many 

benefits, including alleviating suffering and 

poverty, they have also caused widespread 

damage to ecosystems.

Similarly, leading United Nations experts 

have already sounded the alarm bell 

that our exploitation of nature, air and 

water pollution at the hands of a growing 

global human population is having a 

disastrous impact on our biodiversity, as is 

climate change.

The Intergovernmental Science-Policy 

Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem 

Services (IPBES) latest Global Assessment, 

published in 201910, estimated that 1 million 

animal and plant species are threatened 

with extinction worldwide, many of them 

thought to be insects. The report notes that 

it is not too late to reverse the situation if 

we move quickly to cut greenhouse gas 

emissions, which fuel climate change, and 

stop the exploitation of natural resources.

© Carlo Gabrielli, REDISCOVER Nature/EEA

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2

State of nature in the EU

The EEA's latest 'State of nature in the EU' report shows alarming results from the 2013-2018 reporting 

period. Many species and habitats in Europe face an uncertain future unless urgent action is taken to 

reverse the situation.

Climate change 
is rising threat, 
especially due to 
droughts and 
lower precipitation

Agricultural 
activities, land 
abandonment and 
urbanisation are the 
major pressures for 
habitats and species 
followed by pollution

Status and trends of 
marine species and 
habitats remain 
largely unknown

Source : State of nature in the EU, EEA Report No 10/2020.

14

Nearly half of the bird 

species have a 'good' 

population status, but 

farmland birds show 

least improving trends

Illegal killing and 

hunting are the biggest 

overall pressures for 

migratory birds

Habitats important for 

pollinators have a worse 

conservation status and 

trends than other habitats

Only 14 % of habitats 

assessments and 27 % of 

non-bird species have a 

'good' conservation status

Forests show most 

improving  trends and 

grasslands, dunes and 

bogs the most

deteriorating trends

Natura 2000 sites 

cover 18 % of land and 

10 % of marine waters 

in the EU

2

State of nature in the EU

The EEA's latest 'State of nature in the EU' report shows alarming results from the 2013-2018 reporting 

period. Many species and habitats in Europe face an uncertain future unless urgent action is taken to 

reverse the situation.

Climate change 

is rising threat, 

especially due to 

droughts and 

lower precipitation

Agricultural 

activities, land 

abandonment and 

urbanisation are the 

major pressures for 

habitats and species 

followed by pollution

Status and trends of 

marine species and 

habitats remain 

largely unknown

Source : State of nature in the EU, EEA Report No 10/2020.

Nearly half of the bird 
species have a 'good' 
population status, but 
farmland birds show 
least improving trends

Illegal killing and 
hunting are the biggest 
overall pressures for 
migratory birds

Habitats important for 
pollinators have a worse 
conservation status and 
trends than other habitats

Only 14 % of habitats 
assessments and 27 % of 
non-bird species have a 
'good' conservation status

Forests show most 
improving  trends and 
grasslands, dunes and 
bogs the most
deteriorating trends

Natura 2000 sites 
cover 18 % of land and 
10 % of marine waters 
in the EU

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COVID-19 and nature

The exact cause of the coronavirus outbreak is still unknown, but evidence points to 
COVID-19 being a disease that jumped from animals to humans. Three quarters of 
new and emerging infectious diseases are transmitted to humans from animals11, and 
the emergence of such pathogens, especially outside Europe, is linked to intensified 
agriculture, environmental degradation and human interaction with animals in the 
food system.

Beyond the causes of the pandemic, the resulting lockdowns have given us a rare 
glimpse into a world with significantly decreased economic activity and mobility. In 
Europe, many anecdotal stories were shared about the apparently changing behavior 
and distribution of wildlife, reinforcing our knowledge of nature′s ability to return and 
recover quickly in the absence of human influence. What have been clearly quantified 
are significant improvements in air and water quality, which may have a positive impact 
on animals and ecosystems.

An increased desire to spend time in nature during the pandemic has also been 
reported in studies. During lockdowns, people sought refuge and recreation in forests, 
parks, beaches and other open areas, sometimes discovering amazing nature close to 
their homes. This may help people appreciate nature better, but it may also increase 
pressure on protected areas. What is certain is that we must take this opportunity to 
study and learn from the causes, effects and impacts of the pandemic on us and also 
on nature.

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© Juan Miguel, REDISCOVER Nature/EEA 

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Petr Voříšek
Member of the coordination 
team of the European Breeding 
Bird Atlas 2, Czech Society 
for Ornithology

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© Jorge Ruiz del Olmo, REDISCOVER Nature/EEA

Vital role of bird monitors

Monitoring wildlife and habitats plays a key role in expert assessments. We spoke with 

Petr Voříšek, member of the coordination team of the European Breeding Bird Atlas 2 at 

the Czech Society for Ornithology, about how such information and data are put together 

on a European scale and what challenges bird populations face today.

What work do you do specifically?

I am involved in two international initiatives 

in bird monitoring: the second European 

How does your work contribute 
to the assessments done by 
the EEA?

Breeding Bird Atlas (EBBA2) and the 

The wild bird indicators produced by 

Pan-European Common Bird Monitoring 

PECBMS are directly used by the EEA. 

Scheme (PECBMS), both organised within the 

Together with the population index of 

European Bird Census Council (EBCC). My 

grassland butterflies, the population index 

position is hosted by the Czech Society for 

of common birds in Europe contributes to 

Ornithology (CSO).

the EEA′s set for the indicator ′Abundance 

and distribution of selected species 

The European Atlas was published as a book 

in Europe′12.  

in December 2020, but the work is not over. 

We are busy with an online version, making 

The outputs of our work have been used 

the outputs available to research and 

in the State of nature in the EU report 

conservation and building capacity for bird 

and other publications. We have been 

monitoring in European countries where it 

in regular contact with colleagues in 

is needed. The latter is closely linked to the 

the EEA and coordinate our efforts and 

PECBMS, but setting up a representative 

the feedback from the EEA is extremely 

and sustainable bird monitoring scheme is 

important. Recently, we started 

a challenge, and we need more monitoring 

exploring how the atlas data (EBBA2) 

systems, especially in southern and eastern 

can contribute to the work of bodies like 

parts of Europe.

the EEA.

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How did you get interested in this 
area of work?

who know birds and are keen to follow the 

methodology. Thanks to them, we can get 

the data from all of Europe in EBBA2 and 

Probably as many other ornithologists, 

from 28 countries in PECBMS.  

since my childhood I have been interested 

in birds, nature and conservation. I studied 

The fieldworkers have to survey birds at 

zoology at the Charles University in Prague 

prescribed sites, which are often selected 

where I did my Master′s degree and PhD 

in a randomised manner in order to ensure 

on buzzards. Then I took an opportunity to 

that the sample is representative. The 

work for the CSO as a director, where I was 

observer counts all birds seen or heard at 

the only paid employee at the time.

their site and records other characteristics, 

helping better assessment of the data at 

The link between scientific knowledge and 

specific day times and dates.

policy is the main issue that keeps me 

interested in large-scale bird monitoring and 

Recordings for the distribution atlas also 

atlas work. Working with diverse people, 

require information about the probability 

various methodological approaches and 

of breeding. Most of the surveys are done 

cultural differences make this kind of work 

in early morning hours, when many birds 

exciting too. I also appreciate fieldwork, 

are most active in spring, but some species 

which, although not automatically part of the 

are surveyed in the evenings, too. Then, 

job, is the key issue that helps to understand 

the fieldworkers send the data to the 

the data and the needs of the fieldworkers 

national coordinators, who perform data 

and makes one happy.

quality checks and submit the data to the 

How do you assess a species′ 
health?

The main output of our work is collecting 

European coordinators.

How does this monitoring help 
governments in taking action?

information about the changes in the 

Information about bird distribution and 

abundance of birds and their distribution. 

abundance helps decision-makers to 

In other words, where the birds are, 

prioritise management and conservation 

how many there are and how these two 

actions. The information about population 

parameters change. It is a long process that 

trends and changes in the distribution 

starts with standard fieldwork following a 

serves as a signal of the health of bird 

strict methodology.  

populations and of the wider environment.  

It is not possible to cover Europe with 

Monitoring outputs are regularly used in 

professional fieldworkers only. But 

an assessment of a conservation status of 

ornithology takes advantage of a crowd of 

species, including the European Red List 

amateur ornithologists or birdwatchers, 

categorisation. Changes in abundance and 

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© Antonio Piris, REDISCOVER Nature/EEA 

21

distribution of groups of species, such as 

a group shrunk in the last 30 years in 

farmland birds, provide signals about the 

Europe (EBBA2). Regionally, we also see 

health of a particular habitat type or the 

a negative effect of intensive forestry, 

impact of a large-scale phenomenon like 

land abandonment or intensive use of 

climate change.  

inland wetlands.

Linking the monitoring data with 

Breeding ranges are moving north. We 

environmental or other variables can tell us 

observe a 28 km shift of the centres of 

more about forces driving the trends; it can 

the distribution range northwards on 

help to shape management practices too.

average. Although not all these changes 

How do environmental 
degradation and climate change 
impact bird life?

are caused by climate change, the effect 

is obvious. We also detect the impact 

of climate change on bird populations: 

species with a preference for colder 

climates are declining and those that 

The changes in European landscapes and 

prefer warmer climates are increasing.

climate are sometimes dramatic and they 

affect bird populations. However, the 

impact is not uniform: some species benefit 

from the changes, others do not. Overall, 

Can we still turn things around 
for the better?

however, it appears that there are more 

We have documented positive trends in 

losers than winners.

distribution of several protected species 

for which conservation measures have 

Intensive land use is leaving less resource 

taken place (for instance white-tailed sea 

for birds — this is the main human pressure. 

eagle or white stork). Also, in PECBMS we 

This is particularly evident for farmland and 

have shown that conservation can work, 

birds using this type of habitat. Intensive 

and especially Natura 2000 sites can be 

agricultural practices, including excessive 

beneficial, also for non-target species. 

use of pesticides and fertilisers, heavy 

This suggests that conservation can 

machinery or removal of fallow land, makes 

reverse negative trends.  

modern farmland less and less suitable for 

birds and other wildlife.  

The problem is that we still don′t do 

enough, partly because of limited 

Overall, the homogenisation of agricultural 

resources and partly because traditional 

fields has a negative effect on biodiversity. 

conservation approaches (especially 

The farmland bird index in Europe declined 
by 57 % between 1980 and 201813 and the 

protected species, nature reserves) are 

not sufficient to help biodiversity in the 

distribution range of the farmland birds as 

wider countryside.  

22

What can citizens or even hobby 
bird watchers do to help protect 
birds and their habitats?

Birdwatchers are key factors for a 

knowledge-based conservation of birds 

and biodiversity. They help as volunteer 

fieldworkers taking part in atlases and 

bird monitoring: in EBBA2, some 120 000 

fieldworkers contributed data, 35 000 

providing highly standardised survey data. 

In PECBMS, around 15 000 fieldworkers take 

part in bird counts.  

We would not have had such knowledge 

without these skilled people — they 

are absolutely essential. In principle, 

everybody can help — even observations 

of single species, including those easily 

identified (like the white stork), can help 

informed decision-making. With the recent 

development of online portals organised 

within the EBCC initiative EuroBirdPortal14 

and the development of mobile apps 

enhancing recording and submitting the 

observations, it is easier than ever before.  

Many birdwatchers participating in bird 

monitoring schemes and atlases are also 

active at a local level in conservation. As 

they know sites where they survey birds, 

they often serve as guardians of the sites 

and initiate interventions if the sites 

become threatened. Their local knowledge 

is a big asset for conservation at the local 

level too.

© Daiva Vilkelyte, REDISCOVER Nature/EEA

23

3

Conservation status and short-term trends in bird populations

Less than half of all bird species have a good population status in the EU.

20 %

19 %

Conservation
status

14 %

Almost half of all waterbirds, including 
seabirds, have poor or bad status
and show higher deterioration trends.

14 % of all bird species have 
an unknown status
due to the lack of information about their 
population size and trends.

Less than a half of all bird 
species have a good population
status in the EU,
40 % have poor or bad status.

while almost 

47 %

Good

Poor

Bad

Unknown

2 %

30 %

Storks, herons and pelicans, grebes, loons, 
pigeons and doves, and owls each have a 
good status

for more than a half of species.

Trends

28 %

23 %

Seabirds are also among the 
groups with the most
unknown short-term trends.

17 %

Among raptors, over 50 % have a good 
population status and many with a poor 
or bad status are improving. However,
over 50 % of falcons and harriers
have bad status.

Population status of EU bird species

and subspecies, by taxonomic order (%)

Loons or divers (3)

Storks and ﬂamingo (3)

Herons, pelicans, ibises and spoonbills (13)

Kingﬁshers, rollers, bee-eaters and hoopoe (4)

Gannets and cormorants (4)

Hawks and eagles (28)

Grebes (5)

Pigeons and doves (9)

Owls (13)

Falcons (10)

Cuckoos (2)

Passerines (192)

Woodpeckers (11)

Ducks, greese and swans (36)

Waders, gulls and auks (78)

Bustards (3)

Cranes, rails, gallinules and coots (10)

Pheasants, partridges and grouse (13)

Sandgrouse (2)

Petrels, storm-petrels and shearwaters (15)

Swifts and nightjars (8)

Increasing

Unknown/uncertain

Stable

Fluctuating

Decreasing

Good

Poor

Bad

Unknown

0

20

40

60

80

100

24

Note : The total number of all species is 463. The number of taxa concerned is shown in parentheses.

Source : State of nature in the EU, EEA Report No 10/2020. 

 
3

Conservation status and short-term trends in bird populations

Less than half of all bird species have a good population status in the EU.

20 %

19 %

Conservation

status

14 %

Almost half of all waterbirds, including 

seabirds, have poor or bad status

and show higher deterioration trends.

14 % of all bird species have 

an unknown status

due to the lack of information about their 

population size and trends.

Less than a half of all bird 

species have a good population

status in the EU,

while almost 

40 % have poor or bad status.

47 %

Good

Poor

Bad

Unknown

2 %

30 %

Storks, herons and pelicans, grebes, loons, 

pigeons and doves, and owls each have a 

good status

for more than a half of species.

Trends

28 %

23 %

Seabirds are also among the 

groups with the most

17 %

unknown short-term trends.

Among raptors, over 50 % have a good 

population status and many with a poor 

or bad status are improving. However,

over 50 % of falcons and harriers

have bad status.

Population status of EU bird species
and subspecies, by taxonomic order (%)

Loons or divers (3)

Storks and ﬂamingo (3)

Herons, pelicans, ibises and spoonbills (13)

Kingﬁshers, rollers, bee-eaters and hoopoe (4)

Gannets and cormorants (4)

Hawks and eagles (28)

Grebes (5)

Pigeons and doves (9)

Owls (13)

Falcons (10)

Cuckoos (2)

Passerines (192)

Woodpeckers (11)

Ducks, greese and swans (36)

Waders, gulls and auks (78)

Bustards (3)

Cranes, rails, gallinules and coots (10)

Pheasants, partridges and grouse (13)

Sandgrouse (2)

Petrels, storm-petrels and shearwaters (15)

Swifts and nightjars (8)

Increasing

Unknown/uncertain

Stable

Fluctuating

Decreasing

Good

Poor

Bad

Unknown

0

20

40

60

80

100

Note : The total number of all species is 463. The number of taxa concerned is shown in parentheses.
Source : State of nature in the EU, EEA Report No 10/2020. 

25

 
26

© Alexander Zackrisson, REDISCOVER Nature/EEA

What is harming 
Europe′s nature?

European nature is suffering the consequences of long-term exploitation and pollution. 

Nature keeps providing us with food, clothes, medicines, housing, energy and other 

resources, but ecosystems and many plants and animals are in decline, sometimes being 

pushed to extinction. What are the human activities that harm nature the most and how 

can we stop and reverse current biodiversity loss?

We humans are the species that has changed 

increased use of fertilisers, irrigation and 

the Earth like no other species. We have had 

pesticides and the intense modification of 

a major impact on almost all other species 

the land are key pressures on local animals 

that share the planet with us and on their 

and plants, and especially on birds.

habitats. Europe, as one of the most densely 

populated areas on Earth, is no exception.

Pollution by pesticides used in agriculture 

Agriculture puts the biggest 
pressure on nature

is the main cause of the worrying decline 

in the number of insect-eating birds and 

farmland  birds.

Almost 40 % of the EU′s land is used for 

One of the most important pressures 

growing food, according to Eurostat15. While 

is the ceasing of traditional grassland 

traditional agriculture allowed a diverse 

management. Pollinators, such as bees, 

range of animals and plants to coexist with 

bumblebees and butterflies, are highly 

crops, changes in agricultural practices since 

affected by it. Fragmentation of the land 

1950, in the direction of intensification and 

and drainage, for agricultural purposes, 

specialisation, have contributed to a high 

destroy the habitats where birds, reptiles and 

degree of biodiversity loss. According to the 

small mammals used to feed, find shelter 

EEA′s State of nature in the EU report16, the 

and breed.

27

Europe′s ecological footprint 
in the world

Europeans′ ecological footprint far 
exceeds what Europe′s ecosystems 
can supply. This has negative 
consequences for the environment 
within and outside Europe.

European production and 
consumption, which is higher than 
the global average, contribute to 
environmental degradation in other 
parts of the world. For example, more 
than half of Europeans′ land and water 
consumption footprints occur outside 
Europe17, including those due to goods 
imported into the EU and consumed by 
Europeans.

According to the Intergovernmental 
Platform for Biodiversity and 
Ecosystem Services (IPBES)18, about 
75 % of the terrestrial environment and 
40 % of the marine environment are 
severely altered globally.

As the world′s biodiversity is declining, 
and the global ecological footprint 
is already exceeding biocapacity, 
Europe′s ecological deficit may result 
in the depletion of natural capital, 
biodiversity loss and ecosystem 
collapse in other parts of the world.

However, as the EEA′s European 
environment — state and outlook 
2020 report19 notes, the EU can 
play a positive role in responding to 
these global challenges through its 
economic, diplomatic and trade links 
and its leadership in environmental 
governance. Moreover, European 
product standards and business 
practices can have positive effects well 
beyond Europe′s borders.

28

© Marika Frapiccini, REDISCOVER Nature/EEA

Pollution of water, air and soil

We often link pollution to industry, 

Fragmenting and 
damaging habitats

transport and energy production, which 

Urbanisation is another serious pressure 

are important sources, but almost 50 % 

on nature, but, perhaps surprisingly, 

of the pressures on nature related 

most of the damage no longer comes 

to pollution come from agricultural 

from converting nature areas to urban 

emissions to air, water and soil. Pollution 

territory (11 % of the pressures in this field, 

by pesticides used in agriculture is the 

according to the EEA′s State of nature in 

main cause of the worrying decline in 

the EU21) but instead from sports, tourism 

the number of insect-eating birds and 

and leisure activities (25 % of urban 

farmland birds. Pesticide pollution also 

pressures). However, construction and 

affects amphibians, such as frogs, toads 

modification within urban areas also affect 

and salamanders, insects and small 

many species that are used to living in 

mammals, including bats, hamsters and 

urban habitats (accounting for about 10 % 

the European ground squirrel.

of urban pressures).

Similarly, pesticides and fertilisers 

Moreover, roads, railways, dams and other 

have negatively affected about 80 % 

infrastructure also fragment habitats and 

of the 576 butterfly species that 

destroy landscapes. Traffic disturbs and 

live in Europe20. Agriculture is also a 

kills wildlife. Soils, as important reservoirs 

major source of pollution for surface 

of biodiversity, are damaged when 

water and for groundwaters, affecting 

they are sealed with buildings, asphalt 

many ecosystems.

or concrete.

Pollution from agriculture is one of the 

Much of the European coastline is 

main problems to be tackled by the EU 

modified for tourism, leaving little space 

biodiversity strategy for 2030 and the 

for intact marine and coastal habitats. 

EU′s farm to fork strategy, which aims 

Water birds, such as ducks, geese, herons 

to reduce the use of chemical pesticides 

and grebes, and threatened raptors, such 

by half and to promote less intensive 

as the Egyptian vulture and the bearded 

farming practices, including at least a 

vulture, are severely affected when their 

20 % reduction in fertiliser use.

nesting areas are destroyed. 

29

Unsustainable forestry, hunting 
and overfishing

Aliens are taking over

Sometimes intentionally, sometimes by 

Almost all of Europe′s forests have been 

accident, Europeans have brought new 

transformed by human interventions. 

plants and animal species to the continent. 

Even after reforestation, the nature 

These new species are sometimes taking 

of human-managed forests is different. 

over habitats and disturbing ecosystems, 

For example, the habitat can be negatively 

which is why they are called invasive alien 

affected if there are fewer trees of different 

species.

species and ages.

Some of the most damaging invasive aliens 

The removal of dead and old trees and the 

are American mink, coypu and raccoon, 

reduction in old-growth forests affects many 

which have become predators of European 

species of insects, birds, amphibians, reptiles, 

birds, and Reeves′s muntjac, which browses 

bats and small mammals, such as the 

understory habitats. The comb jellyfish, first 

western barbastelle, the Caucasian squirrel 

introduced into the Black Sea through ships′ 

and the forest dormouse.

ballast water, has devastated certain fish 

populations.

Despite all the protection measures, we still 

see local deforestation and clearcutting22 

There are also alien species of plants that 

without new trees being planted in Europe.

are taking over from local ones. False 

indigo-bush, Japanese knotweed and 

At least 52 million wild birds are hunted by 

Himalayan balsam are just some examples.

humans every year in Europe, according 

to research that covers 26 European 

countries23. Moreover, illegal killing is 

threatening many species, particularly birds 

Climate change — the main 
emerging threat to nature

and mammals, while feral and free-ranging 

Climate change is already affecting life 

cats and dogs present an additional threat.

in Europe, with increased temperatures, 

Fish are affected by harvesting, as are 

and less snow. It is seen as an emerging 

marine mammals, such as the short-beaked 

threat to European species, and it will affect 

common dolphin and the harbour porpoise, 

more and more animals and plants.

droughts, changes in rain patterns, wildfires 

which sometimes fall prey to bycatch.

We are witnessing local and regional 

Even when we try to enjoy nature, we may 

extinctions of species, as well as a move 

unwillingly harm habitats and species 

of the species northwards and uphill. 

around us. Many recreational activities, such 

Amphibians, birds and bats are the most 

as outdoor sports, leisure aircraft, drones, 

affected species by droughts and changes in 

human trampling and unregulated wildlife 

rain patterns.

watching, can be very damaging to nature.

30

The EEA′s European environment — state 

It is crucial, therefore, that all measures 

and outlook 2020 report24 warned 

towards decarbonisation are taken in a 

that ocean warming, acidification and 

coordinated manner with biodiversity 

deoxygenation continue to worsen, 

policies, to minimise the impacts on animals 

endangering marine habitats.

and habitats. There are many good solutions 

that benefit both climate and nature, such as 

To mitigate climate change, we need to 

improving the state of soils.

produce energy in a sustainable way. 

Europe is leading the efforts towards 

The factors described above are the most 

decarbonisation, aiming to be carbon 

serious pressures on nature, in Europe, but 

neutral by 2050. This is a critical goal but, 

they are not the only ones. Noise and light 

in some cases, development of renewable 

pollution coming from human activity also 

energy can harm habitats and species. For 

harm many species. There are many issues to 

example, wind turbines can create a threat 

tackle, but what is clear is that humans must 

to bats and birds, which can collide with the 

learn again how to give space for nature to 

blades, and dams can block the passage of 

thrive. Failing to do so urgently could have 

sediments and migratory fish.

consequences we cannot reverse.

31

7

What are the main pressures on Europe's nature?

Europe's biodiversity continues to be shaped by human activity. Pressures to habitats and species 

remain high and more than 67 000 individual pressures have been reported at the EU level.

With 21 %, agriculture is
the most frequently reported pressure for 
habitats and species. 

Abandonment of grasslands and intensiﬁcation is 
particularly impacting pollinator species, 
farmland birds and semi-natural habitats.

Invasive alien species
such as the False Indigo-bush, particularly 
aﬀect dunes and sclerophyllous scrubs 
as well as species such as breeding 
seabirds.

Forestry activities
represent 11 % of all
pressures, particularly aﬀecting 
forest habitats, and woodland 
species.

Climate change
is reported as a rising threat, particularly due 
to ongoing changes in the temperature and 
decrease of precipitation.

Source: State of nature in the EU, EEA Report No 10/2020.

32

Urbanisation and leisure activities

 account for 13 % of all reported 

pressures, representing 

48 % of all

marine pressures.

The modiﬁcation on water regimes, physical 

alterations of water bodies and removal of 

sediments predominantly aﬀect 

freshwater habitats

and ﬁsh.

13 % of all 

pressures

for birds stem from the exploitation 

of species, mainly relating to illegal 

killing and hunting.

In Europe, 

the annual hunting bag amounts 

to at least 52 million birds.

Almost 50 % of all pressures

 related to pollution

can be attributed to air, water and 

soil pollution caused by agriculture.

7

What are the main pressures on Europe's nature?

Europe's biodiversity continues to be shaped by human activity. Pressures to habitats and species 

remain high and more than 67 000 individual pressures have been reported at the EU level.

With 21 %, agriculture is

the most frequently reported pressure for 

habitats and species. 

Abandonment of grasslands and intensiﬁcation is 

particularly impacting pollinator species, 

farmland birds and semi-natural habitats.

Invasive alien species

such as the False Indigo-bush, particularly 

aﬀect dunes and sclerophyllous scrubs 

as well as species such as breeding 

seabirds.

Forestry activities

represent 11 % of all

pressures, particularly aﬀecting 

forest habitats, and woodland 

species.

Climate change

is reported as a rising threat, particularly due 

to ongoing changes in the temperature and 

decrease of precipitation.

Source: State of nature in the EU, EEA Report No 10/2020.

Urbanisation and leisure activities
 account for 13 % of all reported 
pressures, representing 
48 % of all
marine pressures.

The modiﬁcation on water regimes, physical 
alterations of water bodies and removal of 
sediments predominantly aﬀect 
freshwater habitats
and ﬁsh.

13 % of all 
pressures
for birds stem from the exploitation 
of species, mainly relating to illegal 
killing and hunting.

In Europe, 
the annual hunting bag amounts 
to at least 52 million birds.

Almost 50 % of all pressures
 related to pollution
can be attributed to air, water and 
soil pollution caused by agriculture.

33

w
e
i
v
r
e
t
n

I

Dr Beate Jessel
President of the German 
Federal Agency for Nature 
Conservation

34

© Máté Ladjánszki, REDISCOVER Nature/EEA

Protecting nature in a 
changing climate: our actions 
must focus on resilience

From changes in species habitats and communities to water availability and flowering 

seasons, climate change impacts ecosystems and biodiversity. We asked Professor 

Dr Beate Jessel, President of the German Federal Agency for Nature Conservation, about 

the links between biodiversity and climate change and what could be done to boost 

nature′s resilience in a changing climate.

How does climate change 
impact nature?

a spatial decoupling and thus to a decline in 

the butterfly population. Similarly, temporal 

decoupling also occurs, for example when 

Climate change is introducing major changes 

insects start to fly earlier before the flowers 

to the living conditions of many species 

they feed on are in blossom, or in the case of 

through rising temperatures, changes in 

the cuckoo, whose host birds start breeding 

precipitation distribution and more frequent 

earlier than the cuckoo′s return from its 

extreme weather events such as heavy 

winter quarters. Furthermore, species 

rain, storms, heat waves and droughts. 

from warmer regions, including those 

This results in a shift in the ranges of many 

with invasive potential, can immigrate and 

species and changes in their seasonality and 

change the relationship structure between 

the composition of species communities. As 

the species.

a result of the lower climatic water balance 

in summer, species in wetlands and water 

bodies are particularly endangered. Even 

deciduous trees were severely damaged or 

affected by the summer droughts of 2018 

and 2019 in Germany.

Can nature provide us with 
solutions to address some of 
these impacts?

Nature has a great potential to counteract 

the impacts of climate change. And there 

For some species that previously occurred 

are plentiful ′nature-based solutions′ that 

together in the same habitat, such as the 

not only support climate adaptation but 

butterfly scarce large blue (Phengaris teleius) 

also provide multiple synergies. Floodplain 

and the prey species of its caterpillars, the 

restoration projects, for example, effectively 

great burnet (Sanguisorba officinalis), their 

decrease water levels in rivers in extreme 

respective climatically suitable habitats are 

flood events and moreover contribute to 

shifting to different locations. This leads to 

nutrient retention.

35

The restoration of salt marshes helps to 

preventive measures, such as improved 

protect coasts in temperate zones, while 

water management within the area and at 

in tropical coastal regions flooding impacts 

landscape level.

can be massively reduced through the 

restoration of mangroves. Similarly, the 

In order to provide alternative habitats 

rewetting of peatlands can lessen drought 

with suitable (micro)climatic conditions 

effects. If such nature-based solutions are 

for sensitive species and to enable these 

applied thoughtfully, they can combine 

species to reach these habitats, protected 

significant socio-economic benefits with a 

areas need to be enlarged to include a 

net gain for nature and biodiversity.

wider range of altitudes and exposures, 

and their connectivity needs to be 

Globally, nature-based solutions are 

improved. Besides, protected areas must 

already an important component to 

be subject to adaptive management in 

address climate change impacts. We have 

order to be able to adjust protection goals 

knowledge, data and tools on hand for 

to match the timing of climate change-

their implementation.

induced changes.

What is needed to boost nature′s 
resilience to climate change?

It is equally important to consider land 

use as a whole. Forestry and agriculture 

have to adjust their management concepts 

To enhance nature′s resilience to climate 

to mitigate the adverse effects of climate 

change, a coherent and well-connected 

change. For example, current silvicultural 

network of protected areas is needed. 

management concepts, control instruments 

The European Natura 2000 network 

and planning approaches need to be 

of protected areas is an important 

revised so that they can better meet 

backbone for the conservation of species 

the challenges of climate change. More 

and habitats.

emphasis has to be put on enhancing the 

self-organising capacity of ecosystems, for 

These protected areas must be made 

example by preventing the introduction 

′fit for climate change′, so that they can 

of invasive alien species, using native 

continue to fulfil their function. This means 

tree species or applying close-to-nature 

that existing pressures, for example due 

management concepts.

to intensive land use, such as high nutrient 

and pesticide inputs and disturbances 

Last but not least, there is need for a 

of the water balance, must be reduced 

stronger focus on urban nature, for 

both inside and outside protected areas. 

example by building up networks of 

However, the resilience of protected areas 

blue-green infrastructure to adapt to a 

must also be enhanced through additional 

changing climate.

36

Based on your experience, what 
kind of challenges do you see?

its traditional focus on the preservation 

and protection of rigid objects and must 

increasingly allow dynamic processes and 

Although climate protection currently is 

promote the resilience of ecosystems. In 

gaining political importance, we must not 

the case of forestry, this entails moving 

forget that climate mitigation, adaptation 

away from the traditional, anticipatory 

and biodiversity conservation issues must 

management paradigm towards a more 

not be set against each other.

process-oriented gradual and adaptive 

The energy transition in Germany is a good 

example of the opportunities but also the 

challenges of simultaneously reducing 

energy demand, developing renewable 

energy sources and considering nature 

nature paradigm.

Are there initiatives that 
have succeeded in boosting 
nature′s resilience?

conservation aspects. We need to exploit 

Various floodplain restoration projects 

the synergies that arise from combined 

have been very successful in terms of 

actions against climate change and 

strengthening the resilience of ecosystems 

biodiversity loss.

to the consequences of climate change, 

such as the large-scale nature conservation 

For example, the protection and sustainable 

project ′Mittlere Elbe′ and the floodplain 

management of forests and grassland 

restoration project on the Elbe in the area 

offers both: ecosystem services such as 

′Hohe Garbe′. Large floodplain areas were 

carbon storage and biomass for material 

reconnected to the Elbe through a dyke 

and energetic production. If we focus 

relocation or a dyke slit, and today they 

unilaterally on short-term climate mitigation 

are once again subject to a near-natural 

measures, such as maximising biomass 

flooding regime.

output for fossil energy substitution, we may 

jeopardise the biodiversity of our forests 

Not only have these measures increased the 

and thereby probably reduce their capability 

flooding area and thus the retention area 

to adapt to climate change.

of the Elbe, which leads to a lowering of the 

Nature conservation and sustainable 

habitats have also become more resilient to 

management strategies need to better 

droughts and dry periods.

water head during flood events, but these 

take into account the dynamics and 

unpredictability of climate change and the 

complex responses of ecological systems 

to such changes. This means that nature 

conservation needs to move away from 

37

4

State of nature in Europe: Habitats

Note: for the above “state of nature” infographics, 

please combined charts and illustration to make rich, 

nature-like infographics.

14.7 %

35.8 %

4.6 %

44.9 %

Conservation status of habitats
at EU level, 2013-2018

Conservation status of habitats at

Member State level, 2013-2018 (%)

Luxembourg (28)

Romania (173)

Estonia (60)

Greece (89)

Cyprus (42)

Croatia (125)

Slovenia (89)

Slovakia (101)

Finland (91)

Germany (195)

Malta (29)

Portugal (156)

Sweden (186)

Lithuania (54)

France (297)

Poland (115)

Czechia (93)

Austria (117)

Ireland (59)

Hungary (45)

Bulgaria (188)

Netherlands (52)

Italy (263)

Latvia (61)

Spain (247)

Denmark (111)

Belgium (93)

United Kingdom (87)

Good

Poor

Bad

Unknown

Good

Poor

Bad

Unknown

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Note : The ﬁgure shows the conservation status of habitats at EU level. Statistics are based on the number of 
EU habitats assessments (818).
Source : State of nature in the EU, EEA Report No 10/2020.

38

4

State of nature in Europe: Habitats

Note: for the above “state of nature” infographics, 

please combined charts and illustration to make rich, 

nature-like infographics.

14.7 %

35.8 %

4.6 %

44.9 %

Conservation status of habitats

at EU level, 2013-2018

Conservation status of habitats at
Member State level, 2013-2018 (%)

Romania (173)

Estonia (60)

Greece (89)

Cyprus (42)

Croatia (125)

Slovenia (89)

Slovakia (101)

Luxembourg (28)

Finland (91)

Germany (195)

Malta (29)

Portugal (156)

Sweden (186)

Lithuania (54)

France (297)

Poland (115)

Czechia (93)

Austria (117)

United Kingdom (87)

Ireland (59)

Hungary (45)

Bulgaria (188)

Netherlands (52)

Italy (263)

Latvia (61)

Spain (247)

Denmark (111)

Belgium (93)

Good

Poor

Bad

Unknown

Good

Poor

Bad

Unknown

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Note : The ﬁgure shows the conservation status of habitats at EU level. Statistics are based on the number of 

EU habitats assessments (818).

Source : State of nature in the EU, EEA Report No 10/2020.

39

40

© Tamara Wagner-Bosancic, REDISCOVER Nature/EEA 

Restoring the natural world

Europe has set ambitious policy goals to allow nature to recover and flourish, increasing 

the benefits to society of a healthy natural world. From protected areas and green and 

blue infrastructure to restoration, rewilding and using nature-based solutions to climate 

change, much needs to be done to reverse the deterioration in the health of nature.

Protecting nature is the first step. Biodiversity 

Moreover, the strategy calls for 

in Europe continues to decline but there 

planting at least 3 billion trees by 

have recently been positive developments 

2030 to support biodiversity and 

for forests, mammals and birds, which are 

ecosystem restoration. More forests 

benefiting from conservation measures.

will also be managed to promote 

biodiversity-friendly practices.

Currently, conservation efforts for more 

than 2 000 species25 are covered by EU 

Joining the dots

legislation such as the Birds and the 

Habitats Directives26. At the heart of these 

Developing the Trans-European Nature 

directives is the EU′s Natura 2000 network27 

Network by enlarging protected areas 

of protected areas, the largest of its kind in 

to meet the 30 % target is part of the 

the world. It makes up 18 % of the EU′s land 

biodiversity strategy. Many Natura 2000 

area and 8 % of its marine territory.

protected areas are already connected29 

by natural and semi-natural landscapes 

Some of the most valuable and threatened 

that provide ecosystem services, such 

species and habitats in Europe are protected 

as pollination, soil fertility, flood control 

by Natura 2000. Protected sites contain 

and recreation, and are essential for 

breeding and resting places for rare and 

climate change mitigation and disaster 

threatened species, while some rare habitats 

risk. The Emerald Network of Areas 

are designated as sites in themselves.

of Special Interest30, to which the EU 

contributes via Natura 2000, also 

The target of the new EU biodiversity 

supports the same efforts. Together, 

strategy28 is to increase the protected 

these areas form a green infrastructure 

area to at least 30 % of EU land and 30 % 

network across Europe. Studies 

of surrounding seas by 2030. Primary 

suggest that nature is better protected 

and old-growth forests and other 

inside this network, which contains a 

carbon-rich ecosystems, such as peatlands 

greater area providing the required 

and grasslands, will be the focus of 

services and experiencing fewer 

conservation efforts.

ecosystem pressures.

41

However, barriers such as roads, railways, 

processes are encouraged, it allows nature 

urban areas and agricultural land fragment 

to heal so that it can start to manage on 

the landscape, limiting the movement 

its own again. Initiatives such as Rewilding 

of species and hindering the network′s 

Europe33 are working to increase Europe′s 

development. Increasing the connectivity 

biodiversity in this way.

of the network helps ensure that habitat 

conditions are improved, biodiversity decline 

Today there are eight large rewilding 

is prevented and ecosystem service delivery 

areas in Bulgaria, Croatia, Germany, Italy, 

is boosted.

Free-flowing water

Poland, Portugal, Romania and Sweden. 

These are home to various rewilding 

projects including the re-establishment 

of free-roaming populations of European 

Barriers hinder the health of Europe′s water 

bison34 in Romania′s Southern Carpathians 

bodies. There are over 1 million barriers 

and the protection of the black and 

on European rivers, including dams, weirs 

griffon vultures35 in the Rhodope 

and sluices. Most are small and obsolete. 

mountains in Bulgaria.

They contribute greatly to the poor state 

of nature in our rivers, as many species 

Changing human-made systems

require rivers to be free-flowing to thrive 

and currently the movement downstream of 

The EEA′s landmark assessment of the 

sediment is prevented, causing blockages and 

state of Europe′s environment36 showed 

altering habitats.

that, in addition to conservation measures, 

we need to fundamentally change the 

The biodiversity strategy aims to restore at 

way we produce and consume food and 

least 25 000 km of free-flowing rivers by 2030 

energy, how we develop and experience 

by removing barriers, constructing bypasses 

the cities we live in and how we move 

for migrating fish and re-establishing the 

people and goods around.

flow of sediment31. By October 2020, almost 

5 000 dam removals had been recorded in 

Agricultural activities and other land 

Europe, based on data from 11 countries32. 

management practices exert the 

Restoring floodplains and wetlands is also an 

greatest pressure on nature, with the 

important element of this work.

abandonment of grasslands having a 

Call of the wild

particularly big impact on pollinators, 

farmland birds and semi-natural habitats. 

By increasing organic farming by a quarter, 

While the above solutions require intensively 

reducing pesticide use by half by 2030 

managed processes to restore nature, 

and restoring some agricultural land to 

rewilding is a newer, more natural approach. 

high-diversity landscapes, we will help 

By identifying spaces where natural 

restore biodiversity.

42

Urban green spaces have been used more 

Finally, the European Commission has 

than ever during the COVID-19 pandemic. 

presented a zero pollution action plan37, 

Protection of such spaces is increasing, but 

Towards zero pollution for air, water 

grey infrastructure still often dominates as 

and soil. Goals include a 50 % reduction 

urban populations grow. The biodiversity 

in nutrient loss by reducing the run-off of 

strategy calls on citizens to develop urban 

nitrogen and phosphorus from fertilisers, 

greening plans, and to create and connect 

while protecting soil fertility. In addition, 

urban parks, gardens, meadows and farms, 

the farm to fork strategy38 for a fair, 

as well as install green roofs and walls, and 

healthy and environmentally friendly 

line streets with trees and hedges to allow 

food system will also reduce the use 

biodiversity to return. Plans should also aim 

of pesticides.

to eliminate pesticides and, for example, 

establish pollinator-friendly areas in cities.

Europe′s nature overseas

The EU′s outermost regions and overseas countries and territories cover about the 
same land area as the EU and the world′s largest marine territories.

The EU′s more than 150 overseas islands host more than 20 % of the world′s coral reefs 
and lagoons and have a very rich biodiversity. However, these island ecosystems are 
also highly vulnerable to invasive species, human activities and climate change impacts.

The BEST initiative39 — biodiversity and ecosystem services in territories of European 
overseas — aims to support the conservation of biodiversity and sustainable use of 
ecosystem services in the EU outermost regions and overseas countries and territories. 
Currently, BEST projects support conservation efforts in EU territories around the world, 
from the Amazonia and Caribbean regions to the Macaronesia and Polar regions.

43

8 Note: Combine some form of the map, showing the overall extent of protected sites, and combine that 

with the chart. These could also be separate for the web.

Europe's Natura 2000 sites

EU-27 + UK — Area of Natura 2000 sites designated
under the EU Habitats and Birds Directives

140 0000

120 0000

100 0000

80 0000

60 0000

40 0000

20 0000

0

3
9
9
1

4
9
9
1

5
9
9
1

6
9
9
1

7
9
9
1

8
9
9
1

9
9
9
1

0
0
0
2

1
0
0
2

2
0
0
2

3
0
0
2

4
0
0
2

5
0
0
2

6
0
0
2

7
0
0
2

8
0
0
2

9
0
0
2

0
1
0
2

1
1
0
2

2
1
0
2

3
1
0
2

4
1
0
2

5
1
0
2

6
1
0
2

7
1
0
2

8
1
0
2

9
1
0
2

Area of Natura 2000 (km2)

Habitats directive

Birds directive
Both directives

NATURA 2000 - European Union

Birds Directive sites (SPA)

Habitats Directive sites (pSCI, SCI, SAC)

Sites - or parts of sites - belonging to both Directives

Note : Since 2005, the area calculation has been based on spatial data. Before 2005, tabular data were used.
Many sites are designated under both the Habitats and Birds Directives. The calculation of the Natura 2000 area, which 
takes this overlap into account, has only been available since 2011.
Source: EEA indicator assessment: Natura 2000 sites designated under the EU Habitats and Birds Directives.

44

Source : NATURA 2000 - DG ENV, compiled from databases from the Member States. Sources background map: 

© EuroGlobalMap/Eurogeographics and DG ESTAT, validity of NATURA 2000 data for : Europe, Updated End 2019. 

Projection : Lambert Azimuthal Equal Area. 

8 Note: Combine some form of the map, showing the overall extent of protected sites, and combine that 

with the chart. These could also be separate for the web.

Europe's Natura 2000 sites

EU-27 + UK — Area of Natura 2000 sites designated

under the EU Habitats and Birds Directives

140 0000

120 0000

100 0000

80 0000

60 0000

40 0000

20 0000

0

3

9

9

1

4

9

9

1

5

9

9

1

6

9

9

1

7

9

9

1

8

9

9

1

9

9

9

1

0

0

0

2

1

0

0

2

2

0

0

2

3

0

0

2

4

0

0

2

5

0

0

2

6

0

0

2

7

0

0

2

8

0

0

2

9

0

0

2

0

1

0

2

1

1

0

2

2

1

0

2

3

1

0

2

4

1

0

2

5

1

0

2

6

1

0

2

7

1

0

2

8

1

0

2

9

1

0

2

Area of Natura 2000 (km2)

Habitats directive

Birds directive

Both directives

NATURA 2000 - European Union

Birds Directive sites (SPA)

Habitats Directive sites (pSCI, SCI, SAC)

Sites - or parts of sites - belonging to both Directives

Note : Since 2005, the area calculation has been based on spatial data. Before 2005, tabular data were used.

Many sites are designated under both the Habitats and Birds Directives. The calculation of the Natura 2000 area, which 

takes this overlap into account, has only been available since 2011.

Source: EEA indicator assessment: Natura 2000 sites designated under the EU Habitats and Birds Directives.

Source : NATURA 2000 - DG ENV, compiled from databases from the Member States. Sources background map: 
© EuroGlobalMap/Eurogeographics and DG ESTAT, validity of NATURA 2000 data for : Europe, Updated End 2019. 
Projection : Lambert Azimuthal Equal Area. 

45

w
e
i
v
r
e
t
n

I

James Vause
Lead economist at 
UNEP-WCMC

46

© Javier Arcenillas, REDISCOVER Nature/EEA
© Tamara Wagner-Bosancic, REDISCOVER Nature /EEA 

Economics of biodiversity: can 
accounting help save nature?

Can putting a value on nature help protect it or do we need new governance models? 

How is trade linked to biodiversity loss and inequalities? We talked to James Vause, the 

lead economist at the United Nations Environment Programme World Conservation 

Monitoring Centre (UNEP-WCMC), who contributed to the Dasgupta review on the 

economics of biodiversity, especially to the chapter focused on trade and the biosphere.

What would it take to halt 
biodiversity loss — putting the 
′right′ economic value on nature?

This might require making the economic 

value of nature much more visible and 

ensuring that it is taken into account. But 

this is just a part of it. As the Dasgupta 

A cross-cutting understanding is essential 

review highlighted, a big part of the problem 

for effective action. This could be on 

is linked to an institutional failure — how 

understanding the role of nature in enabling 

we regulate economic and financial activity 

economic activity, the impact of economic 

and also how we measure progress. 

activity on biodiversity, the costs and 

benefits of policy options to address those 

impacts or assessing the multiple benefits 

of investments in nature. This is what we 

try to do at UNEP-WCMC. Our work looks 

What are the points you would 
like to highlight from the 
Dasgupta review?

at, among other things, protected areas, 

The Dasgupta review41 does not shy away 

agriculture, sustainable finance, tourism, 

from the scale of the challenge we face. 

trade, infrastructure and the blue economy.

It highlights that, if we are to increase the 

supply of natural capital and reduce our 

We recently published a paper40 looking 

demands on the biosphere, large-scale 

at an enormous quantity of work that has 

changes will be needed. These changes 

been produced over the last few years. It all 

need to be underpinned by levels of 

points to the need to address the underlying 

ambition, coordination and political will 

drivers of biodiversity loss outside the 

at least as great as those of the Marshall 

conservation sector. We have to change the 

plan launched after the Second World 

way we meet human needs and desires, to 

War. It shows that we need engagement 

ensure the world economy operates within 

both across governments and across 

the constraints of the planet.

international boundaries.

47

It flags the importance of education and 

making sure that we appreciate our place 

in nature, so that we are willing to take 

and sustain the action we need to. It also 

flags the role of the individual. We all 

make decisions that impact on nature, so 

we can be part of the change. I have, for 

example, recently changed my bank and 

pension plan. 

What kind of governance 
structures do we 
need to overcome this 
′institutional failure′?

With our Cambridge Conservation 

Initiative partners, we are looking at 

the type of governance that is needed 

to manage landscapes for multiple 

benefits, including biodiversity. We can 

see that there are different organisations 

with different mandates and interests 

working within different but overlapping 

administrative boundaries, none of 

which tend to match up with ecological 

boundaries. There can even be an 

international dimension, for example 

if there are international trade and 

investment interests. How do we balance 

international interests with local people′s 

goals and national-level biodiversity 

targets? It is a governance challenge.

According to the World Economic Forum′s 

New Nature Economy42 work programme, 

around half of the world′s gross 

domestic product (GDP) is moderately 

or highly dependent upon nature, and 

this dependency is not concentrated in 

the world′s big agricultural producing 

countries because of global trade links.

48

© Chiara Bonvento, REDISCOVER Nature/EEA

Changing how our economies relate to 

Then there are differences within society. 

biodiversity is not just about agreeing a good 

Building on the trade example above, if 

post-2020 framework in the Convention 

we consider that the benefits of engaging 

on Biological Diversity but also about its 

in trade aren′t necessarily captured by 

uptake by other international institutions — 

the poorest in society, it paints a worrying 

the World Trade Organization in this case. 

picture. This is because the poorest in 

Fortunately, some progress is being made 

society are also likely to bear the greatest 

there. For example, the Agreement on 

costs of any biodiversity loss associated with 

Climate Change, Trade and Sustainability 

trade, as they rely most heavily on nature in 

is trying to establish how trade rules can 

their day-to-day lives.

support climate and sustainability goals.

Lastly, there is intergenerational inequality. 

Like in all governance structures, it 

Having recently read David Attenborough′s 

is essential to have an enforcement 

'A life on our planet', the intergenerational 

mechanism. Ultimately, this depends on 

point terrifies me. Our world is changing 

countries′ and their leaders′ commitment 

very fast. An analysis done for the Dasgupta 

to allocating sufficient resources to address 

biodiversity loss. Here, too, there are some 

review by the Natural History Museum and 
Vivid Economics44 also highlighted that, if we 

encouraging developments, such as the 

delay action on biodiversity by a decade, the 

European Green Deal and the Leaders′ 

costs of stabilising biodiversity loss double 

Pledge for Nature43 from the UN Biodiversity 

and the chance of maintaining levels of 

Summit 2020. However, as the Dasgupta 

biodiversity similar to those we enjoy today 

review highlights, we need coordinated 

disappears. So the urgency of acting now is 

action at an enormous scale. 

also clearer than ever. 

What kind of social inequalities 
are linked to biodiversity loss?

First, there is impact inequality among 

countries. Trade allows us to have places 

where the footprint of humankind outstrips 

the local capacity of nature to supply 

that footprint. Looking at this globally, it 

means that, through trade, richer countries 

are driving biodiversity loss around the 

world. If we plot how countries perform 

on the human development index against 

their ecological footprints, only very few 

countries with high human development 

index scores operate within an equal share 

of the world′s biocapacity.

49

Can the UN′s new accounting 
system be a game changer in the 
way we value nature?

Are you optimistic about our 
ability to change the way we 
value and interact with nature?

The Dasgupta review suggests that we 

I think people do want change and do 

need to move to measuring our wealth as 

want more from governments than words. 

a measure of economic progress, rather 

I also think COVID-19 has given us a bit of a 

than our income or levels of activity as 

wake-up call.

captured by GDP. It proposes that we 

measure our progress based on inclusive 

In the Dasgupta review, too, there is a 

wealth, which includes natural capital. This 

focus on the idea of socially embedded 

idea is embedded in the UN′s new system 

preferences, meaning that a person′s 

of environmental economic accounting — 

behaviour and practices are influenced by 

ecosystem accounting (SEEA-EA), as a 

the behaviour and practices of others. This 

crucial part of the natural capital stock are 

offers hope that widespread behaviour 

our ecosystems.

change could be possible, and at lower 

cost than we might expect if people 

We are already seeing the impacts of 

like to conform. The current fashion for 

the new system in our work. The SEEA-

more plant-dominated diets could be a 

EA guidance has extended the reach of 

good example.

biodiversity data. Rather than being of 

interest to the environment ministry, data 

are now being collated and disseminated 

by offices of national statistics, which 

are then scrutinised by economic 

planning departments, who are then 

advocating policies to protect nature but 

from the perspective of socio-economic 

progress. It is quite exciting and promising. 

50

© Gabriella Motta, REDISCOVER Nature/EEA 

© Gabriella Motta, REDISCOVER Nature/EEA 

51

5

State of nature in Europe: Other species

Note: for the above “state of nature” infographics, 

please combined charts and illustration to make rich, 

nature-like infographics.

Conservation status of species at

Member State level, 2013-2018 (%)

20.6 %

27.5 %

United Kingdom (108)

Conservation status of species
at EU level, 2013-2018

41.8 %

10.2 %

Cyprus (55)

Ireland (60)

Estonia (96)

Malta (45)

Sweden (273)

Romania (621)

Finland (159)

Italy (569)

Latvia (109)

Bulgaria (444)

Poland (257)

Lithuania (98)

Greece (297)

Hungary (121)

Czechia (267)

Slovenia (332)

France (645)

Portugal (437)

Netherlands (80)

Germany (370)

Belgium (138)

Slovakia (320)

Denmark (122)

Spain (671)

Luxembourg (60)

Austria (336)

Croatia (418)

Good

Poor

Bad

Unknown

Good

Poor

Bad

Unknown

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Note : Statistics are based on the number of EU species assessments (2 825). For the period covered in the chart, the EU 
consisted of the EU-27 countries plus the United Kingdom
Source : State of nature in the EU, EEA Report No 10/2020.

52

5

State of nature in Europe: Other species

Note: for the above “state of nature” infographics, 

please combined charts and illustration to make rich, 

nature-like infographics.

Conservation status of species at
Member State level, 2013-2018 (%)

20.6 %

27.5 %

Conservation status of species

at EU level, 2013-2018

41.8 %

10.2 %

Cyprus (55)

Ireland (60)

Estonia (96)

Malta (45)

Sweden (273)

Romania (621)

Finland (159)

Italy (569)

United Kingdom (108)

Latvia (109)

Bulgaria (444)

Poland (257)

Lithuania (98)

Greece (297)

Hungary (121)

Czechia (267)

Slovenia (332)

France (645)

Portugal (437)

Netherlands (80)

Germany (370)

Belgium (138)

Slovakia (320)

Denmark (122)

Spain (671)

Luxembourg (60)

Austria (336)

Croatia (418)

Good

Poor

Bad

Unknown

Good

Poor

Bad

Unknown

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Note : Statistics are based on the number of EU species assessments (2 825). For the period covered in the chart, the EU 

consisted of the EU-27 countries plus the United Kingdom

Source : State of nature in the EU, EEA Report No 10/2020.

53

54

© Alessandro Zoccarato, REDISCOVER Nature/EEA

At a glance: EU legislation 
on nature

EU Member States started coordinating environmental policies in the 1970s and nature was 

the first area for European action. To this day, the nature directives — the Birds Directive 

and the Habitats Directive, first adopted in 1979 and 1992, respectively — constitute the 

cornerstone of the EU′s efforts to protect and preserve biodiversity.

The two directives put many species and 

rivers and groundwater) through sustainable 

habitats under a common protection 

and coordinated management of entire 

scheme with regular monitoring 

river basins.

and reporting requirements. The 

degradation documented thanks to these 

Similarly, the MSFD calls for good 

directives calls for more extensive and 

environmental status in the marine 

coordinated action across many policy 

environment, tackling pressures and 

domains in Europe and globally.

pollution. Nature-related legislation is 

supported by, among other things, circular 

Today, the EU has one of the most 

economy legislation aimed at reducing 

comprehensive sets of environment and 

waste and contamination risks, for example 

climate legislation in the world. Some 

through better waste management, 

EU laws tackle pollutant or greenhouse 

improved eco-design and limiting 

gas emissions, pollution levels in the 

single-use plastics.

air or water, or emissions from specific 

sources, such as industry or transport.

These laws help EU Member States enjoy 

cleaner air, shift towards cleaner energy, 

Some EU nature legislation, such as 

reduce greenhouse gas emissions and 

the EU Pollinators Initiative45, call for 

place an increasing share of their land and 

targeted action. Others, the Water 

Framework Directive (WFD)46 and the 

marine areas under protection, including 
through the Natura 2000 network48. The 

Marine Strategy Framework Directive 

EU green infrastructure connects more 

(MSFD)47 in particular, play a central 

and more natural spaces, allowing wildlife 

role in protecting nature through 

to move between them. Cities are planning 

ecosystem-based management. The 

green and blue spaces as a way to prepare 

WFD requires Member States to achieve 

for climate change impacts and help 

′good status′ for all water bodies (lakes, 

preserve biodiversity.

55

The European Green Deal49 outlines the EU′s 

long-term ambition of becoming the first 

climate-neutral continent with a sustainable 

economy by 2050 and is implemented 

through key policy instruments such as the 

EU biodiversity strategy for 203050, the 

farm to fork strategy51, the EU strategy 

on adaptation to climate change52 and 

the new EU forest strategy for 203053. 

It is also supported by others, including 

the circular economy action plan54, the 

chemicals strategy55 and the zero pollution 

action plan56.

To reduce pressures on nature, halt the 

decline and restore biodiversity, Europe 

will need to act on all fronts, transform its 

energy, food and mobility systems, and do 

so with global partners. 

EEA′s information systems on 
nature

BISE — Biodiversity Information 
System for Europe57: the key source 
of data and information about 
biodiversity in Europe.

FISE — Forest Information System for 
Europe58: an entry point for sharing 
information with the forest community 
on Europe′s forest environment, its 
state and development.

WISE — Water Information System for 
Europe59: the European information 
gateway to water issues. It contains 
resources on both freshwater and 
marine environments.

56

© Michaela Vinterová, REDISCOVER Nature/EEA

© Michaela Vinterová, REDISCOVER Nature/EEA

57

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bees/summary.htm

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6  https://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/

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9  https://www.eea.europa.eu/soer/2020

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eu-2020

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pdf/10.1098/rstb.2001.0888

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ecosystems

12  https://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-

maps/indicators/abundance-and-

23  https://britishbirds.co.uk/content/bird-

distribution-of-selected-species-9/

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58

24  https://www.eea.europa.eu/

37  https://ec.europa.eu/environment/

publications/soer-2020

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25  https://www.eea.europa.eu/themes/

38  https://ec.europa.eu/food/horizontal-

biodiversity/state-of-nature-in-the-eu

topics/farm-fork-strategy_en

26  https://ec.europa.eu/environment/

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nature/legislation/index_en.htm

nature/biodiversity/best/index_en.htm

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50  https://ec.europa.eu/environment/

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60

EEA Signals 2021

Europe′s nature 

Why do we need decisive action now 
to protect nature? What is at stake and 
how can we tackle the biodiversity 
crisis? The EEA Signals report is an 
annual, easy-to-read publication, 
consisting of a series of short articles, 
that looks at key issues related to the 
environment and climate. Recent EEA 
Signals reports have looked at zero 
pollution (2020), soil (2019), water 
(2018), and energy (2017).

European Environment Agency

Kongens Nytorv 6

1050 Copenhagen K

Denmark

Tel: +45 33 36 71 00

Web: eea.europa.eu/signals

Enquiries: eea.europa.eu/enquiries

62

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